Alignment Geometry

Design

Topic 2 Alignment Geometry Design

2.1 There are 3 components in geometric design,
i. horizontal alignment design
ii. vertical alignment design
iii. at-grade intersection design
2.2 Purposes of geometric design
i. to design a road according to its function
ii. to ensure high safety for road users when using the road
iii. to provide comfort ability when riding on the road
iv. to have a good and economic design
v. to consider esthetics aspect and environment factors
2.3 Sight distance is a distance on the road where a driver can see unexpected
object of certain height continuously.
2.4 Stopping sight distance is a distance required by a driver travelling at design
speed to completely stop his vehicle without hit unexpected object on a road.
2.4.1 Stopping sight distance is a total distance experience by a driver to
completely stop his car in 3 periods of times.
a. perception time a driver see an object and make decision
b. reaction time execute the decision
c. braking time time need to stop a vehicle completely after braking
Since Perception time and reaction time occur very fast both times are
combined and become perception-reaction time which is set equal to 2.5
seconds.
Distance takes during perception-reaction time (d 1) =

0.28 tv

Distance takes after applying brake until vehicle completely stop (d 2) =

2

v
254 f
where d 1 in meter, t in seconds and v in km/h and f is
coefficient of friction
Therefore the total Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) = d 1 + d2
SSD =

v2
0.28 tv+
254 f
example #1

Alignment Geometry
Design

Consider a section of rural freeway with a design speed of 70 km/h. On a

section of level terrain, what is stopping sight distance must be provided if the
friction coefficient 0.45?
SSD =

0.28 tv+

v2
254 f
702
(254)(0.45)

= 0.28(2.5)(70) +
= 92 m

For a vehicle ascending or descending a slope, the distance takes after

braking to complete stop are as follow,

v2
254 (f G)

descending slope, d2 =

ascending slope, d2 =

v2
254 (f +G)

where G is gradient in decimal

example #2
What is the stopping sight distance for a vehicle travelling at 80 km/h
descending 4% grade slope if the coefficient of friction 0.31? Calculate the SSD
when the vehicle ascending the slope. Comment your results.
descending slope, SSD =

0.28 tv+

v2
254(f G)

0.28 ( 2.5 ) ( 80 ) +

( 80)2
254 (0.310.04)

SSD = 149.3 m
ascending slope, SSD =

0.28 tv+

v2
254( f +G)
2

(80)
0.28 ( 2.5 ) ( 80 ) +
254 (0.31+0.04)

SSD = 128 m
Descending vehicle requires longer SSD compare to ascending vehicle.

Alignment Geometry
Design

2.5 Passing sight distance is a shortest distance required by a driver to get out from
his lane then to accelerate and overtake a vehicle in front of him subsequently,
get back to his original lane safely and without interfering the vehicle he
overtook and incoming vehicle from opposite direction.
2.6 Horizontal alignment elements,
i. straight road
ii. transition curve
iii. circular curve
2.7 Straight road is defined as a straight alignment that connects two points at the
shortest distance.
2.8 Factors that limit the length of a straight road,
i.
Continuous straight road is not easily fit the natural topography.
Construction of straight road across the intricate topography involved of
land work and cost.
ii.
Seen from human factors, continuously straight road another long is a
tedious and debilitating of driver. This is particularly noticeable when
driving long distances.
iii.
On the straight road, light irradiations from the front vehicle disrupt the
driver at night. Glare is much faster debilitating eye.
iv.
The driver will have difficulty estimating the opponent's speed while
driving his vehicle on the straight road. This is dangerous when passing.
v.
Drivers tend to drive fast in a straight road. The height of the vehicle
speed increase accident potential.
2.8 Types of circular curve
i. Simple Curve
A simple curve has a constant circular radius which achieves thedesired
deflection without using an entering or exiting transition. This is the most
frequently used curve because of their simplicity for design, layout, and
construction.
ii. Reverse Curve
A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined together, but curvingin
opposite directions. For safety reasons, the use of this curve should be
avoided when possible. As with broken back curves, drivers do not expect to
encounter this arrangement on typical highway geometry.
iii. Compound Curve
Compound curves are a series of two or more simple curves with deflections
in the same direction immediately adjacent to each other. Compound curves
are used to transition into and from a simple curve and to avoid some control
or obstacle which cannot be relocated.

Alignment Geometry
Design

2.9 Simple horizontal curve

Figure 2.1 Simple horizontal curve

2.10 Formula for simple horizontal curve

a. Tangent length, T =

R tan

b. Length of chord, AB =
c. External distance, E =
d. Middle ordinate, M =
e. Length of curve, L=

2 R sin

R(sec

1)
2

R(1cos
100 R
5729.6

2.11 Minimum radius of a circular curve

)
2

Alignment Geometry
Design

The minimum radius of a circular curve R for a vehicle traveling at v km/h can
be determined by considering the equilibrium of the vehicle.

Figure 2.2 Forces Acting on a Vehicle Traveling on a Horizontal Curve

Minimum radius circular curve, R =

v2
127 (e+ f )

, where R in meter

2.12 Design calculation of circular curve due to visibility

Safe sight distance must be provided on the inside of horizontal curve to
allow a driver sufficient brake reaction time to bring the vehicle to a complete
stop. Obstructions which interfere the sight distance should be moved or
removed, if possible. If the obstruction cannot be removed, consideration should
be given to realign the road (horizontal and/or vertical) or providing appropriate
warning signage.

Alignment Geometry
Design

Figure 2.3 Sight distance on a curve

i.

S<L

[ (

M =R s 1cos

S=

ii.

Rs
28.65

28.65 S
Rs

cos1

( RM
R )
s

S>L

M =

S=

L ( 2 SL )
8R

8 MR+ L
2L

example #3

)]

Alignment Geometry
Design

A horinzaontal alignment is designed with 2000 m radius and 400 m equal

tangen. The intersection point of tangent lines is located at 103 + 00 station.
Determine CT station.

R tan

T=

400 = 2000

tan

= 22.62
L=

100 R
5729.6
(100)(22.62)(2000)
5729.6

L = 789.58 m
TC station = V station tangent length
= 103 + 00 4 + 00
TC = 99 + 00

note : 1 station = 100 m

CT station = TC station + L
= 99 + 00 + 7 + 89.58
CT = 106 + 89.58
example #4
A design speed for a state road on horizontal circular alignment is 70 km/h. The
superelevation and coefficient of friction are 0.08 and 0,.1 respectively.
Determine a minimum circular radius to provide safe traffic flow at the design
speed.

v2
127 (e+ f )

R=

702
127 (0.08+0.1)

R = 214.35 m
example #5

Alignment Geometry
Design

Two lanes road constructed on the horizontal circular curve has 610 m radius.
Each lane is 4.0 m wide. Determine the clear distance if a design speed is 100
km/h. Coefficient of friction and deflection angle is 0.12 and 38 respectively.

610
m
38

0.28 tv+

SSD =

v2
254 f

(100)2
0.28(2.5)(100)+
(254)(0.12)

= 398 m

L=

100 R
5729.6
(100)(38)(610)
5729.6

L = 403 m
Therefore S < L

Alignment Geometry
Design

[ (

M=R s 1cos

28.65 S
Rs

)]

4
Rs =610 =608 m
2

= (608)

[ (
1cos

(28.65)(398)
608

)]

= 32.28 m

example #6
Two lanes road constructed on the horizontal circular curve has 400 m radius.
The width of a lane and road shoulder is 3 m and 0.5 m respectively. The
distance from the inner edge of road shoulder to a steep slope is 2.0 m. If the
coefficient of friction is 0.4, determine a speed limit to be imposed on the
section of the road that will provide a safe stopping distance. Use S < L.

3
m

400

M = 2 + 0.5 + 1.5 = 4 m

Alignment Geometry
Design

10

3
Rs =400 =398.5 m
2
RM
Rs

S=

Rs
28.65

cos1

S=

398.5
28.65

cos1

( 4004
398.5 )

S=113 m

SSD =

113 =

v2
0.28 tv+
254 f
v2
(0.28)(2.5) v+
(254)(0.4)

113 = 0.7 v
9.843 x

103 v 2

+ 9.843 x
+ 0.7 v

103 v 2
113 =0

v =77.3 km /h
Therefore suggested posted speed limit is 70 km/h.

2.9 Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade
to another so that vehicles may run smoothly as they traverse the highway.
2.10 Vertical alignment elements consist of
i. straight (tangent) road grades
ii. parabolic curves
2.11 Type of curves in a vertical curve
i. peak curve
ii. sag curve
2.12 Elevation of peak and sag curve
The minimum length of a crest and sag vertical curve must be known if the
elevations are to be determined.

Alignment Geometry
Design

11

V
Ym

T
C

C
T

V = point of vertical intersection

TC = beginning of vertical curve
CT = end of vertical curve
x = horizontal distance from TC
y = vertical distance
Ym = external distance at the middle of the peak curve
G1,G2 = grades of tangents (%)
L = length of curve
Figure 2.4 Layout of a peak curve

Y=

Ax
200 L

Ym =

AL
800

where A = G2 G1

The peak and sag curves mathematically can be written in parabolic

equation, y= ax2 + bx +c where the constant a and b are determined from
the first and second derivative of the equation.
b = G 1 ( from first derivative)

Alignment Geometry
Design

a=

G2 G1
2L

12

(from second derivative)

While c is equal to the height of TC when x =0.

2.13 Design calculation of vertical alignment due to visibility
a. Sight distance on a peak curve
i.

S < L or Ym > h1

Lmin =

A S2
2
200 ( h 1+ h 2)

Where, h1 = height of drivers eyes = 0.92 m

h 2 = height of unexpected object =0.15 m

ii.

S > L or Ym < h2
2

Lmin =

200 ( h1 + h2 )
S
A

example #7
A sag curve has equal tangent of 300 m. TC station is located at 170 + 00 with
height 1000 m. First and last slope are 3.5% and 0.5% respectively. Determine
height and station for V, CT and the lowest point.
G2=0.5%

G1=3.5%
TC

CT

Alignment Geometry
Design

13

V station = TC station + tangent

= 170 + 00 + 3 + 00
V = 173 + 00
CT station = TC station + L
L = 2T = 2(300) = 600 m
CT = 170+00 + 6+00
= 176+00
Height at V =1000 - height decrease
= 1000 -

3.5 m
x 300 m)
( 100
m

= 989.50 m
Height at CT =height of V + height increase
= 989.50 +

0.5 m
x 300 m)
( 100
m

= 991.0 m
To get the lowest point station and height we have consider the peak
curve as parabolic equation, parabolic y= ax2 + bx +c
b = G1 = -3.5

a=

G 2 G1
2L

0.5(3.5)
2(6)

where L = 600 m = 6

station
a = 0.33
station in the equation)
y= ax2 + bx +c

dy
=2ax +b
dx

( x is

Alignment Geometry
Design

14

2ax + b = 0 (at lowest point)

2(0.33)x + (-3.5) = 0
x = 5.3 station
lowest point station = 170+00 + 5+30
= 175+30
Height of lewest point(y)
Y = ax2 + bx +c

5.3

y = (0.33)

= 990.72 m

example #8
The first slope and last slope of a peak curve are 3.5% and 2.5%
respectively. Determine minimum curve length for 140 m stopping sight
distance.

h1

h2

S=140 m

G2=-2.5

G1=3.5

Ym =

AS
(6)(140)
800 =
800

where A = -2.5 3.5= 6

Ym = 1.05 > h1= 0.92 m

Therefore use S < L
2

Lmin =

AS
2
200 ( h 1+ h 2)

L = 324.33 m

(6)(1402 )
=

200 ( 0.92+ 0.15 )

Alignment Geometry
Design

15

b. Sight distance on a sag curve

The selection of the minimum length of a sag vertical curve is controlled
by the following four criteria:
i.
SSD provided by the headlight
The sight distance on sag curve is restricted during periods of
darkness. As a vehicle is driven on a sag vertical curve at night, the
position of the headlight and the direction of the headlight beam will
dictate the stretch of highway ahead that is lighted.
For S < L
2

Lmin =

AS
400+3.5 S

For S < L
Lmin =

2 S

400+3.5 S
A

ii.

comfort while driving on the curve

iii.

general appearance of the curve

Lmin =

iv.

100 A

adequate control of drainage at the low point of the curve.