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ReferenceManual
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DatabaseSystemsLab
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School of Computing Science and Engineering

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Vellore632014,TamilNadu
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Faculty Associated :
Prof. M.Venkatesan, A.P(SG)
Prof. Hari Seetha, A.P(SG)
Prof. K.Govinda, A.P(SG)
Prof. E.Anupriya, A.P(SG)
Prof. L.Ramanathan,
A.P
Prof. M.Anbarasi,
A.P
Prof. J.N.Swathi,
A.P
Prof. A.Geetha Mary,
A.P
Prof. K.Sharmila Bhanu, A.P
Prof. S.Arun Kumar,
A.P
Prof. G.Guru Raghav, A.P

CONTENTS

SNo

Topics

Page Number

1.

BASIC SQL COMMANDS

2.

CONSTRAINTS

15

3.

OPERATORS IN SQL*PLUS

23

4.

FUNCTIONS:SINGLE ROW AND GROUP

FUNCTIONS

25

5.

JOINS

35

6.

VIEWS

47

7.

PL/SQL

52

8.

PL/SQL BLOCK SYNTAX AND GUIDELINES

52

CONTROL STRUCTURES IN PL/SQL

70

10

CURSORS

78

11

EXCEPTIONS

85

12

PL/SQL BLOCK TYPES:Anonymous blocks and

Subprograms

90

13

PACKAGES

98

14

TRIGGERS

103

SQL STATEMENTS
SQL statements are classified as follows:
Data Retrieval Statement:
SELECT is the data extracting statement which retrieves the data from the database.
Data Manipulation Language (DML):
This language constitutes the statements that are used to manipulate with the data. It has
three commands, which are INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE.
Data Definition Language (DDL):
This is the language used to define the structure of the tables. It sets up, changes, and
removes data structures from the tables. It uses 5 commands, which are CREATE, ALTER,
DROP, RENAME and TRUNCATE.
Data Transaction Language (DTL):
This is the language used to do undo and redo the transaction performed in the database.
The commands are Commit, Rollback, and Save Point
Data Control Language:
This language is used to sanction the rights to the users to use the other users database
objects. The commands are Grant and Revoke
Consider the following schema based on which the example queries are discussed in this manual.
BASE SCHEMA
EMPLOYEE
Name
-------------------------EMPLOYEE_ID
FIRST_NAME
LAST_NAME
MGR
HIRE_DATE
JOB_ID
SALARY
COMMISION
DEPTNO

Type
---------------------NUMBER(3)
VARCHAR2(10)
VARCHAR2(10)
NUMBER(4)
DATE
VARCHAR2(10)
NUMBER(10)
NUMBER(8)
NUMBER(2)
4

DEPARTMENT
Name
--------------DEPTNO
DNAME
LOC

Type
----------------NUMBER(2)
VARCHAR2(14)
VARCHAR2(13)

BONUS
Name
---------------ENAME
JOB
SAL
COMM

Type
------------------VARCHAR2(10)
VARCHAR2(9)
NUMBER(10,2)
NUMBER(10)

JOBGRADE
Name
----------------JOB_ID
GRADE
LOSAL
HISAL

Type
--------------------VARCHAR2(10)
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER

DATA TYPES IN ORACLE:

Data Type

Description

VARCHAR2(size)

Variable-length character data

CHAR(size)

Fixed-length character data

NUMBER(p,s)

Variable-length numeric data

DATE

Date and time values

LONG

Variable-length character data up to 2 gigabytes

CLOB

Character data up to 4 gigabytes

RAW and LONG RAW

Raw binary data

BLOB

Binary data up to 4 gigabytes

BFILE

Binary data stored in an external file; up to 4 gigabytes

5

ROWID

A 64 base number system representing the unique address of a row in

its table

ORACLE 9I TABLE STRUCTURES

Table can be created at any time

No need to specify the size of table, the size is ultimately defined by the amount of space
allocated to the database as a whole.

Tables can have up to 1000 columns

NAMING RULES
Table names and Column names

Must begin with a letter

Must be 1-30 characters long

Must contain only A-Z,a-z,0-9,_,$,#

Must not duplicate the name of another object owned by the same user

Must not be a reserved word

Data Definition Language (DDL)

The following are the DDL Commands:
1. Create 2. Alter 3. Drop 4. Truncate 5. Rename
1. a. Creating a table
Syntax:
Create table <Table Name>
( <Field1> <Data Type> <(width) <constraints> ,
<Field2> <Data Type> <(width)> <constraints>,
..................................);
Example:
SQL> create table employee
6

( employee_id number(3),
first_name varchar2(10),
last_name varchar2(10),
mgr number(4),
hire_date date,
job_id varchar2(10),
salary number(10),
commision number(8),
deptno number(2));
Output:
Table created.
Example:
SQL> create table department
(deptno number(2),
dname varchar(14),
loc varchar(13));
Output:
Table created.
Note:
Other tables can be created in the similar way.
b. To view the Structure of the table, desc command is used
SQL> desc employee;
Name
Null?
Type
-------------------------------------- -------- --------------EMPLOYEE_ID
NUMBER(3)
7

FIRST_NAME

VARCHAR2(10)

LAST_NAME

VARCHAR2(10)

MGR

NUMBER(4)

HIRE_DATE

DATE

JOB_ID

VARCHAR2(10)

SALARY

NUMBER(10)

COMMISION

NUMBER(8)

DEPTNO

NUMBER(2)

2. Alter Table Statement:

Alter command is used to perform the following action on the table:
a. Adding column in the existing table
b. Increasing and decreasing the column size and changing data types
c. Dropping column
d. Renaming the column
e. Adding and dropping constraints to the table( discussed in constraints topics)
f. Enabling & disabling constraints in the table( discussed in constraints topics)
a. To Add a column to the table (structure)
Add option is used to add a new column
Syntax:
Alter Table <Table-Name> Add <Field Name> <Type> (width);
Example:
SQL> alter table employee add address varchar2 (20);
Output:
Table altered.
b. To Modify a field of the table

Increase the width or precision of numeric column

Increase the width of numeric or character columns

Decrease the width of the column only if the column contains only null values or if the table
has no rows

Change the data type only if the column contains null values
8

Syntax:
Alter Table <tablename> MODIFY ( <column name > < newdatatype>);
Example:
SQL> alter table employee modify address varchar2 (10);
Output:
Table altered.
c. To Drop a field of the table
Drop option is used to delete a column or remove a constraint
Syntax:
Alter Table <tablename> DROP COLUMN < column name>;
Example:
SQL> alter table employee drop column address;
Output:
Table altered.
d.To rename a column
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE <tablename> RENAME COLUMN <oldcolumnname> TO
<newcolumn name>
Example:
SQL> alter table employee rename column mgr to manager;
Output:
Table altered.

To Drop a table - Deletes a Table along with all contents

Syntax:
Drop Table <Table-Name>;

Example:
Drop Table Student_table;
Output:
Table Dropped
9

To Truncate a table - Deletes all rows from a table ,retaining its structure

Syntax: Truncate Table <tablename>

Example:
SQL> truncate table employee;
Output:
Table truncated.
g. To rename a table- Renames a table with new name
Syntax:
Rename <oldtablename> To <newtablename>
Example:
SQL> rename employee to emp;
Output:
Table renamed

Data manipulation Language (DML)

The following are the DML Commands: 1. Insert 2. Delete 3. Update 4. Select
Insert command is used to load data into the table.
a. Inserting values from user
Syntax:
Insert into <tablename> values ( val1,val2 );
Example:
SQL> insert into department values(10,'accounts','chennai');
Output:
1 row created.
b. Inserting values for the specific columns in the table
Syntax:
Insert Into <Table-Name> (Fieldname1, Fieldname2, Fieldname3,..) Values (value1, value2,
value3,..);
Example:
SQL> insert into department (deptno,dname)values(20,'finance');
10

Output:
1 row created.
c. Inserting interactively(Inserting ,ultiple rows by using single insert command)
Syntax:
Insert Into <tablename> Values( &<column name1> , &<column name2> );
Example:
SQL> insert into employee values(&empid,'&fn','&ln',&mgr,'&hdate','&job',&sal,
&comm,&dept);
Enter value for empid: 111
Enter value for fn: Smith
Enter value for ln: Ford
Enter value for mgr: 222
Enter value for hdate: 21-jul-2010
Enter value for job: J1
Enter value for sal: 30000
Enter value for comm: 0.1
Enter value for dept: 10
old 2: &comm,&dept)
new 2: 0.1,10)
Output:
1 row created.
Note: Column names of character and date type should be included with in single quotation.
Inserting null values
Syntax:
Insert Into <tablename> Values ( val1, , ,val4);
Example:
insert into department values( 101,,chennai);
Output:
1 row created.
2. To Delete rows from a table
11

Syntax:
Delete from <table name> [where <condition>];
Example:
a) to delete all rows:
SQL> delete from department;
Output:
89 rows deleted.
b) conditional deletion:
SQL> delete from department where loc='chennai';
Output:
1 row deleted.
3. Modifying (Updating) Records:
a. Updating single column
Syntax:
UPDATE <table name> Set <Field Name> = <Value> Where <Condition>;
Example:
SQL> update department set loc='Hyderabad' where deptno=20;
Output:
1 row updated.
Note: Without where clause all the rows will get updated.
b. Updating multiple column [while updating more than one column, the column must be
separated by comma operator]
Example: SQL> update department set loc='Hyderabad', dname= cse where deptno=20;
Output:
1 row updated.
4. Selection of Records [Retrieving (Displaying) Data:]
Syntax:
Select <field1, field2 fieldn> from <table name> where <condition>;
Example:
a) SQL> select * from department;
12

Output:
DEPTNO DNAME
LOC
---------- -------------- ------------10
accounts
chennai
20
finance
Hyderabad
30
IT
Bangalore
40
marketing
chennai
Example:
b) SQL> select dname, loc from department;
Output:
DNAME
LOC
-------------- ------------accounts
chennai
finance
Hyderabad
IT
Bangalore
marketing
Chennai
Using Alias name for a field
Syntax:
Select <col1> <alias name 1> , <col2> < alias name 2> from < tab1>;
Example:
SQL> select dname, loc as location from department;
Output:
DNAME
LOCATION
-------------- ------------accounts
chennai
finance
Hyderabad
IT
Bangalore
marketing
Chennai
With distinct clause [Used to retrieve unique value from the column]
Syntax:
Select distinct <col2> from < tab1>;
Example:
SQL> select distinct loc from department;
Output:
13

LOC
------------chennai
Bangalore
Hyderabad
Creating Table using subquery
Syntax:
Create table <new _table_name> as Select <column names> from <old_table_name>;
Example:
SQL> create table copyOfEmp as select * from employee;
Output:
Table created.

To view the contents of new Table

SQL> select * from copyofemp;

Output:
EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME
SALARY COMMISION
111

Smith

0.1

10

MANAGER HIRE_DATE JOB_ID

DEPTNO
Ford

222

21-JUL-10

J1

To create a table with same structure as an existing table

Syntax:
Create table <new _table_name> as Select <column names> from<old_table_name>
where 1=2;
Example:
create table copyOfEmp2 as select * from employee where 1=2;
Output: Table created.
SQL> select * from copyofemp2;
Output:
no rows selected

SQL> desc copyofemp2;

14

30000

Output:
Name
Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------EMPLOYEE_ID
NUMBER(3)
FIRST_NAME
VARCHAR2(10)
LAST_NAME
VARCHAR2(10)
MANAGER
NUMBER(4)
HIRE_DATE
DATE
JOB_ID
VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY
NUMBER(10)
COMMISION
NUMBER(8)
DEPTNO
NUMBER(2)
Note: Only structure of table alone is copied and not the contents.
Inserting into table using a subquery
Syntax :
Insert into <new_table_name> (Select <columnnames> from <old_table_name>);

Example:
SQL> insert into copyofemp2 (select * from employee where employee_id > 100);
Output:
50 rows created.

Constraints

Constraints enforce rules on the table whenever rows are inserted, updated and deleted
from the table.

Prevents the deletion of a table if there are dependencies from other tables.

Name a constraints or the oracle server generate name by using SYS_cn format.

Define the constraints at column or table level. constraints can be applied while creation
of table or after the table creation by using alter command.
15

View the created constraints from User_Constraints data dictionary.

Constraints Types

CONSTRAINT

DESCRIPTION

NOT NULL

Specifies that a column must have some value.

UNIQUE

Specifies that columns must have unique values.

PRIMARY KEY

Specifies a column or a set of columns that uniquely identifies as row.

It does not allow null values.

FOREIGN KEY

Foreign key is a column(s) that references a column(s) of a table.

CHECK

Specifies a condition that must be satisfied by all the rows in a table.

1. Creating Constraints without constraint name

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE < tablename> (
<column name 1> < datatype>,
<column name 2> < datatype> UNIQUE ,
<column name 3> < datatype> ,
PRIMARY KEY ( <column name2>)
);
Example:
16

CREATE TABLE emp_demo2

( employee_id

NUMBER(6) PRIMARY KEY,

first_name

VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL,

last_name

VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL,

email

VARCHAR2(25) UNIQUE,

phone_number VARCHAR2(20) UNIQUE,

job_id

VARCHAR2(10),

salary

NUMBER(8,2) CHECK(SALARY>0),

deptid NUMBER(4)
);
2. Creating constraints with constraint name
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE < tablename1> (
<column name 1> < datatype> CONSTRAINT <constraint name1> UNIQUE,
<column name 2> < datatype> CONSTRAINT <constraint name2> NOT NULL,
constraint < constraint name3 > PRIMARY KEY ( <column name1>),
constraint <constraint name4> FOREIGN KEY (<column name2>)
REFERENCES <tablename2> (<column name1>)
);

Example:
CREATE TABLE emp_demo3
( employee_id

NUMBER(6) CONSTRAINT emp_eid PRIMARY KEY,

first_name

VARCHAR2(20),

last_name

VARCHAR2(25) CONSTRAINT emp_last_name_nn NOT NULL,

email

VARCHAR2(25) CONSTRAINT emp_email_nn NOT NULL,

phone_number VARCHAR2(20),
job_id

VARCHAR2(10) CONSTRAINT emp_job_nn NOT NULL,

17

salary

NUMBER(8,2) CONSTRAINT emp_salary_nn NOT NULL,

deptid NUMBER(4), CONSTRAINT emp_dept FOREIGN KEY(deptid)

REFERENCES department(deptid) ,
CONSTRAINT

emp_salary_min CHECK (salary > 0) ,

CONSTRAINT

emp_email_uk UNIQUE (email)

);
3. With check constraint
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE < tablename> (
<column name1 >

< datatype> ,

<column name 2>

< datatype>,

CHECK ( < column name 1 > in ( values) )

CHECK ( < column name 2 > between <val1> and <val2> ) );

Example:
CREATE TABLE emp_demo4
( emp_id

NUMBER(6),

emp_name VARCHAR2(15),
salary

NUMBER(10) CHECK (salary between 1000 and 10000)

);
Adding Constriants
Constraints can be added after the table creation by using alter command

Syntax: Add constraints

ALTER TABLE <tablename> ADD CONSTRAINT <constraint_name> constriant_type
(<column name>);
Examples:
ALTER TABLE emp_demo4 ADD CONSTRAINT con_pk1 PRIMARY KEY(emp_id);
18

ALTER TABLE emp_demo4 ADD CONSTRAINT con_emp_uk UNIQUE(phoneno);

ALTER TABLE emp_demo4 ADD CONSTRAINT con_empfk FOREIGN KEY(DNO)
REFERENCES department(dno);
ALTER TABLE emp_demo4 ADD CONSTRAINT con_emp_ck CHECK ( salary >0 );
ALTER TABLE emp_demo4 MODIFY (<Column name> <datatype> CONSTRAINT
constraint_name NOT NULL);
Drop Constraints
Syntax
ALTER TABLE <tablename> DROP CONSTRAINT < constraint name >;
Drop the unique key on the email column of the employees table:
e.g ALTER TABLE employees DROP UNIQUE (email);
CASCADE Constraints
The CASCADE Constraints clause is used along with the Drop Column Clause.
A foreign key with a cascade delete means that if a record in the parent table is deleted,
then the corresponding records in the child table will automatically be deleted. This is
called a cascade delete.
A foreign key with a cascade delete can be defined in either a CREATE TABLE statement or
an ALTER TABLE statement.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name
(column1 datatype null/not null,
column2 datatype null/not null,
...
CONSTRAINT fk_column
FOREIGN KEY (column1, column2, ... column_n)
19

REFERENCES parent_table (column1, column2, ... column_n)

ON DELETE CASCADE
);
Example:
CREATE TABLE supplier
(supplier_id number(10)not null,
supplier_namevarchar2(50)not null,
contact_namevarchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT supplier_pk PRIMARY KEY (supplier_id));

CREATE TABLE products

(product_id number(10)not null,
suppl_id number(10) not null,
CONSTRAINT fk_supplier FOREIGN KEY (suppl_id) REFERENCES
supplier(supplier_id) ON DELETE CASCADE);
Because of the cascade delete, when a record with a particular supplier_ id is deleted
from supplier table , then all the records of the same supplier_id will be deleted from products
table also.

Operators in SQL*PLUS
Type

Symbol / Keyword

Where to use

Arithmetic

+,-,*,/

To manipulate numerical column values,

WHERE clause

Comparison

=, !=, <, <=, >, >=, between, not WHERE clause

between, in, not in, like, not like

Logical

and, or, not

WHERE clause, Combining two queries

20

Between..And..

Example:
SQL> select first_name, deptno from employee where salary between 20000 and 35000;
Output:
FIRST_NAME DEPTNO
---------- ---------Smith
10

IN

Example:
SQL> select first_name, deptno from employee where job_id in ('J1','J2');
Output:
FIRST_NAME DEPTNO
---------- ---------Smith
10
Arun
30
Nithya
10
NOT IN
Example:
SQL> select dname,loc from department where loc not in ('chennai','Bangalore');
Output:
DNAME
LOC
-------------- ------------finance
Hyderabad

Like

Use the LIKE condition to perform wild card searches of valid search string values.
Search conditions can contain either characters or numbers
%

denotes zero or many characters.

21

denotes one character.

Example:
SQL> select dname,loc from department where loc like 'c%';
Output:
DNAME
LOC
-------------- ------------accounts
chennai
marketing
Chennai
Example:
SQL> select dname,loc from department where loc like 'chen_ _ _';
Output:
DNAME
LOC
-------------- ------------accounts
chennai
marketing
Chennai
Example:
SQL> select dname,loc from department where loc not like 'c%';
Output:
DNAME
LOC
-------------- ------------finance
Hyderabad
IT
Bangalore

Between..and..

Example:
SQL> select first_name, deptno, salary from employee where salary not between 20000 and
35000;
Output:
FIRST_NAME DEPTNO SALARY
---------- ---------- ---------Arun
30
40000
Nithya
10 45000
Note: Inserting null value into location column of department table
22

Example:
SQL> insert into department(deptno,dname) values(40,'Sales');

Output:
1 row created.
is Null
Example:
SQL> select * from department where loc is null;
Output:
DEPTNO DNAME
LOC
---------- -------------- ------------40 Sales
Example:
SQL> select * from department where loc is not null;
Output:
DEPTNO DNAME

LOC

---------- -------------- ------------10 accounts

chennai

20 finance

Hyderabad

30 IT

Bangalore

40 marketing

chennai

LOGICAL OPERATORS: Used to combine the results of two or more conditions to produce a
single result. The logical operators are: OR, AND, NOT.
Operator Precedence

Arithmetic operators-Highest precedence

Comparison operators

NOT operator

AND operator

OR operator----Lowest precedence
23

The order of precedence can be altered using parenthesis.

Example:
SQL> select first_name, deptno, salary from employee where salary > 20000 ;

Output:
FIRST_NAME

DEPTNO

SALARY

---------- ---------- ---------Smith

10

30000

Arun

30

40000

Nithya

10

45000

Example:
SQL> select first_name, deptno, salary from employee
where salary > 20000 and salary < 35000;
Output:
FIRST_NAME DEPTNO
---------- ---------- ---------Smith
10
30000

SALARY

Example:
SQL> select first_name, deptno, salary+100 from employee where salary > 35000;
Output:
FIRST_NAME DEPTNO SALARY+100
---------- ---------- ---------Arun
30
40100
Example:
SQL> update employee set salary = salary+salary*0.1 where employee_id = 111;
Output:
1 row updated.
Example:
SQL> select * from department where loc = 'chennai' or dname='IT';
24

Output:
DEPTNO
---------10
30
40

DNAME
LOC
-------------- ------------accounts
chennai
IT
Bangalore
marketing
chennai

FUNCTIONS

Single Row Functions

Group functions

Single Row Functions

Returns only one value for every row can be used in SELECT command and included in
WHERE clause
Types

Character functions

Numeric functions

Date functions

CHARACTER FUNCTIONS:
Character functions accept a character input and return either character or number values. Some
of them supported by Oracle are listed below
Syntax

Description

initcap (char)

Changes first letter to capital

lower (char)

Changes to lower case

upper (char)

Changes to upper case

ltrim ( char, set)

Removes the set from left of char

rtrim (char, set)

Removes the set from right of char

translate(char, from, to)

Translate from anywhere in char to to

25

replace(char, search string, replace string)

Replaces the search string to new

substr(char, m , n)

Returns chars from m to n length

lpad(char, length, special char)

Pads special char to left of char to Max of

length

rpad(char, length, special char)

Pads special char to right of char to Max of

length

chr(number)

Returns char equivalent

length(char)

Length of string

Examples:
Function

Input

Output

Initcap(char)

SQL>select initcap(hello) from dual;

Hello

Lower(char)

SQL>select lower(FUN) from dual;

fun

Upper(char)

SQL>select upper(sun) from dual;

SUN

Ltrim(char, set)

SQL>select ltrim(xyzhello,xyz) from dual;

hello

Rtrim(char, set)

SQL>select rtrim(xyzhello,llo) from dual;

xyzhe

translate(char,from,to)

SQL>select translate(jack,j,b) from dual;

back

Replace(char,from,to)

SQL>select replace(jack and jue, j, bl) from

dual;

black and blue

Example:
SQL> select initcap(dname) from department;
Output:
INITCAP(DNAME)
-------------Accounts
Finance
It
Marketing
Sales
Lpad is a function that takes three arguments. The first argument is the character string which
has to be displayed with the left padding. The second is the number which indicates the total
26

length of the return value, the third is the string with which the left padding has to be done when
required.
Example:
SQL> select lpad(dname,15,'*') lpd from department;
Output:
LPD
--------------*******accounts
********finance
*************IT
******marketing
**********Sales
Example:
SQL> select rpad(dname,15,'*') rpd from department;
Output:
RPD
--------------accounts*******
finance********
IT*************
marketing******
Sales**********
Length: returns the length of a string
Example:
SQL> select dname, length(dname) from department;
Output:
DNAME
LENGTH(DNAME)
-------------- ------------accounts
8
finance
7
IT
2
marketing
9
Sales
5

Concatenation operator ||: is used to merge or more strings.

27

Example:
SQL> select dname || ' is located in ' || loc from department;
Output:
DNAME||'ISLOCATEDIN'||LOC
-----------------------------------------accounts is located in chennai
finance is located in Hyderabad
IT is located in Bangalore
marketing is located in chennai
Sales is located in
NUMERIC FUNCTIONS:
Numeric functions accept numeric input and returns numeric values as output.
Syntax

Description

abs ( )

Returns the absolute value

ceil ( )

Rounds the argument

cos ( )

Cosine value of argument

exp ( )

Exponent value

floor( )

Truncated value

power (m,n)

N raised to m

mod

Remainder of m / n

(m,n)

round (m,n)

Rounds ms decimal places to n

trunc (m,n)

Truncates ms decimal places to n

sqrt

Square root value

(m)

Examples:
Function

Input

Output

Abs( n)

SQL>select abs(-15) from dual

15

28

Ceil(n)

SQL>select ceil(48.778) from dual;

49

Cos(n)

SQL>select cos(180) from dual;

Cosh(n):

SQL>select cosh(0) from dual;

-0.59884601
1

Exp(n)

SQL>select exp(4) from dual;

54.59815

Floor(n)

SQL>select floor(4.678) from dual;

Power(m ,n)

SQL>select power(5,2) from dual;

25

Mod(m ,n)

SQL>select mod(11,2) from dual;

Round(m ,n)

SQL>select round(112.257,2) from dual;

112.26

Example:
SQL> select ln (2) from dual; (returns natural logarithm value of 2)
SQL>select sign (-35) from dual; (output is -1)
CONVERSION FUNCTIONS: Convert a value from one data type to another.

To_char ( )

To_ char (d [,fmt]) where d is the date fmt is the format model which specifies the format of the
date. This function converts date to a value of varchar2datatype in a form specified by date
format fmt.if fmt is neglected then it converts date to varchar2 in the default date format.
Example:
SQL> select to_char (hire_date, 'ddth "of" fmmonth yyyy') from employee;
Output:
TO_CHAR(HIRE_DATE,'DDT
---------------------21st of july 2010
05th of june 2008
12th of february 1999

To_ date ( )

The format is to_date (char [, fmt]). This converts char or varchar data type to date data type.
Format model, fmt specifies the form of character.
Example:
29

SQL>select to_date (December 18 2007,month-dd-yyyy) from dual;

Output:
18-DEC-07 is the output.
Example:
SQL> select round(hire_date,'year') from employee;
Output:
ROUND(HIR
--------01-JAN-11
01-JAN-08
01-JAN-99
To_ Number( )
Allows the conversion of string containing numbers into the number data type on which
arithmetic operations can be performed.
Example: SQL> select to_number (100) from dual;
DATE FUNCTIONS
Function Name

Return Value

ADD_MONTHS (date, n)

Returns a date value after adding nmonths to the date x.

MONTHS_BETWEEN (x1, x2)

Returns the number of months between dates x1 and x2.

ROUND (x, date_format)

Returns the date xrounded off to the nearest century, year,

month, date, hour, minute, or second as specified by the
date_format.

TRUNC (x, date_format)

Returns the date x lesser than or equal to the nearest century,

year, month, date, hour, minute, or second as specified by the
date_format.

NEXT_DAY (x, week_day)

Returns the next date of the week_dayon or after the date x

occurs.

LAST_DAY (x)

It is used to determine the number of days remaining in a

month from the date 'x'specified.

SYSDATE

Returns the systems current date and time.

Example:
SQL> select sysdate from dual;
30

Output:
SYSDATE
--------22-JUL-10
Example:
SQL> select hire_date from employee;
Output:HIRE_DATE
--------21-JUL-10
05-JUN-08
12-FEB-99
Example:
SQL> select add_months(hire_date,3) from employee;
Output:
ADD_MONTH
--------21-OCT-10
05-SEP-08
12-MAY-99
Example:
SQL> select months_between(sysdate,hire_date) from employee;
Output:
MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIRE_DATE)
--------------------------------.047992085
25.5641211
137.338315
Example:
SQL> select next_day(hire_date,'wednesday') from employee;
Output:
NEXT_DAY(
--------31

28-JUL-10
11-JUN-08
17-FEB-99
Example:
SQL> select last_day(hire_date) from employee;

Output:
LAST_DAY(
--------31-JUL-10
30-JUN-08
28-FEB-99
Group Functions: - Group functions are built-in SQL functions that operate on groups of rows
and return one value for the entire group. These functions are: COUNT, MAX, MIN, AVG,
SUM, DISTINCT

Group functions operate on sets of rows to give one result per group of Employees

Dept_id

Salary

90

5000

90

10000

90

10000

60

5000

60

5000

The maximum
salary in the
employees table

Types of Group Functions

Syntax

Description

count (*),

Returns number of rows

count (column name),

count (distinct column name)
32

Max(salary)10000

min (column name)

Min value in the column

max (column name)

Max value in the column

avg (column name)

Avg value in the column

sum (column name)

Sum of column values

Group Functions Syntax:

Select [column,] group_function(column),..
From

table

[where

condition]

[GROUP BY column];
Example:
Q.Display the average,highest, lowest and sum of salaries for all the sales representatives.
A. Select avg(salary), max(salary), min(salary), sum(salary) From employees where job_id like
%rep%;
Groups of Data : Divide rows in a table in to smaller groups by using the group by clause
Employee Table
Dept_id

Salary

10

4000

10

5000

10

6000

50

5000

Theaverage
salaryin
employees
tableforeach
department

33

50

D_id

Avg(Salary)

10

5000

50

4000

3000

SET OPERATORS: UNION,UNION ALL,DIFFERENCE,MINUS

Example:
sql> select first_name from employees union select name from sample ;
Output:
FIRST_NAME
---------DHANA
GUNA
JAI
JAISANKAR
KUMAR
RAJA
VENKAT
Example:
sql> select first_name from employees union all select name from sample ;
Output:
FIRST_NAME
---------VENKAT
JAI
DHANA
GUNA
JAISANKAR
VENKAT
RAJA
KUMAR
Example:
sql> select first_name from employees intersect select name from sample ;
Output:
FIRST_NAME
---------34

VENKAT
Example:
sql> select first_name from employees minus select name from sample ;
Output:
FIRST_NAME
---------DHANA
GUNA
JAI

JOINS :
A join is the SQL way of combining the data from many tables. It is performed by WHERE
Clause which combines the specified rows of the tables.
Type
Simple join

Sub type

Description

Equi join ( = )

Joins rows using equal value of the

column

Non equi join (<, <=, >, >=, !=, < >
)
Self join

-- ( any relational operators)

Joins rows of same table

Outer join

Left outer join ((+) appended to left

operand in join condition)

Rows common in both tables and

uncommon rows have null value in left
column

Right outer join ((+) appended to

right operand in join condition)

35

Joins rows using other relational

operators(except = )

Vice versa

Simple Join:
a. EQUI JOIN OR INNER JOIN : A column (or multiple columns) in two or more tables
match.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name1>
INNER JOIN <table_name2>
ON <table_name1.column_name>=<table_name2.column_name>;
Example 1 :
SELECT employee.first_name, department.dname
FROM employee INNER JOIN department
ON employee.deptno = department.deptno;
Output:1
DEPTNO FIRST_NAME
---------- ---------10
Smith
30
Arun
10
Nithya
Oracle automatically defaults the JOIN to INNER so that the INNER keyword is not required.
They are the same query, though. It is preferred not to type the INNER keyword.
Example 2 using where Condition:
SELECT employee.ename, department.dname
FROM employee JOIN department
ON employee.deptno = department.deptno
WHERE department.dname = 'SALES';
Output 2:
DEPTNO FIRST_NAME
---------- ---------10
Smith
30
Arun
10
Nithya
36

b. SELF JOIN: Is a join where a table is joined to itself.

Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name1>
JOIN <table_name2>
ON <table_name1.column_name>=<table_name1.column_name>;
Example1:
SELECT e1.first_name, e2.first_name
FROM employee e1 join employee e2
on e1.mgr = e2.employee_id;
OR
SELECT e1.first_name, e2.first_name
FROM employee e1 join employee e2
where e1.mgr = e2.employee_id;
Output:
FIRST_NAME FIRST_NAME
---------------- -------------------john
john
An alias is just a way to refer to a column or table with a UNIQUE name. If we try to call both of
the instances of the table EMP, Oracle wouldn't know which table instance we refer to. Using an
alias clears this confusion
c. OUTER JOIN
An outer join tells Oracle to return the rows on the left or right (of the JOIN clause) even if
there are no rows.
The LEFT OUTER keyword to the JOIN clause says, return the rows to the left (in this case
DEPARTMENT) even if there are no rows on the right (in this case employee).
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
37

FROM <table_name1>
LEFT OUTER JOIN <table_name2>
ON <table_name1.column_name>=<table_name2.column_name>;
Example:
SELECT department.dname, employee.first_name
FROM department LEFT OUTER JOIN employee
ON department.deptno = employee.deptno
WHERE department.dname = 'marketing;

Output:
DNAME
-------------Marketing

FIRST_NAME
----------

The RIGHT OUTER keyword to the JOIN clause says ,return the rows to the right relation (in
this case DEPARTMENT) even if there are no matching rows on the left relation (in this case
employee).
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name1>
RIGHT OUTER JOIN <table_name2>
ON <table_name1.column_name>=<table_name2.column_name>;
Example:
SELECT employee.first_name, department.dname
FROM employee RIGHT OUTER JOIN department
ON employee.deptno = department.deptno
WHERE department.dname = 'marketing';

Output:
FIRST_NAME DNAME
----------------------marketing
38

d. FULL OUTER JOIN

Let's insert a new record into the employee table:
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (employee_id, first_name, last_name, mgr, hiredate, job-id,sal,
comm, deptno) VALUES (9999, 'Joe ,Blow', 7698, sysdate ,0008, 10500, 0, NULL );
Note:
We inserted an employee record that has no department. How can we get the records for
all employees AND all departments? We would use the FULL OUTER join syntax:
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name1>
FULL OUTER JOIN <table_name2>
ON <table_name1.column_name>=<table_name2.column_name>;
Example:
SELECT employee.first_name, department.dname
FROM employee FULL OUTER JOIN department
ON employee.deptno = department.deptno;
Output:
FIRST_NAME DNAME
----------------------Nithya
accounts
Smith
accounts
finance
john
IT
Arun
IT
marketing
john
e.Cross Join
Displays all the rows and all the colums of both the tables.
Synatx:
SELECT <column_name(s)> FROM <table_name1> CROSS JOIN<table_name2>;
39

Example:
select employee.deptno from employee cross join department;
Or
select employee.deptno from employee,department;
Output:
DEPTNO
---------10
10
10
10
30
30
30
30
10
10
10
DEPTNO
---------10
30
30
30
30
f. Natural Join
If two tables have same column name the values of that column will be displayed only once.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)> FROM <table_name1> Natural JOIN<table_name2>;
Example:
select deptno,first_name from employee natural join department;
Output:
DEPTNO FIRST_NAME
-----10
30
10

---------Smith
Arun
Nithya
40

30

john

SUB QUERIES
Nesting of queries

A query containing a query in itself A

Inner most sub query will be executed first

The result of the main query depends on the values return by sub query

Sub query should be enclosed in parenthesis

1. Sub query returning only one value

a. Relational operator before sub query.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)> FROM <table_name> WHERE < column name >
< relational op.> < sub query>;
Example:
SELECT employee_id ,first_name FROM employee
WHERE deptno =
(SELECT deptno FROM department
WHERE dname = IT)

Output:
EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME
-------------------112
Arun
114
john
2. Sub query returning more than one value
a. ANY
For the clause any, the condition evaluates to true if there exists at least one row selected by the
sub query for which the comparison holds. If the sub query yields an empty result set, the
condition is not satisfied.
41

Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE < column name >
< relational op.> ANY (<sub query>);
Example:
SELECT employee_id ,first_name FROM employee
WHERE salary>= ANY
(SELECT salary FROM employee
WHERE deptno = 30)
AND deptno = 10;
Output:
EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME
----------113
112
111
114
114

---------Nithya
Arun
Smith
john
john

b. ALL
For the clause all, in contrast, the condition evaluates to true if for all rows selected by the sub
query the comparison holds. In this case the condition evaluates to true if the Sub query does not
yield any row or value.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE < column name > < relational op.> ALL (<sub query>);
Example:
SELECT employee_id ,first_name FROM employee
WHERE salary > ALL
42

(SELECT salary FROM employee

WHERE deptno = 30);
Output:
EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME
-----------

----------

113

Nithya

c. IN :Main query displays the values that match with any of the values returned by sub query.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE < column name > IN (<sub query>);
Example:
SELECT employee_id ,first_name FROM employee
WHERE deptno IN
(SELECT deptno FROM department
WHERE loc = Bangalore);
Output:
EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME
-----------

----------

114

john

112

Arun

d. NOT IN
Main query displays the values that match with any of the values returned by sub query.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE < column name > NOT IN (<sub query>);
Example:
43

SELECT employee_id ,first_name FROM employee

WHERE deptno NOT IN
(SELECT deptno FROM department
WHERE loc = Bangalore);
Output:
EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME
-------------------113
Nithya
111
Smith
e. EXISTS
Main query displays the values that match with any of the values returned by sub query.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE EXISTS (<sub query>);
Example:
SELECT * FROM department
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE deptno = department.deptno);
Output:
DEPTNO DNAME

LOC

---------- -------------- ------------10

accounts

30

IT

chennai
Bangalore

f. NOT EXISTS
Main query displays the values that match with any of the values returned by sub query.
Syntax:

44

SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE NOT EXISTS (<sub query>);
Example:
SELECT * FROM department
WHERE NOT EXISTS
(SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE deptno = department.deptno);
Output:
DEPTNO DNAME

LOC

---------- -------------- ------------20

finance

40

marketing

Hyderabad
chennai

g. GROUP BY CLAUSE
Often applications require grouping rows that have certain properties and then applying an
aggregate function on one column for each group separately. For this, SQL provides the clause
group by <group column(s)>. This clause appears after the where clause and must refer to
columns of tables listed in the from clause.
Rule:
Select attributes and group by clause attributes should be same.
Syntax:
SELECT <column_name(s)>
FROM <table_name>
Where <conditions>
GROUP BY <column2>, <column1>;

Example:
45

SELECT deptno, min(salary), max(salary)

FROM employee
GROUP BY deptno;
Output:
DEPTNO MIN(SALARY) MAX(SALARY)
----------------------------30
30000
40000
30000
30000
10
33000
45000

h. HAVING CLAUSE: used to apply a condition to group by clause

Syntax:
SELECT <column(s)>
FROM <table(s)>
WHERE <condition>
[GROUP BY <group column(s)>]
[HAVING <group condition(s)>];
Example:
SELECT deptno, min(salary), max(salary)
FROM employee
WHERE job_id = J2
GROUP BY deptno
HAVING count(*) > 1;
Output:
DEPTNO MIN(SALARY) MAX(SALARY)
---------30

----------13000

----------40000

A query containing a group by clause is processed in the following way:

1. Select all rows that satisfy the condition specified in the where clause.
46

2. From these rows form groups according to the group by clause.

3. Discard all groups that do not satisfy the condition in the having clause.
4. Apply aggregate functions to each group.
5. Retrieve values for the columns and aggregations listed in the select clause.

i. ORDER BY
Used along with where clause to display the specified column in ascending order or descending
order . Default is ascending order
Syntax:
SELECT [distinct] <column(s)>
FROM <table>
[ WHERE <condition> ]
[ ORDER BY <column(s) [asc|desc]> ]
Example:
SELECT first_name, deptno, hire_date
FROM employee
ORDER BY deptno ASC, hire_date desc;
Output:
FIRST_NAME
---------Smith
Nithya
john
Arun
john

DEPTNO HIRE_DATE
-----------------10
21-JUL-10
10
12-FEB-99
30
20-JAN-10
30
05-JUN-08
20-JAN-10

VIEWS
Definition: A view is a named, derived, virtual table. A view takes the output of a query and
treats it as a table; therefore a view can be thought of as a stored query or a virtual table. We
can use views in most places where tables can be used. To the user, accessing a view is like

47

accessing a table. The RDBMS creates an illusion of a table, by assigning a name to the view and
storing its definition in the database.

The tables upon which the views are based are called as base tables.
CREATION OF A VIEW:
The syntax for creating a view is given by:
create [or replace][[no][force]]view <view_name>
<query>[with[check option]read only][constraint]];

[column

alias

name]as

Example:
SQL>create or replace view EMP_VIEW as select * from EMP;
This statement creates a view named EMP_VIEW .The data in this view comes from the
base table EMP. Any changes made to the base table are instantly visible through the view
EMP_VIEW.We can use select statement just like on a table.
SQL>select * from EMP_VIEW;
When create or replace is given, view is created if it is not available otherwise it is recreated.

HOW DOES RDBMS HANDLE THE VIEWS: When a reference is made by a user, the
RDBMS finds the definition of the view stored in the database .It then translates the users
request that referenced the view into an equivalent request against the source tables of the view.
Thus RDBMS maintains the illusion of the view.
TYPES OF VIEWS: The different types of views are
Column subset view
Row subset view
Row-Column subset view
Grouped view
Joined view
COLUMN SUBSET VIEW:
A column subset view is one where all the rows but only some of the columns of the base
table form the view. The create view
48

Example:
SQL>create or replace view CSV as select empno, ename, sal from EMP;
This view includes only columns empno, ename, sal of EMP table. Since there is no where
clause it includes all the rows.
ROW SUBSET VIEW:
A row subset view is one where all columns but some rows of the source table form the
view. All the columns of the base table participate in the view but all rows do not.

Example:
SQL> create or replace view RSV as select * from EMP where deptno=10;
The where clause restricts the no. of rows to those of employees working in Department Number
10.
ROW-COLUMN SUBSET VIEW:
A row-column subset view is a view which includes only some rows and columns of the
base table.
Example:
SQL>create or replace view RCS as select EMPNO, ENAME, SAL from EMP where
deptno=10;
GROUPED VIEW:
The query specified in the view definition can include the GROUP BY clause. This type
of view is called as Grouped View.
Example:
SQL>create or replace view GV (dno, avgsal) as select deptno, AVG (SAL) from emp group by
deptno;
JOINED VIEWS:
A joined view is formed by specifying a two or more table query in the view definition. A
joined view draws its data from two or more tables and presents the result as a single virtual
table.
Example:
49

SQL>create

or

replace

view

JV(empno,ename,sal,dname,loc)

as

select

empno,ename,sal,dname,loc from EMP,DEPT where EMP.deptno=DEPT.deptno;

CREATING A READ ONLY VIEW:
Use with read only clause to prevent the users from manipulating records via the view.
Example:
SQL>create or replace view WRO as select * from EMP with read only;
Note: A view can be created without a base table using FORCE option of create view command.

Example:
SQL>create or replace force view FVIEW as select * from MYDEPT;
In this query MYDEPT table does not exist, so view is created with compilation errors. When
MYDEPT table is created and this query is executed, the view is automatically recompiled and
become valid.
VIEW WITH CHECK OPTION:
This option specifies that inserts and updates performed through the view must result in
rows that the view query can select. The CHECK OPTION can be used to maintain integrity on a
view.
Example:
SQL>insert into RSV (empno, ename, sal, deptno) values (1000,dinesh, 5500, 20);

Though the view is created for deptno 10, we are able to insert records for other department
numbers .This can be restricted using WITH CHECK OPTION clause while creating a view.
Example:
SQL>create view DEPTNO10_VIEW as select * from EMP where deptno=10 WITH CHECK
OPTION CONSTRAINT CHK_DNO10;
The above statement creates a view DEPTNO10 with a check constraint. This will
enforce the view to be inserted or updated only for the department number 10. No other
departments can be inserted or updated.

50

DROPPING A VIEW:
A view can be dropped by using DROP VIEW command.A view becomes invalid if its
associated base table is dropped.
Example:
SQL>drop view DEPTNO10;
This will not affect the base table EMP.
ADVANTAGES OF VIEWS:

Valid Information: Views let different users see a table from different perspectives. Only
the part that is relevant to the users is visible to them.

Restricted Access: Views restrict access to the table. Different users are allowed to see
only certain rows or certain columns of a table.

Simplified Access: Views simplify database access. For example a view that is a join of
three tables where a user does not require all the data in all three tables.

Data Integrity: Data Integrity can be maintained by having WITH CHECK OPTION
while creating a view.

RESTRICTIONS ON VIEWS:

A views query cannot select the CURRVAL or NEXTVAL pseudo columns.

If a views query selects the ROWID, ROWNUM or LEVEL pseudo columns, they must
have aliases in the views query.

A view cant be created with an ORDER BY clause.

A view cant be updated, deleted and inserted if it is a grouped view.

A view created from multiple tables cant be updatable.

If a view is based on a single underlying table then you can insert, update or delete rows
in this view. This will actually insert, update or delete rows in the underlying table. There
are restrictions again on doing this:

You cannot insert if the underlying table has a NOT NULL column that does not appear
in the view.

You cannot insert or update if any of the views columns referenced in insert or update
consist of functions or calculations.
51

You cannot insert, update or delete if the view contains GROUP BY, DISTINCT or a
reference to a pseudo column ROWNUM.

PL/SQL
Overview of PL/SQL
PL/SQL is the procedural extension to SQL with design features of programming languages.
Data manipulation and query statements of SQL are included within procedural units of code.
Pl/SQL Environment

PL/SQLengine
PL/SQL
block

PL/SQL
PSQL
block

Procedural
statement
executor

SQLstatementexecutor

The PL/SQL engine in the oracle server process the pl/sql block and it separates SQL staments
and sends them individually to the SQL statements executor
Benefits of PL/SQL

Integration
Improved performance
Modularized program development
Portability
Identifiers

52

PL/SQL Block structure

DECLARE (optional)
Variables, cursors, user-defined exceptions
BEGIN (Mandatory)
-SQL statements
-PL/SQL statements
EXCEPTION (optional)
Action to perform when error occur
END;

The PL/SQL Block consists of three sections:

DECLARATIVE
It contains all variables, constants, cursors and user defined exceptions that are referenced
in the executable and declarative sections.
EXECUTABLE
It contains SQL statements to manipulate data in the database and PL/SQL statements to
manipulate data in the block.
EXCEPTION HANDLING
It specifies the actions to perform when errors and abnormal conditions arise in the
executable section.

PL/SQL Block Types

A PL/SQL program comprises one or more blocks.
It is classified into two blocks

Anonymous Blocks
53

It is unnamed blocks. It is declared at the point in an application where they are to be

executed and are passed to the PL/SQL engine for execution at run time.

Subprograms
Subprograms are named PL/SQL blocks that can accept parameters and can be invoked.
It can be declared either as procedures or as functions.

Sample PL/SQL programs

To write PL/SQL programs, create a script file and run the script file or use editor.
Steps to create script file
Step1:
SQL> edit z:\oracle\sql\var1.sql
Step2:
Type the program in notepad
Step 3:
Save the program
Step4:
Run the program
SQL> @z:\oracle\sql\var1.sql
SQL> set serveroutput on;
This command is used to display the statement executed by dbms_output.put_line package.

Program 1: Write a program to print a variable value.

SQL> declare
2 a number:=3;
3 begin
54

4 dbms_output.put_line(a);
5 end;
6 /
3

Program 2: Write a program to print your name and regno.

1 declare
2 v_name varchar2(10);
3 v_regno number;
4 begin
5 v_name:='venkat';
6 v_regno:=39;
7 dbms_output.put_line( 'the name is' || v_name);
8 dbms_output.put_line('the no is' || v_regno);
9 end;

SQL> /
the name is venkat
the no is 39

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Program 3: Write a program to retrieve ssn number of employee whose name is x.

55

Assume the following table:

SSN

NAME

ESSN

DEPTNO

SALARY

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------101

102

102

103

103

102

104

102

105

declare v_no number;

begin
select ssn into v_no from emp where name='x';
dbms_output.put_line(v_no);
end;
SQL>/
101
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SCALAR VARIABLE
It holds a single value and has no internal components.
Examples : number, character, date, boolean

Example: using scalar variable

1 declare
56

2 v_name varchar2(10);
3 V_count binary_integer:=10;
4 V_totalsal number(9,2);
5 v_orderdate date:=sysdate;
6 c_tax constant number(3,2):=6.23;
7 v_valid boolean not null:=true;
8 v_regno number default 23;
9 begin
10 v_name:='venkat';
11 v_totalsal:=10000.23;
12 dbms_output.put_line(v_name);
13 dbms_output.put_line(v_count);
14 dbms_output.put_line(v_orderdate);
15 dbms_output.put_line(c_tax);
16 dbms_output.put_line(v_regno);
17 end;
18 /
venkat
10
19-AUG-05
6.23
23
DECLARING VARIABLE WITH THE %TYPE ATTRIBUTE
The % type attribute is used to declare a variable according to:
57

1. A database column definition

2. Another previously declared variable

Example: using % type attribute

1 declare
2 v_no emp.ssn%type;
3 V_name varchar2(10):='venkat';
4 name v_name%type;
5 begin
6 v_no:=10;
7 name:='ven';
8 dbms_output.put_line(v_no);
9 dbms_output.put_line(name);
10*end;
11 /
10
ven

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

BIND VARIABLES
A bind variable is a variable that is declared in a host environment. Bind variables can be
used to pass run-time values, which can be either number or character, into or out of one or more
PL/SQL programs.
58

Example:
SQL> variable a number;
SQL> ed
File:
1 begin
2 select ssn into:a from emp where name='x';
3 dbms_output.put_line(:a);
4 end;
SQL> /
101
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> print a;
A
---------101

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

REFERENCING NON PL/SQL VARIABLES

To reference host variables, prefix the references with a colon (:) to distinguish them
from declared PL/SQL variable.
SQL> variable gg number;
59

SQL> define aa=1000;

SQL> set verify off
SQL> declare
2 v_sal number(9,2):=&aa;
3 begin
4 :gg:=v_sal/12;
5 end;
6 /
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> print gg;
GG
---------83.3333333

PL/SQL BLOCK SYNTAX AND GUIDELINES

A line of pl/sql text contains groups of characters known as lexical units.
Lexicals are classified as follows:
Delimiters
Identifiers, which include reserved words
Literals
Character literals
Numeric literals
COMMENTS:
-- single line commenting
/* beginning */ ending

60

PL/SQL HAS ITS OWN ERROR HANDLING:

SQLCODE
SQL ERRM

DATA TYPE CONVERSION

PL/SQL performs implicit conversions. For E.g. numeric to char.
The following program highlights conversion involving DATE.
SQL> ed
1 declare
2 vdate date;
3 begin
4 vdate:=to_date('aug 19 ,2005','mon dd,yyyy');
5 dbms_output.put_line(vdate);
6 end;
SQL> /
19-AUG-05
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL FUNCTIONS IN PL/SQL:

All SQL functions are allowed except decode function and group functions.

NESTED BLOCKS AND VARIABLE SCOPE

61

SQL> declare
2 v_a number:=3;
3 begin
4 declare
5 v_b number:=4;
6 begin
7 dbms_output.put_line(v_b);
dbms_output.put_line(v_a);
8 end;
9 dbms_output.put_line(v_a);
10 end;
11 /
4
3

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

QUALIFYING AN IDENTIFIER An identifier is qualified by using the block label prefix. In

the example the outer block is labeled as outer. In the inner block the variable is reference by
label, when variable names are same.

SQL> ed
62

1 <<outer>>
2 declare
3 v_a number:=3;
4 begin
5 declare
6 v_a number:=4;
7 begin
8 dbms_output.put_line(v_a);
9 dbms_output.put_line(outer.v_a);
10 end;
11 end;
12 /
4
3
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PROGRAMMING GUIDELINES:
Category

Case Conversion

Examples

SQL statements

uppercase

SELECT,INSERT

PL/SQL statements

uppercase

DECLARE,BEGIN,IF

63

Data types

uppercase

VARCHAR2,BOOLEAN

Identifiers

lowercase

v_sal

Database tables and

column

lowercase

emp, dept

INTERACTING WITH ORACLE SERVER:

Extracts row of data from the database using select

Effects changes in the database by using DML commands
Controls a transaction with commit, rollback and save point

NOTES:

An end in pl/sql block is not the end of transaction.

A block can span multiple transactions, a transaction can span multiple blocks.
DDL commands (create,alter,drop) and DCL commands(grant,revoke) are not directly
supported.

SQL> select * from emp;

SSN

NAME

ESSN

DEPTNO

SALARY

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------101

102

102

103

103

102

104

102

105

SQL> ed
1 declare
2 v_ssn number;
64

3 v_name varchar2(10);
4 begin
5 select ssn,name into v_ssn,v_name from emp where name='x';
6 dbms_output.put_line(v_ssn);
7 dbms_output.put_line(v_name);
8 end;
SQL> /
101
x
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

RETRIEVING DATA IN PL/SQL:

SQL> select * from job_grade;
GRA

LOWEST_SAL

HIGHEST_SAL

---- ---------- ----------------------------------------a

3000

4000

5000

6000

3000

6000

4000

10000

2000

6000

SQL> ed

1 declare
65

2 v_lsal job_grade.lowest_sal%type;
3 v_hsal job_grade.highest_sal%type;
4 begin
5 select sum(lowest_sal),sum(highest_sal) into v_lsal,v_hsal from job_grade;
6 dbms_output.put_line(v_lsal);
7 dbms_output.put_line(v_hsal);
8 end;
9 /
17000
32000
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

NAMING CONVENTIONS
A local variable in pl/sql name must not be equal to column names present in database .
declare
lastname varchar2(10);
begin
delete from emp where lastname-lastname;
The above code will delete all employees because of the naming convention problem.

MANIPULATING DATA USING PL/SQL

SUBSTIUTION VARIABLE:
SQL> ed
Wrote file afiedt.buf
66

1 declare
2 v_sal number;
3 begin
4 v_sal:=&v_sal;
5 dbms_output.put_line(v_sal);
6 end;
7 /
Enter value for v_sal: 2000
2000
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

INSERTION
SQL> ed
Wrote file afiedt.buf

1 begin
2 insert into emp(ssn,name) values(123,'venkat');
3 dbms_output.put_line('record inserted');
4 end;
5 /
record inserted
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

67

USAGE OF SUBSTITUTION VARIABLE:

SQL> ed
Wrote file afiedt.buf
1 begin
2 insert into emp(ssn,name) values(&ssn,'&name');
3 dbms_output.put_line('record inserted');
4 end;
SQL> /

Enter value for ssn: 124

Enter value for name: sampath
record inserted
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

UPDATE:
SQL> ed
Wrote file afiedt.buf
1 declare
2 v_sal number;
3 begin
4 v_sal:=&v_sal;
5 update job_grade set lowest_sal=v_sal where gra='a';
6 dbms_output.put_line('record updated');
68

7 end;
SQL> /
Enter value for v_sal: 12000
record updated
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> select *from job_grade;

GRA LOWEST_SAL

HIGHEST_SAL

---- ---------- ------------------------------------------a

12000

4000

5000

6000

3000

6000

4000

10000

2000

6000

DELETE:
SQL> ed
Wrote file afiedt.buf
1 declare
2

v_sal number;

begin

4 v_sal:=&v_sal;
5

delete from job_grade where lowest_sal=v_sal;

6 dbms_output.put_line('record deleted');
7 end;
69

8 /
Enter value for v_sal: 5000
record deleted

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> select * from job_grade;
GRA LOWEST_SAL HIGHEST_SAL
---- ---------- ----------a

12000

4000

3000

6000

4000

10000

2000

6000

CONTROL STRUCTURES

IF statements

If then-end if
If-then-else-end if
If-then-elseif-end if

Case expressions

Loop statements

Basic loops
While loops
For loops
70

Syntax of IF:
If condition then
Statements;
Else if condition then
Statements;
Else
Statements;
End if;

Examples:
1) Find the greatest among two numbers
1 declare
2 a number;
3 b number;
4 begin
5 a:=&a;
6 b:=&b;
7 if a>b then
8 dbms_output.put_line('gratest number is'||a);
9 else
10 dbms_output.put_line('gratest number is'||b);
11 end if;
12 end;
71

SQL> /
Enter value for a: 12 old 5: a:=&a;
new 5: a:=12;
Enter value for b: 4 old 6: b:=&b;
new 6: b:=4;
greatest number is12
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

2) if else with database

DEPT_ID

DEPT_NAME

MANAGER_ID

LOCATION_ID

---------

----------

----------

-----------

10

cse

200

1700

20

it

300

1800

30

mech

400

1500

40

ece

500

1600

1 declare
2 v_id departments.dept_id%type;
3 v_dname departments.dept_name%type;
4 begin
72

5 select dept_id,dept_name into v_id,V_dname from departments where manager_id=200;

6 if v_id=11 then
7 dbms_output.put_line(v_dname);
8 elsif v_dname='cse' then
9 dbms_output.put_line(v_id);
10 else
11dbms_output.put_line('recorde not match');
12 end if;
13 end;
SQL> / 10

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

3) if/else if/ else

1 declare
2 a number;
3 b number;
4 c number;
5 begin
6 a:=&a;
7 b:=&b;
8 c:=&c;
9 if (a>b) and (a>c) then
10 dbms_output.put_line('gratest number is'||a);
73

11 elsif(b>a) and (b>c) then

12 dbms_output.put_line('greatest number is'||b);
13 else
14 dbms_output.put_line('greatest number is'||c);
15 end if;
16 end;
SQL>/
Enter values for a,b and c: 6 4 12
C is greater :12.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

4) Case Expressions
A case expression selects a result and returns it. To select the result, the case expression
uses an expression whose value is used to select one of several alternatives.

Syntax :
CASE selector
WHEN
expression1
THEN result1 WHEN
expression2
THEN result2
--------WHEN expression N THEN result
N [ELSE resultN+1
END;
74

Example:
1 declare
2 va varchar2(10);
3 v_result varchar2(10);
4 begin
5 va:=&va;
6 v_result:=
7 CASE va
8 WHEN 'a' THEN 'excellent'
9 WHEN 'b' THEN 'very good'
10 WHEN 'c' THEN 'good'
11 ELSE 'poor'
12 end;
13 dbms_output.put_line('grade is'||v_result);
14 end;
15 /
SQL> Enter value for va: 'a' old 5: va:=&va;
new 5: va:='a';
grade is excellent
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> /
Enter value for va: 'b' old 5: va:=&va;
new 5: va:='b';
grade is very good
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> /
Enter value for va: 'c' old 5: va:=&va;
75

new 5: va:='c';
grade is good
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

5) General Loop
Syntax:
LOOP
...
IF ... THEN
...
EXIT; -- exit loop immediately
END IF;
END LOOP;

Example for General Loop:

Declare
Var number:=1
Begin
dbms_out.put_line(var);
Loop
Var:=var+1;
dbms_out.put_line(var);
If var=10 Then
exit;
End if;
End loop;
End;
76

Example for General Loop:

Declare
Var number:=1
Begin
dbms_out.put_line(var);
Loop
Var:=var+1;
dbms_out.put_line(var);
Exit when var=10;
End loop;
End;

6) While Loop
Syntax:

WHILE condition LOOP

sequence_of_statements;
...
END LOOP;
Example:
declare
var number:=1;
Begin
While var<10 Loop
dbms_output.put_line(var= ||var);
var:=var+1;
End Loop;
End;
77

7) For Loop
Syntax:
FOR counter IN [REVERSE] lower_bound..upper_bound LOOP
sequence_of_statements;
...
END LOOP;

Example:

Declare
Var number;
Begin
For var in 1..10
loop
Dbms_output.put_line(var);
End loop;
End;

8) Goto Syntax:
Syntax:

If <cond> Then
GOTO <lbl1>
End if;

CURSORS
The oracle server uses work areas, called private SQL areas, to execute SQL statement and to
store processing information. This area is called cursor.
78

Cursor types:

Implicit: queries returns only one row

Explicit : queries returns more than one row

Explicit cursor
Active set: set of rows returned by multiple rows

Controlling explicit cursor

Open the cursor and execute the query associated with the cursor which identifies the result
set.
Fetch
Retrieves the current row an advance the current row

Close the cursor

Syntax:
Cursor declaration
cursor cuname is select;
Open the cursor
open cursor name;
Close the cursor
close cursor name;
Fetch
fetch cname into variable or record

79

Explicit Cursor Attributes: To determine the status of the cursor, the cursors attributes are
checked.Cursors have the following four attributes that can be used in a PL/SQL program.
%isopen -To check if the cursor is opened or not
%found-To check if a record is found and can be fetched from the cursor
%rowcount-To check for the number of rows fetched from the cursor
%notfound-To check if no more records can be fetched from the cursor
%isopen, %found,%notfound are boolean attributes which are set to either TRUE or
FALSE.
A Simple Example:
1 declare
2 v_name wer1.name%type;
3 v_ssn wer1.ssn%type;
4 cursor emp_c is select * from wer1;
5 begin
6 open emp_c;
7 for i in 1..5 loop
8 fetch emp_c into v_name,v_ssn;
9 dbms_output.put_line(v_name);
10 end loop;
11 close emp_c;
12 end;

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

80

SQL> set serveroutput on;

SQL> / x
x
x
y
y

2) %row count
1 declare
2 v_name wer1.name%type;
3 v_ssn wer1.ssn%type;
4 cursor emp_c is select * from wer1;
5 begin
6 open emp_c;
7 for i in 1..5 loop
8 fetch emp_c into v_name,v_ssn;
9 exit when emp_c%rowcount>4;
10 dbms_output.put_line(v_name);
11end loop;
12 close emp_c;
13 end;
SQL> / x
x
x
81

y
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

3) Cursor with record

It processes the rows of the active set by fetching values into a PL/SQL record.
1 declare
2 cursor emp_c is select * from wer1;
3 emp_record emp_c%rowtype;
4 begin
5 open emp_c;
6 for i in 1..5 loop
7 fetch emp_c into emp_record;
8 exit when emp_c%notfound;
9 insert into wer(name,ssn) values(emp_record.name,emp_re
10 end loop;
11 commit;
12 close emp_c;
13 end;
14 /
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> select * from wer;

NAME

SSN

----------

----------

101
82

101

101

101

101

101

101

101

101

101

102

102

12 rows selected.

4) Cursor with parameters

It passes the parameter values to the cursor in a cursor FOR loop. This means that you can
open and close an explicit cursor several times in a block, returning a different active set on
each occasion.
Example:
1 declare
2 v_number number;
3 v_name varchar2(10);
4 cursor c1(eno number,ename varchar2) is
5 select ssn,name from emp where ssn=eno and name=ename;
6 begin
7 open c1(101,'x');
83

8 fetch c1 into v_number,v_name;

9 dbms_output.put_line(v_number);
10 close c1;
11 open c1(102,'y');
12 fetch c1 into v_number,v_name;
13 dbms_output.put_line(v_number);
14 close c1;
15 end;
16 /
101
102
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

5) Update
The update clause in the cursor query locks the affected rows when the cursor is opened.

Example:
declare
v_number number;
v_name varchar2(10);
cursor c1(eno number,ename varchar2) is select ssn,name from emp where ssn=eno and
name=ename for update of name nowait;
begin
84

open c1(101,'x');
fetch c1 into v_number,v_name;
dbms_output.put_line(v_number);
close c1;
open c1(102,'y');
fetch c1 into v_number,v_name;
dbms_output.put_line(v_number);
close c1;
end;

EXCEPTIONS

Syntax
When exception1
then Statement1
Statement2
..
When exception2
then Statement1
Statement2
..
When others
then Statement1
85

Statement2 ..

Sample predefined exceptions:

NO_DATA_FOUND
TOO_MANY_ROWS
INVALID_CURSOR
ZERO_DIVIDE
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX
Example:
1)
1 declare
2 a number;
3 b number;
4 c number;
5 begin
6 a:=5;
7 b:=0;
8 c:= a/b;
9 exception
10 when zero_divide then
11 dbms_output.put_line('zero divide error');
12 end;

86

SQL> /
zero divide error
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
2) Non-predefined error

Trapping a non-predefined exception

1. Declare the name for the exception within the declarative section
2. Associate the declared exception with the standard oracle server error number using the
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT statement
Syntax : PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(exception, error_number);
3. Reference the declared exception within the corresponding exception handling routine.

Example:
1 declare
2 emp_remain exception;
3 pragma exception_init
4 (emp_remain,-2292);
5 begin
6 delete from emp where deptno=&deptno;
7 commit;
8 exception
9 when emp_remain then
10 dbms_output.put_line('cannot remove dept'|| 'employee exist');
11end;

87

SQL> /
Enter value for deptno: 2
old 6: delete from emp where deptno=&deptno;
new 6: delete from emp where deptno=2;
cannot remove deptemployee exist
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

SQL> /
Enter value for deptno: 8
old 6: delete from emp where deptno=&deptno;
new 6: delete from emp where deptno=8;
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

3) Functions for trapping exceptions

When an exception occurs, you can identify the associated error code or error message by
using two functions.
SQLCODE: It returns the numeric value for the error code
SQLERRM: It returns character data containing the message associated with the error
number.
Syntax:
declare;
v_error_code number;
v_error_messgage varchar2(255);
88

begin
when others then rollback;
v_error_code:=sqlcode;
v_error_message:=sqlerrm;
dbms_output.put_line(v_error_code||v_error_message);
end;

User defined exception:

User defined PL/SQL exception must be
Declared in the declare section of a PL/SQL block
Raised explicitly with RAISE statements

Example:
1 declare
2 invalid_dept exception;
3 begin
4 delete from emp where deptno=&deptno;
5 if sql%notfound then
6 raise invalid_dept;
7 end if;
8 exception
9 when invalid_dept then
10 dbms_output.put_line('the deptnumber is not valid');
11 end;

89

Enter value for deptno: 10

old 4: delete from emp where deptno=&deptno;
new 4: delete from emp where deptno=10;
the deptnumber is not valid
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL Block Types

A PL/SQL program comprises one or more blocks.
It is classified into two blocks

Anonymous Blocks
It is unnamed blocks. It is declared at the point in an application where they are to be
executed and are passed to the PL/SQL engine for execution at run time.

Subprograms
Subprograms are named PL/SQL blocks that can accept parameters and can be invoked.
It can be declared either as procedures or as functions.

Overview of subprograms
A subprogram is named PL/SQL block that ca accept parameters and be invoked from a calling
environment.
Two types of subprograms

A procedure that performs an action

A function that computes a value

Benefits of subprograms

Easy maintenance

Improved data security and integrity

90

Improved performance

Improved code clarity

Procedure
A procedure is a type of subprogram that performs an action. A procedure can be stored in the
database, as a schema object, for repeated execution.
Syntax for creating procedure:
Create [or replace] procedure <procedure_name>
[( parameter1 [mode1] datatype1,parameter2 [mode2] datatype2,..)]
Is| As
PL/SQL Block;
The replace option indicates that if the procedure exists, It will be dropped and replaced with the
new version created by the statement. Parameter name of a PL/SQL variable whose value is
passed to or populated by the calling environment.
Mode: type of argument
IN,OUT,IN OUT
IN

: It is the default mode and value is passed into subprogram.

OUT : It must be specified and is returned to calling environment.

IN OUT: It is passed into subprogram and returned to calling environment.

IN parameter
IN parameters are passed as constants from the calling environment into the procedure.
91

Example:1
1 create or replace procedure raise_salary
2 (grade in job_grade.gra%type)
3 is
4 begin
5 update job_grade set lowest_sal=lowest_sal*1.10 where gra= grade;
6* end raise_salary;
7 /

Procedure created.
SQL> execute raise_salary('a'); // executing procedure
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> select * from job_grade;
LOWEST_SAL

GRA

HIGHEST_SAL

---- ---------- -----------

a

13200

3000

4000

2000

4000

6000

10000
6000

92

IN, OUT parameter

Example:1
1 create or replace procedure info
2 (g in job_grade.gra%type,
3 l_sal out job_grade.lowest_sal%type,
4 h_sal out job_grade.highest_sal%type)
5 is
6 begin
7 select lowest_sal,highest_sal into l_sal,h_sal from job_grade where gra=g;
8* end info;
9 /
SQL> edit g:\oracle\sql\info1.sql
SQL> @g:\oracle\sql\info1
Procedure created.

How to view the value of OUT parameters with sql *plus

1.Run the sql script file to generate and compile the source code.
2.Create host variables in sql*plus, using the variable command
3.Invoke the procedure, supplying these host variables as the OUT parameters.: reference the
93

host variables in the execute command.

4.To view the values passed from the procedure to the calling environment ,use the print
command.
SQL> variable g_sal number;
SQL> variable g1_sal number;
SQL> execute info('a',:g_sal,:g1_sal)
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> print g_sal;
G_SAL
---------13200
SQL> print g1_sal;
G1_SAL
---------4000
IN OUT parameter
Example:1
1 create or replace procedure info
2 (g in out number)
3 is
4 begin
5 select lowest_sal into g from job_grade where highest_sal=g;
6* end info;
7 /
94

Procedure created.
SQL> variable g_sal number;
1 begin
2 :g_sal:=4000;
3* end;
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> print g_sal;

G_SAL
---------4000
SQL> execute info (:g_sal)
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> print g_sal;

G_SAL
---------13200
Methods for passing parameters
Positional

: List actual parameters in the same order as formal parameters

Named

: List actual parameters in library order by associating each with its

corresponding formal parameter

Combination : List some of the actual parameters as positional and some as named.
95

Removing procedures
Drop a procedure stored in the database
Syntax:
Drop procedure procedure_name
Example:
Drop procedure raise_salary;

Functions
A function is a named PL/SQL block that returns a value. A function can be stored in the
database as a schema object for repeated execution. A function is called as part of an expression.
Syntax:
Create [or replace] function function_name
[(parameter1 [mode1] datatype1,
Parameter2 [mode2] datatype2,
.)]
Return datatype
Is/as
PL/SQL block ;

96

Example:
declare
summation number;
average number;
function summa(m4 number,m5 number) return number is
begin
return(m4+m5);
end;
function aver( summ1 number) return number is
begin
return(summ1/2);
end;
begin
summation:=summa(&m1,&m2);
average:=aver(summation);
dbms_output.put_line('summation is:'||summation);
dbms_output.put_line('average is:'||average);
end;
Removing functions
Drop function function_name
97

Example:
Drop function summa;

Packages
Packages bundle are related PL/SQL types, items, and subprograms into one container.
A package usually has a specification and a body, stored separately in the database.
Package specification
It is the interface to the application. It declares the types, variables, constants, exceptions,
cursors and subprograms.
A package specification can exist without a package body, but a package body cannot exist
without a package specification.
Syntax
Create [or replace] package package_name
is| as
Public type and item declarations
Subprograms specifications
End package_name;
Example:
1 create or replace package commp is
2 g_comm number:=0.10;
3 procedure reset_comm
4 (p_comm in number);
98

5 end commp;
Package created.

Package body
Syntax
Create [or replace] package body package_name
Is| as
Private type and item declarations
Subprogram bodies
End package_name;
Example
1 create or replace package body commp
2 is
3 function validate_comm(p_comm in number)
4 return boolean
5 is
6 v_max_comm number;
7 begin
8 select max(lowest_sal) into v_max_comm from job_grade;
9 if p_comm>v_max_comm then return(false);
10 else return(true);
99

11 end if;
12 end validate_comm;
13 procedure reset_comm(p_comm in number)
14 is
15 begin
16 if validate_comm(p_comm)
17 then g_comm:=p_comm;
18 else
19 raise_application_error(-20210,'invalid commision');
20 end if;
21 end reset_comm;
22 end commp;
23 /
Package body created.

Invoking package constructs:

SQL> execute commp.reset_comm(0.15);
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> create or replace package global_con is
2 a constant number:=2;
3 b constant number :=3;
4 end global_con;
5 /
Package created.
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SQL> execute dbms_output.put_line('20 miles='||20*global_con.a||'km');

20 miles=40km
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Referencing a public variable from a stand alone procedure:

SQL> ed
Wrote file afiedt.buf
1 create or replace procedure me( x in number, y out number)
2 is
3 begin
4 y :=x *global_con.a;
5 end me;
SQL> /
Procedure created.

SQL> variable ya number;

SQL> execute me(3,:ya);
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> print ya;
YA
---------6

Removing packages:
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drop package package name;

drop package body package_name;

Overloading
It is the use of same name for different subprograms inside a PL/SQL block, a subprogram, or a
package.
Example:
1 create or replace package over
2 is
3 procedure add_dept(p_n in emp.ssn%type,p_na in emp.name%type);
4 procedure add_dept(p_n in emp.ssn%type,p_na in emp.name%type,p_dept in
emp.deptno%type);
5 end over;
6 /
Package created
1 create package body overp is
2 procedure add_dept(p_n emp.ssn%type,p_na emp.name%type)
3 is
4 begin
5 insert into emp (ssn,name) values(p_n,p_na);
6 end add_dept;
7 procedure add_dept(p_n emp.ssn%type,p_na emp.name%type,p_dn emp.deptno%type)
8 is
9 begin
10 insert into emp (ssn,name,deptno) values(p_n,p_na,p_dn);
11 end add_dept;
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12 end overp;

Trigger
A trigger is aPL/SQL block or a PL/SQL procedure associated with a table ,view, schema,or the
database. It executes implicitly whenever a particular event takes place.
It can be:
Application trigger: fires whenever an event occurs with a particular application
Database trigger: fires whenever a data event or system event occurs on a schema or database.
A triggering statement contains:

Triggering timing
o For table: BEFORE, AFTER
o For view: INSTEAD OF

Triggering event: INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE

Table name: on table, view

Trigger type: row or statement

When clause: restricting condition

Trigger body: PL/SQL block

Trigger type
Statement trigger:The trigger body executes once for the triggering event. this is default. A
statement trigger fires once, even if no rows are affected at all.
Row trigger:The trigger body executes once for each row affected by the triggering event. A
row trigger is not executed if the triggering event affects no rows.
Syntax:
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CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name

Timing
Event1 [OR event2 OR event3]
ON table_name
Trigger _body
Example:

create trigger ab
before insert or delete or update on a
for each row
begin
raise_application_error(-20000,'not accessible')
end
This program raises an error during insertion and deletion and update operation in a row.

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