OSCA Individual Assignment

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT
CT049-3-1-OSCA
OPERATING SYSTEM AND COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
UC1F1502SE
VIJAYALAXMI AMUTHAN
NAME: LIM WEI CHUN

TP NO.: TP037408
HAND OUT-DATE: 27/3/15
HAND-IN DATE: 1/6/15
CT049-3-1
Operating Systems and Computer Architecture
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Marking Grid
Marks
Research and Investigation
20%
Referencing
10%
Analysis
30%
Reflection
30%
Documentation
10%
Level 1
Given Marks
Asia Pacific University of Technology and Innovation
2015
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Acknowledgement
Firstly, I would like to thank our lecturer Ms. Vijayalaxmi Amuthan for all the help and
guidance given to me while doing this assignment. Especially for teaching me the module in
such a way that I were able to learn this highly technical module very easily.
Also there are many individuals who have helped me in numerous ways directly and indirectly
so that I was able to complete this assignment.
If there are any shortcomings in this project, then I request to excuse me from all those and
accept this documentation.
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Abstract
This assignment is an individual assignment in the module Operating Systems and Computer
Architecture module for UC1F1502SE
The basis of this research includes an investigation and explanation of two important areas in
the module. The purpose of this research is getting information and knowledge about memory
management in the operating system and the other part is registers in computer system
architecture. In section (A) operating system, it will be explained about memory management
of Mac OS X operating system. In section (B) computer architecture, will be explain about
Registers of in a modern computer.
Memory management of Mac OS X which will be explained in this report, it will include such
point like: about the memory management of the major mechanisms such as: how memory is
managed including how memory is managed including mechanisms and strategies used. In the
end, it will mention about problems and solutions which are faced by the mechanisms
mentioned of memory management in Mac OS X operating system.
The second part of this research or report is about the computer system architecture that will
be discussed about registers in modern computer. Areas to be discussed in this report
documentation are the reasons for registers, types of registers, size of registers and also the
organization of the different types of registers.
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Table of Contents
Marking Grid ............................................................................................................................. 1
Acknowledgement ..................................................................................................................... 2
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 5
Section 1: Operating System ...................................................................................................... 6
Introduction to Memory Management ................................................................................... 6
Managing Memory in OS X ................................................................................................... 7
Mechanisms and strategies used ............................................................................................ 8
Problems faced in memory compression ............................................................................. 12
Solutions to improve memory compression ......................................................................... 13
Limitation and Extension ..................................................................................................... 14
Section 2: Computer Architecture ........................................................................................... 15
Introduction to Registers ...................................................................................................... 15
Reasons for registers ............................................................................................................ 16
Types of registers ................................................................................................................. 17
Size of registers .................................................................................................................... 20
Organization in registers ...................................................................................................... 22
Limitation and Extension ..................................................................................................... 23
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 24
References ................................................................................................................................ 25
Appendix .................................................................................................................................. 27
Frequently Asked Questions ................................................................................................ 27
Section 1: Operating Systems ........................................................................................... 27
Section 2: Computer Architecture .................................................................................... 29
Gantt Chart ........................................................................................................................... 31
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Introduction
An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware or
enables the computer hardware to communicate and operate with the computer software and
supports a computer's basic functions, such as scheduling tasks, executing applications, and
controlling peripherals. The OS is found on virtually any device with multiple programs such
as: computers, cellular phones and video games, supercomputers, vehicles, net (web) servers,
& even washing machines and some other devices also.
In other hand, Mac OS X was initially launched by Apple in the year 2000 with its first version,
Mac OS X Public Beta, a $29.95 preview version codenamed Kodiak for Apple to make
UI changes based on public feedbacks. OS X is a UNIX operating system built on technology
that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the 1980s and up until Apple
purchased the company in early 1997. With a desktop-oriented Mac OS X v10.0 launched in
March 2001, six more versions were released between the years 2001 up to 2009. The most
recent and current UNIX certified version OS X 10.10 Yosemite was made available on
October 16, 2014. (Anon., 2015)
Computer architecture is a specification detailing how a set of software and hardware
technology standards interact to form a computer system or platform. It is likened to the art of
determining the needs of the user/system/technology, and creating a logical design and
standards based on those requirements. In short, computer architecture refers to how a
computer system is designed and what technologies it is compatible with. (Janalta Interactive
Inc., 2010-2015)
A register is a single, permanent storage location within the CPU used for a particular, defined
purpose. A register is used to hold a binary value temporarily for storage, for manipulation.
These companies Apple, DEC, Intel, Marvell: ARM6, StrongARM, XScale are providing
processor register.
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Section 1: Operating System

Introduction to Memory Management
Memory management is the process of controlling and coordinating computer memory,
assigning portions called blocks to various running programs to optimize overall system
performance. Memory management resides in hardware, in the OS (operating system), and in
programs and applications. (Rouse, 2012)
In hardware, memory management involves components that physically store data, such as
RAM (random access memory) chips, memory caches, and flash-based SSDs (solid-state
drives). In the OS, memory management involves the allocation and constant reallocation of
specific memory blocks to individual programs as user demands change. At the application
level, memory management ensures the availability of adequate memory for the objects and
data structures of each running program at all times. Application memory management
combines two related tasks, known as allocation and recycling. Therefore the researcher choose
to research on Apples Mac OS X.
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Managing Memory in OS X
Apple changed how memory is managed on a Mac with the release of OS X version 10.9,
Mavericks. In older versions of OS X, memory usage was built around a standard memory
management system which shows that apps need to request an allocation of RAM. Once the
apps are done and no longer needs it, they will return the allocation.
The OS took care of most of the work in keeping track of how much RAM was available and
who was using it. The OS also figured out what to do if the amount of RAM needed was not
available. It is important because there could be adverse effects on a Mac's performance as the
system tried to make use of virtual RAM (swap space on an SSD or hard drive).
Apple provided a tool called the Activity Monitor that could monitor how a Mac's RAM was
being used. While the Activity Monitor is still available, its memory monitoring capabilities
have undergone a dramatic change, one that mimics the way a Mac is now able to better make
use of RAM through the use of compressed memory. (Apple Inc., 2015)
Figure 1: Activity Monitor taken from Apple Inc., 2015
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Mechanisms and strategies used

Compressed Memory
Computing systems have been using various forms of memory compression for a long time. A
new feature of Mac OS X v10.9 Mavericks is its compressed memory which increases the
effective size of DRAM through inline data compression. This is not a new idea where over 20
years ago the HP Omnibook 300 used inline compression to double the effective size of its
10MB compact flash card.
What is new is that with multiple cores running an optimized compression algorithm the system
can compress and decompress data much faster than swapping to disk or SSD. This saves time
and energy, since the system isn't idling waiting for memory page swaps which important for
notebooks. Therefore, there is nothing to configure as it works automatically in the background.
All you see is a more stable Mac with more memory. (Harris, 2013)
Figure 2: Enhancements in memory compression taken from (Kessler, 2013)
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How Compressed Memory Works on a Mac

Memory compression on the Mac is designed to increase OS and app performance by allowing
better management of RAM resources, and greatly reduce the use of virtual memory, which is
the paging of data to and from a Mac's drive.
With OS X Mavericks, the OS looks for inactive memory, which is memory that is not currently
in active use but still holds data that will be used by an app. This inactive memory compresses
the data it's holding, so the data takes up less memory. Inactive memory can be apps that are in
the background and not being used. While the user is busy browsing the web, the OS is
compressing the word processor's memory, freeing up RAM for use by other apps, such as the
Flash player if the user is watching a movie on the web.
The compression process is not active all the time. Instead, the OS checks to see how much
free space is available in RAM. If there is a significant amount of free memory, no compression
is performed, even if there's a lot of inactive memory.
As free memory is used up, the OS starts looking for inactive memory to compress.
Compression starts with the oldest used data stored in memory, and works its way forward to
ensure that there is adequate free memory available. When the data in a compressed area of
RAM is needed, the OS decompresses the data on the fly and makes it available to the app
requesting it. Because the compression and decompression routines are run concurrently on
one of the processor cores, it is unlikely to experience any performance loss while the
compression or decompression occurs. (Dilger, 2013)
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Activity Monitor and Memory Compression

Users can now monitor how much memory is being compressed by using the Memory tab in
Activity Monitor. The amount of compressed memory displays in the Memory Pressure graph,
which indicates how actively the OS is involved in compressing RAM data. The graph will
turn from green (little pressure) to yellow (significant pressure), and finally to red, when there
are not enough RAM space and memory has to be swapped out to the drive.
Memory Pressure indicators and their uses.
1. Physical Memory is the total RAM you have installed on the system.
2. Memory Used is the total memory that is currently in use, not necessarily by app, but
everything.
3. App Memory is the amount of memory being used up by programs.
4. File Cache is memory that is available in RAM to be used by apps that contains recently
used files.
5. Wired Memory is memory that cant be moved to disk and therefore must remain in the
physical RAM. It also cant be used by other apps.
6. Compressed is memory in RAM that is currently compressed, so that there is more memory
available to other apps. Compressed memory is a new feature in OS X Mavericks.
7. Virtual Memory is the amount of memory that the apps have asked for and does not
indicate the amount of memory actually being consumed.
8. Swap Used means data is being transferred to and from your hard disk and RAM. Its ok if
this value is small (<100 MB) and it will never be 0, but a high value indicates a memory
problem. (Kishore, 2014)
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In figure 3 depicts that 15.99GB out of 16GB of RAM in use, and yet Mavericks still keeps its
cool, holding the line at 0 bytes of swap. Then in figure 4 shows that OS Mavericks with a
heroic 8.54GB of compressed memory, finally dipping its toe into a few megabytes of swap.
(Siracusa, 2013)
Figure 3 taken from (Siracusa, 2013)
Figure 4 taken from (Siracusa, 2013)
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Problems faced in memory compression

Of course, there are limits to what compression can achieve. At some point, if the user continue
to launch apps or use memory-intensive apps that gobble up RAM, the Mac will not have
enough free space. Just as in the past, the OS will begin to swap inactive RAM data to the
Mac's drive. But with memory compression, this is likely to be a very rare occurrence for most
users.
Even if the OS ends up having to swap memory out to the drive, OS X's memory management
system takes advantage of the compressed inactive memory by writing the compressed data to
full-length drive segments, to increase performance and reduce wear on SSDs. (Nelson, 20132015)
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Solutions to improve memory compression

Virtual memory compression
For OS X v10.9 "Mavericks", virtual memory compression is a big solution for any users on
the margins of not quite enough memory even after compressed memory. Virtual memory
compression is particularly valuable for users running systems with 4GB to 12GB of memory
(systems likely to be suffering from virtual memory paging).
Virtual memory compression takes CPU cycles, but on Macs with four fast CPU cores or more,
the CPU cores are often idle. Virtual memory compression means that real work gets done
faster by idling CPU cores less often and for a shorter duration, often coming entirely for free
by using CPU cores that are otherwise idle anyway. The apparent overhead of using CPU
cycles to compress memory is in fact a huge solution, but the situation is complex. In fact, this
approach is not only not a loss of performance, but a massive gain. With virtual memory paging
to disk, the CPUs are forcibly idled until the virtual memory contents can be read or written to
disk, a process which can be glacially slow compared to avoiding disk access.
With virtual memory compression, there is no disk activity and the memory compression itself
is extremely fast. Hence, compressed virtual memory is a great solution while there is some
CPU utilization for the compression but real work on all CPU cores gets back on task in far
less time, rather than idling the CPU cores waiting for disk I/O to complete. Moreover, the very
need for more memory often forcible idles CPU cores, so in a sense virtual memory
compression is free. (diglloyd Inc, 2013)
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Limitation and Extension

In the process of writing this section, there were some limitation which made it difficult for the
project to complete faster. There were not enough books about this report in the library, most
of the books has same information which explained in different ways, which make confuse for
readers. The solution of this problem is that the library should provide more books which have
different information that is update with new information.
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Section 2: Computer Architecture

Introduction to Registers
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the most important component of every computer. A
CPU has several high-speed storage units known as registers. In computer system architecture,
registers are temporary storage unit to store or hold and transfer data or instruction. Registers
are closely connected to the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) inside the CPU so that data or
instruction can be accessed faster. Registers may not only store data, but also the address in
memory where the data is stored. (UK Essays, 2013)
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Reasons for registers

Almost all modern computers possess system that involves moving data from the main memory
to registers and then back to the main after being used for storage purpose, and then
interpretation and execution of sets of instructions are done immediately. Therefore, registers
assume the role of temporarily storing the respective information and directing it towards the
control unit after handling the process of execution on a more efficient and effective order.
Without registers the CPU would have to carry a tight job of gathering data from the main
memory for a thousand different functions while running the risks of accounted bizarre such
as processes running out of page memory, and also absence of registers would mean
consumption of hard disk space to make up for the pieces of data are directed to the control
unit one by one which in turn resulting to a longer time for processes to be executed. (UK
Essays, 2013)
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Types of registers
Number of registers vary computer to computer, depends on the CPU the user has. The number
of registers that the CPU has, and the size of register measured by the number of bits help
determine the power and the speed of the CPU. For example, a 64 bit CPU is a CPU where
each single register is 64 bits in size. Therefore, each instruction carried out by the CPU is able
to have a maximum of 64 bits of data. This means that the workspace of the CPU is able to
accommodate a unit measurement of 64 bits of data for calculation before it sends it back to
the RAM.
Following are the types of registers:
a. Data Registers
Data registers can hold numeric values such as integer and in some architectures floatingpoint values, characters, small bit arrays and other data.
b. Address Registers
Address registers hold addresses and are used by instructions that indirectly access primary
memory. Some processors contain registers that may only be used to hold an address or
only to hold numeric values.
c. General Purpose Registers
The general purpose registers are used a simple storage area, mainly these are used to store
immediate results of operations. Getting the operand from the GPR is faster than from
memory so its better to have sufficient number of general purpose registers in the CPU.
(Robin, 2013)
Accumulator
This is one of the general purpose registers but it is specifically used to accumulate the result
of the currently running instructions. Its a register for short-term, intermediate storage of
arithmetic and logic data in a computer's CPU. Without a register like an accumulator, it
would be necessary to write the result of each calculation to main memory, perhaps only to
be read right back again for use in the next operation. (redOrbit, n.d.)
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d. Special Purpose Registers/ Internal Registers

Special purpose registers store internal CPU data, such as the program counter, stack pointer
and status register. The program counter and status register might be combined in a program
status word (PSW) register.
1. Instruction Register:
Instructions are stored in instruction register. When one instruction is completed, next
instruction is fetched in memory for processing.
2. Memory buffer register (MBR):
The memory buffer register stores data going to and from the RAM. The buffer register
acts as a buffer to the CPU. This is so that the mathematical and logical operations are
not affected by values leaving and coming into the CPU.
3. Memory data register (MDR):
A Memory Buffer Register (MBR) is the register in a computer's processor, or central
processing unit, CPU, that stores the data being transferred to and from the immediate
access store. It contains the copy of designated memory locations specified by MAR. It
acts as a buffer allowing the processor and memory units to act independently without
being affected by minor differences in operation.
4. Memory address register (MAR):
The memory address register shows the address of memory location that the processor
wants to use. Memory address register holds 16-bit binary number. The output of the
memory address register drives the 16-bit address bus. This output is used to select a
memory location.
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Figure 5: Relationship between MAR and MDR taken from

5. Program Counter:
The program counter is a counting registers that increment the instruction cycle to obtain
the program sequence from the memory locations. The job of the program counter is to
take note of the address of the next memory instruction that is going to be executed by
the CPU next even before the current instruction is finished being executed. The
advantage of having the program counter as a register in the CPU is that it improves the
overall efficiency because it straight away know where the next memory address of the
instructions. (Teach-ICT.com, n.d.)
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Size of registers
8-bit register
Its not possible to have an 8-bit register, but its possible to break the register down to 8-bit.
In x86 you can address the High and Low halves of a 16-bit register as 8-bit register.
In modern computers, information is stored in registers that are often made up of is 16-bit or
32-bit registers. Therefore its possible to code information into strings of 0's and 1's and these
strings can be stored in Flip-Flops. For example the number 18 can be expressed in eight binary
digits as 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 and can be loaded into an 8-bit register as can be seen in Figure 6
Figure 6 taken from (Anon., n.d.)

16-bit register
A 16-bit register permits different memory models ways to access a particular memory
location. The size of the assembler instructions or required storage for pointers is the main
reason for using a specific memory model. Compilers of the 16-bit era generally had the
following type-width characteristic shown in Table 1. (UK Essays, 2013)
16-bit data model
Data model
Short
int
long
Pointers
IP16L32 (near)
16
16
32
16
I16LP32 (far)
16
16
32
32
Table 1 taken from (UK Essays, 2013)
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32 bit registers
A 32-bit refers to the number of bits that can be processed or transmitted in parallel, or the
number of bits used for single element in a data format. The term when used in conjunction
with a microprocessor indicates the width of the registers; a special high-speed storage area
within the CPU. A 32-bit microprocessor can process data and memory addresses that are
represented by 32 bits.
A 32 bit processor can split larger numbers out onto more than one register although it is slower
than performing operations on a single 32 bit register. For addition/subtraction it simply
performs arithmetic starting from the least significant register and then carries the status bits
over to the next significant register. It can get a bit more complex with multiplication/division
but the main downside is performance.
64 bit register
A 64-bit therefore refers to a processor with registers that store 64-bit numbers. A
generalization would be to suggest that 64-bit architecture would double the amount of data a
CPU can process per clock cycle. Users would note a performance increase because a 64-bit
CPU can handle more memory and larger files. One of the most attractive features of 64-bit
processors is the amount of memory the system can support. 64-bit architecture will allow
systems to address up to 1 terabyte (1000GB) of memory. (UK Essays, 2013)
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Organization in registers
Below is the discussion of the register organization of 16-bit microprocessor.
Figure 7: Intel 8086 register organization taken from (SMU, n.d.)

In this machine every register is a special purpose register. There are some registers that also
serve as general purpose registers. The 8086 machine contains four 16-bit data registers that
are accessible on a byte or 16-bit basis. It also has four 16-bit pointers and index registers. The
data registers can be used as general purpose registers in some instructions. In others registers
are used implicitly. (Community, n.d.)
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Limitation and Extension

The limitation for registers in a standard CPU is that registers is considered as volatile memory.
When there is a sudden power cut, then the data stored in the registers will be lost. In addition,
number of architectural registers will affect the instruction size as well as the hazard
detection logic necessary in an out-of-order implementation. The solution is to rename the
registers in hardware, and the number of physical registers implemented can vary from
design to design with the same software.
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Conclusion
In conclusion, Memory Management is one of the most important parts of the Operating
System. This is because Memory management is the heart of operating systems and it is playing
an important role in storing and transporting data and information. There are different types of
memory management which each of it doing a specific work. Moreover, Mac OS X by Apple
is one of the best and famous company because it is free and easy to use.
A part from that, registers in computer architecture is another important part, which also have
an important role in storing information. There are many types of register also such as Memory
address, Memory data and Memory buffer register, which each of it is doing important work
computer architecture.
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References
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2015.
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Nelson, T., 2013-2015. Understanding Compressed Memory in OS X. [Online] Available at:

http://macs.about.com/od/macoperatingsystems/fl/Understanding-Compressed-Memory-inOS-X.htm [Accessed 12 April 2015].
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Appendix
Frequently Asked Questions
Section 1: Operating Systems
1. What is operating systems?
Operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware or
enables the computer hardware to communicate and operate with the computer software and
supports a computer's basic functions, such as scheduling tasks, executing applications, and
controlling peripherals.
2. What is memory management?
Memory management is the process of controlling and coordinating computer memory,
assigning portions called blocks to various running programs to optimize overall system
performance.
3. What components that are involve in hardware memory management?
RAM (random access memory) chips, memory caches, and flash-based SSDs (solid-state
drives)
4. What process involved on OS memory management?
Allocation and constant reallocation of specific memory blocks to individual programs as
user demands change
5. What is Activity Tool?
A tool that could monitor how a Mac's RAM was being used.
6. Why is memory compression used in Mac OS?
Memory compression on the Mac is designed to increase OS and app performance by
allowing better management of RAM resources, and greatly reduce the use of virtual
memory, which is the paging of data to and from a Mac's drive.
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7. How compressed memory works on Mac?

The OS looks for inactive memory, which is memory that is not currently in active use but
still holds data that will be used by an app. The OS is compressing the word processor's
memory, freeing up RAM for use by other apps
8. What happens to the data memory when Activity Monitor graph turns red?
The data memory has to be swapped out to the drive.
9. What are the eight memory pressure indicators?
Physical Memory, Memory Used, App Memory, File Cache, Wired Memory, Compressed,
Virtual Memory, Swap Used
10. What are the limits to memory compression?
At some point, if the user continue to launch apps or use memory-intensive apps that
gobble up RAM, the Mac will not have enough free space.
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Section 2: Computer Architecture

1. What is Computer Architecture?
Computer architecture is a specification detailing how a set of software and hardware
technology standards interact to form a computer system or platform.
2. What are registers?
Registers are temporary storage unit to store or hold and transfer data or instruction.
3. What are the reason for registers to be used?
Registers assume the role of temporarily storing the respective information and directing it
towards the control unit after handling the process of execution on a more efficient and
effective order.
4. What if there were no registers?
The CPU would have to carry a tight job of gathering data from the main memory for a
thousand different functions while running the risks of accounted bizarre such as processes
running out of page memory.
5. How many types of registers are there? Name them.
Data Registers, Address Registers, General Purpose Registers and Special Purpose
Registers/ Internal Registers.
6. In General Purpose Registers, there is an Accumulator register, what is the function of this
register?
It is specifically used to accumulate the result of the currently running instructions
7. What are the Special Purpose Registers?
Instruction Register, Memory buffer register (MBR), Memory data register (MDR),
Memory address register (MAR) and Program Counter.
8. How many sizes are there in registers?
There are 4, namely 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and 64-bit.
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9. How is the organization of registers in a 16-bit microprocessor?
10. What happens when there is power cut in a standard CPU register?
When there is a sudden power cut, then the data stored in the registers will be lost.
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Gantt Chart
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OSCA Individual Assignment

Uploaded by

OSCA Individual Assignment

Uploaded by

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT

NAME: LIM WEI CHUN

Operating Systems and Computer Architecture

Research and Investigation

Asia Pacific University of Technology and Innovation

Operating Systems and Computer Architecture

Asia Pacific University of Technology and Innovation

Operating Systems and Computer Architecture

Asia Pacific University of Technology and Innovation

Operating Systems and Computer Architecture

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Operating Systems and Computer Architecture

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Operating Systems and Computer Architecture

Section 1: Operating System

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Figure 1: Activity Monitor taken from Apple Inc., 2015

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Mechanisms and strategies used

Figure 2: Enhancements in memory compression taken from (Kessler, 2013)

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How Compressed Memory Works on a Mac

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Activity Monitor and Memory Compression

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Figure 3 taken from (Siracusa, 2013)

Figure 4 taken from (Siracusa, 2013)

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Problems faced in memory compression

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Operating Systems and Computer Architecture

Solutions to improve memory compression

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Limitation and Extension

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Operating Systems and Computer Architecture

Section 2: Computer Architecture

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Reasons for registers

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d. Special Purpose Registers/ Internal Registers

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Figure 5: Relationship between MAR and MDR taken from

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Figure 6 taken from (Anon., n.d.)

Table 1 taken from (UK Essays, 2013)

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Figure 7: Intel 8086 register organization taken from (SMU, n.d.)

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Limitation and Extension

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Operating Systems and Computer Architecture

Asia Pacific University of Technology and Innovation

Operating Systems and Computer Architecture

http://www.computerhope.com/history/macos.htm [Accessed 30 March 2015].

mavericks/ [Accessed 10 April 2015].

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Operating Systems and Computer Architecture

Nelson, T., 2013-2015. Understanding Compressed Memory in OS X. [Online] Available at: