Welcome to the

World of Vacuum
Basics of Vacuum Technology

1 Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential / /

Vacuum
Vacuum is the condition of a gas, where particle number
density pressure is lower than the surrounding
atmosphere.
Vacuum ranges are subdivided in 4 sections:

Rough vacuum (RV): 1000 - 1 mbar

Medium vacuum (MV): 1 - 10-3 mbar
High vacuum (HV): < 10-3 - 10-7 mbar
Ultrahigh vacuum (UHV): < 10-7 mbar

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Decrease in pressure with increase in height
Altitude Pressure
Orbit of geo- 36.000 km UHV < 10-10 mbar
stationary satellites

Orbit of satellites 200 to 1000 km HV < 10-4 mbar

close to earth

Usual cruising altitude 8 to 12 km ca. 290 mbar

of passenger airplanes
Highest peak on earth 8.8 km ca. 350 mbar
(Mt. Everest)
Highest peak in the Alps 4.81 km ca. 560 mbar
(Mt. Blanc)
Sea level 0 km 1013 mbar
(norm value)
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The Power of Vacuum

Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential 02/2005

The Power of Vacuum

Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential 02/2005

Rough Vacuum

Pressure range below atmosphere down to 1 mbar

Transportation and lifting technology
Evacuation of casting forms, deep draw forms
Filtration
Degassing of resins, pastes or concrete liquids
Laser technology
Vacuum packaging
Vacuum distillation

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Medium Vacuum
Pressure range between 10-3 and 1 mbar
Impregnation
Lamp production
Evacuation of hydraulic or refrigeration systems
Freeze drying
Heat treatment (annealing, tempering, hardening)
Vacuum metallurgy
Plasma processes
Sputtering
Space simulation

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High Vacuum

For clean conditions the pressure range between

10-7 and 10-4 mbar High Vacuum is needed.

Vacuum metallurgical processes

Nuclear physical processes
Space simulation
Plasma processes
Sputtering
Thermal evaporation
Analytical instruments (e.g. Electron microscope, mass
spectrometers)

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Ultra-High Vacuum

Absolute cleanness is found at pressures of

10-8 mbar and lower - Ultrahigh Vacuum

Surface analysis
High energy physics (e.g. Accelerators or Synchrotrons)
Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)

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Vacuum is everywhere!
Use of vacuum technology in the automotive industry
Using helium leak detection for leak-test light-metal wheel rims
Filling of brake and air-conditioning systems using backing pumps followed by leak testing
Electron-beam welding of transmission and differential components under vacuum
Brazing of catalysts in vacuum furnaces
Heat-treatment of steel parts as shafts or chassis
Plasma-activation of plastic bumpers before painting
Large area coating of window panes under vacuum
Metallization of headlight reflectors
Applying wear- resistant coatings to high-load parts such as door and trunk locks,
transmission gears, valves, connecting rods, bearing shells and pistons
Applying decorative coatings to plastic parts such as ornamental moldings
Leak testing of airbag cartridges
Manufacture of displays for navigation systems
Applying laser-reflecting coatings to navigation and music CDs
Production of semiconductors/ chips for various electronic systems and car phones

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 Vacuum
Fundamentals

11 Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential / /

Pressure Units
SI units: mbar + Pa 1 mbar = 100 Pa = 1 hPa

Other units: N/m 1 N/m = 1 Pa = 0,01 mbar

Torr 1 Torr = 1,33 mbar

mmHG 1 mmHG = 1 Torr = 1,33 mbar

Atmosphere 1 atm = 1013 mbar

Micron 1 = 0,001 Torr = 0,00133 mbar

PSI 1 psi = 0,0145 mbar

% Vacuum 1 % Vacuum = 10 mbar

Always ask which unit is used! There are lots of them in use!

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Normal condition of a gas

Normal temperature: Tn = 273.15 K

n = 0 C

Normal pressure: pn = 101325 N/m2

= 101325 Pa
= 1013.25 mbar
= 760 Torr

Normal volume: Vn = 1 m3 (NTP)

Vn is 1 m3 of a gas at Tn and Pn

Molar normal volume: Vmolar, n = 22.414 l/mol (for ideal gases)

Vmolar, n always contains 6.02 1023 particles

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Atmospheric Pressure
The Atmospheric pressure pamb is depending on:

Height above sea level

Weather condition (air pressure)
Normal air pressure: 1013 mbar
low air pressure 980 mbar
high air pressure 1030 mbar

For vacuum calculations we use 1000 mbar as simplification

Old unit in the past: 1013 mbar = 760 Torr

Conversion: Torr mbar x 1.33
mbar Torr x 0.75

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What is Air?

Air components:

Nitrogen (N2) 78%

Oxygen (O2) 20%
Others 2% (H2 , CO2 , noble gases, water vapor)

Concentration of He in air is only 5 ppm!

(Important for Helium leak detection)

Oxygen concentrations >20% might require special pumps!

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Pressure Definitions

Total pressure pt
The total pressure pt is the sum of all pressures in a vessel.
It is the sum of the partial pressures for all gases and vapors.

Partial pressure pi
The partial pressure of a certain gas or vapor is the pressure
which that gas or vapor would have if it would be alone present
in the vessel. (pH2O , pN2 , pAr)
Example:
Total pressure = 1000 mbar

gas composition partial pressure

80 vol% Nitrogen 800 mbar
20 vol% Oxygen 200 mbar
total pressure 1000 mbar

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Pressure Definitions

Vapor pressure pd
Vapor pressure pd is the partial
pressure of a vapor inside a
closed system above a liquid or
solid phase.
Saturated vapor is found, if the
vapor phase is in equilibrium
with the liquid or solid phase of
the substance.
The vapor pressure is depending
on temperature. It increases with
the temperature.

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Pressure Definitions
Ultimate pressure pend
The lowest pressure which can be achieved in a vacuum vessel.
The ultimate pressure will be determined by:
pumps suction speed
vapor pressure pd of lubricants
degassing of solved gases in lubricants
desorption of gases from internal surfaces of vessel
leak tightness of system itself

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Pressure Definitions

Mean Free Path

The average distance a gas molecule can fly until it hits another
gas molecule.
The Mean Free Path is measured in cm and is depending on gas-
density (pressure).
The Mean Free Path is an important factor in discussions about
flow types or conductance.

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Pressure ranges
used in vacuum technology and their characteristics

Rough vacuum Medium vacuum High vacuum Ultrahigh vacuum

Pressure p (mbar) 1013 1 1 103 103 107 < 107
Particle number density n (cm3) 1019 1016 1016 1013 1013 109 < 109
Mean free path (cm) < 102 102 10 10 105 > 105
Impingement rate ZA (cm1 s1) 1023 1020 1020 1017 1017 1013 < 1013
Vol.- related collision rate ZV (cm3 s1) 1029 1023 1023 1017 1017 109 < 109
Monolayer time t (s) < 105 105 102 102 100 > 100
Type of gas flow Viscous flow Knudsen flow Molecular flow Molecular flow
Other special features Convection Significant change Significant reduc- Particles on the
dependent in thermal tion in volume- surfaces dominate to
on pressure conductivity related collision a great extend
of a gas rate in relation to particles
in gaseous space

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Types offlow
Types of flow
There are three types of flow in vacuum technology

Viscous or continuum flow will be found exclusively in the rough vacuum range.
If vortex motion appears in the streaming process one speaks of turbulent flow.
If various layers of the flowing medium slide on over the other this flow is called
laminar flow.

Molecular flow prevails in the high and ultra high vacuum ranges.
In this pressure range the molecules can move freely, without any mutual
interference.

Knudsen flow is the transitional range between viscous flow and molecular flow.
It is prevalent in the medium vacuum range (1 - 10-3 mbar).

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Flow types depending on pressure

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Conductance of piping
Conductance values will depend not only on the pressure and the type of the gas
which is flowing, but also on the sectional shape of the pipe (e. g. circular, square,
or elliptical cross section).
Other factors of influence are length and whether the element is straight or curved.
The conductance's of baffles, cold traps, adsorption traps, valves and fittings are
mentioned in the performance dates of these elements.

As a general rule for dimensioning of pipes note:

Pipes must be as short as possible and they must have sufficient internal diameter!
They should have at least the same cross section as the suction port of the pump.

In order to find the correct conductance values nomograms or computers are used.

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Influence of pipe work regarding Seffective
All tubulation, connecting suction port of a pump and a vessel (i. e. a vacuum
furnace), have a throttle effect and reduce the installed pumping speed to Seffective!

This reduction of the pumping speed is a function

of the conductance C of the pipe work.

Continuum equitation pVessel x Seff = pPump x Spump

A pipe should always be as short as possible

and have a correct inner diameter!

Conductance data can

Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential 02/2005
be found in literature!
Influence of Pipe Dimension @ 1 mbar
(DN200, pipe length 2 m / 10 m / 20 m)

1 x SV300 +
1 x WA1001 +
RA3001

Seff 2m = 3.380 m3/h

Seff 10m = 3.270 m3/h
Seff 20m = 3.130 m3/h

Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential 02/2005

Influence of Pipe Dimension @ 0,1 mbar
(DN200, pipe length 2 m / 10 m / 20 m)

1 x SV300 +
1 x WA1001 +
RA3001

Seff 2m = 3.090 m3/h

Seff 10m = 2.230 m3/h
Seff 20m = 1.560 m3/h

Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential 02/2005

Influence of Pipe Dimension @ 0,01 mbar
(DN200, pipe length 2 m / 10 m / 20 m)

1 x SV300 +
1 x WA1001 +
RA3001

Seff 2m = 1.750 m3/h

Seff 10m = 520 m3/h
Seff 20m = 260 m3/h

Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential 02/2005

Outgassing
Outgassing (mbar l)
The term outgassing refers to the liberation of gases and vapors from the walls of a
vacuum chamber or other components on the inside of a vacuum systems. This
quantity of gas is characterized by the product of P V, where V is the volume of
the vessel into which the gases are liberated. P or better P is the increase in
pressure resulting from the introduction of gasses into this volume.

Outgassing rate (mbar l s-1)

This is the outgassing through a period of time.
It is expressed in mbar l s-1.

Outgassing rate (mbar l s-1 cm-2 )

The amount of gas which will have to be extracted.
Referenced to surface area, it is material and surface characteristic depending.

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Outgassing rate of materials
in mbar l s-1 cm-2

At room temperature

Standard values 1) Metals Nonmetals

(mbar l s1 cm2) 109 ... 107 107 ... 105

Outgassing rates (standard values) as a function of time

Examples: 1/2 hr. 1 hr. 3 hr. 5 hr. Examples: 1/2 hr. 1 hr. 3 hr. 5 hr.

Ag 1.5 108 1.1 108 2 109 Silicone 1.5 105 8 106 3.5 106 1.5 106

Al 2 108 6 109 NBR 4 106 3 106 1.5 106 1 106

Acrylic
Cu 4 108 2 108 6 109 3.5 109 1.5 106 1.2 106 8 107 5 107
glass
Stainless
9 108 3.5 108 2.5 108 FPM, FKM 7 107 4 107 2 107 1.5 107
steel
1) All values depend largely on pretreatment!

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Adsorption - Desorption

Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential 02/2005

Adsorption - Desorption

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Pumping speed [S]
Pump volume rate of flow Sv is the volume rate of flow through
the intake port of a pump during a defined time.

V
S=
t

Typical units: m/h or l/s

Conversion: 1 m3/h 0,278 l/s
1 l/s 3,6 m/h

Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential 02/2005

Pump throughput [qpv]
Pump mass flow rate qpv [quantity of gas] mbar l s-1
which flows through the intake port of a pump during a defined time.

Pumping speed is for both applications same, 25 m3 h-1

but throughput difference factor 3000!
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How long do we need for pump down?
In the pressure range (rough/medium vacuum)
between 1000 mbar (atmosphere) and app. 10-2 mbar

V P0
t = ln
S P1
t = Time (h)
V = Volume (m3)
S = Suction speed (m/h)
P0 = Start pressure (1000 mbar)
P1 = Final pressure

Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential 02/2005

Which pump size is required for pump down?
In the pressure range (rough/medium vacuum)
between 1000 mbar (atmosphere) and app. 10-2 mbar

V P0
S = ln
t P1
t = Time (h)
V = Volume (m3)
S = Suction speed (m/h)
P0 = Start pressure (1000 mbar)
P1 = Final pressure

Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential 02/2005

Vapor tolerance
The highest pressure at which a vacuum pump can
continuously pump a vapor without condensation inside the
pump is known as the vapor tolerance.

Catalogue data is usually given for water vapor and measured

under normal ambient temperatures and pressure conditions
( = 20 C, p = 1013 mbar)

The vapor tolerance is measured in mbar

Leybold Vacuum Proprietary and Confidential 02/2005