Java 8

Programming
AWT Controls, Swing Controls,
File and I/O Handling, Threading, Networking,
Java Beans, JDBC, Security, Packages,
Annotations Lambda expressions,
NIO, Java DB, Java FX

Black Book
TM

Authored by:
DT Editorial
Services

Published by:
Copyright 2015 by Dreamtech Press, 19-A, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002

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ISBN: 978-93-5119-758-4

ISBN: 978-93-5119-953-3 (ebk)

Edition: 2015

Printed at: Himal Impressions, Delhi

 Contents at a Glance
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... xxxiii

Chapter 1: Essential Java ........................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings ................................................................................ 31

Chapter 3: Operators, Conditionals, and Loops ...................................................................... 75

Chapter 4: Object-Oriented Programming ............................................................................. 105

Chapter 5: Inheritance, Inner Classes, and Interfaces ........................................................... 145

Chapter 6: AWTApplets, Applications, and Event Handling .............................................. 171

Chapter 7: AWTText Fields, Buttons, Checkboxes, Radio Buttons, and Layouts ............ 215

Chapter 8: AWTLists, Choices, Text Areas, Scroll bars, and Scroll Panes ....................... 245

Chapter 9: AWTGraphics, Images, Text, and Fonts ........................................................... 275

Chapter 10: AWTWindows, Menus, and Dialog Boxes ....................................................... 315

Chapter 11: SwingApplets, Applications, and Pluggable Look and Feel .......................... 351

Chapter 12: SwingText Fields, Buttons, Toggle Buttons, Checkboxes,

and Radio Buttons .............................................................................................. 395

Chapter 13: SwingViewports, Scrolling, Sliders, Lists, Tables, and Trees ....................... 443

Chapter 14: SwingCombo Boxes, Progress Bars, Tooltips,

Separators, and Choosers ................................................................................. 489

Chapter 15: SwingLayered Panes, Tabbed Panes, Split Panes, and Layouts................... 521
Contents at a Glance

Chapter 16: SwingMenus and Toolbars .............................................................................. 549

Chapter 17: SwingWindows, Desktop Panes, Inner Frames, and Dialog Boxes............... 579

Chapter 18: Working with Streams, Files, and I/O Handling ................................................. 615

Chapter 19: Working with Multiple Threads ........................................................................... 673

Chapter 20: Networking and Security with Java .................................................................... 725

Chapter 21: Collections........................................................................................................... 767

Chapter 22: Creating Packages, Interfaces, JAR Files, and Annotations ............................. 823

Chapter 23: Working with Java Beans ................................................................................... 845

Chapter 24: Introducing JDBC ................................................................................................ 875

Chapter 25: Images and Animation ........................................................................................ 927

Chapter 26: Java DB................................................................................................................ 951

Chapter 27: Java FX ................................................................................................................ 969

Glossary .................................................................................................................................. 993

Index ........................................................................................................................................ 997

Bonus chapters available with the book for Download

Chapter 1: Java and XMLUsing the Document Object Model ................................................ 1

Chapter 2: Java and XMLUsing the Simple API for XML ...................................................... 31

Chapter 3: Understanding RMI ................................................................................................. 57

Chapter 4: Working with Servlets 3.1 ....................................................................................... 83

Chapter 5: Dynamic Java Scripting ........................................................................................ 137

Chapter 6: Introduction to Groovy.......................................................................................... 159

Chapter 7: MXBeans and JMX ................................................................................................ 189

Chapter 8: Inclusion of Sound ................................................................................................ 213

Chapter 9: Filing and Printing Documents ............................................................................. 251

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Introduction .......................................................................................................................... xxxiii

Chapter 1: Essential Java ........................................................................................................... 1

In Depth .................................................................................................................................. 2
All about Java ........................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Java Appears....................................................................................................................................................................... 3
All about Bytecodes ........................................................................................................................................................... 3
Features of Java .................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Java Environment .................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Java Development Kit........................................................................................................................................................ 6
Java Platforms..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Java Virtual Machine ......................................................................................................................................................... 8
Java API ............................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Java Programs..................................................................................................................................................................... 9
What are Application Servers (Tomcat, JRun, WebSphere, WebLogic, etc.) ................................................................. 9
Program Design ................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Performance ...................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Maintainability ................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Extensibility ...................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Availability ....................................................................................................................................................................... 12
New Features of Java SE 8 .................................................................................................................................................. 12
Immediate Solutions ............................................................................................................ 15
Getting and Installing Java ................................................................................................................................................. 15
What about CLASSPATH? ............................................................................................................................................. 15
Subfolders Created by JDK ................................................................................................................................................ 16
Creating Source Files .......................................................................................................................................................... 16
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Knowing Javas Reserved Words ...................................................................................................................................... 17

Creating an Application ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
Line 1public class App ............................................................................................................................................... 19
Line 2public static void main(String[] args) ........................................................................................................... 19
Line 3System.out.println(Hello from Java!);....................................................................................................... 20
Compiling Code .................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Compiling Code: Using Command-Line Options ....................................................................................................... 21
Cross-Compilation Options ............................................................................................................................................ 22
Compiling Code: Checking for Deprecated Methods ................................................................................................. 23
Running Code ...................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Running Code: Using Command-Line Options .............................................................................................................. 25
Commenting Your Code .................................................................................................................................................... 26
Import Java Packages and Classes .................................................................................................................................... 27
Finding Java Classes with CLASSPATH ......................................................................................................................... 28
Summary .............................................................................................................................................................................. 30

Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings ................................................................................ 31

In Depth ................................................................................................................................ 33
Variables ............................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Data Typing ......................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Arrays ................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Strings ................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Immediate Solutions ............................................................................................................ 37
What Data Types are Available? ....................................................................................................................................... 37
Creating Integer Literals ..................................................................................................................................................... 37
Creating Floating-Point Literals ........................................................................................................................................ 38
Creating Boolean Literals ................................................................................................................................................... 39
Creating Character Literals ................................................................................................................................................ 39
Creating String Literals....................................................................................................................................................... 40
Creating Binary Literals...................................................................................................................................................... 40
Using Underscores in Numeric Literals ........................................................................................................................... 41
Declaring Integer Variables................................................................................................................................................ 42
Declaring Floating-Point Variables ................................................................................................................................... 42
Declaring Character Variables ........................................................................................................................................... 43
Declaring Boolean Variables .............................................................................................................................................. 43
Initializing Variables Dynamically.................................................................................................................................... 44

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Conversion between Data Types ....................................................................................................................................... 45

Automatic Conversions ................................................................................................................................................... 45
Casting to New Data Types ............................................................................................................................................ 46
Declaring One-Dimensional Arrays.................................................................................................................................. 47
Creating One-Dimensional Arrays ................................................................................................................................... 47
Initializing One-Dimensional Arrays ............................................................................................................................... 48
Declaring Multi-Dimensional Arrays ............................................................................................................................... 48
Creating Multi-Dimensional Arrays ................................................................................................................................. 48
Initializing Multi-Dimensional Arrays ............................................................................................................................. 49
Creating Irregular Multi-Dimensional Arrays ................................................................................................................ 50
Getting an the Length of an Array .................................................................................................................................... 51
Understanding General Form of Static Import ................................................................................................................ 51
Importing Static Members .................................................................................................................................................. 51
The String Class .................................................................................................................................................................. 52
Creating Strings ................................................................................................................................................................... 56
Getting String Length ......................................................................................................................................................... 57
Concatenating Strings ......................................................................................................................................................... 58
Getting Characters and Substrings ................................................................................................................................... 58
Searching For and Replacing Strings ................................................................................................................................ 59
Changing Case in Strings ................................................................................................................................................... 60
Checking for Empty String ................................................................................................................................................ 60
Formatting Numbers in Strings ......................................................................................................................................... 60
The StringBuffer Class ....................................................................................................................................................... 61
Creating StringBuffers ........................................................................................................................................................ 63
Getting and Setting StringBuffer Lengths and Capacities ............................................................................................. 64
Setting Characters in String Buffers .................................................................................................................................. 64
Appending and Inserting Using StringBuffers ................................................................................................................ 65
Deleting Text in StringBuffers ........................................................................................................................................... 65
Replacing Text in StringBuffer........................................................................................................................................... 65
Using the Wrapper Class ................................................................................................................................................... 66
Autoboxing and Unboxing of Primitive Types ............................................................................................................... 67
Learning the Fundamentals of Varargs Methods............................................................................................................ 69
Overloading Varargs Methods ....................................................................................................................................... 71
Learning the Ambiguity in Varargs Methods .............................................................................................................. 72
Using Non-Reifiable Formal Parameters ...................................................................................................................... 73
Summary .............................................................................................................................................................................. 74

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Chapter 3: Operators, Conditionals, and Loops ...................................................................... 75

In Depth ................................................................................................................................ 77
Operators .............................................................................................................................................................................. 77
Conditionals ......................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Loops .................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Immediate Solutions ............................................................................................................ 81
Operator Precedence ........................................................................................................................................................... 81
Incrementing and Decrementing (++ and --) ................................................................................................................... 82
Unary NOT (~ And !) ......................................................................................................................................................... 83
Multiplication and Division (* and /) .............................................................................................................................. 83
Modulus (%) ......................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Addition and Subtraction (+ and -) .................................................................................................................................. 84
Shift Operators (>>, >>>, and <<) ..................................................................................................................................... 84
Relational Operators (>, >=, <, <=, ==, and !=) ............................................................................................................... 85
Bitwise and Bitwise Logical AND, XOR, and OR (&, ^, and /) .................................................................................... 85
Logical (&& and ||) ........................................................................................................................................................... 87
The if-then-else Operator (?:)........................................................................................................................................... 87
Assignment Operators (= and [operator]=) ..................................................................................................................... 88
Using the Math Class.......................................................................................................................................................... 89
Changes in the Math Class ................................................................................................................................................ 90
Class StrictMath .................................................................................................................................................................. 90
Comparing Strings .............................................................................................................................................................. 91
The if Statement .................................................................................................................................................................. 92
The else Statement .............................................................................................................................................................. 92
Nested if Statement............................................................................................................................................................. 93
The if-else Ladders ............................................................................................................................................................. 93
The switch Statement ......................................................................................................................................................... 93
Using Strings in switch Statement .................................................................................................................................... 95
The while Loop ................................................................................................................................................................... 95
The do-while Loop ............................................................................................................................................................. 96
The for Loop ........................................................................................................................................................................ 97
The for-each Loop ............................................................................................................................................................... 99
Supporting for-each in Your Own Class ........................................................................................................................ 101
A (Poor) Solution ........................................................................................................................................................... 101
Significance of for-each ................................................................................................................................................. 101
Nested Loops ..................................................................................................................................................................... 102

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Using the break Statement ............................................................................................................................................... 103

Using the continue Statement ......................................................................................................................................... 103
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 104

Chapter 4: Object-Oriented Programming ............................................................................. 105

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 107
Classes ................................................................................................................................................................................ 108
Objects ................................................................................................................................................................................ 108
Data Members .................................................................................................................................................................... 108
Methods .............................................................................................................................................................................. 108
Inheritance.......................................................................................................................................................................... 109
Exception Handling .......................................................................................................................................................... 109
Debugging .......................................................................................................................................................................... 110
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 111
Declaring and Defining Classes....................................................................................................................................... 111
Declaring and Creating Objects ....................................................................................................................................... 112
Creating Instance Variables ............................................................................................................................................. 114
Setting Variable Access ..................................................................................................................................................... 114
Creating Class Variables................................................................................................................................................... 115
Creating Methods .............................................................................................................................................................. 116
Setting Method Access ...................................................................................................................................................... 116
Passing Parameters to Methods....................................................................................................................................... 117
Command-Line Arguments Passed to main() method ................................................................................................ 118
Returning Values from Methods ..................................................................................................................................... 118
Creating Class Methods.................................................................................................................................................... 119
Creating Data Access Methods ........................................................................................................................................ 120
Creating Constructors ....................................................................................................................................................... 120
Passing Parameters to Constructors ............................................................................................................................... 121
A Full Class Example ........................................................................................................................................................ 121
Understanding Variable Scope ........................................................................................................................................ 122
Using Recursion ................................................................................................................................................................ 123
Garbage Collection and Memory Management ............................................................................................................ 123
Avoiding Circular References ...................................................................................................................................... 124
Garbage Collection and the finalize() Method.............................................................................................................. 125
Overloading Methods ....................................................................................................................................................... 125
Overloading Constructors ................................................................................................................................................ 126
Passing Objects to Methods ............................................................................................................................................. 126

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Passing Arrays to Methods .............................................................................................................................................. 127

Using the this Keyword ................................................................................................................................................... 128
Returning Objects from Methods .................................................................................................................................... 129
Returning Arrays from Methods ..................................................................................................................................... 129
The ProcessBuilder and StringBuilder Classes .............................................................................................................. 129
The ProcessBuilder Class ............................................................................................................................................. 130
The StringBuilder Class ............................................................................................................................................... 131
Catching an Exception ...................................................................................................................................................... 132
Nesting the try Statements ............................................................................................................................................... 136
Using the finally Clause ................................................................................................................................................... 137
Throwing Exceptions ........................................................................................................................................................ 138
Creating a Custom Exception .......................................................................................................................................... 139
Catching Multiple Exception Types ................................................................................................................................ 139
Rethrowing Exceptions with Improved Type Checking .............................................................................................. 140
Debugging Java Programs ............................................................................................................................................... 141
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 144

Chapter 5: Inheritance, Inner Classes, and Interfaces ........................................................... 145

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 146
Why Inheritance? .............................................................................................................................................................. 146
Why Interfaces? ................................................................................................................................................................. 147
Why Inner Classes? ........................................................................................................................................................... 147
Lambda Expressions ......................................................................................................................................................... 148
Method References ........................................................................................................................................................ 148
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 150
Creating a Subclass ........................................................................................................................................................... 150
Access Specifiers and Inheritance ................................................................................................................................... 150
Calling Superclass Constructors ...................................................................................................................................... 151
Creating Multilevel Inheritance....................................................................................................................................... 153
Handling Multilevel Constructors .................................................................................................................................. 154
Overriding Methods ......................................................................................................................................................... 155
Accessing Overridden Members ..................................................................................................................................... 155
Using Superclass Variables with Subclassed Objects ................................................................................................... 156
Dynamic Method Dispatch (Runtime Polymorphism)................................................................................................. 157
Creating Abstract Classes ................................................................................................................................................. 158
Stopping Overriding with final ...................................................................................................................................... 159
Stopping Inheritance with final ...................................................................................................................................... 159

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Creating Constants with final ......................................................................................................................................... 160

Is-a vs. Has-a Relationships ............................................................................................................................................. 160
The Java Object Class ....................................................................................................................................................... 161
Using Interfaces for Multiple Inheritance ...................................................................................................................... 162
The Readable Interface ................................................................................................................................................. 163
The Appendable Interface ............................................................................................................................................ 164
The Iterable Interface .................................................................................................................................................... 164
Creating Iterable Objects ................................................................................................................................................. 166
Creating Inner Classes ...................................................................................................................................................... 168
Creating Anonymous Inner Classes ............................................................................................................................... 168
Using Lambda Expression ............................................................................................................................................... 169
Default Methods ............................................................................................................................................................ 169
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 170

Chapter 6: AWTApplets, Applications, and Event Handling .............................................. 171

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 172
The Abstract Windowing Toolkit .................................................................................................................................... 172
Applets ............................................................................................................................................................................... 173
Applications ....................................................................................................................................................................... 174
Handling Events ................................................................................................................................................................ 174
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 175
Using the Abstract Window Toolkit ............................................................................................................................... 175
Creating Applets ............................................................................................................................................................... 186
Using the <APPLET> HTML Tag ................................................................................................................................... 188
Handling Non-Java Browsers .......................................................................................................................................... 189
Embedding <APPLET> Tags in Code ............................................................................................................................ 189
Using the init, start, stop, destroy, paint, and update Methods .................................................................................. 190
Drawing Graphics in Applets .......................................................................................................................................... 191
Reading Parameters in Applets ....................................................................................................................................... 191
Using Java Consoles in Browsers .................................................................................................................................... 191
Adding Controls to Applets: Text Fields........................................................................................................................ 192
Adding Controls to Applets: Buttons ............................................................................................................................. 193
Handling Events ................................................................................................................................................................ 194
Standard Event Handling ............................................................................................................................................. 195
Using Delegated Classes ............................................................................................................................................... 197
Using Action Commands .............................................................................................................................................. 199
Handling Events the Old Way ..................................................................................................................................... 199

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Extending Components ................................................................................................................................................. 200

Using Adapter Classes...................................................................................................................................................... 200
Using Anonymous Inner Adapter Classes ..................................................................................................................... 202
Creating Windowed Applications .................................................................................................................................. 202
Exiting an Application When Its Window Is Closed .................................................................................................... 206
Applications You Can Run as Applets ........................................................................................................................... 206
Setting Applet Security Policies....................................................................................................................................... 207
Other Facilities in the java.awt Package ......................................................................................................................... 209
System Tray .................................................................................................................................................................... 209
Splash Screen .................................................................................................................................................................. 211
Dialog Modality ............................................................................................................................................................. 213
Gif Writer ........................................................................................................................................................................ 213
Text Antialiasing ............................................................................................................................................................ 214
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 214

Chapter 7: AWTText Fields, Buttons, Checkboxes, Radio Buttons, and Layouts ............ 215
In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 216
Text Fields .......................................................................................................................................................................... 216
Buttons ................................................................................................................................................................................ 216
Checkboxes ........................................................................................................................................................................ 216
Radio Buttons .................................................................................................................................................................... 216
Layouts ............................................................................................................................................................................... 216
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 218
Using Text Fields ............................................................................................................................................................... 218
Using Labels ....................................................................................................................................................................... 220
Using Buttons .................................................................................................................................................................... 221
Using Checkboxes ............................................................................................................................................................. 224
Using Radio Buttons ......................................................................................................................................................... 227
Layout Managers ............................................................................................................................................................... 228
Flow Layouts ..................................................................................................................................................................... 228
Grid Layouts ...................................................................................................................................................................... 231
Using Panels....................................................................................................................................................................... 232
Border Layouts .................................................................................................................................................................. 234
Card Layouts ..................................................................................................................................................................... 236
Grid Bag Layouts............................................................................................................................................................... 238
Using Insets and Padding ................................................................................................................................................ 243

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Creating Your Own Layout Manager ............................................................................................................................. 244

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 244

Chapter 8: AWTLists, Choices, Text Areas, Scroll bars, and Scroll Panes ....................... 245
In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 246
Lists ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 246
Choices................................................................................................................................................................................ 246
Text Areas .......................................................................................................................................................................... 246
Scroll bars ........................................................................................................................................................................... 246
Scroll Panes ........................................................................................................................................................................ 247
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 248
Using Text Areas ............................................................................................................................................................... 248
Replacing Text in Text Areas ........................................................................................................................................... 251
Searching and Selecting Text in Text Areas ................................................................................................................... 252
Using Lists .......................................................................................................................................................................... 253
Using Multiple-Selection Lists ......................................................................................................................................... 257
Using Choice Controls ...................................................................................................................................................... 260
Using Scroll bars ................................................................................................................................................................ 265
Scroll bars and Border Layouts ....................................................................................................................................... 269
Using Scroll Panes ............................................................................................................................................................. 272
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 274

Chapter 9: AWTGraphics, Images, Text, and Fonts ........................................................... 275

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 276
Graphics ............................................................................................................................................................................. 276
Images ................................................................................................................................................................................. 276
Text and Fonts ................................................................................................................................................................... 276
The Keyboard and Mouse ................................................................................................................................................ 276
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 277
Using the Mouse ................................................................................................................................................................ 277
Using the Keyboard .......................................................................................................................................................... 279
Using Fonts ........................................................................................................................................................................ 283
Using Images ..................................................................................................................................................................... 289
Resizing Images ................................................................................................................................................................. 291
Drawing Graphics ............................................................................................................................................................. 292
Drawing Lines ................................................................................................................................................................ 297

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Drawing Ovals ............................................................................................................................................................... 298

Drawing Rectangles ....................................................................................................................................................... 298
Drawing Rounded Rectangles ...................................................................................................................................... 299
Drawing Freehand ......................................................................................................................................................... 299
Drawing Arcs ................................................................................................................................................................. 299
Drawing Polygons ......................................................................................................................................................... 299
Setting Drawing Modes ................................................................................................................................................ 300
Selecting Colors ................................................................................................................................................................. 300
Using Canvases ................................................................................................................................................................. 303
Using the ImageObserver Interface ............................................................................................................................... 305
Using the MediaTracker Class ........................................................................................................................................ 306
Working Pixel by Pixel: The PixelGrabber and MemoryImageSource Classes....................................................... 308
Brightening Images ........................................................................................................................................................... 311
Converting Images to Grayscale ..................................................................................................................................... 312
Embossing Images............................................................................................................................................................. 313
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 314

Chapter 10: AWTWindows, Menus, and Dialog Boxes ....................................................... 315

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 316
Windows ............................................................................................................................................................................ 316
Menus ................................................................................................................................................................................. 316
Dialog Boxes ...................................................................................................................................................................... 316
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 318
Creating Frame Windows ................................................................................................................................................ 318
Showing and Hiding Windows ....................................................................................................................................... 319
Handling Window Events................................................................................................................................................ 320
Automatically Hiding Windows upon Closing ............................................................................................................ 323
Using the Window Class .................................................................................................................................................. 323
Creating Menus ................................................................................................................................................................. 330
Creating a MenuBar Object ............................................................................................................................................. 331
Creating Menu Objects ..................................................................................................................................................... 332
Creating MenuItem Objects ............................................................................................................................................ 333
Handling Menu Events..................................................................................................................................................... 335
More Menu Options .......................................................................................................................................................... 336
Adding Menu Separators ................................................................................................................................................. 338
Disabling Menu Items....................................................................................................................................................... 338

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Adding Checkboxes to Menus......................................................................................................................................... 339

Creating Submenus ........................................................................................................................................................... 341
Pop-Up Menus ................................................................................................................................................................... 342
Dialog Boxes ...................................................................................................................................................................... 344
File Dialog Boxes ............................................................................................................................................................... 348
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 350

Chapter 11: SwingApplets, Applications, and Pluggable Look and Feel .......................... 351
In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 352
The Java Foundation Classes ........................................................................................................................................... 352
Swing .................................................................................................................................................................................. 353
Heavyweight versus Lightweight Components............................................................................................................ 354
Swing Features .................................................................................................................................................................. 355
Graphics Programming Using Panes .............................................................................................................................. 356
Model View Controller Architecture .............................................................................................................................. 356
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 358
Working with Swing ......................................................................................................................................................... 358
Preparing to Create a Swing Applet ............................................................................................................................... 364
Understanding Root Panes ........................................................................................................................................... 366
Understanding Layered Panes ..................................................................................................................................... 368
Understanding Content Panes ......................................................................................................................................... 370
Working with Content Panes ....................................................................................................................................... 370
Creating a Swing Applet .................................................................................................................................................. 372
Painting in Swing vs. AWT........................................................................................................................................... 372
Displaying Controls in Swing Vs AWT ...................................................................................................................... 372
Using the JPanel Class .................................................................................................................................................. 373
Creating a Swing Application.......................................................................................................................................... 374
Closing JFrame Windows ................................................................................................................................................ 377
Using Insets for Selecting Component Borders ............................................................................................................. 379
Using Insets .................................................................................................................................................................... 381
The Synth Skinnable Look and Feel ................................................................................................................................ 383
The Pluggable Look and Feel........................................................................................................................................... 386
The Pluggable Look and Feel for Components ............................................................................................................. 390
The Nimbus Look and Feel .............................................................................................................................................. 392
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 394

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Chapter 12: SwingText Fields, Buttons, Toggle Buttons, Checkboxes,

and Radio Buttons .............................................................................................. 395
In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 397
Labels and Text Fields ...................................................................................................................................................... 397
Password Field ............................................................................................................................................................... 397
Text Area ......................................................................................................................................................................... 397
Editor Pane ..................................................................................................................................................................... 397
Text Pane ......................................................................................................................................................................... 398
Text Component Printing ............................................................................................................................................. 398
Buttons ................................................................................................................................................................................ 398
Toggle Buttons ................................................................................................................................................................... 398
Checkboxes and Radio Buttons ....................................................................................................................................... 398
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 399
Using Labels ....................................................................................................................................................................... 399
Using Image Icons ............................................................................................................................................................. 401
Using Images in Labels ..................................................................................................................................................... 402
Using Text Fields ............................................................................................................................................................... 403
Setting Text Field Alignment ........................................................................................................................................... 405
Creating Password Field .................................................................................................................................................. 406
Creating Text Areas .......................................................................................................................................................... 407
Customizing a Text Area .............................................................................................................................................. 409
Creating Editor Panes ....................................................................................................................................................... 409
Using HTML in Editor Panes........................................................................................................................................... 411
Using RTF Files in Editor Panes ...................................................................................................................................... 412
Creating Text Panes .......................................................................................................................................................... 412
Inserting Images and Controls into Text Panes.......................................................................................................... 412
Setting Text Pane Text Attributes .................................................................................................................................... 414
Working with Sound in Applets ..................................................................................................................................... 416
Working with Sound in Application .............................................................................................................................. 417
Abstract Button: The Foundation of Swing Buttons ..................................................................................................... 417
Using Buttons .................................................................................................................................................................... 421
Displaying Images in Buttons .......................................................................................................................................... 424
Using Rollover and Disabled Images ............................................................................................................................. 426
Default Buttons and Mnemonics ..................................................................................................................................... 427
Using Toggle Buttons ....................................................................................................................................................... 430
Creating Toggle Button Groups ...................................................................................................................................... 432

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Using Checkboxes ............................................................................................................................................................. 433

Using Radio Buttons ......................................................................................................................................................... 436
Using Checkbox and Radio Button Images ................................................................................................................... 440
Getting and Setting the State of Checkboxes and Radio Buttons ................................................................................ 441
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 442

Chapter 13: SwingViewports, Scrolling, Sliders, Lists, Tables, and Trees ....................... 443
In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 445
Viewports ........................................................................................................................................................................... 445
Scroll Panes ........................................................................................................................................................................ 445
Sliders ................................................................................................................................................................................. 445
Scrollbars ............................................................................................................................................................................ 445
Lists ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 445
Tables .................................................................................................................................................................................. 445
Trees .................................................................................................................................................................................... 446
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 447
Handling Viewports ......................................................................................................................................................... 447
Creating Scroll Panes ........................................................................................................................................................ 450
Creating Scroll Pane Headers and Borders .................................................................................................................... 454
Scrolling Images ................................................................................................................................................................ 455
Creating Sliders ................................................................................................................................................................. 456
Filling a Slider .................................................................................................................................................................... 459
Painting Slider Tick Marks ............................................................................................................................................... 460
Painting Slider Labels ....................................................................................................................................................... 460
Setting the Slider Extent ................................................................................................................................................... 461
Creating Scrollbars ............................................................................................................................................................ 462
Creating Lists ..................................................................................................................................................................... 465
Handling Multiple List Selections ................................................................................................................................... 469
List Selection Modes ...................................................................................................................................................... 469
Displaying Images in Lists ............................................................................................................................................... 470
Creating a Custom List Model ......................................................................................................................................... 471
Creating a Custom List Cell Renderer ............................................................................................................................ 472
Handling Double Clicks in Lists...................................................................................................................................... 472
Drag and Drop Support.................................................................................................................................................... 473
Creating a Table................................................................................................................................................................. 476
Table Sorting and Filtering............................................................................................................................................... 478
Sorting Rows................................................................................................................................................................... 478

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Filtering Table Rows ...................................................................................................................................................... 480

Adding Rows and Columns to Tables at Runtime........................................................................................................ 482
Creating Trees .................................................................................................................................................................... 483
Adding Data to Trees ........................................................................................................................................................ 484
Handling Tree Events ....................................................................................................................................................... 486
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 488

Chapter 14: SwingCombo Boxes, Progress Bars, Tooltips,

Separators, and Choosers ................................................................................. 489
In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 490
Combo Boxes ..................................................................................................................................................................... 490
Progress Bars...................................................................................................................................................................... 490
Choosers ............................................................................................................................................................................. 490
Tooltips ............................................................................................................................................................................... 490
Separators ........................................................................................................................................................................... 491
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 492
Creating Combo Boxes ..................................................................................................................................................... 492
Handling Combo Box Selection Events .......................................................................................................................... 496
Creating Editable Combo Boxes ...................................................................................................................................... 497
Adding Images to Combo Boxes ..................................................................................................................................... 499
Creating a Combo Box Model.......................................................................................................................................... 500
Creating a Combo Box Custom Renderer ...................................................................................................................... 500
Creating Progress Bars...................................................................................................................................................... 500
Updating Progress Bars .................................................................................................................................................... 503
Handling Progress Bar Events ......................................................................................................................................... 504
Creating Tooltips ............................................................................................................................................................... 505
Creating Separators ........................................................................................................................................................... 507
Resizing Separators Automatically ................................................................................................................................. 508
Creating Color Choosers .................................................................................................................................................. 510
Creating File Choosers ...................................................................................................................................................... 512
Creating File Chooser Filters ........................................................................................................................................... 518
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 520

Chapter 15: SwingLayered Panes, Tabbed Panes, Split Panes, and Layouts................... 521
In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 522
Layered Panes .................................................................................................................................................................... 522
Tabbed Panes ..................................................................................................................................................................... 522

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Split Panes .......................................................................................................................................................................... 522

Layouts ............................................................................................................................................................................... 522
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 523
Understanding Swing Components and Z-order ......................................................................................................... 523
Making Swing Components Transparent ...................................................................................................................... 524
Using Layered Panes ........................................................................................................................................................ 525
Creating Tabbed Panes ..................................................................................................................................................... 527
Specifying Tab Placement in the Tabbed Panes ............................................................................................................ 532
Using Split Panes ............................................................................................................................................................... 535
Making Split Panes One-Touch Expandable ................................................................................................................. 538
Setting Split Pane Orientation.......................................................................................................................................... 539
Setting Split Pane Divider Size ........................................................................................................................................ 540
Using the Box Layout Manager ....................................................................................................................................... 541
Using the Box Class .......................................................................................................................................................... 543
Using the Overlay Layout Manager ............................................................................................................................... 547
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 548

Chapter 16: SwingMenus and Toolbars .............................................................................. 549

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 550
Menus ................................................................................................................................................................................. 550
Toolbars .............................................................................................................................................................................. 550
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 551
Creating a Menu Bar ......................................................................................................................................................... 551
Creating a Menu ................................................................................................................................................................ 552
Creating a Menu Item ....................................................................................................................................................... 555
Creating a Basic Menu System ........................................................................................................................................ 557
Adding Images to Menu Items ........................................................................................................................................ 559
Creating Checkbox Menu Items ...................................................................................................................................... 560
Creating Radio Button Menu Items ................................................................................................................................ 562
Creating Submenus ........................................................................................................................................................... 564
Creating Menu Accelerators ............................................................................................................................................ 565
Enabling/Disabling and Changing Menu Items at Runtime....................................................................................... 567
Adding and Removing Menu Items at Runtime ........................................................................................................... 568
Adding Buttons and Other Controls to Menus ............................................................................................................. 569
Creating Pop-Up Menus................................................................................................................................................... 570
Creating Toolbars .............................................................................................................................................................. 574

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Adding Combo Boxes and Other Controls to Toolbars................................................................................................ 576

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 578

Chapter 17: SwingWindows, Desktop Panes, Inner Frames, and Dialog Boxes............... 579
In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 580
Windows ............................................................................................................................................................................ 580
Dialog Boxes ...................................................................................................................................................................... 580
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 581
Creating a Window ........................................................................................................................................................... 581
Designing Shaped and Translucent Windows .............................................................................................................. 583
Creating Translucent Windows ................................................................................................................................... 583
Creating Different Shaped Windows .......................................................................................................................... 587
Creating a Frame Window ............................................................................................................................................... 588
Creating a Desktop Pane .................................................................................................................................................. 589
Creating Internal Frames .................................................................................................................................................. 591
Using JOptionPane to Create Dialog Boxes ................................................................................................................... 598
Creating Option Pane Confirmation Dialog Boxes ....................................................................................................... 604
Creating Option Pane Message Dialog Boxes................................................................................................................ 605
Creating Option Pane Text Field Input Dialog Boxes................................................................................................... 606
Creating Option Pane Combo Box Input Dialog Boxes ................................................................................................ 608
Creating Option Pane Internal Frame Dialog Boxes ..................................................................................................... 609
Creating Dialog Boxes with JDialog ............................................................................................................................... 609
Getting Input from Dialog Boxes Created with JDialog ............................................................................................... 613
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 614

Chapter 18: Working with Streams, Files, and I/O Handling ................................................. 615
In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 616
Streams, Readers, and Writers ......................................................................................................................................... 616
NIO...................................................................................................................................................................................... 616
Essentials in NIO ............................................................................................................................................................... 616
Buffers ............................................................................................................................................................................. 617
Charsets and Selectors ................................................................................................................................................... 620
Enhancements in NIO with Java 8 .................................................................................................................................. 620
The Path Interface .......................................................................................................................................................... 620
The Files Class................................................................................................................................................................ 622
The Paths Class .............................................................................................................................................................. 624
The File Attribute Interfaces ......................................................................................................................................... 625

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The FileSystem Class .................................................................................................................................................... 626

The FileSystems Class .................................................................................................................................................. 627
The FileStore Class ........................................................................................................................................................ 628
Prospects of NIO ............................................................................................................................................................... 629
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 630
Working with Streams ...................................................................................................................................................... 630
The InputStream Class ................................................................................................................................................. 630
The OutputStream Class .............................................................................................................................................. 631
The ByteArrayInputStream Class ............................................................................................................................... 631
The ByteArrayOutputStream Class ............................................................................................................................ 633
The BufferedInputStream Class ................................................................................................................................. 635
The BufferedOutputStream Class .............................................................................................................................. 636
The FileInputStream Class........................................................................................................................................... 637
The FileOutputStream Class........................................................................................................................................ 638
Working with the Reader Class ...................................................................................................................................... 640
Working with the Writer Class........................................................................................................................................ 641
Accepting Input from the Keyboard with the InputStreamReader Class ................................................................. 641
Working with the OutputStreamWriter Class .............................................................................................................. 643
Working with Files ............................................................................................................................................................ 643
Using the File Class ....................................................................................................................................................... 643
Using the FileReader Class .......................................................................................................................................... 647
Using the FileWriter Class............................................................................................................................................ 648
Working with the RandomAccessFile Class ................................................................................................................. 649
Working with Character Arrays ...................................................................................................................................... 651
Using the CharArrayReader Class .............................................................................................................................. 651
Using the CharArrayWriter Class ............................................................................................................................... 653
Working with Buffers ....................................................................................................................................................... 654
Using the BufferedReader Class ................................................................................................................................. 654
Using the BufferedWriter Class .................................................................................................................................. 656
Working with the PushbackReader Class ..................................................................................................................... 656
Working with the PrintWriter Class............................................................................................................................... 657
Working with the StreamTokenizer Class .................................................................................................................... 659
Implementing the Serializable Interface ....................................................................................................................... 661
Working with the Console Class .................................................................................................................................... 665
Working with the Clipboard ............................................................................................................................................ 667
Working with the Printer ................................................................................................................................................. 667

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Printing with the Formatter Class ................................................................................................................................... 668

Using the System.out.printf() Method ....................................................................................................................... 668
Using the String.format() Method ............................................................................................................................... 669
Formatting Dates Using the String.format() Method ............................................................................................... 669
Using the java.util.Formatter Class ............................................................................................................................. 670
Scanning Input with the Scanner class ........................................................................................................................... 671
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 672

Chapter 19: Working with Multiple Threads ........................................................................... 673

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 674
Using Threads in Java ....................................................................................................................................................... 674
Life Cycle of a Thread ....................................................................................................................................................... 675
Synchronization of Threads ............................................................................................................................................. 676
Multithreaded Custom Class Loader.............................................................................................................................. 677
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 678
Getting the Main Thread .................................................................................................................................................. 678
Naming a Thread .............................................................................................................................................................. 678
Pausing a Thread ............................................................................................................................................................... 679
Creating a Thread with the Runnable Interface ........................................................................................................... 681
Creating a Thread with the Thread Class ...................................................................................................................... 684
Creating Multiple Threads ............................................................................................................................................... 686
Joining Threads.................................................................................................................................................................. 688
Checking if a Thread Is Alive .......................................................................................................................................... 689
Setting Thread Priority and Stopping Threads.............................................................................................................. 690
Synchronizing .................................................................................................................................................................... 692
Synchronizing Code Blocks .......................................................................................................................................... 693
Synchronizing Methods ................................................................................................................................................ 694
Synchronizing Classes ................................................................................................................................................... 696
Communicating between Threads .................................................................................................................................. 704
Suspending and Resuming Threads ............................................................................................................................... 705
Creating Graphics Animation with Threads ................................................................................................................. 707
Eliminating Flicker in Graphics Animation Created Using Threads .......................................................................... 710
Suspending and Resuming Graphics Animation .......................................................................................................... 711
Using Double Buffering .................................................................................................................................................... 713
Simplifying Producer-Consumer with the Queue Interface........................................................................................ 715
Implementing Concurrent Programming ...................................................................................................................... 717
Limitations of Synchronization Previous to J2SE 5.................................................................................................... 718

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Simplifying Servers Using the Concurrency Utilities ................................................................................................... 718

Knowing Various Concurrency Utilities ........................................................................................................................ 719
Learning about the java.util.concurrent Package ......................................................................................................... 719
Learning about the java.util.concurrent.locks Package .............................................................................................. 721
Reader/Writer Locks ..................................................................................................................................................... 721
Learning about the java.util.concurrent.atomic Package ............................................................................................ 722
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 724

Chapter 20: Networking and Security with Java .................................................................... 725

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 726
Basics of Networking ........................................................................................................................................................ 726
Networking Enhancements in Java SE 8 ..................................................................................................................... 727
JDK 8 Security Enhancements ...................................................................................................................................... 727
Sockets in Java ................................................................................................................................................................... 728
Client-Server Networking ................................................................................................................................................ 729
Proxy Servers ..................................................................................................................................................................... 729
Internet Addressing .......................................................................................................................................................... 730
Domain Name Service ...................................................................................................................................................... 730
Inet4Addresses and Inet6Addresses ............................................................................................................................... 730
The URL Class ................................................................................................................................................................... 731
The URI Class .................................................................................................................................................................... 731
URI Syntax and Components .......................................................................................................................................... 732
TCP/IP and Datagram ..................................................................................................................................................... 732
Blackboard Assignment Retrieval Transaction ............................................................................................................. 732
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 734
Understanding Networking Interfaces and Classes in the java.net Package............................................................. 734
The Networking Interfaces and Classes ...................................................................................................................... 734
Understanding the InetAddresses.................................................................................................................................. 736
IP Addresses Scope ........................................................................................................................................................ 736
Host Name Resolution .................................................................................................................................................. 736
Caching InetAddress ........................................................................................................................................................ 736
Factory() Method ........................................................................................................................................................... 739
Instance() Method .......................................................................................................................................................... 740
Creating and Using Sockets ............................................................................................................................................. 740
Creating TCP Clients and Servers ................................................................................................................................... 743
TCP/IP Client Sockets ................................................................................................................................................... 744

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Understanding the Whois Example................................................................................................................................ 746

TCP/IP Server Sockets .................................................................................................................................................. 746
Submitting an HTML Form from a Java Program ........................................................................................................ 748
Handling URL ................................................................................................................................................................... 749
Using the URLConnection Objects ................................................................................................................................. 752
Working with Datagrams ................................................................................................................................................. 756
DatagramPacket ............................................................................................................................................................. 756
Datagrams Server and Client ........................................................................................................................................... 758
Working with BART ......................................................................................................................................................... 759
Learning about the java.security Package ..................................................................................................................... 761
The Permission Class ..................................................................................................................................................... 764
The Policy Class ............................................................................................................................................................. 764
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 766

Chapter 21: Collections........................................................................................................... 767

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 768
The Collection Interfaces .................................................................................................................................................. 768
The Collection Classes ...................................................................................................................................................... 768
The Map Interfaces ........................................................................................................................................................... 769
The Map Classes................................................................................................................................................................ 769
Collections Framework Enhancements in Java SE 8 ..................................................................................................... 769
Support for Lambda Expressions, Streams, and Aggregate Operations ................................................................ 770
Performance Improvement for HashMaps with Key Collisions .............................................................................. 774
Improved Type Inference.............................................................................................................................................. 774

Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 776

Using the Collection Interface ......................................................................................................................................... 776
The Queue Interface ......................................................................................................................................................... 777
The List Interface ............................................................................................................................................................... 777
The Set Interface ................................................................................................................................................................ 778
The SortedSet Interface .................................................................................................................................................... 779
Using the Collection Classes ........................................................................................................................................... 779
The AbstractCollection Class ...................................................................................................................................... 779
The AbstractList Class .................................................................................................................................................. 780
The AbstractSequentialList Class ............................................................................................................................... 781
The ArrayList Class ....................................................................................................................................................... 782
The ArrayDeque Class .................................................................................................................................................. 784
The LinkedList Class .................................................................................................................................................... 786
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The Generic Class .......................................................................................................................................................... 788

The HashSet Class ......................................................................................................................................................... 789
The TreeSet Class .......................................................................................................................................................... 790
Using the Comparator Interface ...................................................................................................................................... 792
Using the Iterator Interface .............................................................................................................................................. 793
Using the ListIterator Interface ....................................................................................................................................... 793
Using the AbstractMap Class .......................................................................................................................................... 795
Using the HashMap Class................................................................................................................................................ 796
Using the TreeMap Class ................................................................................................................................................. 799
Using the Arrays Class ..................................................................................................................................................... 801
Learning the Fundamentals of Enumerations ............................................................................................................... 804
The values() and valueOf() Methods .......................................................................................................................... 806
Java Enumeration as a Class Type ............................................................................................................................... 807
Enumeration Inheriting Enum ..................................................................................................................................... 808
The Enumeration Interface ........................................................................................................................................... 810
The Legacy Classes and Interfaces .................................................................................................................................. 810
The Vector Class ............................................................................................................................................................ 811
The Stack Class .............................................................................................................................................................. 813
The Dictionary Class ..................................................................................................................................................... 814
The Hashtable Class ...................................................................................................................................................... 815
The Properties Class ...................................................................................................................................................... 817
Using the Aggregate Operations ..................................................................................................................................... 818
Using the java.util.function Package ............................................................................................................................. 819
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 822

Chapter 22: Creating Packages, Interfaces, JAR Files, and Annotations ............................. 823
In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 824
Packages and Interfaces .................................................................................................................................................... 824
JAR Files ............................................................................................................................................................................. 824
The Core Java API Package .............................................................................................................................................. 824
The java.lang Package ....................................................................................................................................................... 826
The java.lang.annotation Subpackage ........................................................................................................................ 826
The java.lang.instrument Subpackage ....................................................................................................................... 826
The java.lang.management Subpackage .................................................................................................................... 826
The java.lang.reflect Subpackage ................................................................................................................................ 826
The java.lang.invoke Subpackage ............................................................................................................................... 827
The java.lang.ref Subpackage ...................................................................................................................................... 827

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Basics of Annotation ......................................................................................................................................................... 827

Other Built-In Annotations .............................................................................................................................................. 828
@Retention Annotation ................................................................................................................................................. 828
@Documented Annotation............................................................................................................................................ 828
@Target Annotation ....................................................................................................................................................... 828
@Native Annotation ...................................................................................................................................................... 829
@Repeatable Annotation ............................................................................................................................................... 829
@Retention Annotation ................................................................................................................................................. 829
@Inherited Annotation .................................................................................................................................................. 829
@Override Annotation .................................................................................................................................................. 829
@Deprecated Annotation .............................................................................................................................................. 830
@SuppressWarnings Annotation ................................................................................................................................. 830
@FunctionalInterface ..................................................................................................................................................... 830
@ SafeVarargs ................................................................................................................................................................. 830
Type Annotations and Pluggable Type Systems ....................................................................................................... 831
Repeating Annotations .................................................................................................................................................. 831
Retrieving Annotations ................................................................................................................................................. 831
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 832
Creating a Package ............................................................................................................................................................ 832
Creating Packages that have Subpackages .................................................................................................................... 832
Creating an Interface ......................................................................................................................................................... 833
Implementing an Interface ............................................................................................................................................... 834
Extending an Interface ...................................................................................................................................................... 835
Using Interfaces for Callbacks ......................................................................................................................................... 835
Performing Operations on a JAR File ............................................................................................................................. 836
Creating a JAR File......................................................................................................................................................... 837
Getting the Contents of a JAR File ............................................................................................................................... 838
Extracting Files from a JAR File ................................................................................................................................... 838
Updating JAR Files ........................................................................................................................................................ 838
Reading from JAR Files in Code .................................................................................................................................. 838
Using javac to Get Classes from a JAR File ................................................................................................................ 841
Letting Applets Get Classes from JAR Files ............................................................................................................... 841
Marker Annotations .......................................................................................................................................................... 842
Single Member Annotations ............................................................................................................................................ 843
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 844

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Chapter 23: Working with Java Beans ................................................................................... 845

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 846
What is Java Bean? ............................................................................................................................................................ 846
Advantages of Java Bean .................................................................................................................................................. 847
Introspection ...................................................................................................................................................................... 847
Design Patterns for Properties...................................................................................................................................... 847
Design Patterns for Events ............................................................................................................................................ 848
Methods and Design Patterns ...................................................................................................................................... 849
Using the BeanInfo Interface ........................................................................................................................................ 849
Persistence .......................................................................................................................................................................... 849
Customizers ....................................................................................................................................................................... 849
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 850
Understanding Java Beans ............................................................................................................................................... 850
Designing Programs Using Java Beans .......................................................................................................................... 850
Creating Applets that Use Java Beans ............................................................................................................................ 853
Creating a Java Bean ......................................................................................................................................................... 853
Creating a Bean Manifest File .......................................................................................................................................... 855
Creating a Bean JAR File .................................................................................................................................................. 855
Creating a New Bean ........................................................................................................................................................ 855
Adding Controls to Beans ................................................................................................................................................ 855
Giving a Bean Properties .................................................................................................................................................. 856
Design Patterns for Properties ......................................................................................................................................... 862
Using Simple Properties ................................................................................................................................................... 862
Adding a Color Property to SimpleBean .................................................................................................................... 862
Using Indexed Properties ............................................................................................................................................. 864
Using Boolean Properties .............................................................................................................................................. 864
Designing Patterns for Events ......................................................................................................................................... 864
Learning Methods and Design Patterns ......................................................................................................................... 865
Using the BeanInfo Interface ........................................................................................................................................ 865
Using Feature Descriptors ............................................................................................................................................ 865
Creating Bound Properties ............................................................................................................................................... 865
Giving a Bean Methods .................................................................................................................................................... 866
Giving a Bean an Icon ....................................................................................................................................................... 867
Creating a BeanInfo Class ............................................................................................................................................... 867
Setting Bound and Constrained Properties.................................................................................................................... 868

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Implementing Persistence ................................................................................................................................................ 870

Using the Java Beans API ................................................................................................................................................. 870
Learning the Basics of an Event ....................................................................................................................................... 872
Using the Java Beans Conventions .................................................................................................................................. 873
Using the Remote Notification and Distributed Notification ...................................................................................... 873
Using Beans with JSP ........................................................................................................................................................ 873
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 874

Chapter 24: Introducing JDBC ................................................................................................ 875

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 876
What does JDBC Do? ........................................................................................................................................................ 876
Components of JDBC..................................................................................................................................................... 876
JDBC Specification ......................................................................................................................................................... 877
JDBC Architecture.......................................................................................................................................................... 877
The JDBC Package ............................................................................................................................................................. 878
The java.sql Package ..................................................................................................................................................... 879
The javax.sql Package ................................................................................................................................................... 881
JDBC versus ODBC and Other APIs ............................................................................................................................... 883
Relation between JDBC and ODBC................................................................................................................................. 883
Various Kinds of JDBC Drivers ....................................................................................................................................... 884
Describing the Type-1 Driver ....................................................................................................................................... 884
Describing the Type-2 Driver (Java to Native API) ................................................................................................... 885
Describing the Type-3 Driver (Java to Network Protocol/All Java Driver) ........................................................... 886
Describing the Type-4 Driver (Java to Database Protocol) ....................................................................................... 888
The JavaSoft Framework .................................................................................................................................................. 888
Two-Tier and Three-Tier Models .................................................................................................................................... 889
The Structured Query Language (SQL) .......................................................................................................................... 890
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 892
Learning about the Driver Interface................................................................................................................................ 892
Learning about the DriverManager Class ...................................................................................................................... 892
The Connection Interface ................................................................................................................................................. 893
The Statement Interface .................................................................................................................................................... 896
The PreparedStatement Interface .................................................................................................................................... 899
Comparing the Execution Control of the Statement and PreparedStatement........................................................ 899
Describing the setXXX() Methods of the PreparedStatement Interface .................................................................. 901
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using a PreparedStatement Object ................................................................. 902

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Using the PreparedStatement Interface .......................................................................................................................... 902

Create a PreparedStatement Object ............................................................................................................................. 903
Provide the Values of the PreparedStatement Parameters ....................................................................................... 903
Execute the SQL Statements ......................................................................................................................................... 903
The ResultSet Interface ..................................................................................................................................................... 904
Describing the Methods of ResultSet........................................................................................................................... 904
Using ResultSet .................................................................................................................................................................. 907
Moving the Cursor Position ......................................................................................................................................... 908
Reading the Column Values ......................................................................................................................................... 908
The ResultSetMetaData Interface .................................................................................................................................... 908
Describing the ResultSetMetaData Interface .............................................................................................................. 909
Using the ResultSetMetaData Interface .......................................................................................................................... 910
Implementing JDBC Processes with java.sql Package ................................................................................................. 911
Understanding the Basic JDBC Steps .......................................................................................................................... 912
Processing the ResultSet ................................................................................................................................................... 914
Using the ResultSet Object to Update Data ................................................................................................................ 919
Using the ResultSet Object to Delete a Row ............................................................................................................... 920
Using a ResultSet Object to Insert a Row .................................................................................................................... 922
Closing the Statement ....................................................................................................................................................... 923
Closing the Connection .................................................................................................................................................... 923
Using a Loop to Set Values in PreparedStatement Object ........................................................................................... 924
Returning Values for the executeUpdate() Method................................................................................................... 924
Using the Interactive SQL Tool ....................................................................................................................................... 926
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 926

Chapter 25: Images and Animation ........................................................................................ 927

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 928
Images ................................................................................................................................................................................. 928
Different Formats of Images ............................................................................................................................................ 928
The ImageIcon Class ........................................................................................................................................................ 928
The java.awt.geom Package............................................................................................................................................. 928
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 930
Using the Image Class ...................................................................................................................................................... 930
Creating an Image .......................................................................................................................................................... 930
Loading an Image .......................................................................................................................................................... 930
Displaying an Image ...................................................................................................................................................... 930
Drawing an Image Object ............................................................................................................................................. 931

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Loading an Image Object Using the ImageObserver Interface ............................................................................... 935

Using the MediaTracker Class ........................................................................................................................................ 937
Using the ImageIcon Class in an Applet ....................................................................................................................... 938
Getting Images ............................................................................................................................................................... 939
Drawing Images ............................................................................................................................................................. 940
Using ImageObserver Interface ...................................................................................................................................... 942
Creating a Game Using the java.awt.geom Package .................................................................................................... 943
Collecting the Images .................................................................................................................................................... 943
Organizing and Loading the Images in the Applet ................................................................................................... 944
Animating the Images ................................................................................................................................................... 945
Finishing Up ................................................................................................................................................................... 947
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 950

Chapter 26: Java DB................................................................................................................ 951

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 952
Evolution of Java DB ......................................................................................................................................................... 952
Comparisons between Java DB and MySQL ................................................................................................................. 953
Architecture of Java DB .................................................................................................................................................... 954
Embedded Architecture ................................................................................................................................................ 954
Client/Server Architecture ........................................................................................................................................... 954
Compilation of SQL into Java Bytecode ...................................................................................................................... 955
Drivers of Java DB ............................................................................................................................................................. 955
Java DB URLs..................................................................................................................................................................... 956
Java DB Product Documentation .................................................................................................................................... 956
Derby Tools and Utilities ................................................................................................................................................. 957
Installing and Configuring Java DB on Windows......................................................................................................... 957
Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 958
Configure Environment Variables .................................................................................................................................. 958
DERBY_HOME .............................................................................................................................................................. 958
PATH ............................................................................................................................................................................... 958
JAVA_HOME ................................................................................................................................................................. 958
Java DB Directory Structure ............................................................................................................................................. 959
Creating Database in Java DB Using ij-Tool .................................................................................................................. 959
Creating a New Database in Embedded Mode .......................................................................................................... 959
Creating a New Database in Network Mode ............................................................................................................. 961
Connecting with a Database ............................................................................................................................................ 963
Connecting with a Database in Embedded Mode ..................................................................................................... 963

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Connecting with a Database in Network Mode ......................................................................................................... 963

Disconnecting from a Database ....................................................................................................................................... 964
Adding Tables in an Existing Database .......................................................................................................................... 964
Deleting Tables from an Existing Database ................................................................................................................... 964
Adding Data into a Table ................................................................................................................................................. 965
Displaying Content of a Table ......................................................................................................................................... 965
Java DB Database Encryption .......................................................................................................................................... 966
Using Java DB with Java Application ............................................................................................................................. 966
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 968

Chapter 27: Java FX ................................................................................................................ 969

In Depth .............................................................................................................................. 970
Working with JavaFX........................................................................................................................................................ 970
JavaFX Applications ...................................................................................................................................................... 970
JavaFX Availability ........................................................................................................................................................ 970
Key Features of JavaFX ................................................................................................................................................. 971
Application Development Scope of JavaFX ................................................................................................................... 972
JavaFX Ensemble8 .......................................................................................................................................................... 972
Modena ........................................................................................................................................................................... 973
3DViewer ........................................................................................................................................................................ 973
JavaFX Architecture ....................................................................................................................................................... 974
Scene Graph in JavaFX .................................................................................................................................................. 974
Java Public APIs for JavaFX Features .......................................................................................................................... 975
Graphics System............................................................................................................................................................. 975
Glass Windowing Toolkit ............................................................................................................................................. 976
Threads ............................................................................................................................................................................ 976
Pulse ................................................................................................................................................................................ 976
Media and Images .......................................................................................................................................................... 977
Web Component ............................................................................................................................................................ 977
CSS ................................................................................................................................................................................... 977
UI Controls ..................................................................................................................................................................... 978
Layout.............................................................................................................................................................................. 978
2-D and 3-D Transformations ....................................................................................................................................... 979
Visual Effects .................................................................................................................................................................. 979
Introducing Scene Builder in JavaFX .............................................................................................................................. 979
Intended Audience ........................................................................................................................................................ 980
Key Features of JavaFX Scene Builder ......................................................................................................................... 980

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Table of Contents

Immediate Solutions .......................................................................................................... 981

Creating Simple JavaFX Application .............................................................................................................................. 981
Creating JavaFX Application on NetBeans IDE ............................................................................................................ 981
Using the UI Controls ....................................................................................................................................................... 989
Using Visual Effects .......................................................................................................................................................... 989
Using Canvas API ............................................................................................................................................................. 990
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 992

Glossary .................................................................................................................................. 993

Index ........................................................................................................................................ 997

Bonus chapters available with the book for Download

Chapter 1: Java and XMLUsing the Document Object Model ................................................ 1

Chapter 2: Java and XMLUsing the Simple API for XML ...................................................... 31

Chapter 3: Understanding RMI ................................................................................................. 57

Chapter 4: Working with Servlets 3.1 ....................................................................................... 83

Chapter 5: Dynamic Java Scripting ........................................................................................ 137

Chapter 6: Introduction to Groovy.......................................................................................... 159

Chapter 7: MXBeans and JMX ................................................................................................ 189

Chapter 8: Inclusion of Sound ................................................................................................ 213

Chapter 9: Filing and Printing Documents ............................................................................. 251

xxxii
 Introduction
Thanks for buying the Java 8 Programming Black Book. The book covers Java 8 a 2014-released Java version in
a comprehensive and accessible manner.
Java is a programming language that all novice programmers are willing to learn for building applications. Here
this book helps by offering simple to complex Java programming concepts along with various programming
examples. You will find programs on all Java concepts, which are meant for easy assimilation of a concept.
With the evolution of Java 8, various new concepts emerged, which are also part of this book. Its each chapter
has been divided into In Depth and Immediate Solutions sections: where the In Depth section is about the
theoretical understanding of one concept, the Immediate Solutions section is about the practical implementation of
the same.
The most important feature of Java programming language is that it offers security; therefore, it is preferred over
other programming languages. As most system applications are written in this language, it is only better that
programmers be well versed with Java programming language.

About this Book

Java 8 Programming Black Book encompasses syntax to declare variables, as well as advanced object-oriented
concepts. The book also deals with the programming implementation of the concepts explained. Using Java with
XML, setting security permissions for applets, using the Java browser plugin, creating client/server connections
over the Internet, creating Java Beans, connecting to databases, and multithreading have also been covered.
The book is divided into hundreds of topics topics that are well spaced, easily accessible, each addressing a
different programming issue, and each with an example showing just how it works. Here are just a few of those
topics:
Full Java 8 version 1.8 syntax
Inheritance and inner classes
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)
Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT)
Generics
Metadata
Enumeration
Autoboxing and Unboxing
Buttons, checkboxes, and radio buttons
Choosers, lists, and combo boxes
Graphics, images, text, and fonts
Menus, dialog boxes, and windows
Progress bars, sliders, separators, and scrolling
Image processing and tracking
Introduction

Java Swing
Swings pluggable look and feel
All Swing components
Swing text components
Java collections
Multithreading
I/O Streams
File handling
Networking and sockets
Split panes, editor panes, text panes, and more
Trees and tables
Java Beans
MXBeans
Packages, interfaces, and JAR files
Java Server Pages (JSP)
Reading applets from JAR files
Security issues
Java Database Connectivity (JDBC)
Servlets
Java DB
Java FX
You will also come to know of some good online resources. In addition, there are some bonus chapters in the
book on the topics like Java and XML, Groovy, Sounds in Java, and many more.

How to Make Use of This Book

In the book, since we are using Java 8, version 1.8, the given codes must be run in the same version; or else, you
might get some strange errors. You can get this version of Java for you from the
http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/javase/downloads/index.html URL.
Youll also need some way of creating Java programs. Such programs are just plain text files filled with Java
statements and declarations. To create a Java program, you should have an editor program that can save files in
a plain text format. See the topic Writing Code: Creating Code Files in Chapter 1 for details.
The JDK has all you need to create standard Java applets and applications, and also has an appletviewer for
displaying applets at work.
Besides, we will also be using Beans Development Kit (BDK) and Java Servlet Development Kit (JSDK). There is
also Java Server Pages (JSP) in the book, for which you will need a web-server-supporting JSP. If you want to
work with the database programming of this book, you will need to create an ODBC data source on your
machine. All the codes, images, and files used in the book can also be found online not to mention a great
number of other tools.

Conventions
There are a few conventions in the book that you should know in the first place. Some of them are as follows:
When some code is new and needs to be pointed out, itll appear shaded like this:
setLayout(null);
text1 = new TextField(20);
text1.setSize(200, 50);
text1.setLocation(20, 20);
add(text1);

xxxiv
 Introduction

The book also gives many tips throughout for you to have more insight into the subject. Ex:

An untrusted applet is not allowed to read and write files at all. So unless you make specific security arrangements, you should
not try to read or write files from applets. Therefore, for the sake of convenience, all the programs in this chapter are
applications.

You will also see notes for some additional information on the subject. Ex:

It should be clear that there are situations where the Refresh response header can come in handy. Even though it is not a
standard HTTP 1.1 header, it is something that can be considered a de facto standard.

Every figure has a caption to maintain clarity. Ex:

Figure 32.1: Showing Client/Server communication.

The tables follow right below their reference. Ex:

Table 7.1: Constructors of the TextField class

Constructor Does this
TextField() It constructs a new text field.
TextField(int columns) It constructs a new, empty text field with the indicated number of columns.
TextField(String text) It constructs a new text field with the indicated text.
TextField(String text, int It constructs a new text field initialized with the indicated text and with the
columns) indicated number of columns.

Other Resources
Java comes with an immense amount of documentation equal to and worth hundreds of books! This
documentation is stored in linked HTML pages, and you must have a web browser to view and work with it.
There are also many, many webpages out there on Java (a random Web search on Java turns up about
239,000,000 pages; in fact, searching for Java tutorial alone will turn up about 35,700,000 pages). Here are some
other useful resources:
The Java home page at http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/index.html
The Sun Java tutorial at http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/
The Java 8, version 1.8 documentation at http://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/

xxxv
Introduction

The Black Book Philosophy

Written by experienced professionals, Black Books provide immediate solutions to global programming and
administrative challenges, helping you to complete specific tasks, especially critical ones, which are not well
documented in other books. Black Books help you understand a concept and then implement it practically by
developing codes and applications based on that concept. The unique format of Black Books is structured to help
you build your knowledge to solve problems and quickly master complex technical issues to become an expert.
The discussion of complex topics has been split over many subheadings, each dealing with a particular aspect of
that topic, enabling an easy and quick understanding.
Written and edited by the Content and Editorial teams at Dreamtech Press, this book is conceptualized to give
you everything you need to know about Java 8.

xxxvi
 1
Essential Java
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Getting and Installing Java 15
Subfolders Created by JDK 16
Creating Source Files 16
Knowing Javas Reserved Words 17
Creating an Application 19
Compiling Code 20
Running Code 23
Running Code: Using Command-Line Options 25
Commenting Your Code 26
Import Java Packages and Classes 27
Finding Java Classes with CLASSPATH 28

1
Chapter 1: Essential Java

In Depth
Welcome to our big book of Java programming. Herein, well cover as much Java programming as can be
crammed into one bookin depth and in detail. We wont turn away from the more difficult issues because the
aim of this book is to lay out all of Java for you, making it ready for use. If you are like us and have a few
programming packages, youll enjoy working with Java more than with others. And, we would like to presume
that Java would be your choice for programming platform as you finish the book.
This first chapter covers the fundamental Java skills that youll rely on in the coming chapters. In the next few
chapters, you are going to see a large amount of Java syntax at work, but none will be of any use unless you can
get Java running and create programs with it. That fundamental set of skillscreating and running Java
programsis the topic of this chapter, and you can put this information to work in the following chapters for
testing the Java syntax well develop.
In this chapter, we are going to work through the mechanics of creating Java programsfrom installation issues
to writing Java code and from making sure your Java program can find what it needs to displaying simple
output. These skills are the ones you can use in the coming chapters. The material in those chapters is all about
the internals of writing a Java code, and this chapter is all about the rest of the process that makes the code run.
You might already be knowing much of the material in this chapter, in which case it will provide a good review
(some of the material is bound to be newafter all, very few people know what all the Java compiler command-
line switches do). If youve already got a working installation of Java and can write and run basic Java programs,
you are already familiar with most of what youll see in this chapter. Therefore, you can just skim through the
following pages and continue with Chapter 2, where we start digging into Java syntaxthe internals that really
make Java work. Otherwise, you can work through the material in this chapter because it provides the
foundation for the next several chapters to come. Here, well also make you familiar with the Application
servers, Deployers, and various methods and constructors.

All about Java

Where did Java come from, and why is it so popular? Like other programming languages, Java filled a specific
need of its time. For example, before Java appeared, C was an extremely popular language among programmers,
and it seemed that C was the perfect one combining the best elements of low-level assembly language and high
level languages into a programming language that fits into computer architecture well and that programmers
liked.
However, C too had its limitations like the earlier programming languages had before it. As programs grew
longer, C programs became more unwieldy, because there was no easy way to cut up a long C program into self-
contained compartments. This meant that the code in the first line of a long program could interfere with the
code in the last line, and the programmer had to keep the whole code in mind while programming.
To cut long programs into semi-autonomous units, Object-Oriented Programming became popular. With this,
the motto was divide and conquer. In other words, you could divide a program into easily conceptualized
parts. For example, if you have a complex system that you use to keep food cold, you might watch the
temperature of the food using a thermometer; and when the temperature gets high enough, you throw a switch
to start the compressor for making the valves work so that the coolant circulates; then, you start a fan to blow air
over the cooling vanes, and so on. Thats one way to do it. However, another is to connect all those operations
for making them automatic, wrapping the whole into an easily conceptualized unita refrigerator. Now, all the
internals are hidden from your view, and all you have to do is put food in it or take it out of the refrigerator.
Thats the way objects work; They hide the programming details from the rest of the program, reducing all the
interdependencies that spring up in a long C program by setting up a well-defined and controllable interface
that handles the connection between the object and the rest of the code. Now, you can think of the object in an
easy wayfor example, you might have an object that handles all the interaction with the screen, an object you
call Screen. You can use that object in ways youll see throughout this book to manipulate what it is intended to
work on (in this case, the screen display). After creating the object, you know that the screen is handled by that

2
 In Depth

object and can put it out of your mindno longer does every part of the code has to set up its own screen
handling; you can just use the Screen object instead.
When Object-Oriented Programming was added to C, it became C++, and the programmers had a new darling.
C++ let programmers deal with longer programs and object-oriented code, which helped to solve many other
problems as well. For example, supporting objects made it easier for the manufacturers that supply software to
provide you with lots of prewritten code, ready to use. To create an object, you use a class, which acts like a
template or cookie cutter for that object, that is, a class is to an object what a cookie cutter is to a cookie. In other
words, you can think of a class as an objects type, much like a variables type might be the integer type.
Because C++ supported classes, the software manufacturers could provide you with huge readymade libraries of
classes, ready for you to start creating objects from. For example, one of the most popular libraries of C++ classes
is the Microsoft Foundation Class (MFC) library that comes with Microsofts Visual C++. Earlier, you wrote a
Windows program in C, you needed about five pages of solid code just to display a blank window. However,
using a class in the MFC library, you could simply create an object of the kind of window you wanted to use
with a border, without a border, as a dialog box, and so on. The object already had built-in functionality of the
kind of window you wanted to create, so all it took to create that window was one line of codejust the line
where you create the new window object from the class you selected.
Even more impressive was the fact that you could use an MFC class as a base class for your own classes, adding
the functionality you want to that class through a process called inheritance in Object-Oriented Programming. For
example, suppose you want your window to display a menu bar. You can derive your own class from a plain
MFC window, adding a menu bar to that class to create a new class. In this way, you can build your own class
just by adding a few lines of code to what the Microsoft programmers have already done. (Note that youll see
how Object-Oriented Programming works in depth in this book.)
All this seemed great to programmers, and C++s star rose high. It appeared to many that the perfect
programming language had arrived. What could be better? However, the programming environment itself was
about to undergo a great change with the popularization of what amounted to an immense new programming
environmentthe Internet. And, thats what made Java so popular.

Java Appears
Java was not originally created for the Internet. The first version of Java appeared in 1991 and was written in 18
months at Sun Microsystems. In fact, it wasnt even called Java in those days; it was called Oak and was used
internally at Sun.
The original idea of Oak was to create a platform-independent, object-oriented language. Many programmers
were confining themselves to programming for the IBM PC at that time, but the corporate environment can
include all kinds of programming platformsfrom PC to huge mainframes. The driving inspiration behind Oak
was to create something that could be used on all those computers (and now that Java has been popularized by
the Internet, a huge and increasing number of corporations are adopting it internally instead of C++ for just that
reasonin fact, some versions of C++, such as Microsofts C#, are now being modeled after Java). The other
motivation behind the introduction of Oak was to bring a language in the picture that could be used in consumer
electronics.
Oak was renamed Java in 1995, when it was released for public consumption, and it was almost an immediate
hit. By that time, Java had adopted a model that made it perfect for the Internetthe bytecode model. At
present, Sun has been taken over by Oracle; therefore, the platforms of Java are the products of Oracle now.

All about Bytecodes

A Microsoft Visual C++ program is large, typically starting off at a minimum of 5 MB for a full MFC program
and that doesnt even count the Dynamic Link Libraries (DLLs) that the Windows platform needs to run Visual
C++ programs. In other words, C++ programs are fully executable on your computer as they stand, which
means they have to be large in size. Imagine how cumbersome it would be to download all that as part of a Web
page for letting that page do something interactive on your computer.
Java programs, on the other hand, are constructed differently. Java itself is implemented as the Java Virtual
Machine (JVM), which is the application that actually runs your Java program. When JVM is installed on a

3
Chapter 1: Essential Java

computer, it can run Java programs. Java programs, therefore, dont need to be self-sufficient, and they dont
have to include all the machine-level code that actually runs on the computer. Instead, they are compiled into
compact bytecodes, and its these bytecodes that JVM reads and interprets to run your program. When you
download a Java applet from the Internet, you are actually downloading a bytecode file.
In this way, your Java program can be very small, because all the machine-level code to run your program is
already on the target computer and doesnt have to be downloaded. To host Java on a great variety of
computers, Sun only had to rewrite JVM for wording on those computers. Because your program is stored in a
bytecode file, it will run on any computer on which the JVM is installed.
As Java programs were originally supposed to be interpreted by the JVM, that is, they were executed bytecode
by bytecode, interpretation was a slow process. For that reason, Java introduced the Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler,
which is built into JVM. The JIT compiler reads sections of the bytecode and compiles them dynamically into a
machine-level code. Java performs runtime checks on different code sections; therefore, the whole program is not
compiled at once, resulting in the a faster execution of the programs.
Using bytecodes means that the Java programs are very compact, making them ideal for downloading over the
Internet. Moreover, running such programs with the JVM rather than downloading full programs provides
security.

Features of Java
Java is a simple, robust, platform-independent, and portable programming language. It is designed to meet the
real-world requirements with its following features:
Simple
Secure
Portable
Robust
Multithreading
Platform independent
Distributed
Dynamic

Simple
Java is simple to learn and use. In Java, it is easy to write and debug programs because Java does not use
pointers. Moreover, it provides bug free system because to strong memory management and also has automatic
memory allocation and de-allocation system. Unlike other programming languages, which provide dozens of
complicated ways to perform a simple task, Java provides a simple and clear approach to achieve a given task. If
a programmer understands the basic concepts of OOP, it becomes easier for him/her to learn Java.

Secure
In todays world, everybody needs safety and security. Because of to the threat of hackers, people feel unsafe
while performing commerce over the Internet. To overcome such fears, Java provides safety and security
features.
While using Java-compatible browser, everyone can safely download Java applets by relaxing their minds from
the fear of virtual infection or malicious intent. The Java programs are confined to the Java runtime environment,
they can access only that part of your computer that is required for program execution. The data outside Java
runtime environment cannot be accessed by them and therefore, downloading a Java application through the
Internet will not harm your computer. Thats why Java is a secure language.
When Java executes a program, the JVM can strictly monitor what goes on, which makes it great for the Internet
applications. You are already aware that security has become an extremely important issue on the Internet, and
Java rises to the task of taking care of the same. JVM can watch all that a program does; and if it does something
questionable, such as trying to write a file, it can prevent that operation. That alone makes Java more attractive
than C++, which has no such restrictions, for the Internet.

4
 In Depth

You can also tailor Java security the way you like it, which offers a very flexible solution. As youll see in this
book, you can now specify, on a program-by-program basis, just what privileges you want to give to the
downloaded code. You can now also sign your Java code in a way that shows it comes from you without any
malicious modifications. Well take a look at all this and more in this book.
In a nutshell, Java has a winning combination for the InternetJava programs are small, secure, platform-
independent, object-oriented, and powerful. They also implement other features that programmers like. Java
programs are often simple to write compared to C++. The end result is that you can write your Java program
once, and it can be easily downloaded and run on all kinds of machinesthe perfect recipe for the Internet!
Thats the reason Java has soared so high.

Portable
In the distributed world of the Internet, an application developed with the help of a programming language
might be accessed on various computers having different kinds of operating system. But, its not guaranteed that
the application is portable, that is, it runs successfully on all operating systems. To overcome this portability
issue, Java introduces a concept of what is known as bytecode.
Bytecode is a set of instructions generated by the Java compiler while compiling a Java program. In other
programming languages, a program is compiled into an executable code; but in Java, a program gets compiled
into an intermediate code called bytecode. This bytecode then gets executed by Java runtime system called the
JVM. So, in order to run your Java program, you should have only JVM installed. It is also considered to be the
interpreter of bytecode. In this way, Java has solved the problem of portability.

Robust
Generally, programs fail because of the following two reasons:
Memory ManagementLack of memory management for allocating and de-allocating memory for objects
Exceptional ConditionsOccurrence of unexpected exceptions
Considering these reasons, Java was designed to provide the ability to create robust programs. Therefore, Java
compels the programmers to resolve mistakes during compilation. Moreover, it also frees the programmer from
the worries of common causes of programming errors as the program code is verified during compilation.
Java also eradicates the problem of memory management by performing automatic garbage collection. It
manages the memory allocation and de-allocation for unused objects.

Multithreading
Java is a programming language that is designed for the distributed environment of the Internet; and for that,
the concept of multithreading is implemented. This feature helps you write interactive programs, wherein
multiple tasks can be performed simultaneously, thus making Java a robust programming language.
Java is inherently multi threaded as there can be multiple executing threads in a single Java program. For
example, a Java programmer can run three Java applets on the same page, provided that each applet gets equal
time from the CPU.
The multi threaded feature of Java makes it very responsive and robust. It is very important to note that as Java
is highly multi threaded, it is difficult to port it to architectures, such as Windows 3.1 or PowerMac, which do
not natively support multithreading.

Platform-Independent
It is one of the most important features of Java as it is the first programming language that is not bound to any
specific operating system. In other words, Java programs can be executed anywhere on any system. Before the
evolution of Java, no other programming language was platform-independent, and it can therefore be said that
Java is a revolutionary technology. Apart from cross-platform in source form, Java is also platform-independent
in complied binary form.
A Java program does not execute natively on the host machine; instead, a Java interpreter reads the bytecode
and executes the corresponding native machine instructions. The Java interpreter is a special naive program that
reads the bytecode, an intermediate form after compilation. Therefore, in order to port a Java program to a new

5
Chapter 1: Essential Java

platform, you need the interpreter and some of the library routines. Moreover, the Java compiler is also written
in Java, and the bytecodes are precisely defined, which remain the same on all platforms.

Distributed
Java is a distributed language as it can be used to create applications for communicating over the network. Java
can communicate over the network because it supports TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol). The TCP/IP protocol is a set of network communication protocols.

Dynamic
During the runtime of a Java program, the relevant information that is used to verify and resolve access to
objects is required. This concept of providing runtime information is referred to as dynamically linking the code.
This feature of Java adds strength to the applet environment, in which small fragments of bytecode are
dynamically updated on a running system.

Java Environment
The Java environment comprises numerous development tools, classes, and methods. The development tools for
Java are provided as a part of the system known as Java Development Kit (JDK). Moreover, the Application
Programming Interface (API) comprises the classes and interfaces used in Java programming. In this section, we
discuss the following:
Java Development Kit
Java Platforms
Java Virtual Machine
Java API
Java Programs

Java Development Kit

Keeping in mind the developers, Sun introduced JDK originally, which is now an Oracle product. JDK provides
a collection of the Java tools, which are used while developing and running Java programs. The kit comprises the
following development tools:
javaServes as a Java interpreter used to run Java applets and applications by reading and interpreting
bytecode files
javacServes as a Java compiler used to translate Java source code into bytecode files
javacdocCreates HyperText Markup Language (HTML) documentation for Java source code files
javapServes as a Java disassemble used to convert bytecode files into a Java program description
jdbServes as a Java debugger used to find errors in Java programs
appletviewerFacilitates to run Java applets
jarServes as an archive used to package related class libraries into a single executable JAR file and also
helps to manage the JAR files
javahServes as the C header and stub generator used to write native methods

Java Platforms
Oracle provides various Java editions to develop and run Java programs. The Java platform is not bound to any
one processor or operating system, but the execution engine (virtual machine) and a compiler can run identically
on any operating system. The following subsections are the different editions of the Java platform.

What is Java Standard Edition (Java SE)?

The Java SE Edition of Java is the most commonly used among the three Java editions. It is used for developing
desktop and console-based applications. It consists of:
A runtime environment

6
 In Depth

Sets of APIs to build a wide variety of applications, comprising standalone applications that can run on
various operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Solaris

What is Java Enterprise Edition (Java EE)?

Java EE is a platform primarily used for building server-side applications by using its convenient component-
based approach. It is a platform-independent, Java-centric environment from Oracle, which is meant for the
development and online deployment of Web-based Enterprise applications. The Java EE platform consists of a
set of serviceAPIs and protocols. These services provide the functionality for developing multi tiered, Web-
based applications.
Java EE is a Java-based, runtime platform created by Sun. It is now owned by Oracle after the acquisition of Sun
by Oracle on January 27, 2010. Java EE is used for developing, deploying, and managing multi tier server-centric
applications on an enterprise-wide scale. It builds on the features of Java SE and adds distributed
communication, threading control, scalable architecture, and transaction management. A strong competitor to
the Microsofts .NET Framework, Java EE is a Java platform designed for the mainframe-scale computing,
typical of large enterprises. For the simplification of application development in a thin client-tiered environment,
Sun designed Java EE in collaboration with partners such as IBM.
Some of the key features and services of Java EE are as follows:
At the client tier, it supports pure HTML as well as Java applets or applications. It relies on Java Server
Pages and Servlet code to create HTML or other formatted data for the client.
Enterprise JavaBeans (EJB) provides a layer for storing the platforms logic. The EJB server provides
functions such as threading, concurrency, security, and memory management. These services are
transparent to the author.
Java Database Connectivity (JDBC), which is the Java equivalent to Open Database Connectivity (ODBC), is
the standard interface for Java databases.
The Java Servlet API increases consistency for developers without the need of a Graphical User Interface (GUI).

What is Java Micro Edition (Java ME)?

It enables you to build Java applications for micro-devices, which include handheld devices, such as cell phones
and Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), and other similar devices with limited display and memory support. It is
a competitor to Microsofts .NET Compact Framework.
The devices that you use nowadays, such as cell phones, PDAs, televisions, and set-top boxes, are often powered
by Java ME. This is because Java ME provides a robust and flexible environment to enable the applications
meant to run on devices that are low on resources, such as processor and memory. The Java Community Process,
which comprises the experts from the leading device manufacturers, defined the standard set of Java APIs that
are part of the Java ME environment along with the JVM. The same sets of APIs along with the JVM are also
included in the other Java platforms that include Java SE, Java EE, and Java Card environments.
The strength and advantages of the Java technology can be provided to the end user of the embedded consumer
devices by using Java ME in such devices. The inclusion of a flexible user interface, a robust security model, a
variety of built-in network protocols, and an extensive support for networked and offline applications that are
automatically downloadable makes Java ME a versatile platform for a wide range of consumer devices. The
applications written for the Java ME specifications are also inherently platform-independent and can therefore
be used on a variety of devices even though written for one.
The Java ME architecture includes various configurations, profiles, and optional packages for the developers to
choose from. The chosen packages and configurations can be combined to build a complete Java runtime
environment to go in rhyme with the target device and the target market. The selection is optimized for the
processing power, memory, and I/O capabilities of any related category of devices. This eventually results in a
common platform that benefits from each category of devices by providing an engaging user experience.
The Java ME configuration includes a JVM and a set of class libraries. The number of libraries is kept to a bare
minimum because it is meant to be executed on a device with a modest hardware configuration. They then
provide the basic functionality for a particular category of devices having common characteristics. There are two

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Chapter 1: Essential Java

Java ME configurations: the Connected Limited Device Configuration (CLDC) and the Connected Device
Configuration (CDC).

Java Virtual Machine

In all programming languages, a compiler translates source code into machine code for a specific computer. In
Java, a compiler translates the Java source code into an intermediate code known as bytecode for a virtual
machine, known as JVM. Bytecode is the machine language for JVM and is not machine-specific. Instead, the
machine-specific code is generated by the Java interpreter, which serves as a mediator between virtual machine
and real machine. Figure 1.1 shows the process of compilation and conversion of bytecode into machine code:

Figure 1.1: Displaying the Process of Compilation and Execution in Java

In order to run a Java program on a different computer, you need a Java interpreter for Java bytecode. Although
Java bytecode interpreter is required depending upon the type of operating system in use, once a computer has
an interpreter, it can run a Java bytecode. In other words, the most important feature of Java is that the same
compiled program can run on any operating system, as shown in Figure 1.2:

Figure 1.2: Displaying the Process of Running a Program on Any Operating System

Java API
It is a collection of classes, interfaces, and methods provided in the form of Java packages. In other words, it is a
large collection of already created classes and interfaces, which provide many useful capabilities, such as
Graphical User Interface (GUI), date, time, and calendar capabilities. The categorization of Java API in the form
of Java packages is as follows:
Application Programming Packages
java.langProvides classes that are fundamental to the design of the Java programming language
java.utilProvides legacy collection classes, event model, collection framework, date and time
capabilities, internationalization, and other utility classes, such as string tokenizer
java.ioProvides classes for system input and output through data streams, serialization, and the file
system
Applet and Network Programming Packages
java.awtProvides classes for creating user interface and painting graphics and images
java.appletProvides classes that are necessary for creating an applet and those that are used to
communicate with its applet context
java.netProvides classes that are used for implementing networking in Java programs

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 In Depth

Java Programs
A Java programmer can create either a Java application or a Java applet depending upon the requirement. In
Java, you create the following types of program:
Applications
Applets
Well use the term program in this book to refer to both applets and applications. Now, lets discuss each of them
in detail.

Applications
A Java application is a program that is created by using Java programming language. Java applications are
console-based, Character User Interface (CUI)-based, and GUI-based standalone applications. Once you become
used to creating applications, you will find that creating an application by using Java is also as simple as creating
an application with any other programming language. In order to execute a Java application, you need to
perform the following steps:
Compile the Java source code by using javac compiler to translate the source code into bytecode
Execute the bytecode by using the Java interpreter
Apart from applications, you can also create applets in Java.

Applets
An applet is a program written in the Java programming language that can be included in an HTML page in the
same way as an image is included. An applet can be used in both static and dynamic web pages to either
display content or share information through the pages. You need to import the java.applet package that
provides classes to either create an applet or allow an applet to communicate with its applet context.
The applet context is an application that is responsible for loading and running applets. For example, the applet
context could be a web browser or an applet development environment. In other words, an applet is a Java
application designed to be transmitted over the Internet and is executed by a Java-compatible web browser.
After understanding the types of Java program, lets create a simple Java program. But to do this, you need to
create a source code file by using a text editor first. After creating the Java program, you need to compile it by
using the Java compiler javac and execute by using the Java interpreter java. The compiler generates a .class
file by translating the source code into bytecode, which is then executed by the Java interpreter.

What are Application Servers (Tomcat, JRun, WebSphere,

WebLogic, etc.)
An Application server is a server program running on a computer in a distributed network that provides the
business logic for an application program. Frequently viewed as part of a three-tier application, this server
consists of a GUI server, an application (business logic) server, and a database and transaction server. The server
encapsulates the Java program code that executes within an Evolution account. Application servers are provided
by third-party software vendors and are integrated into the myEvolution hosting control center.
In addition to the application logic, it contains the services that access the resource manager, such as a database.
Clients or other services that may or may not reside on the same physical machine call the services. There are a
number of Application servers used by various Java applications. Some examples are as follows:
TomcatThe Tomcat server is a Java-based Web application container that was created to run Servlets and
Java Server Pages in Web applications. Tomcat is the Servlet container that is used in the official Reference
Implementation for the Java Servlets and Java Server Pages technologies. The Java Servlets and Java Server
Pages specifications were developed by Sun under the Java Community Process. It is developed in an open
and participatory environment and released under the Apache Software License. The Tomcat is intended to
be a group of the best-of-the-best developers from around the world.

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Chapter 1: Essential Java

JRunJRun is an Application server of Adobe that is based on Oracles Java Enterprise Edition. It consists
of Java Server Pages, Java Servlets, Enterprise Java Beans, Java Transaction Service (JTS), and Java
Messaging Service (JMS).
JRun works with the most popular web servers, including Apache, Microsofts Internet Information Server
(IIS), and any other web server that supports Internet Server Application Program Interface (ISAPI) or the
Webs Common Gateway Interface (CGI).
JRun comes in four editionsDeveloper edition, Professional edition, Advanced edition, and Enterprise
edition. The Developer edition consists of the full JRun package, but it is meant for development use only
and is limited to three concurrent connections. The Advanced edition is designed to deploy JSP and Servlet
applications in a clustered-server environment. Corporates that host Servlet and JSP-based Web
applications from a single server use the Professional edition. Companies that build and deploy e-commerce
Java applications use the Enterprise edition.
WebLogicThe WebLogic Platform delivers application infrastructure technology in a single, unified,
easy-to-use platform for application development, deployment, and management. The Oracle WebLogic
Platform increases productivity and lowers total cost of ownership for IT organizations as it provides a
unified, simplified, and extensible platform for application development, deployment, and management.
WebLogic is the first platform to address the need for asynchronous Web services, which is a critical aspect
of application-to-application communication.
WebLogic gives developers the tools necessary to integrate different applications and platforms for
providing full leverage to organization in terms of data and software investments. It also provides an
enterprise class framework that ensures reliable, scalable, available, and secure applications.
To integrate different applications and platforms, the developers require Deployers for deploying Web and
EJB applications in the server environment.
DeployersThe Deployers are responsible for deploying EJB applications and Web applications into the
server environment. They are not responsible for deploying an Application client archive or a resource
adapter archive but may be responsible for additional configuration of these components.
Packaged as a part of Java EE EAR files, these archives are not considered when the Enterprise applications
are deployed. These are a part of Java EE applications but do not follow the runtime activation process that
Web application and EJB containers go through during deployment.
The Application client archives operate within the content of a Java EE container and are not deployed into
an Application server. The Application client program runs standalone, and the Deployers are not
responsible for configuring the container environment for these programs.
The resource adapter archives are the simple libraries that are dropped into a valid JCA implementation.
The Deployers produce container-ready EJB applications, Web applications, applets, and Application clients
that have been customized for target environment of the Application server. Some of the commonly used
Deployers are Ant, Junit, Cactus, and Maven.
AntApache Ant is a Deployer, which is a Java-based tool. Ant is like Make but without Makes
wrinkles. Unlike Make, Ant uses Java classes instead of writing shell commands.
JUnitDeveloped by Erich Gamma and Kent Beck, JUnit is an open source softwarea testing
framework. The developer who implements unit tests in Java uses it. It is a simple framework to write
the repeatable tests. JUnit is an instance of xUnit architecture for unit testing framework.
Cactus and MavenThe Apache Cactus and Maven, used as Deployers, are Java-based applications
that automatically start containers, run tests, and stop the containers.
Cactus is a simple framework for testing server-side Java code. Its purpose is to lower the cost of
writing tests for server side codes.
Maven is based on the concept of Project Object Model (POM), which provides a well-defined project
structure, well-defined development process, and cohesive body of documentation that keep the
developer updated regarding the project progress.

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 In Depth

Program Design
Program design in Java is not necessarily an easy task. Good programming design involves a number of overall
aspects, and its worth taking a look at some of them in this chapter before we start digging into Java syntax in
depth.
In fact, one of the most important aspects of creating a new application is designing that application. Poor
choices can end up hampering your application through many revisions of the product. Many books are
available on program design.
Microsoft, which should know something about it, breaks the process into four areas:
PerformanceThe responsiveness and overall optimization of speed and resource use
MaintainabilityThe ability of the application to be easily maintained
ExtensibilityThe ability of the application to be extended in well-defined ways
AvailabilityHow robust the implementation of the application is and how available it is for use
Lets take a quick look at these four areas now.

Performance
Performance is a design issue thats hard to argue with. If the users arent getting what they want from your
application, thats clearly a problem. In general, performance depends on the users needs. For some people,
speed is essential; for others, robustness or efficient use of resources is what they are looking for. Overall, the
performance of an application is an indication of how well it responds to the users needs. Here are some general
aspects of performance that you should consider while writing Java programs:
Algorithm efficiency
CPU speed
Efficient database design and normalization
Limiting external accesses
Network speed
Security issues
Speed issues
Use of resources
Web access speed
Well get to more specifics of performance throughout the book.

Maintainability
Maintainability is the measure of how easily you can adapt your application to future needs. This issue comes
down to using good programming practices, which well talk about throughout the book. Much of this is
common sensesimply keeping future coding needs in mind as you write your code. Some major issues in the
best programming arsenal include the following:
Avoid deep nesting of loops and conditionals
Avoid passing global variables to procedures
Be modular when you write code
Break code into packages
Document program changes
Give each procedure only one purpose
Make sure that your application can scale well for large tasks and large number of users
Plan for code reuse
Program defensively

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Chapter 1: Essential Java

Use access procedures for sensitive data

Use comments
Use consistent variable names
Use constants instead of magic numbers

Extensibility
Extensibility is the ability of your application to be extended in a well-defined and relatively easy way. It is
usually a concern only with larger applications, and it often involves an entire interface specially designed for
extension modules. In fact, Java itself is designed to be extended by using the Java Extension Framework.

Availability
Availability is the measure of how much time your application can be used for in comparison to the time users
want to use it for. This includes everything, from the application not freezing up when performing a long task (at
the least, giving the user some feedback of the operations status) to working with techniques and methods not
likely to hang, to making backups of crucial data, and to planning for alternate resource useif possiblewhen
access to a desired resource is blocked.
Overall, the design process is one that involves quite a bit of time. In fact, the whole development cycle is the
subject of quite a few studiesyou may be surprised to learn that when field testing, in-house testing, planning,
designing, and user interface testing are added up, some studies allocate as little as 15 percent of total project
time to the actual coding.
So much has been written about the development cycle of software that we wont go into more details here. But,
its worth noting that programmers shouldnt short-change the crucial design steps because it can lead to more
problems in the long run than time saved in the short run.

New Features of Java SE 8

Java SE 8 is a major release that brought many new features and enhancements in Java programming language.
Lets have a brief introduction of some noteworthy features of Java SE 8.
Java programming language Following are new changes in Java programming language:
Lambda expressions are introduced as a new language feature. They allow you to pass functions as a
method argument or treat code as data.
Following is the syntax of lambda expression:
view sourceprint?1 (argtype arg...) -> { return some expression.. probably using these
arguments }
Method references help in reading lambda expressions for methods that already have a name.
Default methods enable new functionality to be added to the interfaces of libraries and ensure binary
compatibility with code written in older versions of those interfaces.
Repeated use of annotations enables you to apply the same annotation type more than once to the same
type of declaration.
A new method, String.join(), is added to join the strings. For example:
String abc= String.join("String1 ", "Java", "8");
The preceding code will be evaluated as:
String1 Java 8
Java compilerThere is a new feature of using the -parameters option with javac command to store
formal parameter names and enable the Reflection API to retrieve them. Lets create the following class:
import java.lang.reflect.Method;
import java.lang.reflect.Parameter;

public class ParameterNames {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {

Method m = ParameterNames.class.getMethod( "main", String[].class );

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 In Depth

for( final Parameter parameter: m.getParameters() ) {

System.out.println( "Parameter: " + parameter.getName() );

}
If you compile the previous class without using parameters argument and then run this program, you will
see the output as:
Parameter: arg0
However, if you compile the previous class with the parameters argument and then run this program, you
will see the output with the actual name of parameter that you have passed.
Parameter: args
Java libraries Following changes have taken place in Java libraries features:
Streams A new package, java.util.stream, provides a Stream API to support functional-style
operations on streams of elements. Stream API can be integrated with Collections API to perform bulk
operations on collections, such as sequential or parallel map-reduce transformations.
Date/Time API (JSR 310) Java 8 provides a new Date-Time API (JSR 310), which provides a new
package, called java.time. This package contains all the classes for date, time, date/time, time zones,
instants, duration, and clocks manipulation. Some examples of classes contained in this package are
Clock, LocaleDate, LocalTime, and Duration. The Clock class provides the access to the current instant,
date and time using a time zone. It can be used in place of using the System.currentTimeMillis()
and TimeZone.getDefault() methods. The LocaleDate class holds only the date part and the
LocaleTime class holds only the time part without a time-zone in the ISO-8601 calendar system. The
Duration class, finally, provides an amount of time in terms of seconds and nanoseconds.
Nashorn JavaScript engine Java 8 provides a new Nashorn JavaScript engine that allows you to
develop and execute certain kinds of JavaScript application on JVM. The engine works like
javax.script.ScriptEngine and permits Java and JavaScript interoperability.
Parallel Arrays Java 8 provides various new methods allowing parallel arrays processing. For
example, the parallelSort() method significantly speeds up the sorting on multicore machines.
Concurrency Java 8 adds new methods to the java.util.concurrent.ConcurrentHashMap
class that support aggregate operations on the basis of the newly added streams facility and lambda
expressions. A new class, java.util.concurrent.locks.StampedLock, has been added to
provide a capability-based lock with three modes for controlling read/write access. In addition, some
classes are added to the java.util.concurrent.atomic package, which includes
DoubleAccumulator, DoubleAdder, LongAccumulator, and LongAdder.
Java tools Java 8 provides a new set of command line tools, which include Nashorn engine (jjs command)
and class dependency analyzer (jdeps command). The role of these tools is described as follows:
Nashorn engine The jjs command accepts a list of JavaScript source code files as arguments and runs
them. For example, if a file, myfunc.js, is created with the following content:
function demofunc() {

return 1;

};
print( demofunc() + 1 );
Now, the jjs command is used to execute the myfunc.js file:
jjs myfunc.js
The output of the preceding code will be:
2

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Chapter 1: Essential Java

Class dependency analyzer The jdeps command is used to show the package-level or class-level
dependencies of Java class files. It accepts .class file, a directory, or JAR file as an input, and displays
the dependencies to the console.
Java runtime (JVM) The PermGen space has been replaced with Metaspace (JEP 122). The JVM
options,XX:PermSize and -XX:MaxPermSize, are replaced with -XX:MetaSpaceSize and
XX:MaxMetaspaceSize, respectively.
JDBC The JDBC-ODBC Bridge has been removed. In addition, JDBC 4.2 has been introduced with
various new features. Some of these are as follows:
Addition of REF_CURSOR support
Addition of java.sql.DriverAction interface
Addition of security check on deregisterDriver method in the DriverManager class
Addition of the java.sql.SQLType interface
Addition of the java.sql.JDBCType enum

You would learn about these features of Java SE 8 in detail with their implementation in other chapters of the book.

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 Immediate Solutions

Immediate Solutions
Getting and Installing Java
The Big Boss (BB) gives you a callas usual at the last minute. You have 20 minutes to write a new Web page
that gives users an overview of your companys products. What are you going to do? Knowing how well Java
works in cases like this, you select Java as your language of choice to get the task done. Of course, youve got to
make sure you have it before you can use it.
Its time to download and install Java, which means downloading the Java Software Development Kit (SDK).
Currently, you can find it at http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/javase/downloads/jdk8-
downloads-2133151.html. The kit gets downloaded in the form of an executable application file. Next, you
can follow the instructions on the Oracles website in order to install JDK 1.8. Wed love to be able to provide the
actual installation instructions here, but thats one of the biggest pitfalls a Java book can fall into, even the one
thats designed to be as complete as possible. We have been writing about Java ever since it first came out, and it
turns out that the actual installation instructions are often very volatile. As these instructions are changed quite
frequently, the ones we have provided in the previous books instantly became obsolete. For that reason, the
absolutely best thing you can do is to see how Sun wants you to install the SDK; therefore, you should refer to
the installation instructions as posted on the Java site. The installation process has been getting easier with every
version and beta of Java, and now, it typically involves only running the file youve downloaded.
One thing you should be sure to do, as indicated in the Sun installation instructions, is to ensure your machine
can find the Java tools, including the Java compiler itself. To do that, verify that the Java bin directory is in your
computers path. For example, in Windows, usually the bin directory path is C:\Program
Files\Java\jdk1.8\bin for SDK 1.8.

The Java Software Development Kit was called the Java Development Kit, JDK, in earlier Java versions. In fact, Oracle often
seems to be of two minds heresometimes, youll see references to the SDK and sometimes, youll see references to JDK.
This is one of those timesalthough the kit is now called the SDK, its installed by default into a directory named \jdk1.8.

In Windows 7, you can follow these steps to configure Java 8 on your system:
Click the Windows icon on the taskbar, right click the Computer, and select the Properties option. You can
also reach the same location by opening the Control Panel| System and Security| System.
Click the Advanced system settings option in the System Properties window. This opens the System
Properties dialog box.
Click the Environment Variables button to open the Environment Variables dialog box.
Edit the PATH variable, setting the way you want. You may append the new path to the already existing
PATH variable or create a new PATH variable. Finally, click OK. Note that if you are appending the PATH
variable, the different paths must be separated by semicolons (;).
You can also set the PATH variable temporarily with the help of the command line. The path shall remain set
only till the command line is open; once you exit from the command line, the PATH variable set also gets erased.
The following command is used to temporarily set the PATH variable:
SET PATH= C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.8\bin;
When the bin directory is in the path, youll be able to use the Java tools directly from the command line, instead
of having to preface them with a pathname each time you want to use them on the command line.

What about CLASSPATH?

Java veterans will wonder about the environment variable named CLASSPATH when they install Java SDK. The
CLASSPATH variable, as youll soon see in this chapter, tells Java where to find compiled bytecode filesboth the
ones you create and the ones required by the system that come with the SDK itself. CLASSPATH has been the focus
of a great deal of confusion when working with Java, and we are glad to say that Sun has made things easier.

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Chapter 1: Essential Java

When you install the SDK, you dont have to worry about setting the CLASSPATH now because the SDK will
know where to find its own installed libraries. However, if you want to search other custom bytecode files when
compiling a file, youll have to set the CLASSPATH yourself. Youll see how to do this when we will discuss
compiling programs in this chapter. (There are two ways to indicate to the Java compiler where to find bytecode
files you particularly want to searchby setting the CLASSPATH environment variable and by using the -
CLASSPATH compiler switch.)
The current version of the SDK does not require CLASSPATH to be defined; and if it has been defined by some
other Java version or system, it is likely to create problems. If you want to keep the CLASSPATH environment
variable for any reason, you need to use the command line option to define the CLASSPATH temporarily.

Subfolders Created by JDK

After installing JDK, several folders get created on your hard drive. The location of these folders formed depends
on the particular system; however, in general, the JDK folder is formed under Program Files\Java on your boot
drive. The name of the JDK root folder also includes the version you have installed. The different subfolders
created under the JDK root folder and additional files are described in Tables 1.1 and 1.2, respectively:
Table 1.1: The different subfolders created in the JDK root folder
Folder Description
bin The compiler and other Java development tools
demo Demo programs from which you can learn various Java features
include Files required to integrate Java with other languages
jre Runtime Environment files
lib Library files, including the Java API class library
sample Samples, with source code, of programming for certain Java API's
db Oracles distribution of the Apache Derby relational database

Table 1.2: Additional files in the JDK root folder

File Description
README.html The Java readme file in the HTML format
THIRDPARTYLICENSEREADME.txt A license file for third parties, regarding usage and redistribution of JDK
LICENSE The Java license that you agreed to when you downloaded JDK
COPYRIGHT The copyright notice about all the copyright and export laws applied by
Sun
register.html For free register of the JDK installed with Oracle
release It contains details such as Java version, OS name, and OS version
register_ja.html and These HTML files are, respectively, the Japanese and Chinese versions of
register_zh_CN register.html
Src A .zip file that contains the code for Java API classes

Creating Source Files

The Design Team Coordinator (DTC) calls to congratulate you on getting Java installed. You accept the accolades
gracefully. So, what programs have you been writing? the DTC asks. Hmm! you think. Programs?
Java programs are just plain text files made up of Java statements and declarations, and well start investigating
them in the next solution. To create a Java program, you should have a text editor or word processor that can
save files in plain text format.
Saving text in plain text format is a simple achievement thats beyond many fancy word processors. You might
have trouble with word processors, such as Microsoft Word, although you can save plain text files with Word

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 Immediate Solutions

using the File | Save As dialog box. The general rule is that if you can type the file out at the command line (note
that thats DOS on DOS- and Windows-based computers) and dont see any odd, non-alphanumeric characters,
its a plain text file. The real test, of course, is whether the Java compiler, which translates your program into a
bytecode file, can read and interpret your program.
In addition, your programs should be stored in files that have the extension .java. For example, if you are
writing an application named App, you should store the actual Java program in a file named App.java. You
pass this file to the Java compiler to create the actual bytecode file, as youll see in the next few pages.
So far, so goodwe have done the selection of the editor or word processor down. Now, how about writing
some code?

Knowing Javas Reserved Words

A Novice Programmer (NP) appears and says, Java is acting all funnyI want to name a variable public,
but its giving me all kinds of problem. Thats because public is one of the keywords that Java reserves for
itself as part of the Java language, you say. Rats, says the NP.
When you are writing a Java code, you should know that Java reserves certain words for itself as a part of the
Java language. Some of the reserve words are as follows (well cover these keywords throughout the book):
abstractIt specifies that a class or method will be implemented later in a subclass
assertIt signifies an assertion statement
booleanIt is a data type that can hold True and False values only
breakIt is a control statement for breaking out of loops
byteIt is a data type that can hold 8-bit data values
byvalueIt is reserved for future use
caseIt is used in the switch statements to mark blocks of text
cast It is reserved for future use
catchIt catches exceptions generated by the try statements
charIt is a data type that can hold unsigned 16-bit Unicode characters
classIt declares a new class
constIt is reserved for future use
continueIt sends control back outside a loop
defaultIt specifies the default block of code in a switch statement
doIt starts a do-while loop
doubleIt is a data type that can hold 64-bit floating-point numbers
elseIt indicates alternative branches in an if statement
enum It declares enumerated type variables
extendsIt indicates that a class is derived from another class or an interface is derived from another
interface
false It indicates one of the two permissible values for a boolean variable
finalIt indicates that a variable holds a constant value or that a method will not be overridden
finallyIt indicates a block of code in a try-catch structure that will always be executed
floatIt is a data type that holds a 32-bit floating-point number
forIt is used to start a for loop
futureIt is reserved for future use
genericIt is reserved for future use
gotoIt is reserved for future use

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Chapter 1: Essential Java

ifIt tests a true/false expression and branches accordingly

implementsIt specifies that a class implements an interface
importIt references other classes
innerIt is reserved for future use
instanceofIt indicates whether an object is an instance of a specific class or implements a specific
interface
intIt is a data type that can hold a 32-bit signed integer
interfaceIt declares an interface
longIt is a data type that holds a 64-bit integer
nativeIt specifies that a method is implemented with native (platform-specific) code
newIt creates new objects
nullIt indicates that a reference does not refer to anything
operatorIt is reserved for future use
outerIt is reserved for future use
packageIt declares a Java package
privateIt is an access specifier indicating that a method or variable may be accessed only in the class its
declared in
protectedIt is an access specifier indicating that a method or variable may only be accessed in the class
it has declared (or a subclass of the class it has declared in or other classes in the same package)
publicIt is an access specifier used for classes, interfaces, methods, and variables indicating that an item
is accessible throughout the application (or where the class that defines it is accessible)
rest It is reserved for future use
returnIt sends control and possibly a return value back from a called method
shortIt is a data type that can hold a 16-bit integer
staticIt indicates that a variable or method is a class method (rather than being limited to one particular
object)
strictfpIt restricts the precision and rounding of floating-point numbers
superIt refers to a classs base class (used in a method or class constructor)
switchIt is a statement that executes code on the basis of a test value
synchronizedIt specifies critical sections or methods in a multithreaded code
thisIt refers to the current object in a method or constructor
throwIt creates an exception
throwsIt indicates what exceptions may be thrown by a method
transientIt specifies that a variable is not a part of an objects persistent state
tryIt starts a block of code that will be tested for exceptions
true It indicates one of the two permissible values for a boolean variable
varIt is reserved for future use
voidIt specifies that a method does not have a return value
volatileIt indicates that a variable may change asynchronously
whileIt starts a while loop

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 Immediate Solutions

Creating an Application
The Big Boss arrives and says, So now you can write Java! Give me a demonstration! You turn to your terminal
and immediately your mind goes blank. What will you write?
Heres a sample Java application that well develop over the next few sections, all the way through the compiling
and running stages. Place this code in a file named App.java:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
If you are new to Java, this might look strange to you. The idea here is that this application will print the text
Hello from Java! when you compile and run it. For example, heres how it looks in a DOS window under
Windows:
c:\>java App
Hello from Java!
Not the most significant of programs but a good one to get us started. Lets take this program apart line by line.

Line 1public class App

Heres the first line in App.java:
public class App { . . . }
This line indicates that we are creating a new Java class named App. After we translate this class into bytecodes,
the JVM will be able to create objects of this class and run them. Youll learn all about classes in depth in Chapter
4; this code is just to get us started with Java programming.
Note the keyword public in the preceding code. This keyword is an access specifier, which youll learn more
about in Chapters 4 and 5. The public access specifier indicates that this class is available anywhere in a
program that makes use of it.
Also note that if you make a class public, Java insists that you name the file after it. That is, you can only have
one public class in a .java file. The reason for this is that the Java compiler will translate the .java file into a
bytecode file with the extension .class, which means that App.java will be translated into App.class;
and if the JVM needs the App class, itll know to look in the App.class file. Because JVM uses the name of the
file to determine what public classes are in the file, you can only have one public class in a file. For that reason,
the code for the App class must be in a file named App.java (note that Java is pretty particular about this, and
capitalization counts here, even in Windows that normally doesnt pay any attention to capitalization). The
actual implementation of the class we are defining here will go between the curly braces:
public class App { . . . }
Java always encloses blocks of code within curly braces, that is, { and }.Youll see in Chapter 4 that the code
inside the block has its own scope (its visibility to the rest of the program). Right now, lets continue building our
application by continuing with the next line of the code.

Line 2public static void main(String[] args)

Heres the next line of code in our application:
public class App { public static void main(String[] args) { . . . } }
Whats happening here is that we are creating a method in the App class. A method in OOP is like a function or
subroutine in standard programmingits a block of code that you can pass control to and that can return a
value. Methods provide handy ways of wrapping code into a single functional unit; when you call a method,
JVM executes the code in the method.
Youll be introduced to methods formally in Chapter 4, but here, the idea is that we are creating a method named
main, which is the method that the JVM will look for when it starts an application (applets do not have a main
method). When it finds the main method, the JVM passes control to it, and well place the code we want to
execute in this methods code block.
There are a few things to note before continuing. The main method must be declared with the public access
specifier, which means it may be called outside its class. It must be declared static as well, which means that
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main is a class method, not an object method (youll see in Chapter 4). It must not return a value when its
finished executing, which is why we use the keyword void in this code (in other words, a return value of type
void means that there actually is no return value). Finally, note the argument in the parentheses following the
word main: String[] args. You place an argument list in the parentheses of a method declaration like this
to indicate what values are passed to the method and can be used by the code in the method. In this case, we are
indicating that main has passed an array of string values called args. These string values hold the values
passed from the command line when you start the application; for example, if you type java app Hello
there, Hello and there would be the two strings in the args array. The full details appear in Chapter 4.
Because we wont use any command-line arguments in this application, we wont use args in the code for the
main method.
This line of code then starts the main method. The whole job of this method is to print out the text Hello from
Java! which is done in the next line of code.

Line 3System.out.println(Hello from Java!);

The main method has one line of code in it:
System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
This is the actual line of code that does the work of printing the statement. In this case, we are using some of the
code that the programmers at Sun have already created to display the text Hello from Java! In particular, the
java.lang packages System class is used here. Libraries of classes are called packages in Java, and the
java.lang package is built into every Java program, which means you dont have to take special steps to make
use of it, as you do with other Java packages. The java.lang packages System class includes a field (that is, a
data member of the class) called out, and this field in turn has a method named println, which does the actual
displaying of text.
To refer to the System classs out field, we use the terminology System.out. To use the out fields println
method (which stands for print line), we use the terminology System.out.println. To print the text Hello
from Java! we pass that text to System.out.println by enclosing it in quotes.
Also note that this line of code ends with a semicolon. This end-of-statement convention is something that Java
has inherited from C and C++ (in fact, Java has inherited a lot from C and C++), and you end nearly all
statements in Java with a semicolon. If this isnt something you are used to, youll pick it up pretty quickly
because the Java compiler refuses to translate your code into bytecodes until the semicolons are in place.
Thats it, thenyouve created your new application and stored it in a file named App.java. Whats the next
step? To get it actually run, take a look at the next solution.

Compiling Code
The Big Boss is chomping a cigar while standing right behind you as you enter your new Java application into a
file. Hmm, says the Big Boss, clearly not impressed. Whats next? Now, you say, we have to compile the
program and then we can run it. OK, the Big Boss says. Amaze me.
To translate a Java program into a bytecode file that the JVM can use, you use the Java compiler javac (for
example, on Windows machines, this program will be called javac.exe, which is in the Java bin directory).
Heres how you use javac in general:
javac [options] [sourcefiles] [@files]
The arguments to javac are:
optionsCommand-line options
sourcefilesOne or more source files to be compiled (such as App.java)
@filesOne or more files that list source files
To compile App.java, use the following command:
C:\>javac App.java
Note that to make sure javac can find App.java, you should first make sure the current directory is the one
that has App.java in it. For example, in Windows, if youve stored App.java in C:\Nancy, to compile
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 Immediate Solutions

App.java, first make sure C:\Nancy is the current directory (you can use the change directory command, cd,
like this: cd C:\Nancy). Then, run javac like this: C:\Nancy>javac App.java. Alternatively, you can
specify the path of App.java like this: C:\>javac C:\Nancy\App.java.
In addition, note that in this book, well use the generic prompt C:\> for the command line, but this
actually stands for the current working directory, whatever that may be in your casefor
example, C:\Bertie\Development>, C:\Programs>, Unix prompts, such as %,
/home/Nancy/programs:, and so on. That is to say C:\> is just going to be a placeholder for the actual
prompt on your machine for the current directory you are in.
The Java compiler javac takes the file App.java(assuming there are no errors), compiles it, translates it, and
then creates a new file called App.class. If errors occur, the Java compiler will tell you what they are, including
what line of code is wrongin this case, we have forgotten the println method and tried to use the one called
printline:
C:\>javac App.java
App.java:3: error: cannot find symbol
System.out.printline(Hello from Java!); }
^
symbol: method printline(String)
location: variable out of type PrintStream
1 error
When App.java is successfully compiled to bytecode, the new file, App.class, contains all that JVM will need
to create objects from the App class. So, we have created App.class. Now, how do you actually run it in JVM?
See the next solution.

Compiling Code: Using Command-Line Options

Hmm, says the NP, I have got a problem. I like to keep all my .class files in the same directory, but
sometimes, I forget to copy the new versions of those files to that directory. You say, Theres a compiler option
thats perfect for you. Its called the -d option. Using that option, you can have the compiler place bytecode files
into any target directory you want. Well, says the NP. Now, if I can only remember to use that option
There are quite a number of optionsthat is, command-line directivesyou can use with javac. For example,
heres how you can use the -d option to have javac place the file App.class in an existing directory called
temp, which, in this case, is a sub-directory of the current directory:
javac -d temp App.java
The following is the list of javac options; note that the options that start with -X (called non-standard options) are
marked that way by Sun because they may change in the future:
-classpath classpathIt sets the user class path, overriding the user class path in the CLASSPATH
environment variable. If neither CLASSPATH nor -classpath is specified, the user class path will be the
current directory. Note that if the -sourcepath option is not used, the user class path is searched for
source files as well as class files.
-d directoryIt sets the destination directory for .class files. For readers who know what
Java packages are, if a class is a part of a package, javac puts the .class file in a sub-directory
that reflects the package name, creating directories as needed. For example, if you specify -d c:\classes
and the class is called com.package1.Class1, the class file is called
c:\classes\com\package1\Class1.class. If -d is not specified, javac puts the class file in the same
directory as the source file. Note that the directory specified by -d is not automatically added to your user
class path.
-deprecationIt shows a description of each use or override of a deprecated member or class. (Without -
deprecation, javac only shows the names of source files that use or override deprecated members or
classes.)
-encodingIt sets the source file encoding name. If -encoding is not specified, the platform default
converter is used.

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Chapter 1: Essential Java

-gIt generates all debugging information, including local variables. By default, only line number and
source file information are generated.
-g:noneIt makes the compiler unable to generate any debugging information.
-g:{keyword list} It generates only some kinds of debugging information, specified by a comma-
separated list of keywords. The valid keywords are source (source file debugging information), lines
(line number debugging information), and vars (local variable debugging information).
-nowarn It disables all warning messages.
-OIt optimizes code for performance in terms of the quickest execution time. Note that using the -O
option may slow down compilation, produce larger class files, and make the program difficult to debug.
Note that before version 1.2, the -g and -O options of javac could not be used together.
As of version 1.2, you could combine the -g and O options, but you might get odd results, such as missing
variables and relocated or missing code. The -O option no longer automatically turns on -depend or turns
off g.
-sourcepathIt specifies the source code path to search for class or interface definitions. As with the user
class path, source path entries are separated by semicolons (;) and can be directories, .jar (Java Archive)
files or zip files. If you use packages, the local pathname within the directory or archive must reflect the
package name, as youll see later. Note that classes found through the class path are subject to automatic
recompilation if their source code files are found.
-verboseIt creates verbose output. This includes information about each class loaded and each source
file compiled.
-XIt displays information about non-standard options and quits.
-XdependIt searches all reachable classes for more recent source files to recompile. This option will more
reliably discover classes that need to be recompiled, but it can slow down the compilation process
dramatically.
-XstdoutIt sends compiler messages to System.out. By default, the compiler messages go to
System.err, which youll learn more about later.
-XverbosepathIt describes how paths and standard extensions were searched to find source and
class files.
-JoptionYou use this option to pass an option to the Java launcher called by javac. For example, -J-
Xms64m sets the start-up memory to 64 MB. Although this option does not begin with -X, its not a standard
option of javac. Its a common convention for -J to pass options to the underlying JVM executing
applications written in Java.

Cross-Compilation Options
Cross-compilation options are considered an advanced topic; javac supports cross-compiling, where classes are
compiled with the bootstrap (default) and extension classes of a different Java platform implementation. You
must use -bootclasspath and -extdirs when cross-compiling. Here are the cross-compilation options:
-target versionIt generates class files that will work on JVMs with the specified version.
-bootclasspath bootclasspathIt cross-compiles against the specified set of boot classes. As with the
user class path, boot class path entries are separated by semicolons (;) and can be directories, .jar files or
.zip files.
-extdirs directoriesIt cross-compiles against the specified extension directories; directories is
a semicolon-separated list of directories. Each .jar file in the specified directories is automatically searched
for class files.

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 Immediate Solutions

Compiling Code: Checking for Deprecated Methods

Good Lord! says the NP, How can I keep all the deprecated methods in Java straight? Now that Im
upgrading to Java SE 8, I dont know whats obsolete and whats not! Thats an easy one, you say. The Java
compiler javac will now tell you if you are using a method thats been deprecated, which it does not use unless
you specifically asked it to. Even better, you can use the -deprecation option to make sure you get all the
details
The -deprecation option is a good one, and its the standard option we use to make sure we avoid deprecated
methods. Suppose you have a program that uses addItem (a deprecated method) of the List class, and
when you try to compile it, javac gives you the following result:
C:\>javac App.java
Note: App.java uses or overrides a deprecated API.
Note: Recompile with Xlint:deprecation for details.
Thats not much help. However, using the -deprecation option, you can pinpoint the exact problem:
C:\>javac -deprecation App.java

App.java:7: warning: [deprecation] addItem(String) in List has been deprecated

list.addItem(Kogent);
^
1 warning

You can also use Xlint compiler option to pinpoint the warning point in the program.

Running Code
The Big Boss is getting impatient. Youve written a new application and compiled it without errors for the first
time (which you can feel proud of), but nothing has really happened that the BB can see. Its time to run the new
application.
You run Java applications with the program named Java (in Windows, for example, this is the java.exe file in
the Java bin file). The Java program, called the java tool, is what actually runs JVM. Heres how you can use
the java tool:
java [options] class [argument ...]
java [options] -jar file.jar [argument ...]
The parameters used in the preceding lines are explained as follows:
optionsCommand-line options, which well cover in a topic coming right up.
classThe name of the class to be invoked.
file.jarThe name of the Java Archive (JAR) file to be invoked. This is used only with -jar. JAR files
are covered in Chapter 27.
argumentA command-line argument passed to the main method.
For example, to run the application named app, which is in the file App.class, you could execute the following
command at the command line (note that you omit the .class part of App.class here):
C:\>java App
The result appears immediately:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!

To make sure the java tool can find App.class in this example, you should first make sure the current directory is the one that
has App.class in it. For example, in Windows, if youve stored App.class in C:\Nancy, to run it, first make sure C:\Nancy is the
current directory (you can use the change directory command, cd, like this: cd C:\Nancy). Then, run Java like this:
C:\Nancy>java App. Alternatively, you can specify the path of App.class like this: C:\>java classpath C:\Nancy App.

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Chapter 1: Essential Java

You can see how this works in a DOS window under Windows in Figure 1.3:

Figure 1.3: Running an Application in a DOS Window

Thats all it takesnow youve written, compiled, and run your first application. Congratulations!
Note that if your application isnt responding or if you want to stop it for some reason, you can type Ctrl+C. If
that doesnt work, try the Esc key.
Youll also see how to create windowed applications in this book, and when you run one of these applications
with the java tool, you get the results as shown in Figure 1.4 below.
Theres one thing to note about Figure 1.4the console window (a DOS window here) hangs around in the
background and waits for the application to finish before continuing (that is, before the DOS prompt reappears
in this case). If you dont want a console window associated with your windowed application, you can use the
javaw tool like this:
C:\>javaw App
Heres how you use javaw in generaljust like the java tool:
javaw [options] class [argument ...]
javaw [options] -jar file.jar [argument ...]
The parameters used by javaw are as follows:
optionsCommand-line options, which well cover later in the chapter.
classThe name of the class to be invoked.
file.jarThe name of the Java Archive (JAR) files to be invoked. This is used only with -jar. JAR files
are covered in Chapter 27.
argumentA command-line argument passed to the main method.

Figure 1.4: Running a Windowed Application

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 Immediate Solutions

When you launch a Java windowed application like this, the console window does not wait for the application to
finish; if you are running in DOS, the windowed application appears and the DOS prompt reappears in the DOS
window. This gives a more professional feel to those applications that you release for general use.
While we are discussing compiling and running code, theres another detail we should coverthe command-
line options you can use with the javac and java commands. Well take a look at them in the next two topics.

Running Code: Using Command-Line Options

Well, says the NP, I have another problem. I have stored all my .class files in one directory, but I dont
want to keep switching to that directory to run them. Another easy problem to solve, you say. You can use
the java tools -classpath option or set the CLASSPATH environment variable so that the Java compiler will
search for your classes correctly

For more on CLASSPATH, an important topic in Java programming, see the upcoming solution Finding Java Classes with
CLASSPATH.

Well take a look at using the command-line options in this solution; you use these options with the java and
javaw tools as follows (for a discussion of these tools, see the solution Running Code, earlier in this chapter):
java [options] class [argument ...]
java [options] -jar file.jar [argument ...]
javaw [options] class [argument ...]
javaw [options] -jar file.jar [argument ...]
The command-line options you can use with these tools are as follows (note that non-standard options, which
means they might not be supported in the future, begin with an X):
-classpath classpath or -cp classpathIt specifies a list of directories, .jar files or .zip files to
search for class files. You separate class path entries with semicolons (;). Note that specifying -classpath
or -cp overrides any setting of the CLASSPATH environment variable. Used with java or javaw, -
classpath or -cp only specifies the class path for user classes. If -classpath and -cp are not used and
CLASSPATH is not set, the user class path is limited to the current directory, which is referred to with a dot
(.). See the topic Finding Java Classes with CLASSPATH later in this chapter for more information.
-Dproperty=valueIt sets a system property value.
-jarIt executes a program encapsulated in a JAR file. The first argument is the name of a JAR file instead
of a start-up class name. When you use this option, the JAR file is the source of all user classes, and the other
user class path settings are ignored.
-verbose or -verbose:classIt displays information about each class loaded.
-verbose:gcIt reports on each garbage collection event. Garbage collection involves automatic memory
management in Java.
-verbose:jniIt reports information about the use of native (that is, platform-specific) methods and other
Java Native Interface activity.
-versionIt displays version information and exits.
-? or -helpIt displays usage information and exits.
-XIt displays information about non-standard options and exits.
-Xbootclasspath:bootclasspathIt specifies a semicolon-separated list of directories, .jar files or
.zip files to search for boot class files. Note that these will be used in place of the boot class files included
with Java itself.
-XdebugIt starts with the debugger enabled.
-XnoclassgcIt disables class garbage collection.

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-XmsnIt indicates the initial size of the memory pool you want to use (this value must be greater than
1000). To multiply the value by 1000, append the letter k. To multiply the value by 1 million, append the
letter m. The default value is 1m.
-XmxnIt specifies the maximum size of the memory pool (this value must be greater than 1000). To
multiply the value by 1000, append the letter k. To multiply the value by 1 million, append the letter m. The
default value is 64m.
-Xrunhprof[:help][:<suboption>=<value>,...]It enables CPU, heap, or monitor profiling. This
option is usually followed by a list of comma-separated pairs of the form <suboption>=<value>.
-XrsIt reduces the use of operating system signals.
-Xcheck:jniIt performs additional checks for Java Native Interface (JNI) functions.
-XfutureIt performs strict class-file format checks.

Commenting Your Code

The Programming Correctness Czar (PCC) comes in and looks at you reprovingly. Whats wrong, PCC? you
ask. Its your code, the PCC says. I cant make heads or tails of whats going on in it. I guess I forgot to
comment it, you say. I guess you did, the PCC says. Fix it.
Sometimes, a code can be very cryptic and hard to decipher. For that reason, Java lets you place descriptive
comments in your code to let you explain to anyone who reads that code how the program works and what it
does. As an example, lets add comments to the application we have already developed in the previous topics:
public class App { public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
Java supports three types of comment, two of which are taken from C++. You can surround a comment of any
length with the characters /* and */ as follows:
/* This application prints out "Hello from Java!" */
public class App { public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
The Java compiler will ignore all the text between the /* and */ markers. You can split comments between these
markers across multiple lines as follows:
/* This application prints out "Hello from Java!"
Created by: G. Whiz, 1/1/00 */
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
In fact, in many corporate environments, you are expected to use a standard comment header, created with the
/* and */ forms of comment, for all new code. It might look something as follows:
/*****************************************************
* This application prints out "Hello from Java!" *
* *
* Author: G. Whiz *
* Imports: None *
* Parameters: Command-line arguments *
* Returns: None *
* Assumptions: None *
* Creation date: 1/1/00 *
* Last Update: 1/1/01 *
******************************************************/
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}

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 Immediate Solutions

Java also supports a one-line comment using a double slash (//). The Java compiler will ignore everything on a
line after the // marker, so you can create whole lines that are comments or just add a comment to an individual
line as follows:
/* This application prints out "Hello from Java!" */
public class App { //Create the App class
//Create main(), the entry point for the application.
public static void main(String[] args) {
//Print out the message with
System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
Finally, Java also supports a documentation comment, which starts with /** and ends with */.This
comment is designed to be used with the javadoc tool, which can create documentation for you nearly
automatically. An example of using /** and */ is as follows:
/** This application prints out "Hello from Java!" */
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
Commenting your code can be invaluable in team environments where you share your code source files with
others. Its also handy if someone else is going to take over a project that you have been working on.

Import Java Packages and Classes

Hmm, says the NP. I have got a problem. The Design Team Coordinator told me to use the Date class for
printingout the current date in my application, but Java doesnt seem to have ever heard of the Date classI get
an error every time I try to use it. Thats because the Date class is part of the java.util package, and you
have to import that package before you can use it. Import it? the NP asks.
The classes that Sun has created for you to use are stored in class libraries called packages. To make a class in a
package available to your code, you have to import the package, which means the compiler will search that
package for classes. You can also import individual classes that are not part of a package. By default, only the
basic Java statements are available to you in an application, that is, the ones in the core java.lang package. The
compiler automatically imports the java.lang package for you, but to use the rest of the classes that come with
Java, youll have to do your own importing with the import statement. Heres how you use that statement:
import [package1[.package2...].](classname|*);
Note that you put a dot (.) between the package and the class names to keep them separate. The standard Java
packages themselves are stored in a large package called java, so the util package is really called the
java.util package (there are other large packages like the java package available; for example, the extensive
swing package is stored in the javax package). You can refer to the Date class in java.util as
java.util.Date. Heres how to import that class into a program:
import java.util.Date;
public class App { . . .
}
Note that if you are going to use import statements for importing classes into a program, the import
statements should be at the top of the code. Now, we are free to use the Date class as follows (note that we are
creating an object from the Date class by using the Java new operator, which youll learn more about in
Chapter 4):
import java.util.Date;
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Today = " + new Date()); }
}
When you run this application, youll see the current date displayed as follows:
C:\>java App
Today = Tue July 17 14:05:15 IST 2012
You can see that by studying the general form of the preceding import statement, theres also a shorthand
technique that loads in all the classes in a packageyou can use an asterisk (*) as a wildcard to stand for all the
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Chapter 1: Essential Java

classes in a particular package. Heres how that would look if you wanted to import all the classes in the
java.util package at once:
import java.util.*;
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Today = " + new Date()); }
}

Importing packages and classes only indicates to the compiler where to look for the code it needsit does not increase the size
of your code. For that reason, the bytecode file App.class will be of the same size regardless of whether you use the import
java.util.Date; statement or the import java.util.*; statement.

This is fine if you stick with importing the Sun-provided classes because Java knows where to look for the
classes it was installed with. But what if you want to import your own classes or ones provided by a third party?
Heres an example. Suppose you have a user-defined package named printer, having a class named Printer
in a file named Printer.java, and that class has one method named print:
package printer;
public class Printer {
public void print() { System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
You might want to make use of the print method in other classes. In this case, we are creating a new object of
the Printer class using the new operator and using that objects print method in an application named App:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { (new Printer()).print(); }
}
To do this, you can import the Printer class as follows (note that you can also place the code for the Printer
class in the same file as the App class, in which case you wouldnt have to import the Printer class):
import printer.*;
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { (new Printer()).print(); }
}
Here, we have learned how to import a Java built-in and a user-created class in our Java program. To learn about
the implementation part and how to actually create and import packages in our classes, refer Chapter 27.
However, suppose you want to store all your classes in a directory named, say, c:\classes. How will the Java
compiler find Printer.class there? To answer that question, take a look at the next solution on CLASSPATH.

Finding Java Classes with CLASSPATH

That Johnson! the NP says. He gave me a new Java class file, johnson.class, to work with, and its
supposed to solve my problems with that spreadsheet. But, Java claims it cant find johnson.class! Where
are you keeping that file? you ask. In a special directory I made for it, the NP says, called darnjohnson.
Thats your problem, you say. You have to include the darnjohnson directory in your class path.
By default, Java will be able to find its bootstrap classes (the ones it comes with), extension classes (those that use
the Java Extension Framework), and classes in the current directory (that is, where you are compiling your
program). Classes can be stored in the .class files, .jar files, and .zip files. Java can search all these types
of files.

Bootstrap classes are the classes that come by default with JDK, and Extension classes are the classes that use the Java
Extension Framework. But, what if you want to have Java search for classes in another directory or in a .jar file supplied by a
third party? You can do that with the CLASSPATH environment variable because Java uses this variable to determine where
you want to search for classes.

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 Immediate Solutions

Heres an example that was first introduced in the previous solution. Say that you have a class named Printer
in a file named Printer.java and that class has one method named print:
public class Printer {
public void print() { System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
In the previous solution, you want to use the print method in another classas in this case where we are
creating a new object of the Printer class by using the new operator and using that objects print method in
an application named App:
import printer.*;
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { (new Printer()).print(); }
}
This works if Printer.class is in the same directory in which you are compiling this application, because the
Java compiler will search the current directory by default. But, suppose you want to store all your classes in a
directory named c:\classes. How will the Java compiler find Printer.class there?
To make the Java compiler search c:\classes, you can set the CLASSPATH environment variable to include
that directory. By default, there are no paths or directories in CLASSPATH, but you can add a semicolon-
separated list to CLASSPATH, like this (note that its important here not to have any spaces around the equals
sign):
SET CLASSPATH=c:\classes;c:\newclasses
You can also determine the current CLASSPATH setting by typing the SET CLASSPATH at the command line and
pressing Enter. To permanently set the classpath in Windows 7, follow these steps:
1. Click the Windows icon on the taskbar, right-click the Computer, and select the Properties option. You can
also reach the same location by opening the Control Panel| System and Security| System.
2. Click the Advanced system settings option in the System Properties window. This opens up the System
Properties dialog box.
3. Click the Environment Variables button to open the Environment Variables dialog box.
4. Edit the CLASSPATH setting the way you want.
5. You may append the new classpath to the already existing CLASSPATH variable or create a new
CLASSPATH variable.
6. Finally, click OK.
Note that if you are appending the CLASSPATH variable, the different paths must be separated by
semicolons (;).
Now, the Java compiler (and other Java tools, such as the java tool) will know enough to search c:\classes
and c:\newclasses automatically. This means that the following code will now work if Printer.class is
in c:\classes because that directory is in CLASSPATH:
import printer.*;
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { (new Printer()).print(); }
}
You can append the current settings in CLASSPATH to a new setting, like this:
SET CLASSPATH=c:\classes;c:\newclasses;%CLASSPATH%
Note that you can also search .jar and .zip files for classes, as shown here:
SET CLASSPATH=server.jar;classes.zip;%CLASSPATH%
Originally, CLASSPATH was a big headache for beginners in Java programming because no classes were
considered bootstrap classes, which meant that you had to set up and understand CLASSPATH before you could
use Java at all. Thats been fixed with the concept of bootstrap classes, which are the classes that come with Java
(and are searched automatically). However, if you want to use non-standard packages or store your own classes
in other directories, its important to know how to set CLASSPATH.

29
Chapter 1: Essential Java

Summary
In this chapter, you got familiar with Java 8, its environment, and designing of programs. The chapter
introduced you to Swings and Utilities. In addition, it discussed the enhancements in JDBC and provided a brief
description of garbage collector. You also learned how to install Java. Toward the end, you developed simple
Java programs with the introduction of how to import the packages.
In the next chapter, you will learn about the variables, arrays, and strings.

30
Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings

2
Variables, Arrays,
and Strings
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
What Data Types are Available? 37
Creating Integer Literals 37
Creating Floating-Point Literals 38
Creating Boolean Literals 39
Creating Character Literals 39
Creating String Literals 40
Creating Binary Literals 40
Using Underscores in Numeric Literals 41
Declaring Integer Variables 42
Declaring Floating-Point Variables 42
Declaring Character Variables 43
Declaring Boolean Variables 43
Initializing Variables Dynamically 44
Conversion between Data Types 45
Declaring One-Dimensional Arrays 47
Creating One-Dimensional Arrays 47
Initializing One-Dimensional Arrays 48
Declaring Multi-Dimensional Arrays 48
Creating Multi-Dimensional Arrays 48
Initializing Multi-Dimensional Arrays 49
Creating Irregular Multi-Dimensional Arrays 50
Getting an the Length of an Array 51

31
Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings

If you need an immediate solution to: See page:

Understanding General Form of Static Import 51
Importing Static Members 51
The String Class 52
Creating Strings 56
Getting String Length 57
Concatenating Strings 58
Getting Characters and Substrings 58
Searching For and Replacing Strings 59
Changing Case in Strings 60
Checking for Empty String 60
Formatting Numbers in Strings 60
The StringBuffer Class 61
Creating StringBuffers 63
Getting and Setting StringBuffer Lengths and Capacities 64
Setting Characters in String Buffers 64
Appending and Inserting Using StringBuffers 65
Deleting Text in StringBuffers 65
Replacing Text in StringBuffer 65
Using the Wrapper Class 66
Autoboxing and Unboxing of Primitive Types 67
Learning the Fundamentals of Varargs Methods 69

32
 In Depth

In Depth
This chapter begins our discussion of Java syntax, and youll see a great deal of syntax usage in this chapter. We
are going to cover how Java stores and retrieves data in variables, arrays, and strings. Working with data is a
fundamental part of any significant program, and the information in this chapter is essential for any Java
programmer. Even if you are familiar with Java and have already been programming in it, take a look at the
material in this chapter because theres a lot coming up.

Variables
There are various kinds of variable that serve as containers for storing data in the memory. Different kinds of
variable store data in different formats, and the selection of variable should be made depending upon the data
that they will be storing and the memory that will be required to be kept aside for storing it. For example, an
integer variable type, the int type, can store up to 4 bytes (or 32 bits) and contain only integer values between
2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647. There are some more variables that Java provides such as floating-point
numbers, short, long, byte, and char, and all of them will be explained in this chapter.
Before you use a variable in Java, you must declare it, specifying its data type. Heres how you declare variables
in Java:
type name [= value][, name [= value]...];
Heres an example showing how to declare a variable of the int type, which means a numeric value will be
stored in it (the variable is named days):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int days;
. . . }
}
This code allocates 32 bits of storage in memory and labels the location of that storage, as far as the Java compiler
is concerned, as days, which means you can now refer to that name in code. Heres how to store a numeric
value 365 in the days variable using the Java assignment operator (=):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int days;
days = 365;
. . . }
}
Here, the value 365 is an integer literal, which means a literal value that you place directly in your code. Well
take a look at what kinds of literal Java allows throughout this chapter. To verify that days now hold 365, you
can print it out on the console:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int days;
days = 365;
System.out.println("Number of days = " + days); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Number of days = 365
As you can see, we have created a variable, stored data in it, and fetched the same data to print it on the screen.
Thats how it works.
Theres also a convenient shortcut that lets you initialize a variable when you declare it. Here, days are declared
and initialized to 365 in one step:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int days = 365;

33
Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings

System.out.println("Number of days = " + days); }

}
The int type is only one kind of simple variable you can use. Mentioned below are the various possibilities:
IntegersRefer to the types byte, short, int, and long that hold signed, whole-value numbers.
Floating-point numbersRefer to the types float and double that hold signed floating-point numbers.
CharacterRefers to the char type that holds characters such as letters and numbers.
BooleanRefers to the type that holds only two types of values: true and false.
Well take a closer look at all these in the Immediate Solutions section, including what range of values each can
hold. Together, these types make up what are called simple data types in Java. Each of these types represents a
single data value, not a compound data value (as opposed to an array, which is also discussed in this chapter).
You can store one data item in a variable made up of any simple data type, and that data item must fit in the
range allowed for that data type.

Data Typing
Java puts considerable emphasis on its data types. Its a strongly-typed language, which means it insists that the
simple variables you declare and use must fit in the listed types.
Every simple variable must have a type (and in fact, every expressionevery combination of terms that Java can
evaluate to get a valuehas a type as well). Also, Java is very particular about maintaining the integrity of those
types, especially if you try to assign a value of one type to a variable of another type. In fact, Java is more
strongly typed than a language such as C++. In C++, for example, you can assign a floating-point number to an
integer, and C++ will handle the type conversion for you, but you cannot do that in Java. You can, however,
convert between certain data types in Java such as between the integer types. Well take a look at that later in this
chapter.

When working with variables, you might find the Java compiler issuing a lot of errors and warnings about data types, which can
take some time getting used to; bear in mind that the inspiration for making Java very particular about adhering to data types
and not mixing them easily is to prevent errors in your code.

Thats an overview of whats going on in Java with simple data types and variables; its now time to take a look
at compound data storage in depth, which as far as this chapter is concerned means arrays.

Arrays
Simple types are good only for storing single data items. However, sometimes the data that needs to be stored is
a lot more complex. For instance, you want to start a new bank, say, JP Bank (short for Java Programming Bank)
and keep a track of the amount in each account indexed by account number. This situation presents the need to
work with compound data. The usage of arrays is appropriate in such a scenario.
An array allows grouping of simple data to form a compound data structure that can be referred to by using a
single name. Every data item stored in that compound data structure is stored at a particular position in the
array and can be referred by the numeric index (or position) of the data in the data structure. It is vital to store
the data in indexed form with the index sorted numerically because computers perform millions of operations
in a second and data stored in indexed form can be referenced using the numerical value. This way the entire
data structure can be traversed by simply incrementing the indexs value, and the values can be accessed with
ease.
Heres an example. In this case, well start the Java Programming Bank out with 100 new accounts, and each one
will have its own entry in an array named accounts[]. The square braces at the end of the accounts[]
represent that it is an array and the value of the index can be placed enclosed in those braces to refer to the value
stored at a particular position. Heres how we create the accounts[] array, making each entry in it of the
floating-point type double for extra precision. First, we declare the array; then, we create it with the new
operator, which is what Java uses to actually allocate memory:
public class App {

34
 In Depth

public static void main(String[] args) {

double accounts[];
accounts = new double[100];
. . .
Now that we have created an array with 100 items, we can refer to those items numerically, like this (note that
we are storing $43.95 in account 3 and printing that amount out):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[];
accounts = new double[100];
accounts[2] = 43.95;
System.out.println("Account 3 has $" + accounts[2]); }
}
Heres the result of this program:
C:\>java App
Account 3 has $43.95
As you can see, you can now refer to the items in the array by using a numeric index, which organizes them in
an easy way. In Java, the lower bound of an array you declare this way is 0, so the statement accounts = new
double[100] creates an array whose first item is accounts[0] and last item is accounts[99].
You can combine the declaration and creation steps into one step, as shown below:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[] = new double[100];
accounts[2] = 43.95;
System.out.println("Account 3 has $" + accounts[2]); }
}
You can also initialize an array with values when you declare it if you enclose the list of values you want to use
in curly braces, as youll see in this chapter. For example, this code creates four accounts and stores 43.95 in
accounts[3]:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[] = { 0, 0, 0, 43.95 };
System.out.println("Account 4 has $" + accounts[3]); }
}
It turns out that some of the customers in the Java Programming Bank are unhappy, though; they want a
checking account in addition to a savings account. How will you handle this and still keep things indexed by
account number?
The accounts[] array is a one-dimensional array, also called a vector, which means you can think of it as a
single list of numbers that you can index with one number. However, arrays can have multiple dimensions in
Java, which means you can have multiple array indexes. In this next example, well extend accounts[] into a
two-dimensional arrayaccounts[][]to handle both a savings account and a checking account. The first
index of accounts[][] will be 0 for savings accounts and 1 for checking accounts, and the second index will be
the account number as before. Heres how this works in code:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[][] = new double[2][100];
accounts[0][2] = 43.95;
accounts[1][2] = 2385489382.06;
System.out.println("Savings account 3 has $" + accounts[0][2]);
System.out.println("Checking account 3 has $" + accounts[1][2]); }
}
After creating a two-dimensional array, values in it can be referenced using two index values. For example, here
we are assuming the value 0 for savings account and 1 for checking account. The savings account details in the
account number 3 can now be referenced as accounts[0][2] and that in the checking account can be
referenced as accounts[1][2]. Shown here are the results when you run this application:
C:\>java App
Savings account 3 has $43.95
Checking account 3 has $2.38548938206E9
35
Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings

Note that we have given account 3 a checking balance of $2,385,489,382.06 (wishful thinking) and that Java has
printed that out as 2.38548938206E9. This is Javas shorthand for 2.38548938206X10 9not an inconsiderable bank
balance by any means.

Youll see a lot of arrays in this chapter, but you should know that Java now supports much more complex data structures than
arrays. These data structures are built into the language. Java now supports hashes and maps as well as other types of data
structure, and as youll see all that when we take a look at the collection classes in the forthcoming chapter.

Strings
You may have noticed that we have been using the + operator to create the text to print in the previous examples
like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[][] = new double[2][100];
accounts[0][2] = 43.95;
accounts[1][2] = 2385489382.06;
System.out.println("Savings account 3 has $" + accounts[0][2]);
System.out.println("Checking account 3 has $" + accounts[1][2]); }
}
Thats because their own class in Javathe String classsupports text strings and you can think of the
String class as defining a new data type.
For example, heres how we create a string named greeting that holds the text Hello from Java!:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String greeting = "Hello from Java!";
. . .
Now we can treat this string as we would other types of variables, including printing it out:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String greeting = "Hello from Java!";
System.out.println(greeting); }
}
Heres the result of this application:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
Although strings are not one of the simple data types in Java, yet they deserve a place in this chapter because
most programmers treat them as they would any other data type. In fact, many programmers would argue that
strings should be a simple data type in Java as they are in other languages. The reason they are not has to do
with Java lineage, which stretches back to C. C has no string simple data type; in C, you handle strings as one-
dimensional arrays of characters, which is pretty awkward. One of the things that made programmers happy
about C++ was that most implementations included a String class that you could use much as you would any
other data type. Java follows this usage, implementing strings as a class, not as an intrinsic data type, but string
handling is so fundamental to programming that it makes sense to start looking at string variables in this
chapter.
There are two string classes in JavaString and StringBuffer. You use the String class to create text
strings that cannot change, and you can use StringBuffer to create strings you can modify. As you can see in
the preceding code, you can use strings much as you would any simple data type in Java. Well take a look at
using strings in this chapter as well as in the next chapter (which is on using operators such as + and ). Well
also take a look at using operators on strings.
Thats enough overview for nowits now time to start creating and using variables, arrays, and strings.

36
 Immediate Solutions

Immediate Solutions
What Data Types are Available?
Say, the Big Boss (BB) says, how about writing a Java program to manage the companys debt? We are in
debt? you ask. Just a little, the BB replies. How little? you ask. About $2,848,238,493, 902.77, says the BB.
Hmm! you say. Sounds like a job for floating-point numbers.
What simple data types can you use to create variables in Java? Youll find them in Table 2.1 below. The simple
data types can be broken up by category, as we did at the beginning of this chapter, like this:
IntegersRefer to the byte, short, int, and long types. They contain signed, whole-value numbers.
Floating point numbersRefer to the float and double types. They contain signed, floating-point
numbers.
CharacterRefers to the char type that holds characters such as letters and numbers.
BooleanRefers to the type that holds only two types of values: true and false.

Table 2.1: Variable types

Variable type Bytes of storage Range
boolean 1 bit True, False
byte 1 -128 to 127
char 2 \u0000 to \uffff
double 8 4.9E-324 to 1.7976931348623157E308
float 4 1.4E-45 to 3.4028235E+38
int 4 -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
long 8 -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807
short 2 -32,768 to 32,767

Thats an overview of what simple data types are available; to put each of them to work, see the following
solutions.

Its worth realizing that you cant completely count on the numeric precision listed in Table 2.1 because Java implementations
do differ by machine. However, you can use the StrictMath class (you can find more about these classes at
http://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/) to ensure that the same mathematical precision is used no matter what platform your
program is running on.

Creating Integer Literals

The Novice Programmer (NP) appears and says, So, how do I assign a hexadecimal valuethat is, base 16to a
variable in Java? You say, You have to use a hexadecimal literal, which starts with the characters 0x or 0X.
A literal is a constant value that you can use directly in your Java code, and there are a number of rules that
govern them. We have already used integer literals in this chapter, which is the most common type
programmers use. Heres the example:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int days = 365;
System.out.println("Number of days = " + days); }
}

37
Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings

Here, we are assigning an integer literal with a value of 365 to the variable days. By default, integer literals are
of the int type. However, if you assign them to other integer types, such as short, Java converts the literal type
automatically. On the other hand, long values can have more digits than int values, so Java provides an
explicit way of creating long literals: You append an L to the end of the literal. Heres an example:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
long value;
value = 1234567890123456789L;
System.out.println("The value = " + value); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
The value = 1234567890123456789
You can also create literals in octal format by starting them with a leading zero and in hexadecimal format by
starting with 0x or 0X. Here are some examples:
public class App { public static void main(String[] args) {
int value; value = 16;
System.out.println("16 decimal = " + value);
value = 020;
System.out.println("20 octal = " + value + " in decimal");
value = 0x10;
System.out.println("10 hexadecimal = " + value + " in decimal"); }
}
Heres what this program displays:
C:\>java App
16 decimal = 16
20 octal = 16 in decimal
10 hexadecimal = 16 in decimal

Creating Floating-Point Literals

The Novice Programmer appears and says, I have a problem. I want to put a floating-point number 1.5 into a
floating-point variable, but Java keeps saying Incompatible type for =. Explicit cast needed to convert double.
Whats going on? You say, By default, the floating-point numbers used as literals are actually of type double
and not of type float. You can change that by adding an f or F to the end of the literal to make it a float, or a d
or D to make it a double. Oh! the NP replies.
Floating-point literals are of type double by default in the Java code; examples include 3.1415926535, 1.5, and
0.1111111. The standard notation for floating-point literals is to have a whole number followed by a fractional
part. You can also indicate a power of 10 with e or E, like this:
1.345E10
This is the same as 1.345X1010 or 9.999E23, which is the same as 9.999X1023. Heres an example in which we
are trying to assign a floating-point literal to a variable of type float:
public class App { public static void main(String[] args) {
float value;
value = 1.5;
System.out.println("The value = " + value); }
}
Unfortunately, the default type for floating-point literals is double, so Java gives me the following error:
C:\>javac App.java
App.java:2: error: incompatible types: possible lossy conversion from double to float
value = 1.5;
^
1 error
We can fix this by explicitly making my literal into a float, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
float value;
value = 1.5f;

38
 Immediate Solutions

System.out.println("The value = " + value); }

}
Now the code runs as youd expect:
C:\>java App
The value = 1.5

Creating Boolean Literals

Boolean values can only be true or false in Java (not 0 or 1 or other numeric values as in other languagesthis is
the part of Javas strong data typing). This means that only two Boolean literals you can use are true and false.
Heres an example using true as a Boolean literal:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
boolean value;
value = true;
System.out.println("The value = " + value); }
}
Heres the result of this program:
C:\>java App
The value = true

Creating Character Literals

Hey, says the Novice Programmer, how do I assign a letter to a variable in Java? Im evaluating all the
companys products and want to assign them letter grades. You can use character literals, each of which
represents a character, you reply. By the way, does the Big Boss know about this? Not yet, says the NP.
The basic form of a Java character literal is just a value that corresponds to a character in the Unicode character
set (for more on Unicode, see http://www.unicode.org). Character literals are actually numbers that act as
indexes into the Unicode character set, not actual characters. For example, the Unicode code for the letter C is 67.
Therefore, the following application prints out a C:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
char char3;
char3 = 67;
System.out.println("The third letter in alphabet = " + char3); }
}
Heres the result of the above code:
C:\>java App
The third letter in alphabet = C
However, you can also refer to the Unicode code for the letter C with a character literal, which you would
enclose in single quotes, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
char char3; char3 = 'C';
System.out.println("The third letter in alphabet = " + char3); }
}
Heres is the result of this code, which, obviously, is the same as the result of the previous code:
C:\>java App
The third letter in alphabet = C
Besides enclosing characters in single quotes to make character literals, you can also enclose special character
escape sequences in single quotes to make character literals that you couldnt make by typing a single character.
Here are the escape sequences:
\ (single quote)
\ (double quote)
\\ (backslash)
\b (backspace)

39
Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings

\ddd (octal character)

\f (form feed)
\n (newline; called a line feed in DOS and Windows)
\r (carriage return)
\t (tab)
\uxxxx (hexadecimal Unicode character)
For example, if you want to show a double quotation mark in the displayed text, you can use the \ escape
sequence, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("He said, \"Hello!\""); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
He said, "Hello!"

Creating String Literals

The Novice Programmer is backthis time with some coffee. OK, the NP says, heres the problem: I want to
use just one println statement to print out multiple linescan I do that? Sure, you say, As long as you use
the \n character literal to stand for a newline. Hows that? the NP asks.
Heres an example of what the NP wants to do. In this case, well print out some multiline text using the \n
character literal to start a new line:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Here is \nsome multiline\ntext"); }
}
Heres the output of this application:
C:\>java App
Here is
some multiline
text
As with most other programming languages, you can enclose text string literals in double quotes (unlike single
character literals, which you enclose in single quotes). You can also use the character escape sequences
introduced in the previous topic. Note that string literals in Java code are actually converted by the compiler into
String objects, not inherent simple data types (which means that odd code such as Hello.length() is
perfectly legal and will return the length of the string Hello).

Creating Binary Literals

The Novice Programmer is back and says, How can we create a literal of integer type and save the value in the
literal in binary format? You are confused and say, And why would you want to do that? The NP says, I
have just learned the procedure to convert decimals to binary and thought that the computer eventually stores
and processes everything in binary. Why not save some time of the computer by providing the value in binary
directly. I want to help the poor guy.
One of the features that Java has implemented is to assign the values in binary format. If you are assigning a
value in binary format, you need to use the letters 0b before keying in the actual value. The binary literals
express the integral type in the binary number system.
The literals are useful in a number of programming tasks to be performed. They are frequently used to create
numeric arrays. The relation between the data members of the array, which is represented using the binary
literals, is more apparent than the relation represented using the members in the hexadecimal or octal notations.
The reason behind the apparent relation representation is that the numbers represented using binary literals are

40
 Immediate Solutions

more detailed than the hexadecimal or octal literals. A good example of the relation between the array members
is rotation of 2 bits among the successive array members, as shown in the following example:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int val = 0b00010000;
int myPhases[] = {
0b00110011,
0b11001100,
0b00110011,
0b11001100 };
System.out.println("The value in val is: " + val);
System.out.println("And following are the values stored in the array myPhases:");
System.out.println(myPhases[0]);
System.out.println(myPhases[1]);
System.out.println(myPhases[2]);
System.out.println(myPhases[3]); }
}
The output of the program is as follows:
C:\>java App
The value in val is: 16
And following are the values stored in the array myPhases:
51
204
51
204

Using Underscores in Numeric Literals

The Novice Programmer says, I want to store the credit card numbers in variables and make them more
readable by separating the digits the way they are printed on the credit cards. The NP adds, I would also like
to perform mathematical operations on those values because I will be giving out the cards in sequential order.
You respond, Well, that is not possible unless you are using the latest version of Java, that is, Java 7 or 8. You
add, This is a new feature of Java 7 that allows the programmer to enter the integer values and separate them
with underscores to make them more readable.
The use of underscores in numeric literals is a newly introduced feature of Java 7. This allows the programmer
the freedom to use underscores in numeric literals, making it more readable and minimizing the typographical
errors that are very likely otherwise. You can use any number of underscore characters (_) to break the groups of
digits in the long numeric literals. The literals still remain very much ready for performing mathematical
operations. This feature was added to Java just for the sake of adding more readability to the numeric values.
An example that demonstrates the usage of underscores in numeric literals is as follows:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
long card = 1345_4489_4545_7252L;
System.out.println("Your Credit Card number is: " + card);
}
}
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
C:\>java App
Your Credit Card number is: 1345448945457252
The underscores will not be displayed during the execution, as they are only for the convenience of the
programmer. For example, in the above program, we have created a variable of the type long and saved a
hypothetical 16-digit credit card number that contains underscores to separate every four digits. The L at the end
of the credit card number in the program signifies that the value is of the long data type.

41
Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings

It is important to note that you can put underscores in a numeric literal only in between the digits of the numeric
literal. Or the underscore character should be accompanied by at least one digit on each side. You cannot place
an underscore in the numeric literals in the following places:
At the start or the end of the numeric literal
Next to the decimal point in the floating-point literal
In front of an F or L suffix in the floating-point or long literal
Places where a string of digits is expected in the numeric literal

Declaring Integer Variables

Now Im into some real programming, the Novice Programmer says, and I need to store some integer data.
How can I do that? With an integer variable., you say, Pull up a chair and Ill go through it.
Java uses four types of integer, each with its own number of bytes put aside for it in memorybyte (1 byte),
short (2 bytes), int (4 bytes), and long (8 bytes). For the range of possible values each type can handle, see the
topic What Data Types Are Available? in the Immediate Solutions section of this chapter. Which one you use
depends on the range of data you want to use as well as other considerations such as how much memory is
available (in case you want to set up a lot of integers).
Heres an example that puts all the integer types to use, declares an integer of each type, assigns each type some
data, and then displays that data:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
byte byte1;
short short1;
int int1;
long long1;
byte1 = 1;
short1 = 100;
int1 = 10000;
long1 = 100000000;
System.out.println("byte1 = " + byte1);
System.out.println("short1 = " + short1);
System.out.println("int1 = " + int1);
System.out.println("long1 = " + long1); }
}
Heres the result of this application:
byte1 = 1
short1 = 100
int1 = 10000
long1 = 100000000

Declaring Floating-Point Variables

Sorry, says the Novice Programmer, but integers just dont cut it. Im trying to design a currency converter,
and I thought I could ignore the cents part of each value, but the Big Boss told me that every cent counts. Is there
any other data type we can use? Sure, you say. You can use the float and double types.
Java has two built-in types of floating-point variables, each with its own number of bytes set aside for it in
memory: float (4 bytes) and double (8 bytes). For the range of possible values each type can handle, see the
topic What Data Types Are Available? in this chapter. The one you use depends on the range of data you want
to use as well as other considerations such as how much memory is available (in case you want to set up a lot of
floating-point values).
Heres an example that declares and uses both a float and a double (note that we explicitly make each literal
value either a float or a double literal so that therell be no problem with type conversions):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
float float1;

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double double1;
float1 = 1.11111111111F;
double1 = 1.1111111111111E+9D;
System.out.println("float1 = " + float1);
System.out.println("double1 = " + double1); }
}
Heres the output of the code (note that we have exceeded the precision allowed for a float, so its value is
rounded):
C:\>java App
float1 = 1.1111112
double1 = 1.1111111111111E9

Declaring Character Variables

You can declare character variables with the keyword char. For the possible values you can store in a char
variable, see the topic Creating Character Literals in this chapter.
Heres an example that declares two char variables: char1 and char2. This example demonstrates that you can
assign either a Unicode code or a character literal to a char (in fact, the compiler translates character literals into
Unicode codes):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
char char1, char2;
char1 = 65;
char2 = 'B';
System.out.println("char1 = " + char1);
System.out.println("char2 = " + char2); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
char1 = A
char2 = B
Heres a sneak peak at a future topic, in which we add some text to the end of char1, converting it to a string,
and increment the value in char2, changing it from B to C:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
char char1, char2;
char1 = 65;
char2 = 'B';
System.out.println("char1 = " + char1);
System.out.println("char2 = " + char2);
System.out.println("char1 + 1 = " + char1 + 1);
System.out.println("char2 = " + ++char2); }
}
Heres the output of the new version of this program:
C:\>java App
char1 = A
char2 = B
char1 + 1 = A1
char2 = C

Declaring Boolean Variables

You declare Boolean variables with the boolean keyword. Boolean variables can take only two values in Java
true and false (not numerical values such as 0 and 1 as in other programming languages). Heres an example in
which we declare and use two Boolean variables:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
boolean boolean1, boolean2;
boolean1 = true;
boolean2 = false;

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System.out.println("boolean1 = " + boolean1);

System.out.println("boolean2 = " + boolean2);
}
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
boolean1 = true
boolean2 = false
Boolean values are usually used in tests to determine program flow. We are going to jump the gun here and give
you a sneak peek into the next chapter. Here, we are using these two Boolean variables with the Java if
statement. We test the value in boolean1 with the if statement, which makes the code display the message
boolean1 is true (if its true) and boolean1 is false (otherwise):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
boolean boolean1, boolean2;
boolean1 = true;
boolean2 = false;
System.out.println("boolean1 = " + boolean1);
System.out.println("boolean2 = " + boolean2);
if(boolean1) { System.out.println("boolean1 is true"); }
else { System.out.println("boolean1 is false"); }
}
}
Heres the new result from this code:
C:\>java App
boolean1 = true
boolean2 = false
boolean1 is true

Initializing Variables Dynamically

OK, the Novice Programmer says, I have got it straight now. First, I declare a variable and then I assign a
value to it. Actually, you say, You can do both in one step. The NP replies, Tell me how!
So far, we have been declaring variables and then assigning values to them, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int int1;
int1 = 1;
System.out.println("int1 = " + int1); }
}
However, we can combine these two steps into one by initializing a variable when we declare it, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int int1 = 1;
System.out.println("int1 = " + int1); }
}
Heres how to declare and initialize multiple variables:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int int1 = 1, int2 = 2, int3 = 3;
System.out.println("int1 = " + int1 + ", int2 = " + int2 + ", int3 = " + int3); }
}
Heres the result of this program:
C:\>java App
int1 = 1, int2 = 2, int3 = 3
Up to this point, we have just assigned constant values to variables, but you can assign any expression (an
expression is any combination of Java terms that yields a value) to a variable when that variable is declared, as
long as the expression is valid at that time. For example, here we are assigning a value of 2 to int1, a value of 3
to int2, and the value of int1 times int2 to int3 using the Java multiplication operator (*):

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 Immediate Solutions

public class App {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int int1 = 2, int2 = 3;
int int3 = int1 * int2;
System.out.println("int1 = " + int1 + ", int2 = " + int2 +
", int3 = " + int3); }
}
Heres what this code gives you when you run it:
C:\>java App
int1 = 2, int2 = 3, int3 = 6
Note that the Java compiler has no idea what int1 times int2 will be when it creates the bytecodes for this
application. This means the actual value with which int3 is initialized will be determined at runtime, which is
why this process is called dynamic initialization.
As in C++, in Java, you can also intersperse your variable declarations throughout your code, as we are doing here:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int int1 = 2, int2 = 3;
System.out.println("int1 = " + int1 + ", int2 = " + int2);
int int3 = int1 * int2;
System.out.println("int3 = " + int3); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
int1 = 2, int2 = 3
int3 = 6

Conversion between Data Types

Uh oh, says the Novice Programmer. Im stuck. I have an int variable that I want to assign to a byte variable,
but Java keeps giving me an Incompatible type for =. error. Whats wrong? Thats a type conversion
problem, you explain, and you have to use an explicit type cast. Hmm, says the NP, how does that work?
Java is a strongly typed language; and as a result, you are often faced with the situation of assigning a variable of
one type to a variable of another type. The assigning of a variable of one type to a variable of another type can
be done by either relying on automatic type conversion or making an explicit type cast. Well take a look at
both here.

Automatic Conversions
When you are assigning one type of data to a variable of another type, Java will convert the data to the new
variable type automatically if both the following conditions are true:
The data type and the variable types are compatible.
The target type has a larger range than the source type.
For example, you can assign a byte value to an int variable because byte and int are compatible types, and
int variables have a larger range than byte values. Therefore, no data will be lost in the type conversion. Heres
an example:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
byte byte1 = 1;
int int1;
int1 = byte1;
System.out.println("int1 = " + int1); }
}
The Java compiler has no problem with this code, and it makes the type conversion automatically. Heres the
result of this program:
C:\>java App
int1 = 1

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Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings

Converting a data type to another with a larger range is called widening conversion. In widening conversions, the
numeric types, such as the integer and floating-point types, are compatible with each other. On the other hand,
char and boolean types are not compatible with each other or with the numeric types.

Casting to New Data Types

Performing a conversion from a data type of larger range to one that has a smaller range is called narrowing
conversion. The Java compiler does not perform automatic narrowing conversions because there are chances of
losing accuracy. To perform a narrowing conversion, it must be done with an explicit cast, which looks
like this:
(target-data-type) value
For example, in this code, we are converting an integer type into a byte type:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
byte byte1; int int1 = 1;
byte1 = (byte) int1;
System.out.println("byte1 = " + byte1); }
}
Trying to perform a narrowing conversion would throw an exception, but performing the same with the explicit
type cast would not. This is due to the fact that Java assumes that you are aware of the possibility of losing data
by converting a potentially larger data with a larger data type into a smaller type. Simply put, the programmer is
responsible for any loss of data while performing any narrowing conversions. For example, when you put a
floating-point number into a long, the fractional part of the number will be truncated, and you may lose more
data if the floating-point value is outside the range that a long can hold.
Heres the output of this code:
C:\>java App
byte1 = 1
One thing to note is that the Java compiler also automatically promotes types as needed when it evaluates
expressions. For example, consider the following code, in which everything looks like it involves only bytes:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
byte byte1 = 100; byte byte2 = 100; byte byte3;
byte3 = byte1 * byte2 / 100;
System.out.println("byte3 = " + byte3); }
}
Here Java gives the following error:
C:\>javac App.java
App.java:4: error: incompatible types: possible lossy conversion from int to byte
byte3 = byte1 * byte2 / 100;
^
1 error
However, because Java knows that multiplying bytes can result in integer-sized values, it automatically
promotes the result of the byte1 * byte2 operation to an integer, which means you actually have to use an
explicit cast here to get back to the byte type:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
byte byte1 = 100;
byte byte2 = 100;
byte byte3;
byte3 = (byte) (byte1 * byte2 / 100);
System.out.println("byte3 = " + byte3); }
}
This code compiles and runs as youd expectbut it wouldnt without the (byte) cast:
C:\>java App
byte3 = 100

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In general, the Java compiler promotes byte and short types to int types in expressions. If one operand is a long, the entire
expression is made a long. Similarly, if one operand is a float, the whole expression is made a float; if one operand is a double,
the whole expression is made a double.

Declaring One-Dimensional Arrays

The Big Boss appears and says, Its time to start cracking down on customers who are overdue paying their bills
to me. OK, you say, Can I see the accounts? I never actually kept any accounts, the BB says. Oh, you
reply. I guess Ill have to set up an array to store the accounts in first.
As explained earlier in this chapter, arrays provide an easy way of handling a set of data by index, which is great
for computers because then you can manipulate the index in your code. Java supports one-dimensional and
multi-dimensional arrays, and well take a look at both of them here. Getting an array ready for use is a two-step
process. First, you must declare the array. Heres how you declare a one-dimensional array in general:
type name[];
For example, heres how to declare an array of double values, which well name accounts[]:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[];
. . . }
}

In fact, theres another way of doing this that follows the pointer-declaration syntax in C++. You can also declare arrays with the
brackets ([]) after the type, not the name of the variable, like this: double[ ] accounts.

Unlike declaring simple variables, declaring an array does not set aside memory for the array because Java isnt
sure how big you want it to be yet. This means theres another step to the processactually creating the array.
See the next topic for the details.

Creating One-Dimensional Arrays

After youve declared a one-dimensional array, the next step is to actually create that array by allocating
memory for it. As youll see in the forthcoming chapter, the Java memory allocation operator is the new operator.
Therefore, we can create and use the new array like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[];
accounts = new double[100];
accounts[2] = 1335.67;
System.out.println("Account 3 is overdue by $" + accounts[2]); }
}
Here, we have created an array of exactly 100 double values, all of which Java initializes to 0. The lower bound
of all Java arrays is 0, so the first element in the array is accounts[0] and the last element is accounts[99]. If
the array index is outside the range 0 to 99, Java will create a fatal error, and the program will halt. Heres the
result of this program:
C:\>java App
Account 3 is overdue by $1335.67
In fact, you can combine the declaration and creation processes into one step for arrays, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[] = new double[100];
accounts[2] = 1335.67;
System.out.println("Account 3 is overdue by $" + accounts[2]); }
}

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Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings

Initializing One-Dimensional Arrays

The Novice Programmer is back with a question. I know I can initialize simple variables when I declare them,
the Novice Programmer says, but what about initializing arrays when I declare them? No problem, you say.
To initialize the data in one-dimensional arrays, you just place the values between curly braces, one value after
the other, separated by commas, beginning with the first value in the array. Heres an example that initializes the
first four elements of the accounts[] array with data:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[] = {238.45, 999.33, 0, 1335.67};
System.out.println("Account 4 is overdue by $" + accounts[3]); }
}

Declaring Multi-Dimensional Arrays

Hmm, says the Novice Programmer thoughtfully, I think I need more than a one-dimensional array. Im
supposed to be keeping track of products as indexed by product number, and the array is supposed to store the
number of items in inventory, the cost of each item, the number sold, the number . Hold it, you say. Use a
multi-dimensional array.
You can declare multi-dimensional arrays in much the same way you declare one-dimensional arrays; just
include a pair of square brackets for every dimension in the array:
type name[][][]...;
We looked at declaring multi-dimensional arrays previously in this chapter; for example, heres how to declare a
two-dimensional array with two rows and 100 columns:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[][] = new double[2][100];
. . . }
}

In fact, theres another way of doing this that follows the pointer-declaration syntax in C++. You can also declare arrays with the
brackets ([ ]) after the type, not the name of the variable, like this: double[ ][ ] accounts.
Thats how it works with two-dimensional arraysthe left index specifies the row in the array and the right
index specifies the column. Of course, you dont have to limit yourself to two dimensions.
Heres how you can declare a four-dimensional array:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[][][][] = new double[2][3][4][5];
. . . }
}
As you can see, its as easy to declare multi-dimensional arrays as it is to declare one-dimensional arrays. Now
what about actually creating the declared array? See the next topic for the details.

Creating Multi-Dimensional Arrays

The Novice Programmer asks, Now that I have declared a new multi-dimensional array, how do I create it?
Coming right up, you say.
You create a new multi-dimensional array by allocating memory for it with the new operator, giving the array
the dimensions you want. Heres how this looks in an example:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[][];
accounts = new double[2][100];
accounts[0][2] = 43.95;
accounts[1][2] = 2385489382.06;
System.out.println("Savings account 3 has $" + accounts[0][2]);

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 Immediate Solutions

System.out.println("Checking account 3 has $" + accounts[1][2]); }

}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Savings account 3 has $43.95
Checking account 3 has $2.38548938206E9
You can also condense the declaration and memory allocations into one step, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[][] = new double[2][100];
accounts[0][2] = 43.95;
accounts[1][2] = 2385489382.06;
System.out.println("Savings account 3 has $" + accounts[0][2]);
System.out.println("Checking account 3 has $" + accounts[1][2]); }
}
Heres an example that creates and uses a four-dimensional array:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[][][][] = new double[2][3][4][5];
accounts[0][1][2][3] = 43.95;
System.out.println("Account [0][1][2][3] has $" +
accounts[0][1][2][3]); }
}
Heres the result of this program:
C:\>java App
Account [0][1][2][3] has $43.95
Multi-dimensional arrays are actually arrays of arrays, which means that if you have a two-dimensional array
(array[][]), you can actually treat it as an array of one-dimensional arrays, which you can access as
array[0], array[1], array[2], and so on. Heres a slightly advanced example of doing just that using a
for loop (which youll see more of in the next chapter) and using the length property (which youll see in a
few topics) to find the length of an array:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double array[][] = {{1, 2, 3}, {3, 2, 1}, {1, 2, 3}};
int sum = 0, total = 0;
for(int outer_index = 0; outer_index < array.length; outer_index++){
for(int inner_index = 0; inner_index < array[outer_index].length; inner_index++) {
sum += array[outer_index][inner_index];
total++; } }
System.out.println("Average array value = " + (sum / total)); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Average array value = 2
So far, all the arrays we have used have had the same number of elements for each dimension, but you dont
need to set things up that way. To learn more, you can take a look at the topic after the next one. First lets look
at initializing multi-dimensional arrays.

Initializing Multi-Dimensional Arrays

You can initialize multi-dimensional arrays with data when declaring them in much the same way you initialize
one-dimensional arraysjust include a set of curly braces for each dimension and place the values with which you
want to initialize the array in those curly braces. For example, heres how to initialize a two-dimensional array:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double accounts[][] = { {10.11, 19.56, 4343.91, 43.95},
{ 11.23, 54.23, 543.62, 2385489382.06 } };
System.out.println("Savings account 3 has $" + accounts[0][2]);
System.out.println("Checking account 3 has $" +

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Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings

accounts[1][2]); }
}
Heres what running this code yields:
C:\>java App
Savings account 3 has $4343.91
Checking account 3 has $543.62

Creating Irregular Multi-Dimensional Arrays

OK, says the Novice Programmer proudly. Now Im an array expert. Uh huh, you say. Can you give
each row in an array a different number of elements? The NP says, Excuse me?
As with many other programming languages, multi-dimensional arrays are actually arrays of arrays in Java. This
means you can construct arrays as you like, as in the below example, in which each row of a two-dimensional
array has a different number of elements:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double array[][] = new double[5][];
array[0] = new double[500]; array[1] = new double[400];
array[2] = new double[300]; array[3] = new double[200];
array[4] = new double[100]; array[3][3] = 1335.67;
System.out.println("Account [0][400] has $" + array[0][400]);
System.out.println("Account [1][300] has $" + array[1][300]);
System.out.println("Account [2][200] has $" + array[2][200]);
System.out.println("Account [3][100] has $" + array[3][100]);
System.out.println("Account [4][50] has $" + array[4][50]);
System.out.println("Account [3][3] has $" + array[3][3]); }
}
Whats happening here is that we are treating each row of a two-dimensional array as a one-dimensional array
by itself and creating each of those one-dimensional arrays separately.
Each dimensional array defined in this program fetches the element according to the value of index taken
individually. Note here that the value of the array variable that is not defined is taking the default value; as in
this case, the default value of double is 0.0.
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Account [0][400] has $0.0
Account [1][300] has $0.0
Account [2][200] has $0.0
Account [3][100] has $0.0
Account [4][50] has $0.0
Account [3][3] has $1335.67
Now, lets fetch the value that exceeds the array index as shown in the following program:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double array[][] = new double[5][];
array[0] = new double[500];
array[1] = new double[400];
array[2] = new double[300];
array[3] = new double[200];
array[4] = new double[100];
array[3][3] = 1335.67;
System.out.println("Account [0][500] has $" + array[0][500]);
System.out.println("Account [1][500] has $" + array[1][500]);
System.out.println("Account [2][400] has $" + array[2][400]);
System.out.println("Account [3][300] has $" + array[3][300]);
System.out.println("Account [4][200] has $" + array[4][200]);
System.out.println("Account [3][3] has $" + array[3][3]); }
}

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The preceding program gets compiled but running the code yields, is the exceptional handling error as follows:
C:\>java App
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException: 500
at App.main(App.java:10)

Getting an the Length of an Array

Its often useful to know the length of an array, especially if you are iterating over all elements in the array in
your code. To find the number of elements in an array named array1, you can use the term array1.length.
Heres an example from the next chapter that uses a for loop to find the average student grade from a set of six
grades (here, the term grades.length returns a value of 6):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double grades[] = {88, 99, 73, 56, 87, 64};
double sum, average;
sum = 0;
for (int loop_index = 0; loop_index < grades.length; loop_index++) {
sum = sum + grades[loop_index]; }
average = sum / grades.length;
System.out.println("Average grade = " + average); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Average grade = 77.83333333333333

Understanding General Form of Static Import

To access static members, it is required to qualify references with the class they belong to. For example,
double calc = Math.cos(Math.PI * theta);
To understand this better, you sometimes add static members to an interface and inherit the same from that
interface. This is not advised though, because a class of the static members of another class you are using is just a
plain implementation detail. Whenever a class implements an interface, it becomes the part of the classs public
API, and implementation detail should not interfere with other public APIs.
The static import allows unqualified access to static members. You do not need to inherit from the type
containing static members. Alternatively, the program may import the members individually:
import static java.lang.Math.PI;
or collectively:
import static java.lang.Math.*;
The static members may be used without criterion, once imported:
double calc = cos(PI * theta);
The static import declaration mentioned previously and the normal import declaration are comparable.
You can use the static import instead of declaring local copies of constants, or utilizing inheritance (the
Constant Interface Antipattern). This means that the static import is used when we require frequent access to
static members from a couple of classes. However, excess use of this feature can make your program unreadable
and difficult to maintain, creating problems with the namespace of all the static members you import.

Importing Static Members

In a program, you can import the static members of a class by simply importing the named package of that class.
For example, in the Circumference class, you can use the constant PI defined in the Math class by using either
its fully qualified name Math.PI or simply PI if you import the PI member of the Math package:
double circumference_circle() { return 2 * Math.PI*radius; }

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Chapter 2: Variables, Arrays, and Strings

This shows the need for the static member of the Circumference class with the name PI and would provide a
much more accurate definition of . The Math prefix to the name PI doesnt really add clarity to the code, and it
would be better without it.
We can avoid the prefixing of PI to the Math class name by importing the PI member name from
the Math class:
import static java.lang.Math.PI;
class Circumference {
. . .
double circumference_circle() { return 2*PI*radius; }
}
All the static members can also be imported by using the * notation. This import applies only to the classes
defined in a named package for the static members of a class. If you require importing the name of static member
of a class that you define, the definition of the class should be included in a named package. Names of static
members with no names in the default package cannot be imported. The class name in the static import
statement must always be qualified with its package name.

The String Class

I have been looking through the list of simple data types in Java, the Novice Programmer says, And I cant
find text strings there. Shouldnt they be there? Some people say so, you reply. Strings are handled as objects
in Java. One advantage of this is that a String object has a great variety of methods you can use with it.
In many languages, text strings are fundamental data types inherent to the specific language; but in Java, strings
are handled with the String and StringBuffer classes. Lets take a look at the String class first.
String objects hold text strings that you cant change; if you want to change the actual text in the string, you
should use the StringBuffer class instead. Heres an example in which we create a string and print it out
(notice how much this code makes the String class look like any other simple data type):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "Hello from Java!";
System.out.println(s1); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
The String class is enormously powerful, with methods that enable you to convert the string into a character
array, convert numbers into strings, search strings, create substrings, change the case of the string, get a string
length, compare strings, and much more. The String class is obviously a class, not an intrinsic data type, which
means you create objects of that class with constructors, which youll learn all about in Chapter 4. A constructor is
just like a normal method of a class, except you use it to create an object of that class. Youll get a sneak peek at
the String class constructors here. The String class also has a data member you use when comparing strings
(which well take a look at in the next chapter). This data member is shown in Table 2.2. The String class
constructors, which you can use to create String objects (see the topic Creating Strings, coming up in this
chapter), appear in Table 2.3, and the methods of the String class appear in Table 2.4.
Well put the material you see in the tables below to use in the next few topics, in which well create and use
String objects.
Table 2.2: String class field summary
Field Does this
static Comparator<String> It yields a comparator (which youll see more about later) that orders
CASE_INSENSITIVE_ORDER String objects, as in compareToIgnoreCase

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Table 2.3: String class constructor summary

Constructor Does this
String() It initializes a new String object so that it holds an empty character
sequence
String(byte[] bytes) It constructs a new String object by converting the array of bytes by
using the platforms default character encoding
String(byte[] bytes, Charset It constructs a new String by decoding the specified array of bytes
charset) using the specified charset
String(byte[] ascii, int hibyte) It is deprecated because it did not properly convert bytes into characters
String(byte[] bytes, int offset, It constructs a new String object by converting the subarray of bytes
int length) using the default character encoding
String(byte[] bytes, int offset, It constructs a new String by decoding the specified subarray of bytes
int length, Charset charset) using the specified charset
String(byte[] ascii, int hibyte, It is deprecated because it did not properly convert bytes into characters
int offset, int count)
String(byte[] bytes, int offset, It constructs a new String object by converting the subarray of bytes
int length, String charsetName) using the specified charset
String(byte[] bytes, String It constructs a new String object by converting the array of bytes using
charsetName) the specified charset
String(char[] value) It allocates a new String object so that it represents the sequence of
characters contained in the character array argument
String(char[] value, int offset, It allocates a new String object that contains characters from a subarray
int count) of the character array argument
String(int[] codePoints, int It allocates a new String object that contains characters from a subarray
offset, int count) of the Unicode code point array argument
String(String original) It initializes a new String object so that it represents the same sequence
of characters as the argument string
String(StringBuffer buffer) It allocates a new String object that contains the sequence of characters
contained in the string buffer argument
String(StringBuilder builder) It allocates a new String object that contains the sequence of characters
contained in the string builder argument

Table 2.4: String class methods

Method Does this
char charAt(int index) It yields the character at the given index
int codePointAt It yields the character (Unicode code point) at the specified index
(int index)
int codePointBefore(int index) It yields the character (Unicode code point) before the specified index
int codePointCount(int It yields the number of Unicode code point in the specified range of this
beginIndex, int endIndex) string
int compareTo It compares two strings lexicographically
(String anotherString)
int compareToIgnoreCase It compares two strings lexicographically, ignoring case
(String str)
String concat(String str) It concatenates the given string to the end of this string
boolean contains(CharSequence s) It returns True if this string contains the specified sequence of char values

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Table 2.4: String class methods

Method Does this
boolean It compares this string to the specified CharSequence
contentEquals(CharSequence cs)
boolean It compares this string to the specified StringBuffer
contentEquals(StringBuffer sb)
static String copyValueOf It yields a String object thats equivalent to the given character array
(char[] data)
static String copyValueOf It yields a String object thats equivalent to the given character array by
(char[] data, int offset, int using offsets
count)
boolean endsWith It returns True if the string ends with the given suffix
(String suffix)
boolean equals It compares this string to an object
(Object anObject)
boolean equalsIgnoreCase It compares this String object to another String object, ignoring case
(String anotherString)
static String format(Locale l, It returns a formatted string using the given locale, format string, and
String format, Object...args) arguments
static String format(String It returns a formatted string using the given format string and arguments
format, Object...args)
byte[] getBytes() It converts this String object into bytes with the default charset, storing
the result in a new byte array
byte[] getBytes(Charset charset) It encodes this String into a byte sequence using the given charset, storing
the result in a new byte array
void getBytes It is deprecated because it did not properly convert characters into bytes
(int srcBegin,int srcEnd,
byte[] dst, int dstBegin)
byte[] getBytes It converts this String object into bytes with the given charset, storing
(String charsetName) the result in a new byte array
void getChars It copies characters from this string into the destination array
(int srcBegin, int srcEnd, char[]
dst, int dstBegin)
int hashCode() It yields a hash code for this string
int indexOf(int ch) It yields the index within this string of the first occurrence of the given
character
int indexOf(int ch, int It yields the index within this string of the first occurrence of the given
fromIndex) character, starting the search at the given index
int indexOf(String str) It yields the index within this string of the first occurrence of the given
substring
int indexOf(String str, int It yields the index within this string of the first occurrence of the given
fromIndex) substring, starting at the given index
String intern() It yields a representation for the String object
boolean isEmpty() It yields True if length of string is 0
int lastIndexOf(int ch) It yields the index within this string of the last occurrence of the given
character
int lastIndexOf(int ch, int It yields the index within this string of the last occurrence of the given
fromIndex) character, searching backward from the given index
int lastIndexOf(String str) It yields the index within this string of the rightmost occurrence of the
given substring

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Table 2.4: String class methods

Method Does this
int lastIndexOf It yields the index within this string of the last occurrence of the given
(String str,int fromIndex) substring, searching backward from the given index
int length() It yields the length of this string
boolean matches(String regex) It returns True if this string matches the given regular expression
int offsetByCodePoints(int index, It returns the index within this string which is offset from the given
int codePointOffset) index by codePointOffset code points
boolean regionMatches It tests whether two string regions are equal, allowing you to ignore case
(boolean ignoreCase, int toffset,
String other, int ooffset, int
len)
boolean regionMatches(int It tests whether two string regions are equal
toffset, String other, int
ooffset, int len)
String replace(char oldChar, char It yields a new string by replacing all occurrences of oldChar in this
newChar) string with newChar
String replace(CharSequence It yields a new string by replacing each substring of this string that
target, CharSequence replacement) matches the literal target sequence with the given literal replacement
sequence
String replaceAll(String regex, It yields a new string by replacing each substring of this string that
String replacement) matches the given regular expression with the given replacement
String replaceFirst(String regex, It yields a new string by replacing the first substring of this string that
String replacement) matches the given regular expression with the given replacement
String[] split(String regex) It splits this string around matches of the given regular expression
String[] split(String regex, int It splits this string around matches of the given regular expression and
limit) the limit given as parameter
boolean startsWith(String prefix) It tests whether this string starts with the given prefix
boolean startsWith(String prefix, It tests whether this string starts with the given prefix, beginning at the
int toffset) given index
CharSequence subSequence( int It returns a new character sequence, which is a subsequence of this
beginIndex, int endIndex) sequence
String substring It yields a new string, which is a substring of this string
(int beginIndex)
String substring(int beginIndex, It yields a new string, which is a substring of this string, allowing you to
int endIndex) specify the end index
char[] toCharArray() It converts this string to a new character array
String toLowerCase() It converts all the characters in this String object to lowercase by using
the rules of the default locale, which is returned by
Locale.getDefault() method
String toLowerCase It converts all the characters in this String object to lowercase using the
(Locale locale) rules of the given Locale
String toString() It returns the string object
String toUpperCase() It converts all the characters in this String object to uppercase using the
rules of the default locale, which is returned by Locale.getDefault()
method
String toUpperCase It converts all the characters in this String object to uppercase using the
(Locale locale) rules of the given locale
String trim() It removes white space from both ends of this string

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Table 2.4: String class methods

Method Does this
static String valueOf It yields the string representation of the boolean argument
(boolean b)
static String valueOf It yields the string representation of the char argument
(char c)
static String valueOf It yields the string representation of the char array argument
(char[] data)
static String valueOf It yields the string representation of a specific subarray of the char array
(char[ ] data, int offset, int argument
count)
static String valueOf(double d) It yields the string representation of a double type argument
static String valueOf(float f) It yields the string representation of a float type argument
static String valueOf It yields the string representation of an int type argument
(int i)
static String valueOf(long l) It yields the string representation of a long type argument

static String valueOf(Object obj) It yields the string representation of an Object type argument

Creating Strings
So Java includes a String class to handle text strings, the Novice Programmer says. Thats great, because
Im writing this novel, see, and. Hold it, you say. I dont want to hear about it.
Lets take a look at some of the many ways of creating String objects. Heres a way youve already seen:
public class App { public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "Hello from Java!";
. . . }
}
In fact, when you use a string literal such as Hello from Java! in your code, Java treats it as a String object So
whats really happening here is that one String object is assigned to another.
Of course, you can also declare a string first and then assign a value to it:
public class App { public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "Hello from Java!";
String s2;
s2 = "Hello from Java!";
. . . }
}
Heres a case in which we use one of the String class constructors. In this case, we are just creating an empty
string and then assigning data to it:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "Hello from Java!";
String s2;
s2 = "Hello from Java!";
String s3 = new String();
s3 = "Hello from Java!";
. . .}
}
You can also pass a text string to the String class constructor directly to create a new string, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "Hello from Java!";
String s2;
s2 = "Hello from Java!";

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String s3 = new String();

s3 = "Hello from Java!";
String s4 = new String("Hello from Java!");
. . . }
}
Other String class constructors are available that can take character arrays or subsets of character arrays (the
String class knows which constructor you are using by the number and type of arguments you pass to it). You
can even use the String class valueOf method to get a string representation of numeric values:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "Hello from Java!";
String s2;
s2 = "Hello from Java!";
String s3 = new String();
s3 = "Hello from Java!";
String s4 = new String("Hello from Java!");
char c1[] = {'H', 'i', ' ', 't', 'h', 'e', 'r', 'e'};
String s5 = new String(c1);
String s6 = new String(c1, 0, 2);
String s7 = String.valueOf(c1);
System.out.println(s1);
System.out.println(s2);
System.out.println(s3);
System.out.println(s4);
System.out.println(s5);
System.out.println(s6);
System.out.println(s7); }
}

To convert a string into a number, you can use the numeric wrapper classes, such as Integer, Long, Float, and so on, using
methods such as Integer.parseInt() and Long.parseLong().

At the end of this code, we print out all the strings we have created. Heres what appears when the program
is run:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
Hello from Java!
Hello from Java!
Hello from Java!
Hi there
Hi
Hi there

Getting String Length

The Novice Programmer is breathless. I have written half my novel, the NP says, and I need to find out how
long it is so far. How can I do that? Use the String class length() method, you say.
Heres an example that shows how to use the String classs length() method (note that it also shows how
Java treats string literals as String objects by using length() method on a string literal):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "Hello from Java!";
System.out.println("\"" + s1 + "\"" + " is " + s1.length() + " characters long");
System.out.println("\"" + "Hello" + "\"" + " is " + "Hello".length() + " characters
long"); }
}

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Heres the output of this program:

C:\>java App
"Hello from Java!" is 16 characters long
"Hello" is 5 characters long

Concatenating Strings
Concatenating strings means joining them together, and we have already used the + operator in this book to do
just that. However, theres another way to concatenate stringsyou can use the String class concat()
method to join two strings and create a new one.
How does that look in code? Heres an example where we use both the + operator and the concat() method to
create the same string:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "Hello";
String s2 = s1 + " from";
String s3 = s2 + " Java!";
String s4 = s1.concat(" from");
String s5 = s4.concat(" Java!");
System.out.println(s3);
System.out.println(s5); }
}
Heres the result of the preceding code:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
Hello from Java!
As you have already seen when printing out numbers, when you concatenate a numeric value with a string, the
numeric value is concatenated as a string.

Note that concatenating numbers does indeed treat them as strings, so be carefulfor example, System.out.println (3 + 3 = +
3 + 3) displays 3 + 3 = 33, not 3 + 3 = 6.

Getting Characters and Substrings

The String class provides a number of methods that let you dissect strings into their component characters and
substrings. For example, you can use the charAt() method to get the character at a specific position:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "Hello from Java!";
char c1 = s1.charAt(0);
System.out.println("The first character of \"" + s1 + "\" is " + c1);
. . . }
}
You can use the toCharArray() method to convert a String object into a char array, and you can use the
getChars() method to get the number of characters:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "Hello from Java!";
char c1 = s1.charAt(0);
System.out.println("The first character of \"" + s1 + "\" is " + c1);
char chars1[] = s1.toCharArray();
System.out.println("The second character of \"" + s1 + "\" is " + chars1[1]);
char chars2[] = new char[5];
s1.getChars(0, 5, chars2, 0);

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System.out.println("The first five characters of \"" + s1 + "\" are " + new

String(chars2));
. . .
You can also use the substring() method to create a new string thats a substring of the old one, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "Hello from Java!";
char c1 = s1.charAt(0);
System.out.println("The first character of \"" + s1 + "\" is " + c1); char chars1[] =
s1.toCharArray();
System.out.println("The second character of \"" + s1 + "\" is " + chars1[1]); char
chars2[] = new char[5];
s1.getChars(0, 5, chars2, 0);
System.out.println("The first five characters of \"" + s1 + "\" are " + new
String(chars2));
String s2 = s1.substring(0, 5);
System.out.println("The first five characters of \"" + s1 + "\" are " + s2); }
}
Heres the result of running this program:
C:\>java App
The first character of "Hello from Java!" is H
The second character of "Hello from Java!" is e
The first five characters of "Hello from Java!" are Hello
The first five characters of "Hello from Java!" are Hello

Searching For and Replacing Strings

You can search strings for characters and substrings by using the indexOf() and lastIndexOf() methods.
The indexOf() method returns the zero-based location of the first occurrence in a string of a character or
substring, and lastIndexOf() returns the location of the last occurrence of a character or substring.
Heres an example that shows how to use indexOf() and lastIndexOf() methods:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "We have drawn a nice drawing.;
System.out.println("The first occurrence of \"draw\" is " + "at location " +
s1.indexOf("draw"));
System.out.println("The last occurrence of \"draw\" is " + "at location " +
s1.lastIndexOf("draw"));
. . .
The String class also has a replace() method, which lets you replace all occurrences of a single character
with another single character. You might think this violates the idea that you cant change the text in a String
object; however, this method creates an entirely new String object. Heres an example showing how this
method works (note that we turn all occurrences of the letter h into the letter f in a text string):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "we have drawn a nice drawing";
System.out.println("The first occurrence of \"draw\" is " + "at location " +
s1.indexOf("draw"));
System.out.println("The last occurrence of \"draw\" is " + "at location " +
s1.lastIndexOf("draw"));
String s2 = "Edna, you\'re hired!";
System.out.println(s2.replace('h', 'f')); }
}

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Heres the result of this code:

C:\>java App
The first occurrence of "draw" is at location 8
The last occurrence of "draw" is at location 21
Edna, you're fired!

Changing Case in Strings

The Novice Programmer says, The Big Boss told me my programs output wasnt emphatic enough. Do you
have any ideas?, Try the toUpperCase() method, you say.
You can use the toLowerCase() method to convert a string into lowercase, and you can use the
toUpperCase() method to convert it into uppercase.
Heres how this looks in code:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello from Java!".toLowerCase());
System.out.println("Hello from Java!".toUpperCase()); }
}
Heres the result of this program:
C:\>java App
hello from java!
HELLO FROM JAVA!

Checking for Empty String

Java SE 6 onwards, you can check for empty string by using a new method isEmpty() which has been
introduced in String class. The isEmpty() method returns true if and only if the length of string is 0. Heres
an example:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String str="";
System.out.println("The string is Empty?-"+str.isEmpty()); }
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
The string is Empty?-true

Formatting Numbers in Strings

You can format numbers in strings by using the NumberFormat class of the java.text package. This class
supports the format(), setMinimumIntegerDigits(), setMinimumFractionDigits(),
setMaximumIntegerDigits(), and setMaximumFractionDigits() methods. Heres an example, using
the setMaximumFractionDigits() method, in which we round off a double value as we format it:
import java.text.*;
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double value = 1.23456789;
NumberFormat nf = NumberFormat.getNumberInstance();
nf.setMaximumFractionDigits(6);
String s = nf.format(value);
System.out.println(s); }
}

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Heres the result:

C:\>java App
1.234568

The StringBuffer Class

Hmm, says the Novice Programmer. I have stored my whole novel in a String object, but now I cant
change it. Whats wrong? You cant change the text in a String object, you say. You have to use a
StringBuffer object instead. Now you tell me, replies the NP.
The StringBuffer class gives you much of what the String class offersand something more: The ability to
modify the actual string. Heres an example that uses the StringBuffer class replace method to change the
contents of a StringBuffer object from Hello from Java! to Hello to Java!:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
StringBuffer s1 = new StringBuffer("Hello from Java!");
s1.replace(6, 10, "to");
System.out.println(s1); }
}
Heres the result of running this code:
C:\>java App
Hello to Java!
Youll find the StringBuffer class constructors in Table 2.5 and its methods in Table 2.6. Well put the
StringBuffer class to work in the next few topics.

Table 2.5: StringBuffer class constructors

Constructors Does this
StringBuffer() It constructs a string buffer with no characters in it and a capacity of 16
characters
StringBuffer(CharSequence seq) It constructs a string buffer that contains the same characters as the
specified CharSequence
StringBuffer(int capacity) It constructs a string buffer with no characters in it and the given capacity
StringBuffer(String str) It constructs a string buffer so that it represents the same sequence of
characters as the argument string

Table 2.6: StringBuffer class methods

Method Does this
StringBuffer append It appends the string representation of the boolean argument to the
(boolean b) sequence
StringBuffer append(char c) It appends the string representation of the char argument to the
sequence
StringBuffer append It appends the string representation of the char array argument to the
(char[] str) sequence
StringBuffer append(char[] str, int It appends the string representation of a subarray of the char array
offset, int len) argument to the sequence
StringBuffer append(CharSequence s) It appends the specified CharSequence to the sequence
StringBuffer append(CharSequence s, It appends a subsequence of the specified CharSequence to the sequence
int start, int end)
StringBuffer append It appends the string representation of the double argument to the
(double d) sequence

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Table 2.6: StringBuffer class methods

Method Does this
StringBuffer append(float f) It appends the string representation of the float argument to the
sequence
StringBuffer append(int i) It appends the string representation of the int argument to the sequence
StringBuffer append(long l) It appends the string representation of the long argument to the
sequence
StringBuffer append It appends the string representation of the Object argument to the
(Object obj) sequence
StringBuffer append It appends the string to this character sequence
(String str)
StringBuffer append It appends the given StringBuffer to the sequence
(StringBuffer sb)
String appendCodePoint(int It appends the string representation of the codePoint argument to the
codePoint) sequence
int capacity() It yields the current capacity of the string buffer
char charAt(int index) It yields the given character of the sequence represented by the string
buffer, as indicated by the index argument.
int codePointAt(int index) It yields the character (Unicode code point) at the specified index.
int codePointBefore(int index) It yields the character (Unicode code point) before the specified index.
int codePointCount(int beginIndex, It yields the number of Unicode code points in the range of given index
int endIndex) arguments.
StringBuffer delete(int start, int It removes characters in a substring of the sequence.
end)
StringBuffer deleteCharAt(int It removes the character at the given position in the sequence.
index)
void ensureCapacity(int It ensures that the capacity of the buffer is at least equal to the given
minimumCapacity) minimum.
void getChars(int srcBegin, int It copies characters from the sequence into the destination character array
srcEnd, char[] dst, int dstBegin) dst.
int indexOf(String str) It returns the index of first occurrence of the given substring.
int indexOf(String str, int It returns the index of first occurrence of the given substring, starting at
fromIndex) the given fromIndex.
StringBuffer insert(int offset, It inserts the string representation of the boolean argument into the
boolean b) sequence.
StringBuffer insert(int offset, It inserts the string representation of the char argument into the
char c) sequence.
StringBuffer insert(int offset, It inserts the string representation of the char array argument into the
char[] str) sequence.
StringBuffer insert(int index, It inserts the string representation of a subarray of the str array
char[] str, int offset, int len) argument into the sequence.
StringBuffer insert(int dstOffset, It inserts the given CharSequence into the sequence.
CharSequence s)
StringBuffer insert(int dstOffset, It inserts a subsequence of the given CharSequence into the sequence.
CharSequence s, int start, int end)
StringBuffer insert(int offset, It inserts the string representation of the double argument into the
double d) sequence.
StringBuffer insert(int offset, It inserts the string representation of the float argument into the
float f) sequence.

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Table 2.6: StringBuffer class methods

Method Does this
StringBuffer insert(int offset, int It inserts the string representation of the second int argument into the
i) sequence.
StringBuffer insert(int offset, It inserts the string representation of the long argument into the
long l) sequence.
StringBuffer insert(int offset, It inserts the string representation of the Object argument into this
Object obj) sequence.
StringBuffer insert(int offset, It inserts the string into the sequence.
String str)
StringBuffer lastIndexOf(String It yields the index of the rightmost occurrence of the specified substring.
str)
StringBuffer lastIndexOf(String It yields the index of the last occurrence of the specified substring.
str, int fromIndex)
int length() It yields the length (in characters).
int offsetByCodePoints(int index, It yields the index within this sequence that is offset from the given
int codePointOffset) index by the codePointOffset code points.
StringBuffer replace(int start, int It replaces the characters in a substring of this sequence with the
end, String str) characters in the given string.
StringBuffer reverse() It replaces the character sequence contained in this sequence with the
reverse of the sequence.
void setCharAt(int index, char ch) It sets the character at the given index of the sequence to ch.
void setLength(int newLength) It sets the length of the character sequence.
CharSequence subSequence(int start, It yields a new sequence of characters, which is a subset of this sequence.
int end)
String substring(int start) It yields a new string that contains a subsequence of characters currently
contained in this sequence. The substring begins at the given index.
String substring(int start, int It yields a new string that contains a subsequence of characters currently
end) contained in this sequence.
String toString() It yields a string representing the data in this sequence.
Void trimToSize() It tries to reduce the storage space used for the sequence.

Creating StringBuffers
You can create StringBuffer objects using the StringBuffer class constructors. For example, heres how to
create an empty StringBuffer object (which is set up with space for 16 characters, by default) and then insert
some text into it:
public class App { public static void main(String[] args) {
StringBuffer s1 = new StringBuffer();
s1.insert(0, "Hello from Java!");
System.out.println(s1);
. . .
Heres how to initialize a new StringBuffer object with a string:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
StringBuffer s1 = new StringBuffer();
s1.insert(0, "Hello from Java!");
System.out.println(s1);
StringBuffer s2 = new StringBuffer("Hello from Java!");

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System.out.println(s2);
. . .
You can also create a StringBuffer object with a specific length, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
StringBuffer s1 = new StringBuffer();
s1.insert(0, "Hello from Java!");
System.out.println(s1);
StringBuffer s2 = new StringBuffer("Hello from Java!");
System.out.println(s2);
StringBuffer s3 = new StringBuffer();
s3.insert(0, "Hello from Java!");
System.out.println(s3);
}
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
Hello from Java!
Hello from Java!

Getting and Setting StringBuffer Lengths and Capacities

The StringBuffer class provides the length() method to find the length of the text in the StringBuffer
objects. Apart from this, the class provides the capacity() method to identify the amount of memory space
allocated for the text. You can also set the length of the text in a StringBuffer object with the setLength()
method, which lets you truncate strings or extend them with null characters (that is, characters whose Unicode
codes are 0).
Lets create a program to identify the string length and capacity. We will also change the length of the string:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
StringBuffer s1 = new StringBuffer("Hello from Java!");
System.out.println("The length is " + s1.length());
System.out.println("The allocated length is " + s1.capacity());
s1.setLength(2000);
System.out.println("The new length is " + s1.length()); }
}
Heres what this program looks like when its run:
C:\>java App
The length is 16
The allocated length is 32
The new length is 2000

Setting Characters in String Buffers

Help! the Novice Programmer cries, I need to change some text in my novel! You can try the
setCharAt() method, you say helpfully.
To read characters in a StringBuffer object, you can use the charAt() and getChars() methods, just as
you can with String objects. However, in StringBuffer objects, you can also set individual characters by
using the setCharAt() method.
Heres an example in which we change the text: She had a wild look in her eyes to She had a mild look in her
eyes by using setCharAt():
public class App {

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public static void main(String[] args) {

StringBuffer s1 = new
StringBuffer("She had a wild look in her eyes");
s1.setCharAt(10, 'm');
System.out.println(s1); }
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
She had a mild look in her eyes

Appending and Inserting Using StringBuffers

The setCharAt() method doesnt do it for me, the Novice Programmer says. I really need some way of
editing the text in StringBuffer objects as a string, not as individual characters. OK, you say. Use the
append() and insert() methods. You can use the append() method to append strings to the text in a
StringBuffer object, and you can use the insert() method to insert text at a particular location.
Heres an example that starts with the text Hello, appends Java!, and then inserts from into the middle of
the text, using append() and insert() methods:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
StringBuffer s1 = new StringBuffer("Hello");
s1.append(" Java!");
System.out.println(s1);
s1.insert(6, "from ");
System.out.println(s1); }
}
Heres what this code produces:
C:\>java App
Hello Java!
Hello from Java!

Deleting Text in StringBuffers

You can delete text in a StringBuffer object by using the delete() and deleteCharAt() methods. For
example, heres how to change the text We are not having a good time. to We are having a good time. with
delete() method. (To use this method, you just specify the range of the characters you want to delete):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
StringBuffer s1 = new
StringBuffer("We are not having a good time.");
s1.delete(7, 11);
System.out.println(s1); }
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
We are having a good time.

Replacing Text in StringBuffer

Im writing a text editor by using the StringBuffer class, the Novice Programmer says, but theres one
thing I cant figure outhow can I replace text with other text? Do I have to delete it and then insert the new
text? No, you answer. Its simplejust use the replace() method.

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In fact, youve already seen how to use replace() method; you just specify a character range and the new text
that should replace that range, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
StringBuffer s1 = new StringBuffer("Hello from Java!");
s1.replace(6, 10, "to");
System.out.println(s1); }
}
Heres the result of the preceding code:
C:\>java App
Hello to Java!

Using the Wrapper Class

The Novice Programmer is confused and says, Im unable to put primitive values into a collection Ok, you
say. That can be solved easily, Ill tell you how.
Java uses primitive data types such as int, double, char which does not come under the hierarchy of objects.
These data types cannot be called by reference. There could be a situation in which we need to use the primitive
data types as objects. Java provides a wrapper class in order to use the primitive data types as objects, which
wraps the primitive data type within an object. So, every primitive data type has a corresponding class defined
in the Java API class library.
Table 2.7 illustrates the primitive data type and the corresponding wrapper class:
Table 2.7: Wrapper classes for the primitive types
Primitive type Wrapper class
int Integer

short Short

long Long

byte Byte

float Float

double Double

char Character

boolean Boolean

There are different methods defined in order to return the value of an object. For example, byteValue()
method returns the value of an object as byte; similarly, doubleValue() method will return the values as
double. The following example is giving you the demonstration of using the wrapper class:
public class App {
public static void main (String args[]) {
Integer intwrap = new Integer(250);
Character chrwrap = new Character('H');
int int1 = intwrap.intValue();
char chr1= chrwrap.charValue();
System.out.println(int1 + " " + intwrap);
System.out.println(chr1+" "+ chrwrap); }
}
This program compiles and upon executing shows the result as:
C:\>java App
250 250
H H

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The following lines from the preceding program are encapsulating a value within an object. This feature is known
as boxing:
Integer intwrap = new Integer(250);
Character chrwrap = new Character('H');
The following lines of code are extracting the values from the type wrapper. This feature is known as unboxing:
int int1 = intwrap.intValue();
char chr1= chrwrap.charValue();

Autoboxing and Unboxing of Primitive Types

As a Java programmer, you probably know that you cannot put an int (or other primitive values) in a collection
(Refer Chapter 21). As only object references can be held by a collection, you are required to box primitive values
into the corresponding wrapper class (for example, Integer for int). If you need to take out an object from
a collection, you get the Integer value that you had put in earlier. As in the case of wrapper class, there is a
need to define the object by using the new keyword (which allocates the memory for the variable). If this boxing
and unboxing needs to be done manually every time, it would complicate your code, therefore, making it
difficult to write and understand. Here, the autoboxing and unboxing comes in and is done automatically.
Lets consider the following example which demonstrates the feature of autoboxing and unboxing. Heres the
whole program, which is App.java:
public class App {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Integer intbox1,intbox2,intbox3;
intbox1 =250;
int a= intbox1;
System.out.println("The value of intbox1 is "+ intbox1);
System.out.println("The value of int1 is "+ a);
intbox2=500;
System.out.println("value of intbox2 is "+ intbox2);
intbox2=intbox2+1;
System.out.println("value of intbox2 after increment is " + intbox2);
intbox3= intbox2+(intbox2/5);
System.out.println("value of intbox 3 after evaluation is "+ intbox3);
Boolean bbox1= true;
if (bbox1)
System.out.println ("bbox1 contains the true
value");
Character chbox1='H';
char chbox2= chbox1;
System.out.println("value of chbox2 is "+ chbox2);
Integer intbox4 = Autobox2.mthdbox(500);
System.out.println("The value obtained from the method is "+ intbox4); }
}
class Autobox2 {
static int mthdbox(Integer b) { return b; }
}
The output of the program will be:
C:\> java App
The value of intbox1 is 250
The value of int1 is 250
value of intbox2 is 500
value of intbox2 after increment is 501
value of intbox3 after evaluation is 601
bbox1 contains the true value
value of chbox2 is H
The value obtained from the method is 500

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Lets discuss what is happening in the preceding program, from the previous code we have:
public class App {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Integer intbox1,intbox2,intbox3;
intbox1 =250;
int a= intbox1;
System.out.println("The value of intbox1 is "+ intbox1);
System.out.println("The value of a is "+ a);
. . . }
}
The following code line in the preceding program is encapsulating a value within an object:
intbox1 =250;
This feature is known as autoboxing as we have not defined the object explicitly by using the new keyword.
Again, the following line is shown as extracting the values. This feature is known as unboxing:
int a= intbox1;
If well print the results of the two variables defined, it will yield the same result as assigned. If you need an int,
it is required that you unbox the Integer by using the intValue() method.
Lets take another section of the code from the program:
public class App {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Integer intbox1,intbox2,intbox3;
intbox1 =250;
int a= intbox1;
System.out.println("The value of intbox1 is "+ intbox1);
System.out.println("The value of a is "+ a);
intbox2=500;
System.out.println("value of intbox2 is "+ intbox2);
intbox2=intbox2+1;
System.out.println("value of intbox2 after increment is " + intbox2);
intbox3= intbox2+(intbox2/5);
System.out.println(" value of intbox 3 after evaluation is "+ intbox3);
. . . }
}
In these lines, the expression is being calculated and the result obtained will again be reboxed. In the line,
intbox2=500, autoboxing is taking place.
Note the expression intbox2=intbox2+1. It will automatically unbox the variable and then result back into
the variable by reboxing. Youll get the result of different variables used in the expression. It will display the
values before evaluating and after evaluating the expression. You can see this later in this section. Lets take
some more lines of the code:
public class App {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Integer intbox1,intbox2,intbox3;
intbox1 =250;
int a= intbox1;
System.out.println("The value of intbox1 is "+ intbox1);
System.out.println("The value of a is "+ a);
intbox2=500;
System.out.println("value of intbox2 is "+ intbox2);
intbox2=intbox2+1;
System.out.println("value of intbox2 after increment is " + intbox2);
intbox3= intbox2+(intbox2/5);
System.out.println("value of intbox 3 after evaluation is "+ intbox3);
Boolean bbox1= true;
if (bbox1)
System.out.println ("bbox1 contains the true value");
Character chbox1='H';
char chbox2= chbox1;

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System.out.println("value of chbox2 is "+ chbox2);

. . . }
}
You can take the boolean and char variables also. The auto-unboxing takes place in the if condition when the
condition expression gets evaluated. Similarly, the line Character chbox1='H' autoboxes the char and char
chbox2= chbox1 auto-unboxes the char.
At times, situations are such that you may require passing values of primitive type to a method that requires the
argument to be referenced to an object. In such cases, the compiler will automatically convert those primitive
values to the required class types where permissible. Lets take more lines of code:
public class App {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Integer intbox1,intbox2,intbox3;
intbox1 =250;
int a1= intbox1;
System.out.println("The value of intbox1 is "+ intbox1);
System.out.println("The value of a1 is "+ a1);
intbox2=500;
System.out.println("value of intbox2 is "+ intbox2);
intbox2=intbox2+1;
System.out.println("value of intbox2 after increment is " + intbox2);
intbox3= intbox2+(intbox2/5);
System.out.println("value of intbox 3 after evaluation is "+ intbox3);
Boolean bbox1= true;
if (bbox1)
System.out.println ("bbox1 contains the true value");
Character chbox1='H';
char chbox2= chbox1;
System.out.println("value of chbox2 is "+ chbox2);
Integer intbox4 = Autobox2.mthdbox(500);
System.out.println("The value obtained from the method is "+ intbox4);
}
}
class Autobox2 {
static int mthdbox(Integer b1) { return b1; }
}
Here we are defining a method mthdbox() with Integer type parameter value b1 is being passed, which will
return the int value in class Autobox2. So, in order to call the method mthdbox(), note the expression
Integer intbox4 = Autobox2.mthdbox(500) defined in the App class. The value can only be called by
explicitly mentioning the class of the function from which it is called. So, the value of b1 will be displayed as a
result. The return statement will auto-unbox the expression.
Alternately, you can perform the autoboxing in methods by using another way as shown here:
class App {
static int mthdbox(Integer b1) { return b1; }
public static void main(String args[]) {
Integer intbox4 = mthdbox(500);
System.out.println(intbox4); }
}
Here, there is no need to explicitly call the function by using the class name as it itself contains the main function.

Learning the Fundamentals of Varargs Methods

The NP is tensed, Is there an easy way by which we could avoid using arrays and still format a message? Its
simple you say, use varargs. Whats that? asks NP.
Varargs means variable-length arguments or a method that takes a variable number of arguments. This feature
was introduced in Java SE 5. This makes it easier to create methods whose argument list widely varies.

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To understand this better, we can compare this with arrays. If you needed to create a method that could take
an arbitrary number of values, you could put the values into the array prior to invoking the method.
For example, shown here is the MessageFormat class that formats a message:
Object[] arguments = {
new Integer(7), new Date(), "a disturbance in the Force" };
String result = MessageFormat.format("Nature caused {2} , on {1,date}
{1,time}" + "{0,number,integer}., arguments);
Basically, instead of passing multiple arguments in an array, varargs automates and hides the process.
Additionally, it is upwardly well matched with the existing APIs. For example, the
MessageFormat.format() method now has this declaration:
public static String format(String pattern, Object... arguments);
The three periods after Object indicate that you can pass an array or a sequence of arguments as final argument.
However, it must be noted that varargs can be used only in the final argument position.
Varargs can be useful in core APIs including reflection, message formatting, and the new print facility. If you
are an API designer, you should use them in moderationonly when the benefit is truly undeniable. Care must
be taken so that the varargs method is not overloaded or it will be difficult for you to figure out which
overloaded method gets called; but you can take advantage of them whenever the API offers them. Lets now
understand the concept of varags through a small example given here:
public class App {
static void mthdvar(int ...int1) {
System.out.print("Total number of arguments passed are: "
+int1.length+ " Contents: ");
for (int int2:int1) System.out.print(int2 +" ");
System.out.println(); }
public static void main (String args[]) {
mthdvar();
mthdvar(100);
mthdvar(200,300,400); }
}
The result of the preceding code is as follows:
Total number of arguments passed are: 0 Contents:
Total number of arguments passed are: 1 Contents: 100
Total number of arguments passed are: 3 Contents: 200 300 400
So, in the preceding examples, we have defined a method mthdvar(), in which int1 is operated as an array.
The three dots used in the line will be known by the compiler as an array. As you can see in the main(),
method, mthdvar() has been called by using three different arguments; in the first case, we have not passed
any arguments.
The contents of this array arguments can be fetched by using the for-each statement. Lets briefly go through the
for-each loop. You will be explained about the for-each loop as well as other varieties of loops in Chapter 3.

The statement for (type any-var : collections) is in general form. The word type is for the data type which should be the same as
defined in the array or passed in the argument list. Collection is being considered as the type of objects whether array or some
list value specifies one at a time from first element to the last element. Lets take a small example to understand this concept.

public class App {

public static void main (String args[]) {
int list1[]={10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100};
int total=0;
for (int int1:list1) {
System.out.println("Values of element is :" +int1);
total=total+int1; }
System.out.println("Total sum of all the values defined is: "+ total); }
}
Its output is displayed as follows:
Values of element is :10
Values of element is :20
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 Immediate Solutions

Values of element is :30

Values of element is :40
Values of element is :50
Values of element is :60
Values of element is :70
Values of element is :80
Values of element is :90
Values of element is :100
Total sum of all the values defined is: 550

Overloading Varargs Methods

The overloading feature of varargs allows a set of functions that perform a similar operation to be collected
under a common mnemonic name, such as print(). This removes the lexical intricacy of providing each
function with a unique name. Alternatively, depending on the particular data in use, the function overloading is
used when you have a single task, which has two or more implementations or algorithms. By overloading the
function, you can hide other available algorithms from the user.
Overloading methods should be dealt with very carefully. The compiler decides which version of an overloaded
method will be called based on declared compile-time type, not runtime type. In the case in which overloaded
methods have the same number of arguments, the rules regarding this decision can sometimes be a bit tricky. If
there is ambiguity, the design can be simplified by:
using different method names and avoiding overall overloading.
retaining overloading, but ensuring each method has a distinct number of arguments.
In addition, it is recommended that varargs should not be used when a method is overloaded, since this makes it
harder to determine which method is being called.

Overloading requires methods with distinct signatures. The signature of a method includes its name and the ordered list of its
argument types. All other items appearing in a method header, such as exceptions, return type, final, and synchronized, do not
contribute to a method's signature.

Heres an example to understand the concept:

public class App {
public static void Averg(Integer... List) {
Integer total=0; int ListCount=0;
for(Integer cnt:List) {
total+=cnt;
ListCount++; }
System.out.println((double)total/ListCount);
System.out.println((int)total/ListCount); }
public static void main(String args[]) {
Averg(7); Averg(1,2,3);
Averg(); }
}
Heres the result:
C:\> java App
7.0
7
2.0
2
NaN
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.ArithmeticException: / by zero
at App.Averg(App.java:8)
at App.main(App.java:11)
In this scenario, we need to be careful that the implementation handles an empty vararg list correctly. Here we
could have avoided the issue by adding a runtime check to make sure that the List was not empty, even better
would be to make the first integer necessary so that the last call to Averg would not generate a type mismatch
error. The last call to Averg also generates NaN, Not a Number, as it is the result of 0/0.

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Similar type of elements must be passed to the varargs list, although that type can be of any type or a user-
defined type.
Trying to combine varargs with optional parameters is not a good ideathough it just doesnt work most of the
time (type mismatch errors are common). The resulting functionality generally isnt very useful even when the
code compiles without errors.
Also, once you are inside the function body, your varargs parameter is a list, completely impossible to tell apart
from a list passed as a parameter. This means that passing a variable number of arguments through one function
to another could be really tough.
Test( varargs List ) { Counter( List ); }
Counter ( varargs List ) { print( ListCount(List) ); }
main () { Test( 1, 2, 3) ; }
Heres an example to understand the concept:
public class App {
public static void Test(Integer... List) { counter(List); }
public static void counter(Integer... List) {
int ListCount=0;
for(Integer cnt:List) { ListCount++; }
System.out.println(ListCount); }
public static void main(String args[]) { Test(1,2,3); }
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
3
Fortunately, this issue doesnt come up too often.

Learning the Ambiguity in Varargs Methods

However, varargs has its own advantages, but this has not been very popular with the developer community. It
is possible that the programmers may seem to be comfortable with the earlier solutions and are not so with this
feature. Also, there may be some unknown problems with this new technology. To have a better view of this, we
can proceed by putting various examples and scenarios as follows.
When the compiler creates code to call the varargs method, it may create an instance of a special class for a
chosen small number of arguments. It is obvious that a special implementation of Indexed for one element will
always be faster on modern HotSpot than a single-element array (although natve iteration with for-each
facility will require extra Iterator object, but that can be fixed, if needed, by recognizing Indexed object as a
special case in for-each statement). Performance will certainly be better for the array-based varargs when the
number of arguments is large, but it is a matter of debate that people who really need varargs and drive their
inclusion into Java do not care about performance much, and it will be perfectly fine for them to deal with an
extra object that implements Indexed interface and wraps underlying array for many argument cases.
The varargs syntax introduces an inconsistency between the behavior of parameters and local variables. At
present, the parameter declarations behave exactly like local variables: passing values a and b to a method
Test(int x, String y) is directly equivalent to int x = a; String y = b. Using varargs, you can
pass values a and b to the method with a single parameter like this: Trial(Object... x). This implies an
equivalent syntax for initializing a local variable to multiple values like this: Object... x = a, b;.
However, such syntax does not exist. The problem is not the use of syntax. It shows that the varargs feature
doesn't feel well integrated into the language.
When you use overloaded methods, with varargs it is more difficult to tell which method will get called. If this is
combined with autoboxing, it can be even more confusing. We have no idea which Test method gets called.
However, this problem would not exist with Concise Object Array Literals.
To make varargs acceptable, it can be said that methods declared with a parameter type needs to use it as
the last argument type (like in C, C++, C#), and require that the method is less precise than any other
overloading method declaring more specific argument types (like in C++). But it is difficult when reading the
caller code if a more specific method will be called or if the vararg method will be used. This is determined at

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 Immediate Solutions

compile time by looking at the methods of the callee class; but if that class is extended later with more
specific methods, the old caller will start using them instead of using the vararg method. This is a case where the
type signature safety has not been taken care of. Many more examples are available that show the ambiguity in
varargs, but we need to find those by getting accustomed to the technology and to popularize the use of the
same.

Using Non-Reifiable Formal Parameters

The non-reifiable formal parameter is a type of parameter passed to the methods and classes whose type
information is not completely available at runtime. Examples of the non-reifiable types are the parameterized
types such as ArrayList<Integer> and List<Double>. These parameters lose their type information
during the type erasure process, which is performed at the compile time. In the type erasure process, the
compiler removes all information of the type parameters and type arguments within a class or method that uses
generics. For example, after the type erasure process, the Cat<String> type is converted to the raw Cat
type. A raw type is the name of a class or interface without any type information. The process of type erasure is
performed to make the Java applications using generics compatible with the application developed before the
generics.
The type erasure process has consequences when parameters of a vararg method are of the non-reifiable type.
You will understand this better with an example:
import java.util.*;
public class App {
public static void faultyGenericMethod(List<String>... listAdd) {
Object[] objectCollArray = listAdd; // Valid
objectCollArray[0] = Arrays.asList(new Integer(44));
String s = listAdd[0].get(0); // ClassCastException thrown at this
// line
}
public static void main (String args[]){
List<String> test=new ArrayList<String>(5);
faultyGenericMethod(test);
}
}
Here, the first statement of the faultyGenericMethod() method assigns the formal list non-reifiable
parameter listAdd to the object array objectCollArray. The list parameter can be assigned to the object
array because the formal parameters of the Vararg method are converted to arrays during compilation. In our
case, the listAdd parameter of the List<String> type is converted to List[], which can be assigned to the
object [] objectCollArray. The assignment of the listAdd parameter to the objectCollArray object
array can cause potential heap pollution. The heap pollution is caused because the Integer object whose type
does not match the parameterized String type of the listAdd vararg formal parameter can also be assigned to
the object array objectCollArray. The objectCollArray object in turn refers to the listAdd formal
parameter whose type is List<String>. As a result, the compiler does not raise any warning or error when
the List object of Integer type is added to the first element of the objectCollArray array, as shown in the
following code statement:
objectCollArray[0] = Arrays.asList(new Integer(44));
At the runtime, when the first element of the listAdd formal parameter, whose parameterized type is String,
is assigned to a String variable s, the ClassCastException exception is thrown. The ClassCastException
exception is thrown because the first element of the listAdd formal parameter is of Integer type and is assigned
to a String variable s. The retrieval and assignment of the first element of the listAdd parameter is shown in the
following code statement:
String s = listAdd[0].get(0);
Here are the exceptions that the above program throws upon compiling and executing:
C:\>javac App.java
Note: App.java uses unchecked or unsafe operations.
Note: Recompile with Xlint:unchecked for details.
C:\>java App

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Exception in thread main java.lang.ClassCastException: java.lang.Integer cannot be

cast to java.lang.String
at App.faultyGenericMethod<App.java:6>
at App.main<App.java:11>

Summary
In this chapter, we have learned about the use of variables, literals, data types, arrays, strings, and Wrapper
classes. After getting the conceptual knowledge on the concepts, the Immediate Solutions section has helped you
to declare and initialize variables, create binary literals, and use underscores in numeric literals. You also came
to know how to perform operations on arrays and strings. You have learned the use of StringBuffer classes and
wrapper classes. The chapter ends with the discussion on autoboxing and unboxing of primitive types, and the
fundamentals of varargs methods.
In the next chapter, you will learn about the operators and control structures.

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 3
Operators, Conditionals,
and Loops
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Operator Precedence 81
Incrementing and Decrementing (++ and --) 82
Unary NOT (~ And !) 83
Multiplication and Division (* and /) 83
Modulus (%) 83
Addition and Subtraction (+ and -) 84
Shift Operators (>>, >>>, and <<) 84
Relational Operators (>, >=, <, <=, ==, and !=) 85
Bitwise and Bitwise Logical AND, XOR, and OR (&, ^, and /) 85
Logical (&& and ||) 87
The if-then-else Operator (?:) 87
Assignment Operators (= and [operator]=) 88
Using the Math Class 89
Changes in the Math Class 90
Class StrictMath 90
Comparing Strings 91
The if Statement 92
The else Statement 92
Nested if Statement 93
The if-else Ladders 93
The switch Statement 93
Using Strings in switch Statement 95
The while Loop 95
The do-while Loop 96
Chapter 3: Operators, Conditionals, and Loops

If you need an immediate solution to: See page:

The for Loop 97
The for-each Loop 99
Supporting for-each in Your Own Class 101
Nested Loops 102
Using the break Statement 103
Using the continue Statement 103

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 In Depth

In Depth
In the previous chapter, we took a look at how Java handles data in basic ways. In this chapter, well start doing
something with that data as we examine the Java operators, conditionals, and loops.
Storing a lot of data in your program is fine; but unless you do something with it, its not of much use. Using
operators, you can manipulate your dataadd, subtract, divide, multiply, and more. With conditionals, you can
alter a programs flow by testing the values of your data items. Using loops, you can iterate over all data items in
a set, such as an array, working with each data item in succession in an easy way. These represent the next step
up in programming power from the previous chapter, and well discuss all three of these programming topics
here.

Operators
Java provides a very easy way to work with data in a program. Like most languages, it provides a number of
built-in operators. For example, if one variable contains value 10 and another variable contains 20, the variables
can be added using the + operator, as shown in this code:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int operand1 = 20, operand2 = 10, sum;
sum=operand1+operand2;
System.out.println(operand1 + " + " +operand2 + " = " + sum); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
20 + 10 = 30
So, what operators does Java offer? Heres a list of all of them:
--(decrement)
- (subtraction)
! (logical unary NOT)
!= (not equal to)
% (modulus)
%= (modulus assignment)
& (logical AND)
&& (short-circuit AND)
&= (bitwise AND assignment)
* (multiplication)
*= (multiplication assignment)
/ (division)
/= (division assignment)
?: (ternary if-then-else)
^ (logical XOR)
^= (bitwise XOR assignment)
| (logical OR)
|| (short-circuit OR)
|= (bitwise OR assignment)
~ (bitwise unary NOT)
+ (addition)

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Chapter 3: Operators, Conditionals, and Loops

++ (increment)
+= (addition assignment)
< (less than)
<< (shift left)
<<= (shift left assignment)
<= (less than or equal to)
= (assignment)
-= (subtraction assignment)
== (equal to)
> (greater than)
>= (greater than or equal to)
>> (shift right)
>>= (shift right assignment)
>>> (shift right with zero fill)
>>>= (shift right zero fill assignment)
Youll see these operators at work in this chapter. Operators that take one operand are called unary operators.
Those that take two operandsfor example, addition (a + b)are called binary operators. Theres even an
operator,?:, that takes three operandsthe ternary operator.

Besides the built-in operators, well also cover the Java Math class in this chapter, which allows you to add a lot more math
power to your programs, including exponentiation (unlike other languages, Java has no built-in exponentiation operator),
logarithms, trigonometric functions, and more. StrictMath classes (you can find more about these classes at
http://java.sun.com/javase/8/docs/api/) ensure that the same mathematical precision is used no matter what machine your
program is running on.

Conditionals
The next step up from using simple operators is to use conditional statements, also called branching statements, in
your code. You use conditional statements to make decisions based on the value of your data and make the flow
of the program go in different directions accordingly.
Say you wanted to report on the weather; and if its less than 80 degrees Fahrenheit, you want to print out a
message that reads Its not too hot. You can do this by checking the current temperature with a Java if
statement that compares the value in the variable temperature to 80; and if that value is under 80, it prints out
your message:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int temperature = 73;
if (temperature < 80) { System.out.println("It's not too hot."); }
}
}
The if statement tests whether its condition (the part that appears in the parentheses) is true, which in this case
is temperature < 80. The Java < (less than) relational operator is used to test whether the value in
temperature is less than 80. Because we have set that value to 73, the if statements condition is true, which
means the code in the body of the if statement will be executed. Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
It's not too hot.
You can make if statements more complex by adding else clauses. These clauses must follow the if statement
and are executed when the if statement condition turns out to be false. Heres an example:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {

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 In Depth

int temperature = 73;

if (temperature < 80) { System.out.println("It's not too hot!"); }
else { System.out.println("It's too hot!"); }
}
}
As youll see, there are other conditional statements as well, and well put them to work in this chapter, giving
the Java syntax a thorough workout.

Loops
Loops enable you to execute a set of statements for a number of times. For example, you may want to print your
name five times on the console or calculate the sum of the first hundred natural numbers; in such cases, loops are
used. The loop execution depends upon a loop condition. The statements inside a loop are executed as long as
the loop condition remains true. Generally, the condition involves a loop index that gets incremented or
decremented every time the loop executes.
The general syntax of a for loop is as follows:
for (initialization_expression; test_conditon; iteration_expression) {
statement;
}
Note that the statement that makes up the body of the for loop can be a compound statement, which means it
can be made up of several single statements enclosed within curly braces.
You can initialize the loop index with initialization expression, provide a test condition for loop termination,
and modify loop index value in iteration expression. Note that we are declaring and initializing the loop index at
the same time. Isnt it similar to C++? Yes, C++ also allows you to simultaneously declare and initialize the loop
index. A simple example of a for loop which prints Kogent five times is as follows:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
for (int loop_index = 1; loop_index < 6; loop_index++){
System.out.println("Kogent"); }
}
}
This code prints Kogent, using loop_index, which starts at 1 and is steadily incremented each time through
the loop by 1 till the loop test condition evaluates true. The result of this code is:
C:\>java App
Kogent
Kogent
Kogent
Kogent
Kogent
There are statements that cause an unconditional jump to other statement in the code. Such statements are called
jump statements. These are mainly used to interrupt the control flow within the switch statements and loops.
There are three jump statements supported by Java: break, continue, and return. Generally, the break
statement allows exit from a loop or switch before the execution completes, and the continue statement takes
control to the beginning of a loop or switch. For the return statement, please see the topic Returning Values
from Methods in Chapter 4.
Heres a simple example of the break statement to make things clearer. In this case, the loop index is initialized
with value 1 and is incremented by 1 for every execution of the loop. In the code, the test condition states that the
loop should execute till the loop index is less than 7:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
for (int loop_index = 1; loop_index < 7; loop_index++){
if(loop_index==5) break;
System.out.println(loop_index); }
System.out.println("Kogent"); }
}

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Chapter 3: Operators, Conditionals, and Loops

This code prints the value of loop index until it becomes 5. Then the break statement takes control out of the
loop and Kogent gets printed. The result of this code is:
C:\>java App
1
2
3
4
Kogent
As you can see, for loop is a powerful one; in fact, its just one of the many topics coming up in the Immediate
Solutions section. Its now time to start by using operators, conditional statements, and loops.

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 Immediate Solutions

Immediate Solutions
Operator Precedence
Hey, says the Novice Programmer, Javas gone all wacky again. I tried adding 6 and 24 and then dividing the
result by 6. The answer should have been 5, but Java said its 10. Probably an operator precedence problem,
you say. Let me check your code.
When a single Java statement contains a number of operators, you may also face problem similar to what the
Novice Programmer is facing here. An important concern is which operator does Java execute first? For example,
take a look at the Novice Programmers code in which he tries to add 6 and 24 and then divide the sum by 6:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double value;
value = 6 + 24/6;
System.out.println("Value is " + value); }
}
The actual result of this code is:
C:\>java App
Value is 10.0
The Novice Programmer was right; its different from what he expected. Actually, its the operator precedence
that determines which operator is to be executed first, which second, and so on. Operator precedence rule states
that the operators are executed in the order of highest to lowest precedence. The Novice Programmer is getting
10 as output because the / operator has higher precedence than the + operator. Therefore, 24 is firstly divided by
6 and then the result is added to 6, which produces 10.
You can use parentheses to specify Java the way you want the operators to execute. Heres how the Novice
Programmers code would now look; see the parentheses around 6 + 24, which have been used to make sure
that this operation is performed first:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double value;
value = (6 + 24)/6;
System.out.println("Value is " + value); }
}
The result of this code is:
C:\>java App
Value is 5.0
Table 3.1 spells out the Java operator precedence, from highest to lowest (operators on the same line have the
same precedence). Note that at the very highest level of precedence, youll find ( ), [ ] (the array operator,
which you use to get data items at a specific index in an array), and . (the dot operator, which you use to specify
methods and data members of objects). This means that, for example, you can always use parentheses to set the
execution order of operations in Java statements.
Well go over all these Java operators, in order of precedence, in this chapter, starting with the incrementing and
decrementing operators: ++ and --.
Table 3.1: Operator precedence
Operators
( ) [ ] .
++ -- ~ !
* / %
+ -

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Chapter 3: Operators, Conditionals, and Loops

Table 3.1: Operator precedence

Operators
>> >>> <<
> >= < <=
== !=
&
^
|
&&
||
?:
= [operator]=

Incrementing and Decrementing (++ and --)

The Programming Correctness Czar appears and says, C++ has an incrementing operator and a decrementing
operator. Does Java support these? Sure thing, you say.
The ++ operator increments its operand by 1, and the -- operator decrements its operand by 1. For example, if
value holds 10 after you execute value++, value will hold 11.
The ++ and operators were introduced in C to make incrementing and decrementing values, which are very
common and easy operations. In fact, they were so popular that the incrementing operator was used in C++s
name, indicating that C++ is an incremented version of C.
Heres an important point to note: ++ and -- can be used as either postfix operators (for example, value++) or
prefix operators (for example, ++value). Prefix operators are executed before the rest of the statement, whereas
postfix operators are executed after the rest of the statement. For example, consider the following code:
value2 = value1++;
The preceding statement post increments value1. Note that value2 will still contain its original value and
value1 gets incremented; the case would have been different if it was a pre-increment operator. Heres an
example to make it clear:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int value1 = 10, value2 = 10;
System.out.println("value1 = " + value1);
System.out.println("value2 = " + value2);
value2 = value1++;
System.out.println("After value2 = value1++");
System.out.println("value1 = " + value1);
System.out.println("value2 = " + value2);
value2 = ++value1;
System.out.println("Now, after value2 = ++value1");
System.out.println("value1 = " + value1);
System.out.println("value2 = " + value2); }
}
The result of this code is:
C:\>java App
value1 = 10
value2 = 10
After value2 = value1++
value1 = 11
value2 = 10
Now, after value2 = ++value1

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 Immediate Solutions

value1 = 12
value2 = 12

Unary NOT (~ And !)

The ~ operator is the bitwise unary NOT operator, and ! is the logical unary NOT operator. The ~ operator flips
all the bits of numeric arguments, and the ! operator flips true values to false and false values to true. Heres an
example in which we flip all the bits of the most positive short value, 32767, to find the most negative short
value, and we also flip a Boolean value from true to false:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
short s1 = 32767;
boolean boolean1 = true;
System.out.println("Most negative short = " + ~s1);
System.out.println("!true = " + !boolean1); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Most negative short = -32768
!true = false
If we had set s1 to 0 and then flipped its bits with the ~ operator to 1111111111111111 in binary, Java would
have displayed the resulting value as -1, because it uses twos complement notation for negative numbers. This
means the leading bit is 1 for negative numbers and 0 for zero and positive numbers.

So, why are 1111111111111111 binary equal to -1 in a short variable? If you add it to 1, you end up with 10000000000000000
binary, a number too large for a 16-bit short, so the leading 1 is lost and you end up with 0 (in other words, -1 + 1 = 0).

Multiplication and Division (* and /)

The Programming Correctness Czar says, I expect that Java has multiplication operator and division operators,
just like C++. Sure, you say.
You use * to multiply values and / to divide values in Java. Heres an example in which we use * and / on double
values, and then we do the same thing on integer values. We perform multiplication and division on integer values
to show that the fractional part of math results is truncated when you use integers. Therefore, if you want to
perform a division operation and still retain precision, you probably shouldnt be using integers. Heres the code:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double double1 = 4, double2 = 6, double3 = 5, doubleResult;
doubleResult = double1 * double2 / double3;
System.out.println("4 * 6 / 5 = " + doubleResult);
int int1 = 4, int2 = 6, int3 = 5, intResult;
intResult = int1 * int2 / int3;
System.out.println("With integer math, 4*6/5 = " + intResult); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
4 * 6 / 5 = 4.8
With integer math, 4 * 6 / 5 = 4

Modulus (%)
Modulus operator returns the remainder of a division operation. For example, 11%3 returns 2 and 7%2 returns 1
as output. Note that the modulus operator is especially useful when converting between bases because you can
use it to successively strip digits off a number by using the modulus operator with the base you are converting
into. To see how this works, take a look at the topic The while Loop, later in this chapter. It contains a full
example.

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Chapter 3: Operators, Conditionals, and Loops

Addition and Subtraction (+ and -)

The multiplication operator is an asterisk and the division operator is a forward slash, the Novice Programmer
says, but those arent the symbols I learned for these operations in school. What does Java use for plus and
minus? The usual symbols for plus and minus, you reply.
The old standby numeric operators are + and -, which you use for addition and subtraction respectively. Heres
an example:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int operand1 = 5, operand2 = 4, sum, diff;
sum = operand1 + operand2;
diff = operand1 - operand2;
System.out.println(operand1 + " + " + operand2 + " = " + sum);
System.out.println(operand1 + " - " + operand2 + " = " + diff); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
5 + 4 = 9
5 - 4 = 1

Shift Operators (>>, >>>, and <<)

You use the shift operators to shift all the bits of a number left or right a specified number of binary places. There
are three shift operatorsright shift (>>) operator, unsigned right shift (>>>), and left shift (<<) operator. Heres
how you use these operators:
new_value = value << number_places;
new_value = value >> number_places;
new_value = value >>> number_places;
For example, 16 >> 2 shifts the number 16 right by two binary places, which is the same as dividing it by 4;
therefore, 16 >> 2 equals 4. You commonly use the shift operators when packing binary values into an int or
long as fields, because you can add a number to the int or long and then shift it left to make room for the next
field of data.
Heres something you should know: The >> operator respects the sign of its operand; and because a negative
value means that the leftmost bit is 1, shifting a negative number right introduces a new 1 at the left. Therefore,
shifting 1111111111111100, which is -4 as a short, turns it into 1111111111111110, which is -2. Also, shifting -1,
which is 1111111111111111, gives you 1111111111111111, which is still -1. If you really want to work with the
actual bits in a number when you shift them right and not have a one added to the left when shifting negative
numbers, use the unsigned right shift operator (>>>). This introduces a zero at the left, whether or not the
number you are shifting is positive or negative.
Heres an example that puts the shift operators to work:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int value =16, negValue = -1;
System.out.println(value + " << 2 = " + (value << 2));
System.out.println(value + " >> 2 = " + (value >> 2));
System.out.println(negValue + " >> 2 = " + (negValue >> 2));
System.out.println(negValue + " >>> 22 = " + (negValue >>> 22)); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
16 << 2 = 64
16 >> 2 = 4
-1 >> 2 = -1
-1 >>> 22 = 1023

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 Immediate Solutions

Relational Operators (>, >=, <, <=, ==, and !=)

The Big Boss appears and says, The budget is just about spent, and we need to make sure it doesnt go
negative. Hmm, you say, sounds like a job for the less than relational operator. Now, about my raise....
Forget it, says the BB.
Relational operators allow you generate logical conditions that can be used with conditional as well as looping
statements. For example, heres how you could check to make sure the budget is greater than zero using a Java
if statement:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { int budget = 1;
if (budget < 0) { System.out.println("Uh oh."); }
else { System.out.println("Still solvent."); }
}
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Still solvent.
Heres a list of all the relational operators; these operators will return true if their operands match the given
descriptions:
> (greater than; for example, operand1 > operand2 returns true if operand1 is greater than
operand2.)
>= (greater than or equal to)
< (less than)
<= (less than or equal to)
== (equal to)
!= (not equal to)
You can combine the logical conditions you create with a relational operator with the logical operators (see the
next topic for the details).

Heres a Java pitfall to avoid: When you are creating a logical condition, bear in mind that you probably want to use == instead
of =. For example, the expression budget == 0 is true if the value in budget is 0, but the expression budget = 0 assigns a value
of 0 to budget. Be careful, because using = instead of == in logical conditions is a very common mistake.

Bitwise and Bitwise Logical AND, XOR, and OR (&, ^, and /)

Help! the Novice Programmer says. I need to find out whether bit number 3 of an integer is set to 1. Is there
an easy way to do this? Sure, you say. You can use a bitwise operator.
The bitwise operators let you examine the individual bits of values. For example, when you use the & bitwise
operator with two operands, each bit in one operand is logically anded with the corresponding bit in the other
operand. If both bits are 1, a one appears in that place in the result; otherwise, a zero will appear in that place.
For example, the Novice Programmer could test whether the third bit of a value is set to 1 by anding the value
with a number for which he knows only one bitthe third bitis set to 1. If the result of the AND operation is not
zero, the third bit of the original value was set. Heres how this would look in code:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int value = 12;
int bit3setting = value & 1 << 3;
if (bit3setting != 0) { System.out.println("Bit 3 is set."); }
else { System.out.println("Bit 3 is not set."); }
}
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
Bit 3 is set.

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Chapter 3: Operators, Conditionals, and Loops

You can find the bitwise operators in Table 3.2. In overview, heres how they work: The OR operator (|) returns 0
when both bits are 0 and returns 1 otherwise. The AND operator (&) returns 1 when both bits are 1 and returns 0
otherwise. Finally, the XOR operator (^, called the exclusive OR) returns 1 when one bit is 0 and the other is 1, and
it returns 0 otherwise.
When the &, ^, and | operators operate on Boolean (true/false) values, they are considered bitwise logical
operators. The bitwise logical operators work the same as the bitwise operators (substitute false for 0 and true for
1), as you can see in Table 3.3.
In overview, heres how the bitwise logical operators work: The OR operator (|) returns false when both
operands are false, and it returns true otherwise. The AND operator (&) returns true when both operands are true,
and it returns false otherwise. The XOR operator (^) returns true when one operand is false and one is true, and it
returns false otherwise.
Table 3.2: The OR, AND, and XOR bitwise operators
x y x | y (OR) x & y (AND) x ^ y (XOR)
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0

Table 3.3: The OR, AND, and XOR bitwise logical operators
X y x | y (OR) x & y (AND) x ^ y (XOR)
False False False False False

True False True False True

False True True False True

True True True True False

Heres an example in which we tie two logical conditions together, displaying a message if either is true, using
the | operator:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int budget = 1; boolean fired = false;
if (budget < 0 | fired == true) { System.out.println("Uh oh."); }
else { System.out.println("Still solvent."); }
}
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
Still solvent.
In this next example, we insist that the temperature be between 60 and 90 degrees, using the & bitwise logical
operator, before printing out a message:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int temperature = 70;
if (temperature < 90 & temperature > 60) {
System.out.println("Time for a picnic."); }
}
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
Time for a picnic.
As you can see, the bitwise logical operators can be very useful. Java also includes two logical operators: && and
||. Well take a look at them next.

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 Immediate Solutions

Logical (&& and ||)

The two logical operators you usually use in logical expressions are the logical AND (&&) operator and logical OR
(||) operator. Table 3.4 shows how these operators work:
Table 3.4: The OR and AND logical operators
x y x || y (OR) x && y (AND)
False False False False
True False True False
False True True False
True true true true

The OR operator (||) returns true if any of its operands is true and false if all operands are false. The AND (&&)
operator returns false if any of its operands is false and true only when all operands result in true.
The && and || operators also have another interesting propertythey are short-circuit operators, which means
that if they can determine all they need to know by evaluating the left operand, they wont evaluate the right
operand. This is very useful in cases such as the following, where we are testing both whether a value holds 0
and whether its reciprocal is less than 1000. If the value is indeed 0, the second part of the expression, where its
reciprocal is calculated, is not executed. This way a divide-by-zero overflow error doesnt occur. Heres the code:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { double value = 0;
if (value != 0 && 1 / value < 1000) {
System.out.println("The value is not too small."); }
else {
System.out.println("The value is too small."); }
}
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
The value is too small.
The logical operators differ from the bitwise logical operators because the logical operators are short-circuit
operators. To see this at work, take a look at the following code, where the assignment in the if statement is
performed when we use the & operator but not when we use the && short-circuit operator:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double int1 = 0, int2 = 1, int3 = 1;
if (int1 != 0 & (int2 = 2) == 1) { }
System.out.println("int2 = " + int2);
if (int1 != 0 && (int3 = 2) == 1) { }
System.out.println("int3 = " + int3); }
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
int2 = 2.0
int3 = 1.0

The if-then-else Operator (?:)

OK, says the Novice Programmer. I have mastered the operators. Im ready for the Java conditional
statements. Not so fast, you say. What about the ternary conditional operator? The what? the NP asks.
Theres a Java operator that acts much like an if-else statementthe ternary operator (?:). This operator is
called a ternary operator because it takes three operandsa condition and two values:
value = condition ? value1: value2;
If condition is true, the ?: operator returns value1, and it returns value2 otherwise.

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Chapter 3: Operators, Conditionals, and Loops

In this way, the preceding statement works like the following if statement:
if (condition) { value = value1; }
else { value = value2; }
Heres an example where we convert an integer between 0 and 15 into a hexadecimal digit using the ?:
operator. This operator is perfect here, because we can use it to return a string made from the value itself if the
value is less than 10 or a letter digit if the value is 10 or greater, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int value = 15;
String digit, chars[] = {"a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f"};
digit = value < 10 ? String.valueOf(value) : chars[value - 10];
System.out.println(value + " = 0x" + digit); }
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
15 = 0xf

Assignment Operators (= and [operator]=)

The most basic operators are the assignment operators, and we have been using these operators throughout the
book already. You use the = operator to assign a variable a literal value or the value in another variable as
follows:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int value = 12;
System.out.println("The value = " + value); }
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
The value = 12
As in C++, you can perform multiple assignments in the same statement (this works because the assignment
operator itself returns the assigned value):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int value1, value2, value3;
value1 = value2 = value3 = 12;
System.out.println("value1 = " + value1);
System.out.println("value2 = " + value2);
System.out.println("value3 = " + value3); }
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
value1 = 12
value2 = 12
value3 = 12
Also, as in C++, you can combine many operators with the assignment operator (=). For example, += is the
addition assignment operator, which means value += 2 is a shortcut for value = value + 2. Heres an
example that puts the multiplication assignment operator to work:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int value = 10;
value *= 2;
System.out.println("value * 2 = " + value); }
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
value * 2 = 20

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 Immediate Solutions

There are quite a few combination assignment operators. Heres a list of them:
%= (modulus assignment)
&= (bitwise And assignment)
*= (multiplication assignment)
/= (division assignment)
^= (bitwise Xor assignment)
|= (bitwise Or assignment)
+= (addition assignment)
<<= (shift left assignment)
<= (less than or equal to)
-= (subtraction assignment)
>>= (shift right assignment)
>>>= (shift right zero fill assignment)
That completes the list of Java operators, but theres one more popular way of handling math in Javathe Math
class. This class is part of the java.lang package (which the Java compiler imports by default). Well take a
look at this class in the next topic.

Using the Math Class

Hey, the Novice Programmer says, I want to raise 3 to the power 4, but theres no Java operator for
exponentiation. You can use the Math classs pow() method, you say. And by the way, 3 to the power 4 are
81. Ill believe it when Java tells me so, says the NP.
You can use the java.lang.Math class to perform any math operations. For example, heres how to solve the
Novice Programmers problem by using the Math.pow() method:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = " + Math.pow(3, 4)); }
}
The result is:
C:\>java App
3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 81.0
The constants and some commonly used methods of the java.lang.Math class are as follows:
double EThe constant e (2.7182818284590452354)
double PIThe constant pi (3.14159265358979323846)
double sin(double a)Trigonometric sine
double cos(double a)Trigonometric cosine
double tan(double a)Trigonometric tangent
double asin(double a)Trigonometric arcsine
double acos(double a)Trigonometric arccosine
double atan(double a)Trigonometric arctangent
double atan2(double a, double b)Trigonometric arctangent, two-operand version
double exp(double a)Raise e to a power
double log(double a)Log of a value
double sqrt(double a)Square root of a value
double pow(double a, double b)Raise to a power
double IEEEremainder(double f1, double f2)IEEE remainder method

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double ceil(double a)Ceiling method

double floor(double a)Floor method
double rint(double a)Random integer
int round(float a)Rounds a float
long round(double a)Rounds a double
double random()Random number
int abs(int a)Absolute value of an int
long abs(long a)Absolute value of a long
float abs(float a)Absolute value of a float
double abs(double a)Absolute value of a double
int min(int a, int b)Minimum of two int types
long min(long a, long b)Minimum of two long types
float min(float a, float b)Minimum of two float types
double min(double a, double b)Minimum of two double types
int max(int a, int b)Maximum of two int types
long max(long a, long b)Maximum of two long types
float max(float a, float b)Maximum of two float types
double max(double a, double b)Maximum of two double types

Changes in the Math Class

Various new methods are added to java.lang.Math class. They are as follows:
double copySign (double magnitude, double sign)Copy sign of second argument to first argument
double copySign(float magnitude, float sign)Copy sign of second argument to first
argument
int getExponent(double d)It returns unbiased exponent used in representation
int getExponent(float f) It returns unbiased exponent used in representation
double nextAfter(double start, double direction)It returns floating-point value adjacent to
first argument in the direction of second argument
float nextAfter(float start, double direction)It returns floating-point value adjacent to
first argument in the direction of second argument
double nextUp(double d)Floating-point value adjacent to d in direction of positive infinity
float nextUp(float f)Floating-point value adjacent to f in direction of positive infinity
double scalb(double d, int scaleFactor)It returns d x 2scaleFactor
float scalb(float f, int scaleFactor)It returns f x 2scaleFactor

Class StrictMath
The StrictMath class consists of methods that let you perform basic numeric operations, such as elementary
exponential, logarithm, square root, and trigonometric functions. The java.lang.StrictMath class is defined with
respect to fdlibm version 5.3. For this class, use IEEE 754 core function version (residing in a file whose name
begins with letter e) where fdlibm provides more than one definition for a function (such as acos). The methods
that require fdlibm semantics are sin, cos, tan, asin, acos, atan, exp, log, log10, cbrt, atan2, pow, sinh, cosh, tanh,
hypot, expm1, and log1p. This ensures the portability of Java program as these methods produce same result
across different platforms. The description of the methods of the StrictMath class is as follows:
static double cbrt (double a)It returns the cube root of a double value.

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static double cosh(double x)It returns the hyperbolic cosine of a double value.
static double expm1(double x) It returns ex -1.
static double hypot(double x, double y)It returns sqrt(x2 +y2) without intermediate overflow
or underflow.
static double log(double a)It returns the natural logarithm (base e) of a double value.
static double log10(double a)It returns the base 10 logarithm of a double value.
static double log1p(double x)It returns the natural logarithm of the sum of the argument and 1.
static double rint(double a)It returns the double value that is closest in value to the argument
and is equal to a mathematical integer
static double signum(double d)It returns the signum function of the argument; zero if the
argument is zero; 1.0 if the argument is greater than zero; -1.0 if the argument is less than zero.
static float signum(float f) It returns the signum function of the argument; zero if the argument is zero,
1.0f if the argument is greater than zero, -1.0f if the argument is less than zero.
static double sinh(double x)It returns the hyperbolic sine of a double value.
static double tanh(double x)It returns the hyperbolic tangent of a double value
static double toDegrees(double angrad)It converts an angle measured in radians to an
approximately equivalent angle measured in degrees
static double toRadians(double angdeg)It converts an angle measured in degrees to an
approximately equivalent angle measured in radians.
static double ulp(double d)It returns the size of an ulp of the argument.
static float ulp(float f)It returns the size of an ulp of the argument

Comparing Strings
When you are working with the String class, there are some methods you can use much like operators. For
example, you can use the equals method, equalsIgnoreCase() method, and compareTo() method as
follows:
s1.equals(s2)It returns true if s1 equals s2.
s1.equalsIgnoreCase(s2)It returns true if s1 equals s2 (ignoring case).
s1.compareTo(s2)It returns a value less than zero if s1 is less than s2 lexically, returns zero if s1
equals s2, or returns a value greater than zero if s1 is greater than s2.
Heres an example putting these methods to work:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1 = "abc";
String s2 = "abc";
String s3 = "ABC";
String s4 = "bcd";
if (s1.equals(s2)) { System.out.println("s1 == s2"); }
else { System.out.println("s1 != s2"); }
if (s1.equalsIgnoreCase(s3)) {
System.out.println("s1 == s3 when ignoring case"); }
else { System.out.println("s1 != s3 when ignoring case"); }
if (s1.compareTo(s4) < 0) { System.out.println("s1 < s2"); }
else if (s1.compareTo(s4) == 0){ System.out.println("s1 == s2"); }
else if (s1.compareTo(s4) > 0 ) { System.out.println("s1 > s2"); }
}
}

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Heres the result of this code:

C:\>java App
s1 == s2
s1 == s3 when ignoring case
s1 < s2

The if Statement
Hmm, says the Novice Programmer. Im stuck. I want to write an absolute value routine in Java, and I dont
know how to proceed. I dont suppose youve ever heard of the Math classs abs method? you reply. The
what? asks the NP.
The if statement lets you execute a statement or a set of statements depending upon the result of test condition.
However, if the test condition evaluates false, no statement is executed. In general, the if statement is used as
follows:
if (condition)
statement;
Note that statement can be a compound statement also, which means it can be made up of a number of
statements enclosed in curly braces. Heres an answer to what the Novice Programmer was trying to do. Start by
checking whether the value is greater than zero; and if so, just print out the value itself, as done in the following
code:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int value = 10;
if(value > 0)
System.out.println("Abs(" + value + ") = " + value); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Abs(10) = 10
Another example for the Novice Programmer where an if statement is used to execute multiple statements is as
follows:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int value = 10;
if(value > 0) {
System.out.println("The number was positive.");
System.out.println("Abs(" + value + ") = " + value); }
}
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
The number was positive.
Abs(10) = 10

The else Statement

The else statement lets you specify statement(s) which gets executed when the if condition evaluates to false.
Heres an example using the else statement, which can also display absolute value of negative numbers:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int value = -10;
if(value > 0) {
System.out.println("Abs(" + value + ") = " + value); }
else {
System.out.println("Abs(" + value + ") = " + -value); }
}
}

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Heres the result of this code:

C:\>java App
Abs(-10) = 10

Nested if Statement
The nested if statement allows that one if statement can be written inside another if statement. Heres an
example to show how a nested if statement works:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double value = 2;
if (value != 0) {
if (value > 0)
System.out.println("The result = " + (1 / value));
else
System.out.println("The result = " + (-1 / value)); }
}
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
The result = 0.5

The if-else Ladders

An entire sequence of the if-else statements is called an if-else ladder. Heres an example to show how
an if-else ladder works:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String month = "March";
if(month == "January")
System.out.println("It\'s January");
else if (month == "February")
System.out.println("It\'s February");
else if (month == "March")
System.out.println("It\'s March");
else if (month == "April")
System.out.println("It\'s April");
else if (month == "May")
System.out.println("It\'s May"); }
}
In this case, we test the value in a string variable successively until we find a match to the current year of the
calendar (we are testing only for the first five months). Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Its March
Note that although its possible to create if-else ladders in this way, Java actually includes a statement
expressly for situations like thisthe switch statement. Well take a look at this statement in the next topic.

The switch Statement

Good Lord?, says the Novice Programmer. Im getting tired of writing if-else laddersthe one in my
program must be five pages long now. How about trying a switch statement? you ask. Whats that? the
NP asks.
The switch statement is Javas multipath branch statement; it provides the same kind of functionality as an if-
else ladder does (see the previous topic) but in a form thats much easier to work with. Heres what the
switch statement looks like in general:
switch (expression) {
case value1:
statement1;
[break;]

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case value2:
statement2;
[break;]
case value3:
statement3;
[break;]
. . .
default:
default_statement;
}
Here, the value of expression, which must be of type byte, char, short, or int, is compared against the
various test values in the case statements: value1, value2, and so on. If the expression matches one of the
case statements, the code associated with that case statementstatement1, statement2, and so onis
executed. If execution reaches a break statement, the switch statement ends. Heres an example in which we
display the day of the week based on a numeric value by using a switch statement:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int day = 5;
switch(day) {
case 0:
System.out.println("Today is Sunday."); break;
case 1:
System.out.println("Today is Monday."); break;
case 2:
System.out.println("Today is Tuesday."); break;
case 3:
System.out.println("Today is Wednesday."); break;
case 4:
System.out.println("Today is Thursday."); break;
case 5:
System.out.println("Today is Friday."); break;
default:
System.out.println("Today is Saturday."); }
}
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Today is Friday.
Try to execute the preceding example without writing the break statements and see what it returns as the day
today. Youll find that it returns Today is Friday. and Today is Saturday. This signifies that if you
dont specify a break statement at the end of a case statement, the execution will continue with the code in the
next case statement. This may prove useful when you want to execute the same code for multiple case test
values, as shown in the following code:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int temperature = 78;
switch(temperature) {
case 60:
case 61:
case 62:
case 63:
case 64:
System.out.println("Very cold"); break;
case 65:
case 66:
case 67:
case 68:
case 69:
System.out.println("It\'s cool"); break;
case 70:
case 71:

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case 72:
case 73:
case 74:
case 75:
System.out.println("It\'s warm"); break;
default:
System.out.println("Uff, very hot!! "); } }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Uff, very hot!!
Note that a default case executes if none of the above cases match or when no break statements are specified.

Using Strings in switch Statement

The switch statement has been upgraded in Java 7. Now, you can also use Strings inside the switch
statements. The following is an example to make it clearer to you:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String country="India";
switch(country) {
case "India": System.out.println("India");break;
case "China": System.out.println("China");break;
default: System.out.println("Neither India nor China");} }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
India
where the first case matches with the switch statement and therefore executed, and India gets printed.

The while Loop

Well, says the Novice Programmer, Im in trouble again. The Big Boss wants me to create a commercial
program that will calculate factorials, and I dont even know what a factorial is! Well, you say, six factorial,
written as 6!, is equal to 6 5 4 3 2 1. And you can write your program with a while loop.
A while loop executes a statement(s) inside a loop body as long as the loop test condition evaluates to true. In
general, a while loop looks as follows:
while(condition)
statement;
Note that the loop is executed not even once if the test condition evaluates to false. An example that shows how
a while loop works is as follows:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { int value = 10;
while (value > 0) {
System.out.println("Current value = " + value--); } }
}
In this case, we display a value, successively subtract 1 from that value and then display the result. When the
value becomes 0, the while loop stops because the condition (value > 0) has become false. In other words,
the loop executes till value remains positive.
Heres what this while loop returns:
C:\>java App
Current value = 10
Current value = 9
Current value = 8
Current value = 7
Current value = 6
Current value = 5
Current value = 4

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Current value = 3
Current value = 2
Current value = 1
Heres an example where a while loop has been used to calculate the factorial of 6:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int value = 6, factorial = 1, temp;
temp = value; //make a destructive copy.
while (temp > 0) { factorial *= temp--; }
System.out.println(value + "! = " + factorial); }
}
Heres how the program calculates the factorial of 6:
C:\>java App
6! = 720
A more advanced example is as follows:
import java.util.*;
public class App { public static void main(String[] args) {
int value = 32, temp = value;
StringBuffer sb = new StringBuffer();
Stack <String> st = new Stack <String>();
while (temp > 0) {
st.push(String.valueOf(temp % 16));
temp >>>= 4; }
while(!st.empty()) { sb.append(new String((String) st.pop())); }
System.out.println("Converting " + value + " to Hexadecimal yields 0x" + sb); }
}
In this case, we are converting a number into hexadecimal by successively stripping off hex digits with the
modulus operator. Because the digits come out in reverse order, we are using a while loop to push them onto a
Java stack, which youll see when we discuss the collection classes. After pushing the digits onto the stack, we
pop them in another while loop to reverse the order of the digits and create the StringBuffer object to
display.
Heres what this programs output looks like:
C:\>java App
Converting 32 to Hexadecimal yields 0x20
Heres a fact that can come in handy: Because null statements are valid in Java, a while loop doesnt have to
have a body at all. Heres an example showing a crude way of calculating an integer square root (note that all the
work here takes place in the condition part of the loop):
public class App { public static void main(String[] args) {
int target = 144, sqrt = 1;
while (++(sqrt) * (sqrt) != target) ;
System.out.println("sqrt(" + target + ") = " + sqrt); }
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
sqrt(144) = 12
Another type of while loopthe do-while loopis discussed in the next topic.

The do-while Loop

The Programming Correctness Czar says, So, you have a while loop in Java. In C++, we have both a while
loop and a do-while loop. Thats funny, you say. We have both of those in Java, too.
The do-while loop is similar to a while loop. It is also used to repeat a set of statements a number of times.
However, the difference lies where the test condition is evaluated. A do-while loop tests the condition after the
loop body is executed, whereas a while loop tests the condition before the loop body executes. Both loops
terminate once the test condition evaluates to false. A do-while loop looks as follows:
do
statement;
while(condition);

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It can be seen in the preceding lines that a do-while loop will always execute at least once even if the condition
evaluates to false. This is because the condition is tested after the loop body gets executed. Heres an example to
show how a do-while loop works:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int values[] = {1, 2, 3, 0, 5}, test, index = 0;
do {
test = 5 * values[index++];
System.out.println(test);
} while (test < 15); }
}
The result is as follows:
C:\>java App
5
10
15
Question arises when to use a while loop and when to use a do-while loop? The answer is whenever the
situation demands that looping statements should execute only if the condition is true, you use a while loop.
The following code makes it clearer, where a do-while loop evaluates the reciprocal of a value but can only
test whether the value is a nonzero value at the end of the loop:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double value = 0;
do {
System.out.println("The reciprocal = " + 1 / value);
} while (value > 0);
}
}
Its far better in this case to use a while loop to test for 0 first:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double value = 0;
while (value > 0) {
System.out.println("The reciprocal = " + 1 / value); }
}
}

The for Loop

The Novice Programmer is back and says, I like while loops, but they are not the easiest to work with when
handling arraysI really need a numeric index there. Is there anything else I can use? Certainly, you say, try
a for loop.
The Java for loop is a good choice when you want to use a numeric index that you automatically increment or
decrement each time through the loop, such as when you are working with an array. Heres what the for loop
looks like in general (note that statement can be a compound statement, including several single statements
inside curly braces):
for (initialization_expression; test_conditon; iteration_expression) {
statement
}
Initialization_expression lets you initialize the loop index, test_condition signifies a conditional
expression, such as loop_index<=5, and iteration_expression increments or decrements the loop index.
You can also use multiple loop indexes in a for loop.
An example to show how a for loop works is as follows:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int loop_index;
for (loop_index = 1; loop_index <= 5; loop_index++) {

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System.out.println("This is iteration number " + loop_index); }

}
}
The loop index is initialized with value 1, the loop terminates when the index exceeds 5, which means the loop is
executed only 5 times, and every time the loop index is incremented by 1:
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
This is iteration number 1
This is iteration number 2
This is iteration number 3
This is iteration number 4
This is iteration number 5
Heres an example that finds the average student score by looping over all the scores and summing them (note
that we are actually declaring and initializing the loop index to 0 in the initialization expression):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double grades[] = {88, 99, 73, 56, 87, 64};
double sum, average;
sum = 0;
for (int loop_index = 0; loop_index < grades.length;
loop_index++) {
sum += grades[loop_index]; }
average = sum / grades.length;
System.out.println("Average grade = " + average); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Average grade = 77.83333333333333
When you declare a loop variable (such as loop_index in this example), the scope of that variable is limited to
the for loop body (the scope of a variable is the part of the program that you can access it in, as youll see in the
next chapter).
Note that you can use very general expressions in a for loop. Java lets you separate expressions in a for loop
with a comma, as shown in the following example in which we are using two loop indexes:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
for (int loop_index = 0, doubled = 0; loop_index <= 10;
loop_index++, doubled = 2 * loop_index) {
System.out.println("Loop index " + loop_index +" doubled equals " + doubled); }
}
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Loop index 0 doubled equals 0
Loop index 1 doubled equals 2
Loop index 2 doubled equals 4
Loop index 3 doubled equals 6
Loop index 4 doubled equals 8
Loop index 5 doubled equals 10
Loop index 6 doubled equals 12
Loop index 7 doubled equals 14
Loop index 8 doubled equals 16
Loop index 9 doubled equals 18
Loop index 10 doubled equals 20
You dont have to give a for loop to anybody at allin fact, you can use a null statement. Heres an example
in which we are summing all the elements of an array in a for loop without any code in its body:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int array[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, sum = 0;
for (int loop_index = 0; loop_index < array.length;
sum += array[loop_index++]);

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System.out.println("The sum = " + sum); }

}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
The sum = 15
You can even turn a for loop into a while loop. Heres an example thats adapted from the previous factorial
example in the topic (The while Loop):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int value = 6, factorial = 1, temp;
temp = value;
for( ;temp > 0; ) { factorial *= temp--; }
System.out.println(value + "! = " + factorial); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
6! = 720

The for-each Loop

The NP says, For loops are good; but if I have to deal with a condition as well, it becomes a pain. Is this all that
is available in Java?. No, you say. You have the for-each loop for this situation.
Further to the for loop, a new construct called the for-each loop is available. This enhanced construct allows
you to automatically play through the elements of a collection or an array. The for-loop construct does the
looping automatically, which would otherwise have to be done manually earlier. In its place, you can simply
specify the array to iterate through and a variable to access each element, as shown here:
for (variable: collection)
statement;
To display the output, the program shown here prints out each element passed in along the command line:
public class Args {
public static void main(String args[]) {
for (String element: args) { System.out.println(element); } }
}
Compile it with your compiler and then pass in some random set of command-line arguments:
C:\javac Args.java
C:\java Args Kogent Learning Solutions
Youll get the provided arguments printed out to standard output, one per line:
Kogent
Learning
Solutions
Although this is nothing great, it avoids the manual writing of the code where you had to update the index
variable yourself:
for (int k=0; k < args.length; k++) { System.out.println(args[k]); }
You can also perform the preceding program by initializing the values in the program itself instead of giving
values at runtime. Lets write another program using enumeration. This is created by using the new enum
keyword:
public class App { enum Country {India,Japan,China}
public static void main (String[] args) {
for(Country country : Country.values()) {
System.out.println("The country is " +country); } }
}
The identifiers with the enum statement, i.e. India, Japan and China, are called enumeration constants. Their type
is the type of the enumeration in which they are declared, i.e., Country. Once you have created an enumeration,
you can create a variable of the type:
for(Country country : Country.values())

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Here, country is a variable of enumeration type Country. Each of the values in the enumeration is passed to
the variable and thus display on the screen:
C:\> java App
The country is India
The country is Japan
The country is China
The construct for (variable: collection) doesnt add any new keywords to the language.
Alternatively, it extends the meaning of the basic for loop. This for-each loop says, for each element in the
collection, assigns it to the variable element, and executes the statement.
The construct works for both arrays and implementations of the Collection interface, like ArrayList,
HashSet, and the keys from a Map like a Properties object. As you can infer from their names, the
collection classes let you group elements in various ways. The collection classes also define various methods that
make working with those items easier. Collection was finally added by J2SE 1.2. With the new versions of JDK,
the power of Collection Framework has significantly increased and its use has been streamlined.
In fact, it has simplified the way you track a group of objects. A few simple methods are needed to use collection
classes. Youll learn more about the collections in Chapter 21. Before moving onto the program, lets learn about
the most basic collection class, ArrayList. An ArrayList is similar to an array but avoids many of the most
common problems of arrays. For example, an array cant grow or shrink in size once created; therefore, you must
know in advance the size of an array, whereas an ArrayList supports dynamic arrays that can grow or shrink in
size as per the need.
The following program shows the case of using the for-each construct with a Collection:
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class ForLoopTest {
public static void main(String[] args)
//args the command line arguments
{
double[] array = {2.5, 5.2, 7.9, 4.3, 2.0, 4.1, 7.3, 0.1, 2.6};
//leave details of the loop such as indices out of the picture
for(double d: array) { System.out.println(d); }
System.out.println("---------------------");
ArrayList<Integer> list = new ArrayList<Integer>();
list.add(7);
list.add(15);
list.add(-67);
for(Integer number: list) { System.out.println(number); }
System.out.println("---------------------");
//Works identically with autounboxing
for(int item: list) { System.out.println(item); }
System.out.println("---------------------"); }
}
Look at the line here as you can specify the type of elements the array list is allowed to contain. This statement
creates an array list that holds Integer objects:
ArrayList<Integer> list = new ArrayList<Integer>()
Heres the output of this code:
C:\>java ForLoopTest
2.5
5.2
7.9
4.3
2.0
4.1
7.3
0.1
2.6
---------------------
7

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15
-67
---------------------
7
15
-67

Supporting for-each in Your Own Class

Help! says the NP Im trying to build my own class and handling the array is very tough. Can I have a
simpler way of doing the same. You can use the for-each construct here also, you say.
Imagine that you are building a Catalog class. A Catalog object collects any number of Product objects. You
store these objects by using an ArrayList instance variable defined in Catalog. The program will have to
iterate with a Catalog object frequently through the entire list of products, to do something with each object in
turn. Shown here is an example of the Catalog class:
import java.util.*;
class Catalog{
private List<Product> products = new ArrayList<Product>();
void add(Product product) { products.add(product); }
}
The Product class includes a method that allows you to discount the price on a product:
import java.math.BigDecimal;
class Product {
private String id;
private String name;
private BigDecimal cost;
Product(String id, String name, BigDecimal cost) {
this.id = id; this.name = name;
this.cost = cost; }
void discount(BigDecimal percent) {
cost = cost.multiply(new BigDecimal("1.0").subtract(percent)); }
public String toString() { return id + ": " + name + " @ " + cost; }
}

A (Poor) Solution
To allow the client code to work with all products, you could create a method in the Catalog that returned the
ArrayList of products:
List<Product> getProducts() { return products; }
For choosing an object in the list the client code would have to iterate through the list. However, returning a
collection to a client is not feasible. If this is done, the client can modify the list in your collection, as you have
given the control over the contents of that collection to the client. And hence, the client code could add or
remove elements to the collection without the knowledge of the Catalog object. Moreover, the client will have
to do more work than necessary.

Significance of for-each
The for-each loop provides a simple, consistent solution for iterating arrays, collection classes, and even your
own collections. It helps eliminate much of the repetitive code that you would otherwise require. They also
eliminate the need for casting as well as other potential problems related to iteration. This is one such addition to
Java that was long overdue.
The for-each loop can be used with both collections and arrays. The basic function is to simplify the most
common form of iteration, where the iterator or index is used solely for iteration, and not for any other kind of
operation, such as removing or editing an item in the collection or array. When there is a choice, the for-each
loop should be preferred over the for loop, since it increases legibility. Here is an example on for-each loop:
import java.util.*;
import java.math.BigDecimal;
public final class For_each_Examples {

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public static void main(String[] aArgs) {

List<Number> numbers = new ArrayList<Number>();
numbers.add(new Integer(42));
numbers.add(new Integer(-30));
numbers.add(new BigDecimal("654.2"));
for ( Number number : numbers ) { log(number); }
String[] names = {"Ethan Hawke", "Julie Delpy"};
for( String name : names ) { log("Name : " + name); }
//iterator :
Collection<String> words = new ArrayList<String>();
words.add("Il ne lui faut que deux choses:");
words.add("le");
words.add("pain");
words.add("et");
words.add("le");
words.add("temps");
words.add("- Alfred de Vigny");
for(Iterator<String> iter = words.iterator(); iter.hasNext();) {
if (iter.next().length() == 4) { iter.remove(); } }
log("Edited words: " + words.toString());
Collection <String> stuff = new ArrayList <String> ();
stuff.add("blah");
for (Object thing : stuff) {
String item = (String)thing;
log("Thing : " + item); }
}
private static void log(Object aThing) { System.out.println(aThing); }
}
Heres the result of the code:
C:\>java For_each_Examples
42
-30
654.2
Name : Ethan Hawke
Name : Julie Delpy
Edited words : [I1 ne lui faut que deux choses:, le, et, le, temps, - Alfred de Vignyl
Thing : blah

Nested Loops
Im working with a two-dimensional array, the Novice Programmer says, and I almost wish I could have a
loop within a loop, so I could loop over both dimensions. Of course you can use loops within loops, you reply.
Java lets you nest loops, one within another. Heres an example showing how this works (in this case, we are
finding the average value of the elements in a two-dimensional array by looping over all the elements with two
for loops):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double array[][] = {{1, 2, 3}, {3, 2, 1}, {1, 2, 3}};
int sum = 0, total = 0;
for(int outer_index = 0; outer_index < array.length;
outer_index++) {
for(int inner_index = 0; inner_index <
array[outer_index].length; inner_index++) {
sum += array[outer_index][inner_index];
total++; } }
System.out.println("Average array value = " + (sum / total)); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Average array value = 2

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 Immediate Solutions

Using the break Statement

The Novice Programmer has another problem: I have got a multidimensional array that Im looping over, and
sometimes deep inside five-nested loops the results exceed the maximum allowable value, so I want to end all
the loops. How the heck do I do that without letting them all finish naturally? By using the break statement,
you reply.
Some languages include a goto statement that you can use to jump to any statement you want to in your code,
but most languages consider goto too unstructuredas does Java, which does not include a goto statement.
However, a goto statement lets you jump out of a loop thats no longer useful, which is a valid thing to do.
Because Java doesnt have a goto statement you can use to do that, it supports the break statement for
this purpose.
You can use the break statement to end a loop, as in this case where we are ending a loop if a sum becomes
greater than 12:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double array[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}; int sum = 0;
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < array.length; loop_index++) {
sum += array[loop_index];
if (sum > 12) break;
System.out.println("Looping.."); }
System.out.println("The sum exceeded the maximum value"); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Looping..
Looping..
Looping..
Looping..
The sum exceeded the maximum value
What if you have multiple loops that you want to break? In that case, you can label the loops and indicate the
one you want to break out of. Heres an example in which we break out of a double-nested loop:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double array[][] = { {1, 2, 3}, {3, 2, 1}, {1, 2, 3}}; int sum = 0;
outer: for(int outer_index = 0; outer_index < array.length; outer_index++) {
for(int inner_index = 0; inner_index <
array[outer_index].length; inner_index++) {
sum += array[outer_index][inner_index];
if (sum > 3) break outer; }
System.out.println("I'm not going to print."); }
System.out.println("The loop has finished."); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
The loop has finished.
Note that if you dont use a label with the break statement, youll only break out of the current loop.

Using the continue Statement

I like loops, the Novice Programmer says. I really do. Theres just one problem, though. Sometimes when Im
looping, I come across a value that I dont want to use and I just want to skip to the next iteration of the loop
without executing any more code. Can I do that? Yes, indeed, you say. You can use the continue
statement.

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To skip to the next iteration of a loop, you can use the continue statement. Heres an example in which we are
printing out reciprocals, and we want to avoid trying to print out the reciprocal of 0. If the current loop index
equals 0, we skip the current iteration and move on to the next one. Heres the code:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
for(double loop_index = 5; loop_index > -5; loop_index--) {
if (loop_index == 0) continue;
System.out.println("The reciprocal of " + loop_index +
" = " + (1 / loop_index)); }
}
}
Heres the result of this code (note that this output skips over the line where the code would try to calculate the
reciprocal of 0):
C:\>java App
The reciprocal of 5.0 = 0.2
The reciprocal of 4.0 = 0.25
The reciprocal of 3.0 = 0.3333333333333333
The reciprocal of 2.0 = 0.5
The reciprocal of 1.0 = 1.0
The reciprocal of -1.0 = -1.0
The reciprocal of -2.0 = -0.5
The reciprocal of -3.0 = -0.3333333333333333
The reciprocal of -4.0 = -0.25

Summary
In this chapter, we have discussed about the operators, conditionals, jump statements, and loops. You also
understood how to work with operators, use the Math Class, the StrictMath Class, compare strings, use
strings in switch statement, and use the conditional statements. You have also learned about the implementation
of iterative control structure. Towards the end, you have studied about the nested loops and the jump
statements.
The next chapter will discuss about object oriented programming.

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 4
Object-Oriented
Programming
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Declaring and Defining Classes 111
Declaring and Creating Objects 112
Creating Instance Variables 114
Setting Variable Access 114
Creating Class Variables 115
Creating Methods 116
Setting Method Access 116
Passing Parameters to Methods 117
Command-Line Arguments Passed to main() method 118
Returning Values from Methods 118
Creating Class Methods 119
Creating Data Access Methods 120
Creating Constructors 120
Passing Parameters to Constructors 121
A Full Class Example 121
Understanding Variable Scope 122
Using Recursion 123
Garbage Collection and Memory Management 123
Garbage Collection and the finalize() Method 125
Overloading Methods 125
Overloading Constructors 126
Passing Objects to Methods 126
Passing Arrays to Methods 127
Using the this Keyword 128
 Chapter 4: Object-Oriented Programming

If you need an immediate solution to: See page:

Returning Objects from Methods 129
Returning Arrays from Methods 129
The ProcessBuilder and StringBuilder Classes 129
Catching an Exception 132
Nesting the try Statements 136
Using the finally Clause 137
Throwing Exceptions 138
Creating a Custom Exception 139
Catching Multiple Exception Types 139
Rethrowing Exceptions with Improved Type Checking 140
Debugging Java Programs 141

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 In Depth

In Depth
This chapter is all about a topic central to any Java programObject-Oriented Programming (OOP). We first
discussed Object-Oriented Programming in Chapter 1 because you cannot write Java code without it. Now that
you have come up through the basics of Java syntax, you are ready to work with Object-Oriented Programming
in a formal way.
Object-Oriented Programming is really just another technique to let you implement that famous programming
dictumdivide and conquer. The idea is that you encapsulate data and methods into objects, making each object
semi-autonomous, enclosing private (i.e., purely internal) data and methods in a way that stops them from
cluttering the general namespace. The object can then interact with the rest of the program through a well-
defined interface as implemented by its public (i.e., externally callable) methods.
Object-Oriented Programming was first created to handle larger programs by breaking them up into functional
units. It takes the idea of breaking a program into subroutines one step further, because objects can have both
multiple subroutines and data inside them. The result of encapsulating parts of your program into an object is
that it is easily conceptualized as a single item, instead of you having to deal with all that makes up that object
internally.
Imagine how your kitchen would look filled with pipes, pumps, a compressor, and all kinds of switches used to
keep food cold. Every time the temperature of the food got too high, you would have to turn on the compressor
and open valves and start cranking the pumps manually. Now wrap all that functionality into an objecta
refrigeratorin which all those operations are handled internally, with the appropriate feedback between the
parts of the object handled automatically inside the object. Thats the idea behind encapsulationtaking a
complex system that demands a lot of attention and turning it into an object that handles all its own work
internally and can be easily conceptualized, much like a refrigerator. If the first dictum of Object-Oriented
Programming is divide and conquer, the second is surely out of sight, out of mind.
In Java, Object-Oriented Programming revolves around a few key conceptsclasses, objects, data members,
methods, and inheritance. Heres what those terms mean in overview:
ClassThis is a template from which you can create objects. The definition of a class includes the formal
specifications for the class, and any data and methods in it.
ObjectThis is an instance of a class, much as a variable is an instance of a data type. You can think of a
class as the type of an object, and you can think of the object as an instance of a class. Objects encapsulate
methods and instance variables.
Data membersThese are variables that are part of a class. You use them to store the data the object uses.
Objects support both instance variables whose values are specific to the object, and class variables whose
values are shared among the objects of that class.
MethodThis is a function built into a class or an object. You can have instance methods and class
methods. You use instance methods with objects, but you can use a class method just by referring to the
class by nameno object is required.
InheritanceThis is the process of deriving one class, called the derived class, from another, called the base
class, and being able to make use of the members of the base class in the derived class.
All these constructs are important to Object-Oriented Programming, and well get into more details on each of
them now.

If you are used to working with Object-Oriented Programming in C++, it may surprise you to learn that although Java programs
are object-oriented, the object-oriented support in Java is less than whats available in languages, such as C++. For example,
the designers of Java decided to let programmers overload methods but not operators (although Java itself overloads operators,
such as + for the String class). Also, Java does not support destructors and multiple inheritances directlyinstead Java
interfaces are used.

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Classes
In Object-Oriented Programming, classes provide a sort of template for objects. That is, if you think of a class as a
cookie cutter, the objects you create from it are the cookies. You can consider a class an objects typeyou use a
class to create an object and then you can call the objects methods from your code.
To create an object, you call a classs constructor, which is a method with the same name as the class itself. This
constructor creates a new object of the class. We have been creating classes throughout this book already; each
time you create a Java program, you need a class. For example, heres how to create a class named App, which is
stored in a file named App.java (this class creates a Java application):
public class App { //Object-Oriented Programming
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
When you use the Java compiler, this file, App.java, is translated into the bytecode file App.class, which
holds the complete specification for the App class. So, how do you create objects from classes? Take a look at the
next section.

Objects
In Java, you call an instance of a class an object. To create an object, you call a classs constructor, which has the
same name as the class itself. Heres an example in which we create an object from the Java String class,
passing the string we want to enclose in that object to the String classs constructor:
String s = new String("Hello from Java!");
Youll see more about creating objects with constructors throughout this chapter. So, what do you do with an
object when you have one? You can interact with it using its data members and methods; take a look at the next
two sections.

Data Members
Data members of an object are called instance data members or instance variables. Data items shared by all objects of
a class are called class data members or class variables. Youll see how to create both instance variables and class
variables in this chapter. Data members can be accessible outside an object, or you can make them internal to the
object for the private use of the methods inside the object.
Heres an example showing how you might use an objects data member; say you have a class named
Data_class, and you create an object of this class named data1:
Data_class data1 = new Data_class("Hello from Java!");
. . .
If Data_class defines a publicly accessible data member named data, you can refer to the data member of
data1 by using the dot operator (.), like this:
data1.data
That means you can print out the data in data1, like this:
Data_class data1 = new Data_class("Hello from Java!");
System.out.println(data1.data);
In this way, you can refer to the data members of an object that the object makes publicly accessible. On the other
hand, recall that data hiding is one of the motivations behind Object-Oriented Programming, and giving code
outside an object access to the internal data of an object might not be a good idea. Instead, you often give code
outside an object access to the objects data only through the objects methods (which mean you can control the
objects interface to the rest of the program, checking data values before those values are stored in the objects
data members).

Methods
Methods are the functions built into a class and therefore built into the objects you create from that class. You
usually divide methods into those intended for use inside the class, called private methods, those intended for use
outside the class, called public methods, and those intended for use by the class and those classes you derive from

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 In Depth

it, called protected methods. Private methods are usually only called inside the object itself by other parts of the
object. In the Previously-mentioned refrigerator example, for instance, the thermostat may call an entirely
internal method named start_compressor when its time to get cold. Once you have an object that supports
methods, you can use that objects methods. In the following example, we use the calculate() method to
work with the two values in operand1 and operand2 and store the result of the calculation in result:
Calculator calc = new Calculator();
result = calc.calculate(operand1, operand2);
Java supports two types of methods: class methods and instance methods. Instance methods, like the
calculate() example here, are invoked on objects (i.e., objects are instances of a class). Class methods, on the
other hand, are invoked on a class. For example, the java.lang.Math class has a class method named sqrt()
that calculates a square root, and you can use it like this (no object is needed):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double value = 4, sqrt;
sqrt = Math.sqrt(value);
System.out.println("The square root of " + value + " = " + sqrt); }
}
Heres what you see when you run this code:
C:\>java App
The square root of 4.0 = 2.0
Youll learn how to create both instance and class methods in this chapter. Theres one more object-oriented
concept to master before we get to the codeinheritance.

Inheritance
Inheritance is one of the formally defining aspects of Object-Oriented Programming. Using inheritance, you can
derive a new class from an old class, and the new class will inherit all the methods and member data of the old
class. The new class is called the derived class, and the original class is called the base class. The idea here is that
you add what you want to the new class to give it more customized functionality than the base class.
For example, if you have a class named Vehicle, you might derive a new class named Car from Vehicle and
add a new method called horn() that prints beep when called. In that way, you have created a new class from
a base class and have augmented that class with an additional method. Inheritance is an important topic in Java
because you can use the huge class libraries available in Java by deriving your own classes from them. Youll see
how to use object-oriented inheritance in the next chapter.

Exception Handling
An exception refers to an event that occurs when a program is not being executed in the normal flow, i.e., not
according to the instructions. Each type of exception is represented by a different exception class:
IllegalArgumentExceptionIt occurs when passing an incorrect argument to a method.
InputMismatchExceptionIt occurs when the console input doesnt match the data type expected by a
method of the Scanner class.
ArithmeticExceptionIt occurs when an illegal type of arithmetic operation is performed.
IOExceptionIt occurs when the I/O encountered an unrecoverable I/O error.
ClassNotFoundExceptionIt occurs when a necessary class couldnt be found.
They are just some exceptions that youll find as you read on. Each of these topics is important, and well take a
look at them in overview now.
Exception handling is the way that Java handles runtime errors. The basis of exception handling is the try block,
in which you place code that can cause exceptions. In fact, youll see this throughout the book, such as in this
example, where an operation using an InputStreamReader can generate an exception (called throwing an
exception), which is then caught and handled in a catch block:
import java.io.*;
class App {
public static void main(String args[]) {

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try {
int character;
InputStreamReader reader = new
InputStreamReader(System.in);
while ((character = reader.read()) != -1) {
System.out.print((char) character); } }
catch (IOException e) { System.out.println("Error occurred!"); }
}
}
Youll know more on InputStreamReader in later chapters. But for now, it is important for you to know that it
reads bytes and translates them into characters according to a specified character encoding.
Using Javas built- in I/O classes, you can open a file for reading, outputting each line to the screen until the end
of the file is reached. Such I/O operations do generate errors, so these I/O operations are typically placed in try
blocks, because theyre error-proneJava will usually insist that you use a try/catch block (and if you dont,
itll ask you to do so when you try to compile your code).
Here, the sensitive operation is enclosed in a try block; and if an exception occurs, its caught in the catch
block. You can do various things in the catch block, such as attempt to recover from the exception, ignore it,
inform the user, and so on. Youll see the options in this chapter.

Its a good idea to handle exceptions yourself in any program you release for general use because if you dont, Java passes the
exception on to the default exception handler, which prints out its internal stack and terminates your program.

Debugging
Exception handling lets you work with runtime errors, but theres another kind of error: logic errors in your
code (also known as bugs). Java provides a debugging tool the jdb toolthat lets you single-step through
your code, set breakpoints in your code that halt execution when you reach them, examine the variables of a
program while its executing, and more. Well take a look at the jdb tool in this chapter.
Thats it for the overview of whats in this chapter. Theres a great deal of material here, and its time to turn to
the Immediate Solutions section and master OOP in detail. All this material is essential for Java programming,
so keep digging into it until youve made it your own.

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 Immediate Solutions

Immediate Solutions
Declaring and Defining Classes
A Novice Programmer is excited and says, I have done it! I have created an objectit worked! Fine, you say
approvingly, now how about creating a class? The NP says, How does that work?
There are two parts for setting up a class in Java: the class declaration and the class definition. The declaration
tells Java what it needs to know about the new class. The general form of a class declaration is as follows:
[access] class classname [extends ...] [implements ...] {
//class definition goes here.
}
The actual implementation of the class is called the class definition, and it makes up the body of the class
declaration, which you can see in the preceding sample code. The general form of a class declaration and
definition is as follows:
access class classname [extends ...] [implements ...] {
[access] [static] type variable1;
. . .
[access] [static] type variableN;
[access] [static] returntype method1 (parameter_list) { . . . }
. . .
[access] [static] returntype methodN (parameter_list) { . . . }
}
The static keyword in the general form turns variables into class variables and methods into class methods (as
opposed to instance variables and methods), as youll see later. The access term specifies the accessibility of the
class or class member to the rest of the program, and it can be public, private, or protected. Theres also
a default access if you dont specify an access type; youll learn about this in the next few pages. You use the
extends and implements keywords with inheritance, which youll see in the next chapter.
An example will make this all clear. To start, well just create a very simple class named Printer that defines
one method print(). When we call the print() method, it displays the message Hello from Java! on the
console. The Printer class appears as follows:
class Printer {
public void print() { System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
Now we can make use of the print() method in other classes, as in this example, where were creating a new
object of the Printer class by using the new operator and that objects print() method in an application
named App:
class Printer {
public void print() { System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Printer printer1 = new Printer();
printer1.print(); }
}
Now we put this code in a file (App.java), compile it, and then run it as follows:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
Note that were declaring and defining two classes, Printer and App, in the same file. Only one class can be
declared public in one file, and thats App in this case. The file itself must be named after that class, which
means the containing file must be App.java. However, you can have as many private or protected classes as
you like in the file (and Java will create separate .class files for them when you compile the file).

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You can also divide this example into two files, one for each class. Heres Printer.java that displays a
message:
package printer;
class Printer {
public void print() { System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
The new App.java is as follows:
import printer.Printer;
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Printer printer1 = new Printer();
printer1.print(); }
}
Note that we had to import the Printer class to be able to use it; see Chapter 1 for more on importing classes.

Declaring and Creating Objects

The Novice Programmer (NP) appears to discuss Object-Oriented Programming. I know all about objects now,
the NP says, only Only what? you ask. Only that I dont know how to actually create an object in a
program.
You need to declare an object before you can use it. You can declare objects the same way you declare variables
of simple data types, but using the class as the objects type. Also, you can use the new operator to create objects
in Java. Lets look at an example by using the Java String class.

Actually, you dont need to declare an object in all cases before using it. In some cases, Java creates an object for you
automatically, as is the case with string literals, which Java treats like String objects. This means that expressions such as
Hello from Java!.length() are valid.

To start, well declare a new object, s1, of the String class:

public class App { public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1;
. . . }
}
Although declaring a simple variable creates that variable, declaring an object doesnt create it. To actually create
the object, we can use the new operator using this general form in which were passing parameters to the classs
constructor:
object = new class([parameter1 [, parameter2...]]);
The String class has several constructors, as you saw in Chapter 2. You can pass quoted strings to one of the
String classs constructors; therefore, you could create the new object, s1, like this:
public class App { public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1;
s1 = new String("Hello from Java!");
. . . }
}
Now the new object, s1, exists and is ready for use. For example, to convert all the characters in s1 to lowercase,
you can use the String classs toLowerCase() method, like this:
s1.toLowerCase()
The declaration and creation steps can be combined together into one step. Heres an example in which were
declaring a new String object, s2, and creating it with the new operator, all in one line:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1;
s1 = new String("Hello from Java!");
String s2 = new String("Hello from Java!");
. . . }
}

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 Immediate Solutions

Classes often have several different constructors, each of which can take a different data specification (i.e.,
different parameter types and number of parameters; the Java compiler knows which constructor you want to
use by noting how the types of the parameters are used and how many parameters are there). In object-oriented
terms, these constructors are overloaded, and well cover overloading in this chapter. For example, the String
classs constructor is overloaded to take character arrays as well as text strings, so we can create a new object, s3,
using a character array, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1;
s1 = new String("Hello from Java!");
String s2 = new String("Hello from Java!");
char c1[] = {'H', 'i', ' ', 't', 'h', 'e', 'r', 'e'};
String s3 = new String(c1);
. . . }
}
Sometimes classes will have methods that return objects, which means theyll use the new operator internally
(and you dont have to). Heres an example, using the valueOf() method of the String class, in which we
convert a double into a String object:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1; s1 = new String("Hello from Java!");
String s2 = new String("Hello from Java!");
char c1[] = {'H', 'i', ' ', 't', 'h', 'e', 'r', 'e'};
String s3 = new String(c1);
double double1 = 1.23456789;
String s4 = String.valueOf(double1);
. . . }
}
In addition, you can assign one object to another, as we have done here:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String s1;
s1 = new String("Hello from Java!");
String s2 = new String("Hello from Java!");
char c1[] = {'H', 'i', ' ', 't', 'h', 'e', 'r', 'e'};
String s3 = new String(c1);
double double1 = 1.23456789;
String s4 = String.valueOf(double1);
String s5;
s5 = s1;
System.out.println(s1);
System.out.println(s2);
System.out.println(s3);
System.out.println(s4);
System.out.println(s5); }
}
Internally, whats really happening is that the object reference in s1 is copied to s5. What this means in practice
is that s1 and s5 refer to the same object. Thats important to know, because if you change the instance data in
s1, youre also changing the instance data in s5, and vice versa. If two variables refer to the same object, be
carefulmultiple references to the same object can create some extremely hard-to-find bugs. This usually
happens when you think youre really dealing with different objects.
At the end of the preceding code, we print out all the strings weve created. Heres what appears when the
program is run:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
Hello from Java!
Hi there
1.23456789
Hello from Java!

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Thats how to declare and create objectsmuch the same way you declare and create simple variables, with the
added power of configuring objects by passing data to a classs constructor. Its time to start creating your own
classes, and well start that process in the next solution.

Creating Instance Variables

Hmm, says the Novice Programmer, I want to create a class to store data, and Im all set except for one small
thing. Yes? you ask. How do I store data in classes? the NP asks.
You can store data in classes in one of two waysas instance variables or as class variables. Instance variables
are specific to objects; if you have two objects (i.e., two instances of a class), the instance variables in each object
are independent of the instance variables in the other object. On the other hand, the class variables of both
objects will refer to the same data and therefore hold the same value. Lets take a look at instance variables first.
Heres how you declare instance variables in a class:
access class classname [extends ...] [implements ...] {
[access] type instance_variable1;
. . .
[access] type instance_variableN;
}
Heres an example in which well create a class named Data that holds a String instance variable named
data_string, which in turn holds the text Hello from Java!:
class Data { public String data_string = "Hello from Java!"; }
Now we can create an object, named data, of the Data class in main and refer to the instance variable
data_string in data as data.data_string. Heres what this looks like in code:
class Data { public String data_string = "Hello from Java!"; }
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Data data = new Data();
String string = data.data_string;
System.out.println(string); }
}
As you can see, you can access the public instance variables of an object with the dot operator. However,
remember that one of the motivations behind Object-Oriented Programming is to keep data private. Well take a
look in more detail on this in the next topic.

Setting Variable Access

Hey, says the Novice Programmer, I thought objects were supposed to encapsulate data in a private way
how come that Johnson has been able to access the data inside my objects? Because you used the wrong access
specifier for your data, you say.
You can use an access specifiercalled access in the following codeto set the visibility of a classs data
members as far as the rest of the program is concerned:
access class classname [extends ...] [implements ...] {
[access] [static] type instance_variable1;
. . .
[access] [static] type instance_variableN;
}
The access specifier access can contain three possible values: public, private, and protected. You can
access a public data member from anywhere in your program, a private data member only in the current
class, and protected data member in the current class, other classes in the same package, and its subclasses. If
no access specifier is used, the member has default access, which means that the class member is accessible in the
current class, subclasses in the same package, and other classes in the same package. You will learn more about
creating subclasses in Chapter 5.
You can find the details in Table 4.1.
For example, if we wanted to make the instance variable data_string private to the Data class created in the
previous topic, we can declare it private, like this:

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class Data { private String data_string = "Hello from Java!"; }

public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Data data = new Data();
String string = data.data_string;
System.out.println(string); }
}
Now if we try to access the data_string instance variable in another class, as we did previously in the App
class, the Java compiler will object:
C:\>javac App.java
App.java:5: error: data_string has private access in Data
String string = data.data_string;
^
1 error

Table 4.1: Scope by access specifier (x means in scope)

Location Private No modifier Protected Public
Same class x x x x
Subclass in the same package . x x x
Non-subclass in the same package . . x x
Subclass in another package . . x x
Non-subclass in another package . . . x

Creating Class Variables

Uh-oh, says the Novice Programmer, I have a new class named Counter, and I need to keep track of the total
count in a variable named counter for all objects of that class. Now what? Im sunk. Youre not sunk, you
say. You just need to use a class variable.
All objects of that class share the value in a class variable, which means it will be the same for all objects. You
declare a variable as static with the static keyword (which really specifies the way the value is stored, as static
data, as opposed to other variables, which are stored dynamically on stacks):
access class classname [extends ...] [implements ...] {
[access] static type variable1;
. . .
[access] static type variableN;
}
Heres an example in which we create a class named Data with a class data variable named intdata:
class Data {public static int intdata = 0; }
Now we can create two objects of the Data class: a and b. When we set the intdata variable for a to 1, we find
that the intdata variable for b is also set to 1, as you can see here:
class Data { public static int intdata = 0; }
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Data a, b;
a = new Data(); b = new Data();
a.intdata = 1;
System.out.println("The value of b.intdata = " + b.intdata); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
The value of b.intdata = 1
If you need to perform some calculation to initialize static variables, you can do so in a static code block, which
you label with the static keyword; that code is executed just once, when the class is first loaded:
class Data {
public static int intdata = 1;
public static int doubledintdata;

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static { doubledintdata = 2 * intdata; }

}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("The value of doubledintdata = " +
Data.doubledintdata); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
The value of doubledintdata = 2

Creating Methods
OK, says the Novice Programmer, I have got instance variables down now. Is there anything more to learn
about classes? Plenty, you say. Pull up a chair and well talk about creating methods.
Till now, we have used a lot of methods; the most commonly used is the method println() in the statement
System.out.println() to display the output at the console.
A method is a code block that you can transfer control to so as to execute that code. Heres how you create
methods in a class:
access class classname [extends ...] [implements ...] {
[access] [static] returntype method1 (parameter_list) { . . . }
. . .
[access] [static] returntype methodN (parameter_list) { . . . }
}
To declare and define a method, you use an access specifier (see the next topic), specify the return type of the
method if you want it to return a value (such as int, float, an object type, or void if the method doesnt
return any value), give the methods name and place the list of the parameters you intend to pass to the method
after that name. The actual method body is written after the methods declaration and contains the instructions
that are executed when the method is called. Lets get to an example. In fact, youve already seen one earlier in
this chapterthe Printer class. In that example, we added a public method named print() to the Printer
class, created an object of the Printer class, and called the print() method, like this:
class Printer {
public void print() { System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Printer printer1 = new Printer();
printer1.print(); }
}
In this case, the print() method takes no parameters and returns no value, but we still use parentheses after
the methods namethis is mandatory when you are defining or calling a method in Java (its mandatory
because thats how the Java compiler knows print() is a method and not a data member). Heres the output of
this code:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
Theres a lot to know about creating methods in Java, so were going to elaborate on the process over the next
few topics. One of the most important aspects of methods is that you can make them purely internal to an object,
in keeping with the object-oriented concept of encapsulationand thats where well start.

Setting Method Access

That Johnson, the Novice Programmer says, has been using the internal method in my objects, even though I
clearly named the method internal_use_only. Isnt there anything stronger I can use to keep that silly
Johnson out? Yes, you say, you can use a stronger access specifier. Great! says the NP.
You can add an access specifier to the methods in a class, like this (where access is the access specifier):
access class classname [extends ...] [implements ...] {
[access] [static] returntype method1 (parameter_list)

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{ . . . }
. . .
[access] [static] returntype methodN (parameter_list)
{ . . . }
}
The access specifier access can contain three possible values: public, private, and protected. You can
find the details of them in Table 4.1.
Heres an example in which we add a private method to the Printer class developed over the last few
topics. This method may only be called from other methods in the Printer class, like this:
class Printer {
public void print() { internal_use_only(); }
private void internal_use_only () {
System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Printer printer1 = new Printer(); printer1.print(); }
}
When you call the Printer classs print() method, it makes use of the internal_use_only() method,
which is inaccessible outside the object, to do the actual printing.
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
Making methods private or protected is often a good idea because it reduces or controls the methods
accessibility from the rest of the code.

Passing Parameters to Methods

The companys Customer Support Specialist gives you a call and says, We have an issue. What issue would
that be, CSS? you ask. Your Printer class prints out a message, but customers are complaining because they
want to set the message thats printed out. No problem, you say. Ill set the print() method up to their
expectations, i.e., by accepting parameters.
When you declare a method, you can specify a comma-separated list of parameters that you want to pass to that
method in the parentheses following the methods name:
[access] [static] returntype method1 ([type parameter_name1 [, type
parameter_name1...]])
{ . . . }
The values passed to the method will then be accessible in the body of the method; using the names youve
given them in the parameter list. Heres an example in which we pass the string to print to the print() method.
We declare the method, like this, so that Java knows it will accept one parametera String object named s:
class Printer {
public void print(String s) { . . . }
}
Now we can refer to the String object passed to the print() method as s in the body of the method:
class Printer {
public void print(String s) { System.out.println(s); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Printer printer = new Printer();
printer.print("Hello again from Java!");

}
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Hello again from Java!

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If you have more than one parameter to pass, you can specify multiple parameters in the parameter list,
separated by commas:
class Calculator {
int additems(int op1, int op2) {
int result = op1 + op2;
. . . }
}
You can call methods using literals, variables, arrays, or objects, like this:
calc.additems(1, int1, array1, obj1)
You should note that when you pass a simple variable or literal to a method, the value of the variable or literal is
passed to the methodthis process is called passing by value. On the other hand, when you pass an object or
array, you are really passing a reference to that object or array (in fact, when you store an array or object in a
variable, what youre really storing is a reference to the array or object). For that reason, the code in the called
method has direct access to the original array or object, not a copy of it. Therefore, if that code changes some
aspect of the array or object, such as an element in the array or a data member of the object, the original array or
original object is changed. Well take another look at this in detail in the topics, Passing Objects to Methods
and Passing Arrays to Methods, later in this chapter.

Command-Line Arguments Passed to main() method

A special array is passed as a parameter to the main() method in applicationsan array of String objects that
holds the command-line arguments the user specified when starting Java. For example, suppose you started an
application this way:
C:\>java App Kogent Learning Solutions
In this case, the first element of the array passed to main() will hold Kogent, the second Learning, and the
third Solutions. Heres an example showing how this works; this application will print out all the command-
line arguments passed to it by looping over the String array passed as a parameter to the main() method:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Command line arguments...");
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < args.length; loop_index++) {
System.out.println("Argument" + loop_index + " = "
+ args[loop_index]); }
}
}
Heres how we might put this application to work:
C:\>java App Kogent Learning Solutions
Command line arguments...
Argument 0 = Kogent
Argument 1 = Learning
Argument 2 = Solutions

Returning Values from Methods

The Novice Programmer is back and says, Well, theres another problem. The Big Boss wants me to create a
Calculator class that can perform mathematical operations. I can accept passed parameters in the methods of
that class, but Yes? you ask. I cant send any results back from the methods of the class after Ive done the
math. Ah, you say, use the return statement.
The return statement is used in a method for returning a value from the method, and you indicate what the
return type of the method is when you declare the method:
[access] [static] returntype method1 ([type parameter_name1 [, type
parameter_name1...]])
{
. . .
return value;
}

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The return type can be any type that Java recognizesfor example, int, float, double, the name of a class
youve defined, int[] to return an integer array, or float[] to return a float array. Heres an example in
which the class Calculator has a method named additems() that takes two integer parameters, adds them,
and returns the result. Heres how we declare additems():
class Calculator {
int additems(int op1, int op2) { return result; }
}
Heres how we return the sum of the values passed to additems(), using the return statement:
class Calculator { int additems(int op1, int op2) { return op1 + op2; } }
Heres how we put the Calculator class to work in a program:
class Calculator { int additems(int op1, int op2) { return op1 + op2; } }
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Calculator calc = new Calculator();
System.out.println("additems(2,2) = " + calc.additems(2,2)); }
}
Heres the result of this application:
C:\>java App
additems(2,2) = 4

Creating Class Methods

Wow? says the Novice Programmer. I have created my new Calculator class with a terrific method in it
named additems(), but why do I have to go to the trouble of creating an object of that class before I can use the
additems() method? Cant I just call that method directly? You can, you say, if you make additems() a
class method instead of an instance method.
To make a method into a class method, use the static keyword:
class Calculator { static int additems(int op1, int op2) { return op1 + op2; } }
Now in code, you can call the additems() method directly by using the class name, without creating an object
at all. Heres an example:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("additems(2,2) = " + Calculator.additems(2,2)); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
additems(2,2) = 4
You can also use a class method the usual wayas a method of an object:
class Calculator { static int additems(int op1, int op2) { return op1 + op2; } }
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Calculator calc = new Calculator();
System.out.println("additems(2,2) = " + calc.additems(2,2)); }
}
Its worth noting that the main() method in an application is declared static because Java must call it before
an object actually exists.
If you declare a method static (this includes the main() method in any application), it can only call other
static methods and can only access static data. Also, it cannot use the this and super keywords, which refer to
the current object and the parent object of the current object, respectively, as youll see in this and the next
chapter. Note, in particular, that you cant refer to instance data in a static method.

So how do you call non-static methods from main? You do this as we have been doing it throughout the bookyou create an
object of some other class in main and call the methods of that object.

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Creating Data Access Methods

Again that Johnson, the NP says, is fiddling around inside my codes objects. But this time, I cant declare
everything private because the rest of the code needs access to the data member in question. What can I do?
You can set up a data access method, you say, and restrict access to your data members in a well-defined
way. Thatll show that Silly Johnson! the NP says.
You can restrict access to the data in your objects by using data access methods, which must be called to fetch the
data. Heres an example in which we have got a private String data member called data_string:
class Data {
private String data_string = "Hello from Java!";
. . .
}
We can provide access to this private data member with two methodsgetData() and setData(). The
getData() method just returns the value in the private variable data_string, like this:
class Data {
private String data_string = "Hello from Java!";
public String getData() { return data_string; }
}
However, the setData() method restricts access to the internal data; in particular, well write this method so
that the calling code can only set the internal data to a new string if the length of that string is less than 100
characters. Heres how this looks:
class Data {
private String data_string = "Hello from Java!";
public String getData() { return data_string; }
public void setData(String s) {
if (s.length() < 100) { data_string = s; }
}
}
Now we can use the getData() method to get the internal string and the setData() method to set it to a new
string. Heres an example that shows how to use getData():
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println((new Data()).getData()); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
Using data access methods to grant access to the internal data in your objects is a good idea. By using these
methods, you can control the interface to the data, thus, blocking operations you consider are illegal.

Creating Constructors
Hmm, says the Novice Programmer, I know I can use constructors to initialize the data in an object, such as
the String classs constructors that I use to set the text in a string, but Yes? you ask. But how can I create
constructors for my own classes? the NP asks.
Creating a constructor for a class is easy; you just add a method to a class with the same name as the class, with
or without any access specifier and having no return type. Heres an example in which we add a constructor that
takes no parameters to the Printer class weve developed in this chapter. This constructor is called when an
object is created of the Printer class; and in this case, it initializes the internal data data_string to Hello
from Java! (Note that we still need the parentheses after the constructor name when declaring it, even though it
doesnt take any parameters):
class Data {
private String data_string;
Data() { data_string = "Hello from Java!"; }
public String getData() { return data_string; }
}

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public class App {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println((new Data()).getData()); }
}
Heres what you see when you run this program:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
This constructor is a particularly simple one because it doesnt take any parameters. Well enable the constructor
to take parameters in the next topic.

Passing Parameters to Constructors

OK, says the Novice Programmer, Javas gone wacky again. I set up a constructor for my new class, but the
object isnt actually initialized with the data I want. Hmm, you say, did you pass any data to the
constructor? Uh-oh, says the NP.
You can pass data to constructors just as you can to other methods. Heres an example, using the Printer class
from the previous topic, in which we pass the string to print out to the Printer classs constructor:
class Data {
private String data_string;
Data(String s) { data_string = s; }
public String getData() { return data_string; }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println((new Data("Hello from Java!")).getData()); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
And thats all it takespassing parameters to a constructor works the same as passing parameters to any
method.

A Full Class Example

Lets design a class implementing constructors and some member methods for it. We are designing a class to
represent a complex number. A complex number has two parts: one is real and another is imaginary. A complex
number (Z) is represented as Z=a+bi, where a is real part and b is imaginary part. We can define constructors
to initialize complex object with given set of real and imaginary values. Further, there are two methods which
are required here. One is to print a complex number and another is to add two complex numbers. See the
following code which creates a class Complex. This class has two constructors: one zero argument constructor
and another two argument constructor. The Complex classs add(Complex) method adds two complex
numbers and returns a complex number.
One good question which comes in mind here is that we are passing one complex number in Complex classs
add(Complex) method to which it adds two complex numbers. Where is second complex number? The answer
is simple. The object for which this method is invoked is taken as second complex to add with.
public class Complex {
int real;
int imag;
public Complex() {
real=0;
imag=0; }
public Complex(int r, int i) {
real=r;
imag=i; }
void show_complex(){
System.out.print(real+"+"+imag+"i"); }
Complex add(Complex obj) {

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Complex temp=new Complex();

temp.real=this.real+obj.real;
temp.imag=this.imag+obj.imag;
return temp; }
public static void main(String args[]) {
Complex z1=new Complex(2,4);
Complex z2=new Complex(4,5);
System.out.print("\nFirst Complex number Z1 = ");
z1.show_complex();
System.out.print("\nSecond Complex number Z2 = ");
z2.show_complex();
Complex z3=z1.add(z2);
System.out.print("\nAdding Z1 and Z2...");
System.out.print("\nZ1 + Z2 = ");
z3.show_complex(); }
}
Heres what this program looks like at work:
C:\>java Complex
First Complex number Z1 = 2+4i
Second Complex number Z2 = 4+5i
Adding Z1 and Z2...
Z1 + Z2 = 6+9i

Understanding Variable Scope

Hmm, says the Novice Programmer, I have defined a swell new variable named the_answer in a method
named get_the_answer(), and I was trying to use that variable in a method named get_a_clue(), but Java
claims the variable is undefined! Hmm, you say, sounds like a question of variable scopeyou cant use
variables declared in one method in another method. You cant? the NP asks.
The scope of a variable is made up of the parts of the program in which that variable can be used in your code;
and as you can see from the Novice Programmers plight, scope is an important concept to understand. Java
defines three main scopesclass-, method-, and code block-level. If you define a data member in a class, that
data member is available throughout the class, and possibly beyond, as youve seen with the private, public,
and protected access specifiers.
The scope of a method starts when the flow of execution enters the method and ends when the flow of execution
leaves the method. Variables declared in the method are visible in the method only. The data members of the
class are also visible in the classs methods, as are the parameters passed to those methods.
You can also define a local scope for variables using code blocks, because you can declare variables inside code
blocks. The variables you declare inside a code block will be visible only in that code block and in any code
blocks contained within the code block.
The easiest way to bear all this in mind is to know that non-static variables declared in a code block bounded by
curly braces are created and stored on the local stack when you enter that code block, and theyre destroyed
when you leave the code block (which is why theyre called dynamic variables). Static variables, on the other
hand, are stored in the programs own data allocation, not on any stack, which is why they dont go out of scope.
Theyre as close to global variables (i.e., program-wide variables) as Java permits. Heres an example showing
the various levels of scope (class, method, and code block):
class Scope {
int int1 = 1; //visible to all code in the class.
public void method(int int2) { //visible to all code in this method.
int int3 = 3; //visible to all code in this method.
if(int1 != int2) {
int int4 = 4; //visible only in this code block.
System.out.println("int1 = " + int1
+ " int2 = " + int2 + " int3 = " + int3
+ " int4 = " + int4); }
}
}

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public class App {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Scope s = new Scope();
s.method(2); }
}
Heres what you see when this code runs:
C:\>java App
int1 = 1 int2 = 2 int3 = 3 int4 = 4

Using Recursion
The Novice Programmer comes in still shaking with laughter and says, Youll never believe what the
Programming Correctness Czar just told mein C++, methods can call themselves! Its the same in Java, you
reply. Huh? the NP says.
Each time you call a method in Java, Java allocates new space on its internal stack for all the variables in the
method, which means theres no reason you cant call the same method againa new set of variables will be
allocated on the stack automatically. Whats more, a method can call itself in Javathis is a technique called
recursion.
The classic recursion example is to calculate a factorial, so well implement it here. To calculate the factorial of
positive integer n, you calculate the following:
n! = n * (n - 1) * (n - 2) ... * 2 * 1
This process lends itself to recursion easily because each stage of the recursion can calculate one multiplication in
which it multiplies the number it has been passed by the factorial of the number minus 1. When the number has
finally been reduced to 1 through successive calls, the method simply returns, and control comes back through
the successive stages, performing one multiplication at each stage until all nested calls have returned and you
have the factorial.
Heres what this looks like in code:
class Calculator {
public int factorial(int n) {
if (n == 1) { return n; }
else { return n * factorial(n - 1); }
}
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Calculator calc = new Calculator();
System.out.println("6! = " + calc.factorial(6)); }
}
Heres what this program looks like at work:
C:\>java App
6! = 720
In practice, you probably wont use recursion too often, but its good to know its available.

Garbage Collection and Memory Management

Say, the NP says, I just thought of somethingyou allocate new memory with the new operator, but how do
you get rid of it when its no longer needed? Is there an old operator? Nope, you say, Java does all that
for you.
In some languages, such as C++, you use the new operator to allocate new memory, and then you use the
delete operator to get rid of it when you dont need it anymore. However, Java does not have a delete
operator. So, how do you get rid of allocated memory when its no longer needed? In Java, you have to rely on a
built-in process called garbage collection. This process occurs automatically, although you cant predict when it
will happen. Java, itself, will dispose off allocated memory that no longer has any references to it. To make
garbage collection happen, you can set any references to an item to null (although doing so still does not let
you predict when, if ever, garbage collection will happen when your program is executing). Heres an example

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in which were just creating a new object and then setting its variable to null. Because there are no remaining
references to the object, the garbage collection process will deallocate it sooner or later. Heres the code:
class Data {
public int intdata = 0;
Data() { intdata = 1; }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Data d = new Data(); //some code...
d = null; } //some additional code...
}
Heres the thing to remember from this example: When you are done with a data itemincluding objects and
arraysthat youve allocated with the new operator, you can set its references to null, and if Java needs more
memory, itll start the garbage collection process. However, you have to be careful to avoid circular references.

If you are familiar with C++, you may be wondering where pointers are in Java, and the answer is that it doesnt have them. The
designers of Java omitted pointers for security reasons to make sure programmers couldnt access memory beyond legal
limits. Instead of pointers, Java uses references, which act very much like pointers behind the scenes. When you create a new
object, you get a reference to that object, and when you use that reference, Java de-references it for you automatically. Thats
how it works in JavaJava handles references (pointers) for you automatically.

Avoiding Circular References

Garbage collectionthe disposing of memory items that no longer have any references in your program
happens automatically. However, you should watch out for circular references in which one object has a
reference to another and the second object has a reference to the first. When you get rid of any references to these
objects in your program, each object still has an internal reference to the other, which means garbage collection
cant happen on either object. Worse yet, because there are no external references to either object, you cant reach
either object to try to change the situation. Both objects will sit in memory, taking up valuable resources, until
your program ends.
Heres a sample program showing what we meanin this case, class A has an internal reference to an object of
class B, and class B has an internal reference to an object of class A. When the code in main() sets the reference it
has to one of these objects to null, these objects will continue to sit in memory until the program ends. Heres
the code:
class A {
B b1;
A() { b1 = new B(); }
}
class B {
A a1;
B() { a1 = new A(); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
A obj = new A();
obj = null; } //inaccessible circular references now exist!
}
Theres only one way to avoid this, and thats to get rid of circular references before cutting them adrift. In
practice, this usually means setting an objects references to other objects to null before setting the reference to
the object, itself, to null. Sometimes it is possible to do this in the finalize() method (see the next topic for
the details). While we are discussing memory management, its also worth noting that you do have some control
over memory allocation as a wholesee the -J command-line option in Chapter 1, which lets you set the total
amount of memory allocated when a program runs. In general, though, Java handles the memory management
in your programs.

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Garbage Collection and the finalize() Method

Hmm, says the Novice Programmer, so Java has a garbage collector that removes items from memory that are
no longer referenced. Is there anything more I should know about this process? One thing, you say. The
garbage collector calls a special method named finalize() in your object if that method exists, and you can
use this method for last-minute cleanup.
When an object is being garbage collected (see the previous topic), the garbage collector will call a method
named finalize() in the object, if it exists. In this method, you can execute cleanup code, and its often a good
idea to get rid of any references to other objects that the current object has in order to eliminate the possibility of
circular references (also covered in the previous topic).
Heres an example showing how this looks in code:
class Data {
public int intdata = 0;
SuperGiantSizeClass sgsc;
Data() { intdata = 1; sgsc = new SuperGiantSizeClass(100000000); }
protected void finalize() { sgsc = null; }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Data d = new Data();
d = null; }
}

Overloading Methods
Im still working on my new program, SuperDuperMathPro, says the Novice Programmer, and I have a
great class named Calculator with a method named additems() that adds two numbers. Id also like to add
three numbers together, though, I guess Ill have to write a new method. Not at all, you say. You can
overload the additems() method to handle either two or three operands. Hows that? the NP asks.
Method overloading is an object-oriented technique that lets you define several different versions of a method, all
with the same name, but each with a different parameter list. When you use an overloaded method, the Java
compiler will know which one you mean by the number and/or types of the parameters you pass to the method,
finding the version of the method with the right parameter list.
Lets take a look at an example. To overload a method, you just define it more than once, specifying a new
parameter list each time. Each parameter list must be different from every other one in some way, such as the
number of parameters or the type of one or more parameters. Well create an example the Novice Programmer
was worried about here. First, we add a version of the additems() method to the Calculator class that will
handle two operands:
class Calculator {
int additems(int op1, int op2) {return op1 + op2; }
. . .
}
Then we add another version of the same method that will take three operands:
class Calculator {
int additems(int op1, int op2) { return op1 + op2; }
int additems(int op1, int op2, int op3) { return op1 + op2 + op3; }
}
Now we can use both methods in code, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Calculator calc = new Calculator();
System.out.println("additems(2,2) = " + calc.additems(2,2));
System.out.println("additems(2,2,2) = " + calc.additems(2,2,2)); }
}

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Heres the result of this program:

C:\>java App
additems(2,2) = 4
additems(2,2,2) = 6
As you can see, overloading provides a powerful technique, especially in code you release to other developers,
because being able to pass all different types of parameter lists to a method makes that method easy to use in
many ways in code. You can also overload constructorssee the next topic for details.

Overloading Constructors
Alright, says the Novice Programmer, so I can overload methods in Java to let them handle different parameter
lists! Can I also overload constructors? Of course, you say. Consider the Java String class, which has a
constructor to which you can pass strings, character arrays, and all other kinds of data. Oh yeah, says the NP.
Overloading constructors work like overloading other methods (see the previous topic for details): You just
define the constructor a number of times, each time with a parameter list with parameters that differ from the
other lists in some way.
Heres an example that mimics the Java String classs constructors in this new class, the Data class, will have a
constructor to which you can pass either a character array or a string. This class will simply store the text data
you pass to it and make that data available with a getData() method.
Heres how we declare and define the constructor that takes a character array:
class Data {
private String data_string;
Data(char[] c) { data_string = new String(c); }
}
Heres how we declare the constructor that takes a text string:
class Data {
private String data_string;
Data(char[] c) { data_string = new String(c); }
Data(String s) { data_string = s; }
}
All thats left is to add the getData() method:
class Data {
private String data_string;
Data(char[] c) { data_string = new String(c); }
Data(String s) { data_string = s; }
public String getData() { return data_string; }
}
Now we can use both constructors in code, creating objects and printing out the stored text, like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
char chararray[] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o'};
System.out.println((new Data(chararray)).getData());
System.out.println((new Data("Hello from Java!")).getData()); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Hello
Hello from Java!

Passing Objects to Methods

The Novice Programmer appears and says, Javas gone all wacky again. I passed an object to a method because I
want to do a lot of destructive testing on it in that method; but when control returned from the method, the original
object was destroyed. What happened? Java passes objects by reference, you say. Thats what happened.
When you pass an item of a simple data type to a method, Java passes a copy of the data in the item, which is
called passing by value. Because the method gets only a copy of the data item, the code in the method cannot
affect the original data item at all.
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However, when you pass an object to a method, Java actually passes a reference to the object, which is called
passing by reference. Passing by reference means that the code in the method can reach the original object. In fact,
any changes made to the passed object affect the original object.
Heres an example in which we pass an object of class Data to the print() method of the Printer class in
order to print out the data in the object:
class Data {
public String data_string;
Data(String data) { data_string = data; }
}
class Printer {
public void print (Data d) { System.out.println(d.data_string); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Data data = new Data("Hello from Java!");
Printer p = new Printer();
p.print(data); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!
As mentioned previously, because objects are passed by reference, changing a passed object changes the original
object. Heres an example in which we pass an object of the Data class to a method named rewrite() that
changes the data_string instance variable in the object. This variable starts out with the string Hello from
Java! in it, but the rewrite() method is able to change the string to Hello to Java! in this code:
class Data {
public String data_string;
Data(String s) { data_string = new String(s); }
}
class Data2 {
public void rewrite(Data d) { d.data_string = "Hello to Java!"; } }
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Data d = new Data("Hello from Java!");
Data2 d2 = new Data2();
d2.rewrite(d);
System.out.println(d.data_string); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Hello to Java!

Passing Arrays to Methods

So, simple variables are passed by value in Java and objects are passed by reference. I have it all straight now,
says the Novice Programmer. Not quite, you say. Theres one more type of item thats passed by reference
arrays.
You can pass an array to a method as easily as passing a simple variable, but you should keep in mind that
arrays are passed by reference, not value, which means that if you make a change to an array passed to a
method, the original array is also affected.
Heres an example. In this case, well pass an array to a method named doubleValue() that doubles each
element in the array. Because arrays are passed by reference, the data in the original array is doubled as well.
Heres how this looks in code (note that we print out an array before and after the call to the doubleValue()
method):
class Calculate {
public void doubleValue(int a[]) {
for (int loop_index = 0; loop_index < a.length; loop_index++) {
a[loop_index] *= 2; }
}

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}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int array[] = {5,3,6,1,7};
Calculate c = new Calculate();
System.out.println("Before calling the doubleValue()...");
for (int loop_index = 0; loop_index < array.length; loop_index++) {
System.out.println("array[" + loop_index + "] = " +
array[loop_index]); }
c.doubleValue(array);
System.out.println("After calling the doubleValue()...");
for (int loop_index = 0; loop_index < array.length; loop_index++) {
System.out.println("array[" + loop_index + "] = " +
array[loop_index]); }
}
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Before calling the doubleValue()...
array[0] = 5
array[1] = 3
array[2] = 6
array[3] = 1
array[4] = 7
After calling the doubleValue()...
array[0] = 10
array[1] = 6
array[2] = 12
array[3] = 2
array[4] = 14

Using the this Keyword

Java objects include a data member named this which is actually a reference to the current object. The this
keyword is useful if you need to refer to the current objectfor example, when you want to pass the current
object to a method. Heres an example. In this case, the Data class has a method, printData(), that prints the
data in the current object by passing the current object to the print() method of another object. The this
keyword is used to refer to the current object. Heres how this looks in code:
class Data {
private String data_string;
Data(String s) { data_string = s; }
public String getData() { return data_string; }
public void printData() {
Printer p = new Printer();
p.print(this); }
}
class Printer {
void print(Data d) { System.out.println(d.getData()); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
(new Data("Hello from Java!")).printData(); }
}
Note that when the call to p.print() is made, a reference to the current object is passed to p.print(), giving
the code in p.print() access to the getData() method in the current object, which returns the internal data to
print out. Heres the result of this program:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!

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Returning Objects from Methods

You can return objects from methods, just like other data types. However, this raises a concern: When the
method that returned the object goes out of scope, wont the object that it returned also go out of scope? The
answer is no. When you create a new object by using the new operator, that object is not destroyed when the
method that created it goes out of scope, and the object, itself, is not disposed of by the garbage collector until
there are no more references to it.
Heres an example. In this case, a class named ObjectFactory has a method named getNewObject() that
returns an object of the class CreatedClass:
class ObjectFactory {
public CreatedClass getNewObject() { return new CreatedClass(); }
}
class CreatedClass { public String tag = "This is the tag data."; }
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
ObjectFactory o = new ObjectFactory();
CreatedClass c = o.getNewObject();
System.out.println(c.tag); }
}
When we call the getNewObject() method, it returns a new object of the CreatedClass class, and we can
print out the data in that object. Heres what is shown when the program runs:
C:\>java App
This is the tag data.

Returning Arrays from Methods

You can return arrays from methods just as you can return objects and simple data types. Heres an example in
which we create a class called ArrayFactory with a method named getNewArray(). When we call
getNewArray(), it will return an array of integers. Note the return type we specify for getNewArray() in the
declaration: int[]. This indicates an integer array. Heres the code:
class ArrayFactory {
public int[] getNewArray() {
int array[] = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15};
return array; }
}
Heres how we put the ArrayFactory class to work, creating a new array and printing it out:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayFactory af = new ArrayFactory();
int array[] = af.getNewArray();
for (int loop_index = 0; loop_index < array.length; loop_index++) {
System.out.println("array[" + loop_index + "] = " +
array[loop_index]); }
}
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
array[0] = 11
array[1] = 12
array[2] = 13
array[3] = 14
array[4] = 15

The ProcessBuilder and StringBuilder Classes

Fine, after going through all these facts there is one query, what are the ProcessBuilder and
StringBuilder classes for? the Novice Programmer asks. You say, Ok my dear, lets study both of them..

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Java was enriched the lang package by two new classes: the ProcessBuilder class and the
StringBuilder class.

The ProcessBuilder Class

An operating system process is created by using this class. A collection of process attributes is managed by every
ProcessBuilder instance. By using those attributes, the start() method creates instance of a new process.
For creating new subprocesses with similar/associated attributes, the start() method is invoked in a repeated
manner from the same instance.
These process attributes are managed by each process builder in the following ways:
CommandCommand consists of a sequence of strings that enable the invocation of external program file
and its arguments, if exists. The string lists representing a legitimate operating system command are
system-dependent. For instance, generally each conceptual argument is an element in this list, but we can
find instances of operating systems where programs are likely to tokenize command-line strings
themselvesin such a scenario, a Java implementation might need commands for containing only two
elements.
EnvironmentA mapping, which is system-dependent varying from variables to values. The copy of the
environment of current process is the initial value.
Working directoryThe current working directory of the current process is the default value; usually, the
system property, user.dir, imparts name to this directory.
RedirectErrorStream propertyAt initial stage, standard output and error output of a subprocess are
sent to two separate streams, meaning that this property is false. The false property can
be accessed by using two of the methodsthe Process.getInputStream() method and
Process.getErrorStream() method. The standard error is intermingled with the standard output, if
the value is set to true. Thus, the correlation between error messages and the corresponding output is made
easier. In this case, the intermingled data can be read by Process.getInputStream() which is a
returned stream, while well get an immediate result of end of file, if we read from the
Process.getErrorStream() returned stream.
The processes further started by using the start() method of object will be affected if attributes of process
builder are modified, but processes previously started or the Java process itself will never be affected.
The start() method performs most of the error checking. It is very much possible to make the start() fail if
we change the objects state. For example, if the command attribute is set to an empty list, an exception is not
thrown by it unless the start() method is invoked.

This class is not at all synchronized. If an instance of the ProcessBuilder class is retrieved concurrently by multiple threads and
at least one of the attributes is modified structurally by one of the threads, it must be externally synchronized.

It is very easy to start a new process, which make use of both the default working directory and environment.
For example:
import java.io.*;
public class App {
public static void main(String args[])
throws IOException {
ProcessBuilder pb=new ProcessBuilder("notepad.exe", "nfile.java");
pb.start(); }
}
In the previous program, we have used an exception statement which youll study later in detail, but for
information were giving you a brief idea. An exception refers to an object that is created whenever an error
occurs in a Java program and cannot be fixed automatically. An exception object contains the information about
the error. Exceptions that occur belong to different classes according to the occurrence of errors. A throws
keyword used here simply lists the exceptions that the method might throw. The throws statement has the
following basic format:
throw new exception-class();

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When the program is executed, it will create a new file or open that if it already exists within the same directory.
Youll get a dialogue box as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Dialog box prompts to create a file

The StringBuilder Class

The thread-safe StringBuffer class has a replacement in the form of StringBuilder. It does not contain
synchronized methods, so it works much faster. So, if you are performing a number of String operations in a
single thread, youll gain a tremendous performance while using this class.
The StringBuilder class consists of mutable sequence of characters. It provides an API, which is compatible
with StringBuffer, but there is no guarantee of its synchronization. This class is designed in such a way that it
can be used as a drop-in replacement for StringBuffer in places where a single thread is using the
StringBuffer (which is generally the case). It is recommended that this class get precedence over
StringBuffer, as under most implementations, it will be faster.
The append() and insert() methods are the principal operations in a StringBuilder, which are
overloaded so that these can accept data of any type. A given datum is effectively converted into a string by each
of these methods and then the characters of that string are appended or inserted to the StringBuilder
class. These characters are always added at the end of the builder by the append() method, whereas the
characters are added at a specified point by the insert() method.
For example, if we consider z as a StringBuilder object whose start are current contents, then the method
that cause the StringBuilder to contain startle is called z.append("le"), whereas the method that alter
the StringBuilder to contain starlet is called z.insert(4, "le").
In general, if an instance of a StringBuilder class is referred to by sbd, then sbd.append(z) behaves in the
same way as sbd.insert(sbd.length(), z). There is a capacity in every StringBuilder. It is not
mandatory to assign a new internal buffer until the length of the character sequence present in the
StringBuilder class does not surpass the capacity. The StringBuilder gets larger automatically, if there is
an overflow of internal buffer.
It is not advised to use the instances of StringBuilder by multiple threads. It is recommended that
StringBuffer be used in case such synchronization is needed.

You can create new objects of this class from any of the four classes that implements the interface, as the StringBuilder class
has constructors with a parameter of type CharSequence.

Heres an example showing the concatenation of a list of strings into a single string, when string is declared by
using StringBuilder. The following code demonstrates this use, to give you more exposure to
StringBuilder:
class App {
public static void main (String [] args) {
System.out.println ("Concatenation: " +
concat ("Hello", " ", "Java")); }
static String concat (String ... strings) {
StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder ();
for (int i = 0; i < strings.length; i++)
sb.append (strings [i]);
return sb.toString (); }
}

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Heres the result of this code:

C:\>java App
Concatenation: Hello Java
Let s take one more program of the StringBuilder class:
import java.util.Scanner;
public class App {
static Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.print("Enter a string: ");
String str = scan.nextLine();
StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder(str);
for (int index_of_string = 0; index_of_string
< str.length(); index_of_string++) {
char chr = str.charAt(index_of_string);
if ( (chr == 'A') || (chr == 'a')
|| (chr == 'E') || (chr == 'e')
|| (chr == 'I') || (chr == 'i')
|| (chr == 'O') || (chr == 'o')
|| (chr == 'U') || (chr == 'u') ) {
sb.setCharAt(index_of_string, '*'); }
}
System.out.println();
System.out.println(str);
System.out.println(sb.toString()); }
}
In the preceding code, we have used a special class called the Scanner class; lets give you a brief introduction
of it.
You can read input from either the keyboard or a text file by using Scanner class. This class provides a simple
and standard mechanism for reading input; the complete Scanner class can be accessed by importing
java.util.Scanner. The input received by the Scanner class is broken into tokens. For breaking, Scanner
uses delimiter pattern, which by default matches whitespace. These tokens are further converted into values of
various types by using the following methods.
The following code allows a user to read a number from System.in:
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
int i = scan.nextInt();
When the program is compiled and run, it involves an interactive session. So, on entering any string, youll get
the symbol *, at the (a,e,i,o,u) vowels position. The output is shown here:
C:\>java App
Enter a string: Kogent
Kogent
K*g*nt

Catching an Exception
No!, says the Novice Programmer. My program just crashes when I divide by zero. Well, you say, its
pretty hard for Java to know what to do when you do that. Why not catch ArithmeticException exceptions
and handle divisions by zero yourself? The NP says, Tell me more!
You can use try/catch blocks to handle runtime errors, called exceptions. Exceptions are encapsulated into
objects that extend the Throwable class. In fact, theres another kind of runtime error in Java thats built on the
Throwable classits called Error. However, this type of error is serious and cannot be caught in code. Heres
the inheritance diagram for the Throwable class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.lang.Throwable
Youll find the constructors of the Throwable class in Table 4.2 and its methods in Table 4.3. Note, in particular,
the getMessage() method, which returns an error message you can display to the user, and the toString()
method, which lets you print out an exception object as part of a string, like this:
System.out.println("Exception: " + e)

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Here, e is an exception object.

Table 4.2: Constructors of the Throwable class
Constructor Does this
Throwable() It constructs a new Throwable object
Throwable(String message) It constructs a new Throwable object with the indicated error
message
Throwable(String message , Throwable It constructs a new Throwable object with the specified detail
cause) message and cause
Throwable(Throwable cause) It constructs a new Throwable object with the specified cause and
detail messageof(cause==null ?null:cause.toString())
(which typically contains the class and detail message of cause)
protected Throwable (String message, It constructs a new Throwable object with the indicated error
Throwable cause, boolean message, cause, suppression disabled, or enabled, and writable stack
enableSuppression, boolean trace disabled or enabled
writableStackTrace)

Table 4.3: Methods of the Throwable class

Method Does this
void addSuppressed(Throwable It appends the indicated exception to the exceptions that were
exception) suppressed to deliver this exception
Throwable fillInStackTrace() It fills in the execution stack trace
Throwable getCause() It yields the cause of this Throwable object or null in case the cause
doesnt exist or not known
String getLocalizedMessage() It gets a localized description of this Throwable object
String getMessage() It gets the error message string of this Throwable object
StackTraceElement[] getStackTrace() It provides programmatic access to the stack trace information
printed by printStackTrace()
Throwable[] getSuppressed() It returns an array containing all the exceptions suppressed to
deliver this exception
Throwable initCause It initializes the cause of this throwable to the specified value
(Throwable cause)
void printStackTrace() It prints the stack trace to the standard error stream
void printStackTrace It prints the stack trace to the indicated print stream
(PrintStream s)
void printStackTrace It prints the stack trace to the indicated print writer
(PrintWriter s)
void setStackTrace It sets the stack trace elements that will be returned by
(StackTraceElement [] stackTrace) getStackTrace() and printed by printStackTrace() and
related methods
String toString() It gets a short description of this Throwable object

Heres the inheritance diagram for the Exception class:

java.lang.Object
|____java.lang.Throwable
|____java.lang.Exception
Youll find the constructors of the Exception class in Table 4.4. Heres how you use a try/catch block in general:
try { } // Sensitive code
catch (Exception1Type e1) { } // Handle exception1 type
catch (Exception2Type e1) { } // Handle exception2 type
. . .
finally { } // Code to be executed after try-catch block ends

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Table 4.4: Constructors of the Exception class

Constructor Does this
Exception() It constructs an Exception object with null as its detail message
Exception(String s) It constructs an Exception object with the indicated detail
message
Exception(String message, It constructs a new Exception object with the specified detail
Throwable cause) message and cause
protected Exception(String message, It constructs a new Exception object with the specified detail
Throwable cause, boolean message, cause, suppression enabled or disabled, and writable
enableSuppression, boolean stack trace enabled or disabled
writableStackTrace)
Exception It constructs a new exception with the specified cause and a detail
(Throwable cause) message of (cause==null ? null : cause.toString()) (which typically
contains the class and detail message of cause)

When some sensitive code inside a try block throws an exception, you can catch it with a catch block. You can
also use a finally block to execute code after the try/ catch block is complete, and the code in the finally
block will be executed whether or not an exception occurred. You can use a finally block to handle exceptions
not explicitly caught in a catch block. There are many, many different types of exceptions in Java, and youll
find some of the exception classes in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Some Java exception classes
AclNotFoundException ActivationException AlreadyBoundException
ApplicationException AWTException BackingStoreException
BadLocationException CertificateException ClassNotFoundException
CloneNotSupportedException DataFormatException DestroyFailedException
ExpandVetoException FontFormatException GeneralSecurityException
GSSException IllegalAccessException InstantiationException
InterruptedException IntrospectionException InvalidMidiDataException
InvalidPreferencesFormatExcepti InvocationTargetException IOException
on
LastOwnerException LineUnavailableException MidiUnavailableException
MimeTypeParseException NamingException NoninvertibleTransformExcep
tion
NoSuchFieldException NoSuchMethodException NotBoundException
NotOwnerException ParseException ParserConfigurationExcepti
on
PrinterException PrintException PrivilegedActionException
PropertyVetoException RefreshFailedException RemarshalException
RuntimeException SAXException ServerNotActiveException
SQLException TooManyListenersException TransformerException
UnsupportedAudioFileException UnsupportedCallbackExcepti UnsupportedFlavorException
on
UnsupportedLookAndFeelException URISyntaxException UserException
XAException

Take a look at this simple example that divides two numbers and uses try/catch statement to catch an
exception, if the second number turns out to be zero:
public class Divide {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int d = 5;
int z = 0;

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try { int quotient = d/z; }

catch (ArithmeticException e) { System.out.println ("Oops!!"); }
}
}
Heres the output of the preceding code:
C:\> java Divide
Oops!!
Another example that uses a method to get a valid integer from the user is as follows:
import java.util.*;
public class VerifyInt {
static Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.print("Enter an integer: ");
int x = VerifyInt();
System.out.println("You have entered " + x); }
public static int VerifyInt() {
while (true) {
try { return scan.nextInt(); }
catch (InputMismatchException e) {
scan.next();
System.out.print("It is not an integer. "
+ "Try again: "); } }
}
}
Heres the result:
C:\> java VerifyInt
Enter an integer: 2.0
It is not an integer. Try again: 14.0
It is not an integer. Try again: 7.6
It is not an integer. Try again: 20
You have entered 20
In this case, if the user enters a non-integer value, the catch block catches the error and forces the loop to
repeat. The nextInt() method throws an InputMismatchException, if the user has entered data that
cannot be converted into an integer, . Note that the program imports all the classes from the java.util
package, including the MismatchException class. When an InputMismatchException is thrown, the
nextInt() method leaves the input value in the Scanners input stream. Then the scan.next() method in
the catch block disposes of the users invalid input. If this method (scan.next()) is omitted, the while loop
keeps reading the input stream, throws an exception, and displays an error message in an infinite loop.
Heres one example of catching an exception. In this case, were catching an array index out of bounds
exception:
public class Excep {
public static void main(String args[]) {
try {
int array[] = new int[100];
array[100] = 100; }
catch (ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
System.out.println("Exception: " + e.getMessage());
e.printStackTrace(); }
}
}
When you run this example, heres the result you get, which includes an error message and a stack trace that
indicates where the exception occurred:
C:\>java Excep
Exception: 100
java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException: 100
at Excep.main(Excep.java:5)
You can also pass exceptions back to methods that called the current method with the throws keyword. Heres
an example in which we indicate that the doSomeWork() method can throw an exception of class
ArithmeticException, which will be caught in the calling method (or, if not, by the default exception handler

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in Java), by specifying the throws keyword in the methods definition (note that if you use the throws
keyword like this, you dont need a try/catch block in the methods body):
public class Excep2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
try { doSomeWork(); }
catch (ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
System.out.println("Exception: " + e.getMessage());
e.printStackTrace(); } }
static void doSomeWork() throws ArithmeticException {
int array[] = new int[100];
array[100] = 100; }
}
Heres the result of this code. Note that the stack trace indicates that the exception occurred in the
doSomeWork() method:
C:\>java Excep2
Exception: 100
java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException: 100
at Excep2.doSomeWork(Excep2.java:9)
at Excep2.main(Excep2.java:3)
Here is another example by using the FileNotFoundException. A string is passed to the constructor that
contains the path and name of a file that exists on your computer. In case the file is not found, a
FileNotFoundException is thrown. Youll get acquainted with file operations later:
import java.io.*;
public class FileExcep {
public static void main(String[] args) { openFile("test.bmp"); }
public static void openFile(String name) {
FileInputStream f = new FileInputStream(name); }
}
Youll notice that you cannot compile this example successfully, as the compiler displays the following error:
C:\> javac FileExcep.java
FileExcep.java:5: error: unreported exception FileNotFoundException; must be caught or
declared to be thrown
FileInputStream f = new FileInputStream(name); }
^
1 error
This message means that you need to take care of the FileNotFoundException. To do so, you need to catch
this exception by using the try statement:
import java.io.*;
public class FileExcep {
public static void main(String[] args) { openFile("test1.bmp"); }
public static void openFile(String name) {
try { FileInputStream f = new FileInputStream(name); }
catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("File not found."); }
}
}
On executing this example, the following result gets displayed:
C:\>java FileExcep
File not found.

Nesting the try Statements

You can have nested try blocks inside other try blocks. If one try block doesnt have a corresponding catch
block that handles an exception, Java searches the next outer try block for a catch block that will handle the
exception (and so on, back through the successive nestings). If Java cant find a catch block for the exception, it
will pass the exception to its default exception handler. Heres an example of nested try blocks:
public class NestedExcep {
public static void main(String args[]) {
try {
try { int num[] = {10, 12, 24, 31}; num[4] = 47; }

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catch(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
System.out.println("Array index out of bounds: "
+ e); } }
catch(ArithmeticException e) {
System.out.println("Divide by zero: " + e); }
}
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java NestedExcep
Array index out of bounds: java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException: 4

Using the finally Clause

The finally block comes after all the catch blocks. Irrespective of whether any exceptions are thrown by the
try blocks or caught by the catch blocks, this statement is executed. The main aim is to wrap up the tasks that
are not completed by the exception, such as opened files or database connections. Heres an example using the
finally clause:
import java.util.*;
public class FinExcep {
static Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
public static void main(String[] args) {
try {
System.out.print("\nEnter an integer: ");
int i = getInt();
System.out.print("Enter another integer: ");
int j = getInt();
divideTheseNumbers(i,j); }
catch (Exception e) {
System.out.println("...still it didn't work!"); }
}
public static int getInt() {
while (true)
try { return scan.nextInt(); }
catch (InputMismatchException e) { scan.next(); }
}
public static int divideTheseNumbers(int a, int b) throws Exception {
int c;
try { c = a / b; System.out.println("\n...It worked!!"); }
catch (Exception e) {
System.out.println("\nOops!! Didn't work!");
c = a / b;
// System.out.println("Oops!! Didn't work again!");
}
finally { System.out.println("\n...Given my best try....."); }
System.out.println("It worked after all.");
return c; }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\> java FinExcep
Enter an integer: 12
Enter another integer: 2

...It worked!!

...Given my best try.....

It worked after all.

C:\> java FinExcep

Enter an integer: 9

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Enter another integer: 0

Oops!! Didn't work!

...Given my best try.....

...still it didn't work!

Throwing Exceptions
Argh! That Johnson is at it again, says the Novice Programmer, abusing my code. Well, you say, you can
throw exceptions yourself in the code if you want to. Yes? asks the NP, Tell me more!
You can throw your own exceptions with the throw statement. Here is an example in which we throw an
exception that will be caught in a catch block that, in turn, throws the exception again to be caught in the
calling method:
public class ThrowExcep {
public static void main(String args[]) {
try { doSomeWork(); }
catch(ArithmeticException e) {
System.out.println("Exception caught in main" + e); } }
static void doSomeWork() {
try { throw new ArithmeticException("Arithmetic Exception!"); }
catch(ArithmeticException e) {
System.out.println("Caught inside doSomeWork " + e);
throw e; } }
}
Heres the output of this code:
C:\>java ThrowExcep
Caught inside doSomeWork java.lang.ArithmeticException: Arithmetic Exception!
Exception caught in mainjava.lang.ArithmeticException: Arithmetic Exception!
Lets now throw the FileNotFoundException that we dealt with earlier in this chapter. If we pass this
exception to the main() method instead of the openFile() method, the example would be as follows:
import java.io.*;
public class FileExcep1 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
try { openFile("test1.bmp"); }
catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("File not found."); } }
public static void openFile(String name) throws FileNotFoundException {
FileInputStream f = new FileInputStream(name); }
}
Adding a throws clause to the openFile() method means that when the FileNotFoundException occurs, it
is simply passed to the method that called the openFile() method. That means the calling method must
either catch or throw the exception. In case the file does not exist, the catch block catches the exception and
displays the error message, as shown in the result:
C:\> java FileExcep1
File not found.
In fact, the throws clause lists all the exception(s) that the method might throw. In case more than one exception
is on the list, it can be separated by commas like this:
public static void readFile(String name) throws
FileNotFoundException, IOException
You can throw a FileNotFoundException from the main method also, by using a throws clause like this:
public static void main (String[] args) throws FileNotFoundException {
openFile(test1.bmp);
}
Can we ignore an exception? asks NP. Of course you can! you say. NP looks satisfied.

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You can ignore an exception by catching the exception in the catch block of a try statement and then leaving
the catch block empty:
public static void ope1(String name) {
try { FileInputStream f = new FileInputStream(name); }
catch (FileNotFoundException e) { }
}
Note that you dont have to throw any of the predefined Java exceptionsyou can define your own exceptions.
See the next solution for the details.

Creating a Custom Exception

See, says the NP, Java just doesnt have the exception I need to use. What is it? you ask. The temperature-
too-high exception, the NP says. Hmm, you say, how thoughtless of Java not to include that. However, you
can create your own exception classes, so youre OK. Great! says the NP.
You can create your own exception classes by extending the Exception class just provide a constructor and
override the methods you plan to use, such as getMessage() and toString().
Heres an example:
class Excep extends Exception {
int value;
Excep(int val) {value = val; }
public String toString() { return "Newly generated exception " + value; }
}
public class CustomExcep {
public static void main(String args[]) {
try {
doSomeWork(3);
doSomeWork(2);
doSomeWork(1);
doSomeWork(0);
}
catch (Excep e) { System.out.println("Exception: " + e); } }
static void doSomeWork(int value) throws Excep {
if(value == 0) { throw new Excep(value); }
else { System.out.println("No problem."); } }
}
Heres the output of this example:
C:\>java CustomExcep
No problem.
No problem.
No problem.
Exception: Newly generated exception 0

Catching Multiple Exception Types

Can a single catch block handle more than one kind of exception? asks the NP. Till Java SE 6, this facility
was not available in Java, but Java SE 7 and Java SE 8 have this facility, you say. Thats good, says the NP.
The multicatch is an exciting new feature in Java SE 7. This Java enhancement lets you catch different types of
exception using a single catch block. It reduces code duplication and temptation to catch overly broad
exceptions, such as catch(Exception e). Sample code lines that show catching multiple exceptions prior to
Java 7 is as follows:
catch(SQLException e) { . . . }
catch(IOException e) { . . . }

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Heres how you can catch multiple exceptions in a single catch block:
catch(SQLException|IOException e) { . . . }
You can see that in Java SE 7, a single catch block allows you to specify different types of exceptions separated
by a vertical bar (|) symbol. Also, note that the catch parameter e is implicitly final. Therefore, you cant assign
or modify value contained in it inside the catch block. The bytecode generated on compilation of the catch
block handling multiple exception types is smaller in size in comparison to the bytecode generated on
compilation of various catch blocks that are handling the single exception type. The bytecode generated in case
of Java SE 7 catch block handling multiple exceptions contains no duplication or replication of exception
handlers.

Rethrowing Exceptions with Improved Type Checking

Can I rethrow an exception? asks the NP. Hmm, you say, you can; in fact, Java SE 7 allows you to rethrow
exceptions in a better way. How? asks the NP.
In Java SE 7, the compiler analyzes the rethrown exceptions in a much improved manner compared to the
previous versions of Java. This newly added final rethrow feature allows you to specify more specific
exception types in the throws clause. Consider the following example to understand better:
class Exception1 extends Exception {
Exception1(String message) { super(message); }
}
class Exception2 extends Exception {
Exception2(String message) { super(message); }
}

Suppose there is a method rethrowMyException which is shown as:

public void rethrowMyException(String exname) throws Exception {
try {
if(exname.equals(Exception1) { throw new Exception1(Exception1); }
else { throw new Exception1(Exception2); }
}
catch(Exception e) { throw e; }
}
Here, the try block throws either Exception1 or Exception2 depending upon the name which it receives as
parameter. Before Java SE 7, you couldnt specify the exception types following the rethrowMyException()
method declaration; you could only write Exception there in this situation. This is because the exception
parameter e in the catch block is of type Exception which the catch block rethrows.
Java SE 7 allows you to specify the Exception1 and Exception2 in the throws clause while declaring method
rethrowMyException(). The compiler can then deduce that the exception must have been generated in the try
block and is of the type either Exception1 or Exception2 even though the exception parameter e in the catch
block is of the type Exception. Therefore, in Java SE 7, the rethrowMyException() method can be written as
follows:
public void rethrowMyException(String exname) throws Exception1, Exception2 {
try {
. . .
}
catch(Exception e) { throw e; }
}
Note that if you are specifying a different exception type (not Exception) in the catch block, then the
throws clause after the declaration of method rethrowMyException() must have exception type Exception.
In Java SE 7, when you rethrow an exception, the compiler verifies whether the try block can throw that
exception or not; there is not any preceding catch block that can handle that exception, and the exception
is a subtype or supertype of the exception type of an exception parameter in any of the catch blocks.

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Debugging Java Programs

Uh-oh, says the NP, I have got a logic problem in my code. You mean a bug, you say. I prefer to think of it
as a logic problem, says the NP. OK, you say. Either way, its time to use the Java debugger.
The Java debugging tool is jdb, and you can use it much like you use the java tool, except jdb lets you single
step through your code, install breakpoints to stop execution at a particular line, and more. Heres an example in
which we use the debugger on an application:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 51, b = 22, c = 34, d = 45;
System.out.println("a = " + a);
System.out.println("b = " + b);
System.out.println("c = " + c);
System.out.println("d = " + d); }
}
To start with, we compile the application with the -g option, which makes Java include debugging information
(its not necessary to use -g, but the debugger will often suggest it if you dont use it):
C:\>javac -g -deprecation App.java
Now we start jdb just as we would start the java tool. One of the best ways to see whats available in the Java
debugger is to ask it to explain itself, which we do with the help command at the jdb prompt (see the
highlighted line of code):
C:\>jdb App
Initializing jdb ...
> help
** command list **
connectors -- list available connectors and transports in this VM

run [class [args]] -- start execution of application's main class

threads [threadgroup] -- list threads

thread <thread id> -- set default thread
suspend [thread id(s)] -- suspend threads (default: all)
resume [thread id(s)] -- resume threads (default: all)
where [<thread id> | all] -- dump a thread's stack
wherei [<thread id> | all]-- dump a thread's stack, with pc info
up [n frames] -- move up a thread's stack
down [n frames] -- move down a thread's stack
kill <thread id> <expr> -- kill a thread with the given exception object
interrupt <thread id> -- interrupt a thread
print <expr> -- print value of expression
dump <expr> -- print all object information
eval <expr> -- evaluate expression (same as print)
set <lvalue> = <expr> -- assign new value to field/variable/array element
locals -- print all local variables in current stack frame

classes -- list currently known classes

class <class id> -- show details of named class
methods <class id> -- list a class's methods
fields <class id> -- list a class's fields

threadgroups -- list threadgroups

threadgroup <name> -- set current threadgroup

stop in <class id>.<method>[(argument_type,...)]

-- set a breakpoint in a method

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stop at <class id>:<line> -- set a breakpoint at a line

clear <class id>.<method>[(argument_type,...)]
-- clear a breakpoint in a method
clear <class id>:<line> -- clear a breakpoint at a line
clear -- list breakpoints
catch [uncaught|caught|all] <class id>|<class pattern>
-- break when specified exception occurs
ignore [uncaught|caught|all] <class id>|<class pattern>
-- cancel 'catch' for the specified exception
watch [access|all] <class id>.<field name>
-- watch access/modifications to a field
unwatch [access|all] <class id>.<field name>
-- discontinue watching access/modifications
to a field
trace [go] methods [thread]
-- trace method entries and exits.
-- All threads are suspended unless 'go' is specified
trace [go] method exit | exits [thread]
-- trace the current method's exit, or all methods'
exits
-- All threads are suspended unless 'go' is specified
untrace [methods] -- stop tracing method entrys and/or exits
step -- execute current line
step up -- execute until the current method returns to
its caller
stepi -- execute current instruction
next -- step one line (step OVER calls)
cont -- continue execution from breakpoint
list [line number|method] -- print source code
use (or sourcepath) [source file path]
-- display or change the source path
exclude [<class pattern>, ... | "none"]
-- do not report step or method events for specified
classes
classpath -- print classpath info from target VM

monitor <command> -- execute command each time the program stops

monitor -- list monitors
unmonitor <monitor#> -- delete a monitor
read <filename> -- read and execute a command file

lock <expr> -- print lock info for an object

threadlocks [thread id] -- print lock info for a thread

pop -- pop the stack through and including the current

frame
reenter -- same as pop, but current frame is reentered
redefine <class id> <class file name>
-- redefine the code for a class

disablegc <expr> -- prevent garbage collection of an object

enablegc <expr> -- permit garbage collection of an object

!! -- repeat last command

<n> <command> -- repeat command n times
# <command> -- discard (no-op)
help (or ?) -- list commands

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version -- print version information

exit (or quit) -- exit debugger
<class id>: a full class name with package qualifiers
<class pattern>: a class name with a leading or trailing wildcard ('*')
<thread id>: thread number as reported in the 'threads' command
<expr>: a Java(TM) Programming Language expression.
Most common syntax is supported.
Startup commands can be placed in either "jdb.ini" or ".jdbrc"
in user.home or user.dir
Then set a breakpoint in the main method like this:
> stop in App.main
Deferring breakpoint App.main.
It will be set after the class is loaded.
Now we can run the code with the run command, which will run and stop immediately because of the
breakpoint, like this:
> run
run App
Set uncaught java.lang.Throwable
Set deferred uncaught java.lang.Throwable
>
VM Started: Set deferred breakpoint App.main

Breakpoint hit: "thread=main", App.main(), line=3 bci=0

3 int a = 51, b = 22, c = 34, d = 45;

main[1]
Now we can use the next command to single-step through the code like this:
main[1] next
>
Step completed: "thread=main", App.main(), line=4 bci=13
4 System.out.println("a = " + a);

main[1] next
> a = 51

Step completed: "thread=main", App.main(), line=5 bci=38

5 System.out.println("b = " + b);
main[1] next
> b = 22

Step completed: "thread=main", App.main(), line=6 bci=63

6 System.out.println("c = " + c);

main[1] next
> c = 34

Step completed: "thread=main", App.main(), line=7 bci=88

7 System.out.println("d = " + d); }

main[1]
As you can see, there are all kinds of debugging options. Try it yourself. The best way to learn how to use jdb is
to put it to work.

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Summary
In this chapter, you have been introduced to objects, data members, methods, inheritance, exception handling,
and debugging. You have learned how to declare and define a class, create instance variables, implement
variable scope, create class variable, and perform basic operations on methods. We have also discussed about the
this keyword and operating methods using objects and arrays. You have learned how to perform basic
operations on constructors and use garbage collection, finalize() method and memory management.
Towards the end, the new classes in the java.lang package and exception handling in Java has been explored.
The next chapter will discuss about the inheritance, inner classes, and interfaces.

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Inheritance, Inner Classes,
and Interfaces
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Creating a Subclass 150
Access Specifiers and Inheritance 150
Calling Superclass Constructors 151
Creating Multilevel Inheritance 153
Handling Multilevel Constructors 154
Overriding Methods 155
Accessing Overridden Members 155
Using Superclass Variables with Subclassed Objects 156
Dynamic Method Dispatch (Runtime Polymorphism) 157
Creating Abstract Classes 158
Stopping Overriding with final 159
Stopping Inheritance with final 159
Creating Constants with final 160
Is-a vs. Has-a Relationships 160
The Java Object Class 161
Using Interfaces for Multiple Inheritance 162
Creating Iterable Objects 166
Creating Inner Classes 168
Creating Anonymous Inner Classes 168
Chapter 5: Inheritance, Inner Classes, and Interfaces

In Depth
This chapter is all about inheritance, a very important topic in Java programming. Inheritance is used to derive
one class from another class. The class from which another class is being derived is called the base class or
superclass, and the class that is derived is called the derived class or subclass. The idea here is that you add what
you want to the new class to give it more customized functionality in addition to the original class.
The previous chapter began our discussion of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) and as we mentioned there,
if you have a class named, say, Vehicle, that contains the basic functionality of some means of transport, you
can use that class as the base class of classes you derive from that class, such as Car and Truck. The Car class
might, for instance, have a data member named wheels, set to 4, whereas the same data member in the Truck
class might be set to 18. You can also use the same Vehicle class as the base class for other classes, such as
Helicopter class. All the subclasses will have access to the non-private members of the superclass, and they
can add their own. In fact, they can override the non-private methods of the superclass, replacing them with their
own code. For example, the Vehicle class may have a method named go that prints out Driving and the
Helicopter class may override that method, redefining it so it prints out Flying.
Using inheritance, then, you can base your classes on other classes, reusing code and adding to it. You can use or
redefine the members of the superclass, as you like, customizing that class for your own use. In fact, you can
create classes that must be treated as superclasses. These classes are called abstract classes. You cant instantiate
an abstract class directly into an object; you must instead derive a new class from it first, overriding those
members that are specifically declared abstract. You use abstract classes to force developers to customize some
or all of the members of a class; for example, you may have an abstract method named printError() because
you want developers to supply their own code for this method as appropriate for the subclasses they create.
Thats an overview of what inheritance does. The next question arises, why is inheritance so important in Java?

Why Inheritance?
Java, being an OOP language, relies heavily on inheritance. It contains a large number of packages which contain
classes that you can use as superclasses.
This is important if, for example, you want to create an applet in Java, because in that case, you can derive your
applet from the java.applet packages Applet class. Heres an applet that creates a superclass on the basis of
the Applet class by using the extends keyword (more on applets in the next chapter):
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
public class App extends Applet {
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Hello Java Reader!", 40, 100); }
}
Heres another example; in this case, we are creating a windowed application and basing the window itself on
the Java java.awt.Frame class:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
class AppFrame extends Frame {
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Hello Java Reader!", 40, 100); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String [] args) {
AppFrame f = new AppFrame();
f.setSize(200, 200);
f.addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {
System.exit(0); }});
f. setVisible(true); }
}

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As you can see, when it comes to visual elements in your programs, youll rely on the Java packages a great deal.
Buttons, for example, have their own classes and to customize them, you can derive your own classes from them.
In fact, if you even want to handle mouse actions or button clicks, you have to use inheritance this time, not
using superclasses but rather interfaces.

Why Interfaces?
Suppose you want to create an applet that handles button clicks. For this, you can create a standard applet by
deriving a class from the java.applet.Applet class. You can use ActionListener class for handling the
button clicks. Therefore, both the Applet and ActionListener classes act as base for your applet.
However, basing a subclass on two or more superclasses is called multiple inheritance, and it turns out that Java
doesnt support multiple inheritance (although languages, such as C++ do). In practice, this means you can only
use the extends keyword with one class. To solve this problem, Java implements classes such as
ActionListener as interfaces. In this case, you can extend your applet from the Applet class and use the
implements keyword to add the button-click handling. Heres what this looks like in an applet:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class Clicker extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextField text1; Button button1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20); add(text1);
button1 = new Button("Click Here!"); add(button1);
button1.addActionListener(this); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String msg = new String ("Welcome to Java");
if(event.getSource() == button1) { text1.setText(msg); }
}
}
You can implement as many interfaces as you like; for example, heres part of a program that implements three
listeners to enable the program to handle button clicks and mouse actions:
import java.awt.Graphics;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.lang.Math;
import java.applet.Applet;
public class dauber extends Applet implements ActionListener,
MouseListener, MouseMotionListener {
. . .
Youll see how to create interfaces later in the book. However, youll get an introduction to them in this chapter
so that we can use them in the chapters to come. Theres one more topic well cover in this chapterInner
Classes.

Why Inner Classes?

Java lets you create classes within classes, and the enclosed class is called an inner class. Well start working with
inner classes in this chapter. You might not see much need for defining classes within classes now, but it will
become more apparent when we start handling user interface events, such as when the user closes a window.
Events are handled with interfaces, and when you implement an interface, you must also provide
implementations of several abstract methods inside the interface. To make this process easier, Java provides
adapter classes, which already have empty implementations of the required methods. To handle a user interface
event of some kind, its become common to subclass adapter classes as inner classes, overriding just the methods
you want in a very compact way. Heres an example in which the code ends an application when the user closes
that applications window:
import java.awt.event.*;
public class App {
public static void main(String [] args) {
AppFrame f = new AppFrame();

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f.setSize(200, 200);
f.addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {
System.exit(0); }});
f.setVisible(true); }
}
Well unravel this code in detail when working with events, and well get started on that process by introducing
inner classes so that this code will make much more sense to you later.

Lambda Expressions
A lambda expression refers to a method that has no name; no access specifier private, public, or protected; and
no return value declaration. This type of method is also known as anonymous method or closure. Like
anonymous class, a lambda expression can be used for performing a task without a name. It is a new and
significant feature that is included in Java SE 8. Through lambda expressions, functionality can be passed as
method arguments and code as data.

An anonymous class does not have a name, but an object of this class can be created.

Consider the following code snippet for understanding the concept of lambda expression, in which a simple
method is created for showing a message. Lets first declare a simple message as:
public void showMgs()
{
System.out.println(Dreamtech Press);
}
Now, convert the preceding method into a lambda expression by removing the public access specifier, return
type declaration, such as void, and the name of method showMsg. The lambda expression is shown as follows:
() -> {System.out.println(Dreamtech Press); }
The basic structure of a lambda expression comprises:
formal parameters separated by commas and enclosed in parentheses.
arrow token, ->
a single expression or a statement block
If a single expression is specified, the Java runtime environment automatically evaluates the expression and then
returns its value. You can also use a return statement, but it should be enclosed in braces as it is not an
expression.
You know that everything is treated as object in Java; therefore, objects are in large numbers therein. Performing
operations on such large number of objects is very difficult, to handle which Java provides java.util package in
which various objects are stored as a single object, known as collection object. You can perform operations on
various objects by using the loops such as for-each loop. However, this loop will allow you to handle the object
separately and not collectively. Therefore, you need to improve the functional aspect, which can be easily done
by using lambda expressions as these are treated as objects by the JVM.

Method References
As discussed earlier, you can use lambda expressions for creating anonymous methods. Sometimes, a lambda
expression is used only for calling an existing method by using its name but not for performing operations.
Lambda expressions use method references that are compact and easy-to-read for calling existing methods by
their names. There are mainly four different types of method references, as shown in Table 5.1:

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Table 5.1: Different types of method references

Types of References Example
Referencing a static method ContainingClass::staticMethodName
Referencing an instance method of a particular containingObject::instanceMethodName
object
Referencing an instance method of an arbitrary ContainingType::methodName
object of a particular type
Referencing to a constructor ClassName::new

Now that youve the concepts behind inheritance, interfaces, inner classes, and lambda expressions, its time to
turn to the Immediate Solutions section.

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Immediate Solutions
Creating a Subclass
OK, the NP says, I want to learn what inheritance is all about. Can you explain it in two words or less?
Counting on your fingers you say, No way. Heres an example showing how to create a subclass by using
inheritance.
Suppose you have a class Airplane that has one method fly(), which signifies that the object can fly and
prints Flying:
class Airplane { public void fly() { System.out.println("Flying"); } }
Different kinds of airplanes fly in the sky, so if you want to specialize the Airplane class into a
Passengerplane class, you can use inheritance. Java provides the extends keyword to use inheritance.
Heres how you declare Passengerplane as a subclass of the Airplane class:
class Passengerplane extends Airplane { . . . }
This code line signifies that the class Passengerplane is derived from the superclass Airplane, which
means that the Passengerplane class will inherit the fly() method from the Airplane superclass.
Subclasses can also contain your own methods and data members.
Heres an example in which we add a method named land() to the Passengerplane class that prints
Landing:
class Passengerplane extends Airplane {
public void land() { System.out.println("Landing"); }
}
Now, we can access both the fly() method and the land() method in objects of the Passengerplane class,
as shown in this example:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Passengerplane p = new Passengerplane(); p.fly(); p.land(); }
}
Heres the output of the preceding code:
C:\>java App
Flying
Landing
This is a basic subclassing example. However, there is a lot more to the process. For example, what if you define
a method in a subclass with the same name as a method in the superclass? How do you pass data to a
superclasss constructor? All this is coming up in this chapter.

Access Specifiers and Inheritance

Javas gone all wacky again, says the NP. I want to use some methods from the superclass in a subclass, but
Java says they dont even exist! Whats the access specifier for the methods? you ask. Private, the NP says.
Thats your problem, you say.
You use access specifiers with classes, data members, and methods to specify the visibility of those items in the
rest of the program. Heres the general form of a class declaration and definition, showing how to use access
specifiers:
access class classname [extends ...] [implements ...] {
[access] [static] type instance_variable1;
. . .
[access] [static] type instance_variableN;
[access] [static] returntype method1 (parameter_list) { . . . }
. . .
[access] [static] returntype methodN (parameter_list) { . . . }
}
You can find the details in Table 5.2. For more on access specifiers, please refer previous chapter.

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Table 5.2: Scope by access specifier (x means in scope)

Location Private No Modifier Protected Public
Same class x x x x
Subclass in the same package x x x
Non-subclass in the same package x x x
Subclass in another package x x
Non-subclass in another package x

For example, take a look at the NPs code, where the fly() method is not only declared private but also
accessed in main():
class Airplane {
private void fly() { System.out.println("Flying"); }
}
class Passengerplane extends Airplane {
public void land() { System.out.println("Landing"); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Passengerplane p = new Passengerplane();
p.fly(); p.land(); }
}
Because declaring a member by using private restricts that member to its class, Java says it cant find the fly
method as used in main:
App.java:10: cannot find symbol
p.fly(); p.land(); }
^
symbol : method fly()
location: variable p of type Passengerplane
1 error
On the other hand, declaring a member protected restricts its scope to code in the same package and
subclasses of the class its declared in. Therefore, the following code works:
class Airplane {
protected void fly() { System.out.println("Flying"); } }

class Passengerplane extends Airplane {

public void land() { System.out.println("Landing"); }
}

public class App {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Passengerplane p = new Passengerplane (); p.fly(); p.land(); }
}
Heres the output of this application:
C:\>java App
Flying
Landing

Calling Superclass Constructors

OK, says the NP, I have come up with a problem. I know I can create a subclass from a superclass, but what if
the superclass has a constructor? Does it ever get called? That, you say, takes a little thought. Hmm, says
the NP, thinking.
Suppose you have a class named Abc that contains a constructor with no parameters:
class Abc {
Abc() { System.out.println("In Abc\'s constructor"); }
}

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Then you derive a subclass Xyz from Abc:

class Xyz extends Abc { }
Now, when you create an object of class Xyz, the constructor in class Abc is called automatically:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { Xyz obj = new Xyz(); }
}
Heres the result of the preceding code:
C:\>java App
In Abc's constructor
Suppose you add a constructor to class Xyz that takes no parameters:
class Abc {
Abc(){ System.out.println("In Abc\'s constructor"); }
}
class Xyz extends Abc {
Xyz() { System.out.println("In Xyz\'s constructor"); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { Xyz obj = new Xyz(); }
}
In this case, when you instantiate class Xyz, the constructors from both classes Abc and Xyz are called:
C:\>java App
In Abc's constructor
In Xyz's constructor
Suppose you change Xyzs constructor such that it takes only one parameter:
class Abc {
Abc() { System.out.println("In Abc\'s constructor"); }
}
class Xyz extends Abc {
Xyz(String s) {
System.out.println("In Xyz\'s String constructor");
System.out.println(s); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Xyz obj = new Xyz("Hello Java!"); }
}
In this case, the constructors of both classes Abc and Xyz are called:
C:\>java App
In Abc's constructor
In Xyz's String constructor
Hello Java!
A constructor without any parameter is called a default constructor because Java calls it automatically when you
create an object of any subclass of that class.
What does this mean? Suppose you add another constructor to Abc to handle strings as well (this is called
overloading, and youll see it later in this chapter):
class Abc {
Abc() { System.out.println("In Abc\'s constructor"); }
Abc(String s) {
System.out.println("In Abc\'s String constructor");
System.out.println(s); }
}
Suppose you dont want to call default constructor this time, instead you want the constructor with String
parameter in Abc gets called.
class Abc {
Abc() { System.out.println("In Abc\'s constructor"); }
Abc(String s) { System.out.println("In Abc\'s String constructor");
System.out.println(s); }
}
class Xyz extends Abc {

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Xyz(String s) {
super(s);
System.out.println("In Xyz\'s String constructor");
System.out.println(s); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Xyz obj = new Xyz("Hello Java!"); }
}
In this case, when you instantiate class Xyz, the constructor that takes a String parameter in class Abc is called
instead of the default constructor:
C:\>java App
In Abc's String constructor
Hello Java!
In Xyz's String constructor
Hello Java!
Why is the constructor that takes a String parameter in class Abc called and not the default constructor in class
Abc? The reason is simpleJava sees you are using the super() method to call the superclasss constructor:
class Xyz extends Abc {
Xyz(String s) {
super(s);
System.out.println("In Xyz\'s String constructor");
System.out.println(s); }
}
If you use super() method to call a superclasss constructor, the line in which you do so must be the very first
one in a constructor, which is where Java will look for it (if its in any line but the first, Java will object).

Creating Multilevel Inheritance

So, says the NP, can I subclass subclasses? Yes, you say. And can I subclass subclasses of subclasses?
Yes, you say. The NP is prepared to go further and asks, And can I You say, How about some coffee?
In the first topic of this chapter, we have created a class named Airplane and a subclass of Airplane named
Passengerplane:
class Airplane {
public void fly() { System.out.println("Flying"); }
}
class Passengerplane extends Airplane {
public void land() { System.out.println("Landing"); }
}
That class hierarchy only included two levelsthe superclass and the subclassbut things can go deeper. Say,
for example, we have a new class Fighterplane, that has a subclasses Airplane, and adds a method named
fight:
class Fighterplane extends Airplane {
public void fight() { System.out.println("Fighting"); }
}
There are different kinds of aircraft, and well derive two further classes from FighterplaneHawk, which
defines a new method named search, and Jet, which defines a method named target:
class Hawk extends Fighterplane {
public void search() { System.out.println("Searching"); }
}
class Jet extends Fighterplane {
public void target() { System.out.println("Targeting"); }
}
This is what the class hierarchy now looks like:
Airplane
|_____ Passengerplane
|_____ Fighterplane
|_______ Hawk
|_______Jet

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Now, we can instantiate objects of these classes, as in this example, we are creating objects of the classes
Passengerplane and Jet:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Creating a passenger plane...");
Passengerplane p = new Passengerplane(); p.fly(); p.land();
System.out.println("Creating a jet...");
Jet j = new Jet();
j.fly(); j.fight(); j.target();
}
}
Heres what the output of this code looks like:
C:\>java App
Creating a passenger plane...
Flying
Landing
Creating a jet...
Flying
Fighting
Targeting

Handling Multilevel Constructors

Hey! the NP says. Has Java gone all wacky again? you ask. Yes, the NP says, I have created four levels of
subclasses, classes A through D, where A is the superclass everything is derived from. It makes sense that Ds
constructor should be called first, then Cs, then Bs, and then As, right? No, you say, which is why Java calls
them in exactly the opposite order. I knew youd be on my side, the NP says.
Lets look at an example of multilevel constructor use. Here, well implement the NPs program with four levels
of subclassing, starting with class A:
class A {
A() { System.out.println("Constructing A..."); }
}
class B extends A {
B() { System.out.println("Constructing B..."); }
}
class C extends B {
C() { System.out.println("Constructing C..."); }
}
class D extends C {
D() { System.out.println("Constructing D..."); }
}
Next, well create an object of class D, the last class in the subclassing chain:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { D obj = new D(); }
}
Heres what you see when you run this code:
C:\>java App
Constructing A...
Constructing B...
Constructing C...
Constructing D...
In other words, Java called As constructor first, then Bs, then Cs, then Ds, not in the reverse order as you might
expect. Why does Java do it this way? Because when you create subclasses, you proceed from the general to the
specific, which means that class A knows nothing about class B, class B knows nothing about class C, and so on.
For that reason, Java calls the original subclasss constructor first, then the next, and so on. Because class B
knows about class A, it might rely on certain parts of A being initialized before completing its own initialization,
and the same for class C with respect to class B, and so on.

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Its also worth noting that you can pass parameters back multiple levels in the ways we outlined in the topic
Calling Superclass Constructors, earlier in this chapter. However, all constructors in the subclassing chain
must still be called in an ascending order.

Overriding Methods
Oh well, the NP says, I thought I could use the Java Button class in my new program, but I wanted to create
a method named getLabel(), and the Button class already has a method named that. Thats no problem,
you say, you can just override the Button classs getLabel() method with a new implementation of that
method. I can do that? the NP asks.
In the last chapter, you saw that you can overload methods with different implementations that have different
parameter lists. You can also override methods that you inherit from a superclass, which means that you replace
them with a new version.
Heres an example. In this case, well start with a general base class named Animal that has one method
breathe(). When breathe() is called, it prints out Breathing. Heres the code:
class Animal {
public void breathe() { System.out.println("Breathing"); }
}
Now, suppose you want to derive a new class from Animal named Fish. When you test the breathe()
method in the Fish class, you see that it prints out Breathing. You decide it would be better if it prints out
Bubbling instead. To do this, you can override the breathe() method in the Fish class simply by defining a
new version with the same parameter list:
class Animal {
public void breathe() { System.out.println("Breathing"); }
}
class Fish extends Animal {
public void breathe() { System.out.println("Bubbling"); }
}
Now, you can instantiate new objects of the Animal and Fish classes and call their breathe methods as
follows:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Creating an animal...");
Animal a = new Animal(); a.breathe();
System.out.println("Creating a lungfish...");
Fish f = new Fish(); f.breathe(); }
}
Heres the output of this code, showing that the breathe() method is indeed overloaded:
C:\>java App
Creating an animal...
Breathing
Creating a lungfish...
Bubbling
You can find the process of creating methods in detail in Chapter 4.

Accessing Overridden Members

Well, the NP says, I think I have run into a problem that no one else has ever encountered in Java. Oh yes?
you ask. Yes, the NP says, I have overridden a superclasss method and thats fine most of the time, but
sometimes, I need access to the original overridden method. Thats a common problem, you say, and you
can solve it with the super keyword.
You can use super much like you use the this keyword, except that super doesnt refer to the current object
but rather to its superclass. For example, take a look at this code from the previous topic in which the Fish class
subclasses the Animal class and overrides the breathe() method so that it prints out Bubbling instead of
Breathing:
class Animal {

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public void breathe() { System.out.println("Breathing"); }

}
class Fish extends Animal {
public void breathe() { System.out.println("Bubbling"); }
}
Now, however, suppose you realize that a certain type of fisha lungfish, for examplecan indeed breathe as
land animals do. So, you add a new method to the Fish class, newbreathe(). In this method, youd like to
reach the superclasss breathe() method, and you can do that with the super keyword like this:
class Animal {
public void breathe() { System.out.println("Breathing"); }
}
class Fish extends Animal {
public void breathe() { System.out.println("Bubbling"); }
public void newbreathe() { super.breathe(); }
}
Now, you can instantiate objects of the Animal and Fish classes and use the newbreathe() method like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Creating an animal...");
Animal a = new Animal(); a.breathe();

System.out.println("Creating a lungfish...");
Fish lf = new Fish(); lf.newbreathe(); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Creating an animal...
Breathing
Creating a lungfish...
Breathing

Using Superclass Variables with Subclassed Objects

The Programming Correctness Czar (PCC) appears and says, In C++, you can assign a subclass object reference
to a variable of a superclass type. Can you do that in Java? The says, Run that by me again? Yes, you say in
response to the PCC.
One interesting aspect of OOP in Javawhich well put to work in the next topicis that a subclass objects
reference can be assigned to a reference variable of superclass. For example, class Abc is a superclass of Xyz and
you have a variable of Abc, then the reference of an object of class Xyz can be stored in a variable of type
Abc.
Lets take a look at an example. Here, well use the multilevel class hierarchy you saw earlier in this chapter:
class Airplane {
public void fly() { System.out.println("Flying"); }
}
class Passengerplane extends Airplane {
public void land() { System.out.println("Landing"); }
}
class Fighterplane extends Airplane {
public void fight() { System.out.println("Fighting"); }
}
class Hawk extends Fighterplane {
public void search() { System.out.println("Searching"); }
}
class Jet extends Fighterplane {
public void target() { System.out.println("Targeting"); }
}
For example, to create new objects of the Passengerplane and Jet classes, we can use this code:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Creating a fighterplane...");

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Fighterplane fp = new Fighterplane();

fp.fly(); fp.fight();
System.out.println("Creating a jet...");
Jet j = new Jet(); j.fly(); }
}
However, we can also assign the new Jet object to a variable of class Airplane as follows:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Creating a fighterplane...");
Fighterplane fp = new Fighterplane();
fp.fly(); fp.fight();
System.out.println("Creating a jet...");
Airplane a = new Jet(); a.fly();
//j.fight();
//j.target();
}
}
Heres the output of this code:
C:\>java App
Creating a fighterplane...
Flying
Fighting
Creating a jet...
Flying
Note that we commented out the lines j.fight() and j.target() here because those methods are defined
in the Fighterplane and Jet classes, which are subclasses of Airplane, which means that those methods
cant be used with a variable of class Airplane.
Generally, the object variable a will only allow access to items present in its own class. Itll not allow access to
any member that doesnt belong to the class Airplane.
Theres a use for this seemingly arcane piece of informationsee the next topic for the details.

Dynamic Method Dispatch (Runtime Polymorphism)

Hmm, says the NP, I have another problem. My drawing program can create objects of the classes
Triangle, Square, and Circle, each of which has a draw() method, but Im not sure what type of object the
user will want to create until the program runs. Will I have to write the programs main code three times, one for
each type of object? Not at all, you say. You can use runtime polymorphism. Huh? the NP replies.
Runtime polymorphism or dynamic method dispatch lets you wait until the program gets executed before deciding
the object whose reference is to be stored.
This means, in the NPs case, that he can write his code calling the draw() method on various variables and
decide what type of objectTriangle, Square, or Circleis stored in those variables at runtime.
As discussed in the previous topic, you can assign a subclass object reference to a superclass type variable. You
may think that Java is a strictly typed language, then why does it allow this? The answer is to support runtime
polymorphism.
Heres an example to make this clearer. In this case, well create a superclass named W, a subclass of W named X,
a subclass of X named Y, and a subclass of Y named Z, each of which has a print() method:
class W {
public void print() { System.out.println("Here's W"); }
}
class X extends W {
public void print() { System.out.println("Here's X"); }
}
class Y extends X {
public void print() { System.out.println("Here's Y"); }
}
class Z extends Y {

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public void print() { System.out.println("Here's Z"); }

}
Now, we can create an object reference of each class type:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
W w1 = new W(); X x1 = new X();
Y y1 = new Y(); Z z1 = new Z();
. . .
To show how runtime polymorphism works, well also create a variable named ref that holds an object
reference to an object of class W:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
W w1 = new W(); X x1 = new X();
Y y1 = new Y(); Z z1 = new Z(); W ref;
. . .
We can store references of objects of different classes in ref, and upon calling, the print() method of the
corresponding class is called:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
W w1 = new W(); X x1 = new X(); Y y1 = new Y();
Z z1 = new Z();
W ref; ref = w1; ref.print(); ref = x1; ref.print();
ref = y1; ref.print(); ref = z1; ref.print(); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Here's W
Here's X
Here's Y
Here's Z
Using runtime polymorphism, you can write a code that will work with many different types of objects and
decide on the actual object type at runtime. Note that the restrictions mentioned in the previous topic still apply.
The object variable a will only allow access to items present in its own class. Itll not allow access to any member
that doesnt belong to class A.

Creating Abstract Classes

The NP stomps in. That darn Johnson! the NP says. Whats wrong? you ask. That darn Johnson was using
one of my classes that needed to be customized before you can use it but that darn Johnson didnt. So, it didnt
workright there in front of the Big Boss! Well, you say, next time, make your class abstract and that darn
Johnson will have to customize it.
While writing a class, you may find cases where you can only provide general code, and its up to the developer
who subclasses your class to customize it. To make sure the developer customize your code, you can make the
method abstract, which means the developer will have to override your method; otherwise, Java will complain.
To make a method abstract, you use the abstract keyword. If you make any methods in a class abstract, you
also have to make the class itself abstract as well.
Heres an example. In this case, well create a class named A that has a method named print(), which prints
out a string, and it gets the string to print by calling a method named getData():
class A {
String getData(); public void print() { System.out.println(getData()); }
}
Note that theres no implementation of the getData() method because we want developers to specify what
data they want to print out. To make sure they know that they must provide an implementation of the
getData() method, we can make the method abstract, which means we must make the class itself abstract as
well:
abstract class A {
abstract String getData();

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public void print() { System.out.println(getData()); }

}
Now, when we subclass A, we have to provide an implementation of getData() like this:
class B extends A {
String getData() { return "Hello from Java!"; }
}
Heres how we can put the subclass to work (note that an abstract class cannot be instantiated directly):
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { B b1 = new B(); b1.print(); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
Hello from Java!

This is an important technique to understand because many methods in the Java packages themselves are abstract and
therefore must be overridden.

Stopping Overriding with final

The NP says, That darn Johnson! Whats wrong? you ask. That darn Johnson overrode the draw() method
in my painter class and messed it all up, the NP complains. Dont worry, NP, you say, you can mark that
method as final, and no one can override it then. Swell! says the NP.
Earlier in this chapter, you saw an example in which the class Fish overrode the method called breathe() in
the Animal class:
class Animal {
void breathe() { System.out.println("Breathing"); }
}
class Fish extends Animal {
public void breathe() { System.out.println("Bubbling"); }
}
If for some reason you dont want to let anyone override the breathe() method, you can declare it final as
follows:
class Animal {
final void breathe() { System.out.println("Breathing"); }
}
class Fish extends Animal {
public void breathe() { System.out.println("Bubbling"); }
}
Now, lets say you try to use these classes in some code:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Creating an animal...");
Animal a = new Animal(); a.breathe();
System.out.println("Creating a lungfish...");
Fish f = new Fish(); f.breathe(); }
}
Java will object that you cant override breathe() like this:
C:\>javac App.java
App.java:5: error: breathe() in Fish cannot override breathe() in Animal
public void breathe() { System.out.println(Bubbling); }
^
overridden method is final
1 error

Stopping Inheritance with final

You can prevent a class from being subclassed by declaring the entire class final, as you see here:
final class Animal {

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public void breathe() { System.out.println("Breathing"); }

}
class Fish extends Animal {
public void breathe() { System.out.println("Bubbling"); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Creating an animal...");
Animal a = new Animal(); a.breathe();
System.out.println();
System.out.println("Creating a lungfish...");
Fish f = new Fish(); f.breathe(); }
}
Heres what happens when you try to execute this code:
C:\>javac App.java
App.java:4: error: cannot inherit from final Animal
class Fish extends Animal {
^
1 error

Creating Constants with final

In the previous two topics, we showed two uses for final: to prevent method overriding and subclassing.
Theres another use for final in Javayou can use it to declare constants.
Heres an example in which we make a variable into a constant with final and then try to assign a value to it:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { final int a = 5; a = 6; }
}
Heres how the Java compiler objects to this code:
C:\> javac App.java
App.java:2: error: cannot assign a value to a final variable a
public static void main(String[] args) { final int a = 5; a = 6; }
^
1 error

Is-a vs. Has-a Relationships

The PCC arrives and says, In C++, you can have is-a relationship and has-a relationship in inheritance. Same
in Java, you say.
You may come across the terms is-a and has-a when working with inheritance because they specify two of the
ways the classes can relate to each other. Standard inheritance is what you usually think of in terms of an is-a
relationship, as in the following example. In this case, class A extends class B, so you can say class a is-a b:
class A extends B {
A() { print(); }
}
class B {
void print() { System.out.println("This comes from class B..."); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { A obj = new A(); }
}
When you call As print() method, you are actually calling the print() method A inherited from B, and its this
method that does the printing:
C:\>java App
This comes from class B...
In a has-a relationship, on the other hand, one object includes an object reference to another, as in this case, where
objects of class A will include an internal object of class B:
class A {
B b1;
A() { b1 = new B(); b1.print(); }

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}
class B {
void print() { System.out.println("This comes from class B..."); }
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { A obj = new A(); }
}
Now, class Bs print() method is accessible from the object named b1 in the object of class A:
C:\>java App
This comes from class B...

The Java Object Class

All I want, the NP says, is to write a simple class, no inheritance whatsoever and. . . Too late, you say. All
classes in Java are subclasses of one master class: java.lang.Object, so anything you do already involves
inheritance.
Every class in Java is derived automatically from the java.lang.Object class, and there are certain
advantages to know this, including knowing that all objects have already inherited quite a few methods, ready
for you to use. The methods of class Object appear in Table 5.3:
Table 5.3: The Java object class methods
Method Does this
protected Object clone() It yields a copy of this object
boolean equals(Object obj) It indicates whether another object is equal to this one
protected void finalize() It is called by the garbage collector on an object when garbage collection is
about to dispose of the object
Class<?> getClass() It yields the runtime class of an object
int hashCode() It yields a hash code value for the object
void notify() It wakes up a single thread thats waiting on this objects monitor
void notifyAll() It wakes up all threads that are waiting on this objects monitor
String toString() It yields a string representation of the object
void wait() It makes the current thread wait until another thread invokes the notify
method or the notifyAll method
void wait(long timeout) It makes the current thread wait until either another thread invokes the
notify method or the notifyAll method or a specified amount of time
has passed
void wait(long timeout, int It causes the current thread to wait until another thread invokes the
nanos) notify method or the notifyAll method for this object, some other
thread interrupts this thread, or a certain amount of real time has passed

Heres an example in which we use the getClass() method to determine the class of an object reference in a
superclass variable. This is useful because a superclass variable can hold references to objects of any of its
subclasses. We start with a superclass named A and three subclasses B, C, and D. The print()method in each of
these classes prints out the name of the class. Heres the code:
class A {
public void print() { System.out.println("Here's A..."); }
}
class B extends A {
public void print() { System.out.println("Here's B..."); }
}
class C extends A {
public void print() { System.out.println("Here's C..."); }
}
class D extends A {

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public void print() { System.out.println("Here's D..."); }

}
Next, we create an instance of each class and a variable of class A named aref:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
A a1 = new A(); B b1 = new B(); C c1 = new C();
D d1 = new D(); A aref;
. . .
Now we can determine the class of the object in aref, no matter which of the subclasses it is:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
A a1 = new A(); B b1 = new B(); C c1 = new C();
D d1 = new D(); A aref;
aref = a1;
System.out.println("aref\'s class is now " + aref.getClass());
aref.print(); aref = b1;
System.out.println("aref\'s class is now " + aref.getClass());
aref.print(); aref = c1;
System.out.println("aref\'s class is now " + aref.getClass());
aref.print(); aref = d1;
System.out.println("aref\'s class is now " + aref.getClass());
aref.print(); }
}
Heres the result:
C:\>java App
aref's class is now class A
Here's A...
aref's class is now class B
Here's B...
aref's class is now class C
Here's C...
aref's class is now class D
Here's D...
As you can see, each objects built-in methodssuch as getClass()can be very useful.

Using Interfaces for Multiple Inheritance

Hmm, says the NP, I have a class named Animal and an entirely separate class named Mineral, and I want
to inherit from both of those classes at the same time to create something entirely new. Sorry, you say, Java
doesnt support multiple inheritance directlyyoull have to make one of those classes an interface.
In other languages, such as C++, one class can inherit from multiple classes at once, but this technique doesnt
work directly in Javathat is, you can only use the extends keyword with one class at a time. Therefore, you
cant do this:
class A extends B, C //Won't work!
{ . . . }
However, there are two ways to implement what amounts to multiple inheritance in Java. The first is to use
single inheritance in stages (if that will work for the classes you want to inherit from) as follows:
class C { . . . }
class B extends C { . . . }
class A extends B { . . . }
The other way is to use interfaces. Interfaces will start becoming important in the next chapter, so well introduce
them now.
An interface specifies the form of its methods but does not give any implementation details; therefore, you can
think of it much like the declaration of a class. As youll see later in the book, you can create interfaces with the
interface keyword:
interface C { . . . }
interface B { . . . }

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Now, you can use these two interfaces with the implements keyword:
class A implements B, C { . . . }
As the interfaces declare and not define methods, its up to you to implement the interfaces methods. For
example, in the applet shown at the beginning of this chapter, we implemented the Java ActionListener
interface to handle button clicks (youll see all the details of applets like this in the next chapter). That interface
declares one method actionPerformed(), which we defined as follows:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class Clicker extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextField text1;
Button button1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20); add(text1);
button1 = new Button("Click Here!"); add(button1);
button1.addActionListener(this); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String msg = new String ("Welcome to Java");
if(event.getSource() == button1) { text1.setText(msg); } }

}
If you dont define the actionPerformed() method, the Java compiler will give you a message like this one:
C:\>javac Clicker.java
Clicker.java:4: error: Clicker is not abstract and does not override abstract method
actionPerformed(ActionEvent) in ActionListener
public class Clicker extends Applet implements ActionListener {
^
1 error
You can implement as many interfaces as you want, as in this example, which implements the
ActionListener interface for button clicks and the MouseListener and MouseMotionListener interfaces
to work with the mouse:
import java.awt.Graphics;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
public class Dauber extends Applet implements ActionListener, MouseListener,
MouseMotionListener {
Button buttonDraw, buttonLine, buttonOval, buttonRect,
button3DRect; Button buttonRounded; Point pts[] = new Point[1000];
Point ptAnchor, ptDrawTo, ptOldAnchor, ptOldDrawTo; int ptindex = 0;
. . .

The Readable Interface

One of the most dominant concepts that have been implemented by Java is interfaces. A popular misconception
is that interfaces are Javas substitute for multiple inheritances. It can only have abstract methods and do not
have a method body. It is like a class that can inherit from another interface but not from a class. Interfaces can
only include final static public variables as all members of an interface are public. However, it need not be
specified that they are abstract. Table 5.4 shows the single method contained in the Readable interface:
Table 5.4: Methods of Readable Interface
Method Does this
int read(CharBuffer cb) It attempts to read characters into the specified character buffer

The Readable interface is a source of characters and the CharBuffer class ensures the availability of
characters to the callers from the Readable interface. So, the class CharBuffer should be inherited by the
Readable interface as follows:
public abstract class CharBuffer extends Buffer
implements Comparable<CharBuffer>, Appendable, CharSequence, Readable

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Considering another example, InputStreamReader is extended by the Reader class, as follows:

public class InputStreamReader extends Reader
The InputStreamReader class acts as a bridge from byte streams to character streams. This class reads bytes
and then decodes them into characters with the help of a mentioned charset.
Now, going to the details of the Reader class. This class is inherited by the Readable interface, shown as follows:
public abstract class Reader extends Object implements Readable, Closeable
As the InputStreamReader class needs to use the read() method, it needs to be inherited by the Readable
class. The Readable interface is implemented by a number of reader classes such as BufferReader,
CharBuffer, FileReader, InputStreamReader, and Scanner.

The Appendable Interface

The interface to which char sequences and values can be tagged on is an Appendable interface. All classes
intended to receive formatted output from a formatter must implement the Appendable interface. Only valid
Unicode characters as described in Unicode Character Representation can be appended. You must take care to
ensure that supplementary characters can contain multiple 16-bit char values. The Appendable interface and
its append() methods are implemented in classes that support adding characters to the end of an object,
typically a stream. Indirectly used through the Formatter class, you can attach a character, CharSequence, or
CharSequence subset.
It is not necessary that appendables are always safe for multithreaded access. Basically, classes that extend and
implement this interface are responsible for thread safety. However, there is no assurance that no errors will
propagate to the invoker as this interface is implemented by existing classes with different styles of error
handling. Table 5.5 shows the methods of the Appendable interface:
Table 5.5: Methods of Appendable interface
Method Does this
Appendable append(char c) It appends the specified character to this Appendable
Appendable append(CharSequence csq) It appends the specified character sequence to this Appendable
Appendable append(CharSequence It appends a subsequence of the specified character sequence to this
csq, int start,int end) Appendable

Besides PrintStream, the interface is also implemented by CharBuffer and all Writer classes, i.e., among
other things by BufferedWriter, CharArrayWriter, FileWriter, FilterWriter,
OutputStreamWriter, and StringWriter.
From PrintStream and Appendable, the covariant return can be read-off. Before Java 5, the subclasses
and/or the implementing classes had to adhere accurate with the type of return to the upper class or interface.
That makes the PrintStream in such a way that it will not append in the class, the return Appendable, but
with the return PrintStream, it will be Appendable.
public PrintStream append( char C ) { print(C); return this; }

The Iterable Interface

The Iterable<> interface is a standard interface type that declares a single method Iterator(), which in
turn returns a reference of type Iterator<> and is another generic interface type. A for-each loop can be
used to iterate through an object that implements this interface. Making a class iterable tells clients that they can
iterate through its contents by using a for-each loop. Oracle has added a new interface to Java that allows you
to mark your classes as iterable, this is the java.lang.Iterable interface. Table 5.6 shows the methods of
the Iterable interface:

Special care must be taken to note that Iterable is in java.lang, not in java.util. No explicit documentation about this is available,
probably to avoid importing the interface (java.lang is in the set of namespaces automatically imported for all Java code).
interface java.long. Iterable<T>

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Table 5.6: Methods of Iterable interface

Method Does this
Iterator<T> iterator() It supplies an iterator, which iterates T over all elements of the type

Many classes have already implemented this interface so that the result quantities can be iterated with this
extended interface. Primarily, it concerns with the data structures. In addition, it comes with the field, which is
not directly visible as class, but can be Iterable suitably and be implemented.
Heres an example to implement a practical Iterable in order to go over characters in forward and backward
directions. This example uses an ArrayList object.
import java.util.*;
class Iter {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList<String> al = new ArrayList<String>();
al.add("A");
al.add("B");
al.add("C");
al.add("D");
al.add("E");
al.add("F");
System.out.print("Contents of it are: ");
Iterator<String> Str = al.iterator();
while(Str.hasNext()) {
String element = Str.next();
System.out.print(element + " "); }
System.out.println();
ListIterator<String> list_itr = al.listIterator();
while(list_itr.hasNext()) {
String element = list_itr.next();
list_itr.set(element + "+"); }
System.out.print("Contents of it after modification: ");
Str = al.iterator();
while(Str.hasNext()) {
String element = Str.next();
System.out.print(element + " "); }
System.out.println();
System.out.print("Contents of it in backward direction: ");
while(list_itr.hasPrevious()) {
String element = list_itr.previous();
System.out.print(element + " "); }
System.out.println(); }
}
Heres the result of the code:
C:\>java Iter
Contents of it are: A B C D E F
Contents of it after modification: A+ B+ C+ D+ E+ F+
Contents of it in backward direction: F+ E+ D+ C+ B+ A+
Heres another example to implement a practical Iterable in order to go over words of a sentence.
Fundamental implementation of the Iterable interface on array of characters serves the purpose of the for-
each loop and decides about whether characters of string can be selected or not.
We begin with the first part to be create the class App, which must implement Iterable, as shown in the code
below:
import java.util.*;
import java.util.Iterator;
public class App implements Iterable<String> {
static ArrayList<String> astr = new ArrayList<String>();
public static void main( String args[] ) {
astr.add("At the beginning was the word - At the end the cliche");
Iterator<String> it = astr.iterator();
while(it.hasNext()) {
String element = it.next();

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System.out.println(element); }
}
public Iterator<String> iterator() { return astr.iterator(); }
}
Heres the result of the code:
C:\> Java App
At the beginning was the word - At the end the cliche
Lets see one more example related to the Iterable interface:
package java.lang;
import java.util.Iterator;
public interface Iterable<T> { Iterator<T> iterator(); }
To implement this interface in the Catalog class, you must write an Iterator method. This method must
return an Iterator object that is bound to the product type.
The Catalog class stores all of its Product objects in an ArrayList. An Iterator object is provided to a
client for returning the Iterator object from the products ArrayList itself. Here is the modified Catalog
class:
class Catalog implements Iterable<Product> {
private List<Product> products = new ArrayList<Product>();
void add(Product product) { products.add(product); }
public Iterator<Product> iterator() { return products.iterator(); }
}
You can see that the Iterator, the List reference, and the ArrayList are all bound to the Product type.
After the implementation of the java.lang.Iterable interface, the for-each loop can be used by the client
code.
Here is an example:
Catalog cat = new Catalog();
cat.add(new Product("1", "pinto", new BigDecimal("7.99")));
cat.add(new Product("2", "flounder", new BigDecimal("34.88")));
cat.add(new Product("2", "cucumber", new BigDecimal("9.01")));
for (Product product: cat)
product.discount(new BigDecimal("0.1"));
for (Product product: cat)
System.out.println(product);

Creating Iterable Objects

An object of a container class type is usable with the collection-based for loop only if it implements the generic
Iterable<> interface defined in the java.lang package as follows:
public interface Iterable<T>
The Iterable<> interface comprises a single method called Iterator(), which returns a reference of type
Iterator<>.This method is a generic interface type. The implementation of this interface enables an object to
be used by the for-each statement.
Iterator<T> iterator()Returns an Iterator over a group of elements of type T.
public interface Iterator<E>Refers to an Iterator over a collection that replaces Enumeration in the Java
collections framework.
Iterators differ from enumerations in the following two respects:
Iterators let the caller remove elements from the collection lying under, at the time of iteration with properly
defined semantics.
Method names have been improved.
This interface is a member of the Java Collections Framework. Consider the following code snippet that uses the
Iterator interface:
Iterator iter = ...;
while (iter.hasNext()) { Object element = iter.next(); } // process element

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Anything (including your own classes) that implements the Iterable interface can be used in a for-each
loop. The for-each takes anything that has an iterator() method and iterates through the available
elements. But, how do you find out that an iterator() method is present? The answer is that the new
Iterable interface indicates the presence of the iterator() method. Lets have a look at the following
example:
import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.Iterator;
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double[] arr = {1.5, 4.2, 4.7, 9.4, 4.8, 7.6};
for(double d: arr) { System.out.println(d); }
System.out.println("---------------------");
ArrayList<Integer> list = new ArrayList<Integer>();
list.add(17); list.add(10); list.add(-61);
for(Integer number: list) { System.out.println(number); }
System.out.println("---------------------");
for(int item: list) { System.out.println(item); }
System.out.println("---------------------");
MyIterable iter = new MyIterable();
for(double d: iter) { System.out.println(d); }
}
}
class MyIterable implements Iterable<Double>,
Iterator<Double> {
static final double CLOSE_TO_ZERO = 0.0001;
double value; double factor = -0.5;
public MyIterable() { value = 1.0; }
public Iterator<Double> iterator() { return this; }
public boolean hasNext() {
return !(value > -CLOSE_TO_ZERO && value
< CLOSE_TO_ZERO); }
public Double next() {
double res = value; value = value*factor; return res; }
public void remove() {
throw new UnsupportedOperationException("There is
nothing to remove"); }
}
Heres the result of this code:
C:\>java App
1.5
4.2
4.7
9.4
4.8
7.6
---------------------
17
10
-61
---------------------
17
10
-61
---------------------
1.0
-0.5
0.25
-0.125
0.0625
-0.03125
0.015625
-0.0078125
0.00390625

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-0.001953125
9.765625E-4
-4.8828125E-4
2.44140625E-4
-1.220703125E-4

Creating Inner Classes

OK, says the NP, Im an expert now. Is there anything about classes that I dont know? You smile and say,
Plenty. For example, what do you know about inner classes? What classes? the NP asks.
Beginning in Java 1.1, you could nest class definitions inside each other. Nested classes can be static or nonstatic;
however, static classes cannot refer to the members of its enclosing class directly, they must instantiate and use
an object instead, so they are not often used. Inner classes, on the other hand, are nonstatic nested classes, and
they are quite popular for reasons having to do with event handling, which well get into in the next chapter.
Heres an example of an inner class; in this case, class B is defined inside class A, and we instantiate an object of
class B in class As constructor:
class A {
B obj;
A() {
obj = new B();
obj.print(); }
class B {
public void print() { System.out.println("Inside B..."); }
}
}
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { A obj = new A(); }
}
When this code runs, it instantiates an object of class A, which instantiates an internal object of class B and calls
that objects print() method. Heres the result:
C:\>java App
Inside B...
Besides inner classes, as demonstrated in this example, you can also have anonymous (unnamed) inner classes
see the next topic for the details.

Creating Anonymous Inner Classes

One type of shorthand thats handy for working with event handling is to use anonymous inner classes. An
anonymous inner class is one that doesnt have any name, and you create it by using this syntax:
new SuperType(constructor parameters) { } //methods and data
In the preceding syntax, SuperType is the name of a class or interface you are subclassing (you must specify a
superclass type when creating anonymous inner classes), and you can define the anonymous inner classs
methods and data in a code block.
Lets look at an example. In this case, well create an anonymous inner class inside a new classclass A. This
anonymous inner class will subclass another class, class B, and defines a method named print(), which we call
immediately, like this:
class A {
A() {
(new B() {public void print() {
System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }}).print();
}
}
class B{ }
All thats left is to create an object of class A and to call that classs constructor, which we do like this:
public class App {
public static void main(String[] args) { A obj = new A(); }
}

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Heres the result of this code:

C:\>java App
Hello from Java!

Using Lambda Expression

After writing a lambda expression, you can call and execute it like a method. You can call a lambda expression
by creating a functional interface, which is an interface comprising only one abstract method. However, it may
have multiple static or default methods. The advantage of using functional interface is that it can be used for
assigning a lambda expression or as a method reference. Consider the following example in which a lambda
expression is created and then it is assigned to an object of a functional interface:
class LambdaExpression
{
//functional interface
interface FuncInterface
{
void showMsg();
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
FuncInterface Fi = () -> { System.out.println("Hello Dreamtech Press"); };

Fi.showMsg();

}
}
Here is the result of the preceding code:
C:\>java LambdaExpression
Hello Dreamtech Press

Default Methods
A method that is declared by using the default keyword is known as default method. It is accessible by all
implementation classes of that interface. These classes can override the implementation of the default method
and provide a different implementation. The concept of default method is new, and it is an important feature
included in Java SE 8.0. The default method also allows adding new functionality to interfaces present in
libraries and makes sure that new code written for these interfaces should be compatible with their older
versions. Consider the following example in which a default method is created with the name div and is called
using the object of the interface:
//Functional interface with a default and an abstract methods
interface FuncInterface
{
//abstract method
void mul(int num1, int num2);
//default method
default void div(int num1, int num2)
{
int division=num1/num2;
System.out.println("Result of Division: "+division);
}
}
class ImplClass implements FuncInterface
{
public void mul(int num1, int num2)
{
int sum=num1+num2;
System.out.println("Result of Addition: "+sum);
}
}
class LambdaExpression1
{
public static void main(String args[])

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{
FuncInterface Fi = new ImplClass();
Fi.mul(2,3);
Fi.div(15,3);
}
}
Here is the result of the preceding code:
C:\>java LambdaExpression1
Result of Addition: 5
Result of Division: 5

Summary
In this chapter, you learned about the concept of inheritance, interfaces, and inner classes. You also learned how
to create a subclass and use the correct access specifiers while implementing inheritance. You came to know
about calling superclass constructors and handling multilevel inheritance. You also explored in the chapter
about handling overriding methods inherited from superclass and accessing overridden methods with the use of
super keyword. Then, you studied about superclass variables with subclass objects, implementation of runtime
polymorphism, how to create abstract classes, the use of final keyword and the lambda expression.
In the next chapter, youll come across AWT package used for creating an applet.

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AWTApplets, Applications,
and Event Handling
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Using the Abstract Window Toolkit 175
Creating Applets 186
Using the <APPLET> HTML Tag 188
Handling Non-Java Browsers 189
Embedding <APPLET> Tags in Code 189
Using the init, start, stop, destroy, paint, and update Methods 190
Drawing Graphics in Applets 191
Reading Parameters in Applets 191
Using Java Consoles in Browsers 191
Adding Controls to Applets: Text Fields 192
Adding Controls to Applets: Buttons 193
Handling Events 194
Using Adapter Classes 200
Using Anonymous Inner Adapter Classes 202
Creating Windowed Applications 202
Exiting an Application When Its Window Is Closed 206
Applications You Can Run as Applets 206
Setting Applet Security Policies 207
Other Facilities in the java.awt Package 209

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Chapter 6: AWTApplets, Applications, and Event Handling

In Depth
We have worked through a lot of Java syntax to get to this point, and this is one of the payoff chapters. Here,
well start working with graphical programsboth applets and applications. This chapter introduces the Java
Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT), Javas original way of working with graphics. AWT is now supplemented
with the Swing package, which youll see in a few chapters. AWT provides the foundation of graphics work in
Java, and even the Swing package is based on AWT.
In this chapter, well put AWT to work, creating applets and windowed applications. Before we begin, its worth
putting AWT in some historical perspective. AWT was developed very quickly for the first release of Javain
fact, in only six weeks. The original AWT developers used one window for each component of AWT, so each
button, text field, checkbox, and so on has its own window as far as the underlying operating system is
concerned. That turned out to be a considerable use of system resources as programs became larger. Sun has
introduced the Swing package in which components are displayed using graphical methods of their containing
applet or application windowsthey dont have their own operating system windows. AWT components are
called heavyweight components because of their significant use of system resources, and the Swing components are
called lightweight components because they are just drawn and dont need their own windows. What does this
mean for you? Its clear that, to Sun, Swing is the future. There are far more Swing components than AWT ones,
and in fact, theres a Swing replacement component for each AWT component. Sun probably wont be
expanding the AWT component set much in the future, whereas Swing is expected to grow. On the other hand,
Swing itself is based on AWTthe windows that Swing uses to display Swing components (that is, windows,
frame windows, applets, and dialog boxes) are all based on AWT containers. AWT isnt going away; and in
order to work with Swing, you need a thorough background in AWT. For that reason and because so much
development is still done with AWTand more will be done in the futurewell spend this and the next few
chapters on AWT. Well start with an overview of AWT itself.

The Abstract Windowing Toolkit

Its no exaggeration to say that the AWT was the driving force behind Javas popularity. You can create and
display buttons, labels, menus, combo boxes, text fields, and the other user-interface controls youd expect in
windowed programs using AWT. Heres an overview of the most popular AWT classes:
AppletIt creates an applet
ButtonIt creates a button
CanvasIt creates a canvas you can draw in
CheckboxIt creates a checkbox
ChoiceIt creates a choice control
LabelIt creates a label
MenuIt creates a menu
ComboBoxIt creates a combo box
ListIt creates a list control
FrameIt creates a frame for windowed applications
DialogIt creates a dialog box
PanelIt creates a panel that can contain other controls
PopupMenuIt creates a pop-up menu
RadioButtonIt creates a radio button
ScrollBarIt creates a scrollbar
ScrollPaneIt creates a scrollable surface
TextAreaIt creates a two-dimensional text control
TextFieldIt creates a one-dimensional text field (called a text box in other languages)

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TextPaneIt creates a text surface

WindowIt creates a freestanding window
The AWT Applet class is what you base AWT applets on, and well take a look at that class first.

Applets
So, just what is an AWT applet? An applet is simply a Java class file that is embedded in a webpage, using
HTML <APPLET> tag, to display graphics in a web brower. The browser automatically downloads the applet file
and displays it in the appropriate space when the webpage gets loaded. In addition to displaying graphics,
applets can display animation and handle various controls, such as text fields and buttons. Using applets makes
your webpages active, not passivethats their main attraction.
The process goes like this when working with AWT: You create a new applet, basing it on the
java.applet.Applet class, which in turn is based on the AWT Component class. Heres an example which
you have seen before, and well go through it again in this chapter. This example just displays the text Kogent
Learning Solutions! in a web page:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
public class AppletDemo extends Applet {
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Kogent Learning Solutions!", 100, 100); }
}
You compile the applet into a bytecode .class file. When you have your .class file, you upload it to an
Internet Service Provider (ISP). You can give the applet the same protection you would give a web page, making
sure anyone can read the AppletDemo.class file (for example, in Unix, you might give the applet the
permission setting 644, which lets anyone read the file).

Unix file permissions make up three octal digits corresponding to the file owners permission, the permission of others in the
same user group, and the permission of all others. In each octal digit, a value of 4 indicates read permission, a value of 2
indicates write permission, and a value of 1 indicates execute permission. You add these values together to set the individual
digits in a permission settingfor example, a permission of 0600 means that the files owner, and only the files owner, can both
read and write to the file.

You can embed the new applet in a web page with the <APPLET> tag, indicating the name of the .class file for
the applet as well as telling the web browser how much space (in pixels) to leave for the applet. Heres an
example:
<HTML>
<BODY>
<CENTER>
<APPLET
CODE = "AppletDemo.class"
WIDTH = 300
HEIGHT = 200>
</APPLET>
</CENTER>
</BODY>
</HTML>
In this case, we have set up a centered 300-by-200-pixel space in a web page in which is to display the applet,
and we told the web browser to download the AppletDemo.class file and run it. Well cover the details,
including the details on the <APPLET> tag, in this chapter. When the browser loads this page, itll display the
applet.
Theres one important thing to know that we are working with appletsthe Java web browser plug-in. Web
browser manufacturers have been notoriously slow to implement the latest Java versions. This means that some
of the Java applets we develop with Java 8 may not work in the latest browsers, even Microsoft Internet Explorer
and Netscape Navigator (you can always use the Sun appletviewer, of course). We get dozens of letters asking
why the examples in this book wont workhadnt they tested? The fault, of course, is with the browsers, which

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dont implement the latest Java version. Frustrated with this situation, Sun took the matter into its own hands by
creating the Java Plug-In, which is a plug-in for Netscape Navigator and an ActiveX control for Microsoft
Internet Explorer. The plug-in is a complete implementation of the Java Runtime Environment and lets you run
applets using the latest Java version. Note that you must take some special steps to configure your web pages to
use the plug-in, but Sun also creates and distributes a utility that well use here, the HTML Converter, to
automatically convert any web page to use the plug-in.

Applications
AWT-windowed applications are based on the AWT Frame class, which creates a window with a frame that
displays buttons and a title. Heres an example that youll see more of in this chapter. Like the previous applet,
this application displays Kogent Learning Solutions! in a frame window:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class ApplicationDemo extends Frame {
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Kogent Learning Solutions!", 50, 100); }
public ApplicationDemo() { addWindowListener(new MyWindowAdapter()); }
public static void main(String [] args) {
ApplicationDemo demo = new ApplicationDemo();
demo.setSize(250,250);
demo.setVisible(true); }
}
class MyWindowAdapter extends WindowAdapter {
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) { System.exit(0); }
}
After compiling and executing the above program ApplicationDemo.java file, well get the output written
Kogent Learning Solutions! in a frame window having width and height both 250. Well go through the
process of creating windowed applications in detail in this chapter.

Handling Events
One of the biggest aspects of creating applets and applications is letting the user interact with the program, and
you do that with events. When the user performs some actionclicking a button, closing a window, selecting an
item in a list, or using the mouse, for exampleJava considers that as an event. Well handle events throughout
the rest of this book, and well take a look at how event handling works in this chapter.
To start working with events, well also introduce two basic controls in this chapterbuttons and text fields. The
user can use mouse to click buttons that initiate some action in your program, such as placing some text in a text
field. In fact, the button click is perhaps the most basic event Java supports. To illustrate how event handling
works in Java, well create programs in this chapter which support buttons and text fields. The full details on
these controls appear in the next chapter.
Now that you have an overview of applets, applications, and event handling, its time to get to the details in the
Immediate Solutions section.

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 Immediate Solutions

Immediate Solutions
Using the Abstract Window Toolkit
OK, says the Novice Programmer. Im ready to start working with the AWT. Where does it start? With the
Component class, you say. Get some coffee and well take a look at it.
The most basic AWT class is the java.awt.Component class, which all AWT visual components are based on.
For example, the AWT Button class, java.awt.Button, is derived directly from java.awt.Component. The
java.awt.Component class itself is derived directly from the java.lang.Object class, which you saw in
the previous chapter.
The Component class includes a large number of methods, many of which youll see in this and the upcoming
chapter. We have listed them all in Table 6.1 for reference. This is a long table, but its worth glancing it through
and coming back later for reference.
Table 6.1: Methods of the AWT Component class
Method Does this
boolean action It is deprecated. You should register the component as an
(Event evt, Object what) ActionListener on component which fires action events
void add(PopupMenu popup) It adds the pop-up menu to the component with an
ActionListener
void addComponentListener It adds the component listener to receive component events
(ComponentListener l)
void addFocusListener(FocusListener l) It adds the focus listener to receive focus events
void addHierarchyBoundsListener It adds the hierarchy bounds listener to receive hierarchy
(HierarchyBoundsListener l) bounds events from this component when the hierarchy to
which this container belongs changes
void addHierarchyListener It adds the hierarchy listener to receive hierarchy changed
(HierarchyListener l) events from this component when the hierarchy to which this
container belongs changes
void addInputMethodListener It adds the input method listener to receive input method
(InputMethodListener l) events
void addKeyListener (KeyListener l) It adds the key listener to receive key events
void addMouseListener (MouseListener l) It adds the mouse listener to receive mouse events
void addMouseMotionListener It adds the mouse motion listener to receive mouse motion
(MouseMotionListener l) events
void addMouseWheelListener It adds the mouse wheel listener to receive mouse wheel events
(MouseWheelListener I)
void addNotify() It makes a component displayable by connecting it to a native
screen resource
void addPropertyChangeListener It adds a PropertyChangeListener
(PropertyChangeListener listener)
void addPropertyChangeListener It adds a PropertyChangeListener for specified property
(String propertyName,
PropertyChangeListener listener)
void applyComponentOrientation It sets the ComponentOrientation property of this
(ComponentOrientation orientation) component and all components contained within it
boolean areFocusTraversalKeysSet It returns whether the focus traversal keys are explicitly defined
(int id)
Rectangle bounds() It is deprecated and replaced by getBounds()

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Table 6.1: Methods of the AWT Component class

Method Does this
int checkImage(Image image, It gets the status of the screen representation of the specified
ImageObserver observer) image
int checkImage It gets the status of the screen representation of the specified
(Image image, int width, int height image
ImageObserver observer)
protected AWTEvent coalesceEvents It coalesces an event being posted with an existing event
(AWTEvent existingEvent, AWTEvent
newEvent)
boolean contains (int x, int y) It checks whether this component contains the indicated point
boolean contains(Point p) It checks whether this component contains the indicated point
Image createImage It creates an image from the indicated image producer
(ImageProducer producer)
Image createImage (int width, int It creates an offscreen drawable image to be used for double
height) buffering
VolatileImage createVolatileImage It creates a volatile-off screen drawable image
(int width, Int height)
VolatileImage createVolatileImage(int It creates a volatile off-screen drawable image with the given
width, Int height, Image Capabilities capabilities
caps)
void deliverEvent(Event e) It is deprecated and replaced by dispatchEvent(AWTEvent)
void disable() It is deprecated and replaced by setEnabled(boolean)
protected void disableEvents It disables the events defined by the indicated event mask
(long eventsToDisable) parameter from being sent to this component
void dispatchEvent (AWTEvent e) It dispatches an event to this component or one of its
subcomponents
void doLayout() It makes the layout manager lay out this component
void enable() It is deprecated and replaced by setEnabled(boolean)
void enable(boolean b) It is deprecated and replaced by setEnabled(boolean)
protected void enableEvents It enables the events defined by the indicated event mask
(long eventsToEnable) parameter to be sent to this component
void enableInputMethods It enables or disables input method support
(boolean enable)
protected void firePropertyChange It sets up support for reporting bound property changes for
(String propertyName,boolean oldValue, boolean properties
boolean newValue)
void firePropertyChange (String It reports a bound property change
propertyName, byte oldValue, byte
newValue)
void firePropertyChange (String It reports a bound property change
propertyName, char oldValue, char
newValue)
void firePropertyChange (String It reports a bound property change
propertyName, double oldValue, double
newValue)
void firePropertyChange It reports a bound property change
(String propertyName, float oldValue,
float newValue)
protected void firePropertyChange It supports for reporting bound property changes for integer
(String propertyName, int oldValue, int property
newValue)

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Table 6.1: Methods of the AWT Component class

Method Does this
void firePropertyChange (String It reports a bound property change
propertyName, long oldValue, long
newValue)
void firePropertyChange It supports for reporting bound property changes for Object
(String propertyName, Object oldValue, property
Object newValue)
void firePropertyChange It reports a bound property change
(String propertyName, short oldValue,
short newValue)
AccessibleContext getAccessibleContext() It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this
component
float getAlignmentX() It gets the alignment along the x-axis
float getAlignmentY() It gets the alignment along the y-axis
Color getBackground() It gets the background color of this component
int getBaseline(int width, int height) It returns the baseline
Component.BaselineResizeBehavior It returns an enum specifying how the component baseline
getBaselineResizeBehavior() changes with change in size
Rectangle getBounds() It gets the bounds of this component in a Rectangle object
Rectangle getBounds(Rectangle rv) It stores the bounds of this component into return value rv
and return rv
ColorModel getColorModel() It gets the instance of ColorModel used to display the
component
Component getComponentAt It determines whether this component or one of its immediate
(int x, int y) subcomponents contains the (x, y) location and gets the
containing component
Component getComponentAt(Point p) It gets the component or subcomponent that contains the
indicated point
ComponentListener[] It returns an array of all the component listeners registered with
getComponentListeners() this component
ComponentOrientation It retrieves the language-sensitive orientation to be used to
getComponentOrientation() order the elements or text within this component
Cursor getCursor() It gets the cursor set in the component
DropTarget getDropTarget() It gets the DropTarget connected to this component
Container getFocusCycleRootAncestor() It returns the container which is the focus cycle root of the
component
Font getFont() It gets the font of this component
FontMetrics getFontMetrics It gets the font metrics for the indicated font
(Font font)
Color getForeground() It gets the foreground color of this component
Graphics getGraphics() It creates a graphics context for this component
GraphicsConfiguration It gets the GraphicsConfiguration associated with this
getGraphicsConfiguration() component
int getHeight() It returns the current height of this component
HierarchyBoundsListener[] It returns an array of all the hierarchy bound listeners
getHierarchyBoundsListeners() registered with this component
HierarchyListener[] It returns an array of all the hierarchy listeners registered with
getHierarchyListeners() this component

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Table 6.1: Methods of the AWT Component class

Method Does this
boolean getIgnoreRepaint() It returns True when messages received from the operating
system should be painted; otherwise, it returns False
InputContext getInputContext() It gets the input context used by this component
InputMethodListener[] It return an array of all input method listeners registered with
getInputMethodListeners() this component
InputMethodRequests It gets the input method request handler that supports requests
getInputMethodRequests() from input methods for this component
KeyListener[] getKeyListeners() It return an array of all key listeners registered with this
component
<T extends EventListener> T[] It returns an array of all objects that are currently registered as
getListeners(Class<T> listenerType) FooListeners
Locale getLocale() It gets the locale of this component
Point getLocation() It gets the location of this component in the form of a point
specifying the components top-left corner
Point getLocation It stores the x,y origin of this component into return value rv
(Point rv) and return rv
Point getLocationOnScreen() It gets the location of this component in the form of a point
specifying the components top-left corner
Dimension getMaximumSize() It gets the maximum size of this component
Dimension getMinimumSize() It gets the minimum size of this component
MouseListener[] getMouseListeners() It returns an array of all the mouse listeners registered with this
component
MouseMotionListener[] It returns an array of all the mouse motion listeners registered
getMouseMotionListeners() with this component
Point getMousePosition() It returns the position of the mouse pointer
MouseWheelListener[] It returns an array of all the mouse wheel listeners registered
getMouseWheelListeners() with this component
String getName() It gets the name of the component
Container getParent() It gets the parent of this component
java.awt.peer.ComponentPeer getPeer() It is deprecated and replaced by boolean
isDisplayable()
Dimension getPreferredSize() It gets the preferred size of this component
PropertyChangeListener[] It returns an array of all the property change listeners
getPropertyChangeListeners() registered with this component
PropertyChangeListener[] It returns an array of all the listeners which have been
getPropertyChangeListeners associated with the named property
(String propertyName)
Dimension getSize() It gets the size of this component in a Dimension object
Dimension getSize(Dimension rv) It stores the width/height of this component into return
value rv and return rv
Toolkit getToolkit() It gets the toolkit of this component
Object getTreeLock() It gets the locking object for the AWT component-tree and
layout operations
int getWidth() It gets the current width of this component
int getX() It gets the current x coordinate of the components origin
int getY() It gets the current y coordinate of the components origin

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Table 6.1: Methods of the AWT Component class

Method Does this
boolean gotFocus It is deprecated and replaced by
(Event evt, Object what) processFocusEvent(FocusEvent)
boolean handleEvent It is deprecated and replaced by processEvent(AWTEvent)
(Event evt)
boolean hasFocus() It returns true if this component has the focus
void hide() It is deprecated and replaced by setVisible(boolean)
boolean imageUpdate(Image img, int It repaints the component when the image has changed
flags, int x, int y, int w, int h)
boolean inside (int x, int y) It is deprecated and replaced by contains(int, int)
void invalidate() It invalidates the component
boolean isBackgroundSet() It returns True when the background color has been explicitly
set; otherwise, it returns False
boolean isCursorSet() It returns True when the cursor has been explicitly set;
otherwise, it returns False
boolean isDisplayable() It determines whether the component can be displayed
boolean isDoubleBuffered() It returns True if this component is painted to an offscreen
image thats copied to the screen later
boolean isEnabled() It indicates whether this component is enabled
boolean isFocusable() It indicates whether this component can be focused
boolean isFocusTraversable() It indicates whether this component can be traversed using Tab
or Shift+Tab
boolean isFocusCycleRoot It shows whether the specified container is the focus cycle root
(Container container) of the components focus traversal cycle
boolean isFocusOwner() It returns true if this component is the focus owner
boolean isFontSet() It returns True when the font set for this component has been
explicitly set; otherwise, it returns False
boolean isForegroundSet() It returns True when the foreground color for this component
has been explicitly set; otherwise, it returns False
boolean isLightweight() It indicates whether the component is lightweight (a
lightweight component doesnt have a native toolkit peer)
boolean isMaximumSizeSet() It returns True when the maximum size has been set to a non-
null value; otherwise, it returns False
boolean isMinimumSizeSet() It returns True when the minimum size has been set to a non-
null value; otherwise, it returns False
boolean isOpaque() It returns True if this component is completely opaque; False by
default
boolean isPreferredSizeSet() It returns True when the preferred size has been set to a non-
null value; otherwise, it returns False
boolean isShowing() It determines whether this component is visible onscreen
boolean isValid() It determines whether this component is valid
boolean isVisible() It determines whether this component should be visible when
its parent is visible
boolean keyDown (Event evt, int key) It is deprecated and replaced by
processKeyEvent(KeyEvent)

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Table 6.1: Methods of the AWT Component class

Method Does this
boolean keyUp (Event evt, int key) It is deprecated and replaced by
processKeyEvent(KeyEvent)
void layout() It is deprecated and replaced by doLayout()
void list() It prints a listing of this component to the standard output
stream System.out
void list(PrintStream out) It prints a listing of this component to the indicated output
stream
void list (PrintStream out, int indent) It prints out a list, starting at the indicated indention, to the
indicated print stream
void list(PrintWriter out) It prints a listing to the indicated print writer
void list(PrintWriter out, int indent) It prints out a list, starting at the indicated indention, to the
indicated print writer
Component locate (int x, int y) It is deprecated and replaced by getComponentAt(int,
int)
Point location() It is deprecated and replaced by getLocation()
boolean lostFocus It is deprecated and replaced by
(Event evt, Object what) processFocusEvent(FocusEvent)
Dimension minimumSize() It is deprecated and replaced by getMinimumSize()
boolean mouseDown It is deprecated and replaced by
(Event evt, int x, int y) processMouseEvent(MouseEvent)
boolean mouseDrag It is deprecated and replaced by
(Event evt, int x, int y) processMouseMotionEvent(MouseEvent)
boolean mouseEnter It is deprecated and replaced by
(Event evt, int x, int y) processMouseEvent(MouseEvent)
boolean mouseExit It is deprecated and replaced by
(Event evt, int x, int y) processMouseEvent(MouseEvent)
boolean mouseMove It is deprecated and replaced by
(Event evt, int x, int y) processMouseMotionEvent(MouseEvent)
boolean mouseUp It is deprecated and replaced by
(Event evt, int x, int y) processMouseEvent(MouseEvent)
void move(int x, int y) It is deprecated and replaced by
setLocation(int, int)
void nextFocus() It is deprecated and replaced by transferFocus()
void paint(Graphics g) It paints this component
void paintAll(Graphics g) It paints this component and all subcomponents
protected String paramString() It gets a string representing the state of this component
boolean postEvent(Event e) It is deprecated and replaced by
dispatchEvent(AWTEvent)
Dimension preferredSize() It is deprecated and replaced by getPreferredSize()
boolean prepareImage (Image It prepares an image for rendering on this component
image,ImageObserver observer)
boolean prepareImage(Image image, int It prepares an image for rendering on this component at the
width, int height, ImageObserver indicated width and height
observer)
void print(Graphics g) It prints the component
void printAll(Graphics g) It prints the component and all its subcomponents

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Table 6.1: Methods of the AWT Component class

Method Does this
protected void processComponentEvent It processes the component events occurring in this component
(ComponentEvent e) by sending them to any registered ComponentListener
objects
protected void processEvent(AWTEvent e) It processes events occurring on this component
protected void It processes focus events occurring in this component by
processFocusEvent(FocusEvent e) dispatching them to any registered FocusListener objects
protected void It processes hierarchy bounds events occurring on this
processHierarchyBoundsEvent(HierarchyEve component by dispatching them to any registered
nt e) HierarchyBoundsListener objects
protected void processHierarchyEvent It processes hierarchy events occurring on this component by
(HierarchyEvent e) dispatching them to any registered HierarchyListener
objects
protected void processInputMethodEvent It processes input method events occurring on this component
(InputMethodEvent e) by sending them to any registered InputMethodListener
objects
protected void It processes key events occurring on this component by sending
processKeyEvent(KeyEvent e) them to any registered KeyListener objects
protected void processMouseEvent It processes mouse events occurring on this component by
(MouseEvent e) sending them to any registered MouseListener objects
protected void processMouseMotionEvent It processes mouse motion events occurring on this component
(MouseEvent e) by sending them to any registered MouseMotionListener
objects
protected void processMouseWheelEvent It processes mouse wheel events occurring on this component
(MouseEvent e) by sending them to any registered MouseWheelListener
objects
void remove (MenuComponent popup) It removes the indicated pop-up menu from the component
void removeComponentListener It removes the indicated component listener so that it no longer
(ComponentListener l) receives component events
void removeFocusListener It removes the indicated focus listener so that it no longer
(FocusListener l) receives focus events
void It removes the indicated hierarchy bounds listener so that it no
removeHierarchyBoundsListener(HierarchyB longer receives hierarchy bounds events
oundsListener l)
void removeHierarchyListener It removes the indicated hierarchy listener so that it no longer
(HierarchyListener l) receives hierarchy changed events
void removeInputMethodListener It removes the indicated input method listener so that it no
(InputMethodListener l) longer receives input method events
void removeKeyListener It removes the indicated key listener so that it no longer
(KeyListener l) receives key events
void removeMouseListener It removes the indicated mouse listener so that it no longer
(MouseListener l) receives mouse events
void removeMouseMotionListener It removes the indicated mouse motion listener so that it no
(MouseMotionListener l) longer receives mouse motion events
void removeMouseWheelListener It removes the indicated mouse wheel listener so that it no
(MouseMotionListener l) longer receives mouse wheel events
void removeNotify() It disallows displaying the component by destroying its native
screen resource

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Table 6.1: Methods of the AWT Component class

Method Does this
void It removes a PropertyChangeListener
removePropertyChangeListener(PropertyCha
ngeListener listener)
void removePropertyChangeListener(String It removes a PropertyChangeListener for
propertyName, PropertyChangeListener the given property
listener)
void repaint() It repaints the component
void repaint(int x, int y, int width, It repaints the indicated rectangle of this component
int height)
void repaint(long tm) It repaints the component
void repaint(long tm, int x, int y, int It repaints the indicated rectangle of this int component within
width, height) tm milliseconds
void requestFocus() It requests the input focus
protected void requestFocus(boolean It requests the input focus, and the components top-level
temporary) ancestor becomes the focused Window
boolean requestFocusInWindow() It requests the input focus if the top-level ancestor is already
the focused Window
protected boolean It requests the input focus if the top-level ancestor is already
requestFocusInWindow(boolean temporary) the focused Window
void reshape(int x, int y, int width, It is deprecated and replaced by setBounds(int, int,
int height) int, int)
void resize(Dimension d) It is deprecated and replaced by setSize(Dimension)
void resize(int width, int height) It is deprecated and replaced by setSize(int, int)
void revalidate() It revalidates the component hierarchy up to the nearest
validate root
void setBackground It sets the background color
(Color c)
void setBounds(int x, int y, int width, It moves and resizes the component
int height)
void setBounds It moves and resizes the component to conform to the new
(Rectangle r) bounding rectangle r
void setComponentOrientation It sets the language-sensitive orientation to be used to order the
(ComponentOrientation o) elements or text
void setCursor It sets the cursor image to the indicated cursor
(Cursor cursor)
void setDropTarget It associates a DropTarget with this component
(DropTarget dt)
void setEnabled(boolean b) It enables or disables this component, depending on the value
of the parameter b
void setFocusable It sets the focusable state of the component
(boolean focusable)
void setFocusTraversalKeys It sets the focus traversal keys for a given traversal operation
(int id, Set<? extends
AWTKeyStroke> keyStrokes)
void It sets whether the traversal keys are enabled for the component
setFocusTraversalKeysEnabled(boolean
focusTraversalKeysEnabled)
void setFont(Font f) It sets the font of the component

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Table 6.1: Methods of the AWT Component class

Method Does this
void setForeground (Color c) It sets the foreground color of the component
void setIgnoreRepaint It sets whether or not paint messages received from the
(boolean ignoreRepaint) operating system
void setLocale(Locale l) It sets the locale of the component
void setLocation (int x, int y) It moves this component to a new location
void setLocation(Point p) It moves this component to a new location
void setMaximumSize(Dimension It sets the maximum size of the component to a constant value
maximumSize)
void setMinimumSize(Dimension It sets the minimum size of the component to a constant value
minimumSize)
void setName(String name) It sets the name of the component to the indicated string
void setPreferredSize(Dimension It sets the preferred size of the component to a constant value
Preferred size)
void setSize(Dimension d) It resizes this component so that it has width d.width and
height d.height
void setSize (int width, int height) It resizes this component so that it has width width and height
height
void setVisible(boolean b) It shows or hides this component as specified by the value of
parameter b
void show() It is deprecated and replaced by setVisible(boolean)
void show(boolean b) It is deprecated and replaced by setVisible(boolean)
Dimension size() It is deprecated and replaced by getSize()
String toString() It gets a string representation of the component
void transferFocus() It transfers the focus to the next component
void transferFocusBackward() It transfers the focus to the previous component
void transferFocusUpCycle() It transfers the focus up one focus traversal cycle
void update(Graphics g) It updates the component
void validate() It ensures that the component has a valid layout in effect

Another important AWT class is the Container class. This class is derived from AWT Component class, and
its the basis of AWT containers, which can hold other components. Applets and windowed applications, which
can display AWT components, are based on the Container class. Because you run across the Container class
often in AWT programmingas in the next topic coming upwe have listed its methods in Table 6.2:
Table 6.2: Methods of the Container class
Method Does this
Component add(Component comp) It adds the indicated component to this container
Component add(Component It adds the indicated component to this container at a specific
comp, int index) position
void add(Component comp, It adds the indicated component to this container
Object constraints)
void add(Component comp, It adds the indicated component to this container with the
Object constraints, int indicated constraints at the indicated index
index)
Component add(String name, Component It adds the indicated component to this container
comp)

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Table 6.2: Methods of the Container class

Method Does this
void It adds the indicated container listener to receive container
addContainerListener(ContainerListener l) events from the container
protected void addImpl It adds the indicated component to the container at the given
(Component comp Object index
constraints, int index)
void It adds a PropertyChangeListener
addPropertyChangeListener(PropertyChangeL
istener listener)
void addPropertyChangeListener(String It adds a PropertyChangeListener for the indicated
propertyName, PropertyChangeListener property
listener)
void It sets the ComponentOrientation property of this container
applyComponentOrientation(ComponentOrient and all components contained inside it
ation o)
boolean areFocusTraversalKeysSet It returns True when the set of focus traversal keys for the given
(int id) focus traversal operation are explicitly defined; otherwise, it
returns False
int countComponents() It is deprecated and replaced by getComponentCount()
void deliverEvent(Event e) It is deprecated and replaced by
dispatchEvent(AWTEvent)
void doLayout() It makes the container lay out its components
Component findComponentAt It locates the visible child component containing the indicated
(int x, int y) position
Component findComponentAt It locates the visible child component containing the indicated
(Point p) point
float getAlignmentX() It gets the alignment along the x axis
float getAlignmentY() It gets the alignment along the y axis
Component getComponent (int n) It gets the nth component in this container
Component getComponentAt It locates the component that contains the x,y position
(int x, int y)
Component getComponentAt It gets the component that contains the indicated point
(Point p)
int getComponentCount() It gets the number of components in this panel
Component[] getComponents() It gets all the components in the container
int getComponentZOrder It returns the z-order index of the component within the
(Component comp) container
ContainerListener[] It returns an arrays of all container listeners registered with this
getContainerListeners() container
Set<AWTKeyStroke> It returns the set of focus traversal keys for a specific traversal
getFocusTraversalKeys(int id) operation
FocusTraversalPolicy It returns the focus traversal policy or null if the container is not
getFocusTraversalPolicy() a focus cycle root
Insets getInsets() It determines the insets of the container, which indicate the size
of the containers border
LayoutManager getLayout() It gets the layout manager for the container
<T extends EventListener>T[] It returns an array of all listeners currently registered as
getListeners(Class<T> listenerType) FooListeners
Dimension getMaximumSize() It gets the maximum size of the container

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Table 6.2: Methods of the Container class

Method Does this
Dimension getMinimumSize() It gets the minimum size of the container
Point getMousePosition(Boolean It returns the position of the mouse pointer if the container is
allowChildren) under the mouse pointer; otherwise, it returns null
Dimension getPreferredSize() It gets the preferred size of the container
Insets insets() It is deprecated and replaced by getInsets()
void invalidate() It invalidates the container
boolean isAncestorOf(Component c) It checks whether the component is contained in the hierarchy of
this container
boolean isFocusCycleRoot() It returns True when the container is the root of a focus traversal
cycle; otherwise, it returns False
boolean isFocusCycleRoot(Container It returns True when the indicated container is the root of a
container) focus traversal cycle; otherwise, it returns False
boolean It returns True when the focus traversal policy has been
isFocusTraversalPolicySet(Container explicitly set for the container; otherwise, it returns False
container)
boolean isValidateRoot() It checks whether the container is a validate root
void layout() It is deprecated and replaced by doLayout()
void list(PrintStream out, int indent) It prints a listing of this container to the indicated output stream
void list(PrintWriter out, int indent) It prints out a list, starting at the indicated indention, to the
indicated print writer
Component locate It is deprecated and replaced by getComponentAt(int,
(int x, int y) int)
Dimension minimumSize() It is deprecated and replaced by getMinimumSize()
void paint(Graphics g) It paints the container
void paintComponents(Graphics g) It paints each component in the container
protected String paramString() It gets the parameter string representing the state of the
container
Dimension preferredSize() It is deprecated and replaced by getPreferredSize()
void print(Graphics g) It prints the container
void printComponents(Graphics g) It prints each of the components in this container
protected void It processes container events occurring on this container by
processContainerEvent sending them to ContainerListener objects
(ContainerEvent e)
protected void processEvent It processes events in this container
(AWTEvent e)
void remove(Component comp) It removes the indicated component from the container
void remove(int index) It removes the component at the index from the container
void removeAll() It removes all the components from this container
void removeContainerListener It removes the indicated container listener so that it no longer
(ContainerListener l) receives container events from this container
void removeNotify() It makes this container undisplayable by removing its
connection to its native screen resource
void setComponentZOrder It moves the indicated component to the indicated z-order index
(Component comp, int index) in the container

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Table 6.2: Methods of the Container class

Method Does this
void setFocusCycleRoot(boolean It sets whether the container is the root of a focus traversal cycle
focusCycleRoot)
void setFocusTravsersalKeys(int id, <Set? It sets the focus traversal keys for a specific traversal operation
extends AWTKeyStroke> keystrokes)
void It sets the focus traversal policy if the container is a focus cycle
setFocusTraversalPolicy(FocusTraversalPol root
icy policy)
void It sets whether the container will be used to provide the focus
setFocusTraversalPolicyProvider(boolean traversal policy
provider)
void setFont(Font f) It sets the font of the container
void setLayout It sets the layout manager for the container
(LayoutManager mgr)
void transferFocusDownCycle() It transfers the focus down one focus traversal cycle
void update(Graphics g) It updates the container
void validate() It validates this container and all its subcomponents
protected void It recursively descends the container tree and recomputes the
validateTree() layout for any subtrees marked as needing it (those marked as
invalid)

Creating Applets
Finally! says the Novice Programmer. At last, Im ready to create an applet. Thats right, you say. Now
which one would you like to create? Hmm, says the NP.
You base your applets on the java.applet.Applet class, which is a subclass of the java.awt.Panel class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|_____java.awt.Panel
|____java.applet.Applet
For the sake of reference, youll find the methods of the Applet class in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Methods of the Applet class
Method Does this
void destroy() It is called when the applet is about to be disposed of
AccessibleContext getAccessibleContext() It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this applet
AppletContext getAppletContext() It determines this applets context to allow the applet query
and affect the environment in which it runs
String getAppletInfo() It gets information about this applet
AudioClip getAudioClip It gets the AudioClip object specified by the URL argument
(URL url)
AudioClip getAudioClip It gets the AudioClip object specified by the URL and name
(URL url, String name) arguments
URL getCodeBase() It gets the base URL
URL getDocumentBase() It gets the document URL
Image getImage(URL url) It gets an image that can then be painted on the screen
Image getImage It gets an image that can then be painted on the screen
(URL url, String name)

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Table 6.3: Methods of the Applet class

Method Does this
Locale getLocale() It gets the locale for the applet
String getParameter It gets the value of the named parameter in the HTML tag
(String name)
String[][] getParameterInfo() It gets information about the applet parameters
void init() It is called by the browser or appletviewer to allow you to
initialize the applet
boolean isActive() It determines whether this applet is active
boolean isValidateRoot() It determines whether this container is a validate root
static AudioClip newAudioClip(URL url) It gets an audio clip from the given URL
void play(URL url) It plays the audio clip at the specified absolute URL
void play(URL url, String name) It plays the audio clip given the URL and a specifier thats
relative to it
void resize(Dimension d) It requests that this applet be resized
void resize It requests that this applet be resized
(int width, int height)
void setStub(AppletStub stub) It sets this applets stub
void showStatus(String msg) It requests that the string be displayed in the status window of
the applet
void start() It is called by the browser or applet viewer to tell the applet it
should start execution
void stop() It is called by the browser or applet viewer to tell the applet it
should stop execution

Lets look at an example. Here, well create an applet that displays the text Kogent Learning Solutions! in the
file CreateApplet.java. We start by deriving a new class CreateApplet from the java.applet.Applet
class, like this:
import java.applet.Applet;
public class CreateApplet extends Applet { . . . }
To display the message in the applet, well use the paint() method, which the applet inherits from the
Component class. When an applet is displayed, its paint() method is called, and you can place the code for
drawing the applet in that method. The paint() method is passed an object of the Graphics class, which
youll study in a few chapters. Its the basis of graphical work in applets. This object supports a method named
drawString(), which well use to draw a string of text in the applet. The Graphics class is an AWT class, so
well import AWT classes when we override the default paint() method of the Applet class like this:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
public class CreateApplet extends Applet {
public void paint(Graphics g) { . . . }
}
Now well customize the overridden paint() method to draw the text Kogent Learning Solutions! at location
(80, 100) in the applet. Applet coordinates are in pixels; therefore, (80, 100) is at 80 pixels from the left edge of the
applet and 100 pixels here the bottom of the title bar. Heres the code:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE= CreateApplet.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class CreateApplet extends Applet {
public void paint(Graphics g) {

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g.drawString("Kogent Learning Solutions!", 80, 100); }

}
This new paint() method draws directly on the surface of the applet. Note that you can also place controls
such as buttons and text fields directly on the surface of the applet. Youll see how that works in this chapter as
well. Once we compile CreateApplet.java into CreateApplet.class using javac, the applet is created.
Now its time to see the applet at work.

Using the <APPLET> HTML Tag

OK, says the Novice Programmer. I have created an applet and compiled it into a class file. How do I actually
look at it? You have to use the HTML <APPLET> tag, you reply.
When you have created an applets .class file, you can upload the applet to an ISP (or view it on your own
machine) and set its protection (see the introduction to this chapter) so that it may be read. Next, you can create a
web page using the <APPLET> tag to display the applet. Heres what the <APPLET> tag looks like:
<APPLET
[CODEBASE = URL]
CODE = filename
[ALT = alternateText]
[NAME = instancename]
WIDTH = pixels
HEIGHT = pixels
[ALIGN = alignment]
[VSPACE = pixels]
[HSPACE = pixels]
> [<PARAM NAME = name VALUE = value>]
. . .
[<PARAM = NAME name VALUE = value>]
</APPLET>
Here are the attributes of the <APPLET> tag:
CODEBASEThe URL that specifies the directory in which the applet code is to be found.
CODEThe name of the applet file, including the extension .class.
ALTThe text to be displayed if a browser supports applets but cannot run this one for some reason.
NAMEThe name of the applet in the web browser. Applets must be given names if you want other applets
to be able to find and interact with them.
WIDTHThe width of the space reserved for the applet.
HEIGHTThe height of the space reserved for the applet.
ALIGNThe alignment of the applet: LEFT, RIGHT, TOP, BOTTOM, MIDDLE, BASELINE, TEXTTOP,
ABSMIDDLE, or ABSBOTTOM.
VSPACEThe space allocated above and below the applet.
HSPACEThe space allocated to the right and left around the applet.
PARAM NAMEThe name of a parameter to pass to the applet.
PARAM VALUEThe value of a parameter.
Heres a web page called Applet.html that displays the applet created in the previous topic (note that the only
required attributes are the CODE, WIDTH, and HEIGHT attributes):
<HTML>
<BODY>
<CENTER>
<APPLET
CODE=CreateApplet.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>
</CENTER>
</BODY>
</HTML>

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In this case, we are not specifying a code base, so we place CreateApplet.class in the same directory as
Applet.html. This web page, as opened in Internet Explorer, appears in Figure 6.1. Note that if an applet
doesnt work in your browser, it could be well because the browser doesnt support the current Java version.
You can also use the Sun appletviewer, which comes with Java, to view the applet. You open the web page like
this (this example assumes that Applet.html is in the current directoryyou can always give the path of the
.html file like this: appletviewer C:\BB_Chapters\Chapter-6\Applet.html):
C:\>appletviewer Applet.html
The result appears in Figure 6.2. The appletviewer always supports the latest version of Java, so if your web
browser doesnt, and you dont want to install the Java plug-in, you can always use the appletviewer to test your
applets.

Figure 6.1: An applet at work in the Internet Explorer Figure 6.2: An applet at work in the
AppletViewer

Handling Non-Java Browsers

Uh-oh, says the Novice Programmer, there is a problem. Some users are using a slightly nonstandard web
browser. That does sound slightly nonstandard, you say. And, the NP continues, it doesnt support Java. Is
there any way of informing the users that they are missing something? There sure is, you say. Pull up a chair
and well go through it.
If you enclose text inside an <APPLET> tag, that text will be displayed if the web browser does not support Java.
For example, heres how you might alert users that they are missing your applet:
<APPLET CODE = "CreateApplet.class" WIDTH = 100 HEIGHT = 100>
Sorry, you don't have Java, so you can't see my beautiful applet.
</APPLET>

Embedding <APPLET> Tags in Code

The Novice Programmer sighs. I have been writing applets, and its always a little bit of a pain. What is? you
ask. Writing a web page with an <APPLET> tag to test the applet outisnt there an easier way? Sure, you
say, you can embed the <APPLET> tag directly in the source code file.
The developers at Sun realized that sometimes its annoying to create a web page to test an applet; so if you use
the Sun appletviewer, you can now place an <APPLET> tag directly into the EmbedAppletTag.java file in a
comment, like this:

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import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=EmbedAppletTag.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class EmbedAppletTag extends Applet {
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Kogent Learning Solutions!", 80, 100); }
}
After creating the .class file, you can now start the appletviewer with the .java file directly:
C:\>appletviewer EmbedAppletTag.java

Using the init, start, stop, destroy, paint, and update Methods
The Novice Programmer is back and says, My browser has gone all wackyit draws my applets in gray!
Thats the default for many web browsers, you say. However, you can change that by adding some
initialization code to your applet in the init() method.
Here are a number of important applet methods you should know about:
init()This is the first method to be called, and it is called only once. You initialize the applet here.
start()This method is called after init, and it is called each time an applet appears again on the
screen. That is, if the user moves to another page and then comes back, the start method is called again.
stop()This method is called when the browser moves to another page. You can use this method to stop
additional execution threads your applet may have started.
destroy()This method is called when the applet is about to be removed from memory. You can
perform cleanup here.
paint()This method is called when the applet is to be redrawn. It is passed an object of the Graphics
class, and you can use that objects methods to draw in the applet.
update()This method is called when a portion of the applet is to be redrawn. The default version fills
the applet with the background color before redrawing the applet, which can lead to flickering when you
are performing animation, in which case you would override this method.
You can override these methods to customize them as you like. We have already overridden the paint method
to draw a string of text; here, we override the init() method to change the background color of the applet to
orange, using the applet setBackground() method and passing it the orange field of the Java Color class.
This applet also implements other methods listed previously. Heres the code:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletMethods.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AppletMethods extends Applet {
public void init() { setBackground(Color.orange); }
public void start() { }
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Kogent Learning Solutions!", 80, 100); }
public void stop() { }
public void destroy() { }
}
The init() method is a very useful one, and its commonly overridden because it lets you initialize your
applet. In this case, we have changed the background color from gray (the default in many browsers) to orange.
Applets excel at graphics; the next topic provides an overview of handling graphics in applets.

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Drawing Graphics in Applets

Youll learn much more about drawing in applets in a few chapters, but its worth covering some of the graphics
methods youll use here:
paint()It is called when the applet is to be redrawn.
Repaint()It calls this method to force the applet to be painted.
drawString()It draws a string of text.
setBackground()It sets the background color.
setForeground()It sets the foreground (drawing) color.
draw3DRect()It draws a 3D rectangle.
drawBytes()It draws text, given a byte array.
drawImage()It draws an image.
drawOval()It draws an oval (including circles).
drawPolyLine()It draws a line with multiple segments.
drawRoundRect()It draws a rounded rectangle.
drawArc()It draws an arc.
drawChars()It draws text, given a character array.
drawLine()It draws a line.
drawPolygon()It draws a polygon.
drawRect()It draws a rectangle.
Two methods that are particularly worth noticing are the paint() method, in which you paint the applet, and
the repaint() method, which forces the paint() method to be called again.

Reading Parameters in Applets

The Big Boss appears, chomping on a cigar, and says, We need to personalize the greeting in our applet by
customer. But there are thousands of customers, you say. We cant recompile the applet for each one and
store each new version on the website. What do you suggest? the BB asks.
What will you say?
You can pass parameters to applets in the <APPLET> tag, and the applet code can read the values of those
parameters, which means that to customize the applet, you only need to supply different parameters in the
<APPLET> tag. To actually get the value of a parameter, you use the Applet classs getParameter() method,
passing it the name of the parameter as specified in the <PARAM> tag. The getParameter() method will return
the value of the parameter that was set in the <PARAM> tag. Heres an example in which we pass a parameter
named string to an applet; the value of this parameter is the text that the applet should display. Heres how
this looks in code:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletParameters.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
<PARAM NAME = string VALUE = "Kogent Learning Solutions!">
</APPLET> */
public class AppletParameters extends Applet {
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString(getParameter("string"), 80, 100); }
}
You can find the process of Command-Line Arguments Passed to main method in detail in Chapter 4.

Using Java Consoles in Browsers

All this drawString() stuff is OK, the Novice Programmer says, but what about the Java console? What if I
use System.out.println() in an applet? That depends, you say, on your browser.
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Heres an applet that displays a message and uses System.out.println() to print to the console:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletAndConsole.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AppletAndConsole extends Applet {
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Kogent Learning Solutions!", 80, 100);
System.out.println("Kogent Learning Solutions!"); }
}
If you run this applet with the Sun appletviewer, the applet will open in a separate window, and youll see
Kogent Learning Solutions! in the console window. Web browsers often have a Java Console as well, although
you often have to enable them before using. The way to enable the Java Console differs, unfortunately, from
browser to browser as well as from version to version. Currently, you enable the Java Console in Internet
Explorer by selecting Tools | Internet Options, clicking the Advanced tab, and selecting the Java Console
Enabled checkbox. And you can open the Java Console by selecting the View | Java Console
Figure 6.3 shows the result of the preceding applet as it appears in the Internet Explorer Java Console, which
pops up when you print to the applet. In Netscape Navigator, you can open the Java Console with the
Communicator | Java Console menu item.

Figure 6.3: Using Internet Explorers Java console

Adding Controls to Applets: Text Fields

OK, says the Novice Programmer. I can draw text in an applet now. But what if I want to let the user enter
some text? For that, you say, you can use all kinds of text controls, such as text fields.
Text fields are about the most basic controls you can use in AWT, so they provide a good starting point. A text
field displays text on a single line and lets the user edit that text.
Well discuss text fields formally in the next chapter, but well put them to use here, too, when talking about
event handling. Heres a text field example in which we are creating a text field 20 characters wide in an applets
init() method (note that we are importing AWT classes to be able to use text fields):
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletControls1.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AppletControls1 extends Applet {
public TextField text1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);

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. . . }
}
After creating a new control, you must add it to the applet so that its displayed. Heres an example:
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20); add(text1);
. . .
}
The add method adds the control to the current layout manager, which decides where the control should be
placed (youll see the details on layout managers in the next chapter). Now that the text field has been added to
the applet, we can place the text Kogent Learning Solutions! in the text field with the setText() method,
like this:
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1);
text1.setText("Kogent Learning Solutions!");
}
The result of this code appears in Figure 6.4, where you can see the text field with the message we have put into
it. The user can also edit this text. Well take a closer look at text fields in the next chapter. Another basic control
is the AWT Button control; well use buttons and text fields to discuss event handling, so well introduce the
Button control in the next topic. Youll learn about buttons and text fields in detail in the next chapter.

Figure 6.4: Adding a Text Field to an applet

Adding Controls to Applets: Buttons

Im ready for the next step, the Novice Programmer reports. I have added text fields to my applets, whats
next? Buttons, you say. Pull up a chair and lets talk about them.
Users can click buttons in their applet to signal that they want to perform some action; for example, you
may have a button labeled Change Color that, when clicked, changes the background color of the applet
using the setBackground() method. Buttons are supported in the java.awt.Button class, which
well discuss in detail in the next chapter. Its easy enough to add a button to an applet you do it in
much the same way as adding a text field to an applet, as demonstrated in the previous example. Here, we are
creating and adding a button with the caption Display Text.
public class AppletControls2 extends Applet {
TextField text1; Button button1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20); add(text1);
button1 = new Button("Display Text"); add(button1);
}
The result of this code appears in Figure 6.5, where you can see the text field and a button with caption Display
Text. The real trick is to get something to happen when the user clicks the button, and for that, well have to
take a look at event handling (see the next topic).
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Figure 6.5: Adding a Button to an applet

Handling Events
Hey, says the NP, I have put a Button in my applet; but when I click it, nothing happens. What gives? What
gives, you say, is that you have to implement event handling.
Event handlingthe process of responding to button clicks, mouse movements, and so onhas become a
complex topic in Java. Starting with Java 1.1, event handling changed significantly in Java; the current model is
called delegated event handling. In this event handling model, you must specifically register with Java if you want
to handle a specific event such as a button click (the idea is that performance is improved if only code that needs
to handle specific events is informed of those events, and not the rest of your code).You register for events by
implementing an event listener interface. Here are the available event listeners and the kinds of events they
handle:
ActionListenerIt listens for action events, such as button clicks
AdjustmentListenerIt listens for adjustment events, such as scrollbar movements
ComponentListenerIt listens for cases in which a component is hidden, moved, resized, or shown
ContainerListenerIt listens for cases in which a component is added or removed from a container
FocusListenerIt listens for cases in which a component gains or loses the focus
ItemListenerIt listens for cases in which the state of an item changes
KeyListenerIt listens for keyboard events
MouseListenerIt listens for cases in which the mouse is clicked, enters a component, exits a component,
or is pressed
MouseMotionListenerIt listens for cases in which the mouse is dragged or moved
MouseWheelListenerIt listens for cases in which the mouse wheel event is rotated in a component
TextListenerIt listens for text value changes
WindowListenerIt listens for cases in which a window is activated, deactivated, iconified, deiconified,
opened, closed, or quit
Each listener is an interface, and its up to you to implement the methods of the interface (for more on interfaces,
see the previous chapter). Each of these methods is passed a type of event object that corresponds to the kind of
event:
ActionEventIt handles buttons, list double-clicks, and menu item clicks
AdjustmentEventIt handles scrollbar movements
ComponentEventIt handles cases in which a component is hidden, moved, resized, or becomes visible
ContainerEventIt handles cases in which a component is added or removed from a container
FocusEventIt handles cases in which a component gains or loses the focus
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InputEventIt handles checkbox and list item clicks, choice control selections, and checkable menu item
selections
ItemEventIt handles cases when an item is selected, de-selected, expanded, or contracted
KeyEventIt handles input from the keyboard
MouseEventIt handles cases in which the mouse is dragged, moved, clicked, pressed, released, or entered
or exits a component
MouseWheelEventIt handles the cases when the mouse wheel is rotated in a component
TextEventIt handles the value of a text field or text area being changed
WindowEventIt handles cases in which a window is activated, deactivated, iconified, deiconified, opened,
closed, or quit

Standard Event Handling

Its time to put some of what we have covered to work. Well start by adding a new button with the text
Display Text to an applet as well as adding an action listener that will be notified when the button is clicked.
To add an action listener to the button, you use the buttons addActionListener() method, passing it an
object that implements the methods of the ActionListener interface. This object can be an object of the
applets main class or another class. Well go over both variations here, starting with sending event notifications
to the main applet class.

You can also use removeListener() method to unregister an event listener.

Heres how we add an action listener to a button, sending event notifications to the current applet object (note
that we indicate that the AppletEvent1 class now implements the ActionListener interface):
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletEvent1.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class AppletEvent1 extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextField text1;
Button button1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1);
button1 = new Button("Display Text");
add(button1);
button1.addActionListener(this);
.... }
}
Now we have to implement the methods of the ActionListener interface. It turns out that this interface has
only one method actionPerformed(), which is passed an object of the ActionEvent class when the button
is clicked:
void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e)
ActionEvent objects (which well discuss in the next chapter) inherit a method named getSource() from the
EventObject class, and this method returns the object that caused the event. That means we can check whether
this event was caused by the button, button1, and if so, place the text Kogent Learning Solutions! into the text
field text1, like this:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET

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CODE=AppletEvent1.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AppletEvent1 extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextField text1; Button button1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1);
button1 = new Button("Display Text");
add(button1);
button1.addActionListener(this); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String text = new String ("Kogent Learning Solutions!");
if(event.getSource() == button1) { text1.setText(text); }
}
}
This applet appears in Figure 6.6. When you click the button, the text Kogent Learning Solutions! appears in
the text field.

Figure 6.6: Supporting button clicks

Now we can implement the methods of the FocusListener interface. It turns out that this interface has
methods, like focusGained() and focusLost(), which is passed an object of the FocusEvent class when
the tab is pressed:
void focusGained(FocusEvent e)
To control the focus, you can use setFocusable(), which requires Boolean value, i.e., true or false and will
decide whether the component can gain focus or not, and also use requestFocusInWindow(), which will let
the component to gain the focus on startup.
That means we can check whether this event was caused by the buttons, button1, button2, or button3, and
if so, place the text Focus is on Button2! into the text field text1 when focus is on button2, like this:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletEvent2.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AppletEvent2 extends Applet implements FocusListener, MouseWheelListener
{
TextField text1; Button button1, button2, button3;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1);
button1 = new Button("Button1");
button2 = new Button("Button2");
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button3 = new Button("Button3");

add(button1);
add(button2);
add(button3);
button1.addFocusListener(this);
button2.addFocusListener(this);
button3.addFocusListener(this);
button1.setFocusable(false);
button2.requestFocusInWindow();
text1.addMouseWheelListener(this);
}
public void focusGained(FocusEvent event) {
String text = new String ("Focus is on Button2!");
if(event.getSource() == button2) {
text1.setText(text); transferFocusUpCycle(); }
if(event.getSource() == button3) { transferFocusBackward(); }
}
public void focusLost(FocusEvent e) { }
public void mouseWheelMoved(MouseWheelEvent e) { }
}
This applet appears in Figure 6.7. When you start the applet, the text Focus is on Button2! appears in the text
field. We can change the focus by using tab, but focus will not go to button1 because of isFocuable(false)
for button1.

Figure 6.7: Adding Listeners and Buttons to the Applet

The class you register to listen for events doesnt need to be the main applet class (and in fact, the Sun
developers originally intended that it not be, although its now become common practice). Well take a look at
using other classes to listen for events next.

Using Delegated Classes

Heres an example in which we are creating a new class to implement the ActionListener interface. Note that
this is a little clumsy. We want to work with the text field and button controls in the main applet object, so we
have to pass and store references to that object in the new classs constructor:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletEvent3.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AppletEvent3 extends Applet {
public TextField text1;
public Button button1;
public void init() {

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text1 = new TextField(20);

add(text1);
button1 = new Button("Display Text");
add(button1);
MyListener ml = new MyListener(this);
button1.addActionListener(ml); }
}
class MyListener implements ActionListener {
AppletEvent3 e3;
MyListener(AppletEvent3 ae3) { e3 = ae3; }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String text = new String ("Kogent Learning Solutions!");
if(event.getSource() == e3.button1) { e3.text1.setText(text); }
}
}
This code works the same as the previous version of this applet, except that internally it uses a new class to
handle events, not the main applet class. There are times when this is useful, such as when you have many
events to handle and dont want to make your main applet class huge.
Heres another example in which we are creating a new class to implement the FocusListener interface. In
this example, we are using a concept of changing the usual behavior of the key. To see the actual working of this
code, use the Tab key to navigate through the buttons and text field instead of the mouse.
Note that this is a little clumsy, as a lot of packages are imported to work with keyboard events. We want to
work with the text field and button controls in the main applet object, so we have to pass and store references to
that object in the new classs constructor:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.awt.Container;
import java.awt.FocusTraversalPolicy;
import java.awt.KeyboardFocusManager;
import java.awt.event.KeyEvent;
import java.util.HashSet;
import java.util.Set;
import javax.swing.KeyStroke;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletEvent4.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AppletEvent4 extends Applet implements FocusListener {
public TextField text1; public Button button1,button2;
public void init() {
this.setFocusTraversalKeysEnabled(true);
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1);
button1 = new Button("Button1");
button2 = new Button("Button2");
add(button1);
add(button2);
button1.addFocusListener(this);
button2.addFocusListener(this); }
public void focusGained(FocusEvent event) {
if(event.getSource() == button1) { text1.setText("Focus on Button1"); }
if(event.getSource() == button2) { text1.setText("Focus on Button2"); }
}
public void focusLost(FocusEvent e) { }
}
This applet appears in Figure 6.8. We can use Tab key to shift the focus. In addition, there are other ways of
determining which object caused the event; for example, you can use commands.

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Figure 6.8: Key Traversal and Focus Listener

Using Action Commands

Java lets you associate commands with events caused by AWT buttons and menu items. When working with
buttons, the command is just the caption of the button by default (youll see how to create custom commands in
the next chapter), so that you can determine which button was clicked by looking at its caption (not a good idea
if your program changes captions). You can get the command for a button with the getActionCommand()
method. Heres how we implement the preceding applet using commands:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletEvent5.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AppletEvent5 extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextField text1; Button button1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1);
button1 = new Button("Display Text");
add(button1);
button1.addActionListener(this); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String text = new String ("Kogent Learning Solutions!");
String caption = event.getActionCommand();
if(caption.equals("Display Text")) { text1.setText(text); }
}
}
This introduces you to the process of handling events the modern way. However, the old Java 1.0 way still
works in Java, although its considered deprecated. For the sake of completeness, well take a look at it in the
next topic.

Handling Events the Old Way

Java 1.0 uses a non-delegated approach to events. In the Java 1.0 event model, you dont need to register to get
eventsthey are just passed to you anyway, and you can handle them in a method named action. For
example, heres how the previous applet looks using the old event model:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletEvent6.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AppletEvent6 extends Applet {

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TextField text1; Button button1;

public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1);
button1 = new Button("Display Text");
add(button1); }
public boolean action (Event e, Object o) {
String caption = (String)o; String text = "Kogent Learning Solutions!";
if(e.target instanceof Button) {
if(caption == "Display Text") { text1.setText(text); }
}
return true; }
}
The problem was that the action() method often became huge, so the Java designers introduced the delegated
event model, in which you can send events where you want and are not restricted to an action() method. In
fact, theres one more way of handling eventsby extending components.

Extending Components
If you like being sneaky, you can handle events by deriving new classes from components and overriding the
methods in the components that handle events. In fact, this way of doing things ends up much like the Java 1.0
technique of event handling because all event handling takes place in one method; therefore, its discouraged.
However, well cover it here to be complete.
Heres how we implement the applet by extending the Button class in a derived class named NewButton. In this
new class, we override the Button classs processActionEvent() method, displaying the text Kogent
Learning Solutions! in the applets text field after calling the Button classs processActionEvent() method:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletEvent7.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
class NewButton extends Button {
AppletEvent7 ae;
NewButton(AppletEvent7 ref, String s) {
super(s); ae = ref;
enableEvents(AWTEvent.ACTION_EVENT_MASK); }
protected void processActionEvent (ActionEvent e) {
super.processActionEvent(e);
ae.text1.setText("Kogent Learning Solutions!"); }
}
Now all we have to do is to create a new button of this class and add it to the applet:
public class AppletEvent7 extends Applet {
TextField text1;
Button button1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1);
button1 = new NewButton(this, "Display Text");
add(button1); }
}
Thats all it takes; now this applet works like the others.

Using Adapter Classes

Ugh! says the Novice Programmer. I understand about the delegated event model that uses listener
interfaces, but sometimes its a pain to have to implement all the methods of an interface when you just want to
use one method. Thats true, you say, which is why Sun introduced adapter classes to make the whole
process much easier.

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Adapter classes are classes that have already implemented the various event interfaces available. Each method of
an interface is implemented as an empty method without any code in an adapter class, and all you need to do is
override the method or methods you want to provide code for.
Lets look at an example. In this case, well start with an applet that stores a string to print, which is Kogent
Learning Solutions! by default, and displays that string in the paint() method. Then we are going to add a
mouse listener (which youll learn more about in the next chapter) to the applet; so when the user clicks the
applet, the message Hello from Java! appears. Unlike the ActionListener interface, the MouseListener
interface has five methods that must be implemented. However, we just want to use the mouseClicked()
method to handle mouse clicks, so well use the MouseAdapter class instead.
We start by adding a class that implements a mouse listener to the program. This class will subclass the
MouseAdapter class, and well call it MyAdapter:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletAdapter.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AppletAdapter extends Applet {
public String text = "Kogent Learning Solutions!";
public void init() { addMouseListener(new MyAdapter(this)); }
public void paint(Graphics g) { g.drawString(text, 80, 100); }
}
We pass an object of the main applet class to the MyAdapter classs constructor, so it can reach the fields in the
applet. When the mouse is clicked, the text string in the applet is replaced with the text Hello from Java! and
then the applet is repainted, causing the new string to appear on the screen:
class MyAdapter extends MouseAdapter {
AppletAdapter aa;
MyAdapter(AppletAdapter appletobject) { aa = appletobject; }
public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent e) {
aa.text = "Hello from Java!";
aa.repaint(); }
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e) { }

}
The result of this code appears in Figure 6.9 and Figure 6.10.
Note that this was a little awkward because we had to pass the applet object to the MyAdapter classs
constructor so that the class could reach the fields in the AppletAdapter class. On the other hand, inner classes
have access to the fields of their enclosing classes, so adapters are often implemented as inner classes. Well take
a look at that next.

Figure 6.9: Supporting button clicks Figure 6.10: Supporting button release
with adapter classes with adapter classes

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Using Anonymous Inner Adapter Classes

You first saw anonymous inner classes in the previous chapter. The format for these classes is:
new SuperType(constructor parameters) { } //methods and data
where SuperType is the class or interface from which the anonymous inner class is subclassed. In this case, we
are going to derive an anonymous inner class from the MouseAdapter class to implement the applet you first
saw in the previous topic. Heres how that looks (note that we are overriding the mouseClicked() method as
we did in the previous topic, but this time we are using an anonymous inner class, which makes the code much
more compact):
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AppletAnonyAdapter.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AppletAnonyAdapter extends Applet {
public String text = "Kogent Learning Solutions!";
public void init() {
addMouseListener(new MouseAdapter() {
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent me) {
text = "Hello from Java!"; repaint(); }});
}
public void paint(Graphics g) { g.drawString(text, 80, 100); }
}

Creating Windowed Applications

The NP appears and says. OK, I can create applets now, but what about applications that use windows?
Coming right up, you say.
Unlike writing applets, when you write a windowed application, you are responsible for creating your own
window in which to display that application. The most common type of window to use for this purpose is the
Java frame window, as supported in the java.awt.Frame class. Heres the inheritance diagram for that class
(this class is derived from the java.awt.Window class, which well cover in a few chapters):
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____java.awt.Window
|____java.awt.Frame
Youll find the constructors for the Frame class in Table 6.4 and its methods in Table 6.5.

Although the Applet classs default layout manager is the flow layout manager, the default layout manager in the Frame class is
the border layout manager. If you want to use another layout when adding components to a Frame window, youll have to
change the layout manager yourself.

Table 6.4: Constructors of the Frame class

Constructor Does this
Frame() It constructs a new instance of Frame thats initially invisible
Frame(GraphicsConfiguration gc) It constructs a new Frame with specified GraphicsConfiguration
Frame(String title) It constructs a new Frame object thats invisible with the given title
Frame(String title, It constructs a new Frame with specified title and
GraphicsConfiguration gc) GraphicsConfiguration

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Table 6.5: Methods of the Frame class

Method Does this
void addNotify() It makes this frame displayable by connecting it to a native screen
resource
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this frame
getAccessibleContext()
int getCursorType() It is deprecated and replaced by Component.getCursor()
int getExtendedState() It gets the state of the frame
static Frame[] getFrames() It gets an array containing all frames created by the application
Image getIconImage() It gets the image to be displayed as icon for the frame
Rectangle getMaximizedBounds() It gets the maximized bounds for the frame
MenuBar getMenuBar() It gets the menu bar
int getState() It gets the state of the frame
String getTitle() It gets the title of the frame
boolean isResizable() It indicates whether this frame is resizable by the user
boolean isUndecorated() It indicates whether this frame is undecorated
protected String paramString() It returns a string that represents the state of the frame
void remove (MenuComponent m) It removes the specified menu bar from the frame
void removeNotify() It makes this frame undisplayable by removing its connection to its
native screen resource
void setBackground (Color bgColor) It sets the indicated background color of the frame
void setCursor It is deprecated and replaced by Component.setCursor(Cursor)
(int cursorType)
void setExtendedState(int state) It sets the state of the frame
void setIconImage (Image image) It sets the image to be displayed as icon for the frame
void setMaximizedBounds(Rectangle It sets the maximized bounds for the frame
bounds)
void setMenuBar(MenuBar mb) It sets the menu bar for the frame to the specified menu bar
void setOpacity(float opacity) It sets the opacity of the window
void setResizable (boolean resizable) It sets whether the frame is resizable by the user
void setShape(Shape shape) It sets the shape of the window
void setState(int state) It sets the state of the frame
void setTitle(String title) It sets the title for the frame to the specified string
void setUndecorated(boolean It enables or disables the frame decorations
undecorated)

Heres an example in which we derive a new class, AppFrame, from the Frame class and customize this new
class to display the string Kogent Learning Solutions! to make it look like the applet developed earlier.
As with the java.applet.Applet class, the java.awt.Frame class is derived from the java.awt.Window
class, so we can use the paint() method to display graphics in the Frame class. In fact, the paint() method
will look just as it did in the applet created earlier in the applications code file Application1.java. Heres
the code:
import java.awt.*;
class AppletFrame extends Frame {
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Kogent Learning Solutions!", 80, 100); }
}

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A main() method is needed to start the application itself, so we create that method in a new class named
Application1:
public class Application1 {
public static void main(String [] args) { . . . }
}
To display the applications frame window, we create an object of the AppletFrame class, like this:
public class Application1 { public static void main(String [] args) {
AppletFrame f = new AppletFrame();
. . . }
}
Now we give the frame window object a size of 300 by 200 pixels and display it on the screen with the
setVisible(true) method:
public class Application1 {
public static void main(String [] args) {
AppletFrame f = new AppletFrame();
f.setSize(300,200);
f.setVisible(true); }
}

If you dont give a frame window a size before displaying it, all youll see is a title bar. In Graphical User Interface (GUI) terms,
there will be no client area, which is the area under the title bar in which the application displays itself.

The result of this code appears in Figure 6.11. As you can see, the message Kogent Learning Solutions! appears
in the application, as intended. You can also add controls to this application, just as we did with the button
applet earlier in this chapter.
There are a few things to mention here: First, if you launch the application with the java tool (that is, as java
Application), that tool will wait until the application ends before returning control to the console. From the
users point of view, the console appears to hang until the application is exited. If you want control to return
immediately to the console after the application is launched and displays its own window, use the javaw tool
instead.
Another important point is that if you want to distribute your applications to users who dont have the SDK
installed, you can use the Java Runtime Environment (JRE).
Finally, its important to point out that theres no easy way to exit the application in Figure 6.11clicking the
close button has no effect at all. You can press Ctrl+C to end execution of the java tool in the console window,
but thats pretty awkward. Instead, you have to handle window-closing events to end the application when its
window is closed. Well take a look at this in the next topic related to exiting an application when window is
closed.

Figure 6.11: Creating a windowed application

Before going to next topic, well take some more examples on creating windowed application to show the frame
creation with createVolatileImage() method. Here is one:
import java.awt.Color;
import java.awt.Component;
import java.awt.Frame;

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import java.awt.Graphics;
import java.awt.image.VolatileImage;
public class Application2 extends Component {
public VolatileImage buffer = null;
void createBackBuffer() {
if (buffer != null) {
buffer.flush();
buffer = null; }
buffer = createVolatileImage(getWidth(), getHeight()); }
public void paint(Graphics g) {
if (buffer == null) { createBackBuffer(); }
do {
int code = buffer.validate(getGraphicsConfiguration());
if (code == VolatileImage.IMAGE_RESTORED) {}
else if (code == VolatileImage.IMAGE_INCOMPATIBLE) {
createBackBuffer(); }
Graphics graph = buffer.getGraphics(); graph.setColor(Color.white);
graph.fillRect(0, 0, getWidth(), getHeight());
graph.setColor(Color.red);
graph.drawLine(0, 0, getWidth(), getHeight());
g.drawImage(buffer, 0, 0, this); }
while (buffer.contentsLost());
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
Frame frame = new Frame();
frame.setSize(300, 200);
frame.add(new Application2());
frame.setVisible(true); }
}
The result of the code appears in Figure 6.12.

Figure 6.12: Creating windowed application with frame creation

Here is another example of frame creation using getPreferredSize() method:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class Application3 extends Frame implements ItemListener {
private Choice choice; Label label = new Label("Make a choice");
Application3() {
super("Choices");
add(label, BorderLayout.SOUTH);
choice = new Choice();
choice.addItem("One");
choice.addItem("Two");
choice.addItem("Three");
choice.addItemListener(this);
add(choice, BorderLayout.CENTER); pack();
setSize(200,getPreferredSize().height);
setLocation(25,25); setVisible(true); }
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent ie) {
String state = "Deselected";

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if(ie.getStateChange() == ItemEvent.SELECTED)
state = "Selected";
label.setText(ie.getItem() + " " + state ); }
public static void main(String args[]) {
new Application3(); }
}
The result of the code appears in Figure 6.13.

Figure 6.13: Creating windowed application using setPreferredSize()

Exiting an Application When Its Window Is Closed

Hey, says the NP, I found it a little difficult to end my first windowed applicationclicking the close button
didnt do anything. So how did you end the application? you ask. Turned off my computer, the NP says
sheepishly.
Java expects you to handle the case in which the user clicks the close button in an applications window yourself
(although this has been made easier with Swing windows). To end an application when the user clicks the close
button, you must catch window events, which you can do with the WindowListener interface. Well show a
compact way of doing that here by modifying the application developed in the previous chapter using the
WindowAdapter class, which implements the WindowListener interface with an empty implementation of
each method in WindowListener. In this case, well use an anonymous inner adapter class (see the topic
Using Anonymous Inner Adapter Classes, earlier in this chapter, for more details) and override the
windowClosing() method. In that events method, well add code to exit the applicationSystem.exit(0).
This ends the application with an exit code of 0 (which means a normal termination). Heres the code:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
class AppletFrame extends Frame {
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Kogent Learning Solutions!", 80, 100); }
}
public class ExitApplication {
public static void main(String [] args) {
AppletFrame f = new AppletFrame();
f.setSize(300, 200);
f.addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) { System.exit(0); }});
f.setVisible(true); }
}
Thats all it takes. Now when you click the application windows close button, the window closes and the
application exits.

Applications You Can Run as Applets

The Big Boss arrives and says, We have got to cut development costs. From now on, all applets must also
double as applications. Hmm, you say, when do you need that in place? Arent you done yet? the
BB asks.
If you add a main() method to an applet, that applet can run as both an applet and an application; Java will
ignore the main() method when it runs as an applet and will run the main() method when it runs as an
application. Heres an example in which we have combined the applet and application into one program:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET

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CODE=AppletApp.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AppletApp extends Applet {
public static void main(String [] args) {
AppletFrame f = new AppletFrame();
f.setPreferredSize(new Dimension(WIDTH-0, HEIGHT-0));
f.addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {public void
windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {System.exit(0);}});
f.setVisible(true);
f.setIgnoreRepaint(false); }
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Hello from Java!", 60, 100); }
}
class AppletFrame extends Frame {
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Kogent Learning Solutions!", 80, 100); }
}
You can run this code as either an applet or application (the Big Boss would be proud).

Setting Applet Security Policies

Hey, says the NP, why cant I write a file from an applet? Because of security, you say, but you can
change that if you really want to. I can!!, says the NP, How??
You can use the Java Policy Tool to change security settings. For example, you can allow applets to read and
write files (normally they dont have access to files because when a user opens an applet in a browser, he or she
might not expect you to start working with files on the system). Heres an example of an applet called
WriterApplet.java that tries to write a file:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.io.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=WriterApplet.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class WriterApplet extends Applet {
public void init() {
byte data[] = "Kogent Learning Solutions".getBytes();
try {
FileOutputStream fo = new FileOutputStream("file.txt");
fo.write(data);
fo.close(); }
catch (Exception e) { System.out.println("Error: " + e); }
}
}
If you try to run this applet as it stands, youll get a security violation error in the console window, and the
applet wont start. However, you can change that with the Policy Tool, which lets you set security settings on an
applet-by-applet and application-by-application basis.

You must be very careful when adjusting Javas security settingsdont leave yourself open to security problems.

Start the Policy Tool now by typing policytool in the console window. The Policy Tool appears in Figure 6.14.
To add a new policy entry for WriterApplet.class, click the Add Policy Entry button in the Policy Tool,
which opens the Policy Entry dialog box, shown in Figure 6.15.

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Figure 6.14: The Policy Tool Figure 6.15: The Policy Entry dialog box
Enter the URL of the applet or application you want to set the security settings for (well use a file:\\ URL
here, but of course you can specify HTTP:// URLs as well) and click the Add Permission button, which opens
the Permissions dialog box, shown in Figure 6.16:

Figure 6.16: The Permissions dialog box

In this case, we want to set the file-writing permission for WriterApplet.class, so select FilePermission,
<<ALL FILES>>, and write, as shown in Figure 6.16 (you dont have to fill in the Signed By line unless the code
has been digitally signed). Now click OK to close the Permissions dialog box and then click Done to close the
Policy Entry dialog box. Youll see the new policy entry in the Policy Tool, as shown in Figure 6.17.
In addition, you must save the new policy entry in a file, and you do that with the Save As menu item in the File
menu. Well save the policy entry in the file D:\Chapter 6\java.policy here, as you can see in Figure 6.17:

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Figure 6.17: A new policy entry

Thats all it takes. When you set the security policy for a program by providing that programs URL, you can
grant all kinds of permissions to the program. In this case, the writer applet can now create file.txt and write
this text to it.

Other Facilities in the java.awt Package

Java 6 added certain new features related to AWT. These features help in changing the look and feel of the Java
Application GUI. These features are as follows:
System Tray
Splash Screen
Dialog Modality
Gif Writer
Text Antialiasing

System Tray
It is a specific area that can be accessed during running programs. It appears at the bottom of the desktop. Any
user can access it continually. All running application on the desktop can share this tray area. It is referred to as
the Taskbar Status Area on the Microsoft Windows, the system tray on KDE, and the Notification Area on the
Gnome Desktop. You can access the system tray in Java with two separate classes defined in java.awt package,
i.e., SystemTray and TrayIcon.
These classes add some more functionality, such as graphics, pop-up menus, and floating tip functions to the
system tray. The system tray contains method getSystemTray(). The system tray in Java can be accessed by
calling the following method:
static SystemTray.getSystemTray()
Before accessing the system tray, the application always check the availability of system tray by using the
static SystemTray.isSupported() method. This method returns false if it is found that the system tray is
not present. In this case, if the getSystemTray() method is invoked by the application, it will throw a
java.lang.UnsupportedOperationException.
A TrayIcon can be added to the SystemTray. It can have an image, a tooltip(text), and it is also
associated with a set of listeners. Various MouseEvents, like MousePressed, MouseReleased,
MouseClicked are generated by a TrayIcon and provide the facility for notification of the events. Some of the
events are processed by TrayIcon itself. Suppose, a user performs right-click on the TrayIcon, then the
TrayIcon displays the pop-up menu. An ActionEvent is also generated by TrayIcon.

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Heres the inheritance diagram for the SystemTray class:

java.lang.Object
|____ java.awt.SystemTray
You can find the methods of the SystemTray in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6: Methods of the SystemTray class
Method Does this
void add(TrayIcon) It is used for adding a TrayIcon to the SystemTray
void addPropertyChangeListener(String It adds a PropertyChangeListener for the indicated
propertyName, PropertyChangeListener property
listener)
PropertyChangeListener[] It returns an array of all listeners that are associated with the
getPropertyChangeListeners() named property
static SystemTray It returns an SystemTray instance that represents the desktop
getSystemTray() trays area
TrayIcon[] getTrayIcons() It returns the array of all icons added to the tray by this
application
Dimension get TrayIconSize() It returns the size in pixels, of the space that a tray icon will
occupy in the system tray
static boolean isSupported() It returns whether the SystemTray is supported on the current
platform
void remove (TrayIcon trayicon) It removes the specified TrayIcon from the SystemTray
void removePropertyChangeListener(String It removes a PropertyChangeListener from the listener list
propertyName, for the indicated property
PropertyChangeListener listener)

Lets look at an example of SystemTray. Here, the SysTrayDemo class has used SystemTray and TrayIcon.
You can get the instance of SystemTray by calling the method getSystemTray(). The SystemTray class
represents the tray bar, and each icon on it is represented by the TrayIcon class. A TrayIcon can be added to
the SystemTray by invoking SystemTray.add() method. The SysTrayDemo class adds a TrayIcon with an
image, a tooltip and a pop-up menu.
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.ActionListener;
import java.awt.event.ActionEvent;
import javax.swing.JOptionPane;
import javax.swing.SwingUtilities;
public class SysTrayDemo {
private static void createGUI() {
if(!SystemTray.isSupported()) {
System.out.println("SystemTray is not supported");
return; }
SystemTray systray=SystemTray.getSystemTray();
Toolkit toolkit = Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit();
Image image = toolkit.getImage("image.jpg");
PopupMenu popmenu = new PopupMenu();//Menu item to show the message
MenuItem msgItem= new MenuItem("Show Message");
msgItem.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null,"System Tray
Demo"); } });
popmenu.add(msgItem); //create menu item to close application
MenuItem closeitem = new MenuItem("close");
closeitem.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
System.exit(0); }});
popmenu.add(closeitem);
TrayIcon icon = new TrayIcon(image,"SystemTray Demo",popmenu);
icon.setImageAutoSize(true);

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try { systray.add(icon); }
catch (AWTException e) {
System.out.println("Tray icon cannot be added to system
tray"); }
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
SwingUtilities.invokeLater(new Runnable() {
public void run(){ createGUI(); }
});
}
}
When you run the SysTrayDemo class, youll find the icon of the SystemTray in the Taskbar Status Area. If
you right-click on the icon, youll get the menu. The output of the code is as shown in Figure 6.18:

Figure 6.18: System Tray Demo after right click

When youll select the Show Message, you get the output as shown in Figure 6.19:

Figure 6.19: Message after selecting Show Message

Splash Screen
Splash screen informs user that the application is starting up. It is a standard part of any GUI application. A
polished Splash screen of the application can be used for presenting marketing information and legal
information, such as copyright information, third party logo, and so on. To see the Splash screen, a user can be
sure that the application is starting.
For creating the Splash screen in Java application, you can use AWT or Java Foundation Classes/Swing
(JFC/Swing). There should be a minimum delay between the applications startup and the pop up of the Splash
screen. The application is permitted to display the Splash screen much before the starting of Java Virtual
Machine. It is possible to decode the image and then display it in a simple window by an application launcher.
The Splash screen is also capable of displaying any image format like jpeg, gif, png with transparency and
animation. You can use one of the two ways to show the native Splash screen:
If you are using the command-line for running the application, then to show the native Splash screen, use the
splash: Java application launcher option. Heres an example:
Java splash:filename.png HelloSplash
If application is packaged in a .jar file, a Splash screen can be displayed by using the SplashScreen-Image
option in a manifest file. You need to save the image in a jar archive and mention the path in the option.
Suppose, there is a manifest, file manif.mf Now use this code in the manifest file:
Manifest-Version: 1.0
Main-class: HelloSplash
SplashScreen-Image: filename.png
Among these two ways, the command-line interface has precedence over the manifest setting.
Heres the inheritance diagram for the SplashScreen class:
java.lang.Object
|____ java.awt.SplashScreen

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You can find the methods of the SplashScreen class in Table 6.7.
Table 6.7: Methods of the SplashScreen class
Method Does this
void close() It is used for hiding the Splash screen, closing the window, and releasing all
associated resources
Graphics2D createGraphics() It creates a graphics context for the Splash screen overlay image, which
allows you to draw over the Splash screen
Rectangle getBounds() It returns the bounds of the Splash screen window as a Rectangle
URL getImageURL() It returns the current Splash screen image
Dimension getSize() It returns the size of the Splash screen window as a Dimension
static SplashScreen It returns the SplashScreen object used for Java startup Splash screen
getSplashScreen() control on systems supporting dislpay
boolean isVisible() It determines whether the Splash screen is visible or not
void setImageURL (URL imageURL) It changes the Splash screen image
void update() It updates the Splash window with current contents of the overlay image

Lets look at an example. Here, the SplashScreenDemo class is used to display a Splash screen before the JVM
starts. The instance of the SplashScreen class is obtained by calling the static getSplashScreen() method,
and the createGraphics() method returns a Graphics 2D object that allows you to draw over the Splash
screen:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.SplashScreen;
import javax.swing.*;
public class SplashScreenDemo {
private static void createImage() {
SplashScreen splashscreen = SplashScreen.getSplashScreen();
if(splashscreen!=null){
Graphics2D g = (Graphics2D) splashscreen.createGraphics();
for(int i=0;i<10;i++){
String message = "Processing"+ i+ "of 10....";
g.setComposite(AlphaComposite.Clear);
g.fillRect(130,350,280,40);
g.setPaintMode();
g.setColor(Color.RED);
g.drawString(message,130,360);
g.fillRect(130,370,i*30,20);
splashscreen.update();
try {
Thread.sleep(500);
}catch(InterruptedException e) { e.printStackTrace(); }
}
}
JFrame frame = new JFrame("Splash Screen demo");
frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
frame.setSize(300,200);
frame.setLocationRelativeTo(null);
frame.setVisible(true); }
public static void main (String args[]) {
SwingUtilities.invokeLater(new Runnable(){
public void run(){ createImage(); }
});
}
}
Before running the SplashScreenDemo class, you have to make sure that the Java8.jpg file is in the same
directory. Run the class as follows:
java splash:Java8.jpg SplashScreenDemo

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When you run the SplashScreenDemo class, youll find that there is nothing more than a blank frame.
However, before it is uploaded, youll see a Splash screen like that in Figure 6.20:

Figure 6.20: Image found after excuting c:\>java splash:Java8.jpg SplashScreenDemo

Dialog Modality
A dialog box comprises a title and a border. It is used to take input from user and represented as a top-level pop-
up window. An application uses a modal dialog box for blocking the input to some other top-level windows.
The modal dialog box captures the window focus until it gets closed.
In JDK 5.0 and earlier, there was a problem with the modality model. When an application shows any modal
dialog box, the dialog box blocks the user from interacting with the JavaHelp tool windows (an API to display
help information). This problem has been resolved in Java SE 7 using a new AWT modality model. This new
modality model is helpful for the developer. It provides the developer to scope or limit the dialog modality,
blocking according to the selection of the modality type by the developer.
There are four modality types:
Modeless
Document modal
Application modal
Toolkit modal

Modeless
It does not block any other window until it is visible.

Document Modal
In this modal, all windows are blocked from the same document, except those from its child hierarchy.

Application Modal
In this modal, all windows are blocked from the same application, except those from its child hierarchy.

Toolkit Modal
All windows are blocked that run in the same toolkit, except from its child hierarchy. A dialog box will use the
application modal by default, whereas with JDKs, prior to Java SE 6, it is modeless by default.

Gif Writer
Sometimes, Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) is also referred to as Graphics Interchange File Format (GIFF). It
is well known that there are three graphic file formats:
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)
GIF
PNG (Portable Network Graphics)
JPEG supports a compression technique that can be lost, i.e., the images cannot be restored to their original form
if any images are compressed in the JPEG format, while GIF supports lossless compression but can only render
256 colors. These images are basically for simple images, such as buttons, labels, and logos. JPEG is used for
complex graphics, like photos. PNG is also superior to GIF, but it is not as widespread as GIF. Therefore, GIF is
used everywhere on the World Wide Web.

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The ImageConverter class converts any image format to a GIF:

import java.awt.image.BufferedImage;
import javax.imageio.*;
import java.io.*;
import java.util.*;
public class ImageConverter
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException
{
System.out.println("Supported conversion Formats:");
System.out.println(Arrays.toString(ImageIO.getWriterFormat
Names()));
if(args.length == 0)
{
System.err.println("Missing Input Filename");
System.exit(-1);
}
String filename = args[0]; File inputFile = new File(filename);
BufferedImage input = ImageIO.read(inputFile);
File outputFile = new File(filename+ ".gif");
ImageIO.write(input, "GIF", outputFile);
}
}

Text Antialiasing
Text antialiasing is used for reducing the jaggedness of text or images onto screens with discrete pixel values.
When we draw a diagonal line on the monitor, we turn pixels on and off. After looking it closely, youll find that
stair-step effect. Mustang has provided the facility for supporting the LCD displays by using the subpixel text to
increase the text resolutions. Each color element of a pixel is called subpixel. These subpixels rendering is based
on the phenomenon that modifying the intensities of subpixels can cause the location of pixels to shift, without
changing the color.
The following five fields exist in the java.awt.RenderingHints class:
VALUE_TEXT_ANTIALIAS_LCD_HRGB
VALUE_TEXT_ANTIALIAS_LCD_HBGR
VALUE_TEXT_ANTIALIAS_LCD_VRGB
VALUE_TEXT_ANTIALIAS_LCD_VBGR
VALUE_TEXT_ANTIALIAS_GASP
You can use each of these values when using the setRenderingHint() method of the Graphics 2D object to
set the key text antialiasing value.

Summary
In this chapter, we have discussed about Abstract Window Toolkit, its applications, and event handling. You
have learned how to use the Abstract Window Toolkit and creation of applets. You have also read about
handling non- Java browsers and the use of init(), start(), stop(), destroy(), paint(), and update() methods. The
chapter has also helped you to draw the graphics and paramters in applets and add controls to them. Moreover,
the adapter classes and the anonymous inner adapter classes have been discussed in the chapter. Toward the
end, you learn to run the applications in applets and set applets security policies.
In the next chapter, well learn about text fields, buttons, checkboxes, radio buttons, and various layouts of the
AWT component class.

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AWTText Fields,
Buttons, Checkboxes,
Radio Buttons, and Layouts
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Using Text Fields 218
Using Labels 220
Using Buttons 221
Using Checkboxes 224
Using Radio Buttons 227
Layout Managers 228
Flow Layouts 228
Grid Layouts 231
Using Panels 232
Border Layouts 234
Card Layouts 236
Grid Bag Layouts 238
Using Insets and Padding 243
Creating Your Own Layout Manager 244
Chapter 7: AWTText Fields, Buttons, Checkboxes, Radio Buttons, and Layouts

In Depth
This chapter is all about a number of important AWT componentstext fields, buttons, checkboxes, and radio
buttons. Now that we are dealing with visible components, well also take a look at Java layout managers, which
let you arrange the components in an applet or application, as you like. Well also take a look at Java panels,
which let you assemble components together on one surface and submit the resulting surface to a layout
manager. Well start by taking a look at text fields.

Text Fields
Text fields are the basic text-handling components of the AWT. These components handle a one-dimensional
string of text; they let you display text, write passwords by masking typed text, enter and read the text the user
has entered, and more. In addition to buttons, these components are the most fundamental AWT components.

Buttons
Buttons provide users with a quick way to start some actionall they have to do is click them. Every user is
familiar with buttons, and we have already taken a look behind the scenes on how buttons work in code when
discussing event handling in the previous chapter. You can give buttons a caption, such as Display Text. When
the user does click the button, your code is notified if you have registered to handle events from the button.

Checkboxes
Checkboxes are much like buttons, except that they are dual state, which means they can appear as selected or
unselected. When selected, they display a visual indication of some kind, such as a checkmark or an X (it varies
by operating system in AWT programming, which is one of the reasons Sun introduced Swing, which can
display components with the same look across many operating systems). The user can click a checkbox to select
an option of some kind (such as the items on a sandwich), to enable automatic spell checking, or to enable
printing while he or she is doing something else. You use checkboxes to let the user select non-exclusive options;
for example, both automatic spell checking and background printing may be enabled at the same time. Radio
buttons, however, are a different story.

Radio Buttons
You let the user select one of a set of mutually exclusive options by using radio buttons. Only one of a set of
option buttons can be selected at one time; for example, using radio buttons, you can let the user select a printing
color or the day of the week. In AWT, radio buttons are actually a type of checkbox; and when selected, they
display a round dot or a clicked square or some other indication (again, the visual indication depends on the
operating system). You use radio buttons in groups, and youll see how that works in this chapter.

Layouts
So far, we have just added components to applets and applications by using the add method. This method is
actually a method of the default layout managerthe flow layout manager. This layout manager is responsible for
arranging components in AWT applets, by default. The flow layout manager arranges components much like a
word processor might arrange wordsacross the page and then wrapped to the next line as needed, creating
what Oracle calls a flow of components. Youll see that you can customize flow layouts to some extent, such as left-
, center-, or right-aligning components. However, the limitations of the flow layout are clear, especially if you are
counting on components maintaining some position with respect to the others, because if the user resizes your
applet or application, the components will all move around. On the other hand, there are other AWT layout
managers (and quite a few new ones in Swing), and well cover the AWT grid, border, card, and grid bag layout
managers in this chapter.
Why cant you just set where a component goes and forget it? Novice Java programmers are often frustrated by
having to deal with AWT layout managers and want to know why they cant just give the coordinates for the
components they want to use and be done with it. In fact, you can, although you are responsible for handling the

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case where windows are resized and components should be moved. To position components where you want
them, you can indicate that you want no layout manager at all. Then you can size and locate the components, as
you want them, using add() method to display them, like this:
setLayout(null);
text1 = new TextField(20);
text1.setSize(200,50);
text1.setLocation(20,20);
add(text1);
This adds a text field of size (200,50) at location (20,20) in a container, such as an applet window. Therefore, as
you can see, you can add components to containers without any layout manager at all, something thats useful to
bear in mind if the AWT layouts frustrate you too much. One very useful AWT container to use with layouts is
the Panel component. You can arrange components in a panel and then add the panel, itself, to the layout of an
applet or application. Youll see how to do that in this chapter. Thats it. Now that we have reviewed whats in
this chapter, its time to turn to the Immediate Solutions section.

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Immediate Solutions
Using Text Fields
Hey, says the Novice Programmer, I want to let users type in a password, but that silly Johnson keeps
standing over peoples shoulders and watching as they type their passwords. Thats easily fixed, you say.
Just set the echo character of the text field to an asterisk or some similar character. Problem solved!
You first saw and used text fields in the previous chapter; these components can display a single line of text, and
the user can edit that text. Heres the inheritance diagram for the text field class, TextField:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.TextComponent
|____java.awt.TextField
You can find the constructors of the TextField class in Table 7.1 and its methods in Table 7.2.
Table 7.1: Constructors of the TextField class
Constructor Does this
TextField() It constructs a new text field
TextField(int columns) It constructs a new, empty text field with the indicated number of columns
TextField(String text) It constructs a new text field with the indicated text
TextField(String text, int It constructs a new text field initialized with the indicated text and with
columns) the indicated number of columns

Table 7.2: Methods of the TextField class

Method Does this
void addActionListener It adds the indicated action listener to receive action events
(ActionListener l)
void addNotify() It creates the TextField objects peer
boolean echoCharIsSet() It indicates whether the text field has a character set for echoing
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this TextField
getAccessibleContext()

ActionListener[] It returns an array of all the action listeners registered on this TextField
getActionListeners()
int getColumns() It gets the number of columns in the text field
char getEchoChar() It gets the character to be used for echoing
<T extends It returns an array of all the listeners currently registered as
EventListener>T[]getListeners(Clas FooListeners on this TextField
s<T> listenerType)
Dimension getMinimumSize() It gets the minimum dimensions for the text field
Dimension getMinimumSize It gets the minimum dimensions for a text field with the indicated number
(int columns) of columns
Dimension getPreferredSize() It gets the preferred size of the text field
Dimension getPreferredSize It gets the preferred size of the text field with the indicated number of
(int columns) columns
Dimension minimumSize() It is deprecated and replaced by getMinimumSize()
Dimension minimumSize It is deprecated and replaced by getMinimumSize(int)
(int columns)
protected String paramString() It gets the parameter string representing the state of the text field

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Table 7.2: Methods of the TextField class

Method Does this
Dimension preferredSize() It is deprecated and replaced by getPreferredSize()
Dimension preferredSize It is deprecated and replaced by getPreferredSize(int)
(int columns)
protected void It processes events occurring in the text field by sending them to
processActionEvent(ActionEvent e) ActionListener objects
protected void processEvent It processes events on the text field
(AWTEvent e)
void removeActionListener It removes the indicated action listener so that it no longer receives action
(ActionListener l) events
void setColumns (int columns) It sets the number of columns in the text field
void setEchoChar(char c) It sets the echo character for the text field
void setEchoCharacter (char c) It is deprecated and replaced by setEchoChar(char)
void setText(String t) It sets the text in this text field to the indicated text

Lets look at an example. In this case, well create a password text field that will display an asterisk (*) each time
the user types a character. You may be wondering how you can read the typed password in the text field. The
answer is by using the text fields getText() method, which the text field inherits from the Component class.
The typed password is displayed in the applets status bar when the user presses the Enter key. Heres the code:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=PasswordDemo.class
WIDTH=250
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class PasswordDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener {
public TextField text1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(30);
add(text1);
. . .
Next, we set the echo character in text1 (the password text field) to * and add an action listener to that text
field:
public void init()
{
text1 = new TextField(30);
add(text1);
text1.setEchoChar('*');
text1.addActionListener(this);
}
When the user presses Enter, the actionPerformed() method is called, so we override that method to set the
text in the status bar of the applet using the showStatus() method:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e)
{
if(e.getSource() == text1) { showStatus(text1.getText()); }
}
}
The result of this code appears in Figure 7.1. When the user types a password in the top text field and presses
Enter, that password appears in the applets status bar (not exactly what youd call high security).

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Figure 7.1: Reading a password in a text field

Another useful text field method is getSelectedText(), which lets you get the selected text in a text field.

You can find the process of Using Text Areas in detail in Chapter 8.

Using Labels
AWT labels are much like AWT text fields, except that the user cant edit the text in them. You can use labels to
present no editable text, or as the name implies, to label other components. Heres the inheritance diagram for the
Label class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Label
You can find the Label classs constructors in Table 7.3 and its methods in Table 7.4.
Table 7.3: Constructors of the Label class
Constructor Does this
Label() It constructs an empty label
Label(String text) It constructs a new label with the specified string of text, left justified
Label(String text, int alignment) It constructs a new label that presents the specified string of text with the
specified alignment

Table 7.4: Methods of the Label class

Method Does this
void addNotify() It creates the peer for this label
AccessibleContext It returns the AccessibleContext associated with this label
getAccessibleContext ()
int getAlignment() It gets the current alignment of this label
String getText() It gets the text of this label
protected String paramString() It returns the parameter string representing the state of this label
void setAlignment(int alignment) It sets the alignment for this label to the specified alignment
void setText(String text) It sets the text for this label to the specified text

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You can justify the text in a label by passing the fields Label.LEFT, Label.CENTER, and Label.RIGHT to the
labels constructor. Heres an example that creates three labels with the various possible text justifications:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=LabelDemo.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class LabelDemo extends Applet {
Label label1;
Label label2;
Label label3;
public void init() {
label1 = new Label("Kogent Learning Solutions", Label.LEFT);
add(label1);
label2 = new Label("Kogent Learning Solutions", Label.CENTER);
add(label2);
label3 = new Label("Kogent Learning Solutions", Label.RIGHT);
add(label3); }
}
Figure 7.2 shows the result of this applet.

Figure 7.2: Justifying text in a label

Using Buttons
I want to let users interact with my program, says the Novice Programmer. I want to let them indicate what
they want to do with just a click of the mouse, I want them to be able to select an action quickly and easily, and I
want.... Buttons, you say. What you want are buttons. Right, replies the NP.
Every GUI user is familiar with buttonsthose elementary controls you click to signal to a program to start
some action. For example, you might let the user click a button to change the background color of an application.
Buttons are supported in the java.awt.Button class. Heres the lineage of that class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Button

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Youll find the constructors for the Button class in Table 7.5 and the methods of this class in Table 7.6.
Table 7.5: Constructors of the Button class
Constructor Does this
Button() It constructs a button without any label
Button(String label) It constructs a button with the indicated label

Table 7.6: Methods of the Button class

Method Does this
void addActionListener It adds the indicated action listener to receive action events from the button
(ActionListener l)
void addNotify() It creates the peer of the button
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this Button
getAccessibleContext ()
String getActionCommand() It gets the command name of the event caused by the button
ActionListener[] It gets an array of all the action listeners registered on this button
getActionListeners ()
String getLabel() It gets the label of the button
<T extends EventListener> It returns an array of all the listeners that are currently registered as
getListeners (Class<T> FooListeners upon this Button
listenerType)
protected String paramString() It gets the parameter string representing the state of the button
protected void processActionEvent It processes action events occurring on the button by sending them to any
(ActionEvent e) registered ActionListener objects
protected void processEvent It processes events in the button
(AWTEvent e)
void removeActionListener It removes the action listener so that it no longer receives events from the
(ActionListener l) button
void setActionCommand(String It sets the command name for the action event caused by the button
command)
void setLabel(String label) It sets the buttons label to the indicated string

To handle button events, you use the ActionListener interface, as you saw in the previous chapter. This
interface has only one method, actionPerformed(), which is passed an object of the ActionEvent class
when the button is clicked:
void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) { . . . }
Heres the inheritance diagram of the ActionEvent class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.EventObject
|____java.awt.AWTEvent
|____java.awt.event.ActionEvent
Youll find the methods of the ActionEvent class in Table 7.7.
Table 7.7: Methods of the ActionEvent class
Method Does this
String getActionCommand() It gets the command string associated with this action
int getModifiers() It gets the modifier keys held down during the event
long getWhen() It gets the timestamp of when this event occurred
String paramString() It gets a parameter string identifying the event

As you saw in the previous chapter, there are two main ways to determine which button was selectedusing
the getSource() method and using commands. Well take a look at the getSource() way of doing things

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first. Heres an example with a button that, when clicked, displays the message Kogent Learning Solutions in a
text field (note that we register an action listener with the button and find out which button was clicked with the
getSource() method before setting the appropriate text in the text field):
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class ButtonDemo1 extends Applet implements ActionListener {
/* <APPLET
CODE=ButtonDemo1.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
TextField text1;
Button button1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1);
button1 = new Button("Click Me!");
add(button1);
button1.addActionListener(this); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
String text = new String ("Kogent Learning Solutions");
if(e.getSource() == button1) { text1.setText(text); }
}
}
The result of this code appears in Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.3: Handling button clicks

You can also use commands with buttons; in the previous chapter, you saw that the default command associated
with a button is its caption. However, when captions change during program execution (for example, by using
the setLabel() method), you should associate a command with the button yourself. You can give a button a
command string with the setActionCommand() method like this:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ButtonDemo2.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class ButtonDemo2 extends Applet implements ActionListener
{
TextField text1;
Button button1;
public void init() { text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1); button1 = new Button("Click Me!");add(button1);
button1.setActionCommand("button1");
button1.addActionListener(this);
}
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Now in the actionPerformed() method, you can get the command for the button that was clicked with the
getActionCommand() method. If the button that was clicked is the right one, you can place the message in the
text field, like this:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
String text= new String ("Kogent Learning Solutions");
String cmd = e.getActionCommand();
if(cmd.equals("button1")) { text1.setText(text); }
}
}

Using Checkboxes
Now I have another problem, the Novice Programmer says. I want to let users select what they want on a
pizza, so Id like a button that, when clicked, stays clicked so that the users know what they have already
selected. No problem at all, you say. Dont use buttons. No? the NP asks. No, you say. Use checkboxes
instead.
A checkbox allows the user to select options; when the user clicks a checkbox, a visual indication of some kind,
such as a checkmark (the indicator varies by operating system when using the AWT), is used to specify that the
option is selected. Clicking the checkbox again deselects the checkbox. In AWT, checkboxes are supported with
the java.awt.Checkbox class, which has the following inheritance diagram:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Checkbox
You can find the constructors for the Checkbox class in Table 7.8 and the methods of this class in Table 7.9. You
can use the setState() and getState() methods to set and get the state of a checkbox, respectively.
Table 7.8: Constructors of the Checkbox class
Constructor Does this
Checkbox() It creates a checkbox without a label
Checkbox(String label) It creates a checkbox with the indicated label
Checkbox(String label, boolean state) It creates a checkbox with the indicated label and sets the
indicated state
Checkbox(String label, boolean state It creates a checkbox with the indicated label and sets it in the
CheckboxGroup group) indicated state and checkbox group
Checkbox(String label, It constructs a checkbox with the indicated label in the
CheckboxGroup group, boolean state) indicated checkbox group and sets it to the indicated state

Table 7.9: Methods of the Checkbox class

Method Does this
void addItemListener (ItemListener l) It adds the indicated item listener to the checkbox
void addNotify() It creates the peer of the checkbox
AccessibleContext getAccessibleContext () It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this
Checkbox
CheckboxGroup getCheckboxGroup() It gets the checkboxs group
ItemListener[] getItemListeners() It returns an array of all item listeners registered on the
checkbox
String getLabel() It gets the label of the checkbox
<T extends EventListener> It gets an array of all the objects currently registered as
T[] getListeners(Class<T> listenerType) FooListeners upon this Checkbox
Object[] getSelectedObjects() It gets an array (of length 1) that contains the checkbox label (or
null if the checkbox is not selected)
boolean getState() It determines whether the checkbox is selected or not

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Table 7.9: Methods of the Checkbox class

Method Does this
protected String It gets a parameter string representing the state of the checkbox
paramString()
protected void processEvent (AWTEvent e) It processes events on the checkbox
protected void processItemEvent It processes item events occurring on the checkbox by sending
(ItemEvent e) them to any registered ItemListener objects
void removeItemListener (ItemListener l) It removes the indicated item listener so that the item listener
no longer receives item events from the checkbox
void setCheckboxGroup (CheckboxGroup g) It sets the checkboxs group to the given checkbox group
void setLabel(String label) It sets the checkboxs label to the given string
void setState (boolean state) It sets the state of the checkbox to the given state

Heres an example in which we add four checkboxes to an applet; and when the user clicks a checkbox, we
indicate which checkbox was clicked in a text field. Note that checkboxes do not use the ActionListener
interface as buttons do; instead, they use the ItemListener interface, which is set up to handle components
that can be selected or deselected. The ItemListener interface has only one method, itemStateChanged(),
which is passed as a parameter of the class ItemEvent:
void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e)
You can find the methods of the ItemEvent class in Table 7.10.
Table 7.10: Methods of the ItemEvent class
Method Does this
Object getItem() It gets the item affected by the event
ItemSelectable getItemSelectable() It gets the originator of the event
int getStateChange() It gets the type of state change (selected or deselected)
String paramString() It gets a parameter string matching this event

Heres how we add the checkboxes to an applet and add an ItemListener interface to each one:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=CheckboxDemo1.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class CheckboxDemo1 extends Applet implements ItemListener {
Checkbox check1, check2;
TextField text1;
public void init() {
check1 = new Checkbox("Pizza");
add(check1);
check1.addItemListener(this);
check2 = new Checkbox("Burger");
add(check2);
check2.addItemListener(this);
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1);
}
Now we override the itemStateChanged() method, determining which checkbox was clicked by using the
ItemEvent objects getItemSelectable() method:
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {
if(e.getItemSelectable() == check1) {
text1.setText("You clicked Pizza"); }

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else if(e.getItemSelectable() == check2){

text1.setText("You clicked Burger"); }
}
}
Note that you can also use the ItemEvent objects getStateChanged() method to determine whether a
checkbox is selected or deselected. This method returns Checkbox.SELECTED or Checkbox.DESELECTED.
And, of course, you can use the checkboxs getState() method to make the same determination. You can also
set the state of the checkbox with the setState() method. The result of this applet appears in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4: Handling checkbox clicks

Because its tedious to have many if statements in the if-else ladder as done in the preceding code, we can
just display the checkbox that was clicked by getting its label directly, as shown in the following code:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=CheckboxDemo2.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class CheckboxDemo2 extends Applet implements ItemListener {
Checkbox check1, check2;
TextField text1;
public void init() {
check1 = new Checkbox("Pizza"); add(check1);
check1.addItemListener(this);
check2 = new Checkbox("Burger"); add(check2);
check2.addItemListener(this);
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1); }
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e)
{
text1.setText("You clicked " +
((Checkbox) e.getItemSelectable()).getLabel());
}
}
This new version of the applet appears in CheckboxDemo2.java. Theres another kind of checkbox you can
useradio buttonsand well take a look at them in the next solution.

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 Immediate Solutions

Using Radio Buttons

Uh-oh, says the Novice Programmer, I have another problem. I put some checkboxes in my program, so the
users could select the day of the week, but one user selected Wednesday and Friday. Well, you say, you
should use radio buttons to display exclusive options, such as the day of the week, not checkboxes.
In AWT programming, radio buttons are a special kind of checkbox, and you use radio buttons in groups. Only
one radio button in a group may be selected at one time; when the user selects one radio button in a group, the
others in the group are automatically deselected.
When you add checkboxes to a checkbox group, they become radio buttons automatically. AWT supports
checkbox groups with the CheckboxGroup class. This class has only one constructor, CheckboxGroup, which
takes no parameters, and youll find the methods of this class in Table 7.11. Note that because radio buttons are
really checkboxes, you can use Checkbox methods with them, such as getState() and setState().
Table 7.11: Methods of the CheckboxGroup class
Method Does this
Checkbox getCurrent() It is deprecated and replaced by
getSelectedCheckbox()
Checkbox getSelectedCheckbox() It gets the currently selected checkbox in this checkbox group
void setCurrent It is deprecated and replaced by
(Checkbox box) setSelectedCheckbox(Checkbox box)
void setSelectedCheckbox (Checkbox box) It sets the currently selected checkbox in this group
String toString() It returns a string representing the checkbox group, including the
value of its current selection

Note, for example, that you can determine which radio button is selected in a group with the CheckboxGroup
classs getSelectedCheckbox() method, and you can set which one is selected with the
setSelectedCheckbox() method. Heres an example in which we create a checkbox group named group,
and we add two radio buttons to that group. You add a radio button to a checkbox group by adding the group
as a parameter in a checkboxs constructor, which turns the checkbox into a radio button. Heres what this looks
like:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=RadioButtonDemo.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class RadioButtonDemo extends Applet implements ItemListener {
CheckboxGroup group; Checkbox check1, check2;
TextField text1;
public void init() {
group = new CheckboxGroup();
check1 = new Checkbox("Male", false, group);
add(check1);
check1.addItemListener(this);
check2 = new Checkbox("Female", false,group);
add(check2);
check2.addItemListener(this);
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1);
}
Note that we have added an ItemListener interface to each radio button, so we can implement the
ItemListener interface and the itemStateChanged() method to indicate which radio button was clicked,
like this:
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {

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text1.setText("You selected " +

((Checkbox) e.getItemSelectable()).getLabel()); }
}
The result of this code appears in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5: Handling radio button clicks

Now that we are working with components in visual programs, its time to give some consideration as to how
those components are arranged. Well do that in the next few solutions.

Layout Managers
A layout manager organizes the controls automatically in a window with the help of certain algorithms. It is an
object which implements the LayoutManager interface. It also finds the size and position of the components in
a container. Each object of the container is associated with a layout manager.
The setLayout() method is used for setting the layout manager. If there is no setLayout() defined, then the
default layout manager is used. This method can be defined as follows:
void setLayout(LayoutManager layoutManager)
where layoutManager is referred to the desired layout manager.
If you pass null for layoutManager, then it disables the layout manager. Youll need to determine the size and
the position of the component manually. For this, you have to use the method setBounds(), which is defined
by the component.

Flow Layouts
Uh-oh, says the Novice Programmer, Javas gone all wacky again! Whats it done this time? you ask. The
NP says, Well, Im creating a multiplying calculator, and I want all the text fields to be stacked vertically, but
they keep rearranging themselves into rows. Thats because you are using a flow layout, you say.
Java has a number of AWT layout managers that handle how components are displayed in containers, and you
can install those layout managers into those containers. By default, applets use the flow layout manager, which
arranges components like text in a word processor, including wrapping them to the next line. The constructors of
the FlowLayout class appear in Table 7.12 and its methods in Table 7.13.
Table 7.12: Constructors of the FlowLayout class
Constructor Does this
FlowLayout() It constructs a new FlowLayout with centered alignment and a default 5
pixels horizontal and vertical gaps
FlowLayout(int align) It constructs a new FlowLayout with the given alignment and a default 5
pixels horizontal and vertical gaps
FlowLayout(int align, int hgap, It creates a new flow layout manager with the given alignment and the
int vgap) given horizontal and vertical gaps.

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 7.13: Methods of the FlowLayout class

Method Does this
void addLayoutComponent It adds the specified component to the layout
(String name, Component comp)

int getAlignment() It gets the alignment for the layout

boolean getAlignOnBaseline () It returns True if components are to be vertically aligned along their baseline
int getHgap() It gets the horizontal gap between the components and between the
components and borders of the container
int getVgap() It gets the vertical gap between the components and between the
components and borders of the container
void layoutContainer It lays out the container
(Container target)
Dimension minimumLayoutSize It returns the minimum dimensions needed to lay out the components in the
(Container target) target container
Dimension preferredLayoutSize It returns the preferred dimensions for the layout given the components in
(Container target) the target container
void removeLayoutComponent It removes the indicated component from the layout
(Component comp)
void setAlignOnBaseline It sets whether or not the components should be vertically aligned along
(Boolean alignOnBaseline) their baseline
void setAlignment (int align) It sets the alignment
void setHgap(int hgap) It sets the horizontal gap between the components and between the
components and borders of the container
void setVgap(int vgap) It gets the vertical gap between the components and between the
components and borders of the container
String toString() It returns a string representation of this FlowLayout object and its values

You do have some control over how the components in a flow layout are arranged; you can specify their
alignment by using these FlowLayout fields:
CENTERIt specifies that each row of components must be centered.
LEADINGIt specifies that each row of components must be justified to the leading edge of the container.
LEFTIt specifies that each row of components must be left-justified.
RIGHTIt specifies that each row of components must be right-justified.
TRAILINGIt specifies that each row of components must be justified to the trailing edge of the container.
The default flow layout is to center each component in a row, but heres how we create a new flow layout
manager that right-justifies components by using the setLayout() method:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=FlowLayoutDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class FlowLayoutDemo extends Applet {
Button button1, button2, button3;
public void init() {
setLayout(new FlowLayout(FlowLayout.RIGHT));
button1 = new Button("Kogent");
add(button1);
button2 = new Button("Learning");
add(button2);
button3 = new Button("Solutions");
add(button3);
}
}

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After a few buttons are added to this new flow manager, you can see that they are indeed right-justified, as
shown in Figure 7.6.

Figure 7.6: Right-justifying components in a flow layout

However, sometimes a flow layout is just not right. For example, take a look at this applet, which presents the
multiplying calculator the Novice Programmer was trying to create:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=Multiply.class
WIDTH=290
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class Multiply extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextField num1, num2, result;
Label multiply; Button button1;
public void init() {
setLayout(new FlowLayout(FlowLayout.CENTER));
num1 = new TextField(10); add(num1);
multiply = new Label("*"); add(multiply);
num2 = new TextField(10); add(num2);
button1 = new Button("="); add(button1);
button1.addActionListener(this);
result = new TextField(10);
add(result); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
int product = Integer.parseInt(num1.getText())
*Integer.parseInt(num2.getText());
result.setText(String.valueOf(product)); }
}
}
The result appears in Figure 7.7:

Figure 7.7: A first attempt at a multiplying calculator

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 Immediate Solutions

As you can see in the figure, the text fields are arranged to suit the flow layout manager, and the result is hardly
what the NP intended. To fix this situation, well take a look at another layout managerthe grid layout
managernext.

Grid Layouts
So how do I fix my multiplying calculator? The text fields are all over the place, the NP asks. You have to use
a different layout manager, you say, such as the grid layout manager.
The grid layout manager lets you add components to a container, positioning them in a grid. You tell the grid
layout manager what the dimensions of your grid will besuch as five rows and four columnsand when you
add components to the layout, theyll be added starting left of the first row. After the first row is filled,
components are placed into the first column of the second row, and that row is then filled, and so on. Note that
each component is given the same size and dimensions.
Heres the inheritance diagram for the grid layout manager:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.GridLayout
Youll find the constructors for the GridLayout class in Table 7.14 and the methods of this class in Table 7.15.
Table 7.14: Constructors of the GridLayout class
Constructor Does this
GridLayout() It creates a grid layout with one column per component in one row
GridLayout(int rows, int cols) It creates a grid layout with the given number of rows and columns
GridLayout(int rows, int cols, int It creates a grid layout with the given number of rows and columns as well
hgap, int vgap) as the given amount of spacing

Table 7.15: Methods of the GridLayout class

Method Does this
void addLayoutComponent It adds the indicated component to the layout
(String name,Component comp)
int getColumns() It gets the number of columns in the layout
int getHgap() It gets the horizontal gap between components
int getRows() It gets the number of rows in the layout
int getVgap() It gets the vertical gap between components
void layoutContainer It lays out the indicated container by using this grid layout
(Container parent)
Dimension minimumLayoutSize It determines the minimum size of the container by using this grid layout
(Container parent)
Dimension preferredLayoutSize It determines the preferred size of the container by using this grid layout
(Container parent)
void removeLayoutComponent It removes the indicated component from the layout
(Component comp)
void setColumns(int cols) It sets the number of columns in the layout to the indicated value
void setHgap(int hgap) It sets the horizontal gap between components to the indicated value
void setRows(int rows) It sets the number of rows in the layout to the indicated value
void setVgap(int vgap) It sets the vertical gap between components to the indicated value
String toString() It gets a string representation of this layout

Heres an example in which we create a grid of five rows and one column by passing those dimensions to the
grid layout managers constructor as GridLayout(5,1). When we start adding components to this layout,
theyll be stacked one on top of the other. Heres how that looks:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;

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import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=GridLayoutDemo.class
WIDTH=250
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class GridLayoutDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextField num1, num2, result;
Label multiply; Button button1;
public void init() {
setLayout(new GridLayout(5,1));
num1 = new TextField(); add(num1);
multiply = new Label("*"); add(multiply);
num2 = new TextField(); add(num2);
button1 = new Button("="); add(button1);
button1.addActionListener(this);
result = new TextField();
add(result); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
int product = Integer.parseInt(num1.getText())
*Integer.parseInt(num2.getText());
result.setText(String.valueOf(product)); }
}
}
The result of this code appears in Figure 7.8:

Figure 7.8: A second attempt of the multiplying calculator

As you can see in the figure, the components in this applet are stacked vertically, as intended.
One way of working with layouts is to divide your programs components into panels and to add those panels
to the layout. This gives you more control over what controls go where. Well take a look at panels in the next
solution.

Using Panels
The NP is still dissatisfied with layout issues and says, I need finer control in my layoutI have got a lot of
components to display. OK, you say. You can use Java panels to get that kind of control. Great! Tell me all
about it, replies the NP.
The Java Panel class is a container you can use in your layouts. You add components to a panel and then add
the panel to a layout. Because panels are containers, you can set their layout managers by using the
setLayout() methods. Panels, themselves, are not visual containersthey dont have borders, for example
and exist only to contain components. Heres the inheritance diagram for the Panel class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____java.awt.Panel

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The constructor for the Panel class appears in Table 7.16 and the method of this class appears in Table 7.17.
Table 7.16: The constructor of the Panel class
Constructor Does this
Panel() It creates a new panel with the default layout manager
Panel(LayoutManager layout) It creates a new panel with the specified layout manager

Table 7.17: The method of the Panel class

Method Does this
void addNotify() It creates the panels peer
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this panel
getAccessibleContext()

Heres an example in which we derive a new class ButtonPanel from the Panel class and add a few buttons
to the panel in the ButtonPanel constructor:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=PanelDemo.class
WIDTH=150
HEIGHT=150 >
</APPLET> */
class ButtonPanel extends Panel {
Button button1, button2, button3, button4;
ButtonPanel() {
button1 = new Button("A");
add(button1);
button2 = new Button("B");
add(button2);
button3 = new Button("C");
add(button3);
button4 = new Button("D");
add(button4); }
}
Now we can arrange panels of this new class in a grid layout as follows:
public class PanelDemo extends Applet {
ButtonPanel panel1, panel2, panel3, panel4;
public void init() {
setLayout(new GridLayout(2,2));
panel1 = new ButtonPanel();
add(panel1);
panel2 = new ButtonPanel();
add(panel2);
panel3 = new ButtonPanel();
add(panel3);
panel4 = new ButtonPanel();
add(panel4);
}
}
The result of this code appears in Figure 7.9:

Figure 7.9: Arranging components using panels

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As you can see in this figure, each panel has been added to the grid layout; in this way, using panels gives you
finer layout control.

Border Layouts
The NP is back and asks, Are there any more layouts I should know about? Of course, you say. You should
know the border layout, for example. The NP asks, Does that arrange borders? Sort of, you say.
The border layout lets you arrange components around the border of a container, which is useful if you want to
support, say, scrollbars and scroll a central component. Border layouts are the default in AWT windows, frame
windows, and dialog boxes. You indicate where you want a component to go by passing text strings, such as
North, East, and so on, to the BorderLayout constructor. Heres the inheritance diagram for
BorderLayout:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.BorderLayout
You can find the constructors of the BorderLayout class in Table 7.18 and its methods in Table 7.19.
Table 7.18: Constructors of the BorderLayout class
Constructor Does this
BorderLayout() It constructs a new border layout without any gap between components
BorderLayout(int hgap, int vgap) It constructs a border layout with the indicated gaps between components

Table 7.19: Methods of the BorderLayout class

Method Does this
void addLayoutComponent It adds the component to the layout, using the given constraint object
(Component comp, Object
constraints)
void addLayoutComponent It is deprecated and replaced by addLayoutComponent(Component,
(String name, Component comp) Object)
Object getConstraints It gets the constraints for the specified component
(Component comp)
int getHgap() It gets the horizontal gap between components
float getLayoutAlignmentX It gets the alignment along the x-axis
(Container parent)
float getLayoutAlignmentY It gets the alignment along the y-axis
(Container parent)
Component It returns the component that corresponds to the given constraint location
getLayoutComponent(Container targe based on the target Containers component orientation
t, Object constraints)
Component getLayoutComponent It gets the component that was added using the given constraint
(Object constraints)
int getVgap() It gets the vertical gap between components
void invalidateLayout It invalidates the layout
(Container target)
void layoutContainer It lays out the container using this border layout
(Container target)
Dimension maximumLayoutSize It gets the maximum dimensions for the layout, given the components in
(Container target) the given target container
Dimension minimumLayoutSize It gets the minimum dimensions for the layout, given the components in the
(Container target) given target container
Dimension preferredLayoutSize It determines the preferred size of the target container using the layout
(Container target) manager, based on the components in the container

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Table 7.19: Methods of the BorderLayout class

Method Does this
void removeLayoutComponent It removes the given component from this border layout
(Component comp)
void setHgap(int hgap) It sets the horizontal gap between components
void setVgap(int vgap) It sets the vertical gap between components
String toString() It gets a string representation of the state of this border layout

Heres an example in which we create a panel containing a text field and add four buttons around the border of
the panel. When the user clicks a button, the applet will indicate which button was clicked in the text field.
Heres how we create the panel that displays a text field:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=BorderLayoutDemo.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
class TextPanel extends Panel {
TextField text1;
TextPanel() { text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1); }
}
Now we create a border layout, placing the text field panel in the center and adding four buttons around the
border. You can specify where you want to place a component with strings, such as North, West, Center
and so on. Therefore, creating the layout looks like this:
public class BorderLayoutDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener {
Button button1, button2, button3, button4;
TextPanel panel1;
public void init() {
setLayout(new BorderLayout());
button1 = new Button("1");
add("North", button1);
button1.addActionListener(this);
button2 = new Button("2");
add("West", button2);
button2.addActionListener(this);
button3 = new Button("3");
add("South", button3);
button3.addActionListener(this);
button4 = new Button("4");
add("East", button4);
button4.addActionListener(this);
panel1 = new TextPanel();
add("Center", panel1);
panel1.text1.setLocation(0, 0); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
panel1.text1.setText("Button " +
((Button) e.getSource()).getLabel() + " clicked"); }
}
The result of this code appears in Figure 7.10:

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Figure 7.10: Creating a border layout

As you can see in this figure, the buttons appear around the perimeter of the central text field panel.

Card Layouts
So, the NP says, are there any other AWT layouts? There are, you say, such as the card layout. You are
making that up, says the NP.
The card layout manager displays the containers you pass to it as cards. You assign each card a name, and then
you move from one card to another using the show() method of CardLayout class. Heres the inheritance
diagram for the CardLayout class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.CardLayout
Besides the show() method, you can also use the first(), last(), next(), and previous() methods of the
CardLayout class to display specific cards. Youll find the CardLayout classs constructors in Table 7.20 and
the methods of this class in Table 7.21:
Table 7.20: Constructors of the CardLayout class
Constructor Does this
CardLayout() It creates a new card layout
CardLayout(int hgap, int vgap) It creates a new card layout with the given horizontal and vertical gaps

Table 7.21: Methods of the CardLayout class

Method Does this
void addLayoutComponent It adds the given component to the layout
(Component comp, Object
constraints)
void addLayoutComponent It gets deprecated and replaced by addLayoutComponent(Component,
(String name, Component comp) Object)
void first It goes to the first card of the container
(Container parent)
int getHgap() It gets the horizontal gap between components
float getLayoutAlignmentX It gets the alignment along the x-axis
(Container parent)
float getLayoutAlignmentY It gets the alignment along the y-axis
(Container parent)
int getVgap() It gets the vertical gap between components
void invalidateLayout It invalidates the layout, indicating that any information cached by the
(Container target) layout manager should be discarded

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Table 7.21: Methods of the CardLayout class

Method Does this
void last It goes to the last card of the container
(Container parent)
void layoutContainer It lays out the given container by using this card layout
(Container parent)
Dimension maximumLayoutSize It gets the maximum dimensions for the layout, given the components in
(Container target) the given target container
Dimension minimumLayoutSize It calculates the minimum size for the given panel
(Container parent)
void next(Container parent) It goes to the next card of the given container
Dimension preferredLayoutSize It determines the preferred size of the container argument by using this
(Container parent) card layout
void previous(Container parent) It goes to the previous card of the given container
void removeLayoutComponent It removes the given component from the layout
(Component comp)
void setHgap(int hgap) It sets the horizontal gap between components
void setVgap(int vgap) It sets the vertical gap between components
void show(Container parent, String It goes to the component that was added to the layout with the given name
name)
String toString() It gets a string representation of this card layout

Heres an example in which we create a class CardLayoutDemo that displays an applet containing a label. The
user can click the applet to move to the next card and a label to indicate what text the present card label contains:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.*;
/*
<APPLET
CODE = CardLayoutDemo.class
HEIGHT=150
WIDTH=200>
</APPLET>*/
public class CardLayoutDemo extends Applet implements MouseListener
{
Panel panel1, panel2, panel3, panel4;
Label label1, label2, label3;
CardLayout cardLayout;
public void init()
{
label1 = new Label("Kogent");
label2 = new Label("Learning");
label3 = new Label("Solutions");
panel2 = new Panel();
panel3 = new Panel();
panel4 = new Panel();

panel2.add(label1);
panel3.add(label2);
panel4.add(label3);

panel1 = new Panel();

panel1.add(panel2,"First");
panel1.add(panel3,"Second");
panel1.add(panel4, "Third");
cardLayout = new CardLayout();
panel1.setLayout(cardLayout);
add(panel1);

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addMouseListener(this);
. . .
}
}
In the main applet class, we create four panels and three labels. The layout of the panel panel1 is set to card
layout. The other three panels are added to the panel panel1, giving them the names First, Second, and
Third. We add mouse listener to the applet using the addMouseListener() method so that the user can
move to the next card on clicking the applet. Next, we give body of the mouseClicked() method and call the
next() method of the CardLayout class to move to the next card as follows:
public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent e) {
cardLayout.next(panel1); }
The other methods of the MouseListener interface are written without any code statements in the method
body:
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent e) {}
public void mouseEntered(MouseEvent e) {}
public void mouseExited(MouseEvent e) {}
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e) {}
The result appears in Figure 7.11:

Figure 7.11: Using a card layout

When the user clicks the applet, it moves to the next card in the layout, cycling through the cards over and over.
Thats what a card layout looks like and how it works. Theres one more AWT layout to take a look atgrid bag
layouts.

Grid Bag Layouts

OK, says the NP. Im an expert with AWT layouts now. No you are not, you say. Not until you master the
grid bag layout. The NP asks, What the heck is a grid bag?
Grid bag layouts are the most complex and most flexible of the AWT layouts, letting you specify more exactly
than any of the other AWT layout managers where you want your components to go. Heres the inheritance
diagram for the GridBagLayout class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.GridBagLayout
You can find the constructor of the GridBagLayout class in Table 7.22 and its methods in Table 7.23.
Table 7.22: Constructor of the GridBagLayout class
Constructor Does this
GridBagLayout() It creates a grid bag layout manager

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Table 7.23: Methods of the GridBagLayout class

Constructor Does this
void addLayoutComponent It adds the given component to the layout using the constraint object
(Component comp, Object
constraints)
void addLayoutComponent It has no effect as this layout manager doesnt use a per-component string
(String name, Component comp)
protected void It adjusts the x, y, width, and height fields to the right values according to
adjustForGravity the constraint geometry and pads
(GridBagConstraints constraints,
Rectangle r)
protected void It is obsolete and supplied only to maintain backward compatibility
adjustForGravity according to the arguments passed
(GridBagConstraints constraints,
Rectangle r)
protected void It arranges the grid in the parent container
arrangeGrid(Container parent)
protected void It is obsolete and supplied only to maintain backward compatibility
arrangeGrid(Container parent) according to the parent container
GridBagConstraints It gets the constraints for the given component
getConstraints(Component comp)
float getLayoutAlignmentX It gets the alignment along the x-axis
(Container parent)
float getLayoutAlignmentY It gets the alignment along the y-axis
(Container parent)
int[][] getLayoutDimensions() It determines column widths and row heights for the layout grid
protected GridBagLayoutInfo It fills in an instance of GridBagLayoutInfo for the current set of
getLayoutInfo(Container parent, manager children
int sizeflag)
protected GridBagLayoutInfo It is obsolete and supplied only to maintain backward compatibility,
GetLayoutInfo(Container parent, getLayoutInfo should be preferred
int sizeflag)
Point getLayoutOrigin() It determines the origin of the layout grid within the graphics space of the
target container
double[][] getLayoutWeights() It determines the weights of the layout grids columns and rows
protected Dimension It gets the minimum size of the container on the basis of information from
getMinSize(Container parent, getLayoutInfo
GridBagLayoutInfo info)
protected Dimension It is obsolete and supplied only to maintain backward compatibility on the
getMinSize(Container parent, basis of the parent and grid baglayout
GridBagLayoutInfo info)
void invalidateLayout It invalidates the layout, indicating that any cached information should be
(Container target) discarded
void layoutContainer It lays out the container using in grid bag layout
(Container parent)
Point location(int x, int y) It determines which cell in the layout grid contains the given point
indicated by (x, y)
protected GridBagConstraints It retrieves the constraints for the given component
lookupConstraints
(Component comp)
Dimension maximumLayoutSize It gets the maximum dimensions for the layout, given the components in
(Container target) the indicated target container

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Table 7.23: Methods of the GridBagLayout class

Constructor Does this
Dimension minimumLayoutSize It determines the minimum size of the container using this layout
(Container parent)
Dimension preferredLayoutSize It determines the preferred size of the container using this layout
(Container parent)
void removeLayoutComponent It removes the given component from the layout
(Component comp)
void setConstraints It sets the constraints for the given component in the layout
(Component comp,
GridBagConstraints constraints)
String toString() It gets a string representation of this layouts values

Adding components to a container using a grid bag layout is something like using a grid layout, except you have
more options, such as setting the relative widths and heights of the components. Setting up a grid bag layout is a
two-step process: You first configure how you want a component to appear relative to the other components and
then you add the component to the layout. You configure components using the GridBagConstraints class;
the fields of that class appear in Table 7.24, its constructors in Table 7.25, and its method in Table 7.26.
Table 7.24: Fields of the GridBagConstraints class
Field Does this
static int ABOVE_BASELINE It indicates the possible value for the anchor field
static int ABOVE_BASELINE_LEADING It indicates the possible value for the anchor field
static int It indicates the possible value for the anchor field
ABOVE_BASELINE_TRAILING
int anchor It is used when the component is smaller than its display area
static int BASELINE It indicates the possible value for the anchor field
static int BASELINE_LEADING It indicates the possible value for the anchor field
static int BASELINE_TRAILING It indicates the possible value for the anchor field
static int BELOW_BASELINE It indicates the possible value for the anchor field
static int BELOW_BASELINE_LEADING It indicates the possible value for the anchor field
static int It indicates the possible value for the anchor field
BELOW_BASELINE_TRAILING
static int BOTH It resizes the component both horizontally and vertically
static int CENTER It puts the component in the center of its display area
static int EAST It puts the component on the right side of its display area, centered vertically
int fill It is used when the components display area is larger than the components
requested size
static int FIRST_LINE_END It places the component in the corner of its display area, where the first line
would normally end for current ComponentOrienation
static int FIRST_LINE_START It places the component in the corner of its display area, where the first line
would normally start for current ComponentOrienation
int gridheight It indicates the number of cells in a column for the components display area
int gridwidth It indicates the number of cells in a row for the components display area
int gridx It indicates the cell at the leading edge of the components display area,
where the first cell in the row has gridx=0
int gridy It indicates the cell at the top of the components display area, where the first
cell in the row has gridy=0
static int HORIZONTAL It resizes the component horizontally

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Table 7.24: Fields of the GridBagConstraints class

Field Does this
Insets insets It indicates the external padding of the component (the minimum amount of
space between the components and edges of its display area)
int ipadx It indicates the internal x padding of the component
int ipady It indicates the internal y padding
static int LAST_LINE_END It places the component in the corner of its display area, where the last line
would normally end for current ComponentOrienation
static int LAST_LINE_START It places the component in the corner of its display area, where the last line
would normally start for current ComponentOrienation
static int LINE_END It places the component centered along the edge of its display area, where the
lines of text would normally end for current ComponentOrienation
static int LINE_START It places the component centered along the edge of its display area, where the
lines of text would normally start for current ComponentOrienation
static int NONE It indicates not to resize the component
static int NORTH It puts the component at the top of its display area, centered horizontally
static int NORTHEAST It puts the component at the top-right corner of its display area
static int NORTHWEST It puts the component at the top-left corner of its display area
static int PAGE_END It places the component centered along the edge of its display area associated
with the end of a page for the current ComponentOrienation
static int PAGE_START It places the component centered along the edge of its display area associated
with the start of a page for the current ComponentOrienation
static int RELATIVE It indicates that this component is the next-to-last component in its column or
row or that this component be placed next to the previously added
component
static int REMAINDER It specifies that this component is the last component in its column or row
static int SOUTH It puts the component at the bottom of its display area, centered horizontally
static int SOUTHEAST It puts the component at the bottom-right corner of its display area
static int SOUTHWEST It puts the component at the bottom-left corner of its display area
static int VERTICAL It resizes the component vertically
double weightx It specifies how to distribute extra horizontal space
double weighty It specifies how to distribute extra vertical space
static int WEST It puts the component on the left side of its display area, centered vertically

Table 7.25: Constructors of the GridBagConstraints class

Constructor Does this
GridBagConstraints() It creates a GridBagConstraints object
GridBagConstraints(int gridx, int It creates a GridBagConstraints object with all fields set to the passed
gridy, int gridwidth, int values
gridheight, double weightx,
double weighty, int anchor, int
fill, Insets insets, int ipadx,
int ipady)

Table 7.26: Method of the GridBagConstraints class

Method Does this
Object clone() It creates a copy of this grid bag constraint

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Lets look at an example of putting a grid bag layout to work. In this example, well create the applet you see in
Figure 7.12; here, we have put three buttons into the top row of the layout, making the middle button twice as
wide as the others, and we have added a text field underneath. When the user clicks a button, the color of the
text field changes according to the name of color mentioned on the button, as you see in Figure 7.12:

Figure 7.12: Using a grid bag layout

You can specify both x and y constraints for the components you add to a grid bag layout by using the weightx
and weighty fields. These values represent the relative weights you want to give to the components in the same
row or column. In this case, well give each component the same y weight, but give the second button twice the
x weight as the other buttons.
We start by creating a grid bag layout and a constraints object:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=GridBagLayoutDemo.class
WIDTH=400
HEIGHT=80 >
</APPLET> */
public class GridBagLayoutDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener {
Button button1, button2, button3;
TextField text1;
public void init() {
GridBagLayout gbl = new GridBagLayout();
GridBagConstraints cons = new GridBagConstraints();
setLayout(gbl);
constraints.weighty = 1;
constraints.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
. . .
Note that we are setting the constraints objects fill field to GridBagConstraints.BOTH, which means the
layout manager will expand components in both dimensions to fill them out. Next, we create the first button and
add it to the layout as follows:
public void init() {
GridBagLayout gbl = new GridBagLayout();
GridBagConstraints cons = new GridBagConstraints();
setLayout(gbl);
cons.weighty = 1;
cons.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
cons.weightx = 1;
button1 = new Button("Red");
gbl.setConstraints(button1, cons);
add(button1);
button1.addActionListener(this);
. . .
This first button has an x weight of 1, but well give the next button an x weight of 2 to make it twice as wide as
the others in the same row:
public void init() {
GridBagLayout gbl = new GridBagLayout();
GridBagConstraints cons = new GridBagConstraints();
setLayout(gbl);
cons.weighty = 1;
cons.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;

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cons.weightx = 1;
button1 = new Button("Red");
gbl.setConstraints(button1, cons);
add(button1);
button1.addActionListener(this);
cons.weightx = 2;
button2 = new Button("Green");
gbl.setConstraints(button2, cons);
add(button2);
button2.addActionListener(this);
cons.weightx = 1;
button3 = new Button("Orange");
cons.gridwidth = GridBagConstraints.REMAINDER;
gbl.setConstraints(button3, cons);
add(button3);
button3.addActionListener(this);
text1 = new TextField();
cons.gridwidth = GridBagConstraints.REMAINDER;
gbl.setConstraints(text1, cons);
add(text1);
}
All thats left is to handle button clicks, and we do that by displaying the number of the button that was clicked:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource()==button1)
text1.setBackground(Color.red);
if(e.getSource()==button2)
text1.setBackground(Color.green);
if(e.getSource()==button3)
text1.setBackground(Color.orange);
}
}
And thats all it takes. Now this code will create the applet you see in Figure 7.12.

Using Insets and Padding

Say, says the NP, is there any way of adding a border around the components in a layout? There sure is,
you say. You can use insets and padding.
Using insets, you can add space between the container edges and your components. You create insets with the
Insets class, which has the following constructor:
Insets (int top, int left, int bottom, int right)
Heres an example in which we add insets of 20 pixels on all edges to the applet developed in the previous
solution:
public Insets getInsets() {return new Insets(20,20,20,20); }
The result appears in Figure 7.13:

Figure 7.13: Using insets

As you can see in this figure, theres an inset of 20 pixels all around the components in the container. You can
also pad individual components.
You can do this with the setHgap() and setVgap() methods in card layouts, flow layouts, border layouts,
and grid layouts as well as by using the ipadx and ipady members in grid bag layouts.

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Creating Your Own Layout Manager

You can lay out the components in a container yourself if you uninstall any layout manager from the container
(see the introduction to this chapter for details). In fact, you can even create your own layout manager if you
implement the LayoutManager2 interface in a class (the LayoutManager interface does not support
constraints). Here are the methods youll have to override from the LayoutManager2 interface:
public void addLayoutComponent(String name, Component component)It adds a
component to the layout. Its called by the Container class. Override this method if you want to know the
names of the components to layout.
public void removeLayoutComponent(Component component)It removes a component from the
layout.
public float getLayoutAlignmentX(Container target) and public float
getLayoutAlignmentY(Container target)It specifies how to align components in the x and y
directions; returning a value of 0 aligns the component at the origin, returning 1 aligns it as far as possible
from the origin, and returning 0.5 centers the component.
public void invalidateLayout(Container target)It invalidates a layout, which means you
should discard any cached information if this method is called.

Summary
In this chapter, the AWT controls such as text fields, buttons, checkboxes, radio buttons, and layouts have been
explained briefly. Then, you came to know how to implement a layout manager by understanding different
types of layout. Further, we have explained the concept of inserts and padding, and finally the creation of
custom layout manager.
The next chapter discusses about AWT- lists, choices, text areas, scrollbars, and scroll panes.

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 8
AWTLists, Choices,
Text Areas, Scroll bars,
and Scroll Panes
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Using Text Areas 248
Replacing Text in Text Areas 251
Searching and Selecting Text in Text Areas 252
Using Lists 253
Using Multiple-Selection Lists 257
Using Choice Controls 260
Using Scroll bars 265
Scroll bars and Border Layouts 269
Using Scroll Panes 272

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Chapter 8: AWTLists, Choices, Text Areas, Scroll bars, and Scroll Panes

In Depth
This chapter is all about a number of important AWT componentslists, choices, text areas, scroll bars, and
scroll panes. These components are all fundamental to AWT programmingthey are familiar to nearly all GUI
usersand well take a look at them in overview in this section. Note that one of the major themes of this
chapter is scrolling; all the controls in this chapter support scrolling in one way or another, letting the user move
around large documents with ease.

Lists
As the name suggests, a list control presents the user with a list of itemstext stringsfrom which one can
select. In windowing environments, space is often at a premium, so it is a good idea to place items in lists,
because using scroll bars, you can hide long lists in short list components. The user can select the item in the list
he or she wants, double-click it, and initiate some action. Lists can also support multiple selections at the same
time, using the Shift and Ctrl keys. However, if you support multiple selections, you have to think about how to
use the mouse in a list control. Clicking an item selects it, so the user cant just make multiple selections and then
double-click one to initiate some action because when one item is double-clicked, all the others are deselected. To
solve this problem, Sun suggests you to use some other event, such as a button click, to initiate an action when
dealing with multiple selections.

Choices
Choice controls also present the user with a list of items to select from, but theres a differencechoice controls
are even more compact than lists. They look much like text fieldsalthough you cant edit the text in them
with a small button on the right that has a downward-pointing arrow. When the user clicks the arrow, a list
opens displaying all the available choices, and the user can select from one of them. After the selection is made,
the choice control closes the list and displays the current selection. If the user opens the list again, the current
selection is highlighted. Note that choice controls are only designed to display one choice at a time, which means
you cant select more than one item in the list at a time. Using Shift+click and Ctrl+click is the same as clicking
an item. Like the other components in this chapter, choice controls support scrollingif the list of items is long,
scroll bars will appear on the side of the list automatically.

Text Areas
Text areas are much like text fields, except they support text in two-dimensions, with both rows and columns, so
you can display considerably more text in them. You indicate the size in rows and columns (as measured in
characters) that you want the text area to have when you create it. The result is just like a text field that has the
specified number of rows and columns. You use text areas when you want to work with entire documents, not
just single lines of text. As with the other components in this chapter, text areas support scrolling. You can
specify whether you want a horizontal scroll bar, a vertical scroll bar, both, or none. If you dont have a
horizontal scroll bar (and only if you dont have a horizontal scroll bar), the word-wrapping feature is
automatically enabled.

Scroll bars
Scroll bars are, of course, the zenith of scrolling controls, and every GUI user knows about them. The user uses
the mouse to manipulate the thumbalso called the scroll box, elevator, or bubblein a scroll bar to select a value
from a continuous range. You set that range when you create the scroll bar, and after the user selects a new
value, you can catch scroll bar events to read that new value. The user can also click the arrow buttons at the
ends of a scroll bar to increment or decrement the scroll bars setting by an amount you specify. The user can
also click the scroll bars track (that is, the part thats not the thumb or the arrow buttons) to increment or
decrement the scroll bars setting by an amount you specify.

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 In Depth

Scroll Panes
You might want to use scroll bars to scroll other components, such as a long text field, but Java controls either
support scroll bars themselves or dont support scrolling at all. To make scrolling of other components easier,
Java provides the ScrollPane class. You use scroll panes by adding components to them and letting the scroll
panes handle the scrolling. After you have added a large component to a scroll pane, only part of it is visible at
once, and you can use the scroll panes scroll bars to scroll to other parts of that component.
Thats it. Now that we have reviewed whats in this chapter, it is time to turn to the Immediate Solutions
section.

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Immediate Solutions
Using Text Areas
Uh-oh, says the Novice Programmer, I have got a problem. I have been writing my novel in a Java text field,
and.... You smile and say, And you have run out of space? Well, says the NP, it is just not very convenient
to write an entire novel as one line of text. Try text areas, you suggest.
A text area is much like a two-dimensional text field; in fact, thats its big advantage you can display whole
documents in text areas, including word wrapping at the end of lines. You can also use scroll bars to move
through the text. Note, however, that if you have enabled a horizontal scroll bar, word wrapping will be turned
off. Heres the inheritance diagram for the AWT TextArea class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.TextComponent
|____java.awt.TextArea
Youll find the fields of the TextArea class, which you use in the TextArea classs constructors, in Table 8.1, its
constructors in Table 8.2, and its methods in Table 8.3.
Table 8.1: Fields of the TextArea class
Field Does this
static int SCROLLBARS_BOTH It creates and displays both vertical and horizontal scroll bars
static int It creates and displays a horizontal scroll bar only
SCROLL BARS_HORIZONTAL_ONLY
static int SCROLLBARS_NONE It indicates not to create any scroll bars for the text area
static int It creates and displays a vertical scroll bar only
SCROLL BARS_VERTICAL_ONLY

Table 8.2: Constructors of the TextArea class

Constructor Does this
TextArea() It constructs a new text area with the empty string as text
TextArea(int rows, int columns) It constructs a new empty text area with the given number of rows
and columns and empty string as text
TextArea(String text) It constructs a new text area with the given text
TextArea(String text, int It constructs a new text area with the given text and with the given
rows, int columns) number of rows and columns
TextArea(String text, int It constructs a new text area with the given text, rows and columns,
rows, int columns, int scrollbars) and scroll bar visibility

Table 8.3: Methods of the TextArea class

Method Does this
void addNotify() It creates the text areas peer
void append(String str) It appends the given text to the text areas current text
void appendText(String str) It is deprecated and replaced by append(String)
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this TextArea
getAccessibleContext()
int getColumns() It gets the number of columns in the text area
Dimension getMinimumSize() It gets the minimum size of the text area
Dimension getMinimumSize(int rows, int It gets the minimum size of the text area with given number of
columns) rows and columns

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 8.3: Methods of the TextArea class

Method Does this
Dimension getPreferredSize() It gets the preferred size of the text area
Dimension getPreferredSize It gets the preferred size of the text area with given number of rows
(int rows, int columns) and columns
int getRows() It gets the number of rows in the text area
int getScrollbarVisibility() It gets an enumerated value that indicates the scroll bars used by
the text area
void insert(String str, int pos) It inserts the given text at the given position in the text area
void insertText It is deprecated and replaced by insert(String, int)
(String str, int pos)
Dimension minimumSize() It is deprecated and replaced by getMinimumSize()
Dimension minimumSize It is deprecated and replaced by getMinimumSize(int, int)
(int rows, int columns)
protected String It returns a string representing the state of the text area
paramString()
Dimension preferredSize() It is deprecated and replaced by getPreferredSize()
Dimension preferredSize(int rows, int It is deprecated and replaced by
columns) getPreferredSize(int, int)
void replaceRange It replaces text between the start and the end positions with the
(String str, int start, int end) given text
void replaceText It is deprecated and replaced by replaceRange(String, int,
(String str, int start, int end) int)
void setColumns(int columns) It sets the number of columns
void setRows(int rows) It sets the number of rows

There are several ways to place text in a text area. For example, you can use the insert() method to insert the
text at a specific character position (starting at 0) in the string that the text area holds, or you can use the
append() method to append the text to the end of the current text. Lets look at an example. In this case, well
create a text area with 10 rows and 20 columns (note that these dimensions are measured in characters). Well
also add two radio buttons that the user can select. Heres the code:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=TextAreaDemo1.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class TextAreaDemo1 extends Applet implements ItemListener {
TextArea area1;
CheckboxGroup group;
Checkbox check1,check2;
public void init() {
area1 = new TextArea(10,20);
add(area1);
group = new CheckboxGroup();
check1 = new Checkbox("Male", false, group);
add(check1);
check1.addItemListener(this);
check2 = new Checkbox("Female", false, group);
add(check2);
check2.addItemListener(this);
}
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {

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area1.setText("You selected "+((Checkbox)e.getItemSelectable()).getLabel());

}
}
The result appears in Figure 8.1. You can see appropriate message (You selected Male or You selected
Female) appears in the text area on selecting either of the two radio buttons, Male or Female.

Figure 8.1: Using a text area

Lets look an example on manipulating text areas:
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=TextAreaDemo2.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class TextAreaDemo2 extends Applet {
public void init() {
String text = "Jack and Jill\n" + "went up the hill\n" +
"to fetch a pail of water\n" + "Jack fell down\n" +
"and broke his crown\n" + "and Jill came tumbling after";
TextArea area1 = new TextArea(text, 5, 20);
add(area1); }
}
The result appears in Figure 8.2. You can do even more with text areasfor example, you can select and replace
text. See the next solution for details.

Figure 8.2: Manipulating text area

You can find the process of using text fields in detail in Chapter 7.

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 Immediate Solutions

Replacing Text in Text Areas

The Product Support Specialist is unhappy, as usual, and says, Users have a complaint about the new word
processor you have written in Java. Yes? you ask. They want to be able to select and replace text, the PSS
says. Some people, you say, are never satisfied.
You can use the replaceRange() method to replace a range of text in a text area:
void replaceRange(String str, int start, int end);
Here, str is the string you want to replace the old text with, start is the beginning of the range of characters to
replace, and end is the end of the range.
Heres an example in which we display the text Kogent Learning Solutions in a text area. The user can select
any or all of that text and click a button to replace the selected text with the same converted to upper case. We
start by creating the new text area and initializing it with the text Kogent Learning Solutions:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ReplaceTextDemo.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class ReplaceTextDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextArea area1;
Button button1;
public void init() {
area1 = new TextArea("Kogent Learning Solutions", 10, 20);
add(area1);
button1 = new Button("Replace");
add(button1);
button1.addActionListener(this); }
When the user clicks the button, we can determine what text is selected by using the getSelectionStart()
and getSelectionEnd() methods and then replace the selected text with same text in uppercase, like this:
public void actionPerformed (ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
String text = area1.getText();
int start = area1.getSelectionStart();
int end = area1.getSelectionEnd();
String sub = text.substring(start,end);
area1.replaceRange(sub.toUpperCase(), start, end);}
}
}
The result appears in Figure 8.3. Besides replacing text, you can also search for itsee the next solution.

Figure 8.3: Replacing selected text in a text area

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Searching and Selecting Text in Text Areas

The Product Support Specialist is back and unhappy again. Now users want to be able to search for text when
they use your word processor, the PSS reports. What next? you ask, exasperated. Spell checking?
The TextArea class does not support any direct methods for searching text, but the String class does.
Therefore, you can copy the text in a text area into a String object and search that object for the text you want
by using the indexOf() method.
Heres an example in which the user clicks a button to find and select the word applet in the text This is an
applet. in a text area. We start by creating a new text area, initializing it with the text This is an applet.
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=SearchAndSelect.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class SearchAndSelect extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextArea area1; Button button1;
public void init() {
area1 = new TextArea("This is an applet.", 10, 20,
TextArea.SCROLLBARS_BOTH);
add(area1);
button1 = new Button("Find \"applet\"");
add(button1);
button1.addActionListener(this); }
. . .
}
Now when the user clicks the button, the text in the text area is loaded into a string called s:
public void actionPerformed (ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
String s = area1.getText();
. . . }
}
Now the text applet can be searched for using the String classs indexOf() method:
public void actionPerformed (ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
String s = area1.getText();
String s2 = new String("applet");
int location = s.indexOf(s2);
. . . }
}
After the string applet is found, the TextArea classs select() method (inherited from the AWT
TextComponent class) is used to highlight that text. Heres how you use select() in general:
void select(int selectionStart, int selectionEnd);
Heres how we use the select() method in code:
public void actionPerformed (ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
String s = area1.getText();
String s2 = new String("applet");
int location = s.indexOf(s2);
area1.select(location, location + s2.length()); }
}

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 Immediate Solutions

The result of this code appears in Figure 8.4:

Figure 8.4: Finding and selecting text in a text area

When the user clicks the button, the code finds and highlights the text applet in the text area.

Using Lists
The Product Support Specialist is back and says, Theres a problem. Yes? you ask. About your catalogue of
all the classical music CDs in your most recent programtheres more than a hundred-thousand listings.
Thats right, you say proudly. Of course, I guess that it makes the list a little tall on the screen. About 2,000
feet tall, says the PSS.
If you have a long list of items that you want to present, consider by using a list control. You can fill a list with
many text items (using the List classs add() method) and present only a few at a timeyou can choose how
manyto the user. The user can highlight an item in the list by clicking the item and can initiate some action by
double-clicking that item. In fact, the user can select multiple items in a list and initiate some action, typically by
clicking a button. Heres the inheritance diagram for the List class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.List
|____java.awt.Component
Youll find the constructors for the List class in Table 8.4 and the methods for this class in Table 8.5. Take a
close look at the methods table; a lot of useful ones are listed, such as getItemCount(), which returns the
number of items in the list.
Table 8.4: Constructors of the List class
Constructor Does this
List() It creates a new scrolling list
List(int rows) It creates a new scrolling list with the specified number of visible lines
List(int rows, boolean It creates a new scrolling list with the specified number of rows. Multiple
multipleMode) selection is enabled if multipleMode is true

Table 8.5: Methods of the List class

Method Does this
void add(String item) It adds the given item to the end of the list
void add(String item, int index) It adds the given item to the list at the position given by the index
void addActionListener It adds the given action listener to receive action events from the list
(ActionListener l)
void addItem(String item) It is deprecated and replaced by add(String)
void addItem It is deprecated and replaced by add(String, int)
(String item, int index)
void addItemListener It adds the given item listener to receive item events from the list
(ItemListener l)

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Table 8.5: Methods of the List class

Method Does this
void addNotify() It creates the peer for the list
boolean allowsMultipleSelections() It is deprecated and replaced by isMultipleMode()
void clear() It is deprecated and replaced by removeAll()
int countItems() It is deprecated and replaced by getItemCount()
void delItem(int position) It is deprecated and replaced by remove(String) and remove(int)
void delItems(int start, int end) It is deprecated and no longer available for public use; is expected to be
kept only as a package private method
void deselect(int index) It deselects the item at the given index
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this List
getAccessibleContext()
ActionListener[] getActionListener() It returns an array of all the action listeners registered on this list
String getItem(int index) It gets the item associated with the given index
int getItemCount() It gets the number of items in the list
ItemListener[] getItemListeners() It returns an array of all the item listeners registered on this list
String[ ] getItems() It gets the items in the list
<T extends EventListener> It returns an array of all objects currently registered as FooListeners
T[] getListeners(Class<T> upon this List
listenerType)
Dimension getMinimumSize() It gets the minimum size of the scrolling list
Dimension getMinimumSize It gets the minimum screen dimensions for a list with the given number of
(int rows) rows
Dimension getPreferredSize() It gets the preferred size of this list
Dimension getPreferredSize It gets the preferred dimensions for a list with the given number of rows
(int rows)
int getRows() It gets the number of visible lines in the list
int getSelectedIndex() It gets the index of the selected item on the list
int[] getSelectedIndexes() It gets the selected indexes on the list
String getSelectedItem() It gets the selected item on this list
String[] getSelectedItems() It gets the selected items on this list
Object[] getSelectedObjects() It gets the selected items on the list in an array of objects
int getVisibleIndex() It gets the index of the item that was last made visible by the method
makeVisible
boolean isIndexSelected (int index) It determines whether the given item in this list is selected
boolean isMultipleMode() It determines whether the list allows multiple selections
boolean isSelected (int index) It is deprecated and replaced by isIndexSelected(int)
void makeVisible(int index) It makes the item at the given index visible at the top of the list
Dimension minimumSize() It is deprecated and replaced by getMinimumSize()
Dimension minimumSize(int rows) It is deprecated and replaced by getMinimumSize(int)
protected String paramString() It gets the parameter string representing the state of this list
Dimension preferredSize() It is deprecated and replaced by getPreferredSize()
Dimension preferredSize(int rows) It is deprecated and replaced by getPreferredSize(int)
protected void processActionEvent It processes action events occurring on this list by sending them to
(ActionEvent e) registered ActionListener objects

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Table 8.5: Methods of the List class

Method Does this
protected void It processes events in this list
processEvent(AWTEvent e)
protected void processItemEvent It processes item events occurring on this list by sending them to
(ItemEvent e) registered ItemListener objects
void remove(int position) It removes the item at the given position from the list
void remove(String item) It removes the first occurrence of an item from the list
void removeActionListener It removes the given action listener so that it no longer receives action
(ActionListener l) events from the list
void removeAll() It removes all items from the list
void removeItemListener It removes the given item listener so that it no longer receives item events
(ItemListener l) from the list
void removeNotify() It removes the peer for the list
void replaceItem It replaces the item at the given index in the list with the new string
(String newValue, int index)
void select(int index) It selects the item at the given index in the list
void setMultipleMode(boolean b) It sets the flag that determines whether the list allows multiple selections
void setMultipleSelections It is deprecated and replaced by setMultipleMode(boolean)
(boolean b)

Lets look at an example. In this case, well add six color names to a list control, making only three of them
visible at once. When the user double-clicks an item, background color of the applet changes accordingly. We
start by creating the list control and making only three items visible, like this:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ListDemo.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class ListDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener {
List list1;
public void init() {
list1 = new List(3);
. . .
}
Now we add six list items by using the add() method:
public void init() {
list1 = new List(3);
list1.add("Red");
list1.add("Green");
list1.add("Orange");
list1.add("Pink");
list1.add("Magenta");
list1.add("Yellow");
add(list1);
. . .
}
After adding the list to the layout, we add a listener to it. It turns out that lists use ActionListener interfaces,
just as buttons do. Heres how we add this to the code:
public void init() {

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list1 = new List(3);

list1.add("Red");
list1.add("Green");
list1.add("Orange");
list1.add("Pink");
list1.add("Magenta");
list1.add("Yellow");
add(list1);
list1.addActionListener(this);
}
Now well need to add an actionPerformed method to the main applet class to handle double clicks (this
method is not called for single clicks, which just select items in a list):
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) { . . . }
In this case, well get the item the user double-clicked by using the List classs getSelectedItem method
(the first click of the double click selects the item) and change applets background color using the Java switch
statement, like this:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == list1) {
String color = ((List) e.getSource()).getSelectedItem();
switch(color) {
case "Red" : setBackground(Color.red); break;
case "Green" : setBackground(Color.green); break;
case "Orange" : setBackground(Color.orange); break;
case "Pink" : setBackground(Color.pink); break;
case "Magenta" : setBackground(Color.magenta); break;
case "Yellow" : setBackground(Color.yellow);
};
}
}
}
The result of this code appears in Figure 8.5. Also note that only three items of the six are visible in the list
because the actual list is larger than the number of visible items. The list control has automatically added a
vertical scroll bar.

Figure 8.5: Using a list

You can do more with listsfor example, you can let the user make multiple selections. Well take a look at that
in the next solution.

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 Immediate Solutions

Using Multiple-Selection Lists

Uh-oh, says the Novice Programmer, I have got a problem. My new program lets users Order groceries by
using a list, but so far they can only order one item at a time. No problem, you say. Just enable multiple
selection in a list.
If you pass a second parameter with the value true to the List classs constructor, youll create a list component
that can support multiple selection. Lets look at an example. In this case, well let the user select multiple items,
and when he/she clicks a button, well list the selected items on the applets status bar. We start by creating and
populating a multiple-selection list:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=MultipleSelection.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class MultipleSelection extends Applet implements ActionListener {
List list1;
Button button1;
String selections[];
public void init() {
list1 = new List(3, true);
list1.add("Red");
list1.add("Green");
list1.add("Orange");
list1.add("Pink");
list1.add("Magenta");
list1.add("Yellow");
add(list1);
. . . }
}
Next, we add an ActionListener interface to the button and then add the button the user can click to display
the selections made in the list:
public void init() {
list1 = new List(3, true);
list1.add("Red");
list1.add("Green");
list1.add("Orange");
list1.add("Pink");
list1.add("Magenta");
list1.add("Yellow");
add(list1);
button1 = new Button("Show Selected");
button1.addActionListener(this);
add(button1);
}
Here, we need to use a button to show what multiple selections have been made (note that we dont let the user
initiate an action involving multiple selections by using the mouse in the list because clicking or double-clicking
any item will deselect all the other items).
When the user clicks the button, the List components getSelectedItems() method is used to get a String
array of the selected items:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
selections = list1.getSelectedItems();
. . . }
}

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Next, we loop over that array, adding all the items to a string that starts The selected items are::
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
String selected = new String("The selected items are:");
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
selections = list1.getSelectedItems();
for(int loopIndex = 0; loopIndex < selections.length;loopIndex++)
{ selected += " " + selections[loopIndex]; }
. . . }
}
Finally, we place the string with all the selections on the applets status bar:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
String selected = new String("The selected items are:");
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
selections = list1.getSelectedItems();
for(int loopIndex = 0; loopIndex < selections.length;loopIndex++)
{
selected += " " + selections[loopIndex]; }
showStatus(selected); }
}
And thats it. The result appears in Figure 8.6. As you can see in this figure, the user can make multiple
selections in this new list; and when he/she clicks the button, the selections made will appear on the status bar
of the applet.

Figure 8.6: Using multiple selections in a list

Here is another example having list box, as shown in Figure 8.7, and a button to remove the listener of list box:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE= ListItemDemo1.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class ListItemDemo1 extends Applet implements ItemListener,
ActionListener {
TextField text1, text2;
List list1;
Button button1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);
text2 = new TextField(20);
button1 = new Button("Remove Listener");
add(text1);
add(text2);
list1 = new List(4, true);
list1.add("First");

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 Immediate Solutions

list1.add("Second");
list1.add("Third");
list1.add("Fourth");
list1.add("Fifth");
list1.add("Sixth");
list1.add("Seventh");
list1.add("Eighth");
list1.add("Ninth");
add(list1);
add(button1);
list1.addItemListener(this);
button1.addActionListener(this); }
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {
if(e.getItemSelectable() == list1) {
String sel= ((List)e.getItemSelectable()).getSelectedItem();
if(sel!=null){
text1.setText("You selected: " +
((List)e.getItemSelectable()).getSelectedItem()); } }
}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
ItemListener[] al = list1.getItemListeners();
for (int i=0; i<al.length; i++) {
list1.removeItemListener(al[i]);
text2.setText("Listener Removed"); }
}
}
}

The result appears in Figure 8.7. As you can see in this figure, users can select the items from the list box; and
when they do, the program displays that item in the text fields. But when the user clicks on Remove Listener
button, listener on list will be removed and user will not be able to select the item from the list.

Figure 8.7: Removing listeners

Preceding example can be used with ActionListener interface as:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.event.ListSelectionEvent;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ListItemDemo2.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=250 >

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</APPLET> */
public class ListItemDemo2 extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextArea text1;
TextField text2;
List list1;
Button button1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextArea(5,20);
text2 = new TextField(20);
button1 = new Button("Remove Listener");
add(text1);
add(text2);
list1 = new List(4, true);
list1.add("First");
list1.add("Second");
list1.add("Third");
list1.add("Fourth");
list1.add("Fifth");
list1.add("Sixth");
list1.add("Seventh");
list1.add("Eighth");
list1.add("Ninth");
add(list1);
add(button1);
list1.addActionListener(this);
button1.addActionListener(this); }
public void valueChanged(ListSelectionEvent e) {
if(e.getValueIsAdjusting())
return;
text1.setText("");
Object[] items = list1.getSelectedItems();
for(int i=0; i<items.length; i++)
text1.append(items[i] +"\n"); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
ActionListener[] al = list1.getActionListeners();
for (int i=0; i<al.length; i++) {
list1.removeActionListener(al[i]);
text2.setText("Listener Removed"); }
}
}
}

Using Choice Controls

Good Lord! says the Novice Programmer, The Big Boss is cutting costs again, and he says all the controls
must be half their original size. But the list control Im using is already too small! No problem, you say. Just
use a choice control instead.
Choice controls are much like list controls that just display one item. To display the entire list in a choice control,
you click the button that appears on the right side of the control. This causes a drop-down list to appear, and you
can select an item with the mouse. Then, the list closes. The current choice appears in the choice control when the
list is closed (note that you cant make multiple selections in a choice control). Heres the inheritance diagram for
choice controls:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Choice

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Youll find the constructor for the Choice class in Table 8.6 and the methods of this class in Table 8.7.
Table 8.6: The constructor of the Choice class
Constructor Does this
Choice() It creates a new choice control

Table 8.7: Methods of the Choice class

Method Does this
void add(String item) It adds an item to this choice control
void addItem(String item) It is obsolete as of Java 2 version 1.1
void addItemListener (ItemListener l) It adds the given item listener to receive events from this choice
control
void addNotify() It creates the choice controls peer
int countItems() It is deprecated and replaced by getItemCount()
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this Choice
getAccessibleContext()
String getItem(int index) It gets the string at the given index in this choice control
int getItemCount() It gets the number of items in this choice control
ItemListener[] It returns an array of all the item listeners registered on this choice
getItemListeners() control
<T extends EventListener> T[] It returns an array of all the objects currently registered as
getListeners(Class<T> listenerType) FooListeners upon this choice control
int getSelectedIndex() It gets the index of the currently selected item
String getSelectedItem() It gets a string representation of the current choice
Object[] getSelectedObjects() It gets an array (of length 1) containing the currently selected item
void insert(String item, int index) It inserts the item into this choice control at the given position
protected String paramString() It gets the parameter string representing the state of this choice
control
protected void It processes events on this choice control
processEvent(AWTEvent e)
protected void processItemEvent It processes item events occurring on this choice control by sending
(ItemEvent e) them to any registered ItemListener objects
void remove(int position) It removes an item from the choice control at the given position
void remove(String item) It removes the first occurrence of an item from the choice control
void removeAll() It removes all items from the choice control
void removeItemListener It removes an item listener so that it no longer gets item events from
(ItemListener l) this choice control
void select(int pos) It sets the selected item in this choice control to the given position
void select(String str) It sets the selected item in this choice control to the item with the
name thats the same as the given string

Lets look at an example. In this case, well add a choice control to a program and use the controls add()
method to add items to its internal list. When the user makes a selection, well display the new selection in a text
field.
We start by creating a new choice control and populating its internal list with choices (note that you dont have a
lot of options when creating choice controlstheres only one constructor, and it doesnt take any parameters).
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

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/* <APPLET
CODE=ChoiceDemo1.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class ChoiceDemo1 extends Applet implements ItemListener, ActionListener {
TextField text1, text2;
Choice choice1;
Button button1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);
text2 = new TextField(20);
button1 = new Button("Remove Listener");
add(text1);
add(text2);
choice1 = new Choice();
choice1.add("First");
choice1.add("Second");
choice1.add("Third");
choice1.add("Fourth");
choice1.add("Fifth");
choice1.add("Sixth");
choice1.add("Seventh");
choice1.add("Eighth");
choice1.add("Ninth");
choice1.add("Tenth");
choice1.add("Eleventh");
choice1.add("Twelfth");
. . .
}
With a large number of items like this, the choice control will add a vertical scroll bar to the list automatically.
Now well handle events in the choice control. You use ItemListener interfaces with choice controls and
ActionListener interfaces, as you do with list controls. The ItemListener interface has only one method,
itemStateChanged():
void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e)
This method is passed as an object of the ItemEvent class. This classs fields appear in Table 8.8, its constructor
in Table 8.9, and its methods in Table 8.10.
Table 8.8: Fields of the ItemEvent class
Field Does this
static int DESELECTED It indicates that a selected item was unselected
static int ITEM_FIRST It indicates the first number in the range of IDs used for item events
static int ITEM_LAST It indicates the last number in the range of IDs used for item events
static int ITEM_STATE_CHANGED It indicates that an items state changed
static int SELECTED It indicates that an item was selected

Table 8.9: The constructor of the ItemEvent class

Constructor Does this
ItemEvent(ItemSelectable source, It constructs an ItemEvent object
int id, Object
item, int stateChange)

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 8.10: Methods of the ItemEvent class

Method Does this
Object getItem() It gets the item affected by the event
ItemSelectable etItemSelectable() It gets the originator of the event
int getStateChange() It gets the type of state change (that is, selected or deselected)
String paramString() It gets a string identifying this item event

We next add an ItemListener interface to the choice control, like this:

public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);
text2 = new TextField(20);
button1 = new Button("Remove Listener");
add(text1);
add(text2);
choice1 = new Choice();
choice1.add("First");
choice1.add("Second");
choice1.add("Third");
choice1.add("Fourth");
choice1.add("Fifth");
choice1.add("Sixth");
choice1.add("Seventh");
choice1.add("Eighth");
choice1.add("Ninth");
choice1.add("Tenth");
choice1.add("Eleventh");
choice1.add("Twelfth");
add(choice1);
add(button1);
choice1.addItemListener(this);
button1.addActionListener(this);
}
When the user does make a selection from the choice controls internal list, well use the choice controls
getSelectedItem() method to determine which item was selected and then display it in a text field:
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {
if(e.getItemSelectable() == choice1) {
text1.setText("You selected: " +
((Choice)e.getItemSelectable()).getSelectedItem()); }
}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
ItemListener[] al = choice1.getItemListeners();
for (int i=0; i<al.length; i++) {
choice1.removeItemListener(al[i]);
text2.setText("Listener Removed"); }
}
}
}
The result appears in Figure 8.8. As you can see in the figure, users can select an item from the choice controls
list; and when they do, the program displays that item in the text field.
But on clicking the button Remove Listener, listener on the choice list will be removed and, as a result, user
will not be able to select the items from choices list.

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Figure 8.8: Using a choice control

Look at this example which creates two Choice menus. One selects the color of shirt. The other selects the color
of trousers:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ChoiceDemo2.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class ChoiceDemo2 extends Applet implements ItemListener {
Choice shirt, trouser;
String msg = "";
public void init() {
shirt = new Choice();
trouser = new Choice();
shirt.add("Red Shirt");
shirt.add("Blue Shirt");
shirt.add("Cream Shirt");
shirt.add("Black Shirt");
trouser.add("Gray Trouser");
trouser.add("Blue Trouser");
trouser.add("Black Trouser");
add(shirt);
add(trouser);
shirt.addItemListener(this);
trouser.addItemListener(this); }
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent ie) { repaint(); }
// Display current selections.
public void paint(Graphics g) {
msg = "Shirt: ";
msg += shirt.getSelectedItem();
g.drawString(msg, 6, 120);
msg = "Trouser: ";
msg += trouser.getSelectedItem();
g.drawString(msg, 6, 140); }
}

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 Immediate Solutions

The output of the ChoiceDemo2 class has been given in Figure 8.9:

Figure 8.9: Using Choice menus

Using Scroll bars

The Novice Programmer appears and says, I have a problem. I want to let users select the drawing color in my
new program, but they are getting tired of typing in color values in hexadecimal format. You smile and say,
Why not use scroll bars instead? They are the perfect component when you want to let users select from a
continuous numeric range. Sounds perfect, the NP says.
Every GUI user is familiar with scroll bars. In Java, scroll bars consist of arrows (the buttons at each end of the
scroll bar), a thumb or bubble (the scrollable box you slide), and a track (the part of the scroll bar you slide the
thumb in). The AWT supports scroll bars with the Scrollbar class, which has the following inheritance
diagram:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Scrollbar
Youll find the constructors for the Scrollbar class in Table 8.11 and its methods in Table 8.12.
Table 8.11: Constructors of the Scrollbar class
Constructor Does this
Scrollbar() It creates a new vertical scroll bar
Scrollbar(int orientation) It creates a new scroll bar with the given orientation
Scrollbar(int orientation, int It creates a new scroll bar with the given orientation, initial value, page size,
value int visible, int minimum, and minimum and maximum values
int maximum)

Table 8.12: Methods of the Scrollbar class

Method Does this
void addAdjustmentListener It adds the given adjustment listener to receive adjustment events
(AdjustmentListener l)
void addNotify() It creates the scroll bars peer
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this Scrollbar
getAccessibleContext()
AdjustmentListener[] It returns an array of all adjustment listeners registered on this scroll bar
getAdjustmentListeners()
int getBlockIncrement() It gets the block increment of the scroll bar

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Table 8.12: Methods of the Scrollbar class

Method Does this
int getLineIncrement() It is deprecated and replaced by getUnitIncrement()
<T extends EventListener[]> T[] getListeners It returns an array of all the objects currently registered as FooListeners
(Class<T> listenerType) upon this scroll bar

int getMaximum() It gets the maximum value of the scroll bar

int getMinimum() It gets the minimum value of the scroll bar
int getOrientation() It gets the orientation of the scroll bar
int getPageIncrement() It is deprecated and replaced by getBlockIncrement()
int getUnitIncrement() It gets the unit increment for this scroll bar
int getValue() It gets the current value of the scroll bar
boolean getValueIsAdjusting() It returns True if the value is in the process of changing as a result of action
being taken by the user
int getVisible() It is deprecated and replaced by getVisibleAmount()
int getVisibleAmount() It gets the visible amount of the scroll bar
protected String paramString() It gets a string representing the state of the scroll bar
protected void It processes adjustment events occurring in this scroll bar by sending them
processAdjustmentEvent to any registered AdjustmentListener
(AdjustmentEvent e) objects
protected void It processes events on the scroll bar
processEvent(AWTEvent e)
void removeAdjustmentListener It removes the given adjustment listener so that it no longer receives
(AdjustmentListener l) adjustment events from the scroll bar
void setBlockIncrement (int v) It sets the block increment for the scroll bar
void setLineIncrement (int v) It is deprecated and replaced by setUnitIncrement(int)
void setMaximum (int newMaximum) It sets the maximum value
void setMinimum (int newMinimum) It sets the minimum value
void setOrientation It sets the orientation
(int orientation)
void setPageIncrement (int v) It is deprecated and replaced by setBlockIncrement()
void setUnitIncrement (int v) It sets the unit increment
void setValue(int newValue) It sets the value of the scroll bar
void setValueIsAdjusting It sets the valueIsAdjusting property
(boolean b)
void setValues(int value, int It sets values for the four properties of the scroll bar: value,
visible, int minimum, int maximum) visibleAmount, minimum, and maximum
void setVisibleAmount It sets the visible amount of the scroll bar
(int newAmount)

Scroll bars dont use ActionListener or ItemListener interfaces; instead, they use AdjustmentListener
interfaces. The AdjustmentListener interface has only one method, adjustmentValueChanged():
void adjustmentValueChanged(AdjustmentEvent e)
This method, adjustmentValueChanged(), passes an object of class AdjustmentEvent. Youll find the
fields of the AdjustmentEvent class in Table 8.13, its constructor in Table 8.14, and its methods in Table 8.15.
Note, in particular, that you can use the AdjustmentEvent classs getAdjustmentType() method to
determine what kind of scroll bar event occurred, as specified by the fields you see in Table 8.13.

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 8.13: Fields of the AdjustmentEvent class

Field Does this
static int ADJUSTMENT_FIRST It indicates the first integer ID for the range of adjustment event IDs
static int ADJUSTMENT_LAST It indicates the last integer ID for the range of adjustment event IDs
static int It indicates the adjustment value changed event
ADJUSTMENT_VALUE_CHANGED
static int BLOCK_DECREMENT It indicates the block decrement adjustment type
static int BLOCK_INCREMENT It indicates the block increment adjustment type
static int TRACK It indicates the absolute tracking adjustment type
static int UNIT_DECREMENT It indicates the unit decrement adjustment type
static int UNIT_INCREMENT It indicates the unit increment adjustment type

Table 8.14: The constructor of the AdjustmentEvent class

Constructor Does this
AdjustmentEvent(Adjustable source, It constructs an AdjustmentEvent object with the given Adjustable
int id, int type, source, event type, adjustment type, and value
int value)
AdjustmentEvent(Adjustable It constructs an AdjustmentEvent object with the specified Adjustable
source, int id, int type, source, event type, adjustment type, and value
int value, boolean isAdjusting)

Table 8.15: Methods of the AdjustmentEvent class

Method Does this
Adjustable getAdjustable() It gets the Adjustable object where this event originated
int getAdjustmentType() It gets the type of adjustment that caused the value changed event
int getValue() It gets the current value in the adjustment event
boolean getValueIsAdjusting() It returns True if this is one of the multiple adjustment events
String paramString() It returns a string representing the state of this Event

Lets look at an example. Here, well just add two scroll bars to a program and change the applets background
color when the user adjusts the scroll bars. When you construct a scroll bar, you can specify its orientation
(horizontal or vertical), its initial value, a page size, and its numeric range. The page size indicates how big you
want the thumb to be (it is customary to let the size of the thumb give an indication of the total rangeyou use a
smaller thumb for a longer range and a larger thumb for a shorter range, as you see in word processors when
they work with documents of varying sizes). Heres how we add a scroll bar to a program, giving it a horizontal
orientation, an initial value of 1, a page size of 20, and a range from 1 to 150:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ScrollbarDemo.class
WIDTH=400
HEIGHT=100 >
</APPLET> */
public class ScrollbarDemo extends Applet implements AdjustmentListener {
Scrollbar scroll1, scroll2;
Note that we also add an AdjustmentListener interface to this new scroll bar.

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You might think that this scroll bar can return any value in the range of 1 to 150; but in fact, the thumb must also be represented
in the track, so the scroll bar can only return values from 1 to 150 minus the page size (20, in this case), which equals 130.
Thats something to think about when you are creating scroll bars.

You can also configure the scroll bar by using the setUnitIncrement() and setBlockIncrement()
methods. The setUnitIncrement() method sets the amount the scroll bars setting changes when the user
clicks an arrow button (the default is 1), and the setBlockIncrement() method sets the amount the setting
changes when the user clicks the scroll bar track (the default is 10). The init() method looks like this:
public void init() {
scroll1 = new Scrollbar(Scrollbar.HORIZONTAL, 1, 20, 1, 150);
add(scroll1);
scroll1.addAdjustmentListener(this);
scroll2 = new Scrollbar(Scrollbar.VERTICAL, 1, 20, 1, 150);
add(scroll2);
scroll2.addAdjustmentListener(this);
}
All thats left is to update the background color when the user uses the scroll bars. We do that in the
adjustmentValueChanged() method, checking the AdjustmentEvent objects getAdjustable() method
to make sure we are dealing with one of the scroll bars and using that scroll bars getValue() method to
display the new settings in the text field. Heres how this looks in code:
public void adjustmentValueChanged(AdjustmentEvent e) {
if(e.getAdjustable() == scroll1 ||e.getAdjustable() == scroll2) {

int value1 = scroll1.getValue();

int value2 = scroll2.getValue();

setBackground(new Color(100,value1,value2));
showStatus("Horizontal: "+value1+" Vertical: "+value2);
}
}
}
The result appears in Figure 8.10.

Figure 8.10: Using scroll bars

As you can see in this figure, the user can move the scroll bars, and the new settings of those scroll bars will
change the background color.
Thats fine if you just want to use freestanding scroll bars to let the user easily specify numbers from a
continuous range, but what if you want to use scroll bars to scroll something? Next, well take a look at another
example that scrolls text strings around an applet.
In this case, well move the strings Kogent and Learning around the applet as the user scrolls the scroll bar.
We start by creating the scroll bar and painting the strings at the location (x, 80) and (40, y) where well adjust
both x and y when the scroll bar is adjusted:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.awt.*;

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 Immediate Solutions

/* <APPLET
CODE=ScrollText.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class ScrollText extends Applet implements AdjustmentListener {
Scrollbar scroll1;
int x = 40;
int y = 40;
public void init() {
scroll1 = new Scrollbar(Scrollbar.HORIZONTAL, 1, 20, 20, 100);
add(scroll1);
scroll1.addAdjustmentListener(this); }
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Kogent", x, 80);
g.drawString("Learning",40, y);
}
. . .
}
When scroll events occur, well be notified in the adjustmentValueChanged() method, and we can set the
value in the variable x and y to reflect the new locations of the strings and redraw the applet (note that we are
using the Applet classs getSize() method here to determine the width of the applet and scale the motions of
the text strings accordingly):
public void adjustmentValueChanged(AdjustmentEvent e) {
if(e.getAdjustable() == scroll1) {
x = (int) (getSize().width * (float) scroll1.getValue() / 100);
y = (int) (getSize().width * (float) scroll1.getValue() / 100);
repaint(); }
}
The result appears in Figure 8.11. As you can see in this figure, the user can scroll the text strings around the
applet just by manipulating the horizontal scroll bar. Well take a closer look at scrolling text with scroll bars in
the next solution.

Figure 8.11: Scrolling text strings

Scroll bars and Border Layouts

Look, says the Novice Programmer, now the Big Boss wants me to add horizontal and vertical scroll bars to
my program, but they just dont want to stay where I put them! Thats because you should use a border
layout, you say.
Because border layouts let you add controls around the perimeter of a program, they are natural to use with
scroll bars. Heres an example in which we add four scroll bars around a central panel. This panel displays the
image, image.jpg at the location (x, y), like this:
class DisplayPanel extends Panel {
public int x = 0, y = 0;

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public void paint (Graphics g) {

Image img = Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().getImage("image.jpg");
g.drawImage(img, x, y, this); }
}
Next, we can add an object of this new panel class to the center of a border layout, surrounding it with scroll
bars, like this:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ScrollBorderDemo1.class
WIDTH=250
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class ScrollBorderDemo1 extends Applet implements AdjustmentListener {
Scrollbar horizontal1, horizontal2, vertical1, vertical2;
DisplayPanel display;
public void init()
{
setLayout(new BorderLayout());
horizontal1 = new Scrollbar(Scrollbar.HORIZONTAL, 1, 1, 1, 100);
add("North", horizontal1);
horizontal1.addAdjustmentListener(this);
vertical1 = new Scrollbar(Scrollbar.VERTICAL, 1, 1, 1, 100);
add("West", vertical1);
vertical1.addAdjustmentListener(this);
horizontal2 = new Scrollbar(Scrollbar.HORIZONTAL, 1, 1, 1, 100);
add("South", horizontal2);
horizontal2.addAdjustmentListener(this);
vertical2 = new Scrollbar(Scrollbar.VERTICAL, 1, 1, 1, 100);
add("East", vertical2);
vertical2.addAdjustmentListener(this);
display = new DisplayPanel();
add("Center", display); }
. . .
}
The only trick here is that when the user moves one scroll bar, we have to move the corresponding one on the
other side of the central panel to keep the scroll bars coordinated. Heres how this looks in the
adjustmentValueChanged() method:
public void adjustmentValueChanged(AdjustmentEvent e) {
if(e.getAdjustable() == horizontal1) {
horizontal2.setValue(horizontal1.getValue()); }
if(e.getAdjustable() == vertical1){
vertical2.setValue(vertical1.getValue()); }
if(e.getAdjustable() == horizontal2) {
horizontal1.setValue(horizontal2.getValue()); }
if(e.getAdjustable() == vertical2) {
vertical1.setValue(vertical2.getValue()); }
. . .
}
All thats left is to get the new scroll bar settings, adjust the x and y locations of the text string in the panel to
match, and then redraw the panel. The process looks like this:
public void adjustmentValueChanged(AdjustmentEvent e) {
if(e.getAdjustable() == horizontal1) {
horizontal2.setValue(horizontal1.getValue()); }
if(e.getAdjustable() == vertical1){
vertical2.setValue(vertical1.getValue()); }

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 Immediate Solutions

if(e.getAdjustable() == horizontal2) {
horizontal1.setValue(horizontal2.getValue()); }
if(e.getAdjustable() == vertical2) {
vertical1.setValue(vertical2.getValue()); }
display.x = (int) (getSize().width * (float) horizontal1.getValue() / 200);
display.y = (int) (getSize().height * (float) vertical1.getValue() /150);
display.repaint();
}
And thats all it takes. The result appears in Figure 8.12. As you can see in this figure, the scroll bars appear
around the perimeter of the applet.

Figure 8.12: Scroll bars in a border layout

Take a look at this code which adds four buttons and a text area to border layout:
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.*;
/* <applet code=ScrollBorderDemo2.class width=400 height=200>
</applet> */
public class ScrollBorderDemo2 extends Applet {
public void init() {
setLayout(new BorderLayout());
add(new Button("Top part"), BorderLayout.NORTH);
add(new Button("Bottom part"), BorderLayout.SOUTH);
add(new Button("Right-hand side"), BorderLayout.EAST);
add(new Button("Left-hand side"), BorderLayout.WEST);
String text = "The secret of health " +
"for both mind and body \n"+
"is not to mourn for the \n"+
"past, not to worry about \n"+
"the future, not to anticipate \n"+
"troubles, but to live the \n"+
"present moment wisely and \n"+
"earnestly. \n\n"+
"[Siddhartha Gautama, 563 - 483 BC] \n\n";
add(new TextArea(text), BorderLayout.CENTER); }
}
The result appears in Figure 8.13. Theres another way to make scrolling text in panels easyyou can use scroll
panes, which is coming up next.

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Figure 8.13: Border layout and Scroll bars

Using Scroll Panes

I want to scroll some text, the Novice Programmer says, but setting up the scroll bars is too much work. Isnt
there an easier way? There sure is, you say, you can use scroll panes. Great! says the NP.
You can add a component to a scroll pane, and the scroll pane will let you scroll that component around. If the
component is larger than the scroll pane, only part of the component will be visible at any one time. Heres the
inheritance diagram for the ScrollPane class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____java.awt.ScrollPane
Youll find the fields of the ScrollPane class in Table 8.16, its constructors in Table 8.17, and its methods in
Table 8.18.
Table 8.16: Fields of the ScrollPane class
Field Does this
static int It indicates that horizontal/vertical scroll bars should always be shown
SCROLL BARS_ALWAYS
static int It indicates that horizontal/vertical scroll bars should be shown only when
SCROLL BARS_AS_NEEDED the size of the child is greater than the size of the scroll pane
static int SCROLL BARS_NEVER It indicates that horizontal/vertical scroll bars should never be shown

Table 8.17: Constructors of the ScrollPane class

Constructor Does this
ScrollPane() It creates a new scroll pane
ScrollPane(int It creates a new scroll pane by using a display policy
scrollbarDisplayPolicy)

Table 8.18: Methods of the ScrollPane class

Method Does this
protected void addImpl It adds the given component to this scroll pane
(Component comp, Object
constraints, int index)
void addNotify() It creates the scroll panes peer
void doLayout() It lays out this container by resizing the contained component to its
preferred size

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 8.18: Methods of the ScrollPane class

Method Does this
protected boolean If wheel scrolling is enabled, it returns True for MouseWheelEvents
eventTypeEnabled(int type)
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this ScrollPane
getAccessibleContext()
Adjustable getHAdjustable() It gets the ScrollPaneAdjustable object that represents the state of the
horizontal scroll bar
int getHScrollbarHeight() It gets the height that would be occupied by a horizontal scroll bar
(independent of whether it is currently displayed or not in the scroll pane)
int getScrollbarDisplayPolicy() It gets the display policy for the scroll bars
Point getScrollPosition() It gets the current x,y position within the child, which is displayed at the
origin of the scrolled panels view port
Adjustable getVAdjustable() It gets the ScrollPaneAdjustable object that represents the state of the
vertical scroll bar
Dimension getViewportSize() It gets the current size of the scroll panes view port
int getVScrollbarWidth() It gets the width that would be occupied by a vertical scroll bar
boolean isWheelScrollingEnabled() It indicates whether or not scrolling will take place in response to mouse
wheel
void layout() It is deprecated and replaced by doLayout()
String paramString() It returns a string representing the state of this scroll pane
void printComponents It prints the component in this scroll pane
(Graphics g)
protected void It processes mouse wheel events that are delivered to this by scrolling a
processMouseWheelEvent proper amount
(MouseWheelEvent e)
void setLayout It sets the layout manager for this container
(LayoutManager mgr)
void setScrollPosition It scrolls to the given position within the child component
(int x, int y)
void setScrollPosition(Point p) It scrolls to the given position within the child component
void setWheelScrollingEnabled It enables or disables scrolling in response to movement of the mouse wheel
(boolean handlewheel)

Lets look at an example. It is easy enough to just add a component to a scroll pane; you simply use the
ScrollPane classs add() method. Heres how this looks when we add a text area to a scroll pane:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ScrollPaneDemo1.class
WIDTH=350
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class ScrollPaneDemo1 extends Applet {
ScrollPane scrollpane1;
TextArea area1;
public void init() {
scrollpane1 = new ScrollPane();
area1 = new TextArea(10,40);
scrollpane1.add(area1);
setLayout(new BorderLayout());
add(scrollpane1); }
}

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The result of ScrollPaneDemo1.java appears in Figure 8.14. As you can see in this figure, the user ends up
scrolling text around inside a scroll pane.

Figure 8.14: Scrolling the text inside a scroll pane

There is another example in which we add 25 labels to a panel and pass the panel reference in the ScrollPanes
add() method. Both the horizontal and vertical scroll bars automatically appear inside the applet. Heres
the code:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=ScrollPaneDemo2.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=120>
</APPLET> */
public class ScrollPaneDemo2 extends Applet {
ScrollPane scrollpane1;
Label labels[];
Panel panel1;
public void init() {
scrollpane1 = new ScrollPane(ScrollPane.SCROLLBARS_ALWAYS);
panel1 = new Panel();
panel1.setLayout(new GridLayout(5,5));
labels = new Label[25];
for(int i=0;i<25;i++) {
labels[i] = new Label("Kogent"); panel1.add(labels[i]); }
setLayout(new BorderLayout());
scrollpane1.add(panel1);
add(scrollpane1);
}
}
Figure 8.15 shows the result of ScrollPaneDemo2.java.

Figure 8.15: Scrolling labels inside a scroll pane

Summary
In this chapter, we provided you with a brief introduction on lists, choices, text areas, scrollbars, and scroll
panes. Then, you learned how to use the text areas, replace text in text areas, and search text in the text areas.
You also came to know about the use of lists, multiple selection lists, followed by the use of choice controls.
Toward the end, you studied about the scrollbars and scroll panes.
In the next chapter, we will discuss about AWT- graphics, images, text, and fonts.

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Chapter 9: AWTGraphics, Images, Text, and Fonts

9
AWTGraphics,
Images, Text, and Fonts
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Using the Mouse 277
Using the Keyboard 279
Using Fonts 283
Using Images 289
Resizing Images 291
Drawing Graphics 292
Selecting Colors 300
Using Canvases 303
Using the ImageObserver Interface 305
Using the MediaTracker Class 306
Working Pixel by Pixel: The PixelGrabber and MemoryImageSource Classes 308
Brightening Images 311
Converting Images to Grayscale 312
Embossing Images 313
Chapter 9: AWTGraphics, Images, Text, and Fonts

In Depth
This chapter is all about some very powerful topics in Javagraphics, images, text handling, and working
with fonts. Java is a very visual language, and all these areas are popular with programmers. Well start with
an overview of these items.

Graphics
The graphics capability in AWT is pretty solid, and it is based on the huge Graphics class. You can use this
class to draw all kinds of figureslines, points, rectangles, ovals, polygons, and more. You can also select
colors and drawing modes as well as fill figures in with color. Youll see all this in this chapter, including a
special componentthe Canvas componentthat exists expressly, so you can draw in it.

Images
Images are the objects of Image class found in the java.awt package. Various classes have been provided in
the java.awt.image package to implement images. Youll see various different capabilities of AWT in this
chapter, such as loading images in distinct image formats, resizing images, waiting until images get loaded
completely, drawing images offscreen before displaying (known as double buffering), and animating images.
In fact, you can even gain access to the individual pixels in imagescopying images, brightening them,
converting them to grayscale, and giving them an engraved appearance.

Youll learn all about animating images and double buffering when we discuss multithreading in Chapter 19.

Text and Fonts

You might be surprised to see text and fonts in a chapter on graphics, but when you draw text directly, not
inserting it into a control, such as a text field, you are creating a graphic, and Java treats it as such. In this
chapter, youll see that theres quite a bit to working with text as graphics. For example, youll see how to set
the font and font stylesuch as italics or boldof text as well as how to measure the screen length of a string
of text so you can center it in a window.

The Keyboard and Mouse

In this chapter, well be writing code that can display text directly, without any controls, such as text fields and
text areas, which means well have to read that text directly from the keyboard. Therefore, well take a look at
handling keyboard input here. In addition, when you are letting the user create graphics, the mouse is a very
handy tool to havein fact, well create a mouse-driven drawing program in this chapterso well also take a
look at working with the mouse in code. In fact, well start this chapter by taking a look at using the mouse
and keyboard. Since theres a lot more coming up here, its time to turn to the Immediate Solutions section.

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 In Depth

Immediate Solutions
Using the Mouse
OK, says the Novice Programmer, in my program, the user can select text with Ctrl+Alt+F8, move the
insertion point with Shift+Alt+F3, and. . . Wait a minute, you say. Have you ever thought about adding mouse
support to your program? It might make things easier for the user. Hmm, says the NP thoughtfully. You can
work with the mouse using two AWT interfacesMouseListener, which handles mouse clicks, presses, and
releases as well as instances when the mouse enters a component and then leaves it, and
MouseMotionListener, which handles mouse movements and drag operations. You can find the methods of
the MouseListener interface in Table 9.1 and the methods of the MouseMotionListener interface in Table 9.2.

Bear in mind that you need to override all the methods in an interface if you want to implement that interface, which can get a
little tedious in the case of MouseListener, which has five methods. To make things easier, you can use adapter classes such
as MouseAdapter instead and just override the methods you want to use. For more on adapter classes, see Chapter 6.

Table 9.1: Methods of the MouseListener interface

Method Does this
void mouseClicked (MouseEvent e) It is called when the mouse has been clicked (pressed and released) on a
component
void mouseEntered (MouseEvent e) It is called when the mouse enters a component
void mouseExited (MouseEvent e) It is called when the mouse exits a component
void mousePressed (MouseEvent e) It is called when a mouse button has been pressed on a component
void mouseReleased (MouseEvent e) It is called when a mouse button has been released on a component

Table 9.2: Methods of the MouseMotionListener interface

Method Does this
void mouseDragged (MouseEvent e) It is called when a mouse button is pressed on a component and then
dragged
void mouseMoved (MouseEvent e) It is called when the mouse button has been moved over a component (with
no buttons down)

Each of the mouse interface methods is passed an object of class MouseEvent, and the inheritance diagram for
that class looks like this:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.EventObject
|____java.awt.AWTEvent
|____java.awt.event.ComponentEvent
|____java.awt.event.InputEvent
|____java.awt.event.MouseEvent
You can find the constructors of the MouseEvent class in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3: Constructors of the MouseEvent class
Constructor Does this
MouseEvent(Component source, int It constructs a MouseEvent object with the indicated source component,
id, long when, int modifiers, int type, modifiers, coordinates, click count, and popupTrigger flag
x, int y, int clickCount, boolean
popupTrigger )
MouseEvent(Component source, int It constructs a MouseEvent object with the indicated source component,
id, long when, int modifiers, int type, time, modifiers, coordinates, click count, popupTrigger flag, and
x, int y, int clickCount, boolean button number
popupTrigger, int button)

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Table 9.3: Constructors of the MouseEvent class

Constructor Does this
MouseEvent(Component source, int It constructs a MouseEvent object with the indicated source component,
id, long when, int modifiers, int type, time, modifiers, coordinates, absolute coordinates, click count,
x, int y, int xAbs, int yAbs, int popupTrigger flag, and button number
clickCount, boolean popupTrigger,
int button)

The MouseEvent class adds only fields to its base classes, and you can find the fields of this class in Table 9.4.
Table 9.4: Fields of the MouseEvent class
Field Does this
static int BUTTON1 It indicates mouse button#1; used by getButton()
static int BUTTON2 It indicates mouse button#2; used by getButton()
static int BUTTON3 It indicates mouse button#3; used by getButton()
static int MOUSE_CLICKED It indicates the mouse clicked event
static int MOUSE_DRAGGED It indicates the mouse dragged event
static int MOUSE_ENTERED It indicates the mouse entered event
static int MOUSE_EXITED It indicates the mouse exited event
static int MOUSE_FIRST It indicates the first number in the range of IDs used for mouse events
static int MOUSE_LAST It indicates the last number in the range of IDs used for mouse events
static int MOUSE_MOVED It indicates the mouse moved event
static int MOUSE_PRESSED It indicates the mouse pressed event
static int MOUSE_RELEASED It indicates the mouse released event
static int MOUSE_WHEEL It indicates the mouse wheel event
static int NOBUTTON It indicates no mouse buttons; used by getButton()

Lets look at an example. This applet, called MousePlay.java, will display most of what the mouse can do. To
catch particular mouse actions, you just override the corresponding mouse listener method. To get the current
location of the mouse from a MouseEvent object, you can use the getX() and getY() methods. To determine
which button was pressed, you can use the MouseEvent classs getModifiers() method and then And the
result with these fields from the InputEvent class: ALT_GRAPH_MASK, ALT_MASK, BUTTON1_MASK,
BUTTON2_MASK, BUTTON3_MASK, CTRL_MASK, META_MASK, and SHIFT_MASK. Heres what this applet
looks like, with all this work put together:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=MousePlay.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
class ShapePanel extends Panel implements MouseListener,MouseMotionListener{
MousePlay play;
ShapePanel(MousePlay mp){
play=mp;
}
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent e){
play.showStatus("Mouse Pressed");
}
public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent e) {
if((e.getModifiers() & InputEvent.BUTTON1_MASK) ==InputEvent.BUTTON1_MASK) {
play.showStatus("Left Mouse Button Clicked at "+e.getX()+","+e.getY());

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}else{ play.showStatus("Right Mouse Button Clicked at "+e.getX()+","+e.getY()); }

}
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e) {
play.showStatus("Mouse Released at "+e.getX()+","+e.getY());}
public void mouseEntered(MouseEvent e) {
play.showStatus("Mouse Entered");}
public void mouseExited(MouseEvent e) {
play.showStatus("Mouse Exited");}
public void mouseDragged(MouseEvent e) {
play.showStatus("Mouse Dragged");}
public void mouseMoved(MouseEvent e) {
play.showStatus("Mouse Moved");}
}
public class MousePlay extends Applet
{
Panel panel;
public void init() {
panel= new Panel();
panel.setBackground(Color.pink);
panel.setPreferredSize(new Dimension(160,160));
add(panel);
panel.addMouseListener(new ShapePanel(this));
panel.addMouseMotionListener(new ShapePanel(this)); }
}
You can see this applet at work in Figure 9.1. The frame contains a pink-colored panel with MouseListener
and MouseMotionListener added to it. Appropriate message is displayed in the applets status bar
corresponding to different mouse events. In this way, the applet lets you know whats going on.

Figure 9.1: Using the mouse

Using the Keyboard

Say, says the Novice Programmer, Im writing a word processor, SuperDuper TextPro, in Java and I want to
read text directly from the keyboard. How does that work? With the key listener, you say. I knew itd be
something like that, the NP says.
You use the KeyListener interface to work with the keyboard, and you can find the methods of the
KeyListener interface in Table 9.5.
Table 9.5: Methods of the KeyListener interface
Method Does this
void keyPressed(KeyEvent e) It is called when a key is pressed
void keyReleased (KeyEvent e) It is called when a key is released
void keyTyped(KeyEvent e) It is called when a key is typed

Note that there are three different key eventsKeyPressed, KeyReleased, and KeyTyped. You usually use
the KeyTyped event when working with the keyboard, because you can use the getKeyChar() method in

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KeyTyped to get the Unicode character that was typed. In the keyPressed() and keyReleased() methods,
on the other hand, you can use the getKeyCode() (not getKeyChar()) method to get a virtual key code; this
code just tells you what key was pressed or released you are responsible for determining whether the Shift,
Ctrl, or other key was pressed down, which you can do with the KeyEvent object passed to the key event
methods. To determine which modifier keys (such as Shift) were pressed down, you can use the KeyEvent
objects getModifiers() method and then And the result with the following fields from the InputEvent
class: ALT_GRAPH_MASK, ALT_MASK, CTRL_MASK, META_MASK, and SHIFT_MASK.
In general, its not very easy to work with virtual key codes because theres a separate constant you have to use
for each key as returned by getKeyCode()for example, VK_F1 for the F1 key, VK_A for the character A,
VK_5 for the number 5, and so on, as enumerated in the fields of the KeyEvent class, which you can see in
Table 9.6. You can also find the constructors for the KeyEvent class in Table 9.7 and its methods in Table 9.8.
Heres the inheritance diagram for the KeyEvent class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.EventObject
|____java.awt.AWTEvent
|____java.awt.event.ComponentEvent
|____java.awt.event.InputEvent
|____java.awt.event.KeyEvent

Table 9.6: Fields of the KeyEvent class

static char CHAR_UNDEFINED static int KEY_FIRST static int KEY_LAST
static int EY_LOCATION_LEFT static int static int KEY_LOCATION_RIGHT
KEY_LOCATION_NUMPAD
static int static int static int
KEY_LOCATION_STANDARD KEY_STANDARD_UNKNOWN KEY_PRESSED
static int KEY_RELEASED static int KEY_TYPED static int VK_0 to VK_9
static int VK_A to VK_Z static int VK_ACCEPT static int VK_ADD
static int VK_AGAIN static int static int
VK_ALL_CANDIDATES VK_ALPHANUMERIC
static int VK_ALT static int VK_ALT_GRAPH static int VK_AMPERSAND
static int VK_ASTERISK static int VK_AT static int VK_BACK_QUOTE
static int VK_BACK_SLASH static int VK_BACK_SPACE static int VK_BEGIN
static int VK_BRACELEFT static int VK_BRACERIGHT static int VK_CANCEL
static int VK_CAPS_LOCK static int VK_CIRCUMFLEX static int VK_CLEAR
static int VK_CLOSE_BRACKET static int VK_CODE_INPUT static int VK_COLON
static int VK_COMMA static int VK_COMPOSE static int VK_CONTEXT_MENU
static int VK_CONTROL static int VK_CONVERT static int VK_COPY
static int VK_CUT static int VK_DEAD_ABOVEDOT static int VK_DEAD_ABOVERING
static int VK_DEAD_ACUTE static int VK_DEAD_BREVE static int VK_DEAD_CARON
static int VK_DEAD_CEDILLA static int static int VK_DEAD_DIAERESIS
VK_DEAD_CIRCUMFLEX
static int static int VK_DEAD_GRAVE static int VK_DEAD_IOTA
VK_DEAD_DOUBLEACUTE
static int VK_DEAD_MACRON static int VK_DEAD_OGONEK static int
VK_DEAD_SEMIVOICED_SOUND
static int static int static int
VK_DEAD_TILDE VK_DEAD_VOICED_SOUND VK_DECIMAL
static int VK_DELETE static int VK_DIVIDE static int VK_DOLLAR
static int VK_DOWN static int VK_END static int VK_ENTER
static int VK_EQUALS static int VK_ESCAPE static int VK_EURO_SIGN
static int static int VK_F1 to VK_F24 static int VK_FINAL
VK_EXCLAMATION_MARK

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Table 9.6: Fields of the KeyEvent class

static int VK_FIND static int VK_FULL_WIDTH static int VK_GREATER
static int VK_HALF_WIDTH static int VK_HELP static int VK_HIRAGANA
static int VK_HOME static int static int VK_INSERT
VK_INPUT_METHOD_ON_OFF
static int VK_INVERTED _ static int static int
EXCLAMATION_MARK VK_JAPANESE_ HIRAGANA VK_JAPANESE_KATAKANA
static int static int VK_KANA static int VK_KANA_LOCK
VK_JAPANESE_ROMAN
static int VK_KANJI static int VK_KATAKANA static int VK_KP_DOWN
static int VK_KP_LEFT static int VK_KP_RIGHT static int VK_KP_UP
static int VK_LEFT static int static int VK_LESS
VK_LEFT_PARENTHESIS
static int VK_META static int VK_MINUS static int VK_MODECHANGE
static int VK_MULTIPLY static int VK_NONCONVERT static int VK_NUM_LOCK
static int static int VK_NUMPAD0 to static int VK_OPEN_BRACKET
VK_NUMBER_SIGN VK_NUMPAD9
static int VK_PAGE_DOWN static int VK_PAGE_UP static int VK_PASTE
static int VK_PAUSE static int VK_PERIOD static int VK_PLUS
static int static int VK_PRINTSCREEN static int VK_PROPS
VK_PREVIOUS_CANDIDATE
static int VK_QUOTE static int VK_QUOTEDBL static int VK_RIGHT
static int static int static int
VK_RIGHT_PARENTHESIS VK_ROMAN_CHARACTERS VK_SCROLL_LOCK
static int VK_SEMICOLON static int VK_SEPARATER static int VK_SEPARATOR
static int VK_SHIFT static int VK_SLASH static int VK_SPACE
static int VK_STOP static int VK_SUBTRACT static int VK_TAB
static int VK_UNDEFINED static int VK_UNDERSCORE static int VK_UNDO
static int VK_UP static int VK_WINDOWS

Table 9.7: Constructors of the KeyEvent class

Constructor Does this
KeyEvent(Component source, int id, long when, int It is deprecated
modifiers, int keyCode)
KeyEvent(Component source, int id, long when, int It creates a KeyEvent object
modifiers, int keyCode, char keyChar)
KeyEvent(Component source, int id, long when, int It creates a KeyEvent object
modifiers, int keyCode, char keyChar, int keyLocation)

Table 9.8: Methods of the KeyEvent class

Method Does this
int getExtendedKeyCode() It gets an extended key code for the event
static int It gets an extended key code for a Unicode character
getExtendedKeyCodeForChar (int c)
char getKeyChar() It gets the character associated with the key in this event
int getKeyCode() It gets the integer keycode associated with the key in this event
int getKeyLocation() It gets the location of thw key that originated this event
static String getKeyModifiersText It gets a string describing the modifier key(s), such as Shift or Ctrl+Shift
(int modifiers)

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Table 9.8: Methods of the KeyEvent class

Method Does this
static String getKeyText It gets a string describing the keycode, such as HOME, F1, or A
(int keyCode)
boolean isActionKey() It determines whether the key in this event is an action key
String paramString() It returns a parameter string identifying this event
void setKeyChar (char keyChar) It sets the keyChar value to indicate a character
void setKeyCode (int keyCode) It sets the keyCode value to indicate a physical key
void setModifiers (int modifiers) It is deprecated

Lets look at an example. This simple applet contains two text fields: one in which the user enters the text and the
second simultaneously displays the entered text. Here, the KeyEvent is trapped, and the applet uses the
getKeyChar() method to actually read the keys typed. Every time the user types a key, the corresponding
character is added to the end of the displayed string. Heres what the applet looks like:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
/* <APPLET
CODE=KeyboardPlay.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class KeyboardPlay extends Applet implements KeyListener {
TextField text1,text2;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(20);
add(text1);
text2 = new TextField(20);
add(text2);
text1.addKeyListener(this);
}
public void keyTyped(KeyEvent e) {
String text = text2.getText();
text = text + e.getKeyChar();
text2.setText(text); }
public void keyPressed(KeyEvent e) { }
public void keyReleased(KeyEvent e) { }
}
The result of this code appears in Figure 9.2. As you can see in the figure, the user can type text in one text field
and it gets displayed in the other.

Figure 9.2: Using the keyboard

Thats just the beginning of working with text. Now lets take a look at the next solution, where we start working
with fonts.
You can find the process of Using Text Fields in detail in Chapter 7.

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 Immediate Solutions

Using Fonts
The banner you created for the Company Pride Picnic was good, the Big Boss says, but it didnt seem to be
bursting with pride. Why not? you ask. Well for one thing, the BB says, it was only a quarter of an inch
tall. Hmm, you say, guess I better use a bigger font.
The Font class allows you to select a font style, such as Arial, Courier, or Roman, set font size, and specify if its
bold, italic, and so on. Youll find the fields of the Font class in Table 9.9, its constructors in Table 9.10, and its
methods in Table 9.11.
Table 9.9: Fields of the Font class
Field Does this
static int BOLD The bold style
static int CENTER_BASELINE The baseline used in ideographic scripts (such as Japanese)
static String DIALOG A String constant for the canonical family name of the logical font Dialog
static String DIALOG_INPUT A String constant for the canonical family name of the logical font
DialogInput
static int HANGING_BASELINE The baseline used when laying text using scripts, such as Devanagari
static int ITALIC The italicized style
static int LAYOUT_LEFT_TO_RIGHT A flag to layoutGlyphVector indicating that the text is left to right as
determined by the Bidi analysis
static int LAYOUT_NO_LIMIT_CONTEXT A flag to layoutGlyphVector indicating that the text in the char array after
the indicated limit should not be examined
static int LAYOUT_NO_START_CONTEXT A flag to layoutGlyphVector indicating that the text in the char array before
the indicated limit should not be examined
static int LAYOUT_RIGHT_TO_LEFT A flag to layoutGlyphVector indicating that the text is right to left as
determined by the Bidi analysis
static int MONOSPACED A String constant for the canonical family name of logical font
Monospaced
protected String name The logical name of this Font
static int PLAIN The plain style
protected float pointSize The point size of this Font in float
static int ROMAN_BASELINE The baseline used in most roman scripts when laying out text
static String SANS_SERIF A String constant for the canonical family name of logical font SansSerif
static String SERIF A String constant for the canonical family name of logical font Serif
protected int size The point size of this Font, rounded to integer
protected int style The style of this Font
static int TRUETYPE_FONT Identify a font resource of type TRUETYPE
static int TYPE1_FONT Identify a font resource of type TYPE1

Table 9.10: Constructors of the Font class

Constructor Does this
protected Font (Font font) It creates a new Font from the indicated font
Font(Map<? extends It creates a new Font with the indicated attributes
AttributedCharacterIterator
.Attribute,?> attributes)
Font(String name, int It creates a new Font from the indicated name, style, and point size
style, int size)

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Table 9.11: Methods of the Font class

Method Does this
boolean canDisplay(char c) It checks whether the font has a glyph for the given character
boolean canDisplay(int codepoint) It checks whether the font has a glyph for the given character
int canDisplayUpTo(char[] text, It indicates whether this font can display the characters in the given text
int start, int limit) starting at start and ending at limit
int canDisplayUpTo It indicates whether this font can display the text specified by iter
(CharacterIterator iter, int starting at start and ending at limit
start, int limit)
int canDisplayUpTo It indicates whether this font can display the given string
(String str)
static Font createFont It returns a new font using the given font type and file
(int fontFormat, File fontFile)
static Font createFont It returns a new font with the given font type and input data
(int fontFormat,
InputStream fontStream)
GlyphVector createGlyphVector It creates a GlyphVector object by mapping characters to glyphs one-to-
(FontRenderContext frc, char[] one based on the Unicode cmap in this font
chars)
GlyphVector createGlyphVector It creates a GlyphVector object by mapping the given characters to
(FontRenderContext frc, glyphs one-to-one based on the Unicode cmap in this font
CharacterIterator ci)
GlyphVector createGlyphVector It creates a GlyphVector object by mapping characters to glyphs one-to-
(FontRenderContext frc, int[] one based on the Unicode cmap in this font
glyphCodes)
GlyphVector createGlyphVector It creates a GlyphVector object by mapping characters to glyphs one-to-
(FontRenderContext frc, String one based on the Unicode cmap in this font
str)
static Font decode (String str) It gets the font that the string str describes
Font deriveFont It creates a new Font object by duplicating the current Font object and
(AffineTransform trans) applying a new transform
Font deriveFont(float size) It creates a new Font object by duplicating the current Font object and
applying a new size
Font deriveFont(int style) It creates a new Font object by duplicating the current Font object and
applying a new style
Font deriveFont(int style, It creates a new Font object by duplicating the current Font object and
AffineTransform trans) applying a new style and transform
Font deriveFont(int style, float It creates a new Font object by duplicating the current Font object and
size) applying a new style and size
Font deriveFont(Map attributes) It creates a new Font object by duplicating the current Font object and
applying a new set of font attributes
Font deriveFont(Map<? extends It creates a new Font object by duplicating the current Font object and
AttributedCharacterIterator.Attrib applying a new set of font attributes
ute, ?> attributes)
boolean equals(Object obj) It compares this Font object to the given Object
Map<TextAttribute,?> It gets a map of font attributes in this font
getAttributes()
AttributedCharacterIterator.Attrib It gets the keys of all the font attributes
ute[]
getAvailableAttributes()
byte getBaselineFor(char c) It gets the baseline for displaying this character

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Table 9.11: Methods of the Font class

Method Does this
String getFamily() It gets the family name of this font
String getFamily(Locale l) It gets the family name of this font, localized for the given locale
static Font getFont(Map<? extends It gets a Font object appropriate to the attributes
AttributedCharacterIterator.Attrib
ute,?> attributes)
static Font getFont(String nm) It gets a Font object from the system properties list
static Font getFont(String nm, It gets the given font from the system properties list
Font font)
String getFontName() It gets the font face name
String getFontName(Locale l) It gets the font face name, localized for the given locale
float getItalicAngle() It gets the italic angle of this font
LineMetrics getLineMetrics(char[] It gets a LineMetrics object created using the given arguments
chars, int beginIndex, int limit,
FontRenderContext frc)
LineMetrics getLineMetrics It gets a LineMetrics object created using the given arguments
(CharacterIterator ci, int
beginIndex, int limit,
FontRenderContext frc)
LineMetrics getLineMetrics(String It gets a LineMetrics object created using the given string and
str, FontRenderContext frc) FontRenderContext
LineMetrics getLineMetrics(String It gets a LineMetrics object created using the given arguments
str, int beginIndex, int limit,
FontRenderContext frc)
Rectangle2D getMaxCharBounds It gets the bounds for the character with the maximum bounds, as defined
(FontRenderContext frc) in the given FontRenderContext
int getMissingGlyphCode() It gets the glyphCode used when this font does not have a glyph for a
given Unicode code point
String getName() It gets the fonts logical name
int getNumGlyphs() It gets the number of glyphs in this font
java.awt.peer.FontPeer getPeer() It is deprecated. Font rendering is now supposed to be platform-
independent
String getPSName() It gets the postscript name of the font
int getSize() It gets the point size of the font, rounded to an integer
float getSize2D() It gets the point size of this font in a float value
Rectangle2D getStringBounds(char[] It gets the logical bounds of the given array of characters in the given
chars, int beginIndex, int limit, FontRenderContext
FontRenderContext frc)
Rectangle2D getStringBounds It gets the logical bounds of the characters indexed in the given
(CharacterIterator ci, int CharacterIterator in the given FontRenderContext
beginIndex, int limit,
FontRenderContext frc)
Rectangle2D getStringBounds(String It gets the logical bounds of the given string in the given
str, FontRenderContext frc) FontRenderContext
Rectangle2D getStringBounds(String It gets the logical bounds of the given string in the given
str, int beginIndex, int limit, FontRenderContext
FontRenderContext frc)
int getStyle() It gets the style of this font
AffineTransform getTransform() It gets a copy of the transform associated with this font

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Table 9.11: Methods of the Font class

Method Does this
int hashCode() It gets a hashcode for this font
boolean hasLayoutAttributes() It checks whether the font contains attributes requiring extra processing
boolean hasUniformLineMetrics() It checks whether this font has uniform line metrics
boolean isBold() It indicates whether this Font objects style is bold
boolean isItalic() It indicates whether this Font objects style is italic
boolean isPlain() It indicates whether this Font objects style is plain
boolean isTransformed() It indicates whether this Font object has a transform that affects its size in
addition to the Size attribute
GlyphVector layoutGlyphVector It returns a new GlyphVector, performing a complete layout of the text,
(FontRenderContext frc, char[] if possible
text, int start, int limit, int
flags)
String toString() It converts the Font object into a string representation

As if all the methods in Table 9.11 werent enough, therere two another important classes the LayoutPath
class and FontMetrics class. The LayoutPath classs constructor appears in Table 9.12, its methods in
Table 9.13. Heres the inheritance diagram for the LayoutPath class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.font.LayoutPath
The LayoutPath class extends Object. It is used for getting a mapping between locations that are relative to
the baseline and points in the space of user. Along the baseline, an advance of location is coneprised, and an
offset is perpendicular to the baseline at the advance. Locations are represented as a Point2D, where x is the
advance and y is the offset.
Table 9.12: The Constructors of the LayoutPath class
Constructor Does this
LayoutPath() It constructs a new LayoutPath

Table 9.13: Methods of the LayoutPath class

Method Does this
abstract void pathToPoint(Point2D It converts a location relative to the path to a point in user space
location, boolean preceding,
Point2D point)
abstract boolean It converts a point in user coordinates to a location relative to the path
pathToPoint(Point2D point,
Point2D location)

The FontMetrics class tells you about the physical dimensions of fonts. The FontMetrics classs field
appears in Table 9.14, its constructor in Table 9.15, and its methods in Table 9.16. Typically, you use the
FontMetrics class to determine the height of text while displaying multiline text. Its worthwhile going
through the tables in this solution to see whats available when working with fonts.
Table 9.14: The field of the FontMetrics class
Field Does this
protected Font font It determines the font from which the font metrics are created

Table 9.15: The constructor of the FontMetrics class

Constructor Does this
protected FontMetrics (Font font) It creates a new FontMetrics object.

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Table 9.16: Methods of the FontMetrics class

Method Does this
int bytesWidth(byte[] data, int It gets the total advance width for showing the given array of bytes in this
off, int len) font
int charsWidth(char[] data, int It gets the total advance width for showing the given array of characters in
off, int len) this font
int charWidth(char ch) It gets the advance width of the given character in this font
int charWidth(int codePoint) It gets the advance width of the given character in this font
int getAscent() It indicates the font ascent of the font described by this FontMetrics object
int getDescent() It indicates the font descent of the font described by this FontMetrics
object
Font getFont() It gets the font described by this FontMetrics object
int getHeight() It gets the standard height of a line of text in this font
int getLeading() It indicates the standard leading of the font described by this FontMetrics
object
LineMetrics getLineMetrics It gets the LineMetrics object for the given character array and Graphics
(char[] chars, int beginIndex, context
int limit, Graphics context)
LineMetrics getLineMetrics It gets the LineMetrics object for the given CharacterIterator and
(CharacterIterator ci, int Graphics context
beginIndex, int limit,
Graphics context)
LineMetrics getLineMetrics It gets the LineMetrics object for the given string and Graphics context
(String str, Graphics context)
LineMetrics getLineMetrics It gets the LineMetrics object for the given string and Graphics context
(String str, int beginIndex, int
limit, Graphics context)
int getMaxAdvance() It gets the maximum advance width of any character in this font
int getMaxAscent() It indicates the maximum ascent of the font described by this FontMetrics
object
Rectangle2D getMaxCharBounds It gets the bounds for the character with the maximum bounds in the given
(Graphics context) Graphics context
int getMaxDecent() It is deprecated and replaced by getMaxDescent()
int getMaxDescent() It indicates the maximum descent of the font described by this
FontMetrics object
Rectangle2D It gets the bounds of the given array of characters in the given Graphics
getStringBounds(char[] chars, int context
beginIndex, int limit, Graphics
context)
Rectangle2D getStringBounds It gets the bounds of the characters indexed in the given
(CharacterIterator ci, int CharacterIterator and Graphics context
beginIndex, int limit, Graphics
context)
Rectangle2D It gets the bounds of the given string in the given Graphics context
getStringBounds(String str,
Graphics context)
Rectangle2D It gets the bounds of the given string in the given Graphics context
getStringBounds(String str, int
beginIndex, int limit, Graphics
context)
int[] getWidths() It gets the advance widths of the first 256 characters in the font

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Table 9.16: Methods of the FontMetrics class

Method Does this
boolean hasUniformLineMetrics() It checks whether the font has uniform line metrics
int stringWidth(String str) It gets the total advance width for showing the given string in this font
String toString() It gets this FontMetrics objects values as a string

Lets look at an example. In this case, well let the user type characters and display them in Courier font,
centered in the applet, by determining the screen size of the text using the FontMetrics classs
stringWidth() and getHeight() methods, and the width and height of the applet with the applets
getSize() method. Well also let the user specify the size of the text, as well as whether it should be in italics
or bold, and set a Font object accordingly. To actually install the font so that when you print text it appears in
that font, you use a Graphics objects setFont() method. Heres what the applet looks like:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
/* <APPLET
CODE=FontDemo.class
WIDTH=600
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class FontDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener, KeyListener {
String text = "";
Button boldbutton, italicbutton, largebutton;
boolean bold = false;
boolean italic = false;
boolean large = false;
public void init() {
boldbutton = new Button("Bold");
italicbutton = new Button("Italic");
largebutton = new Button("Large");
boldbutton.addActionListener(this);
italicbutton.addActionListener(this);
largebutton.addActionListener(this);
add(boldbutton);
add(italicbutton);
add(largebutton);
addKeyListener(this);
requestFocus(); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
if(event.getSource() == boldbutton) bold = !bold;
if(event.getSource() == italicbutton) italic = !italic;
if(event.getSource() == largebutton) large = !large;
requestFocus();
repaint(); }
public void paint(Graphics g) {
String fontname = "Courier";
int type = Font.PLAIN;
int size = 36;
Font font;
FontMetrics metrics;
if(bold) type = type | Font.BOLD;
if(italic) type = type | Font.ITALIC;
if(large) size = 72;
font = new Font(fontname, type, size);
g.setFont(font);
metrics = getFontMetrics(font);
int xloc = (getSize().width - metrics.stringWidth(text)) / 2;
int yloc = (getSize().height + metrics.getHeight()) / 2;
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g.drawString(text, xloc, yloc); }

public void keyTyped(KeyEvent e) {
text = text + e.getKeyChar();
repaint(); }
public void keyPressed(KeyEvent e) { }
public void keyReleased(KeyEvent e) { }
}
When either all the buttons such as Bold, Italic, and Large are clicked or one at a time, then the entered text
appears centered in the applet with the corresponding attributes, shown in Figure 9.3. Now its time to move on
to working with imagestake a look at the next solution.

Figure 9.3: Using fonts

Using Images
The Big Boss says, About this photo essay you wrote for the company newspaper.... Yes? you ask. Where
are the photos? the BB asks. Hmm, you say, this looks like a job for the Image class. You can support
images in AWT with the Image class, which is derived directly from java.lang.Object:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Image
Images are manipulated using the classes found in the java.awt.image package. Youll find the fields of the
Image class in Table 9.17, its constructor in Table 9.18, and its methods in Table 9.19.
Table 9.17: Fields of the Image class
Field Does this
protected float The priority for accelerating this image
accelerationPriority
static int SCALE_AREA_AVERAGING Use the Area Averaging image-scaling algorithm
static int SCALE_DEFAULT Use the default image-scaling algorithm
static int SCALE_FAST Choose an image-scaling algorithm that gives higher priority to scaling
speed than smoothness
static int SCALE_REPLICATE Use the image-scaling algorithm in the ReplicateScaleFilter class
static int SCALE_SMOOTH Choose an image-scaling algorithm that gives higher priority to scaling
speed than smoothness
static Object UndefinedProperty The UndefinedProperty object should be returned whenever a property
that was not defined for a particular image is requested

Table 9.18: The constructor of the Image class

Constructor Does this
Image() It creates an Image object

Table 9.19: Methods of the Image class

Method Does this
void flush() It flushes all reconstructable resources used by the image

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Table 9.19: Methods of the Image class

Method Does this
float getAccelerationPriority() It returns the current value of the acceleration priority hint
ImageCapabilities getCapabilities It returns an ImageCapabilities object that can be inquired as to the
(GraphicsConfiguration gc) capabilities of the image on given GraphicsConfiguration
abstract Graphics getGraphics() It creates a graphics context for drawing an offscreen image
abstract int getHeight It indicates the height of the image
(ImageObserver observer)
abstract Object getProperty It gets a property of this image by name
(String name, ImageObserver
observer)
Image getScaledInstance(int It creates a scaled version of this image
width, int height, int Hints)
abstract ImageProducer It gets the object that produces the pixels for the image
getSource()
abstract int getWidth It indicates the width of the image
(ImageObserver observer)
void setAccelerationPriority It sets a hint for this image about the importance of acceleration
float priority)

To create an image object, you can use the createImage() method like this:
Image createImage(int width, int height)
Suppose you want to create an instance of Img and then call the createImage() method to actually make an
Image object. This would look like this:
Img m = new Img();
Image test = m.createImage(200, 100);
At this point, the image is blank. To load an image into an applet, you can use the Applet classs getImage()
method:
Image getImage(URL url)
Image getImage(URL url, String name)
Here, you can specify the URL of the image file you want to read using the URL class. You can create a URL
object using the URL classs constructor, like this:
URL("http://www.oracle.com")
Youll learn more about this in the coming chapters. As far as this chapter is concerned, however, well use the
Applet classs getCodeBase() and getDocumentBase() methods to get the URL for the applet itself and
use that as the same location to find the image file.
Heres a short example that just reads in an image, Java8.jpg, and displays it. To read in the image, we use the
getImage() method. To draw the image, we use the Graphics classs drawImage() method. For a lot more
on the Graphics class, see the solution Drawing Graphics, later in this chapter. Heres the form of
drawImage() well use here, which lets you specify the image object to draw and position it in the applet:
boolean drawImage(Image img, int x, int y, ImageObserver observer)
Note that you have to pass an object that implements the ImageObserver interface to drawImage().
ImageObserver objects let you monitor the progress of image-loading operations, and well take a look at them
later in this chapter. Theres a default implementation of this interface in the Applet class, so we just use the
this keyword as the ImageObserver object:
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ImageDemo.class
WIDTH=350
HEIGHT=300>
</APPLET> */

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public class ImageDemo extends Applet {

Image img;
public void init() {
img = getImage(getDocumentBase(), "Java8.jpg"); }
public void paint(Graphics g) { g.drawImage(img, 40, 40, this); }
}
In the init() method, the image returned by getImage()is assigned to the image variable. The getImage()
uses the string Java8.jpg as the filename for the image. The image loads from a URL relative to the result of
getDocumentBase(). This URL is actually the URL of the HTML page this applet tag was in.

Figure 9.4: Displaying an image

The result appears in Figure 9.4, where you can see the loaded image. Of course, theres a lot more you can do
with images. For example, you can resize them (see the next solution).

Resizing Images
The Novice Programmer is working on a graphics program and needs your help. I want to let the user resize
images, the NP says. How the heck does that work? No problem, you say, you just specify the new height
and width of the image in the drawImage() method.
To resize an image, you can use this overloaded version of the Graphics classs drawImage() method, which
lets you specify an images width and height:
drawImage(Image img, int x, int y, int width, int height,
ImageObserver observer)
The ImageObserver object allows you to monitor an image while it loads. Using this object you can perform
other actions, such as show a progress indicator to inform you of the download progress. This kind of
notification helps very much when an image is being loaded over the network.
Heres an example where you just need to press the mouse at one point and release it at another; the applet will
draw the image you saw in the previous solution, resize it to fit the rectangle you have defined:
import java.awt.*;
import java.lang.Math;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ResizeImageDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=300 >
</APPLET> */
public class ResizeImageDemo extends Applet implements MouseListener {
Image img;
boolean mouseUp = false;
Point start, end;
public void init() {

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img = getImage(getDocumentBase(), "Java8.jpg");

addMouseListener(this); }
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent e) {
mouseUp = false;
start = new Point(e.getX(), e.getY()); }
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e) {
mouseUp = true;
end = new Point(Math.max(e.getX(), start.x),
Math.max(e.getY(), start.y));
start = new Point(Math.min(e.getX(), start.x),
Math.min(e.getY(), start.y));
repaint(); }
public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mouseEntered(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mouseExited(MouseEvent e) { }
public void paint (Graphics g) {
if(mouseUp) {
int width = end.x - start.x;
int height = end.y - start.y;
g.drawImage(img, start.x, start.y, width, height, this); }
}
}

Figure 9.5: Resizing an image

The result of this code appears in Figure 9.5, where you can see that we have increased the size of the image
from the previous solution. We have used a few variations of the handy drawImage() method, which is part of
the Graphics class. Now its time to take a look at the Graphics class itself and all it contains (which is a
truckload of methods). See the next solution for the details.

Drawing Graphics
The Big Boss appears in a puff of cigar smoke and says, The design team has come up with a winner program
that I want you to write. What does it do? you ask. It lets the user draw lines, rectangles, and ovals as well as
freehand with the mouse, the BB says. Real cutting-edge stuff, you reply. The real core of AWT graphics is the
huge AWT Graphics class, which is derived directly from java.lang.Object.
Youll find the constructor of this class in Table 9.20 and its methods in Table 9.21.
Table 9.20: The constructor of the Graphics class
Constructor Does this
protected Graphics() It creates a new Graphics object

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Table 9.21: Methods of the Graphics class

Method Does this
abstract void It clears the given rectangle by filling it with the background color of the
clearRect(int x, int y, current drawing
int width, height)
abstract void clipRect It intersects the current clip region with the given rectangle
(int x, int y, int width,
int height)
abstract void copyArea It copies an area of the component as specified by a region given by dx and
(int x, int y, int width, dy
int height, int dx, int dy)
abstract Graphics create() It creates a new Graphics object thats a copy of this one
Graphics create(int x, int y, int It creates a new Graphics object based on this one, but with a new
width, int height) translation and clip area
abstract void dispose() It disposes of this graphics context and releases any used system resources
void draw3DRect(int x, int y, int It draws a 3D highlighted outline of the given rectangle
width, int height, boolean
raised)
abstract void drawArc(int x, int It draws the outline of a circular or elliptical arc covering the given
y, int width, int height, int rectangle
startAngle, int arcAngle)
void drawBytes (byte[] data, int It draws the text indicated by the given byte array
offset, int length, int x, int y)
void drawChars It shows the text given by the given character array
(char[] data, int offset, int
length, int x, int y)
abstract boolean drawImage It draws as much of the given image as is available
(Image img, int x, int y,
Color bgcolor,
ImageObserver observer)
abstract boolean drawImage It dras as much of the given image as is available
(Image img, int x, int y,
ImageObserver observer)
abstract boolean It draws as much of the given image as has already been scaled to fit inside
drawImage(Image img, int the given rectangle
x, int y, int width, int
height, Color bgcolor,
ImageObserver observer)
abstract boolean drawImage It draws as much of the given image as has already been scaled to fit inside
(Image img, int x, int y, the given rectangle
int width, int height,
ImageObserver observer)
abstract boolean drawImage It draws as much of the indicated area of the given image as is currently
(Image img, int dx1, int dy1, int available, scaling it to fit inside the given area
dx2, int dy2, int sx1, int sy1,
int sx2, int sy2, Color bgcolor,
ImageObserver observer)
abstract boolean drawImage It draws as much of the indicated area of the given image as is currently
(Image img, int dx1, int dy1, int available, scaling it to fit inside the given area
dx2, int dy2, int sx1, int sy1,
int sx2, int sy2, ImageObserver
observer)
abstract void drawLine It draws a line, using the current color, between the points (x1, y1) and
(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2) (x2, y2)

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Table 9.21: Methods of the Graphics class

Method Does this
abstract void drawOval(int x, int It draws the outline of an oval
y, int width, int height)
abstract void drawPolygon It draws a closed polygon defined by arrays of x and y coordinates
(int[] xPoints, int[]
yPoints, int nPoints)
void drawPolygon (Polygon p) It draws the outline of a polygon defined by the given Polygon object
abstract void drawPolyline It draws a sequence of connected lines defined by arrays of x and y
(int[] xPoints, int[] coordinates
yPoints, int nPoints)
void drawRect(int x, int y, int It draws the outline of the given rectangle
width, int height)
abstract void drawRoundRect It draws an outlined rounded-cornered rectangle
(int x, int y, int width, int
height, int arcWidth, int
arcHeight)
abstract void drawString It draws the text indicated by the given iterator applying its attributes in
(AttributedCharacterIterator accordance with the specification of TextAttribute class
iterator, int x, int y)
abstract void drawString It draws the text indicated by the given string
(String str, int x, int y)
void fill3DRect(int x, int y, int It paints a 3D highlighted rectangle filled with the current color
width, int height, boolean
raised)
abstract void fillArc(int x, int It fills a circular or elliptical arc covering the given rectangle
y, int width, int height, int
startAngle, int arcAngle)
abstract void fillOval(int x, int It fills an oval bounded by the given rectangle with the current color
y, int width, int height)
abstract void fillPolygon It fills a closed polygon defined by arrays of x and y coordinates
(int[] xPoints, int[] yPoints,
int nPoints)
void fillPolygon (Polygon p) It fills the polygon defined by the given Polygon object with the graphics
contexts current color
abstract void fillRect It fills the given rectangle
(int x, int y, int width, int
height)
abstract void fillRoundRect It fills the given rounded-corner rectangle
(int x, int y, int width, int
height, int arcWidth, int
arcHeight)
void finalize() It handles garbage collection of this graphics context
abstract Shape getClip() It gets the current clipping area
abstract Rectangle It gets the bounding rectangle of the current clipping area
getClipBounds()
Rectangle getClipBounds It gets the bounding rectangle of the current clipping area
(Rectangle r)
Rectangle getClipRect() It is deprecated and replaced by getClipBounds()
abstract Color getColor() It gets this graphics contexts current color
abstract Font getFont() It gets the current font
FontMetrics getFontMetrics() It gets the font metrics of the current font

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Table 9.21: Methods of the Graphics class

Method Does this
abstract FontMetrics It gets the font metrics for the given font
getFontMetrics(Font f)
boolean hitClip(int x, int y, int It returns True if the rectangular area intersects the current clipping area
width, int height)
abstract void setClip(int x, int It sets the current clip to rectangle with given coordinates
y, int width, int height)
abstract void setClip It sets the current clipping area to an arbitrary shape
(Shape clip)
abstract void setColor(Color c) It sets this graphics contexts color to the given color
abstract void setFont (Font font) It sets this graphics contexts font to the given font
abstract void setPaintMode() It sets the paint mode of the graphics context to overwrite the destination
with this graphics contexts current color
abstract void setXORMode It sets the paint mode of the graphics context to alternate between this
(Color c1) graphics contexts current color and the new given color
String to String() It gets a String object representing this Graphics object
abstract void translate It translates the origin of the graphics context to the point (x,y)
(int x, int y)

We are going to put the Graphics class to work here by creating the program the Big Boss wanteda graphics
program that lets the user draw lines, ovals, rectangles, rounded rectangles, and freehand with the mouse, as
shown in Figure 9.6.
The user first picks the color of drawing out of red, gray, or orange by clicking the Red, Gray or Orange buttons.
If no color button is clicked, the drawing takes place in black color. Next, the user clicks a button indicating what
kind of figure he/she wants to draw, which sets a Boolean flag inside the program. When the user presses the
mouse in the drawing area, that location is stored as start, using a Java Point object (which has two data
members: x and y). When the user releases the mouse in a new location, that location is stored as end. Releasing
the mouse also repaints the program, and the user can select what figure to drawa line, oval, rectangle, or
rounded rectanglebetween start and end based on the Boolean flags set by clicking the buttons.

Figure 9.6: Drawing freehand with the mouse

Drawing freehand with the mouse is a little different, though. In that case, we store up to 1,000 points that the
mouse moves over. When its time to draw the figure, we just connect the dots with lines (note that a mouse
event is not generated for each pixel the mouse moves over, so we need to draw lines between the mouse
locations that Java does report). Heres what DrawingGraphicsDemo.

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java looks like (well take a look at the drawing sections in detail in the following pages):
import java.awt.*;
import java.lang.Math;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.awt.Graphics;
import java.applet.Applet;
/* <APPLET
CODE=DrawingGraphicsDemo.class
WIDTH=500
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class DrawingGraphicsDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener,
MouseListener,MouseMotionListener {
Button freeDraw, lineDraw, ovalDraw, rectDraw, roundedDraw;
Button button1, button2, button3;
String color="";
Point dot[] = new Point[1000];
Point start, end;
int dots = 0;
boolean mouseUp = false;
boolean draw = false;
boolean line = false;
boolean oval = false;
boolean rectangle = false;
boolean rounded = false;
public void init() {
lineDraw = new Button("Draw lines");
ovalDraw = new Button("Draw ovals");
rectDraw = new Button("Draw rectangles");
roundedDraw = new Button("Draw rounded rects");
freeDraw = new Button("Draw freehand");
button1 = new Button("Red");
button2 = new Button("Gray");
button3 = new Button("Orange");
add(lineDraw);
add(ovalDraw);
add(rectDraw);
add(roundedDraw);
add(freeDraw);
add(button1);
add(button2);
add(button3);
lineDraw.addActionListener(this);
ovalDraw.addActionListener(this);
rectDraw.addActionListener(this);
roundedDraw.addActionListener(this);
freeDraw.addActionListener(this);
button1.addActionListener(this);
button2.addActionListener(this);
button3.addActionListener(this);
addMouseListener(this);
addMouseMotionListener(this); }
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent e) {
mouseUp = false;
start = new Point(e.getX(), e.getY()); }
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e) {
if(line) { end = new Point(e.getX(), e.getY()); }
else {
end = new Point(Math.max(e.getX(), start.x),
Math.max(e.getY(), start.y));
start = new Point(Math.min(e.getX(), start.x),
Math.min(e.getY(), start.y)); }
mouseUp = true;
repaint(); }
public void mouseDragged(MouseEvent e) {

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if(draw) {
dot[dots] = new Point(e.getX(), e.getY());
dots++;
repaint(); }
}
public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mouseEntered(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mouseExited(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mouseMoved(MouseEvent e) { }
public void paint (Graphics g) {
if(color.equals("red"))g.setColor(Color.red);
if(color.equals("gray"))g.setColor(Color.gray);
if(color.equals("orange"))g.setColor(Color.orange);
if (mouseUp) {
int width = end.x - start.x;
int height = end.y - start.y;
if(line) {
g.drawLine(start.x, start.y, end.x, end.y); }
else if(oval) {
g.drawOval(start.x, start.y, width, height); }
else if(rectangle) {
g.drawRect(start.x, start.y, width, height); }
else if(rounded) {
g.drawRoundRect(start.x, start.y, width, height, 10, 10); }
else if(draw) {
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < dots - 1;loop_index++) {
g.drawLine(dot[loop_index].x, dot[loop_index].y,dot[loop_index + 1].x, dot[loop_index +
1].y); }
}
}
}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
setFlagsFalse();
if(e.getSource() == freeDraw)draw = true;
if(e.getSource() == lineDraw)line = true;
if(e.getSource() == ovalDraw)oval = true;
if(e.getSource() == rectDraw)rectangle = true;
if(e.getSource() == roundedDraw)rounded = true;
if(e.getSource() == button1)color="red";
if(e.getSource() == button2)color="gray";
if(e.getSource() == button3)color="orange";}
void setFlagsFalse() {
rounded = false;
line = false;
oval = false;
rectangle = false;
draw = false; }
}
Now that you know what DrawingGraphicsDemo.java looks like, lets take a look at some of its drawing
functions. All these drawing functions, except for the freehand drawing functions, draw a figure between the
locations start and end, which the user indicates by dragging the mouse.

Drawing Lines
Using a Graphics object, you can draw a line between the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) with the
drawLine() method:
drawLine(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2);
Heres how that looks in DrawingGraphicsDemo.java:
g.drawLine(start.x, start.y, end.x, end.y);
You can see the result in DrawingGraphicsDemo.java in Figure 9.7.

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Figure 9.7: Drawing a line with the mouse

Drawing Ovals
Ellipses, including circles, are called ovals in AWT, and you can draw them with the Graphics classs
drawOval() method:
drawOval(int x, int y, int width, int height);
Heres how ovals are drawn, as specified by the user when running DrawingGraphicsDemo.java:
int width = end.x - start.x;
int height = end.y - start.y;
g.drawOval(start.x, start.y, width, height);
You can see the result in DrawingGraphicsDemo.java, as shown in Figure 9.8.

Figure 9.8: Drawing an oval with the mouse

Drawing Rectangles
You can draw rectangles using the Graphics classs drawRect() method:
drawRect(int x, int y, int width, int height);
Heres how we do it in DrawingGraphicsDemo.java:
int width = end.x - start.x;
int height = end.y - start.y;
g.drawRect(start.x, start.y, width, height);
You can see the result in DrawingGraphicsDemo.java, as shown in Figure 9.9.

Figure 9.9: Drawing a rectangle with the mouse

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Drawing Rounded Rectangles

You can draw rounded rectangles (rectangles with rounded corners that are using the Graphics classs
drawRoundRect() method:
drawRoundRect(int x, int y, int width, int height, int arcWidth, int
arcHeight);
Here, you specify the arc width and height, in pixels, which specifies the rounding of the corners. Heres how we
create a rounded rectangle in DrawingGraphicsDemo.java:
int width = end.x - start.x;
int height = end.y - start.y;
g.drawRoundRect(start.x, start.y, width, height, 10, 10);
You can see the result in DrawingGraphicsDemo.java, as shown in Figure 9.10:

Figure 9.10: Drawing a rounded rectangle with the mouse

Drawing Freehand
You can draw freehand with the mouse using the AWT Graphics class, but youll have to implement it
yourself in code. Heres how we do it in DrawingGraphicsDemo.java using the mouseDragged() method.
After checking to make sure the user is drawing freehand by making sure the draw flag is true, we save all the
mouse locations in an array named dot[] as the mouse is dragged:
public void mouseDragged(MouseEvent e) {
if(draw) {
dot[dots] = new Point(e.getX(), e.getY());
dots++;
repaint(); }
}
Then, when its time to draw the figure, we just connect the dots using lines, like this:
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < dots - 1; loop_index++) {
g.drawLine(dot[loop_index].x, dot[loop_index].y,
dot[loop_index + 1].x, dot[loop_index + 1].y);
}
You can see the result in Figure 9.6 (shown previously).

Drawing Arcs
You can use the Graphics classs drawArc() method to draw arcs (you specify angles in degrees):
drawArc(int x, int y, int width, int height, int startAngle, int arcAngle);

Drawing Polygons
There are a number of ways to draw polygons and multiple-segment lines with AWT:
drawPolygon(int[] xPoints, int[] yPoints, int nPoints);
drawPolygon(Polygon p);
drawPolyline(int[] xPoints, int[] yPoints, int nPoints);

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Setting Drawing Modes

AWT also allows you to alternate between two drawing modesstraight painting mode and XOR modewith
these methods:
setXORMode(Color c1);
setPaintMode();
In painting mode, whatever you paint just covers whats underneath; but in XOR mode, what you draw will be
exclusively ORed with a particular color thats already on the screen. This is very useful, because when you XOR
A with B twice, B is restored, which means you can draw something on the screen and then draw it using XOR
drawing. Then, whatever was on the screen originally is restored. For example, you may want to let the user
stretch the figures he/she is drawing in DrawingGraphicsDemo.java interactively. Heres how to do this:
You let the user draw a figure; then, when the user moves the mouse, you redraw the figure using XOR mode to
erase it. Then you redraw it with its new size.

Selecting Colors
My graphics work has been a little drab, says the Novice Programmer, because everythings appearing in one
colorblack. Well, you say, you can select the drawing color easily enough. No discussion of graphics
would be complete without discussing colors, and you handle colors in AWT with the Color class. Youll find
the fields of this class in Table 9.22, its constructors in Table 9.23, and its methods in Table 9.24.
Table 9.22: Fields of the Color class
static Color black static Color blue static Color cyan
static Color darkGray static Color gray static Color green
static Color lightGray static Color magenta static Color orange
static Color pink static Color red static Color white
static Color yellow static Color BLACK static Color BLUE
static Color CYAN static Color DARK_GRAY static Color GRAY
static Color GREEN static Color LIGHT_GRAY static Color MAGENTA
static Color ORANGE static Color PINK static Color RED
static Color WHITE static Color YELLOW

Table 9.23: Constructors of the Color class

Constructor Does this
Color(ColorSpace cspace, It creates a color in the color space of the supplied ColorSpace with the color
float[] components, float components specified in the float array and alpha
alpha)
Color(float r, float g, float It creates an opaque color with the given red, green, and blue values in the range
b) 0.0 to 1.0
Color(float r, float g, It creates a color with the given red, green, blue, and alpha values in the range 0.0
float b, float a) to 1.0
Color(int rgb) It creates an opaque color with the given combined RGB value, consisting of the
red value in bits 16 to 23, the green value in bits 8 to 15, and the blue value in bits
0 to 7
Color(int rgba, boolean It creates a color with the given combined RGBA value, consisting of the alpha
hasalpha) value in bits 24 to 31, the red value in bits 16 to 23, the green value in bits 8 to 15,
and the blue value in bits 0 to 7
Color(int r, int g, int b) It creates an opaque color with the given red, green, and blue values in the range
0 to 255
Color(int r, int g, int b, It creates a color with the given red, green, blue, and alpha values in the range 0 to
int a) 255

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Table 9.24: Methods of the Color class

Method Does Does this
Color brighter() It makes a brighter version of the color
PaintContext createContext(ColorModel It creates and returns a PaintContext to generate a field pattern in
cm, Rectangle r, solid color
Rectangle2D r2d, AffineTransform
xform,RenderingHints hints)
Color darker() It makes a darker version of the color
static Color decode (String nm) It converts a string to an integer and returns the specified color
boolean equals(Object obj) It determines whether another color is equal to this color
int getAlpha() It gets the alpha value in the range 0 to 255
int getBlue() It gets the blue value in the range 0 to 255
static Color getColor (String nm) It finds a color in the system properties
static Color getColor It finds a color in the system properties
(String nm, Color v)
static Color getColor It finds a color in the system properties
(String nm, int v)
float[] getColorComponents It gets a float array containing the color components of the Color
(ColorSpace cspace, object in the given color space
float[] compArray)
float[] getColorComponents It gets a float array containing the color components (no alpha) of the
(float[]compArray) Color object
ColorSpace getColorSpace() It gets the color space of the Color object
float[] getComponents It gets a float array containing the color and alpha components of the
(ColorSpace cspace, float[] compArray) Color object in the given color space
float[] getComponents It gets a float array containing the color and alpha components of the
(float[] compArray) Color object
int getGreen() It gets the green value
static Color getHSBColor It creates a Color object based on the given HSB values
(float h, float s, float b)
int getRed() It gets the red value
int getRGB() It gets the RGB value representing the color in the default RGB color
model
float[] getRGBColorComponents It gets a float array containing the color components of the Color
(float[] compArray) object in the default color space
float[] getRGBComponents It gets a float array containing the color and alpha components of the
(float[] compArray) Color object, as represented in the default color space
int getTransparency() It returns the transparency mode for this color
int hashCode() It computes the hashcode for this color
static int HSBtoRGB(float hue, float It converts the components of a color, as given by the HSB model, to
saturation, float brightness) an equivalent set of values for the default RGB model
static float[] RGBtoHSB It converts the components of a color, as given by the RGB model, to
(int r, int g, int b, an equivalent set of values for the HSB model
float[] hsbvals)
String toString() It gets a string representation of this color

For example, to create a new color, you can specify red, green, and blue values in the Color classs constructor,
which is shown as:
Color c = new Color(red, green, blue);

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Note that the color values are specified in the range 0 to 255. Now you are free to set this new color as the
drawing color by using setForeground():
setForeground(c);
You can also use predefined colors, such as Color.blue, Color.red, and Color.orange to set the
background color:
setBackground(Color.blue);
You can also fill figures with the color you have specified using Graphics methods, such as fillArc(),
fillOval(), and so on.
The following applet shows various colors and their usage.
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ColorsDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class ColorsDemo extends Applet implements MouseListener{
TextField text1;
Label label1, label2, label3, label4, label5, label6, label7, label8;
Panel panel1;
public void init()
{
text1 = new TextField();
panel1 = new Panel();
label1 = new Label();
label1.setBackground(Color.red);
label1.addMouseListener(this);
label2 = new Label();
label2.setBackground(Color.green);
label2.addMouseListener(this);
label3 = new Label();
label3.setBackground(Color.cyan);
label3.addMouseListener(this);
label4 = new Label();
label4.setBackground(Color.pink);
label4.addMouseListener(this);
label5 = new Label();
label5.setBackground(Color.yellow);
label5.addMouseListener(this);
label6 = new Label();
label6.setBackground(Color.magenta);
label6.addMouseListener(this);
label7 = new Label();
label7.setBackground(Color.orange);
label7.addMouseListener(this);
label8 = new Label();
label8.setBackground(Color.blue);
label8.addMouseListener(this);
panel1.setLayout(new GridLayout(1,8));
panel1.add(label1);
panel1.add(label2);
panel1.add(label3);
panel1.add(label4);
panel1.add(label5);
panel1.add(label6);
panel1.add(label7);
panel1.add(label8);
setLayout(new BorderLayout());
add(text1,BorderLayout.CENTER);
add(panel1,BorderLayout.NORTH);
}

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public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent e) {

if(e.getSource() == label1)text1.setForeground(Color.red);
if(e.getSource() == label2)text1.setForeground(Color.green);
if(e.getSource() == label3)text1.setForeground(Color.cyan);
if(e.getSource() == label4)text1.setForeground(Color.pink);
if(e.getSource() == label5)text1.setForeground(Color.yellow);
if(e.getSource() == label6)text1.setForeground(Color.magenta);
if(e.getSource() == label7)text1.setForeground(Color.orange);
if(e.getSource() == label8)text1.setForeground(Color.blue);
}
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mouseEntered(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mouseExited(MouseEvent e) { }
}
The output of the program is shown here in Figure 9.11. You can see the color of the text in the text field varies
according to the color selected from the displayed colors:

Figure 9.11: Changing color of the text

Using Canvases
The canvas component is specially built to support graphics operations. As the name suggests, canvases provide
you with a blank space for you to draw on, using the Graphics object passed to the paint() method. Heres
the inheritance diagram for the AWT Canvas class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Canvas
Youll find the constructors for this class in Table 9.25 and its methods in Table 9.26.
Table 9.25: Constructors of the Canvas class
Constructor Does this
Canvas() It creates a new canvas
Canvas It creates a new canvas given a GraphicsConfiguration object
(GraphicsConfiguration config)

Table 9.26: Methods of the Canvas class

Method Does this
void addNotify() It creates the peer of the canvas
void createBufferStrategy It creates a new buffer strategy to support multi-buffering on this component
(int numBuffers)
void createBufferStrategy It creates a new buffer strategy to support multi-buffering on this component
(int numBuffers, with the required buffer capabilities
BufferCapabilities caps)

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Table 9.26: Methods of the Canvas class

Method Does this
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with the canvas
getAccessibleContext()
BufferStrategy It returns the BufferStrategy used by this component
getBufferStrategy()
void paint(Graphics g) It paints this canvas
void update(Graphics g) It updates this canvas

One common use for canvases is to support an elementary form of animation, because you can use the AWT
Component classs setLocation() method to move a canvas (or any other component) around. Heres an
applet that does just that when its clicked:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=CanvasDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class CanvasDemo extends Applet implements MouseListener {
DrawingCanvas dc;
Button button1;
public void init() {
dc = new DrawingCanvas();
dc.setSize(260,190);
add(dc);
dc.addMouseListener(this); }
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent e) {}
public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent e) {
for(int index = 0;index < 80;index++) {
dc.setLocation(index, 0); }
}
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mouseEntered(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mouseExited(MouseEvent e) { }
}
class DrawingCanvas extends Canvas {
public void paint (Graphics g) {
g.setColor(new Color(48,58,86));
g.fillRect(50,35,150,119);
g.setColor(new Color(178,98,83));
g.fillRect(80,60,90,70);
}
}
The result appears in Figure 9.12. When you click the the canvas, which displays a small figure, it moves to the
left and then sweeps to the right. Note that because a Graphics object is passed in a canvass paint() method,
you can use any Graphics method in a canvas.

Figure 9.12: Simple animation using a canvas

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Using the ImageObserver Interface

The Product Support Specialist appears and sadly says, There have been complaints about how your program
draws images downloaded from the Internet only part of the image appears at first, and the rest arrives
gradually. Thats the way the Internet works, you say, surprised. Cant you fix it? the PSS asks.
You can use the methods in the ImageObserver interface to watch as images are loaded; as you saw earlier,
you need to indicate an ImageObserver interface when loading an image into an applet and specify the
Applet classs own default implementation of that interface. In this solution, we create our own implementation
of this interface. The ImageObserver interface has only one method, imageUpdate():
boolean imageUpdate(Image img, int infoflags, int x, int y, int width,
int height)
This method is invoked whenever information about an image thats being loaded asynchronously becomes
available. Here are the flags passed in the infoflags parameter in the imageUpdate() method:
ABORTIt indicates that an image that was being tracked is aborted before its production was complete.
ALLBITSIt indicates the completion of a static image that was drawn previously and can be redrawn in its
final form.
ERRORIt indicates that an image that was being tracked has encountered an error.
FRAMEBITSIt indicates another complete frame that belongs to a multiframe image and is available to be
redrawn presently.
HEIGHTIt indicates that the height of the base image is now available (and can be read from the height
argument of the imageUpdate() method).
PROPERTIESIt indicates that the properties of the image are now available.
SOMEBITSIt indicates that more pixels for drawing the scaled version of image are available.
WIDTHIt indicates that the width of the base image is now available (and can be read from the width
argument of the imageUpdate() method).
The imageUpdate() method returns True if further updates are required and False if you have received the
information you want. Heres an example in which we just override the imageUpdate() method to call
repaint to display an image, but only when its completely loaded:
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ObserverDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=250 >
</APPLET> */
public class ObserverDemo extends Applet {
Image image;
public void init() { image = getImage(getDocumentBase(), "Java8.jpg"); }
public void paint(Graphics g) { g.drawImage(image, 20, 20, this); }
public boolean imageUpdate(Image img, int flags, int x, int y,
int w, int h) {
if ((flags & ALLBITS) != 0) { repaint(x, y, w, h); }
return (flags & ALLBITS) == 0; }
}
The result is shown in Figure 9.13, where the image appears only after it has been fully loadedno flickering
involved at all.
Programmers have told Sun that they find the ImageObserver interface to be too complex, especially when
dealing with multiple downloads; therefore, Sun created the MediaTracker class (see the next solution).

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Figure 9.13: Using an ImageObserver interface

Using the MediaTracker Class

Earlier Java developers could neither comprehend the ImageObserver interface nor manage when there were
multiple images to be loaded. Sun Microsystems saw the problem and then came out with a simpler solution
that could allow programmers to load images synchronouslyMediaTracker. The MediaTracker class
provides an easy way (easier than using ImageObserver objects) to monitor the downloading of images. To
start, you just pass the addImage() method an image as well as an ID you want to use for that image (you can
use the same ID for a number of images if you want to keep track of them in a group):
void addImage(Image image, int id)
void addImage(Image image, int id, int w, int h)
Here image is the image being tracked and id is its identification number. The id numbers may not be unique. In
the other form, w and h represent the dimensions of the object when it is displayed.
You can check whether an image or image group has finished loading with the checkID() method, like this:
boolean checkID(int id)
boolean checkID(int id, boolean load)
This method returns True if the image or image group concerned has finished loading; otherwise, False is
returned. You can also use the waitForAll() method to return only when all the images being tracked have
been loaded.

If you use MediaTracker once and call the addImage() method on an image, its garbage collection will not take place due to the
reference in MediaTracker. Therefore, if you want the garbage collection of tracked images, ensure that the collector can collect
the MediaTracker instance as well.

Youll find the fields of the MediaTracker class in Table 9.27, its constructor in Table 9.28, and its methods in
Table 9.29.
Table 9.27: Fields of the MediaTracker class
Field Does this
static int ABORTED It indicates that the downloading of media was aborted
static int COMPLETE It indicates that the downloading of media was completed
static int ERRORED It indicates that the downloading of media encountered an error
static int LOADING It indicates media is currently being loaded

Table 9.28: The constructor of the MediaTracker class

Constructor Does this
MediaTracker(Component comp) It creates a media tracker to track images for a given component

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Table 9.29: Methods of the MediaTracker class

Method Does this
void addImage It adds an image to the images being tracked by this media tracker
(Image image, int id)
void addImage(Image image, int id, It adds a scaled image to the list of images being tracked by this media
int w, int h) tracker
boolean checkAll() It checks to see whether all images being tracked by this media tracker have
finished loading
boolean checkAll (boolean load) It checks to see whether all images tracked by this media tracker have
finished loading
boolean checkID(int id) It checks to see whether all images tracked by this media tracker that are
tagged with the given identifier have finished loading
boolean checkID It checks to see whether all images tracked by this media tracker that are
(int id, boolean load) tagged with the given identifier have finished loading
Object[] getErrorsAny() It gets a list of media that have encountered an error
Object[] getErrorsID (int id) It gets a list of media with the given ID that have encountered an error
boolean isErrorAny() It checks the error status of all the images
boolean isErrorID(int id) It checks the error status of all the images tracked by this media tracker
with the given identifier
void removeImage (Image image) It removes the given image from this media tracker
void removeImage It removes the given image with the given tracking ID from this media
(Image image, int id) tracker
void removeImage It removes the given image with the given width, height, and ID from this
(Image image, int id, int media tracker
width, int height)
int statusAll(boolean load) It returns the bitwise inclusive OR of the status of all media tracked by this
media tracker
int statusID It returns the bitwise inclusive OR of the status of all media with the given
(int id, boolean load) identifier that are tracked by this media tracker
void waitForAll() It starts loading all images tracked by this media tracker
boolean waitForAll(long ms) It starts loading all images tracked by this media tracker
void waitForID(int id) It starts loading all images tracked by this media tracker with the given
identifier
boolean waitForID(int id, long ms) It starts loading all images tracked by this media tracker with the given
identifier

Heres an example. In this case, we use the waitForAll() method to wait until an image is fully loaded (note
the try/catch statement, which is there to handle exceptions youll see this in more detail later in this book):
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=TrackMedia.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=250 >
</APPLET> */
public class TrackMedia extends Applet {
Image image;
public void init() {
MediaTracker tracker = new MediaTracker(this);
image = getImage(getDocumentBase(), "Java8.jpg");
tracker.addImage(image, 0);
try { tracker.waitForAll(); }
catch (InterruptedException ex) { }

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}
public void paint(Graphics g) { g.drawImage(image, 20, 20, this); }
}
The results appear in Figure 9.14.

Figure 9.14: Using a MediaTracker

Working Pixel by Pixel: The PixelGrabber and

MemoryImageSource Classes
OK, says the Novice Programmer, there are few things I want to do graphically that I can only do by gaining
direct access to the pixels in an image. Guess I cant use Java for that. Of course you can, you say. The NP
says, Tell me more!
You can use PixelGrabber objects to place the pixels from an image into an array and thus gain direct access
to those pixels. In other words, it is the inverse of the MemoryImageSource. While a MemoryImageSource
class creates a new image from an array of data, a PixelGrabber takes an existing image and grabs the pixel
array from it.
Heres the inheritance diagram for the PixelGrabber class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.image.PixelGrabber
Youll find the constructors for the PixelGrabber class in Table 9.30 and the methods for this class in
Table 9.31.
Table 9.30: Constructors of the PixelGrabber class
Constructor Does this
PixelGrabber(Image img, int x, It creates a PixelGrabber object to grab the (x, y, w, h) section of
int y, int w, int h, boolean pixel from the given image
forceRGB)
PixelGrabber(Image img, int x, It creates a PixelGrabber object to grab the (x, y, w, h) section of
int y, int w, int h, int[] pix, pixels from the given image and places them in an array
int off, int scansize)
PixelGrabber(ImageProducer ip, It creates a PixelGrabber object to grab the (x, y, w, h) rectangular
int x, int y, int w, int h, int[] section of pixels from the image produced by the image producer into the
pix, int off, int scansize) given array

Table 9.31: Methods of the PixelGrabber class

Method Does this
void abortGrabbing() It asks the PixelGrabber object to abort the image fetch

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Table 9.31: Methods of the PixelGrabber class

Method Does this
ColorModel getColorModel() It gets the color model for the pixels in the array
int getHeight() It gets the height of the pixel buffer (after adjusting for image height)
Object getPixels() It gets the pixel buffer
int getStatus() It gets the status of the pixels
int getWidth() It gets the width of the pixel buffer (after adjusting for image width)
boolean grabPixels() It requests the image or image producer to start delivering pixels and wait
for all of the pixels in the rectangle of interest to be delivered
boolean grabPixels(long ms) It requests the image or image producer to start delivering pixels and wait
for all the pixels in the rectangle of interest to be delivered or wait until the
given timeout has elapsed
void imageComplete This is part of the ImageConsumer API, which this class must implement to
(int status) retrieve the pixels
void setColorModel This is part of the ImageConsumer API, which this class must implement to
(ColorModel model) retrieve the pixels
void setDimensions This is part of the ImageConsumer API, which this class must implement to
(int width, int height) retrieve the pixels
void setHints(int hints) This is part of the ImageConsumer API, which this class must implement to
retrieve the pixels
void setPixels(int srcX, int This is part of the ImageConsumer API, which this class must implement to
srcY, int srcW, int srcH, retrieve the pixels
ColorModel model, byte[] pixels,
int srcOff, int srcScan)
void setPixels(int srcX, int This is part of the ImageConsumer API, which this class must implement to
srcY, int srcW, int srcH, retrieve the pixels
ColorModel model, int[] pixels,
int srcOff, int srcScan)
void setProperties This is part of the ImageConsumer API, which this class must implement to
(Hashtable<?,?> props) retrieve the pixels
void startGrabbing() It asks the PixelGrabber to start fetching pixels
int status() It returns the status of the pixels

To create an image from an array of pixels, you can use the MemoryImageSource class. The inheritance
diagram for this class looks like this:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.image.MemoryImageSource
Youll find the constructors for the MemoryImageSource class in Table 9.32 and the methods for this class in
Table 9.33.
Table 9.32: Constructors of the MemoryImageSource class
Constructor Does this
MemoryImageSource(int w, int h It creates an ImageProducer object that uses an array of bytes to produce
ColorModel cm, byte[] pix, int the data for an Image object
off, int scan)
MemoryImageSource(int w, int h, It creates an ImageProducer object that uses an array of bytes to produce
ColorModel cm, byte[] pix, int the data for an Image object
off, int scan, Hashtable<?,?>
props)

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Table 9.32: Constructors of the MemoryImageSource class

Constructor Does this
MemoryImageSource(int w, int h, It creates an ImageProducer object that uses an array of integers to
ColorModel cm,int[] pix, int off, produce the data for an Image object
int scan)
MemoryImageSource(int w, int h, It creates an ImageProducer object that uses an array of integers to
ColorModel cm, int[] pix, int produce the data for an Image object
off, int scan, Hashtable<?,?>
props)
MemoryImageSource(int w, int h, It creates an ImageProducer object that uses an array of integers in the
int[] pix, int off, int scan) default RGB color model to produce the data for an Image object
MemoryImageSource(int w, int h, It creates an ImageProducer object that uses an array of integers in the
int[] pix, int off, int scan, default RGB color model to produce the data for an Image object
Hashtable<?,?> props)

Table 9.33: Methods of the MemoryImageSource class

Method Does this
void addConsumer It adds an ImageConsumer object to the list of consumers interested in data
(ImageConsumer ic) for this image
boolean isConsumer It indicates whether an ImageConsumer object is on the list of consumers
(ImageConsumer ic) interested in data for this image
void newPixels() It sends a whole new buffer of pixels to any ImageConsumer objects
interested in data for this image and notify them of completion of an
animation frame
void newPixels(byte[] It changes to a new byte array to hold the pixels for this image
newpix, ColorModel
newmodel, int offset, int
scansize)

void newPixels (int[] newpix, It changes to a new integer array to hold the pixels for this image
ColorModel newmodel, int offset,
int scansize)
void newPixels(int x, It sends a rectangular region of the buffer of pixels to ImageConsumer
int y, int w, int h) objects interested in data for this image and notify them of completion of an
animation frame
void newPixels(int x, int y, int It sends a rectangular region of the buffer of pixels to ImageConsumer
w, int h, boolean framenotify) objects interested in data for this image
void removeConsumer It removes an ImageConsumer object from the list of consumers interested
(ImageConsumer ic) in data for this image
void It requests that the image data be delivered one more time in top-down, left-
requestTopDownLeftRightResend(Ima right order
geConsumer ic)
void setAnimated It changes this memory image into a multiframe animation or a single-frame
(boolean animated) static image
void setFullBufferUpdates It indicates whether this animated memory image should always be updated
(boolean fullbuffers) by sending the complete buffer of pixels whenever there is a change
void startProduction It adds an ImageConsumer object to the list of consumers and starts
(ImageConsumer ic) delivery of the image data

Heres an example using the PixelGrabber and MemoryImageSource classes. In this case, we just read in an
image and copy it to a new image object. We do this by loading in the image we have used in the previous
examples in this chapter, which are 230 by 218 pixels. First, we load the image into img1 variable; place the
pixels in that image into an array named pixels using a PixelGrabber objects grabPixels() method; and

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then create a new image, img2, using a MemoryImageSource object and the Applet classs createImage()
method:
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.image.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=CopierDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=250 >
</APPLET> */
public class CopierDemo extends Applet {
Image img1, img2;
public void init() {
img1 = getImage(getDocumentBase(), "Java8.jpg");
int pixels[] = new int[230 * 218];
PixelGrabber grabber = new PixelGrabber(img1, 0, 0, 230, 218,pixels, 0, 230);
try { grabber.grabPixels(); }
catch (InterruptedException e) {}
img2 = createImage(new MemoryImageSource(230, 218, pixels, 0,230)); }
public void paint(Graphics g) { g.drawImage(img2, 10, 10, this); }
}
Thats all there is to itnow the image is copied into img2 and displayed. Now that we have access to the pixels
in the image, well do a few more things with the image, such as brightening it, as discussed in the next solution.

Brightening Images
You can brighten images just by increasing their red, green, and blue color values by the same amount. In the
following code, we add 80 to each color value:
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.image.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=BrightDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=250 >
</APPLET> */
public class BrightDemo extends Applet {
Image img1, img2;
public void init() {
img1 = getImage(getDocumentBase(), " Java8.jpg");
int pixels[] = new int[230 * 218];
PixelGrabber grabber = new PixelGrabber(img1, 0, 0, 230,218, pixels, 0, 230);
try { grabber.grabPixels(); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
for (int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 485 * 88; loop_index++) {
int p = pixels[loop_index];
int red = (0xff & (p >> 16)) + 80;
int green = (0xff & (p >> 8)) + 80;
int blue = (0xff & p) + 80;
if (red > 255) red = 255;
if (green > 255) green = 255;
if (blue > 255) blue = 255;
pixels[loop_index] = (0xff000000 | red << 16 | green << 8 |blue); }
img2 = createImage(new MemoryImageSource(230, 218, pixels, 0,230)); }
public void paint(Graphics g) { g.drawImage(img2, 10, 10, this); }
}
The result appears in Figure 9.15. Now we are really manipulating images in code.

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Figure 9.15: Brightening Image

Converting Images to Grayscale

The Grayscale file is derived from RGBImageFilter. It computes the brightness of a pixel by taking as input
the values of red, green, and blue colors, and returns a gray pixel, which has same brightness as the source, as
output. The output produced is in accordance with the NTSC (National Television Standards Committee) color-
to-brightness conversion factor.
You can also convert images to grayscale by averaging the red, green, and blue color values for each pixel. Here,
we convert the image, Java8.jpg, to grayscale. Heres how this looks in code:
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.image.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=GrayscaleDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=250 >
</APPLET> */
public class GrayscaleDemo extends Applet {
Image img1, img2;
public void init() {
img1 = getImage(getDocumentBase(), "Java8.jpg");
int pixels[] = new int[230 * 218];
PixelGrabber grabber = new PixelGrabber(img1, 0, 0, 230, 218,pixels, 0, 230);
try { grabber.grabPixels(); }
catch (InterruptedException e) {}
for (int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 230 * 218; loop_index++) {
int p = pixels[loop_index];
int red = (0xff & (p >> 16));
int green = (0xff & (p >> 8));
int blue = (0xff & p);
int avg = (int) ((red + green + blue) / 3);
pixels[loop_index] = (0xff000000 | avg << 16 | avg << 8 | avg); }
img2 = createImage(new MemoryImageSource(230, 218, pixels, 0,230)); }
public void paint(Graphics g) { g.drawImage(img2, 10, 10, this); }
}
The result appears in Figure 9.16. Of course, seeing a grayscale image in this figure might not be too convincing
in a book full of black-and-white images.

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 Immediate Solutions

Figure 9.16: Converting an image to grayscale

Embossing Images
Embossing is a powerful effect in which images appear to be raised from the viewing surface; well take a look at
this effect here. Embossing images is most convenient when you work in terms of a two-dimensional array.
However, the PixelGrabber and MemoryImageSource classes only work with one-dimensional arrays, so
well simulate two-dimensional addressing by multiplying and adding array indexes in this example. Here, we
emboss the Java8.jpg image you saw in the previous solution:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.image.*;
import java.applet.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=EmbossDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=300 >
</APPLET> */
public class EmbossDemo extends Applet {
Image img1, img2;
public void init() {
img1 = getImage(getDocumentBase(), "Java8.jpg");
int pixels[] = new int[248 * 248];
PixelGrabber grabber = new PixelGrabber(img1, 0, 0, 248, 248,pixels, 0, 248);
try { grabber.grabPixels(); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
for (int x = 2; x < 247; x++) {
for (int y = 2; y < 247; y++) {
int red = ((pixels[(x + 1) * 248 + y + 1] & 0xFF) -(pixels[x * 248 + y] & 0xFF)) + 128;
int green = (((pixels[(x + 1) * 248 + y + 1] & 0xFF00) /0x100) % 0x100 - ((pixels[x *
248 + y] & 0xFF00) /0x100) % 0x100) + 128;
int blue = (((pixels[(x + 1) * 248 + y + 1] & 0xFF0000) / 0x10000) % 0x100 - ((pixels[x *
248 + y] & 0xFF0000) / 0x10000) % 0x100) + 128;
int average = (red + green + blue) / 3;
pixels[x * 248 + y] = (0xff000000 | average << 16 | average << 8 | average); } }
img2 = createImage(new MemoryImageSource(248, 248, pixels, 0,248));
}
public void paint(Graphics g) { g.drawImage(img2, 10, 10, this); }
}

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Chapter 9: AWTGraphics, Images, Text, and Fonts

Figure 9.17: Embossing an image

The result appears in Figure 9.17. As you can see, the figure does indeed appear as though it were embossed.

Summary
In this chapter, we introduced you to the concepts of graphics, images, texts, fonts, and input devices followed
by their usage. You learned how to draw the graphics (lines, rectangles, or arcs) and resize the images. Later, you
learned the use of ImageObserver interface and the MediaTracker class. Toward the end, the chapter
helped you to develop applications to brighten the images and convert them to grayscale with embossing of
those images.
The next chapter discusses about AWT- windows, menus, and dialog boxes.

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 10
AWTWindows, Menus,
and Dialog Boxes
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Creating Frame Windows 318
Showing and Hiding Windows 319
Handling Window Events 320
Automatically Hiding Windows upon Closing 323
Using the Window Class 323
Creating Menus 330
Creating a MenuBar Object 331
Creating Menu Objects 332
Creating MenuItem Objects 333
Handling Menu Events 335
More Menu Options 336
Adding Menu Separators 338
Disabling Menu Items 338
Adding Checkboxes to Menus 339
Creating Submenus 341
Pop-Up Menus 342
Dialog Boxes 344
File Dialog Boxes 348

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Chapter 10: AWTWindows, Menus, and Dialog Boxes

In Depth
This chapter is all about taking the next step beyond creating controls in AWT programs. In this chapter, well
create and display AWT windows and see all that goes into the process, using the AWT Window and Frame
classes. Well also look at how to use the Dialog class to create dialog boxes and the FileDialog class to
create file dialog boxes for specifying a file. This is also where well take a look at menus, because in AWT
programming, you need a window before you can display menus. First, well take a brief look at all these items
in overview.

Windows
Windows, of course, are the foundation of GUI programming. Just about everything having to do with the user
interface in a graphical environment happens in a window, and every GUI user is familiar with windows. You
host the components that make up an applet or windowed application in windows, and there are three types of
windows available to AWT programmers. The first type of window is the applet window, where the Applet
class manages the window itself, and automatically creates and handles the window. You can also create frame
windows, which are what you normally think of as windows. A frame window supports a frame around a
window, a title bar, minimize, maximize, and close buttons. Well create one here using the Frame class.

When you launch a frame window from an applet, Java adds a warning sign on the top right side of the window for security
purposes. The message Java Applet Window appears as a tooltip when you bring the mouse pointer over
that sign.

Theres another window class you can usethe Window class. This class just presents a blank windowno title
bar, no frame, just a blank rectangle. You are responsible for displaying what you want in these windows. As
you might expect, the Frame class is derived from the Window class. Paradoxically, however, you cant create a
direct Window object in your own programs unless you already have a frame window, because the publicly
available Window constructor requires you to pass either a Frame window object or another Window object.

Menus
Every GUI user knows about menusthey are those indispensable controls that hide all the options a program
can present by category. Imagine if all the options a word processor could present were available as buttons,
visible all at once there would be no space to enter text. Menus let you store those options away in a compact
way. This is a very attractive GUI technique, because space is always at a premium in windowed environments.
In AWT programming, you need a frame window to use menus. You create a MenuBar object and add that
menu bar to a frame window with the windows setMenuBar() method. You also create objects of the Menu
class to create the individual menus (such as File, Edit, and so on) that appear in the menu bar, and you create
objects of the MenuItem class to create the actual items in each menu (such as New, Open, Help, Exit, and
so on).
You can also support some nice options in menussubmenus that open when you select a menu item and
checkboxes that let you toggle menu items on and off (such as Automatic Spell Checking and View Toolbar).
Well look at all this in the chapter.

Dialog Boxes
Windowed programs frequently use dialog boxes to get user input, such as the name of a file to open, a
password, or a color thats selected from many colors. Like the other visual elements in this chapter, dialog
boxes are familiar to nearly all GUI users. You use dialog boxes when you want to get user input but dont want
to display a dedicated control, such as a text field, at all times for that option in your main window. That is,
dialog boxes are temporary windows you can fill with controls for user input.

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 In Depth

Youll see two types of dialog boxes in this chapter, as supported by the Dialog and FileDialog classes. You
use the Dialog class as a base class for the dialog boxes you create and customize, as youll see here. On the
other hand, you dont usually need to derive a class from the FileDialog classthis class presents a file dialog
box, which the user can use to select a file. The methods and data members of this class are sufficient for most
file-selection purposes, and all you need to do is to instantiate an object of this class and use it. Youll see all this
in the chapter, too.
Thats it. Now you have an overview of whats in this chapter. Now, lets turn to the Immediate Solutions
section.

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Chapter 10: AWTWindows, Menus, and Dialog Boxes

Immediate Solutions
Creating Frame Windows
OK, says the Novice Programmer, Im working on my word processor in Java and want to present various
views of the documenteach view is a window into a different place in the document. What do you think?
You say, I think you should think about letting the user launch new frame windows.
You have already seen the Frame window class in this book, because you use that class as the foundation of
applications in AWT programming. Heres the inheritance diagram for Frame class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____java.awt.Window
|____java.awt.Frame
You can see the constructors and methods of this class in Chapter 6, in Tables 6.4 and 6.5 respectively. Well
create a frame window over the next few solutions, showing and hiding it as needed, giving it a size, adding
controls to it, and handling events in it. To start, well create a new class, FrameDemo, based on the Frame
class, and well display a label with the text Kogent Learning Solutions First, we declare this new class by
extending the Frame class:
import java.awt.*;
class FrameDemo extends Frame { . . . }
Next, we create a constructor for the class. We are going to use the Frame class constructor, which takes a title
for the window. Therefore, we add a title parameter to the constructor and pass that back to the Frame class,
like this:
import java.awt.*;
class FrameDemo extends Frame {
FrameDemo(String title) {
super(title);
. . . }
}
Heres an important point: The default layout manager in frame windows is the BorderLayout manager
(unlike applet windows, which use the FlowLayout manager). Note that this applies for both frame windows
you display from applets and frame windows you use in windowed applications. If you want to use a different
layout manager, you have to set it yourself. In this case, we install a flow layout manager by using the
setLayout() method, like this:
import java.awt.*;
class FrameDemo extends Frame {
FrameDemo(String title) {
super(title);
setLayout(new FlowLayout());
. . . }
}
Now we are ready to create a label and add it to the layout:
import java.awt.*;
class FrameDemo extends Frame {
Label label1;
FrameDemo(String title) {
super(title);
setLayout(new FlowLayout());
label1 = new Label("Kogent Learning Solutions!");
add(label1); }
}
That completes the Frame window classthe next step is to display it. See the following solution for details.

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 Immediate Solutions

Showing and Hiding Windows

I have created a Frame window class, the Novice Programmer says. Now how do I display a window of that
class on the screen? Thats not so hard, you say. After giving the window a size, you just use the
setVisible() method.
Heres the Frame window class, FrameDemo, we developed in the previous solution:
import java.awt.*;
class FrameDemo extends Frame {
Label label1;
FrameDemo(String title) {
super(title);
setLayout(new FlowLayout());
label1 = new Label("Kogent Learning Solutions");
add(label1); }
}
Well launch this window from an applet. To do that, we display a text field for user to enter text. Heres how we
add the text field in the applet:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ShowHideFrame.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class ShowHideFrame extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextField text1;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(30);
add(text1);
text1.addActionListener(this);
. . . }
}
Now well create a new object of the FrameDemo class, giving it the title Java Frame :
public class ShowHideFrame extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextField text1;
FrameDemo frame;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(30);
add(text1);
text1.addActionListener(this);
frame = new FrameDemo("Java Frame");
. . .
}
Before you can display a window, you must give it a size, using the setSize() method; otherwise, it wont
appear on the screen. Heres how we use setSize() to give this window the dimensions 300 by 200 pixels:
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(30);
add(text1);
text1.addActionListener(this);
frame = new FrameDemo("Java Frame");
frame.setSize(300, 200);
}

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Chapter 10: AWTWindows, Menus, and Dialog Boxes

The new window object is ready to go. To display the window, we can use the setVisible() method. We pass
it a value True to display the window and False to hide the window. Heres what this looks like for the two
buttons in this applet:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String text = text1.getText();
if(text.equalsIgnoreCase("show")){ frame.setVisible(true); }
else if(text.equalsIgnoreCase("hide")){ frame.setVisible(false); }
else text1.setText("Please enter either show or hide to show/hide frame");
}
Thats all thats needed. Now the applet is ready to go, as you can see in Figure 10.1. When you enter show in
the text field, the frame window appears, with warning sign on the top right side of the window (which is not
visible when you use a frame window in an application), as you can see in the figure. When you type hide in
the text field and press the Enter key, the window disappears from the screen.

Figure 10.1: Displaying a frame window

Handling Window Events

Hmm, says the Novice Programmer, I have put three hundred buttons in a frame window; but when I click
them, nothing happens. You smile and say, Do you handle button click events in your frame window? Uh-
oh, says the NP.
You can handle events in windows just as you can handle them anywhereby implementing the methods of
listener interfaces or by using adapter classes. Heres an example in which we handle window events in the
frame window developed over the previous two solutions by implementing the methods in the
WindowListener interface and display appropriate message in the text field. Heres the code:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
/* <APPLET
CODE=WindowEventDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class WindowEventDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener{
TextField text1;
FrameDemo frame;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(30);
add(text1);
text1.addActionListener(this);
frame = new FrameDemo("Handling Window Events",this); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String text = text1.getText();
if(text.equalsIgnoreCase("show")){ frame.setVisible(true); }
else if(text.equalsIgnoreCase("hide")){ frame.setVisible(false); }

320
 Immediate Solutions

else text1.setText("Please enter either show or hide to show/hide frame");}

}
class FrameDemo extends Frame implements WindowListener {
Label label1;
WindowEventDemo demo;
FrameDemo(String title, WindowEventDemo we) {
super(title);
demo = we;
setLayout(new FlowLayout());
label1 = new Label("Kogent Learning Solutions!");
add(label1);
addWindowListener(this);
setSize(300,200);
}
public void windowDeactivated(WindowEvent e){demo.text1.setText("Window Deactivated"); }
public void windowActivated(WindowEvent e){demo.text1.setText("Window Activated"); }
public void windowDeiconified(WindowEvent e){}
public void windowIconified(WindowEvent e){}
public void windowClosed(WindowEvent e){ }
public void windowOpened(WindowEvent e){demo.text1.setText("Window Opened"); }
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e){}
}
The result appears in Figure 10.2. As you can see in the figure, the frame window now handles
WindowListener events, and appropriate message is displayed in the text field. Note that weve given the
body of only three methods, windowDeactivated(), windowActivated(), and windowOpened(). You can
always provide the body of other methods too as per your requirement. Thats it.

Figure 10.2: Handling window events in a frame window

There are events specific to windowsthat is, theres an entire WindowListener interface, and you can see the
methods of this interface in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: Methods of the WindowListener interface
Methods Does this
void windowActivated It is called when the window is set to the users active window, which
(WindowEvent e) means the window will receive keyboard events
void windowClosed It is called when a window has been closed as a consequence of calling
(WindowEvent e) dispose method on the window
void windowClosing It is called when the user closes the window from the windows system
(WindowEvent e) menu
void windowDeactivated It is called when a window is no longer the users active window
(WindowEvent e)
void windowDeiconified It is called when a window is changed from a minimized to a normal state
(WindowEvent e)

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Table 10.1: Methods of the WindowListener interface

Methods Does this
void windowIconified It is called when a window is changed from a normal to a minimized state
(WindowEvent e)
void windowOpened It is called the first time a window is made visible
(WindowEvent e)

Note that you can also use the WindowAdapter class to handle window events; this class already implements
all the methods of the WindowListener interface, and you just override the methods you want to use. The
methods of the WindowListener interface and WindowAdapter class are passed an object of the
WindowEvent class. Youll find the fields of this class in Table 10.2, its constructor in Table 10.3, and its methods
in Table 10.4.
Table 10.2: Fields of the WindowEvent class
Field Does this
static int WINDOW_ACTIVATED Window activated event
static int WINDOW_CLOSED Window closed event
static int WINDOW_CLOSING Window closing event
static int WINDOW_DEACTIVATED Window deactivated event
static int WINDOW_DEICONIFIED Window deiconified event
static int WINDOW_FIRST The first number in the range of IDs used for window events
static int WINDOW_GAINED_FOCUS Window getfocus event
static int WINDOW_ICONIFIED Window iconified event
static int WINDOW_LAST The last number in the range of IDs used for window events
static int WINDOW_LOST_FOCUS Window lostfocus event
static int WINDOW_OPENED Window opened event
static int WINDOW_STATE_CHANGED Window statechange event

Table 10.3: The constructor of the WindowEvent class

Constructor Does this
WindowEvent(Window source, int id) It creates a WindowEvent object
WindowEvent(Window source, int id, It creates a WindowEvent object with the specified previous and new
int oldState, int newState) window states
WindowEvent(Window source, int id, It creates a WindowEvent object with the specified opposite Window
Window opposite)
WindowEvent(Window source, int id, It creates a WindowEvent object with specified parameters
Window opposite, int oldState, int
newState)

Table 10.4: Methods of the WindowsEvent class

Method Does this
int getNewState() It returns the new state of the window for WINDOW_STATE_CHANGED event
int getOldState() It returns the old state of the window for WINDOW_STATE_CHANGED event
Window getOppositeWindow() It returns the other Window involved in this focus or activation change
Window getWindow() It gets the originator of the event
String paramString() It gets a parameter string identifying this event

We put one of the WindowListener interface methods to workthe windowClosing eventin the next
solution.

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 Immediate Solutions

Automatically Hiding Windows upon Closing

Hey, says the Novice Programmer, Javas gone all wacky again. When I try to close a frame window, nothing
happens. Im emailing Oracle about itwhat a bug! Its not a bug, you say. Its just up to you to close a
window yourself, thats all. Oh, says the NP, how does that work?
To close a frame window when the user clicks the close button in the upper-right corner of the title bar, you can
handle the windowClosing event. Here, we are using an anonymous adapter inner class to do it (see Chapter 6
for more details). In this case, we are just hiding the window when the user clicks the close button:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
class FrameDemo extends Frame {
Label label1;
FrameDemo(String title) {
super(title);
setLayout(new FlowLayout());
label1 = new Label("Kogent Learning Solutions!");
add(label1);
addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {public void
windowClosing(WindowEvent e) { setVisible(false); } });
}
}
Heres something useful to note: When you close a window this way, it still exists as an object, which means you
can still access its methods and data members. This will be useful when we are working with dialog boxes and
want to retrieve the data the user entered.

Using the Window Class

I want to customize the appearance of my windows entirely, the Novice Programmer says. Im going to
display the works of the old painting masters and want to make the frame look like a real gilt painting frame.
Hmm, you say, sounds like a big seller. You should use the Window class and customize it.
You can use the Window class to create an entirely blank window thats ready to be customized. Youll find the
constructors for the Window class in Table 10.5 and its methods in Table 10.6.
Table 10.5: Constructors of the Window class
Constructor Does this
Window(Frame owner) It creates a new invisible window with the given frame as its owner
Window(Window owner) It creates a new invisible window with the given window as its owner
Window(Window owner, It creates a new invisible window with the given window as its owner and a
GraphicsConfiguration gc) graphic configuration of a screen device

Table 10.6: Methods of the Window class

Method Does this
void addNotify() It makes the window displayable by creating the connection to its native
screen resource
void addPropertyChangeListener It adds a property change listener to the listener list
(PropertyChangeListner listener)
void addPropertyChangeListener It adds a property change listener to the listener list for a specific property
(String propertyName,
PropertyChangeListner listener)
void addWindowFocusListener It adds the given window focus listener to receive window events from this
(WindowFocusListener l) window
void addWindowListener It adds the given window listener to receive window events from this
(WindowListener l) window

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Table 10.6: Methods of the Window class

Method Does this
void addWindowStateListener It adds the given window state listener to receive window events from this
(WindowStateListener l) window
void applyResourceBundle It is deprecated, replaced by
(ResourceBundle rb) Component.applyComponentOrientation(ComponentOrientation)
void applyResourceBundle It is deprecated, replaced by
(String rbName) Component.applyComponentOrientation(ComponentOrientation)
void createBufferStrategy It creates a new strategy to support multi-buffering on this component
(int numBuffers)
void createBufferStrategy It creates a new strategy to support multi-buffering on this component with
(int numBuffers, the required buffer capabilities
BufferCapabilities caps)
void dispose() It releases all the native screen resources used by this window, its
subcomponents, and all of its owned children
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this window
getAccessibleContext()
Color getBackground() It gets the background color of this window
BufferStrategy It returns the BufferStrategy used by this component
getBufferStrategy()
boolean getFocusableWindowState() It returns True when this window can become the focused window and meet
the other requirements outlined in the isFocusableWindow, otherwise it
returns False
Container getFocusCycleRoot It gets the returns null as windows has no ancestors (they represent the top
Ancestor() of component hierarchy)
Component getFocusOwner() It gets the child component of this window, which has focus if this window
is active otherwise returns null
Set <AWTKeyStroke> It gets a focus traversal key for this window
getFocusTraversalKeys (int id)
List<Image> getIconImages() It gets the sequence of images to be displayed as icon for this window
InputContext getInputContext() It gets the input context for this window
<T extends EventListener>T[] It returns an array of all objects currently registered as FooListeners upon
getListeners(Class<T> this window
listenerType)
Locale getLocale() It gets the Locale object associated with this window, if the locale has been
set
Dialog.ModalExclusionType It gets the modal exclusion type of this window
getModalExclusionType()
Component It gets the child component of this window that will receive the focus when
getMostRecentFocusOwner() this window is focused
float getOpacity() It returns the opacity of the window
Window[] getOwnedWindows() It returns an array containing all the windows currently owned by this
window
Window getOwner() It gets the owner of this window
static Window[] It returns an array containing all the windows created by this application
getOwnerlessWindows() that have no owner
Shape getShape() It returns the shape of this window
Toolkit getToolkit() It gets the frames toolkit
Window.Type getType() It returns the type of the window
String getWarningString() It gets the warning string displayed with this window

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 10.6: Methods of the Window class

Method Does this
WindowFocusListener[] It returns an array of all the windows focus listeners registered on this
getWindowFocusListeners() window
WindowListener[] It returns an array of all the windows listeners registered on this window
getWindowListeners()
static Window[] getWindows() It returns an array of all windows (both owned and ownerless) that are
created by this application
WindowStateListener[] It returns an array of all the windows state listeners registered on this
getWindowStateListeners() window
void hide() It is deprecated and replaced by setVisible(boolean)
boolean isActive() It checks whether this window is active
boolean isAlwaysOnTopSupported() It checks whether or not the always-on-top mode is supported for this
window
boolean isAutoRequestFocus() It checks whether this window should receive the focus on being shown
subsequently or when it is moved to the front
boolean isFocusableWindow() It checks whether this window or any of its child components can become
the focus owner
boolean isFocusCycleRoot() It always returns True as all windows are roots of a focus traversal cycle
boolean isFocused() It checks whether this window is focused
boolean isLocationByPlatform() It returns True if this window will appear at the default location for the
native windowing system the next time this window is visible
boolean isOpaque() It checks if this window is currently opaque
boolean isShowing() It checks if this window is showing on the screen
boolean isValidateRoot() It checks whether this container is a validate root
void pack() It causes this window to be sized to fit the preferred size and layout of its sub
components
void paint(Graphics g) It paints the container
boolean postEvent(Event e) It is deprecated and replaced by dispatchEvent(AWTEvent)
protected void processEvent It processes events on this window
(AWTEvent e)
protected void processWindowEvent It processes window events occurring on this window by sending them to
(WindowEvent e) any registered WindowListener objects
protected void It processes window focus event occurring on this window by sending them
processWindowFocusEvent to any registered WindowFocusListener objects
(WindowEvent e)
protected void It processes window state event occurring on this window by sending them
processWindowStateEvent to any registered WindowStateListener objects
(WindowEvent e)
void removeNotify() It makes this container undisplayable by removing its connection to its native
screen resource
void removeWindowFocusListener It removes the given window focus listener so that it no longer receives
(WindowFocusListener l) window events from this window
void removeWindowListener It removes the given window listener so that it no longer receives window
(WindowListener l) events from this window
void removeWindowStateListener It removes the given window state listener so that it no longer receives
(WindowStateListener l) window events from this window

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Table 10.6: Methods of the Window class

Method Does this
void reshape(int x, int y, int It is deprecated and replaced by setBounds(int, int, int, int)
width, int height)
void setAlwaysOnTop(Boolean It sets whether this window should always be on top of other windows or
alwaysOnTop) not
void setAutoRequestFocus(boolean It sets whether this window should receive the focus on being shown
autoRequestFocus) subsequently or when it is moved to the front
void setBackground(Color bgColor) It sets the background color of this window
void setBounds(int x, int y, int It moves and resizes this component
width, int height)
void setBounds(Rectangle r) It moves and resizes this component to conform to the new bounding
rectangle
void setCursor It sets the cursor image to a given cursor
(Cursor cursor)
void setFocusableWindowState It sets whether this window can become the focused window if it meets the
(boolean focusableWindowState) other requirements outlined in the isFocusableWindow,
void setFocusCycleRoot(boolean It doesnt do anything as windows must always be roots of a focus traversal
focusCycleRoot) cycle
void setIconImage(Image image) It sets the image which is displayed as icon image for this window
void setIconImages(List<? Extends It sets the sequence of images to be displayed as icon for this window
Image> icons)
void setLocation(int x, int y) It moves the component to a new location
void setLocation(Point p) It moves the component to a new location
void It sets whether this window should appear at the default location for the
setLocationByPlatform(boolean native windowing system or at the current location
locationbyPlatform)
void setLocationRelativeTo It sets the location of this window relative to the specified component
(Component c)
void It sets the minimum size of this window to a constant value
setMinimumSize(Dimension
minimumSize)
void setModalExclusionType It sets the modal exclusion type for this window
(Dialog.ModalExclusionType
exclusionType)
void setOpacity It sets the opacity of this window
(float opacity)
void setShape(Shape shape) It sets the shape of this window
void setSize(Dimension d) It resizes this component so that it has width d.width and height
d.height
void setSize(int width, int It resizes this component so that it has width width and height height
height)
void setType(Window.Type type) It sets the type of the window
void setVisible(boolean b) It sets the visibility of this window
void show() It is deprecated and replaced by setVisible(boolean
void toBack() It sends this window to the back (if this window is visible) or may cause it to
lose focus or activation if it is the focused or active window
void toFront() It brings this window to the front(if this window is visible) and may make it
a focused window

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 Immediate Solutions

Lets look at an example. In this case, we create a new window class named WindowDemo that displays a label
with the text Kogent Learning Solutions! we start by declaring this new class:
class WindowDemo extends Window { . . . }
We have to pass the Window classs constructor a Frame window object or another Window object. To make
things simpler, we use this new window in an application, so well pass the main Frame window object to the
WindowDemo classs constructor and then pass that object back to the Window classs constructor, like this:
class WindowDemo extends Window {
Label label1;
WindowDemo(ShowHideWindow shw) {
super(shw);
. . . }
}
As is the case with frame windows, the default layout manager here is a border layout manager, so well set a
flow layout and display the label with its message, Kogent Learning Solutions!, in the window:
class WindowDemo extends Window {
Label label1;
WindowDemo(ShowHideWindow shw) {
super(shw);
setLayout(new FlowLayout());
label1 = new Label("Kogent Learning Solutions!");
add(label1); }
. . .
}
Windows of the Window class are simply blank white spaces, so well also override the paint() method of this
window to add a very simple framejust a rectangle like this (note that we can determine the dimensions of
the window with the getSize() method, the same as with applets):
class WindowDemo extends Window {
Label label1;
WindowDemo(ShowHideWindow shw) {
super(shw);
setLayout(new FlowLayout());
label1 = new Label("Kogent Learning Solutions!");
add(label1); }
public void paint(Graphics g) {
int width = getSize().width;
int height = getSize().height;
g.drawRect(0, 0, --width, --height); }
}
That completes the WindowDemo class. Well put this class to work in an application now. In this case, well just
instantiate an object of the class and set its size this is required before the window can be displayed. Well also
set its screen location using setLocation() method, because theres currently no way for the user to move
this window when it appears; and if we just show it with the setVisible() method, itll appear at (0, 0) on the
screen, which is at the extreme upper-left corner. When the user enters show in the text field, the window
appears, and when the user enters hide, the window gets disappeared. Heres the code:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class ShowHideWindow extends Frame implements ActionListener{
TextField text1;
WindowDemo window;
ShowHideWindow(){
text1 = new TextField(30);
text1.addActionListener(this);
add(text1);
window = new WindowDemo(this);
window.setSize(300, 200);
window.setLocation(300, 300);
setSize(300,200);

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setVisible(true);
}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(text1.getText().equalsIgnoreCase("show"))window.setVisible(true);
if(text1.getText().equalsIgnoreCase("hide"))window.setVisible(false); }
public static void main(String args[]){ new ShowHideWindow(); }

}
class WindowDemo extends Window {
Label label1;
WindowDemo(ShowHideWindow shw) {
super(shw);
setLayout(new FlowLayout());
label1 = new Label("Kogent Learning Solutions!");
add(label1); }
public void paint (Graphics g) {
int width = getSize().width;
int height = getSize().height;
g.drawRect(0, 0, --width, --height); }
}
You can see the result in Figure 10.3. As you can see in this figure, the window appears with its minimal border
and the label control, which displays a message.

Figure 10.3: Creating a window of the Window class

Here is another example. In this case, we create a class ListenerWindow extended from Frame and will also
implement WindowListener:
import java.awt.event. *;
class ListenerWindow extends Frame implements WindowListener { . . . }
To complete the implementation of the windows listener, well override the methods:
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent event) { }
public void windowClosed(WindowEvent event) { }
public void windowDeiconified(WindowEvent event) { }
public void windowIconified(WindowEvent event) { }
public void windowActivated(WindowEvent event) { }
public void windowDeactivated(WindowEvent event) { }
public void windowOpened(WindowEvent event) { }
Similarly we can implement other listeners of window class like windowFocusListener:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
class ListenerWindow extends Frame implements WindowListener,
WindowFocusListener, WindowStateListener {
final static String line = "\n";
TextArea text1;
public ListenerWindow(String title) {
super(title);
text1 = new TextArea(5,20);
text1.setEditable(false);

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ScrollPane scrollPane = new ScrollPane();

scrollPane.setSize(new Dimension(300,250));
scrollPane.add(text1);
add(scrollPane);
addWindowListener(this);;
addWindowFocusListener(this);
addWindowStateListener(this);
setSize(400,400);
setVisible(true); }
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {
text1.append("WindowListener(Closing) method called." + line); }
public void windowClosed(WindowEvent e) {
text1.append("WindowListener(Closed) method called" + line); }
public void windowOpened(WindowEvent e) {
text1.append("WindowListener(Opened) method called" + line); }
public void windowIconified(WindowEvent e) {
text1.append("WindowListener(Iconfied) method called." + line); }
public void windowDeiconified(WindowEvent e) {
text1.append("WindowListener(Deiconified) method called." + line); }
public void windowActivated(WindowEvent e) {
text1.append("WindowListener(Activated) method called" + line); }
public void windowDeactivated(WindowEvent e) {
text1.append("WindowListener(Deactivated) method called" + line); }
public void windowGainedFocus(WindowEvent e) {
text1.append("WindowFocusListener(GainedFocus) method called" + line); }
public void windowLostFocus(WindowEvent e) {
text1.append("WindowFocusListener(LostFocus) method called" + line); }
public void windowStateChanged(WindowEvent e) {
text1.append( "WindowStateListener(StateChanged) method called"+
line); }
}
public class WindowListenerDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
ListenerWindow wl=new ListenerWindow ("Windows Event Handling"); }
}
The result of the code is displayed in Figure 10.4.

Figure 10.4: Windows Listener events

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Chapter 10: AWTWindows, Menus, and Dialog Boxes

Creating Menus
OK, says the Novice Programmer, I have been waiting to ask you this one. Oh boy, you say. The NP asks,
How do I create menus? You sit back and say, Better get some coffee.
You can add AWT menus to Frame class windows using three AWT classes: MenuBar, Menu, and MenuItem.
We list the details for these classes here. The first class you use is the MenuBar class, which adds a menu bar to a
frame window. After you have added a menu bar to a frame window, you can add menus, such as a File menu
and an Edit menu, to that menu bar using the Menu class. Finally, you add menu items to the menus in your
program using the MenuItem class.
Well create and use menus over the next few solutions while developing an applet named MenuDemo.java,.
This applet will display a frame window with a menu in it. Heres the applet:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
/* <APPLET
CODE=MenuDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class MenuDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener{
TextField text1;
MenuFrame frame;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(30);
add(text1);
text1.addActionListener(this);
frame = new MenuFrame("Menu Frame");
frame.setSize(300,200); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String text = text1.getText();
if(text.equalsIgnoreCase("show")){ frame.setVisible(true); }
else if(text.equalsIgnoreCase("hide")){ frame.setVisible(false); }
else text1.setText("Please enter either show or hide");}
}
class MenuFrame extends Frame implements ActionListener {
Menu menu1;
MenuBar menubar1;
MenuItem item1, item2, item3;
Label label1;
MenuFrame(String title) {
super(title);
label1 = new Label();
add(label1);
menubar1 = new MenuBar();
menu1 = new Menu("Food Items");
item1 = new MenuItem("Pizza");
menu1.add(item1);
item1.addActionListener(this);
item2 = new MenuItem("Burger");
menu1.add(item2);
item2.addActionListener(this);
item3 = new MenuItem("Idli");
menu1.add(item3);
item3.addActionListener(this);
menubar1.add(menu1);
setMenuBar(menubar1);
}
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 Immediate Solutions

public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {

if(e.getSource() == item1) {
label1.setText("You ordered Pizza"); }
if(e.getSource() == item2) {
label1.setText("You ordered Burger"); }
if(e.getSource() == item3) {
label1.setText("You ordered Idli"); }
}
}
You can see this applet at work in Figure 10.5. The menu work in this applet takes place in the class we have
named MenuFrame.

Figure 10.5: Applet showing menu system

We develop this class throughout the examples shown in the next few solutions.

Creating a MenuBar Object

Im ready to create a menu system in my frame window, says the Novice Programmer. Where do I start?
You say, You start by creating a MenuBar object. Sit down and Ill show you how.
To create a menu bar in a frame window, you use the MenuBar class. Heres the inheritance diagram for the
MenuBar class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.MenuComponent
|___java.awt.MenuBar
Youll find the constructor for the MenuBar class in Table 10.7 and its methods in Table 10.8.
Table 10.7: The constructor of the MenuBar class
Constructor Does this
MenuBar() It creates a new menu bar

Table 10.8: Methods of the MenuBar class

Method Does this
Menu add(Menu m) It adds the given menu to the menu bar
void addNotify() It creates the menu bars peer
int countMenus() It is deprecated and replaced by getMenuCount()
void deleteShortcut It deletes the given menu shortcut
(MenuShortcut s)
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this menu bar
getAccessibleContext()
Menu getHelpMenu() It gets the help menu on the menu bar
Menu getMenu(int i) It gets the given menu

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Table 10.8: Methods of the MenuBar class

Method Does this
int getMenuCount() It gets the number of menus on the menu bar
MenuItem getShortcutMenuItem It gets the instance of MenuItem associated with the given MenuShortcut
(MenuShortcut s) object
void remove(int index) It removes the menu located at the given index from this menu bar
void remove (MenuComponent m) It removes the given menu component from this menu bar
void removeNotify() It removes the menu bars peer
void setHelpMenu(Menu m) It sets the help menu on this menu bar to be the given menu
Enumeration<MenuShortcut> It gets an enumeration of all menu shortcuts managed by this menu bar
shortcuts()

Heres how we create a menu bar in the frame window of the MenuDemo.java applet introduced in the
Creating Menus solution (note that we install the menu bar in the frame window with the Frame classs
setMenuBar() method):
class MenuFrame extends Frame implements ActionListener {
MenuBar menubar1;
Label label1;
MenuFrame(String title) {
super(title);
label1 = new Label();
add(label1);
menubar1 = new MenuBar();
. . .
setMenuBar(menubar1); }
}
All this does, however, is display a blank menu barits time to add some menus to the menu bar. See the next
solution for details.
You can find the process of Creating a Menu Bar in detail in Chapter 16.

Creating Menu Objects

Well, says the Novice Programmer, I have found that after creating a new menu bar, nothing appears in it.
How do I add menus to my menu bar? Thats easy. you say, Just use the Menu class. You create the
individual menus in a menu bar with the Menu class. Heres the inheritance diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.MenuComponent
|____java.awt.MenuItem
|____java.awt.Menu
Youll find the Menu classs constructors in Table 10.9 and its methods in Table 10.10.
Table 10.9: Constructors of the Menu class
Constructor Does this
Menu() It creates a new menu
Menu(String label) It creates a new menu with the given label
Menu(String label, boolean It creates a new menu with the given label, indicating whether the menu can
tearOff) be torn off

Table 10.10: Methods of the Menu class

Method Does this
MenuItem add(MenuItem mi) It adds the given menu item to this menu
void add(String label) It adds an item with the given label to this menu

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Table 10.10: Methods of the Menu class

Method Does this
void addNotify() It creates the menus peer
void addSeparator() It adds a separator line or a hyphen, to the menu at the current position
int countItems() It is deprecated and replaced by getItemCount()
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this menu
getAccessibleContext()
MenuItem getItem(int index) It gets the item located at the given index
int getItemCount() It gets the number of items in this menu
void insert (MenuItem menuitem, It inserts a menu item into this menu at the given position
int index)
void insert(String label, int It inserts a menu item with the given label into this menu at the given
index) position
void insertSeparator(int index) It inserts a separator at the given position
boolean isTearOff() It indicates whether this menu is a tear-off menu
String paramString() It gets the parameter string representing the state of this menu
void remove(int index) It removes the menu item at the given index from this menu
void remove (MenuComponent item) It removes the given menu item from this menu
void removeAll() It removes all items from this menu
void removeNotify() It removes the menus peer

Heres how we created a Food Items menu in the MenuDemo.java applet and added that menu to the menu
bar (note that we name the menu simply by passing the name to the Menu classs constructor):
class MenuFrame extends Frame implements ActionListener {
Menu menu1;
MenuBar menubar1;
Label label1;
MenuFrame(String title) {
super(title);
label1 = new Label();
add(label1);
menubar1 = new MenuBar();
menu1 = new Menu("Food Items");
. . .
menubar1.add(menu1);
setMenuBar(menubar1); }
}

One powerful way of creating menus is as tear-off menus, which you do by using the third form of the Menu constructor in Table
10.9. Users can tear off these menus with the mouse and place them where they like.

You can find the process of Creating a Menu in detail in Chapter 16.

Creating MenuItem Objects

The Novice Programmer is back and says, Hey, I have created a new menu. How would I add menu items to
that menu? Its not so hard, you say, you just use the MenuItem class.
Each menu item you add to an AWT menu is actually an object of the MenuItem class. Heres the inheritance
diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.MenuComponent
|____java.awt.MenuItem

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Youll find the constructors for the MenuItem class in Table 10.11 and its methods in Table 10.12.
Table 10.11: Constructors of the MenuItem class
Constructor Does this
MenuItem() It creates a new menu item without any label or keyboard shortcut
MenuItem(String label) It creates a new menu item with the given label and no keyboard shortcut
MenuItem(String label, It creates a menu item with an associated keyboard shortcut
MenuShortcut s)

Table 10.12: Methods of the MenuItem class

Method Does this
void addActionListener It adds the given action listener to receive action events from this menu
(ActionListener l) item
void addNotify() It creates the menu items peer
void deleteShortcut() It deletes any MenuShortcut object associated with this menu item
void disable() It is deprecated and replaced by setEnabled(boolean)
protected void It disables event delivery to this menu item for events defined by the
disableEvents(long specified event mask parameter
eventsToDisable)
void enable() It is deprecated and replaced by setEnabled(boolean)
void enable(boolean b) It is deprecated and replaced by setEnabled(boolean)
protected void enableEvents It enables event delivery to this menu item for events defined by the
(long eventsToEnable) specified event mask parameter
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this menu item
getAccessibleContext()
String getActionCommand() It gets the command name of the action event thats caused by this menu
item
ActionListener[] It gets an array of all the action listeners registered on this menu item
getActionListeners()
String getLabel() It gets the label for this menu item
<T extends EventListener>T[] It gets an array of all objects currently registered as FooListeners upon
getListeners(Class<T> this menu item
listenerType)
MenuShortcut getShortcut() It gets the MenuShortcut object associated with this menu item
boolean isEnabled() It checks whether this menu item is enabled
String paramString() It gets the parameter string representing the state of this menu item
protected void processActionEvent It processes action events occurring on this menu item by sending them to
(ActionEvent e) any registered ActionListener objects
protected void It processes events on this menu item
processEvent(AWTEvent e)
void removeActionListener It removes the given action listener so that it no longer receives action
(ActionListener l) events from this menu item
void setActionCommand It sets the command name of the action event thats fired by this menu item
(String command)
void setEnabled(boolean b) It sets whether this menu item can be chosen
void setLabel(String label) It sets the label for this menu item to the given label
void setShortcut (MenuShortcut s) It sets the MenuShortcut object associated with this menu item

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 Immediate Solutions

To add a menu item to a menu, you just create a new MenuItem object, pass the name of new item to the
MenuItem constructor, and then use the Menu objects add() method to add the new item to a menu. Heres an
example in which we added items to the Food Items menu in the MenuDemo.java applet:
class MenuFrame extends Frame implements ActionListener {
Menu menu1;
MenuBar menubar1;
MenuItem item1, item2, item3;
Label label1;
MenuFrame(String title) {
super(title);
label1 = new Label("Hello Java!");
add(label1);
menubar1 = new MenuBar();
menu1 = new Menu("Food Items");
item1 = new MenuItem("Pizza");
menu1.add(item1);
item2 = new MenuItem("Burger");
menu1.add(item2);
item3 = new MenuItem("Idli");
menu1.add(item3);
menubar1.add(menu1);
setMenuBar(menubar1); }
}

Java menu items support shortcuts, which you can create by using the third form of the MenuItem constructor in Table 10.11.
Users can access menu items with shortcuts using the keyboard.

This is all fine as far as it goes, except that nothing happens when these menu items are clicked. To learn how to
support menu events, see the next solution.
You can find the process of Creating a Menu Item in detail in Chapter 16.

Handling Menu Events

The Novice Programmer is back and says, Well, I have set up my entire menu system, but theres a problem.
Nothing happens when I click the items in my menus. Thats because you have to add an action listener to
each item, you say, smiling. Oh, says the NP.
You use action listeners with menu items, just as you do with buttons. Heres an example in which we enable
menu event handling in the MenuDemo.java applet. In this case, we indicate which menu item the user selected
by displaying a message in a label. First, we add an action listener to each menu item:
class MenuFrame extends Frame implements ActionListener {
Menu menu1;
MenuBar menubar1;
MenuItem item1, item2, item3;
Label label1;
MenuFrame(String title) {
super(title);
label1 = new Label();
add(label1);
menubar1 = new MenuBar();
menu1 = new Menu("Food Items");
item1 = new MenuItem("Pizza");
menu1.add(item1);
item1.addActionListener(this);
item2 = new MenuItem("Burger");
menu1.add(item2);
item2.addActionListener(this);
item3 = new MenuItem("Idli");

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menu1.add(item3);
item3.addActionListener(this);
menubar1.add(menu1);
setMenuBar(menubar1);
}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == item1) {
label1.setText("You ordered Pizza"); }
else if(e.getSource() == item2) {
label1.setText("You selected Burger"); }
else if(e.getSource() == item3) {
label1.setText("You selected Idli"); }
}
}
Thats it. Now the user can run the MenuDemo.java applet and report on the items he/she selected, as shown
in Figure 10.5. Its worth noting that although we used the ActionEvent classs getSource() method to
determine which menu item was clicked in this solution, you can also give each menu item an action command
with the setActionCommand() method as we did for buttons in Chapter 7and use the ActionEvent
classs getActionCommand() method to read the action command.

More Menu Options

In the previous few solutions, we created an applet, MenuDemo.java, that examined the basic construction of a
menu system. In the following few solutions, well elaborate that menu system to include menu separators,
disabled menu items, checkbox menu items, and submenusall in a new applet called AdvancedMenu.java.
Heres is the code for AdvancedMenu.java:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=AdvancedMenu.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class AdvancedMenu extends Applet implements ActionListener {
TextField text1;
MenuFrame frame;
public void init() {
text1 = new TextField(30);
add(text1);
text1.addActionListener(this);
frame = new MenuFrame("Menus");
frame.setSize(300, 200); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String text = text1.getText();
if(text.equalsIgnoreCase("show")){ frame.setVisible(true); }
else if(text.equalsIgnoreCase("hide")){ frame.setVisible(false); }
else text1.setText("Please enter either show or hide");}
}
class MenuFrame extends Frame implements ActionListener, ItemListener {
Menu menu1, submenu1;
MenuBar menubar1;
Label label1;
MenuItem item1, item2, item4;
MenuItem subitem1, subitem2, subitem3;
CheckboxMenuItem item3;
MenuFrame(String title) {
super(title);
label1 = new Label();

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 Immediate Solutions

add(label1);
menubar1 = new MenuBar();
menu1 = new Menu("Food Items");
item1 = new MenuItem("Pizza");
item1.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(item1);
item2 = new MenuItem("Burger");
item2.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(item2);
menu1.addSeparator();
item3 = new CheckboxMenuItem("Idli");
item3.addItemListener(this);
menu1.add(item3);
menu1.addSeparator();
submenu1 = new Menu("Cold Drinks");
subitem1 = new MenuItem("Pepsi");
subitem2 = new MenuItem("Limca");
subitem3 = new MenuItem("Coke");
subitem1.addActionListener(this);
subitem2.addActionListener(this);
subitem3.addActionListener(this);
item2.addActionListener(this);
item2.addActionListener(this);
submenu1.add(subitem1);
submenu1.add(subitem2);
submenu1.add(subitem3);
menu1.add(submenu1);
menu1.addSeparator();
item4 = new MenuItem("Exit");
item4.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(item4);
menubar1.add(menu1);
setMenuBar(menubar1);
}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == item1) {
label1.setText("You ordered Pizza"); }
else if(e.getSource() == item2) {
item2.setEnabled(false);
label1.setText("You ordered Burger"); }
else if(e.getSource() == subitem1) {
label1.setText("You ordered Pepsi"); }
else if(e.getSource() == subitem2) {
label1.setText("You ordered Limca"); }
else if(e.getSource() == subitem3) {
label1.setText("You ordered Coke"); }
else if(e.getSource() == item4) {
setVisible(false); }
}
public void itemStateChanged (ItemEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == item3) {
if(((CheckboxMenuItem)e.getItemSelectable()).getState())
label1.setText("You ordered Idli");
else { label1.setText("Idli not ordered"); }
}
}
}
You can see this applet in Figure 10.6. Well develop the various new aspects of this applet,
AdvancedMenu.java, over the next few solutions, as youll see how to handle its various parts in code.

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Figure 10.6: Applet showing a menu system

Adding Menu Separators

You can combine menu items into groups using menu separatorsthe thin horizontal lines that appear in menus
(refer back to Figure 10.6). Adding a menu separator to a menu is easyyou just use the addSeparator()
method, like this:
MenuFrame(String title) {
super(title);
label1 = new Label();
add(label1);
menubar1 = new MenuBar();
menu1 = new Menu("Food Items");
item1 = new MenuItem("Pizza");
item1.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(item1);
item2 = new MenuItem("Burger");
item2.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(item2);
menu1.addSeparator();
. . .
}
Using addSeparator() produces the menu separators you see in Figure 10.6.

Disabling Menu Items

Ugh that Johnson, the Novice Programmer says, has been messing around with my program again by
selecting menu items that dont apply, such as spell checking when the program was drawing graphics. It
crashed my program right in front of the Big Boss! Hmm, you say, how about disabling menu items when
they are not appropriate? The NP smiles and says, Now, Ill show that to silly Johnson!
When you disable a menu item, the menu item is displayed in gray and cannot be selected or clicked. To disable
a menu item, you use that items setEnabled() method, passing the method a value of False. For example, we
can disable the second menu item in AdvancedMenu.java when the user clicks it, like this:
class MenuFrame extends Frame implements ActionListener {
Menu menu1, submenu1;
MenuBar menubar1;
Label label1;
MenuItem item1, item2, item4;
MenuItem subitem1, subitem2, subitem3;
CheckboxMenuItem item3;
MenuFrame(String title){
super(title);
label1 = new Label();

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add(label1);
menubar1 = new MenuBar();
menu1 = new Menu("Food Items");
item1 = new MenuItem("Pizza");
item1.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(item1);
item2 = new MenuItem("Burger");
item2.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(item2);
menubar1.add(menu1);
setMenuBar(menubar1); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == item1) {
label1.setText("You ordered Pizza"); }
else if(e.getSource() == item2) {
item2.setEnabled(false);
label1.setText("You ordered Burger"); }
}
}
The result appears in Figure 10.7, where you can see the disabled menu item:

Figure 10.7: Showing a disabled menu item

Now that the item is disabled, the user has no way to click it again to enable it.

Adding Checkboxes to Menus

The Product Support Specialist is back and unhappy. Theres a problem in your new application, the PSS says,
because the user has no way of knowing whether the Auto-translate to German menu option is on or off, and
the results can prove to be pretty startling. Hmm, you say. I suppose I can add a checkbox to that menu
option to show when its in effect.
You can create menu items that display checkmarks next to them to indicate when specific options are in effect.
Also, you can toggle a checkmark when the user selects the corresponding menu item. To support checkmarks in
menu items, use the CheckboxMenuItem class, which has the following inheritance diagram:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.MenuComponent
|____java.awt.CheckboxMenuItem
Youll find the constructors for CheckboxMenuItem in Table 10.13 and its methods in Table 10.14.
Table 10.13: Constructors of the CheckboxMenuItem class
Constructor Does this
CheckboxMenuItem() It creates a checkbox menu item without any label
CheckboxMenuItem(String label) It creates a checkbox menu item with the given label
CheckboxMenuItem(String label, It creates a checkbox menu item with the given label and state
boolean state)

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Table 10.14: Methods of the CheckboxMenuItem class

Method Does this
void addItemListener It adds the given item listener to receive item events from this checkbox
(ItemListener l) menu item
void addNotify() It creates the peer of the checkbox item
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this CheckboxMenuItem
getAccessibleContext()
ItemListener[] getItemListeners() It returns an array of all the item listeners on this checkbox menu item
<T extends EventListener>T[] It returns an array of all the listeners currently registered as FooListeners
getListeners upon this checkbox menu item
(Class<T> listenerType)
Object[] getSelectedObjects() It gets an array (of length 1) containing the checkbox menu item label
boolean getState() It determines whether the state of this checkbox menu item is on or off
String paramString() It gets a string representing the state of this checkbox menu item
protected void processEvent It processes events on this checkbox menu item
(AWTEvent e)
protected void processItemEvent It processes item events occurring in this checkbox menu item by sending
(ItemEvent e) them to any ItemListener objects
void removeItemListener It removes the given item listener so that it no longer receives item events
(ItemListener l) from this checkbox menu item
void setState(boolean b) It sets this checkbox menu item to the specified state

Note that you use item listeners, not action listeners, with checkbox menu items. Heres how we add a
checkmark item to the applet AdvnancedMenu.java using an ItemListener object:
class MenuFrame extends Frame implements ActionListener, ItemListener {
Menu menu1, submenu1;
MenuBar menubar1;
Label label1;
MenuItem item1, item2, item4;
MenuItem subitem1, subitem2, subitem3;
CheckboxMenuItem item3;
MenuFrame(String title) {
super(title);
label1 = new Label();
add(label1);
menubar1 = new MenuBar();
menu1 = new Menu("Food Items");
item1 = new MenuItem("Pizza");
item1.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(item1);
item2 = new MenuItem("Burger");
item2.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(item2);
menu1.addSeparator();
item3 = new CheckboxMenuItem("Idli");
item3.addItemListener(this);
menu1.add(item3);
. . .
menubar1.add(menu1);
setMenuBar(menubar1);
}
As the user selects this item time after time, Java will toggle the checkmark on and off automatically. To handle
events from this item, you have to override the itemStateChanged() method. In this case, we determine the
state of the menu item and display that state in a label, like this:
public void itemStateChanged (ItemEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == item3) {

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if(((CheckboxMenuItem)e.getItemSelectable()).getState())
label1.setText("You ordered Idli");
else { label1.setText("Idli not ordered"); }
}
}
You can see the checkbox menu item in AdvancedMenu.java at work in Figure 10.8.

Figure 10.8: Showing a checkbox menu item

Creating Submenus
Another powerful aspect of working with menus in AWT programming involves submenus. Submenus are
attached to a menu item; and when the user selects the menu item, the submenu opens, as you saw in
Figure 10.6. The user can select items from the submenu just as he/she can select normal menus.
Using submenus is a very powerful technique when you need another level of detail; for example, you may want
to let the user select a drawing color with a menu item; and when that item is selected, a submenu opens
indicating possible colors, such as red, green, magenta, and blue.
Creating a submenu is easyyou just add menu items to another menu item using the add() method. Heres
how you do it:
MenuFrame(String title) {
super(title);
label1 = new Label();
add(label1);
menubar1 = new MenuBar();
menu1 = new Menu("Food Items");
item1 = new MenuItem("Pizza");
item1.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(item1);
item2 = new MenuItem("Burger");
item2.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(item2);
menu1.addSeparator();
item3 = new CheckboxMenuItem("Idli");
item3.addItemListener(this);
menu1.add(item3);
menu1.addSeparator();
submenu1 = new Menu("Cold Drinks");
subitem1 = new MenuItem("Pepsi");
subitem2 = new MenuItem("Limca");
subitem3 = new MenuItem("Coke");
subitem1.addActionListener(this);
subitem2.addActionListener(this);
subitem3.addActionListener(this);
item2.addActionListener(this);

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item2.addActionListener(this);
submenu1.add(subitem1);
submenu1.add(subitem2);
submenu1.add(subitem3);
menu1.add(submenu1);
menu1.addSeparator();
item4 = new MenuItem("Exit");
item4.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(item4);
menubar1.add(menu1);
setMenuBar(menubar1); }
Heres how we handle submenu item clicks in the actionPerformed() method:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == item1) {
label1.setText("You ordered Pizza");
} else if(e.getSource() == item2) {
item2.setEnabled(false);
label1.setText("You ordered Burger");
} else if(e.getSource() == subitem1) {
label1.setText("You ordered Pepsi");
} else if(e.getSource() == subitem2) {
label1.setText("You ordered Limca");
} else if(e.getSource() == subitem3) {
label1.setText("You ordered Coke");
} else if(e.getSource() == item4) {
setVisible(false); }
}
You can see the submenu in Figure 10.9. When the user selects one of the submenu items, the applet displays
which item was ordered in the label in the frame window.

Figure 10.9: Showing submenu items

Pop-Up Menus
Hey, says the Novice Programmer, I saw that you can right-click some applications and a pop-up menu
appears. Can I do that in Java? Sure thing, you say, nothing to it. Just use the PopupMenu class.
You use the PopupMenu class to create pop-up menus that dont need to be attached to a menu bar. Heres the
inheritance diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.MenuComponent
|____java.awt.MenuItem
|____java.awt.Menu
|____java.awt.PopupMenu

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You can find the constructors for the PopupMenu class in Table 10.15 and the methods of this class in
Table 10.16.
Table 10.15: Constructors of the PopupMenu class
Constructor Does this
PopupMenu() It creates a new pop-up menu without any name
PopupMenu(String label) It creates a new pop-up menu with the given name

Table 10.16: Methods of the PopupMenu class

Method Does this
void addNotify() It creates the pop-up menus peer
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this pop-up menu
getAccessibleContext()
MenuContainer getParent() It returns the parent container for this menu component
void show(Component origin, int x, It shows the pop-up menu at the x, y position relative to the component at
int y) origin

Lets look at an example. Here, we create a new pop-up menu and add four items to it (note that we also
implement a MouseListener interface to handle right clicks):
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
/*<APPLET
CODE=PopupDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class PopupDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener,
MouseListener {
PopupMenu popup1;
MenuItem item1, item2, item3;
public void init() {
popup1 = new PopupMenu("Popup Menu");
item1 = new MenuItem("Red");
item1.addActionListener(this);
item2 = new MenuItem("Green");
item2.addActionListener(this);
item3 = new MenuItem("Blue");
item3.addActionListener(this);
popup1.add(item1);
popup1.addSeparator();
popup1.add(item2);
popup1.addSeparator();
popup1.add(item3);
add(popup1);
addMouseListener(this);
}
....
}
When the user right-clicks the applet window, we can use the PopupMenu classs show() method to display the
menu, passing that method a this keyword pointing to the applet and the position at which to display the pop-
up menu (here, we display the pop-up menu at the location where the mouse was clicked):
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent e) {
if(e.getModifiers() != 0) {
popup1.show(this, e.getX(), e.getY()); } }

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public void mouseExited(MouseEvent e){ }

public void mouseEntered(MouseEvent e){ }
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e){ }
public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent e){ }
When the user clicks a submenu item, we can display which item was clicked in the actionPerformed()
method:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
if(event.getSource() == item1)
setBackground(Color.red);
else if(event.getSource() == item2)
setBackground(Color.green);
else if(event.getSource() == item3)
setBackground(Color.blue);
}
The result appears in Figure 10.10. As you can see in this figure, the user can open the pop-up menu just by right
clicking the applet. When the user selects a color item from the pop-up menu, the applets background color will
change accordingly.

Figure 10.10: Using pop-up menu

Dialog Boxes
Uh-oh, says the Novice Programmer, I need some text input from the user, but the Big Boss said that if I put
one more text field into my program, I would live to regret it. How many text fields do you have in your
program? you ask. About four hundred, the Novice Programmer says. Hmm, you say, well, you can
always use a dialog box to get input from the user if you dont want to use another text field. The NP says,
Great!
AWT supports a special window classthe Dialog classthat you can use to create dialog boxes. The
windows created with this class look more like standard dialog boxes than the one you create with frame
windowfor example, dialog boxes do not have minimize and maximize buttons. Heres the inheritance
diagram for the Dialog class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____java.awt.Window
|____java.awt.Dialog
Youll find the constructors of the Dialog class in Table 10.17 and its methods in Table 10.18.
Table 10.17: Constructors of the Dialog class
Constructor Does this
Dialog(Dialog owner) It creates an initially invisible, modeless Dialog object with an empty title
and the given owner Dialog
Dialog(Dialog owner, String It creates an initially invisible, modeless Dialog object with the given owner
title) Dialog and title

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Table 10.17: Constructors of the Dialog class

Constructor Does this
Dialog(Dialog owner, String It creates an initially invisible Dialog object with the given owner Dialog,
title, boolean modal) title, and modality
Dialog(Dialog owner, String It creates an initially invisible Dialog object with the given owner Dialog,
title, boolean modal title, modality and graphics configuration
GraphicsConfiguration gc)
Dialog(Frame owner) It creates an initially invisible, modeless Dialog object with an empty title
and the given owner frame
Dialog(Frame owner, boolean It creates an initially invisible Dialog object with an empty title as well as
modal) the given owner frame and modality
Dialog(Frame owner, String title) It creates an initially invisible, modeless Dialog object with the given owner
frame and title
Dialog(Frame owner, String title, It creates an initially invisible Dialog object with the given owner frame,
boolean modal) title, and modality
Dialog(Frame owner, String title, It creates an initially invisible Dialog object with the given owner frame,
boolean modal, title, modality, and graphics configuration
GraphicsConfiguration gc)
Dialog(Window owner) It creates an initially invisible, modeless Dialog object with the given owner
Window, and title
Dialog(Window owner, It creates an initially invisible, modeless Dialog object with the given owner
Dialog.ModalityType modalityType) Window and modality
Dialog(Window owner, String It creates an initially invisible, modeless Dialog object with the given owner
title) Window and title
Dialog(Window owner, String It creates an initially invisible, modeless Dialog object with the given owner
title, Dialog.ModalityType Window, title, and modality
modalityType)
Dialog(Window owner, String It creates an initially invisible, modeless Dialog object with the given owner
title, Dialog.ModalityType Window, title, modality and graphics configuration
modalityType,
GraphicsConfiguration gc)

Table 10.18: Methods of the Dialog class

Method Does this
void addNotify() It makes this dialog box displayable by connecting it to a native screen
resource
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this dialog box
getAccessibleContext()
Dialog.ModalityType It returns the modality type of this dialog box
getModalityType()
String getTitle() It gets the title of the dialog box
void hide() It is deprecated and replaced by setVisible(boolean)
boolean isModal() It indicates whether the dialog box is modal
boolean isResizable() It indicates whether this dialog box can be resized by the user
boolean isUndecorated() It indicates whether this dialog box is undecorated
protected String It gets the string representing the state of this dialog box
paramString()
void setModal(boolean modal) It specifies whether this dialog box should be modal
void setModalityType It sets the modality type for this dialog box
(Dialog.ModalityType type)

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Table 10.18: Methods of the Dialog class

Method Does this
void setOpacity It sets the opacity of the dialog box
(float opacity)
void setResizable It sets whether this dialog box can be resized by the user
(boolean resizable)
void setShape(Shape shape) It sets the shape of the dialog box
void setTitle(String title) It sets the title of the dialog box
void setUndecorated It disables or enables decorations for this dialog
(boolean undecorated)
void setVisible (boolean b) It shows or hides the dialog box depending on the value of parameter b
void show() It is deprecated and replaced by setVisible(Boolean)
void toBack() It sends the window to the back if this window is visible and may cause it to
lose focus or activation in case it is the focused or active window

There are a few things to note in Tables 11.17 and 11.18. One is that you can create either modal dialog boxes
(that is, the user must dismiss the dialog box from the screen before interacting with the rest of the program) or
nonmodal dialog boxes, depending on which Dialog constructor you use or if you use the setModal()
method. Another point is that you can use the setResizeable() method to create a dialog box that the user
can resize.
Lets look at an example that puts the Dialog class to work. Well start by creating a new dialog box class
named OkCancelDialog that displays a text field and two buttons: OK and Cancel. If the user types text into
the text field and clicks the OK button, that text will appear in the main window of the application; otherwise, if
the user clicks the Cancel button, no text will appear. We start by extending OkCancelDialog from the Dialog
class, creating a new dialog box, and adding the controls well need in it:
class OkCancelDialog extends Dialog implements ActionListener {
Button ok, cancel;
TextField text;
public String data;
OkCancelDialog(Frame hostFrame, String title, boolean dModal) {
super(hostFrame, title, dModal);
setSize(300,100);
setLayout(new FlowLayout());
ok = new Button("OK"); add(ok);
ok.addActionListener((ActionListener)this);
cancel = new Button("Cancel"); add(cancel);
cancel.addActionListener(this);
text = new TextField(30); add(text);
data = new String(""); }
. . .
}
When the user clicks the OK button, we store the text the user typed in a public data member named data so
that itll be accessible to the rest of the program in the actionPerformed() method. If the user clicks Cancel,
we place an empty string in that data member. When the user clicks either of the buttons, we also hide the dialog
box. Heres the code:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == ok) { data = text.getText(); }
else { data = ""; }
setVisible(false);
. . .
}

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 Immediate Solutions

Thats it. We can make use of the new OkCancelDialog class in an application, displaying a dialog box of that
class when the user selects the item, Dialog box, in the File menu:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
public class DialogBoxDemo {
public static void main(String [] args) {
DialogFrame frame = new DialogFrame("Dialogs");
frame.setSize(200,200);
frame.addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() { public void
windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {System.exit(0); } });
frame.setVisible(true); }
}
class DialogFrame extends Frame implements ActionListener {
Menu menu1;
MenuBar menubar1;
MenuItem item1;
Label label1;
OkCancelDialog dialog;
DialogFrame(String title) {
super(title);
label1 = new Label();
add(label1);
menubar1 = new MenuBar();
menu1 = new Menu("File");
item1 = new MenuItem("Dialog box");
menu1.add(item1);
item1.addActionListener(this);
menubar1.add(menu1);
setMenuBar(menubar1);
dialog = new OkCancelDialog(this, "Dialog", true); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == item1) {
dialog.setVisible(true);
label1.setText(dialog.data); }
}
}
Note that we also recover the text data from the dialog box using a public data member named data and place it
in a label in the application. When this application runs and the Dialog box item in the File menu is clicked, the
dialog box appears, as shown in Figure 10.11.

Figure 10.11: Displaying a dialog box

When the user enters text into the text field in the dialog box and clicks OK, the dialog box closes and that text
appears in the label in the main application window, as shown in Figure 10.12. Theres another kind of dialog
box thats worth taking a look atthe file dialog box. Well take a look at it next.

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Figure 10.12: Displaying text from a dialog box

File Dialog Boxes

You can use the special AWT class FileDialog to create and display file dialog boxes that let the user browse
directories and select files. Heres the inheritance diagram for the FileDialog class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____java.awt.Window
|____java.awt.Dialog
|____java.awt.FileDialog
Youll find the fields of the FileDialog class in Table 10.19, its constructors in Table 10.20, and its methods in
Table 10.21.
Table 10.19: Fields of the FileDialog class
Field Does this
static int LOAD It indicates that the purpose of the file dialog box is to locate a file from
which to read
static int SAVE It indicates that the purpose of the file dialog box is to locate a file to which
to write

Table 10.20: Constructors of the FileDialog class

Constructor Does this
FileDialog(Dialog parent) It creates a file dialog for loading a file
FileDialog(Dialog parent, String It creates a file dialog window with the given title for loading a file
title)
FileDialog(Dialog parent, String It creates a file dialog window with the given title for loading or saving a file
title, int mode)
FileDialog(Frame parent) It creates a file dialog box for loading a file
FileDialog(Frame parent, String It creates a file dialog box with the given title for loading a file
title)
FileDialog(Frame parent, String It creates a file dialog box with the given title for loading or saving a file
title, int mode)

Table 10.21: Methods of the FileDialog class

Method Does this
void addNotify() It creates the file dialog boxs peer
String getDirectory() It gets the directory of this file dialog box
String getFile() It gets the selected file of this file dialog box
FilenameFilter getFilenameFilter() It determines this file dialog boxs file name filter
File[] getFiles() It returns files selected by the user
int getMode() It indicates whether this file dialog box is for loading from a file or for
saving to a file

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 10.21: Methods of the FileDialog class

Method Does this
boolean isMultipleMode() It indicates whether this file dialog box allows multiple file selection
protected String It gets the string representing the state of this file dialog box
paramString()
void setDirectory (String dir) It sets the directory of this file dialog box to the given directory
void setFile(String file) It sets the selected file for this file dialog box to the given file
void setFilenameFilter It sets the file name filter for this file dialog box to the given filter
(FilenameFilter filter)
void setMode(int mode) It sets the mode of the file dialog box
void setMultipleMode It enables or disables multiple file selection for the file dialog box
(boolean enable)

You can create file dialog boxes that indicate to the user that they are specifically intended for loading or saving files, depending
on which constant from Table 10.19 you use with the FileDialog constructor. If you dont specify which purpose the file dialog
box is for, youll just get a generic version.

Heres an example in which we let the user browse through directories with a file dialog box. When the user
selects a file, we display the file name in the main application window. Doing this is easy; we just create a
FileDialog object, show it with the setVisible() method, and then read the name of the file the user
selected by using the getFile() method:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class FileDialogBoxDemo {
public static void main(String [] args) {
Dialogframe frame = new Dialogframe("Dialogs");
frame.setSize(200, 200);
frame.addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() { public void
windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {System.exit(0); } });
frame.setVisible(true); }
}
class Dialogframe extends Frame implements ActionListener {
Menu menu1;
MenuBar menubar1;
MenuItem item1, item2;
Label label1;
FileDialog file, upload;
Dialog dialog;
Dialogframe(String title) {
super(title);
dialog = new Dialog(this, "Upload File", false, null);
label1 = new Label();
add(label1);
menubar1 = new MenuBar();
menu1 = new Menu("File");
item1 = new MenuItem("Open file");
item2 = new MenuItem("Upload file");
menu1.add(item1);
menu1.add(item2);
item1.addActionListener(this);
item2.addActionListener(this);
menubar1.add(menu1);
setMenuBar(menubar1);
file = new FileDialog(this, "File Dialog");
upload = new FileDialog(dialog, "Upload File"); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == item1) {

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file.setVisible(true);
label1.setText("You selected " + file.getFile()); }
if(e.getSource() == item2) { upload.setVisible(true); }
}
}

Figure 10.13: Showing a File Dialog box

Figure 10.14: Reading a file name from a File Dialog box

Figure 10.15: Showing an Upload File dialog box

Figure 10.13 shows the result in Windows (so a Windows File Dialog box is used). In this figure, we are
navigating to a file. In Figure 10.14, we have selected a file and closed the dialog box, and the main application is
displaying the file we selected. Figure 10.15 shows the Upload File dialog box.

Summary
In this chapter, you came to know about the windows, menus, and dialog boxes. Then, you learned how to
create frame windows, show and hide windows, automatically hide windows upon closing, and use the
Windows class. The chapter next helped you to create menus with menu objects and menu events, and add
menu separators to them. You also learned how to create submenus and pop-up menus. Lastly, you were
familiarized with the creation of dialog boxes.
In the next chapter, you will learn about Swing- Applets, Applications, and Pluggable Look and Feel.
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11
SwingApplets,
Applications, and
Pluggable Look and Feel
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Working with Swing 358
Preparing to Create a Swing Applet 364
Understanding Content Panes 370
Creating a Swing Applet 372
Creating a Swing Application 374
Closing JFrame Windows 377
Using Insets for Selecting Component Borders 379
The Synth Skinnable Look and Feel 383
The Pluggable Look and Feel 386
The Pluggable Look and Feel for Components 390
The Nimbus Look and Feel 392
Chapter 11: SwingApplets, Applications, and Pluggable Look and Feel

In Depth
This chapter begins with a discussion that a lot of programmers have been waiting fora discussion on Swing.
Lets get right into the solution with a look at some Java history.

The Java Foundation Classes

The introduction of Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT) has raised the popularity of Java with powerful Graphical
User Interface (GUI) features. However, in spite of providing significant advancement, it was unable to meet the
requirements of programmers. Now, its the turn of Swing to further raise the standards and popularity of Java.
The Swing components are much improved alternates compared to the AWT components and meant to fulfill
serious UI needs by eliminating the limitations and bugs observed in AWT components. However, they still
depend on the fundamental classes in the java.awt package, so AWT cannot be totally ignored.
It has been aforementioned in this book that the original AWT (took only six weeks to write) was modeled after
HyperText Markup Language (HTML) controls, and one operating system window was allocated per
component. The programmers, however, are accustomed to using a lot more controls; therefore, several third
parties began creating their own sets of controls for use with Java. For example, Netscape introduced the
popular Internet Foundation Classes (IFC) library, and the popularity of this library made Sun in deciding to
create Swing components as a part of Java Foundation Classes (JFC). This was a consequence of the joint effort
between the Sun and Netscape developers. Most programmers consider that Swing and JFC are same, but it is
not correct. Swing along with several other items is contained in JFC. The JFC is made up of the following
features:
UI ComponentsThe JFC includes everything from buttons to split panes to tables. A few of the supported
features to be mentioned are many components that are capable of sorting, printing, and drag and drop.
Pluggable Look-and-Feel SupportThe look and feel of Swing applications is pluggable, allowing various
selections of the look and feel.
Accessibility Application Program Interface (API)This feature enables assistive technologies, such as
screen readers and Braille displays, to get information from the UI.
Java 2D APIThis feature enables developers to easily incorporate high-quality 2D graphics, text, and
images in applications and applets. Java 2D includes extensive APIs for generating and sending high-
quality output to printing devices.
InternationalizationThis feature allows developers to build applications that can interact with users all
over the globe in their own languages and cultural conventions. With the input method framework,
developers can build applications that accept text in languages that use thousands of different characters,
such as Japanese, Chinese, or Korean.
Swing came up with three significant advancements, that is, less consumption of system resources, a lot more
sophisticated components, as shown in Figure 11.1, and customizable look and feel for programs.

Figure 11.1: Components of java.lang, java.awt, and javax.swing

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 In Depth

The next section discusses in detail about Swing.

Swing
The Swing packages are built on a large number of built-in AWT classes and components (over 250 classes and
40 UI components). Generally, the UI components entice the programmers, so we begin our discussion with
them. Note that each UI component begins with the letter J; therefore, many programmers mistakenly use the
terms JFC and Swing interchangeably. The different Swing components classes are enlisted as follows:
JAppletIt is an extended version of java.applet.Applet that adds support for root panes and other
panes
JButtonIt is a push or command button
JCheckBoxIt is a checkbox that can be selected or deselected and displays its state visually
JCheckBoxMenuItemIt is a menu item that can be selected or deselected and displays its state visually
JColorChooserIt is a pane of controls for allowesing a user to select a color
JComboBoxIt is a combo box, which is a combination of a text field and a drop-down list
JComponentIt is the base class for the Swing components
JDesktopPaneIt is a container utilized for creating a multidocument interface or a desktop
JDialogIt is the base class for creating a dialog window
JEditorPaneIt is a text component that allows the user to edit various kinds of content
JFileChooserIt lets the user choose a file
JFrameIt is an extended version of java.awt.Frame that adds support root panes and other panes
JInternalFrameIt is a lightweight object that provides many of the features of a heavyweight frame
JInternalFrame.JDesktopIconIt represents an iconified version of a JInternalFrame component
JLabelIt is a display area for a short text string or an image (or both)
JLayeredPaneIt adds layers to a Swing container, allowing components to overlap each other
JListIt is a component that allows the user to select one or more objects from a list
JMenuIt is a pop-up menu containing JMenuItem objects that are displayed when the user selects it in
the JMenuBar component
JMenuBarIt is an implementation of a menu bar
JMenuItemIt is an implementation of a menu item
JOptionPaneIt makes it easy to pop up a standard dialog box
JPanelIt is a generic lightweight container
JPasswordFieldIt allows editing of a single line of text, where the view does not show the original
characters
JPopupMenuIt is a pop-up menu
JPopupMenu.SeparatorIt is a pop-up menu-specific separator
JProgressBarIt is a component that displays an integer value within an interval
JRadioButtonIt is a radio button that can be selected or deselected and displays its state visually
JRadioButtonMenuItemIt is a radio button menu item
JRootPaneIt is the fundamental component in the container hierarchy
JScrollBarIt is an implementation of a scrollbar
JScrollPaneIt refers to a container that handles a viewport, optional vertical and horizontal scrollbars,
as well as optional row and column heading viewports
JSeparatorIt is a menu separator
JSliderIt is a component that lets the user select a value by sliding a knob within an interval

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JSplitPaneIt divides two components

JTabbedPaneIt lets the user switch between groups of components by clicking tabs
JTableIt presents data in a two-dimensional table format
JTextAreaIt is a multiline area that displays plain text
JTextFieldIt allows the editing of a single line of text
JTextPaneIt is a text component that can be marked up with attributes
JToggleButtonIt is a two-state button
JToggleButton.ToggleButtonModelIt is a toggle button model
JToolBarIt is a toolbar that is used for displaying commonly used controls
JToolBar.SeparatorIt is a toolbar-specific separator
JToolTipIt displays a tooltip for a component
JTreeIt displays a set of hierarchical data as an outline
JTree.DynamicUtilTreeNodeIt can wrap vectors/hashtables/arrays/strings and create appropriate
children tree nodes
JTree.EmptySelectionModelIt is a tree selection model that does not allow anything to be selected
JViewportIt is the viewport through which you see the information
JWindowIt is a window that can be displayed anywhere on the desktop
It can be seen in the preceding list that there is a Swing replacement for every AWT control and container except
Canvas, the reason being that the JPanel class already supports all that the Canvas component did, so Java
didnt find it necessary to add a separate JCanvas component.
For creating distinct types of UI elements, different classes are provided by the Swing API. This chapter
discusses five classes that are part of a larger collection of classesJRootPane, JLayeredPane, JPanel,
JFrame, and JMenuBar. The Swing family tree is split in such a way that the Container class is divided into
twothe group of classes derived from the JComponent class and another that is derived from the Window
class, as shown in Figure 11.2:

Figure 11.2: The Swing Family Tree

Heavyweight versus Lightweight Components

As there is a fundamental philosophical difference between the AWT and Swing UI components, it is not
possible to add all the enhancements and new components to the AWT.
The AWT components are considered heavyweight. The reason being that every component in AWT takes up its
window from the operating system environment in which it is running, thereby slowing down the performance
of the program and consuming a lot of memory and system resources. On the other hand, a Swing component is
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drawn simply as an image inside the container and does not take up window from the operating system
environment. In addition, it consumes much less system resources. Therefore, the Swing components are
considered lightweight. A few more significant points are as follows:
All Swing components are derived from the JComponent class, and this class is, in turn, derived from the
AWT Container class, which has no heavyweight window (called a peer) itself. Therefore, the
JComponent is a lightweight class. Youll see in this chapter that the JComponent class adds a
tremendous amount of programming support to the AWT Component class. Note that as some top level
containers are not derived from the JComponent class, and the JComponent class is derived from the
AWT Container class, all Swing components are also AWT components. You can also mix the AWT
controls with the Swing controls in your programs. However, because Swing controls are merely drawn in
their container, you can end up with strange results as AWT controls will appear on top of them.
Not all Swing components are lightweight because lightweight components delete need the help of
operating system to draw lightweight controls over the window. For that reason, Swing supports these
heavyweight classes: JFrame, JDialog, JWindow, and JApplet.
Just as you build AWT applets by using the Applet class and AWT applications by using the Frame class,
you build Swing applets on the JApplet class and Swing applications by using the JFrame class. The fact
that Swing is built on top of AWT is by no means seamless to the programmer. For example, to paint
components, you dont override the paint() method anymore because Swing needs to do that to draw
component borders and you have direct access to the parts of the program in which menus and dialog
boxes are drawn. All in all, it takes some additional programming effort to move from AWT to Swing.

Swing Features
Apart from the large array of lightweight components in Swing, many other innovations have been introduced
in it. Some of the major innovations are discussed as follows:
BordersYou can draw borders in many different styles around components by using the setBorder()
method.
Graphics debuggingYou can use the setDebuggingGraphicsOptions() method for setting up
graphics debugging, which means that you can watch each line while drawing and flash it.
Easy mouseless operationIt allows to easily connect keystrokes to components.
TooltipsYou can use the setToolTipText() method of the JComponent class for providing tooltip to
the components. The tooltips are small windows that are visible whenever you move the mouse over a
component. They provide explanatory text.
Easy scrollingYou can connect scrolling feature to different components; this feature was not possible in
AWT.
Pluggable look and feelWith the help of this feature, the appearance of applets and applications can be
set to any one of the three standard appearances, such as Windows, Motif (Unix), or Metal (the standard
Swing look).
New layout managersThe BoxLayout and OverlayLayout layout managers are introduced in Swing.
Of these features, the pluggable look and feel is probably the most important because it allows you to select the
appearance style of your program. In AWT, controls were built on windows from the operating platform and
therefore, looked like other controls in that platformsomething that gave AWT programs a very platform-
specific appearance, which was not a good idea for a language that prides itself on being cross-platform. For
example, as different fonts and controls are used in different platforms, the layout of programs could appear
very different in different platforms. Swing introduces the Metal look, which is the new Java look, and it will
appear the same across all platforms. In addition, you can give your programs a Windows or Motif look if you so
choose. Well take a look at this process in this chapter.

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In fact, Sun has created several other look and feel types that do not ship with the Software Development Kit (SDK), including
one for the Apple and another platform-independent look and feel called Organic. In addition, several third parties have also
created their own Java look and feels, such as JGoodies, Napkin, and Substance.

We have two essential programming differences between AWT and Swing programming to take a look at before
entering into the Immediate Solutions section. The first difference is that you work with panes when creating
Swing applets and applications, and the other is the Model View Controller programming architecture. Well
take a look at working with Swing panes first because you have to understand how panes work before setting
them anywhere at all in Swing.

Heres another difference between AWT and Swingwhen you redraw an item on any AWT screen, the update() method is
called to redraw the items background. To avoid flickering, the programmers often override the update() method by directly
calling the paint() method. On the other hand, case of the background of thean item is not redrawn by the update() method
in case of Swing. This is because the Swing components can be transparent, instead the update()method just calls the
paint() method directly.

Graphics Programming Using Panes

The classes, which are the basis of applets and applicationsJApplet and JFrame, have a child object that
does all the graphics work, and this object is of the JRootPane class. In AWT programming, you can just add
components directly to applets or frame windows; however, in Swing, its a little more complex.
Heres the structure of the JRootPane class: This pane itself has two other panesa layered pane and a glass
pane. The glass pane is actually an AWT Component object that rides preceding everything else and intercepts
mouse events when you make this pane visible (although its usually transparent) and adds a mouse listener to
it. The layered pane of the class JLayeredPane is where most of the action takes place. There are specific layers
to which you have access that display menus, when they are opened, dialog boxes, and so on. From a
programmers point of view, the most interesting elements in the layered pane are probably the menu bar and
content pane. The content pane is actually an object of the AWT Container class (there is no JContentPane
class), and its where the applets and applications display their components. In practice, this means that when
you add components to your program, you add them to the content pane, which means you must first get a
reference to that pane. If you have a menu bar in your program, it is supported with a JMenuBar object, which is
displayed right above the content pane.

Swing content panes use a border layout manager by default, whereas AWT applets use a flow layout by default, although AWT
frame windows do use border layouts by default.

Model View Controller Architecture

The advantage of working with Swing is the pluggable look and feel feature that helps you in changing the
appearance of a component. You can not only select from the look and feel options of a component but also
create your own look and feel of the component. Such a pluggable look and feel of the Swing component has
been assisted by designing the classes in a specific mannerthe Model View Controller (MVC) architecture.
MVC architecture is the heart of Swing UI component programming, and an understanding of its terms is
essential. Heres what these terms mean: the model of a component is where the components data is stored, such
as the state of a button or the items in a list. The view is the screen representation of the component, such as the
way a button or list appears. Finally, the controller is that part of the component that handles input, such as
mouse clicks. Figure 11.3 shows the MVC architecture:

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 In Depth

Figure 11.3: The MVC Architecture

It has become standard to divide larger programs into views and documents. For example, in Microsoft Visual
C++, a view provides a window into a document, which is where the data in the program is stored, and multiple
views can provide multiple windows into the document. Swing, inspired by the Smalltalk language, goes one
step further and bases its UI components on the MVC architecture. As you can imagine, separating the view
from the model is very useful in Swing, where the look and feel of components can change with a few lines of
code. Youll learn more about MVC architecture soon. Now that you have an overview of Swing, lets move to
the Immediate Solutions section.

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Immediate Solutions
Working with Swing
The NP appears and says, OK, Im ready to start working with Swing. Where do I start? Well, you say,
probably with the JComponent class.
All Swing components are derived from the JComponent class. It is a lightweight class that is derived from the
AWT Container class. The JComponent class is basically the javax.swing.JComponent class because the
javax package includes Swing. The inheritance diagram for the JComponent class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
The JComponent class adds a lot to the AWT Container class, such as the ability to draw pre-defined borders
around UI components; add PropertyChangeListener objects, which are notified when a propertys value
changes; and much more. For understanding the fields, constructor, and methods of this large class, you can
refer Tables 11.1, 11.2, and 11.3, respectively:
Table 11.1: Fields of the JComponent class
Field Does this
protected AccessibleContext AccessibleContext represents the minimum information that all accessible
accessibleContext objects return. This information includes the accessible name, description,
role, and state of the object, as well as information about its parent and
children. This is associated with the JComponent class.
protected EventListenerList It is a list of the current event listeners.
listenerList
static String It is a comment to display when the cursor is over the component (also
TOOL_TIP_TEXT_KEY called value tip, flyover tip, or flyover label).
protected ComponentUI ui It is the look and feel delegate for this component.
static int It is a constant used by some of the APIs to mean that no condition is
UNDEFINED_CONDITION defined.
static int It is used for registerKeyboardAction, indicating that the command
WHEN_ANCESTOR_OF_FOCUSED_ should be invoked when the receiving component is an ancestor of the
COMPONENT focused component or is itself the focused component.
static int WHEN_FOCUSED It is a constant used for registerKeyboardAction, indicating that the
command should be invoked when the component has the focus.
static int It is a constant used for registerKeyboardAction, indicating that the
WHEN_IN_FOCUSED_WINDOW command should be invoked when the receiving component gets the focus
or is itself the focused component.

Table 11.2: Constructor of the JComponent class

Constructor Does this
JComponent() The default JComponent constructor

Table 11.3: Methods of the JComponent class

Method Does this
void addAncestorListener It registers the listener so that it will receive AncestorEvents when it or
(AncestorListener listener) any of its ancestors move or are made visible or invisible.
void addNotify() It notifies that this component now has a parent component.

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Table 11.3: Methods of the JComponent class

Method Does this
void addVetoableChangeListener It adds a VetoableChangeListener to the listener list.
(VetoableChangeListener listener)
void computeVisibleRect It gets the components visible rectangle (the intersection of the visible
(Rectangle visibleRect) rectangles for this component and all its ancestors).
boolean contains It defines the precise shape of this component for mouse processing.
(int x, int y)
JToolTip createToolTip() It gets the instance of JToolTip that should be used to display the tooltip.
void disable() It is deprecated and replaced by setEnabled(boolean) where the
boolean value is false.
void enable() It is deprecated and replaced by setEnabled(boolean) where the
boolean value is true.
void firePropertyChange It reports a bound property change for boolean properties.
(String propertyName,
boolean oldValue, boolean
newValue)
void firePropertyChange This method can be called when a bound property has changed, and it will
(String propertyName, char send the appropriate PropertyChangeEvent to any registered
oldValue, char newValue) PropertyChangeListeners.
void firePropertyChange It reports a bound property change for integer properties.
(String propertyName, int
oldValue, int newValue)
protected void It provides support for reporting constrained property changes.
fireVetoableChange(String
propertyName, Object
oldValue, Object newValue)
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this JComponent.
getAccessibleContext()
ActionListener It gets the object that will perform the action registered for a given
getActionForKeyStroke keystroke.
(KeyStroke aKeyStroke)
ActionMap getActionMap() It returns the action map used for determining what action to fire for a
particular KeyStroke binding.
float getAlignmentX() It gets the vertical alignment.
float getAlignmentY() It gets the horizontal alignment.
AncestorListener[] It returns an array of all ancestor listeners registered on this component.
getAncestorListeners()
boolean getAutoscrolls() It gets the autoscrolls property.
int getBaseLine(int width, int It returns the base line.
height)
Component.BaseLineResizeBehavior It returns an enum, indicating how the baseline of the component changes
getBaselineResizeBehavior() as the size changes.
Border getBorder() It gets the border of this component or null if no border is set.
Rectangle getBounds It stores the bounds of this component into return value rv and
(Rectangle rv) returns rv.
Object getClientProperty It gets the value of the property with the specified key.
(Object key)

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Table 11.3: Methods of the JComponent class

Method Does this
protected Graphics It gets the graphics object used to paint this component.
getComponentGraphics
(Graphics g)
JPopupMenu It returns the JPopupMenu assigned for this component.
getComponentPopupMenu()
int getConditionForKeyStroke It gets the condition that determines whether a registered action occurs for
(KeyStroke aKeyStroke) the specified keystroke.
int getDebugGraphicsOptions() It gets the state of graphics debugging.
static Locale getDefaultLocale() It returns the default locale used to initialize the locale property of each
JComponent.
FontMetrics getFontMetrics(Font It gets the FontMetrics for the given Font.
font)
Graphics getGraphics() It gets this components graphics context.
int getHeight() It gets the current height of this component.
boolean getInheritsPopupMenu() It returns whether the JPopupMenu should be inherited from the parent.
InputMap getInputMap() It returns the input map that is used when the receiver has focus.
InputMap getInputMap It returns the input map that is used during the given condition.
(int condition)
InputVerifier getInputVerifier() It returns the input verifier for this component.
Insets getInsets() It gets the borders insets if a border has been set on this component.
Otherwise, it calls super.getInsets().
Insets getInsets It gets an Insets object containing this components inset values.
(Insets insets)
<T extends EventListener>T[] It returns an array of all the listeners currently registered as
getListeners(Class<T> FooListeners to the JComponent.
listenerType)
Point getLocation(Point rv) It stores the x,y origin of this component into return value rv and returns
rv.
Dimension getMaximumSize() It gets the components maximum size.
Dimension getMinimumSize() It gets the components minimum size.
Component It is deprecated and replaced by FocusTraversalPolicy.
getNextFocusableComponent()
Point getPopupLocation It returns the preferred location to display the pop-up menu in this
(MouseEvent event) components coordinate system.
Dimension getPreferredSize() If the preferred size has been set to a non-null value, this method returns it.
KeyStroke[] It gets the keystrokes that will initiate registered actions.
getRegisteredKeyStrokes()
JRootPane getRootPane() It gets the JRootPane ancestor for a component.
Dimension getSize It stores the width/height of this component into return value rv and
(Dimension rv) returns rv.
Point getToolTipLocation It gets the tooltip location in the component coordinate system.
(MouseEvent event)
String getToolTipText() It gets the tooltip string that has been set with setToolTipText().
String getToolTipText It gets the string to be used as the tooltip for the event.
(MouseEvent event)

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Table 11.3: Methods of the JComponent class

Method Does this
Container getTopLevelAncestor() It gets the top-level ancestor of this component or null if this component
has not been added to any container.
TransferHandler It gets the transferHandler property.
getTransferHandler()
String getUIClassID() It gets the UIDefaults key used to find the name of the
swing.plaf.ComponentUI class.
boolean It indicates whether the input verifier for the current focus owner will be
getVerifyInputWhenFocusTarget() called before this component requests focus.
VetoableChangeListener[] It returns an array of all vetoable change listeners registered on this
getVetoableChangeListeners () component.
Rectangle getVisibleRect() It gets the components visible rectangle.
int getWidth() It gets the current width of this component.
int getX() It gets the current x coordinate of this components origin.
int getY() It gets the current y coordinate of this components origin.
void grabFocus() It requests that this component gets the input focus and its top level
ancestor becomes the focused window.
boolean isDoubleBuffered() It indicates whether this component should use a buffer to paint.
static boolean It returns True when this component is lightweight (means it does not have
isLightweightComponent a native window system peer).
(Component c)
boolean isManagingFocus() It is deprecated and replaced by
Component.setFocusTraversalKeys(int, Set) and
Component.setFocusCycleRoot(boolean).
boolean isOpaque() It returns True if this component is completely opaque.
boolean It returns True if this component tiles its children, means it guarantees non-
isOptimizedDrawingEnabled() overlapping of its components.
boolean isPaintingForPrint() It returns True if the current painting operation on this component is a part
of the print operation.
protected boolean It returns True if a paint operation triggered on a child component should
isPaintingOrigin() cause painting to originate from this component or one of its ancestors.
boolean isPaintingTile() It returns True if the component is currently painting a tile.
boolean isRequestFocusEnabled() It returns True if the receiving component should get the focus.
boolean isValidateRoot() If this method returns True, revalidate calls made by descendants of
this component will cause the entire tree beginning with this root to be
validated.
void paint(Graphics g) It is invoked by Swing to draw components to the specified graphics.
protected void It paints the components border.
paintBorder(Graphics g)
protected void It paints this components children.
paintChildren(Graphics g)
protected void It calls the UI delegates paint method if the UI delegate is non-null.
paintComponent(Graphics g)
void paintImmediately It paints immediately the specified region of this component and all of its
(int x, int y, int w, int h) descendants that overlap the region.
void paintImmediately It paints the specified region immediately.
(Rectangle r)
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this component.

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Table 11.3: Methods of the JComponent class

Method Does this
void print(Graphics g) It invokes this method to print the component to the graphics specified.
void printAll (Graphics g) It prints the component.
protected void printBorder It prints the components border.
(Graphics g)
protected void It prints this components children.
printChildren(Graphics g)
protected void It is invoked during a printing operation.
printComponent(Graphics g)
protected void It processes any key events recognized by the component itself.
processComponentKeyEvent
(KeyEvent e)
protected void It processes the key bindings for KeyStroke ks as a consequence of the
processKeyBinding(KeyStroke ks, KeyEvent e.
KeyEvent e, int condition,
boolean pressed)
protected void It overrides processKeyEvent to process events.
processKeyEvent(KeyEvent e)
protected void processMouseEvent It processes mouse events occurring on this component by sending them to
(MouseEvent e) any registered MouseListener objects.
protected void It processes mouse motion events.
processMouseMotionEvent
(MouseEvent e)
void putClientProperty It adds an arbitrary key/value client property to this component.
(Object key, Object value)
void registerKeyboardAction It registers a new keyboard action. anAction will be invoked if a key
(ActionListener anAction, event matching aKeyStroke occurs and aCondition is verified. The
KeyStroke aKeyStroke, int KeyStroke object defines a particular combination of a keyboard key and
aCondition) one or more modifiers (alt, shift, ctrl, or meta).
void It registers a new keyboard action. anAction will be invoked if a key
registerKeyboardAction(ActionList event matching aKeyStroke occurs and aCondition is verified. The
ener anAction, String aCommand, KeyStroke object defines a particular combination of a keyboard key and
KeyStroke aKeyStroke, int
one or more modifiers (alt, shift, ctrl, meta). The aCommand will be set in
aCondition)
the delivered event if specified.
void removeAncestorListener It unregisters the given listener so that it will no longer get
(AncestorListener listener) AncestorEvents.
void removeNotify() It indicates a notification that this component no longer has a parent
component.
void removeVetoableChangeListener It removes a VetoableChangeListener object from the listener list.
(VetoableChangeListener
listener)
void repaint(long tm, int x, int It adds the specified region to the dirty region list if the component is
y, int width, int height) showing. It takes following parameters:
1. tm - maximum time in milliseconds before update
2. x - the x coordinate
3. y - the y coordinate
4. width - the width
5. height - the height

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Table 11.3: Methods of the JComponent class

Method Does this
void repaint(long tm) It repaints the component. If this component is a lightweight component, it
would result in a call to paint within tm milliseconds.
boolean requestDefaultFocus() It is deprecated and replaced by the
FocusTraversalPolicy.getDefaultComponent
(Container).requestFocus() method.
void requestFocus() It requests that this component gets the input focus.
void requestFocus(boolean It requests that this component gets the input focus.
temporary)
void requestFocusInWindow() It requests that this component gets the input focus.
void requestFocusInWindow It is a parameterized form of the requestFocusInWindow() method that
(boolean temporary) requests that this component gets the input focus. Its parameter is a
boolean temporary; temporary will be true if the focus change is
temporary, such as when the window loses the focus.
void resetKeyboardActions() It unregisters all keyboard actions.
void reshape(int x, int y, int w, It is deprecated and replaced by the Component.setBounds(int, int,
int h) int, int) method.
void revalidate() It provides support for deferred automatic layout.
void scrollRectToVisible It forwards the scrollRectToVisible message to the JComponents
(Rectangle aRect) parent.
void setActionMap (ActionMap am) It sets the action map to am.
void setAlignmentX (float It sets the vertical alignment.
alignmentX)
void setAlignmentY (float It sets the horizontal alignment.
alignmentY)
void setAutoscrolls(boolean It sets the autoscrolls property.
autoscrolls)
void setBackground (Color bg) It sets the background color of this component.
void setBorder (Border border) It sets the border of this component.
void setDebugGraphicsOptions It enables or disables diagnostic information about every graphics
(int debugOptions) operation performed within the component or one of its children.
void setDefaultLocale(Locale l) It sets the default locale used to initialize the locale property of each
JComponent class.
void setDoubleBuffered (boolean It sets whether this receiving component should use a buffer to paint.
aFlag)
void setEnabled (boolean enabled) It sets whether this component is enabled.
void setFocusTraversalKeys It sets the focus traversal keys for a given traversal operation for this
(int id, Set<? extends component.
AWTKeyStroke> keystrokes)
void setFont(Font font) It sets the font for this component.
void setForeground (Color fg) It sets the foreground color of this component.
void setInheritsPopupMenu It sets whether or not getComponentPopupMenu should delegate to the
(boolean value) parent if this component has no JPopupMenu assigned.
void setInputMap(int condition, It sets the InputMap to use under the condition condition.
InputMap map)

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Table 11.3: Methods of the JComponent class

Method Does this
void setInputVerifier It sets the input verifier for this component.
(InputVerifier inputVerifier)
void setMaximumSize (Dimension It sets the maximum size of this component to a constant value.
maximumSize)
void setMinimumSize (Dimension It sets the minimum size of this component to a constant value.
minimumSize)
void setNextFocusableComponent It is deprecated and replaced by FocusTraversalPolicy.
(Component aComponent)
void setOpaque (boolean isOpaque) It enables or disables the component to paint every pixel within its bounds.
void setPreferredSize It sets the preferred size of this component.
(Dimension preferredSize)
void setRequestFocusEnabled It sets whether the component can get the focus.
(boolean aFlag)
void setToolTipText (String text) It registers the text to be displayed in a tooltip.
void setTransferHandler It sets the transferHandler to transfer data in and out of this
(TransferHandler newHandler) component.
protected void setUI It sets the look and feel delegated for this component.
(ComponentUI newUI)
void It sets the value to indicate whether input verifier for the current focus
setVerifyInputWhenFocusTarget(boo owner will be called before this component requests focus.
lean verifyInputWhenFocusTarget)
void setVisible (boolean aFlag) It makes the component visible or invisible.
void unregisterKeyboardAction It is an obsolete method.
(KeyStroke aKeyStroke)
void update(Graphics g) It calls the paint() method.
void updateUI() It resets the UI property to a value from the current look and feel.

Preparing to Create a Swing Applet

OK, the NP Im ready to start creating applets by using Swing. How do I proceed? With the JApplet
class, you say. Pull up a chair and well go through it.
The JApplet class is a heavyweight container, which is the foundation of Swing applets and is an extension of
the AWT Applet class. The JApplet classs richness in functionality is not found in Applet; for example,
JApplet supports various panes, such as content pane, glass pane, and layered pane.
Before Java SE 5, you could not easily invoke the add() method to an instance of the JApplet class in order to
add a component. To do so, you had to call the add() method to the content pane of the JApplet object. The
content pane was obtained by the Containers getContentPane() method, and the add() method of
Container was then used to add a component to a content pane, as shown in the following code:
Container c = getContentPane();
c.add(someComponent);
You could invoke the remove() and setLayout() methods in the same way. But now, you can directly call
the add(), remove(), and setLayout() methods on the JApplet class. The JApplet class has one child
an object of the JRootPane classand thats where the drawing goes on as well as where you add components.
The inheritance diagram for the JApplet class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component

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|____java.awt.Container
|____java.awt.Panel
|____java.applet.Applet
|____javax.swing.JApplet
You can find the fields of the JApplet class in Table 11.4, its constructor in Table 11.5, and the methods in
Table 11.6:
Table 11.4: Fields of the JApplet class
Field Does this
protected AccessibleContext It is an accessibility context
accessibleContext
protected JRootPane rootPane It is the root pane
protected boolean It indicates whether calls to the add and setLayout methods are
rootPaneCheckingEnabled forwarded to the contentPane

Table 11.5: Constructor of the JApplet class

Constructor Does this
JApplet() It creates a Swing applet instance

Table 11.6: Methods of the JApplet class

Method Does this
protected void addImpl It adds the given child component to the content pane
(Component comp, Object
constraints, int index)
protected JRootPane It is called by the constructor methods to create the default root pane
createRootPane()
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this JApplet
getAccessibleContext()
Container getContentPane() It gets the contentPane object for this applet
Component getGlassPane() It gets the glassPane object for this applet
Graphics getGraphics() It gets a graphics context for this applet
JMenuBar getJMenuBar() It gets the menu bar set on this applet
JLayeredPane getLayeredPane() It gets the layeredPane object for this applet
JRootPane getRootPane() It gets the rootPane object for this applet
TransferHandler It gets the transferHandler property
getTransferHandler()
protected boolean It It checks whether calls to the add and setLayout methods are
isRootPaneCheckingEnabled () forwarded to the contentPane
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JApplet class
void remove (Component comp) It removes the specified component from this container
void repaint(long time,int x,int It repaints the specified rectangle of this component within time
y, int width,int height) milliseconds
void setContentPane It sets the contentPane property
(Container contentPane)
void setGlassPane It sets the glassPane property
(Component glassPane)
void setJMenuBar (JMenuBar It sets the menu bar for this applet
menuBar)

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Table 11.6: Methods of the JApplet class

Method Does this
void setLayeredPane It sets the layeredPane property
(JLayeredPane layeredPane)
void setLayout It sets the layout of its content pane instead
(LayoutManager manager)
protected void setRootPane It sets the rootPane property
(JRootPane root)
protected void It sets whether calls to the add and setLayout method are forwarded to
setRootPaneCheckingEnabled the contentPane
(boolean enabled)
void setTransferHandler It sets the transferHandler property
(TransferHandler newHandler)
void update(Graphics g) It calls the paint(g) method and does not redraw the background

To start a Swing applet, you just derive a class from the JApplet class as follows (note that in this example, we
import javax.swing.* in order to use JApplet):
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=SwingApplet.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>
*/
public class SwingApplet extends JApplet { ... }
Unfortunately, things get more complex at this point (when you want to draw in an applet or add controls to it)
because you normally work with the content pane in the applet rather than directly with the applet itself. Both
the JApplet and JFrame objects have one child objectan object of the class JRootPaneand the content
pane is a part of the root pane. Well take a look at root panes in the next solution.

Understanding Root Panes

The JRootPane class is the class that manages the appearance of the JApplet and JFrame objects, and it is
worth taking a look at whats in the JRootPane class because all its functionality is available to you in applets
and applications. In particular, the root pane contains the glass pane, content pane, and layered pane, which
youll see a lot in Swing programming. The inheritance diagram for the JRootPane class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JRootPane
Youll find the fields of the JRootPane class in Table 11.7, its constructor in Table 11.8, and the methods in
Table 11.9:
Table 11.7: Fields of the JRootPane class
Field Does this
static int COLOR_CHOOSER_DIALOG It is the constant used for the windowDecorationStyle property
protected Container It is the content pane used to hold the elements
contentPane
protected JButton defaultButton It is the button that gets activated when the pane has the focus and a UI-
specific action, such as pressing the Enter key, occurs

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Table 11.7: Fields of the JRootPane class

Field Does this
protected It is deprecated and represented the action to be taken when the default
javax.swing.JRootPane.DefaultActio button is pressed
n defaultPressAction
protected It is deprecated and represented the action to be taken when the default
javax.swing.JRootPane.DefaultActio button is released
n defaultReleaseAction
static int ERROR_DIALOG It is the constant used for the windowDecorationStyle property to
display the error message
static int FILE_CHOOSER_DIALOG It is the constant used for the windowDecorationStyle property to
display the dialog box displaying the file to be chosen
static int FRAME It is the constant used for the windowDecorationStyle property to
display the frame
protected Component It is the glass pane that overlays the menu bar and content pane so that it
glassPane can intercept the mouse movements
static int INFORMATION_DIALOG It is the constant used for the windowDecorationStyle property
protected JLayeredPane It is the layered pane that manages the menu bar and content pane
layeredPane
protected JMenuBar menuBar It is the menu bar that contains different menus and submenus
static int NONE It is the constant used for the windowDecorationStyle property
static int PLAIN_DIALOG It is the constant used for the windowDecorationStyle property to
display the plain dialog box
static int QUESTION_DIALOG It is the constant used for the windowDecorationStyle property to
display the question dialog box
static int WARNING_DIALOG It is the constant used for the windowDecorationStyle property to
display the warning message

Table 11.8: The Constructor of the JRootPane class

Constructor Does this
JRootPane() It creates a JRootPane component, setting up its glassPane,
LayeredPane, and contentPane components

Table 11.9: Methods of the JRootPane class

Method Does this
protected void addImpl It is overridden to ensure the position of the glass component as the zero
(Component comp, Object child
constraints, int index)
void addNotify() It notifies this component that it now has a parent component
protected Container It is called by the constructor methods to create the default contentPane
createContentPane()
protected Component It is called by the constructor methods to create the default glassPane
createGlassPane()
protected JlayeredPane It is called by the constructor methods to create the default layeredPane
createLayeredPane()
protected LayoutManager It is called by the constructor methods to create the default
createRootLayout() layoutManager

AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this JRootPane

getAccessibleContext()

Container getContentPane() It gets the content pane

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Table 11.9: Methods of the JRootPane class

Method Does this
JButton getDefaultButton() It gets the value of the defaultButton property
Component getGlassPane() It gets the current glass pane for this JRootPane
JMenuBar getJMenuBar() It gets the menu bar from the layered pane
JLayeredPane getLayeredPane() It gets the layered pane used by the root pane
JMenuBar getMenuBar() It is deprecated and replaced by getJMenuBar()
RootPaneUI getUI() It returns the LookAndFeel object that renders this component
String getUIClassID() It returns a string that specifies the name of the look and feel class that
renders this component
int getWindowDecorationStyle() It returns a constant that specifies the Window decorations provided by
the JRootPane
boolean isOptimizedDrawingEnabled The glassPane and contentPane have the same bounds, which mean
() JRootPane does not tile its children, and this should return False
boolean isValidateRoot() If a descendant of this JRootPane calls revalidate, validation will
occur from here on down
protected String It gets a string representation of the root pane
paramString()
void removeNotify() It notifies the active component that it longer has a parent component
void setContentPane It sets the content pane
(Container content)
void setDefaultButton It sets the defaultButton property
(JButton defaultButton)
void setDoubleBuffered It sets whether this component should use a buffer to paint
(boolean aFlag)
void setGlassPane (Component It sets a specified component to be the glass pane for this root pane
glass)
void setJMenuBar (JMenuBar menu) It adds or changes the menu bar used in the layered pane
void setLayeredPane It sets the layered pane for the root pane
(JLayeredPane layered)
void setMenuBar (JMenuBar menu) It is deprecated and replaced by setJMenuBar(JMenuBar menu)
void setUI(RootPaneUI ui) It sets the LookAndFeel object that renders this component
void setWindowDecorationStyle It sets the type of window decorations the JRootPane should provide
(int windowDecorationStyle)
void updateUI() It resets the UI property to a value from the current look and feel

As far as construction of applets and applications is concerned, you usually work with the content pane of the
root pane. The content pane itself, however, is a part of another panethe layered pane. Well take a look at
layered panes in the next solution.

Understanding Layered Panes

The layered pane inside the root pane holds the actual components that appear in applets and applications,
including the menu bars and the content pane. The inheritance diagram for the layered pane class, that is,
JLayeredPane is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JLayeredPane

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For convenience, JLayeredPane divides the depth range into the following different layers. Programmer can
put the component on any of the following layers, making it easy to ensure that components overlap properly,
without having to worry about the specific depths:
DEFAULT_LAYERThe standard, bottommost layer where most components go
PALETTE_LAYERThe palette layer resides above the default layer and is beneficial for floating toolbars
and palettes
MODAL_LAYERThe layer used for modal dialog boxes
POPUP_LAYERThe pop-up layer is displayed above the dialogs
DRAG_LAYERWhen you drag a component, assigning it to the drag layer makes sure that it is positioned
over all other components in the container
You can use the JLayeredPane methodsmoveToFront(), moveToBack(), and setPosition()to
reposition a component within its layer. You can also use the setLayer() method for changing the current
layer of the component. Youll find the fields of the JLayeredPane class in Table 11.10, its constructor in
Table 11.11, and its methods in Table 11.12:
Table 11.10: Fields of the JLayeredPane class
Field Does this
static Integer DEFAULT_LAYER It is a convenience object defining the Default layer
static Integer DRAG_LAYER It is a convenience object defining the Drag layer
static Integer It is a convenience object defining the Frame Content layer
FRAME_CONTENT_LAYER
static String LAYER_PROPERTY It is a bound property
static Integer MODAL_LAYER It is a convenience object defining the Modal layer
static Integer PALETTE_LAYER It is a convenience object defining the Palette layer
static Integer POPUP_LAYER It is a convenience object defining the Popup layer

Table 11.11: Constructor of the JLayeredPane class

Constructor Does this
JLayeredPane() It creates a new JLayeredPane object

Table 11.12: Methods of the JLayeredPane class

Method Does this
protected void addImpl (Component It adds the indicated component to this container at the indicated index
comp, Object constraints, int
index)
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this JLayeredPane
getAccessibleContext()
int getComponentCountInLayer It gets the number of children in the indicated layer
(int layer)
Component[] getComponentsInLayer It gets an array of the components in the indicated layer
(int layer)
protected Hashtable<Component, It gets the hashtable that maps components to layers
Integer> getComponentToLayer()
int getIndexOf(Component c) It gets the index of the indicated component
int getLayer(Component c) It gets the layer attribute for the indicated component
static int getLayer (JComponent c) It gets the layer property for a JComponent and does not cause any side
effects like setLayer()

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Table 11.12: Methods of the JLayeredPane class

Method Does this
static JLayeredPane It gets the first JLayeredPane that contains the indicated component
getLayeredPaneAbove (Component c)
protected Integer It gets the Integer object associated with an indicated layer
getObjectForLayer (int layer)
int getPosition (Component c) It gets the relative position of the component within its layer
int highestLayer() It gets the highest layer value from all current children
protected int insertIndexForLayer It determines the proper location to insert a new child based on the layer
(int layer, int position) and position requests
boolean isOptimizedDrawingEnabled() It returns False if components in the pane can overlap, which makes
optimized drawing possible
int lowestLayer() It gets the lowest layer value from all current children
void moveToBack (Component c) It moves the component to the bottom of the components in its current
layer
void moveToFront (Component c) It moves the component to the top of the components in its current layer
void paint(Graphics g) It paints the layered pane within the indicated graphics context
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JLayeredPane
static void putLayer It sets the layer property on a JComponent
(JComponent c, int layer)
void remove(int index) It removes the indexed component from this pane
void removeAll() It removes all components from this pane
void setLayer It sets the layer attribute on the indicated component, making it the
(Component c, int layer) bottommost component in that layer
void setLayer(Component c, int It sets the layer attribute for the indicated component and also sets its
layer, int position) position within that layer
void setPosition(Component c, int It moves the component to position within its current layer
position)

As far as typical drawing operations go in applets and applications, the most important part of the layered pane
is the content pane, which well discuss in the following section.

Understanding Content Panes

You usually place controls and graphics in the content pane of an applet or application. You may be expecting
the content pane to be supported by its own class, but in fact, a content pane is just an AWT Container object
(which is itself a lightweight class). You can get access to the content pane in the layered pane of an applet or
application by using the getContentPane() method of the JApplet and JFrame classes.
The importance of the content pane is that it is where you usually add components to applets and applications as
well as where you draw graphics; this is a major difference from AWT programming. Another important point
to know is that content panes use border layouts by default. To see how this actually works in a code, take a look
at the next solution.

Working with Content Panes

The earlier versions of Java SE had some limitations with the mode of addition of components, like JFrame,
JDialog, JWindow, JApplet, and JInternalFrame, to the top-level Swing containers; however, after
Java SE 5, it has become easier. For example, initially, if any component, someComponent, had to be added to

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JFrame named myFrame, there was a need to call the getContentPane() method of JFrame foradding the
component as follows:
myFrame.getContentPane().add(someComponent)
But, after Java SE 5, the addition of a new component has become feasible without any such hindrances. Now, it
is also possible to directly set the layout manager and remove components from the container. This section
would enlighten upon how this is achieved, i.e., how can add(), setLayout(), and remove() be called
directly without calling the getContentPane()method and why cant ContentPane be ignored even though
you no longer have to call it to add components.
Suppose you have a JFrame for which you would like to set the layout manager and add various components. If
you refer the JFrame documentation, it can be seen that JFrame is inheriting the add() method from
java.awt.Container. The add() method is used to add a component to the JFrame container. The
Container class also includes the setLayout() method, which is used to specify the layout manager for the
given container, as shown in the following code:
import javax.swing.JFrame;
import javax.swing.JPanel;
import java.awt.GridLayout;
import java.awt.Color;
public class JFrameDemo extends JFrame {
JFrameDemo() {
super("JFrameDemo");
setBackground(Color.BLACK);
setLayout(new GridLayout(7,7,2,2));
for(int i=0;i<49; i++) {
JPanel jpanel1 = new JPanel();
jpanel1.setBackground(new Color (
(int)(Math.random()*16777215)));
add(jpanel1); }
setSize(400,400);
setVisible(true); }
public static void main(String[] args){ new JFrameDemo();}
}
Compile and run the code of JFrameDemo.java. With this, a grid of forty-nine JPanel is found whose
background colors are assigned randomly to the JPanel, as shown in Figure 11.4:

Figure 11.4: JFrame Showing the Grid

Earlier to Java SE 5, you had to explicitly call the getContentPane() method and set the add() or
setLayout() method on the Container object returned by the getContentPane()method, as shown in
the following code:
getContentPane().setLayout(new GridLayout(7, 7, 2, 2));
getContentPane().add(jpanel1);
But now, you can call the add() or setLayout() method directly on the Container object. You might notice
a subtle problem. The following line in the JFrameDemo program does not seem to have any effect:
setBackground(Color.BLACK);

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Note that you can write the color name as in Color.BLACK in both the uppercase and lowercase. It might be
expected at this stage to have the background of the JFrame to be colored black so that the grid lines in between
the colored JPanel are black and not grey. The background of the JFrame is not ordinarily visible although it is
colored black because the color of the content pane is also black and resides on top of the region. If resizing of
the JFrame is done at this time, you might momentarily see the black background. Instead, change the
setBackground() line in the JFrameDemo program to the following:
getContentPane().setBackground(Color.BLACK);
Now, the grid lines are colored black, as shown in Figure 11.5:

Figure 11.5: Showing the Grid

The colors of JPanel will differ in different runs as the color is being generated randomly.
The purpose of explaining this at this point of time is simply to understand that although you do not need to
explicitly call the getContentPane() method when using the add(), remove(), and setLayout()
methods in JFrame, you cannot still ignore the role of the content pane.

Creating a Swing Applet

OK, says the NP, Im ready to create a Swing applet and add items to the content pane. How does it work?
Sit down and lets discuss it, you reply.

Painting in Swing vs. AWT

If you have gone through the AWT concepts earlier in this book, you might be expecting a paint() method that
you can use to handle painting operations and graphics in Swing applets and applications. In fact, there is a
paint() method, but you should not override it unless you really know what you are doing because Swing
itself uses that method to draw borders around the component as well as to draw any child components inside
the component and other tasks.
Instead of using the paint() method for painting operations, you can now use the paintComponent()
method. This has some ramifications for you when creating applets and applications compared to AWT
programming. Instead of just overriding the applet or frame window classs paint() method, you now have to
create a component to do your painting in because the content pane in a program is not a class that you can
override methods inits an object (one alternative is to create a custom content pane class and use the
setContentPane() method to install it in your program). In addition, note that when you work with the
paintComponent() method, the first thing you should do is to call super.paintComponent(), the super
classs paintComponent() method, to let the super class do additional painting.

Displaying Controls in Swing Vs AWT

To add controls to a content pane, you use the content panes add() method. The content pane in both applets
and applications use a border layout by default, unlike AWT programming where applets and frame windows
use flow layouts and border layouts, respectively, by default.

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To add controls to a content pane, you first set the layout manager to whatever you like or use the default border
layout. To actually add the controls, you use the add() method, just as you do in AWT programming.
Lets take an example. In this case, well just display the text Kogent Learning Solutions! in an applet. How
does that text get displayed? We cant just display it in the default content pane of an applet because that pane is
an object, not a class. Therefore, we cant override its paintComponent() method. On the other hand, we can
add a panel, as represented by the JPanel class, to the applet so that it covers the content pane.
We can also draw in that panel by overriding its paintComponent() method (note that we could create a new
content pane class, override its paintComponent() method, and install it with the setContentPane()
method, but JPanel is generally used to create content panes anyway).

If you ever want to find out exactly what values were used to construct a visual component, such as JApplet, give it the focus,
press the Shift+Ctrl+F1 keys, and watch the console window for a complete overview.

Using the JPanel Class

The JPanel class is the all-purpose container class of Swing, and its an important one to know about. The
inheritance diagram for the JPanel class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JPanel
Unlike the heavyweight Swing containers, the JPanel class uses a flow layout by default. Youll find the
constructors of the JPanel class in Table 11.13 and its methods in Table 11.14:
Table 11.13: Constructors of the JPanel class
Constructor Does this
JPanel() It constructs a new JPanel with a double buffer and a flow layout
JPanel(boolean isDoubleBuffered) It constructs a new JPanel with a flow layout and the specified buffering
strategy
JPanel(LayoutManager layout) It constructs a new buffered JPanel with the specified layout manager
JPanel(LayoutManager layout, It constructs a new JPanel with the specified layout manager and
boolean isDoubleBuffered) buffering strategy

Table 11.14: Methods of the JPanel class

Method Does this
AccessibleContext It gets the accessible context
getAccessibleContext()
panelUI getUI() It returns the look and feel object that renders this component
String getUIClassID() It gets a string that specifies the name of the look and feel class that
renders this component
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of the JPanel
void setUI(PanelUI ui) It sets the look and feel object that renders this component
void updateUI() It resets the UI property with a value from the current look and feel

The following code shows how we create a JPanel class that displays the text Kogent Learning Solutions!
(Note that we are giving this panel an orange background and calling the paintComponent() method; the
paintComponent() method is passed an AWT Graphics object, which we can use to draw the text):
class TextPanel extends JPanel {
TextPanel() { setBackground(Color.orange); }
public void paintComponent (Graphics g) {
super.paintComponent(g);

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g.drawString("Kogent Learning Solutions!", 50, 80); }

}
Now, we can add an object of this new class to the content pane of an applet by using the JApplet classs
getContentPane() method and then use the content panes add() method to actually add the panel, as
shown in the following code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=JPanelDemo.class
WIDTH=250
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET>*/
public class JPanelDemo extends JApplet {
TextPanel panel;
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
panel = new TextPanel();
c.add(panel); }
}
Thats all it takesnow, we can compile and run this applet, as shown in Figure 11.6:

Figure 11.6: Using a JPanel

Creating a Swing Application

OK, says the NP, Im ready to create an application using Swing. Where do I start? By creating a frame
window, you say. Using the Frame class? the NP asks. Nope, you say, the JFrame class.
In AWT applications, you usually use a frame window; similarly, while creating applications in Swing, you use a
JFrame object, which has a root pane child. The inheritance diagram for the JFrame class is as follows (note that
its derived from the Frame class and is therefore a heavyweight container):
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____java.awt.Window
|____java.awt.Frame
|____javax.swing.JFrame
Note that the default layout in a JFrame component is a border layout. Youll find the fields of the JFrame class
in Table 11.15, its constructors in Table 11.16, and its methods in Table 11.17:
Table 11.15: Fields of the JFrame class
Field Does this
protected AccessibleContext The accessible context property used to access the context of frame
accessibleContext
static int EXIT_ON_CLOSE Exit the application

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Table 11.15: Fields of the JFrame class

Field Does this
protected JRootPane rootPane The JRootPane that manages the contentPane, optional menu
bar, and glass pane
protected boolean If True, then calls to add and setLayout are forwarded to the
rootPaneCheckingEnabled contentPane

Table 11.16: Constructors of the JFrame class

Constructor Does this
JFrame() It constructs an initially invisible new frame
JFrame (GraphicsConfiguration gc) It constructs a new frame with the specified
GraphicsConfiguration gc of a screen device and blank title
JFrame(String title) It constructs a new frame with the specified title
JFrame(String title, It creates a new frame with the specified title and the
GraphicsConfiguration gc) GraphicsConfiguration of a screen device

Table 11.17: Methods of the JFrame class

Method Does this
protected void addImpl It adds the indicated child component to the content pane
(Component comp, Object
constraints, int index)
protected JRootPane It is called by the constructor methods to create the default root pane
createRootPane()
protected void frameInit() It is called by the constructors to initialize the JFrame properly
AccessibleContext It gets the accessible context associated with this JFrame
getAccessibleContext()
Container getContentPane() It gets the contentPane object for this frame
int getDefaultCloseOperation() It gets the operation that occurs when the user closes the frame
Component getGlassPane() It gets the glassPane object for this frame
JMenuBar getJMenuBar() It gets the menu bar set on this frame
JLayeredPane getLayeredPane() It gets the layeredPane object for this frame
JRootPane getRootPane() It gets the rootPane object for this frame
protected boolean It indicates whether calls to add and setLayout are forwarded to the
isRootPaneCheckingEnabled() contentPane
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JFrame
protected void It processes window events occurring on this component
processWindowEvent(WindowEvent e)

void remove(Component comp) It removes the indicated component from this container
void repaint(long time, int x, int y It repaints the specified rectangle of this component within time
, int width, int height) milliseconds

void setContentPane It sets the contentPane property

(Container contentPane)

void setDefaultCloseOperation It sets the operation that will happen by default when the user closes
(int operation) this frame

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Table 11.17: Methods of the JFrame class

Method Does this
static void It sets whether the newly created JFrames should have their window
setDefaultLookAndFeelDecorated(boolea decorations provided by the current look and feel
n defaultLookAndFeelDecorated)

void setGlassPane(Component It sets the glassPane property

glassPane)

void setIconImage(Image image) It sets the image to be displayed as the icon for the window

void setJMenuBar (JMenuBar menubar) It sets the menu bar for this frame

void setLayeredPane It sets the layeredPane property

(JLayeredPane layeredPane)

void setLayout It sets the LayoutManager

(LayoutManager manager)

protected void setRootPane It sets the rootPane property

(JRootPane root)

protected void It determines whether calls to add() and setLayout() are

setRootPaneCheckingEnabled forwarded to the contentPane
(boolean enabled)

void setTransferHandler It sets the transferHandler property

(TransferHandler newHandler)

void update(Graphics g) It calls the paint(g) method

Well put the JFrame class to work in an application now. In this case, well create a JPanel object (as in the
previous solution), install the panel in a JFrame object, and display the text Kogent Learning Solutions! in the
panel. We will set the background color of the panel as pink. The code is as follows:
class TextPanel extends JPanel {
TextPanel() { setBackground(Color.pink); }
public void paintComponent (Graphics g) {
super.paintComponent(g);
g.drawString("Kogent Learning Solutions!", 50, 80); }
}
Next, we create an object of this new class and add it to the content pane of the JFrame object in an application,
as shown in the following code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class SwingAppDemo extends JFrame {
TextPanel panel;
public SwingAppDemo() {
super("Swing Application Demo");
Container c = getContentPane();
panel = new TextPanel();
c.add(panel); }
public static void main(String args[]) {
final JFrame frame = new SwingAppDemo();
frame.setBounds(100, 100, 250, 200);
frame.setVisible(true); }
}
In addition, note that we have used the setBounds()method to set the screen location and size of the JFrame
window. The result appears as shown in Figure 11.7:

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Figure 11.7: Displaying a Swing Application in a Frame Window

However, theres a problem with the application you see in Figure 11.7. When you close the application window
by clicking the close button, it disappears from the screen (which is more than an AWT application window
would do), but the application does not end. To remedy this situation, take a look at the next solution.

Closing JFrame Windows

Hey, says the NP, Javas gone all wacky again. When I try to close a Swing JFrame window, nothing
happens. Well, you say, you can take care of that in several ways. Ill get some coffee, the NP says.
When you close an AWT window, nothing happens by default, but you can handle window events yourself and
end the application if you like. Swing JFrame windows, on the other hand, let you set a default close operation
with the setDefaultCloseOperation() method. The possible values that you can pass to this method are as
follows:
DO_NOTHING_ON_CLOSENothing happens when the window is tried to close.
HIDE_ON_CLOSEIt hides the window when its closed.
DISPOSE_ON_CLOSEIt hides and disposes the window when its closed. In addition, any resources used
by the window also get freed. You cannot redisplay the window although the window object is still
available in the memory.
EXIT_ON_CLOSEIt exits the application on close of the window.

The EXIT_ON_CLOSE actually calls the System.exit(0) method and therefore, abruptly terminates the application or program.
The DISPOSE_ON_CLOSE, however, hides and disposes only the Jframe, not the other independent parts of the program;
they still remain active.

Note that these possibilities only deal with the window itself; if you want to end the application when the
application window is closed, youll still have to handle that yourself. Here, we dispose of the window and end
the application with a window adapter inner class, as shown in the following code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class JFrameCloseDemo extends JFrame {
TextPanel panel;
public JFrameCloseDemo() {
super("JFrame Close Demo");
Container c = getContentPane();
panel = new TextPanel();
c.add(panel); }
public static void main(String args[]) {
final JFrame frame1 = new JFrameCloseDemo();
frame1.setBounds(100, 100, 300, 200);
frame1.setVisible(true);
frame1.setDefaultCloseOperation(DISPOSE_ON_CLOSE);
frame1.addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {
public void windowClosed(WindowEvent e){
System.exit(0); }});
}

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}
class TextPanel extends JPanel {
TextPanel() { setBackground(Color.cyan); }
public void paintComponent (Graphics g) {
super.paintComponent(g);
g.drawString("Swing application using JPanel and JFrame!", 30, 60);
g.drawString("Close me to end the application!", 35, 100); }
}
Figure 11.8 shows the result of the program JFrameCloseDemo.java:

Figure 11.8: Closing the Application As Well

The main() method is always a static method, but Swing frames are objects. So, how does the program get
executed? This can be answered by simply creating the application as a class that extends JFrame. The main
method just calls the class constructor, which performs the real work of the application.
Alternatively, you can pass EXIT_ON_CLOSE to setDefaultCloseOperation. EXIT_ON_CLOSE causes the
program to exit when the window is closed. Using EXIT_ON_CLOSE means that the program will exit when the
window is closed, and you can omit the inner window adapter class code.
Lets consider a simple program that uses EXIT_ON_CLOSE. This frame is defined by the JFrame class. The
program just displays the text Welcome to Swing Programming! on the title bar, as shown in the following
code:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.lang.*;
public class Welcome extends JFrame {
public static void main(String[] args) { new Welcome(); }
public Welcome() {
this.setSize(400,200);
this.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
this.setTitle("Welcome to Swing Programming!");
this.setVisible(true); }
}
The result of the code is shown in Figure 11.9:

Figure 11.9: JFrame Displaying Text on the Title Bar

Lets take a look at the following program that uses EXIT_ON_CLOSE:
import javax.swing.JFrame;
import java.awt.Toolkit;

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import java.awt.*;
public class ExitDemo {
static JFrame jframe1 = new JFrame("The Frame Window being Sized");
public static void main(String[] args) {
Toolkit kit = jframe1.getToolkit();
Dimension d = kit.getScreenSize();
int x = d.width/3;
int y = (d.height)/3 - jframe1.getHeight();
jframe1.setBounds(x, y, d.width/3 , d.height/3);
jframe1.setVisible(true);
jframe1.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE); }
}
In the preceding code, a Toolkit object is first created and used for getting the dimensions of the screen. The x
position is set to the horizontal center of the screen after dividing the screen width by 3. Next, the y position is
set to the vertical center (by dividing the screen height by 3), which is less than the width of the frame. The
setBounds() sets the position and size of the frame. The setDefaultCloseOperation (int operation)
void() sets the close operation to JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE so that the frame is closed when the program
terminates.

Using Insets for Selecting Component Borders

Say, says the NP, the Big Boss wants our programs to look more decorative, more visually interesting. Any
ideas? Well, you say, you can use different kinds of borders for components in Swing. Thats easy enough.
How does it work? the NP asks, enthralled.
To create a border for a component, you can use the BorderFactory class, which can create borders of these
classes: BevelBorder, SoftBevelBorder, EtchedBorder, LineBorder, TitledBorder, and
MatteBorder. You can also use the EmptyBorder, CompoundBorder, and AbstractBorder classes to
create your own borders. The inheritance diagram for the BorderFactory class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____javax.swing.BorderFactory
Youll find the BorderFactory class methods in Table 11.18:
Table 11.18: Methods of the BorderFactory class
Methods Does this
static Border createBevelBorder It creates a beveled border of the indicated type using brighter shades
(int type) of the components current background color for highlighting and
darker shading for shadows
static Border createBevelBorder It creates a beveled border of the indicated type with the indicated
(int type, Color highlight, Color highlighting and shadowing
shadow)
static Border createBevelBorder It creates a beveled border of the indicated type using the indicated
(int type, Color colors for the inner and outer highlight and shadow areas
highlightOuter, Color
highlightInner, Color
shadowOuter, Color shadowInner)
static CompoundBorder It creates a compound border with a null inside edge and a null
createCompoundBorder() outside edge
static CompoundBorder It creates a compound border, indicating the border objects for the
createCompoundBorder outside and inside edges
(Border outsideBorder,
Border insideBorder)
static Border It creates a dashed border of the indicated paint
createDashedBorder(Paint paint)
static Border It creates a dashed border of the indicated paint, relative length,
createDashedBorder(Paint paint, float and spacing
length, float spacing)

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Table 11.18: Methods of the BorderFactory class

Methods Does this
static Border It creates a dashed border of the indicated paint, thickness, line
createDashedBorder(Paint paint, float shape, relative length, and spacing
thickness, float length, float
spacing, Boolean rounded)
static Border createEmptyBorder() It returns an empty border that takes up no space
static Border It returns an empty border that takes up space but does no drawing,
createEmptyBorder(int top, int left, specifying the width of the top, left, bottom, and right sides
int bottom, int right)
static Border createEtchedBorder() It creates a border with an etched look using the components current
background color for highlighting and shading
static Border It creates a border with an etched look using the indicated
createEtchedBorder(Color highlight, highlighting and shading colors
Color shadow)
static Border It creates a border with an etched look using the components current
createEtchedBorder(int type) background color for highlighting and shading
static Border It creates a border with an etched look using the indicated
createEtchedBorder(int type, Color highlighting and shading colors
highlight, Color shadow)
static Border It creates a line border with the indicated color
createLineBorder(Color color)
static Border It creates a line border with the indicated color and width
createLineBorder(Color color, int
thickness)
static Border It creates a beveled border with a lowered edge and softened corners
createLoweredBevelBorder() using brighter shades of the components current background color
for highlighting and darker shading for shadows
static MatteBorder It creates a matte-look border using a solid color
createMatteBorder(int top, int left,
int bottom, int right, Color color)
static MatteBorder It creates a matte border made up of multiple tiles of the indicated
createMatteBorder(int top, int left, icon
int bottom, int right, Icon tileIcon)
static Border It creates a beveled border with a raised beveled edge using brighter
createRaisedBevelBorder() shades of the components current background color for highlighting
and darker shading for shadows
static Border It creates a beveled border with a raised beveled edge and softened
createRaisedSoftBevelBorder() corners using brighter shades of the components current background
color for highlighting and darker shading for shadows
static Border It creates a beveled border of the indicated type with softened corners
createSoftBevelBorder (int type) using brighter shades of the components current background color
for highlighting and darker shading for shadows
static Border It creates a beveled border of the indicated type with softened corners
createSoftBevelBorder(int type, Color using the indicated highlighting and shadowing
highlight, Color shadow)
static Border createSoftBevelBorder It creates a beveled border of the indicated type with softened corners
(int type, Color highlightOuter, using the indicated colors for the inner and outer edges of the
Color highlightInner, Color highlight and shadow areas
shadowOuter, Color shadowInner)
static Border createStrokeBorder It creates a border of the specified stroke
(BasicStroke stroke)

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Table 11.18: Methods of the BorderFactory class

Methods Does this
static Border createStrokeBorder It creates a border of the specified stroke and paint
(BasicStroke stroke, Paint paint)
static TitledBorder It creates a new titled border with an empty title, the indicated border
createTitledBorder(Border border) object, the default text position, the default justification, and the
default font and text color
static TitledBorder It adds a title to an existing border with default positioning, default
createTitledBorder(Border border, justification, and default font and text color
String title)
static TitledBorder It adds a title to an existing border with the indicated positioning and
createTitledBorder(Border border, default font and text color
String title, int itleJustification,
int titlePosition)
static TitledBorder It adds a title to an existing border with the indicated positioning and
createTitledBorder(Border border, using the default font and text color
String title, int itleJustification,
inttitlePosition, Font titleFont)
static TitledBorder It adds a title to a border with the indicated positioning, font, and
createTitledBorder(Border border, color
String title, int itleJustification,
inttitlePosition, Font titleFont,
Color titleColor)
static TitledBorder It creates a new titled border with the indicated title, default border
createTitledBorder(String title) type, default text position, default justification, and default font and
text color

The BorderFactory class creates objects that implement the Border interface; youll find the methods of this
interface in Table 11.19:
Table 11.19: Methods of the Border interface
Methods Does this
Insets getBorderInsets (Component c) It gets the insets of the border
boolean isBorderOpaque() It determines whether the border is opaque
void paintBorder(Component c, It paints the border for the indicated component with the indicated
Graphics g, int x, int y, int width, position and size
int height)

Using Insets
An important aspect of working with borders is to know about insets, which indicate the distance you must
allow along each edge to account for the border. You can get the insets of a border with the
getBorderInsets() method of the Border interface; this method returns an object of the class Insets. The
inheritance diagram for the Insets class is given as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Insets
Youll find the fields of the Insets class in Table 11.20, its constructor in Table 11.21, and its methods in
Table 11.22:
Table 11.20: Fields of the Insets class
Field Does this
int bottom The inset from the bottom
int left The inset from the left

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Table 11.20: Fields of the Insets class

Field Does this
int right The inset from the right
int top The inset from the top

Table 11.21: Constructor of the Insets class

Constructor Does this
Insets(int top, int left, int bottom, It creates and initializes a new Insets object with the specified top,
int right) left, bottom, and right insets

Table 11.22: Methods of the Insets class

Method Does this
Object clone() It creates a copy of this object
boolean equals(Object obj) It checks whether two insets objects are equal
int hashCode() It returns the hashcode for this insets
void set(int top, int left, int It sets the top, left, bottom, and right to the given values
bottom, int right)
String toString() It gets a string representing this Insets object

Lets consider an example in which we add a border to the JPanel object used in the applet. To do that, we just
use the panels setBorder() method (which most visual components have in Swing) and create a new titled
border with the BorderFactory classs createTitledBorder() method, as shown in the following code:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.util.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=BorderDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class BorderDemo extends JApplet {
TextPanel panel;
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
panel = new TextPanel();
panel.setBorder(BorderFactory.createTitledBorder("Text Panel"));
c.add(panel); }
}
Besides adding a new border to the panel, we take the insets of this border into account to draw the message
Swing with Border Insets! without overlapping the border. To do that, we use the getBorder() method to
get the current border, the getBorderInsets() method of the object that supports the Border interface, and
the left data member of that object to determine where to start printing the message so as not to overlap the
border, as shown in the following code:
class TextPanel extends JPanel {
public void paintComponent (Graphics g) {
g.drawString("Swing with Border Insets!",
getBorder().getBorderInsets(this).left, 100); }
}

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The result appears as shown in Figure 11.10:

Figure 11.10: Adding a Border to a JPanel Object

You can see in this figure that the text appears inside the thin titled border that encloses the panel.

The Synth Skinnable Look and Feel

A customizable look and feel was introduced to project Swing in Java SE 5, which is well known as Synth, where
the UI known as its skin is controlled by an XML file. It is possible to create a custom look without writing
code by simply loading an XML file with the component definitions rather than customizing the look and feel by
providing default properties to the UIManager in a Properties table. To demonstrate this, heres an example of
using the Synth look and feel:
import java.awt.BorderLayout;
import java.awt.EventQueue;
import java.io.InputStream;
import java.text.ParseException;
import javax.swing.JButton;
import javax.swing.JLabel;
import javax.swing.JFrame;
import javax.swing.JFrame.*;
import javax.swing.UIManager;
import javax.swing.plaf.synth.SynthLookAndFeel;
public class SynthDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Runnable r = new Runnable() {
public void run() {
SynthLookAndFeel synth = new SynthLookAndFeel();
try {
Class c = SynthDemo.class;
InputStream is =
c.getResourceAsStream("synth.xml");
if (is == null) {
System.err.println("Missing configuration file");
System.exit(-1); }
synth.load(is, c); }
catch (ParseException e) {
System.err.println("Bad configuration file");
System.exit(-2); }
try { UIManager.setLookAndFeel(synth); }
catch (javax.swing.UnsupportedLookAndFeelException e) {
System.err.println("Cannot change to Synth");
System.exit(-3); }
JFrame jframe1 = new JFrame("Synth Look and Feel");

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jframe1.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
JLabel jlabel1 = new JLabel("Synth look and feel");
jlabel1.setHorizontalAlignment(JLabel.CENTER);
jframe1.add(jlabel1);
jframe1.setSize(300,100);
jframe1.setVisible(true); }
};
EventQueue.invokeLater(r); }
}
The SynthDemo program creates a new SynthLookAndFeel object and loads an XML file, synth.xml, with
synth.load (InputStream class). This means that you need the XML file to complete this first example, as
shown in the following code:
<synth>
<style id="label">
<font name="Monospaced" size="18" style="BOLD ITALIC"/>
<opaque value="true"/>
<state>
<color value="RED" type="FOREGROUND"/>
</state>
</style>
<bind style="label" type="region" key="Label"/>
</synth>
Run the SynthDemo program with the synth.xml file. The program reads in the XML file, creates a JLabel
with a font "Monospaced". The size and style of the text of the label are 18 and BOLD ITALIC,
respectively. This label is then added on the screen, as shown in Figure 11.11:
C:\>java SynthDemo synth.xml

Figure 11.11: Showing the Synth Look and Feel Window

Note the absence of any color or font configuring of the label in the program. Instead, thats done through the
XML file. The synth.xml file configures the label as follows: 18-point bold-italic font, opaque, and foreground
color of red (text color). The SynthDemo program then draws the label according to these specifications.
If the preceding fontcolor combination does not seem to be very appealing, it is possible to change the color,
font, and background by making the changes in the XML file depending on the extent to which you can make it
more appealing. The font can be made bold if not italic, the color can be changed to anyred, blue, black, and
the foreground can be changed to the desired color combination, as shown in the following code:
<synth>
<style id="label">
<opaque value="true"/>
<font name="Monospaced" size="21" style="BOLD"/>
<state>
<color value="BLUE" type="FOREGROUND"/>
</state>
</style>
<bind style="label" type="region" key="Label"/>
</synth>
Therefore, the complete look of a program can be changed by simply changing the name of the XML file and
recompiling the program. In the above code, we set the font, size, and style of the label as "Monospaced",
28, and BOLD, respectively. This label is then added on the screen, as shown in Figure 11.12:
C:\>java SynthDemo1 synth1.xml

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Figure 11.12: Showing the Synth Look and Feel Window with Changed XML File Name
Here, we make a new program SynthDemo1.java calling the XML file synth1.xml.
This shows the capability of the Synth look and feel. Without any reprogramming, you can change the look and
feel of the program. A Synth File Format document contains the file format used in the XML file. You can see in
synth.xml that the outermost tag is <synth>. It can have other tags, such as <style>, <bind>, <font>,
<color>, <imagePainter>, and <imageIcon> inside it. In addition, there are several other special properties
that you can set. These properties are enlisted in a Component Specific Properties document. As seen in the just
stated preceding example, you define your styles and then bind them to the components. Most of the
information is contained in the <style> element. The other elements that can be configured for each named
style are:
<property>
<defaultsProperty>
<state>
<font>
<painter>
<imagePainter>
<backgroundImage>
<opaque>
<imageIcon>
<inputMap>
You can specify the fonts name, size, and style using the <font> tag. The other styles supported are PLAIN,
BOLD, and ITALIC. To specify two styles at the same time, both are written inside quotes with a space between
the two:
<font style="BOLD ITALIC"/>
However, the <state> tag is not always simple as it can be seen in the earlier examples. It can be more complex
too. For example, you can have a different look of a button when the mouse moves it. In such a case, you can
configure the MOUSE_OVER state as follows:
<state value="MOUSE_OVER">
<font name="Serif" size="20" style="BOLD"/>
</state>
This makes the appropriate state change to 20 point, bold, and Serif font. Besides the MOUSE_OVER state, the
other mouse state settings available are:
ENABLED
PRESSED
DISABLED
FOCUSED
SELECTED
DEFAULT
Depending upon the component, you can change the properties of any or all of these states. But, it must be
ensured that the size of the component remains unchanged with change in the configuration. Else, the
component will not revalidate itself when the state changes. In addition, the <imageIcon> element provides
you the means to work with icons. For example, you can have the following style to change the default tree
icons:
<style id="tree">
<imageIcon id="collapse" path="collapse.jpg"/>
<property key="Tree.collapsedIcon" value="collapse"/>

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<imageIcon id="expand" path="expand.jpg"/>

<property key="Tree.expandedIcon" value="expanded"/>
</style>
Note that you must bind the <style> element, used in the previous example, to the tree component. The image
files collapse.jpg and expand.jpg are then located relative to the Class object and passed into the
method load to create the Synth look and feel.
Synth also supports long-term persistence of Java Beans components to embed object references in the
configuration file. Generally, we embed the Painter object reference in it. For example, the following element is
written in the configuration file:
<object id="grad" class="GradientPaint"/>
The preceding element signifies a class named GradientPaint identified by the gradient id grad. This class
extends the SynthPainter class. Moreover, if the file contains the following element:
<painter method="textFieldBackground" idref="grad"/>
it signifies that the paintTextFieldBackground() method of the GradientPainter class for which the
idref of painter matches with the id of object is called for the component with which this painter is associated.
Unfortunately, you cant customize the feel of a component using Synth; for example, you cant have a
customized way (such as voice activation) to click a button.
To conclude, separating the logic of an application from its look considerably helps in making its maintenance
easier. Whether you create a new application or use an existing one, you may switch to the Synth look and feel
when appropriate.

The Pluggable Look and Feel

The Big Boss is back and says, I understand you can set the appearance of a Swing program to match various
programming platforms. Thats right, you say. The Big Boss asks, Do you have anything in burnished
mahogany? Sorry, you reply.
By default, the appearance of Swing programs is set to the Java Metal look, a cross-platform look that Sun has
designed. However, you can change that by using the UIManager class. The inheritance diagram for this class is
as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____javax.swing.UIManager
Youll find the constructor of the UIManager class in Table 11.23 and its methods in Table 11.24:
Table 11.23: The constructor of the UIManager Class
Constructor Does this
UIManager() It constructs a new UIManager object.

Table 11.24: Methods of the UIManager Class

Method Does this
static void addAuxiliaryLookAndFeel It adds a LookAndFeel object to the list of auxiliary look and feels.
(LookAndFeel laf)

static void addPropertyChangeListener It adds a PropertyChangeListener object.

(PropertyChangeListener listener)

static Object get (Object key) It gets an object from the defaults table.

static Object get It gets an object from the defaults table that is appropriate for the
(Object key, Locale l) given locale.

static LookAndFeel[] It gets the list of auxiliary look and feel types.
getAuxiliaryLookAndFeels()

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Table 11.24: Methods of the UIManager Class

Method Does this
static boolean getBoolean(Object key) It gets a boolean from the defaults table which is associated with the
given key value.

static boolean getBoolean(Object key, It gets a boolean from the defaults table which is associated with the
Locale l) given key value and locale.

static Border getBorder(Object key) It gets a border from the defaults table which is associated with the
given key value.

static Border It gets a border from the defaults table that is appropriate for the
getBorder(Object key, Locale l) given locale.

static Color getColor(Object key) It gets a drawing color from the defaults table.

static Color It gets a drawing color from the defaults table that is appropriate for
getColor(Object key, Locale l) the given locale.

static String It gets the name of the LookAndFeel class that implements the
getCrossPlatformLookAndFeelClassName() default cross-platform look and feel (Java look and feel).

static UIDefaults getDefaults() It gets the defaults for this look and feel.

static Dimension It gets a dimension from the defaults.

getDimension(Object key)

static Font getFont (Object key) It gets a font from the defaults.

static Font getFont It gets a font from the defaults, which is appropriate for the given
(Object key, Locale l) locale.

static Icon getIcon (Object key) It gets an icon from the defaults, which is appropriate for the given
locale.

static Icon getIcon (Object key, It gets an icon from the defaults.
Locale l)

static Insets getInsets It gets an Insets object from the defaults.

(Object key)

static Insets getInsets It gets an Insets object from the defaults that is appropriate for the
(Object key, Locale l) given locale.

static UIManager.LookAndFeelInfo[] It gets an array of LookAndFeelInfo objects that hold information

getInstalledLookAndFeels() about the LookAndFeel implementations currently installed.

static int getInt (Object key) It gets an integer from the defaults .

static int getInt It gets an integer from the defaults, which is appropriate for the
(Object key, Locale l) given locale.

static LookAndFeel getLookAndFeel() It gets the current default look and feel.

static UIDefaults It gets the default values for this look and feel or null.
getLookAndFeelDefaults()

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Table 11.24: Methods of the UIManager Class

Method Does this
static PropertyChangeListener[] It gets an array of PropertyChangeListeners added to this
getPropertyChangeListeners () UIManager.

static String getString(Object key) It gets a string from the defaults.

static String It gets a string from the defaults, which is appropriate for the given
getString(Object key, Locale l) locale.

static String It gets the name of the LookAndFeel class that implements the
getSystemLookAndFeelClassName() native systems look and feel if it exists; otherwise, name of the
default LookAndFeel class.

static ComponentUI It gets the appropriate ComponentUI implementation for target.

getUI(JComponent target)

static void It adds the indicated look and feel to the set of available look and
installLookAndFeel(String name, String feels.
className)

static void It adds the indicated look and feel to the set of available look and
installLookAndFeel(UIManager.LookAndFe feels.
elInfo info)

static Object put(Object It stores an object in the defaults table.

key, Object value)

static boolean It removes a LookAndFeel object from the list of auxiliary look and
removeAuxiliaryLookAndFeel feel types.
(LookAndFeel laf)

static void It removes a PropertyChangeListener object from the listener

removePropertyChangeListener list.
(PropertyChangeListener listener)

static void It sets the set of currently installed look and feels.
setInstalledLookAndFeels
(UIManager.LookAndFeelInfo [] infos)

static void setLookAndFeel It sets the current look and feel to the newLookAndFeel object.
(LookAndFeel newLookAndFeel)

static void setLookAndFeel (String It loads the current look and feel with a given class name and passes
className) it to the setLookAndFeel(LookAndFeel) method.

To change the look and feel as a program is tuning, you can use the UIManager classs setLookAndFeel()
method, passing it one of these arguments as a string:
javax.swing.plaf.metal.MetalLookAndFeel Pass this argument for the Metal look and feel.
com.sun.java.swing.plaf.motif.MotifLookAndFeel Pass this argument for the Motif look and feel.
com.sun.java.swing.plaf.windows.WindowsLookAndFeel Pass this argument for the Windows look
and feel.
After changing the look and feel of the content pane, you make it take effect with the
updateComponentTreeUI() method of the SwingUtilities class like this:
SwingUtilities.updateComponentTreeUI(getContentPane());

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Heres an example in which we add a Swing button and three radio buttons to see how the change in look and
feel changes the appearance of controls. The three radio buttons in this applet are labeled MetalLook,
MotifLook, and WindowsLook. When you click a radio button, the applet will change to the corresponding
look and feel. The code is as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.plaf.metal.MetalLookAndFeel;
import com.sun.java.swing.plaf.motif.MotifLookAndFeel;
import com.sun.java.swing.plaf.windows.WindowsLookAndFeel;
/* <APPLET
CODE=LookAndFeelDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET> */
public class LookAndFeelDemo extends JApplet implements ActionListener{
JPanel jpanel1;
JRadioButton jradio1, jradio2, jradio3;
ButtonGroup group;
JButton jbutton1;
public void init() {
jpanel1 = new JPanel();
group = new ButtonGroup();
jbutton1 = new JButton("Kogent");
jradio1 = new JRadioButton("MotifLook");
group.add(jradio1);
jradio1.addActionListener(this);
jradio2 = new JRadioButton("MetalLook");
group.add(jradio2);
jradio2.addActionListener(this);
jradio3 = new JRadioButton("WindowsLook");
group.add(jradio3);
jradio3.addActionListener(this);
jpanel1.add(jradio1);
jpanel1.add(jradio2);
jpanel1.add(jradio3);
jpanel1.add(jbutton1);
Container c = getContentPane();
c.add(jpanel1); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
JRadioButton src = (JRadioButton)e.getSource();
try {
if((JRadioButton)e.getSource() == jradio2)
UIManager.setLookAndFeel(
"javax.swing.plaf.metal.MetalLookAndFeel");
else if((JRadioButton)e.getSource() == jradio1)
UIManager.setLookAndFeel(
"com.sun.java.swing.plaf.motif.MotifLookAndFeel");
else if((JRadioButton)e.getSource() == jradio3)
UIManager.setLookAndFeel(
"com.sun.java.swing.plaf.windows.WindowsLookAndFeel"); }
catch(Exception ex) { }
SwingUtilities.updateComponentTreeUI(getContentPane()); }
}

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Chapter 11: SwingApplets, Applications, and Pluggable Look and Feel

You can see the applet in the Metal look and feel in Figure 11.13, the Motif look and feel in Figure 11.14, and the
Windows look and feel in Figure 11.15:

Figure 11.13: The Metal Figure 11.14: The Motif Look Figure 11.15: The Windows
Look and Feel and Feel Look and Feel
Switching between these looks is as easy as clicking a radio button.

The Pluggable Look and Feel for Components

Good lord!, says the NP, Wouldnt it be great if all components used the same fonts and borders? Well,
you say, Im not sure about that, but you can actually make that happen in Swing. The NP asks, You can?
You can set the look and feel of individual components in Swing using the LookAndFeel class. The inheritance
diagram for that class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____javax.swing.LookAndFeel
Youll find the constructor for the LookAndFeel class in Table 11.25 and its methods in Table 11.26:
Table 11.25: The constructor of the LookAndFeel Class
Constructor Does this
LookAndFeel() It creates a LookAndFeel object.

Table 11.26: Methods of the LookAndFeel Class

Method Does this
UIDefaults getDefaults() It gets the default look and feel..

abstract String getDescription() It gets a one-line description of this look and feel
implementation.
static Object getDesktopPropertyValue It gets the value of the specified system desktop property by
(String systemPropertyName, Object invoking
fallbackValue) Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().getDesktopProperty().

Icon getDisabledIcon(JComponent It gets an Icon with the disabled appearance.

component, Icon icon)
Icon getDisabledSelectedIcon(JComponent It gets an Icon to be used by disabled components that are also
component, Icon icon) selected.
abstract String getID() It gets a string that identifies this look and feel.

LayoutStyle getLayoutStyle() It returns the LayoutStyle object for this look and feel.

abstract String getName() It gets a short string that identifies this look and feel.

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 11.26: Methods of the LookAndFeel Class

Method Does this
boolean getSupportsWindowDecorations() It returns true if the LookAndFeel returned RootPaneUI
instances support providing Window decorations in a
JRootPane.
The default implementation returns false; subclasses that support
Window decorations should override this and return true.

void initialize() It initializes the look and feel.

static void installBorder It installs a components default Border object.

(JComponent c, String defaultBorderName)

static void installColors It installs a components foreground and background color

(JComponent c, String defaultBgName, properties with values from the current defaults.
String defaultFgName)

static void installColorsAndFont It installs a components foreground, background, and font

(JComponent c, String defaultBgName, properties with values from the defaults.
String defaultFgName, String
defaultFontName)

static void installProperty It installs a property with specified name and value on a
(JComponent c, String propertyName, component if that property does not already exist.
Object propertyValue)

abstract boolean isNativeLookAndFeel() If True, this is an implementation of the underlying platforms

native look and feel.

abstract boolean If True, the underlying platform supports and/or permits this
isSupportedLookAndFeel() look and feel.

static void loadKeyBindings(InputMap It populates an InputMap object with the specified bindings.
retMap, Object[] keys)
static ComponentInputMap It creates a ComponentInputMapUIResource resource from
makeComponentInputMap keys.
(JComponent c, Object[] keys)

static Object makeIcon It creates a UIDefaults.LazyValue that creates an

(Class<?> baseClass, String gifFile) ImageIcon for the specified gifFile file name.

static InputMap makeInputMap(Object[] It creates an InputMapUIResource from the keys.

keys)
static JTextComponent.KeyBinding[] It builds an array of KeyBindings.
makeKeyBindings(Object[] keyBindingList)

void provideErrorFeedback It is invoked when the user attempts an invalid operation (such
(Component component) as pasting into an uneditable JTextField)

string toString() It gets a string that identifies this objects properties.

void uninitialize() It uninitializes the look and feel.

static void uninstallBorder It uninstalls a components default border if the border is an

(JComponent c) instance of UIResource.

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Chapter 11: SwingApplets, Applications, and Pluggable Look and Feel

Heres an example in which we give a Swing text field the look and feel of a Swing label using the
LookAndFeel classs installBorder() and installColorsAndFont() methods. Note that you have not
yet seen these controls at work formally; this example is just to indicate what can be done with the look and feel
types. Well create a Swing label here and a class extended from the text field class to look like a label. The code
is as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=LookAndFeelDemo1.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class LookAndFeelDemo1 extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
TestJTextField test = new TestJTextField("This is a text field.");
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(new JLabel("This is a swing label."));
c.add(test); }
}
class TestJTextField extends JTextField {
public TestJTextField (String str) { super(str); }
public void updateUI() {
super.updateUI();
setHighlighter(null);
setEditable(false);
LookAndFeel.installBorder(this, "Label.border");
LookAndFeel.installColorsAndFont(this, "Label.background",
"Label.foreground", "Label.font"); }
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 11.16:

Figure 11.16: Setting the Look and Feel of a Text Field to be Like a Label
You can see in the figure that the text field, which appears under the label, has been given the look and feel of
the label. This gives you an indication of how powerful the look and feel handling in Swing is.

The Nimbus Look and Feel

Ive heard someone saying Java also possesses Nimbus look and feel, is it true?, asks the NP. Yes dear, you
say, Java SE 6 Update 10 introduced the Nimbus look and feel. The NP says, I want to know more about it.
You say, Ok.

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 Immediate Solutions

After having created a cross-platform look and feel in the form of Metal, Sun enhanced its Swing capabilities
further, and added a new and different cross-platform look known as Nimbus look and feel. As stated earlier
also, it debuted in Java SE 6 Update 10. Instead of using static bitmaps, the Nimbus look and feel uses the Java2D
vector graphics to draw UI elements. This gives the elements an attractive and elegant look, independent of the
resolution. The look can even be customized as per the choice of the user.
In Java SE 7, the class NimbusLookAndFeel is located at the following location:
com.sun.java.swing.plaf.nimbus.NimbusLookAndFeel.
To set the look and feel to Nimbus, you call the UIManagers method setLookAndFeel() and pass the
classname as an argument to it as:
UIManager.setLookAndFeel(com.sun.java.swing.plaf.nimbus.NimbusLookAndFeel);
Heres an example in which we set the look and feel of the Swing components to Nimbus look and feel:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=NimbusDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class NimbusDemo extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.add(new ComponentsPanel(), BorderLayout.CENTER); }
}
class ComponentsPanel extends JPanel {
public ComponentsPanel() {
add(new JButton("Kogent"));
add(new JTextField("Kogent"));
add(new JCheckBox("Kogent"));
add(new JRadioButton("Kogent"));
add(new JLabel("Kogent"));
add(new JList(new String[] {
" Item 1", " Item 2", " Item 3","Item 4","Item 5" }));
add(new JScrollBar(SwingConstants.HORIZONTAL));
try{
UIManager.setLookAndFeel(
"com.sun.java.swing.plaf.nimbus.NimbusLookAndFeel"); }
catch(Exception ex) { }
}
}
You can see the applet in the Nimbus look and feel in Figure 11.17:

Figure 11.17: The Java Nimbus Look and Feel

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Chapter 11: SwingApplets, Applications, and Pluggable Look and Feel

Summary
In this chapter, you have learned about the Java foundation classes. Then, you have learned Swings,
heavyweight and lightweight components, and features of Swings. The chapter has also explained how to create
graphic programming using panes. It has explored the use of Swings and discussed how to create an applet in
them. Further, you have learned how to close JFrame windows as well as use of insets to select component
borders. Next, synth skinnable look and feel, pluggable look and feel, pluggable look and feel for component,
and the nimbus look and feel have been explained.
In the next chapter, you will learn about SwingText Fields, Buttons, Toggle buttons, Checkboxes, and Radio
buttons.

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 12
SwingText Fields,
Buttons, Toggle Buttons,
Checkboxes,
and Radio Buttons
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Using Labels 399
Using Image Icons 401
Using Images in Labels 402
Using Text Fields 403
Setting Text Field Alignment 405
Creating Password Field 406
Creating Text Areas 407
Creating Editor Panes 409
Using HTML in Editor Panes 411
Using RTF Files in Editor Panes 412
Creating Text Panes 412
Setting Text Pane Text Attributes 414
Working with Sound in Applets 416
Working with Sound in Application 417
Abstract Button: The Foundation of Swing Buttons 417
Using Buttons 421

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 Chapter 12: SwingText Fields, Buttons, Toggle Buttons, Checkboxes, and Radio Buttons

If you need an immediate solution to: See page:

Displaying Images in Buttons 424
Using Rollover and Disabled Images 426
Default Buttons and Mnemonics 427
Using Toggle Buttons 430
Creating Toggle Button Groups 432
Using Checkboxes 433
Using Radio Buttons 436
Using Checkbox and Radio Button Images 440
Getting and Setting the State of Checkboxes and Radio Buttons 441

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 In Depth

In Depth
This chapter begins the discussion of Swing controls; specifically, well take a look at Swing labels, buttons, text
fields, toggle buttons, checkboxes, and radio buttons. All these are essential controls that make up a big part of
the foundation of Swing. With the exception of toggle buttons, all these controls should be familiar to you from
AWT programming. However, each of these Swing controls has a lot more functionality than the corresponding
AWT controls, and well emphasize whats new here. (Bear in mind that all Swing controls appear differently in
various looks and feels; this is important to remember when you start to program with them.)

Labels and Text Fields

Labels are basic Swing controls that just display one line of text. There was a belief that labels would support
multiple lines of text in Swing, but they turned out supporting only one line. On the other hand, they do support
something that AWT labels dontimages. Youll see how to use the ImageIcon class to add images to labels.
The classes in javax.swing package are packed, as shown in Figure 12.1, where the JComponent class is
the base:

Figure 12.1: The JComponent class tree

The JLabel component does not react to input events, so you cant edit it. The JTextField component looks
similar to a label as it displays a single line of text, but the difference being that it is editable. Moreover,
JFormattedTextField, a component of JTextField, controls and formats the data that you display or enter.
The JEditorPane and JTextPane classes allow you to implement sophisticated editing facilities. On the other
hand, the former supports editing of plain textHyperText Markup Language (HTML) or Rich Text Format
(RTF)the latter enables you to embed images or other components within the text managed by the component.
Text handling in Swing text components has become a somewhat involved solution that well look into later in
this book. Here, well get a start on handling text in Swing with text fields, seeing how they work fundamentally
in this chapter and in more depth later.

Password Field
The JTextComponent class is extended by two classes: JTextArea and JEditorPane. JEditorPane is
extended by JTextPane class. JPasswordField is a JTextField used to write passwords, and the input
characters are usually marked with an asterisk. You can also modify the mask character using the
setEchoChar() method.

Text Area
The JTextArea is one of the subclasses of JTextComponent. It allows you to edit a multiline text. However, it
wont allow you to scroll directly, but you can add scrollbars by adding the text area to the JScrollPane
container.

Editor Pane
The JEditorPane is a special JTextComponent that can display and edit HTML 3.2 tags or formats, such as
RTF. It provides complex editing facilities in a rather simple and easy way. Notwithstanding, its just a
lightweight HTML viewer generally used to display the help text and not meant to create a full-fledged web

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 Chapter 12: SwingText Fields, Buttons, Toggle Buttons, Checkboxes, and Radio Buttons

browser. To create an Editor Pane object, either you create it with a URL parameter or you use the setPage()
method to change the web pages. The HyperlinkListener interface is also provided to make the links within
an HTML page traversable.

Text Pane
The JTextPane class, a subclass of JEditorPane, lets you associate images or other components with the text
managed by the text pane. It supports formatted text, word wrap, and image display like a full-fledged text
editor. Additionally, to specify the font formatting it uses a linked list of objects and provides easy to use
methods for text formatting.

Text Component Printing

The javax.swing.text.JTextComponent class has three print() methods for printing the text component.
The JTextComponent class is the base class for text components. Each print() method is used to display the
print dialog and block until printing is done.

Buttons
In Swing, buttons of all kinds are built on the AbstractButton class, and well take a look at that class in this
chapter. As you might expect, Swing buttons have more capabilities than their AWT counterparts. For example,
using Swing buttons, you can display images, use mnemonics (keyboard shortcuts), designate a button as a
windows default button, and set a buttons margins and text alignment. You can also assign multiple images to
a button to handle the case where the mouse moves over the button, and more. Youll see all this in the chapter.

Toggle Buttons
Swing introduces toggle buttons, which are buttons that, when pressed, stay pressed until they are pressed
again. Toggle buttons are much like checkboxes and radio buttons that look like standard buttons. In fact, the
JToggleButton class is the base class for the Swing checkbox and radio button classes, but you can also
instantiate objects of this class directly. As with checkboxes and radio buttons, you can also put toggle buttons
into groups and use images with them.

Checkboxes and Radio Buttons

The AWT has checkboxes and radio buttons, but handling these controls in Swing is a little different. For one
thing, radio buttons have their own class in Swing (radio buttons are just glorified checkboxes in AWT), and you
can use images with them. In fact, youll see that there are a few issues to consider when you use images with
checkboxes and radio buttons. Thats it for the overview of whats in this chapter. Its time to turn to the
Immediate Solutions section.

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In Depth

Immediate Solutions
Using Labels
The Novice Programmer appears and says, Im creating a new Swing applet, and I want to label the controls in
it, so Im starting with a Label component and Hold it, you say. You should be using a JLabel
component. The NP says, Oh.
The lightweight Swing label class is JLabel. Heres the inheritance diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JLabel
Youll find the constructors for the JLabel class in Table 12.1 and its methods in Table 12.2:
Table 12.1: Constructors of the JLabel class
Constructor Does this
JLabel() It constructs a JLabel object with no image and title
JLabel(Icon image) It constructs a JLabel object with the indicated image
JLabel(Icon image, int It constructs a JLabel object with the indicated image and horizontal
horizontalAlignment) alignment
JLabel(String text) It constructs a JLabel object with the indicated text
JLabel(String text, Icon icon, It constructs a JLabel object with the indicated text, image, and horizontal
int horizontalAlignment) alignment
JLabel(String text, int It constructs a JLabel object with the indicated text and horizontal
horizontalAlignment) alignment

Table 12.2: Methods of the JLabel class

Method Does this
protected int checkHorizontalKey It verifies a legal value for the horizontalAlignment properties
(int key, String message)
protected int It verifies a legal value for the verticalAlignment or
checkVerticalKey(int key, verticalTextPosition properties
String message)
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext for JLabel
getAccessibleContext()
Icon getDisabledIcon() It gets the value of the disabledIcon property if it has been set
int getDisplayedMnemonic() It gets the keycode that indicates a mnemonic key
int getHorizontalAlignment() It gets the alignment of the labels contents along the x axis
int getHorizontalTextPosition() It gets the horizontal position of the labels text, relative to its image
Icon getIcon() It gets the graphic image (glyph or icon) that the label displays
int getIconTextGap() It gets the amount of space between the text and the icon displayed in this
label
Component getLabelFor() It gets the component this object is a label for
String getText() It gets the text string that the label displays
LabelUI getUI() It gets the look and feel object that renders this component
String getUIClassID() It gets a string that indicates the name of the look and feel class that renders
this component
int getVerticalAlignment() It gets the alignment of the labels contents along the y axis

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Table 12.2: Methods of the JLabel class

Method Does this
int getVerticalTextPosition() It gets the vertical position of the labels text, relative to its image
boolean imageUpdate(Image img, It is overridden and returns False if the current Icons image is not equal to
int infoflags, int x, int y, int that passed in Image img
w, int h)
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JLabel object
void setDisabledIcon It sets the icon to be displayed if this JLabel object is disabled
(Icon disabledIcon)
void setDisplayedMnemonic It specifies the displayed mnemonic as a char value
(char aChar)
void setDisplayedMnemonic It specifies a keycode that indicates a mnemonic key
(int key)
void setDisplayedMnemonicIndex It provides a hint to the look and feel for decorating a character in the text
(int index) to represent the mnemonic
void setHorizontalAlignment It sets the alignment of the labels contents along the x-axis
(int alignment)
void setHorizontalTextPosition It sets the horizontal position of the labels text relative to its image
(int textPosition)
void setIcon(Icon icon) It defines the icon this component will display
void setIconTextGap(int It defines the space between them if both the icon and text properties are
iconTextGap) set
void setLabelFor It sets the component this object is labeling
(Component c)
void setText(String text) It defines the single line of text this component will display
void setUI(LabelUI ui) It sets the look and feel object that renders this component
void setVerticalAlignment It sets the alignment of the labels contents along the y axis
(int alignment)
void setVerticalTextPosition It sets the vertical position of the text relative to the image
(int textPosition)
void updateUI() It resets the UI property to a value from the current look and feel

Heres a basic example that shows how to create a Swing label and add a text Kogent Learning Solutions!
to it:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=JLabelDemo.class
WIDTH=250
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET>*/
public class JLabelDemo extends JApplet {
public JLabelDemo() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JLabel jlabel1 = new JLabel("Kogent Learning Solutions!");
c.add(jlabel1); }
}

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 Immediate Solutions

The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 12.2:

Figure 12.2: A Swing label

Theres a lot more you can do with Swing labels. For example, you can set the alignment of the text in a label as
well as use images, and well take a look at the possibilities over the next couple of solutions. To display an
image in a label, you need an object that implements the Icon interface, and youll find the methods of this
interface in Table 12.3:
Table 12.3: Methods of the Icon interface
Method Does this
int getIconHeight() It gets the icons height
int getIconWidth() It gets the icons width
void paintIcon(Component c, It draws the icon at the indicated location
Graphics g, int x, int y)

Fortunately, theres an easy way to create icons from images in Swingyou can use the ImageIcon class,
coming up in the next solution.

Using Image Icons

Hey, says the NP, I was just taking a look at the Icon interface. Do I have to paint images in icons myself in
Swing? Of course not, you say. You can use the ImageIcon class to make things a lot easier. Tell me all
about it, the NP says.
The ImageIcon class lets you create an icon from an image file for use in a Swing control. Heres the inheritance
diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____javax.swing.ImageIcon
Youll find the constructors of the ImageIcon class in Table 12.4 and its methods in Table 12.5:
Table 12.4: Constructors of the ImageIcon class
Constructor Does this
ImageIcon() It constructs an unitialized image icon
ImageIcon(byte[] imageData) It constructs an image icon from an array of bytes that were read from an
image file containing a supported image format, such as GIF or JPEG
ImageIcon(byte[] imageData, It constructs an image icon from an array of bytes that were read from an
String description) image file containing a supported image format, such as GIF or JPEG
ImageIcon(Image image) It constructs an image icon from an image object
ImageIcon(Image image, String It constructs an image icon from the given image
description)
ImageIcon(String filename) It constructs an image icon from the given file
ImageIcon(String filename, String It constructs an image icon from the given file and provide the given
description) description

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Table 12.4: Constructors of the ImageIcon class

Constructor Does this
ImageIcon(URL location) It constructs an image icon from the indicated URL
ImageIcon(URL location, String It constructs an image icon from the indicated URL and provide the given
description) description

Table 12.5: Methods of the ImageIcon class

Method Does this
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this ImageIcon
getAccessibleContext()
String getDescription() It gets the description of the image
int getIconHeight() It gets the height of the icon
int getIconWidth() It gets the width of the icon
Image getImage() It gets the icons image
int getImageLoadStatus() It gets the status of the image-loading operation
ImageObserver getImageObserver() It gets the image observer for the image
protected void loadImage(Image It loads the image, returning only when the image is loaded
image)
void paintIcon(Component c, It paints the icon
Graphics g, int x, int y)
void setDescription(String It sets the description of the image
description)
void setImage(Image image) It sets the image displayed by this icon
void setImageObserver It sets the image observer for the image
(ImageObserver observer)
String toString() It returns a string representation of this image

The ImageIcon class is an extremely useful one in Swing because many Swing components can display icons.
Well put this class to work in the next solution.

Using Images in Labels

The Big Boss appears and says, We need to jazz things up a bit in our programs; theres some heavy
competition in the GUI field now. OK, you say. I can add image icons to each label in the code. Swell, says
the BB, your new code is due yesterday.
You can use several of the JLabel constructors to add images to labels, and you can specify the alignment of
images and text in a label by using either of the following methods:
setVerticalTextPosition()It sets the vertical text position relative to the image
setHorizontalTextPosition()It sets the horizontal text position relative to the image
setVerticalAlignment()It sets the vertical alignment of the labels contents
setHorizontalAlignment()It sets the horizontal alignment of the labels contents
You can use constants there to specify the alignmentsBOTTOM, CENTER, EAST, HORIZONTAL, LEADING,
LEFT, NORTH, NORTH_EAST, NORTH_WEST, RIGHT, SOUTH, SOUTH_EAST, SOUTH_WEST, TOP,
TRAILING, VERTICAL, and WEST.
Heres an example in which we add a label with an image and text to an applet. The text will be centered under
the image. To create the image, we use the ImageIcon class, passing that classs constructor the name of the file
that holds the image we want to use (which, in this case, is Java8.jpg). We have also used two methods,
setVerticalTextPosition() and setHorizontalTextPosition(), to position the text at the bottom,
aligned at the center (as can be seen from figure):
import java.awt.*;

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 Immediate Solutions

import javax.swing.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=ImageLabelDemo.class
WIDTH=400
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class ImageLabelDemo extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
ImageIcon imgIcon = new ImageIcon("Java8.jpg");
JLabel jlabel1 = new JLabel("Kogent Learning Solutions", imgIcon, JLabel.CENTER);
jlabel1.setVerticalTextPosition(JLabel.BOTTOM);
jlabel1.setHorizontalTextPosition(JLabel.CENTER);
c.add(jlabel1); }
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 12.3:

Figure 12.3: A Swing label with an image

Note how easy it is to add images to labels in Swingbecause its so simple, its a very common thing to do.

Using Text Fields

Dont tell me, the NP says. I bet I can guessthe name of the Swing text field class is JTextField, right?
Exactly, you smile.
For compatibility, Swing text fields work much like AWT text fields, with some added capabilities. Heres the
inheritance diagram for the Swing JTextField class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.text.JTextComponent
|____javax.swing.JTextField
Youll see more on using Swing text components later in this book, but for now well introduce the JTextField
class so that we can get user input before that point. Youll find the constructors of the JTextField class in
Table 12.6 and its methods in Table 12.7:
Table 12.6: Constructors of the JTextField class
Constructor Does this
JTextField() It constructs a new text field
JTextField(Document doc, String text, It constructs a new JTextField object that uses the given storage
int columns) model and the given number of columns
JTextField(int columns) It constructs a new empty text field with the indicated columns
JTextField(String text) It constructs a new text field initialized with the indicated text
JTextField(String text, int columns) It constructs a new text field initialized with the indicated text and
columns

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Table 12.7: Methods of the JTextField class

Method Does this
protected void actionPropertyChanged It updates the textfields state in response to property changes in
(Action action, String propertyName) associated Action
void addActionListener It adds the action listener to get action events from this text field
(ActionListener l)
protected void It sets the properties on this textfield to match those in the specified
configurePropertiesFromAction(Action a) Action
protected PropertyChangeListener It creates and returns a PropertyChangeListener that is
createActionPropertyChangeListener responsible for listening changes from a specified Action and
(Action a) updating the appropriate properties
protected Document createDefaultModel() It constructs the default implementation of the model
protected void fireActionPerformed() It notifies listeners that have registered for notification on this
event type
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this
getAccessibleContext() JTextField
Action getAction() It gets the currently set Action for this ActionEvent
Action[] getActions() It gets the command list for the editor
int getColumns() It gets the number of columns
protected int getColumnWidth() It gets the column width
int getHorizontalAlignment() It gets the horizontal alignment of the text
BoundedRangeModel It gets the visibility of the text field
getHorizontalVisibility()
Dimension getPreferredSize() It gets the preferred size dimensions needed for this text field
int getScrollOffset() It gets the scroll offset
String getUIClassID() It gets the class ID for a UI
boolean isValidateRoot() It revalidates calls that come from the text field by validating the
text field unless the text field is contained within a JViewport, in
which case it returns False
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this text field
void postActionEvent() It processes action events occurring on this text field by sending
them to any registered ActionListener objects
void removeActionListener It removes the indicated action listener so that it no longer receives
(ActionListener l) action events from this text field
void scrollRectToVisible (Rectangle r) It scrolls the field left or right
void setAction(Action a) It sets the Action for the ActionEvent source.
void setActionCommand (String command) It sets the command string used for action events
void setColumns (int columns) It sets the number of columns and then invalidates the layout
void setDocument (Document doc) It associates the editor with a text document
void setFont(Font f) It sets the current font
void setHorizontalAlignment It sets the horizontal alignment of the text
(int alignment)
void setScrollOffset (int scrollOffset) It sets the scroll offset in pixels

Heres a quick example that does nothing more than displaying a text field with the text Kogent Learning
Solutions! written in red color:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;

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/* <APPLET
CODE=JTextFieldDemo.class
WIDTH=250
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET>*/
public class JTextFieldDemo extends JApplet {
JTextField jtextfield1;
public void init() {
jtextfield1 = new JTextField(15);
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(jtextfield1);
jtextfield1.setForeground(Color.RED);
jtextfield1.setText("Kogent Learning Solutions!"); }
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 12.4:

Figure 12.4: A Swing TextField

This is only the very beginning of using text components in Swing, but it gets us started and provides an easy
way for our programs to display output. For example, well connect a text field to a button over the next couple
of solutions.

Setting Text Field Alignment

Uh-Oh, the NP says, I find it very peculiar to work with Java. I want to set the horizontal alignment of
JTextField. But it seems this will not work. You smile and say, No, no it is possible.
The horizontal alignment of JTextField can be set in different ways. These can be left justified, leading
justified, centered, right justified, or trailing justified. Right/trailing justification is significant when the text field
size is more than the size of text inside it.
This can be determined by two methodssetHorizontalAlignment() and getHorizontalAlignment()
methods. The Leading is the default justification. Following is an example for setting up a JTextField and
modifying its horizontal alignment at runtime:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class TextAlignmentDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
final JTextField jtextfield1 = new JTextField("Press enter", 20);
jtextfield1.setHorizontalAlignment(JTextField.RIGHT);
jtextfield1.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
int align = jtextfield1.getHorizontalAlignment();
if (align == JTextField.LEFT)
jtextfield1.setHorizontalAlignment(JTextField.RIGHT);

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if (align == JTextField.RIGHT)
jtextfield1.setHorizontalAlignment(JTextField.CENTER);
if (align == JTextField.CENTER)
jtextfield1.setHorizontalAlignment(JTextField.LEFT); }});
JFrame f = new JFrame("Alignment Demo");
f.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
f.getContentPane().setLayout(new java.awt.FlowLayout());
f.getContentPane().add(jtextfield1);
f.setSize(275, 75);
f.setVisible(true);
jtextfield1.requestFocus(); }
}
The result of the preceding code is shown in Figure 12.5(a), and the text is displayed as shown in Figure 12.5(b)
respectivel.

Figure 12.5(a): Showing the TextField Figure 12.5(b): The text is displayed

Creating Password Field

So, the NP says, I can align a text field in various wayswait a minutewhat if I have to set it in such a way
that the characters entered are not visible? Is such a thing possible? You smile again.
The JPasswordField class allows you to enter a password in the text field. The characters entered are not
shown by default for security purposes. They are masked and a different character, such as an asterisk (*), is
displayed in place of each character. The characters are stored in the form of an array instead of a string as a
security measure. Just as a normal text field, the password field also fires action event when the user presses
Enter inside the password field.
Following is the code which will create and set up the password field:
passwordField = new JPasswordField(10);
passwordField.setEchoChar('#');
passwordField.setActionCommand(OK);
passwordField.addActionListener(this);
In this case, the argument which is passed into the JPasswordField constructor indicates that the preferred
size of the field is 10 (maximum) columns wide. By default, an asterisk * character is displayed in the
password field. You can also modify the masked character being displayed with any character of your choice,
such as #, by calling the setEchoChar() method. This changes the * character to #. Finally, you add the
action listener to the password field to validate the password entered. Following is the implementation of the
action listeners actionPerformed() method:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
String cmd = e.getActionCommand();
if (cmd.equals(OK)) {
char[] password = passwordField.getPassword();
if (isPasswordCorrect(password)) {
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(controllingFrame,
"Your password is correct."); } else {
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(controllingFrame,
"Invalid password. Please try again.", "Error Message",
JOptionPane.ERROR_MESSAGE); }

passwordField.selectAll(); resetFocus(); }
}

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Although the getText() method is available in the JPasswordField component, you should avoid using it
for security reasons; instead, you should use the getPassword() method. Also, in future, it may happen that
the getText() method may return a visible string (for example, kogent) ; therefore, it is not very safe. To
further enhance the security, as soon as you finish the character array returned by the getPassword()
method, you should set each of its elements to zero.
Usually, the program validates the password entered before using it to perform any action. In the following
code, the validation is performed by calling the isPasswordCorrect() method that compares the entered
password with the value stored in a different character array:
private static boolean isPasswordCorrect(char[] input) {
boolean isCorrect = true;
char[] correctPass = { 'b', 'u', 'g', 'a', 'b', 'o', 'o' };
if (input.length != correctPass.length) { isCorrect = false; }
else {
for (int i = 0; i < input.length; i++) {
if (input[i] != correctPass[i]) { isCorrect = false; }
}
}
for (int i = 0; i < correctPass.length; i++) { correctPass[i] = 0; }
return isCorrect;
}

Creating Text Areas

The NP says, What is the difference between a JTextArea and a JTextField? They both look the same....
There is a distinction, you say, that too a noticeable one.
A text area is similar to a text field but differs in two respects: it can have multiline input and possess more
functionality than a text field. In a JTextField, you can append, insert, or replace text at a given location.
Since this functionality could be useful for JTextArea as well; it is, therefore, a little confusing to try to detect
how the distinction is made. You might think that if you want the JTextArea functionality everywhere, you
can simply use a one-line JTextArea in places where you would otherwise use a JTextField. In Java 1.0, you
also got scroll bars with JTextArea even when they were not appropriate. The text areas do not have scroll
bars. You have to add the text area to a second component called a scroll pane, created by the JScrollPane
class. Then you add the scroll pane to the panel, so it can be displayed.
JTextArea provides you a component to display multiline text and optionally edit it. A JTextField should
be preferred to obtain a single line input. However, if the requirement is such that you have to display the text in
multiple fonts or styles, then an editor pane or text pane should be preferred. Consider using a label if the
displayed text has a limited length and is never edited by the user.
Tables 12.8 and 12.9 list the commonly used JTextArea constructors and methods, respectively.
Table 12.8: Constructors of the JTextArea
Constructor Does this
JTextArea() It constructs a new text area with the empty string as text
JTextArea(Document doc) It constructs a new text area with the given document model, and defaults
for all of the other arguments (null, 0, 0).
JTextArea(Document doc, String It constructs a new text area with the given document model and number
text, int rows, int columns) of rows and columns
JTextArea(int rows, int columns) It constructs a new text area with the given number of rows and columns
and the empty string as text
JTextArea(String text) It constructs a new text area with the specified text
JTextArea(String text,int rows, It constructs a new text area with the given text, and number of rows and
int columns) columns

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Table 12.9: Methods of the JTextArea

Method Does this
void append(String str) It appends the given text to the text areas current text
protected Document It creates the default implementation of the model to be used at
createDefaultModel() construction
AccessibleContext It returns the AccessibleContext associated with this JTextArea
getAccessibleContext()
int getColumns() It returns the number of columns in this text area
protected int getColumnWidth() It gets the column width
int getLineCount() It gets the number of lines contained in this text area
int getLineEndOffset (int line) It gets the offset of the end of the given line
boolean getLineWrap() It gets the line-wrapping policy of the text area
Dimension It gets the preferred size of the viewport if this component is embedded in
getPreferredScrollableViewportSize a scroll pane
()
Dimension getPreferredSize() It returns the preferred size of the text area
protected int getRowHeight() It gets the height of the row
int getRows() It gets the number of rows in the text area
boolean It returns True if a viewport should always force the width of this
getScrollableTracksViewportWidth Scrollable to match the width of the viewport
()
int It states that the components that display logical columns or rows should
getScrollableUnitIncrement(Rectang evaluate the scroll unit increment depending upon the orientation
le visibleRect, int orientation,
int direction)
int getTabSize() It gets the number of characters used to expand tabs
String getUIClassID() It gets the class ID for the UI
boolean getWrapStyleWord() It gets the wrapping style if the text area is wrapping lines
protected String paramString() It returns a string representing the state of this text area
void replaceRange It replaces text between the indicated start and end positions with the
(String str, int start, int end) specified replacement text
void setColumns(int columns) It sets the number of columns for this text area
void setFont(Font f) It sets the current font
void setLineWrap(boolean wrap) It sets the line wrapping policy of this text area
void setRows(int rows) It sets the number of rows for this text area
void setTabSize(int size) It sets the number of characters to expand tabs to
void setWrapStyleWord It sets the wrapping style used if the text area is wrapping lines
(boolean word)

The code that creates and initializes the text area:

area1 = new JTextArea(5,20);
JScrollPane jscrollpane1 = new JScrollPane(area1,
JScrollPane.VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR_ALWAYS,
JScrollPane.HORIZONTAL_SCROLLBAR_ALWAYS);
area1.setEditable(false);
The arguments in the JTextArea constructor represent the number of rows and columns in the text area. Also,
these arguments play a key role in deciding the size of scroll pane that actually contains the text area. In the
absence of the scroll pane, the text area will not allow scrolling the text.

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A text area is editable by default, but you can make it uneditable by passing False in the
setEditable(boolean) method. You can still select and copy the data from a text field, but making any
changes to the data directly will not be permitted. The \n character is used to write text in the next line; it is
called a newline character. The following code depicts how to add text to a text area and note that the text
system uses the '\n' character internally to represent newlines:
private final static String char = "\n";
. . .
area1.append(text + char);
By default, a text area automatically scrolls to make visible the appended text. However, automatically scrolling
doesnt occur when the user has moved the caret (also called insertion point) to some other point by dragging or
clicking in the text area. After you call the append() method, moving the caret position to the end of text area
scrolls it to the bottom. The setCaretPosition() method is used to explicitly set the caret position. This is
shown as follows:
area1.setCaretPosition(textArea.getDocument().getLength());

Customizing a Text Area

A text area can be customized in various ways. For example, you can customize the font and color of text in the
text area, determine the number of characters per tab, and define how a text area wraps a line. Being a subclass
of JTextComponent, JTextArea inherits several features from it, such as support for dragging the text,
positioning the caret, and many more. The following code depicts an editable text area after initialization:
JTextArea area1 = new JTextArea("This is an editable JTextArea. " +
"A text area is a plain text component." +
"Although it can display text in any font, " +
"all of the text inside a text area appears in a one common font.");
area1.setFont(new Font("SansSerif", Font.BOLD, 18));
area1.setLineWrap(true);
area1.setWrapStyleWord(true);
A text area doesnt implicitly wrap the lines; instead, it uses only one line to display the whole text. It allows
scrolling horizontally if inside a scroll pane. You can call the setLineWrap() method to turn on the wrapping
of lines and the setWrapStyleWord() method to wrap the lines at word boundaries instead of character
boundaries. The following code adds a text area to a scroll pane:
JScrollPane jscrollPane1 = new JScrollPane(area1);
jScrollPane1.setVerticalScrollBarPolicy(
JScrollPane.VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR_ALWAYS);
jscrollPane1.setPreferredSize(new Dimension(250, 250));
Note that the JTextArea constructor in the preceding code doesnt contain any rows and columns as
arguments; it limits the text area size by setting the preferred size of scroll pane.

Creating Editor Panes

The NP appears and says, I need to know how two Swing classes support styled text. OK, you say, These
come under creating Editor Panes. JEditorPane and its subclass JTextPane will help in this regard.
JEditorPane and its subclass JTextPane support styled text. JEditorPane serves as the foundation for
styled text components and provides support for customized text formats. For unstyled text, you may use a text
area. The editor pane uses EditorKit to mould itself into a sort of text editor and display the content. Its
actually the currently installed EditorKit that determines the content type displayed by the editor pane. Youll
find the constructors of JEditorPane in Table 12.10 and its methods in Table 12.11:
Table 12.10: Constructors of the JEditorPane class
Constructor Does this
JEditorPane() It creates a new JEditorPane
JEditorPane(String url) It creates a JEditorPane based on a string containing a URL
specification

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Table 12.10: Constructors of the JEditorPane class

Constructor Does this
JEditorPane(String type, String text) It creates a JEditorPane that has been initialized to the given text
JEditorPane (URL initialPage) It creates a JEditorPane based on a specified URL for input

Table 12.11: Methods of the JEditorPane class

Method Does this
void addHyperlinkListener It adds a hyperlink listener for notification of any changes, for
(HyperlinkListener listener) example when a link is selected and entered
protected EditorKit It creates the default editor kit (PlainEditorKit) when the
createDefaultEditorKit() component is first created
static EditorKit It creates a handler for the given type from the default registry of
createEditorKitForContentType(String editor kits
type)
void fireHyperlinkUpdate It notifies all listeners that have registered interest for notification
(HyperlinkEvent e) on this event type
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this
getAccessibleContext() JEditorPane
String getContentType() It gets the type of content that this editor is currently set to deal
with
EditorKit getEditorKit() It fetches the currently installed kit for handling content
static String It returns the currently registered EditorKit class name for the
getEditorKitClassNameForContentType type type
(String type)
EditorKit It returns the EditorKit to use for the given type of content
getEditorKitForContentType(String type)
HyperlinkListener[] It returns an array of all the HyperlinkListeners added to this
getHyperlinkListeners() JEditorPane
URL getPage() It gets the current URL being displayed
Dimension getPreferredSize() It returns the preferred size for the JEditorPane
boolean It returns True if a viewport should always force the height of this
getScrollableTracksViewportHeight() Scrollable to match the height of the viewport
boolean It returns True if a viewport should always force the width of this
getScrollableTracksViewportWidth() Scrollable to match the width of the viewport
protected InputStream It returns a stream for the given URL, which is about to be loaded by
getStream(URL page) the setPage method
String getText() It returns the text contained in this TextComponent in terms of the
content type of this editor
String getUIClassID() It gets the class ID for the UI
protected String paramString() It returns a string representation of this JEditorPane
void read(InputStream in, Object desc) It initializes from a stream
static void It establishes the default bindings of type to classname
registerEditorKitForContentType(String
type, String classname)
static void It establishes the default bindings of type to classname
registerEditorKitForContentType(String
type, String classname,
ClassLoader loader)
void removeHyperlinkListener It removes a hyperlink listener
(HyperlinkListener listener)

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Table 12.11: Methods of the JEditorPane class

Method Does this
void replaceSelection(String content) It replaces the currently selected content with new content
represented by the given string
void scrollToReference It scrolls the view to the given reference location (that is, the value
(String reference) returned by the UL.getRef method for the URL being displayed)
void setContentType (String type) It sets the type of content that this editor handles
void setEditorKit (EditorKit kit) It sets the currently installed kit for handling content
void It directly sets the editor kit to use for the given type
setEditorKitForContentType(String type
, EditorKit k)
void setPage(String url) It sets the current URL being displayed
void setPage(URL page) It sets the current URL being displayed
void setText(String t) It sets the text of this TextComponent to the specified content,
which is expected to be in the format of the content type of this
editor

If an editor pane displays the content of a new URL, then the content type determines the EditorKit you
should prefer to load the content. The following different kinds of content are available by default:
Text/plainIt uses an extension of DefaultEditorKit to produce a wrapped plain text view.
Text/htmlIt uses the class javax.swing.text.html.HTMLEditorKit, to provide HTML 3.2
support.
Text/rtfIt uses the class javax.swing.text.rtf.RTFEditorKit, to provide limited support for
the Rich Text Format.

Using HTML in Editor Panes

Displaying text from a URL can be easily done even by an NP. The following code implements this and depicts
an uneditable editor pane that displays text formatted with HTML tags:
JEditorPane ePane1 = new JEditorPane();
ePane1.setEditable(false);
URL url = DemoTextDisplay.class.getResource("DemoTextDisplay.html");
if (url != null) {
try { ePane1.setPage(url); }
catch (IOException e) {
System.err.println("Bad URL: " + url); }
}
else { System.err.println("Couldn't find file: DemoTextDisplay.html"); }
JScrollPane jscrollPane1 = new JScrollPane(ePane1);
jscrollPane1.setVerticalScrollBarPolicy(JScrollPane.VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR_ALWAYS);
jscrollPane1.setPreferredSize(new Dimension(250, 145));
jscrollPane1.setMinimumSize(new Dimension(10, 10));
The preceding code uses JEditorPanes default constructor to create an editor pane object. After this, the
editor pane is made uneditable using setEditable(false). Next, a URL class object is obtained and passed as
an argument in the setPage() method.
The setPage() method is important and does the major part of the working. It opens the resource specified by
the URL and determines the text format (here HTML) used in it. A normal editor pane can display plain text in
the form of HTML and Rich-Text-Format (RTF). The GUI may remain responsive if the page loads
asynchronously. But that doesnt mean that you count on the data being loaded entirely after the setPage()
method returns.

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Using RTF Files in Editor Panes

The RTFEditorKit class is provided for creating RTF text editors. It was developed as a default
implementation of RTF editing functionality. The Swing team did not write the RTF support. In future, it is
expected that the support would improve. The constructor and methods for RTFEditorKit are listed in Tables
12.12 and 12.13, respectively.
Table 12.12: Constructor for RTFEditorKit
Constructor Does this
RTFEditorKit() It constructs an RTFEditorKit

Table 12.13: Methods for RTFEditorKit

Method Does this
String getContentType() It gets the MIME type of the data that this kit represents support for
void read(InputStream in, It inserts content from the given stream which is expected to be in a format
Document doc, int pos) appropriate for this kind of content handler
void read(Reader in, It inserts content from the given stream, which will be treated as plain text
Document doc, int pos)
void write It writes content from a document to the given stream in a format
(OutputStream out, Document doc, appropriate for this kind of content handler
int pos, int len)
void write(Writer out, It writes content from a document to the given stream as plain text
Document doc, int pos, int len)

Creating Text Panes

The NP says, Please tell me about JTextPane and its significance. Would it support image display?
Definitely, you say, let me explain.
The JTextPane is a complete text editor and provides support for almost all the operations of a text editor, such
as formatting the text, wrapping word, and displaying images. It takes the assistance of a linked list of objects
that implement the Style interface to indicate the formatting style. Additionally, a set of convenient and easy-to-
use methods are also provided. For example, you can use the setPage() method to load a text pane or an
editor pane with text from a particular URL. Unlike JTextPane, you can initialize a JEditorPane object with a
particular URL.

Inserting Images and Controls into Text Panes

You can insert images and controls with the help of two methods. These methods are JTextPanes
insertIcon() method and insertComponent() method. These methods insert the given object by replacing
the current selection. And if there is no current selection, the given object will be placed at the beginning of the
document. That is why, you defined the setEndSelection() method in the example given here to point the
selection at the end of the document where we want to do insertion.
When inserting text, you cannot simply append it to the text pane itself. Instead, we retrieve its document and
call insertString(). To give attributes to inserted text, you can construct AttributeSet implementation
and assign attributes to that set using the StyleConstants class.
In the example given here, you do this by constructing three static instances of SimpleAttributeSet class.
The JTextPane also supports the use of styles, which are named collection of attributes. The code is as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.io.*;
import javax.swing.*;

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import javax.swing.text.*;
public class JTextPaneDemo extends JFrame {
static SimpleAttributeSet ITALIC_GRAY = new SimpleAttributeSet();
static SimpleAttributeSet BOLD_BLACK = new SimpleAttributeSet();
static SimpleAttributeSet BLACK = new SimpleAttributeSet();
JTextPane pane1 = new JTextPane();
static {
StyleConstants.setForeground(ITALIC_GRAY, Color.gray);
StyleConstants.setItalic(ITALIC_GRAY, true);
StyleConstants.setFontFamily(ITALIC_GRAY, "Helvetica");
StyleConstants.setFontSize(ITALIC_GRAY, 14);
StyleConstants.setForeground(BOLD_BLACK, Color.black);
StyleConstants.setBold(BOLD_BLACK, true);
StyleConstants.setFontFamily(BOLD_BLACK, "Helvetica");
StyleConstants.setFontSize(BOLD_BLACK, 14);
StyleConstants.setForeground(BLACK, Color.black);
StyleConstants.setFontFamily(BLACK,"Helvetica");
StyleConstants.setFontSize(BLACK, 14); }
public JTextPaneDemo() {
super ("JTextPane Demo");
JScrollPane jscrollPane1 = new JScrollPane(pane1);
getContentPane().add(jscrollPane1, BorderLayout.CENTER);
setEndSelection();
pane1.insertIcon(new ImageIcon("logo.jpg"));
insertText("\nHistory: Distant\n\n", BOLD_BLACK);
setEndSelection();
pane1.insertIcon(new ImageIcon("tom.jpg"));
insertText( " ", BLACK);
setEndSelection();
pane1.insertIcon (new ImageIcon("jerry.jpg"));
insertText( "\n Tom & "+ "Jerry\n\n" , ITALIC_GRAY);
setEndSelection();
JButton jbutton1 = new JButton("Visit Home");
jbutton1.addActionListener (new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed (ActionEvent e) {
pane1.setEditable(false);
try { pane1.setPage("http://www.logo.com"); }
catch(IOException ioe) {
ioe.printStackTrace(); }
}});
pane1.insertComponent(jbutton1);
setSize (675,500);
setVisible (true); }
protected void insertText (String text,AttributeSet set) {
try {
pane1.getDocument().insertString(
pane1.getDocument().getLength(), text, set); }
catch (BadLocationException e) { e.printStackTrace(); }
}
protected void setEndSelection() {
pane1.setSelectionStart (pane1.getDocument().getLength());
pane1.setSelectionEnd
(pane1.getDocument().getLength()); }
public static void main (String argv[]) { new JTextPaneDemo(); }
}

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Figure 12.6 shows the result of the code:

Figure 12.6: Showing the images

Setting Text Pane Text Attributes

The NP is little worried about JTextPane. He says, It makes a simple thing difficult. Yes Sir, you say. It
makes a simple thing difficult, but at the same time, it makes complex things easier.
Swings JTextPane is way better as compared to the AWTs TextArea. It not only allows you to create
sophisticated combinations of character and paragraph attributes, images, and other components but also to
create styled text editors. JTextPane makes complex things easy but sometimes makes some simple things
complex. For example, setting the default font and color for an AWT text area is simple, but not so easy for a text
pane in Swing. The following code depicts an AWT text area that uses 16-point red SansSerif font:
import java.awt.TextArea;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class ListenerWindow extends WindowAdapter {
public ListenerWindow() {
Frame frame1 = new Frame("TextArea Example");
frame1.setLayout(new BorderLayout());
TextArea area1 = new TextArea();
Font font = new Font("SansSerif", Font.ITALIC, 16);
area1.setFont(font);
area1.setForeground(Color.red);
frame1.add(area1, BorderLayout.CENTER);
frame1.addWindowListener(this);
frame1.setSize(300, 200);
frame1.setVisible(true); }
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) { System.exit(0); }
public static void main(String[] args) {
ListenerWindow listen = new ListenerWindow(); }
}
The execution of the program is shown in Figure 12.7:

Figure 12.7: Showing AWT TextArea

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The preceding code involves call to TextArea's setFont() and setForeground() methods. The former
sets the font style, while the latter sets the text color in the text area. The following code shows a (seemingly)
equivalent example using Swings JFrame and JTextPane classes:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.awt.*;
public class ListenerWindow1 extends WindowAdapter {
public ListenerWindow1() {
JFrame jframe1 = new JFrame("JTextPane Example");
jframe1.getContentPane().setLayout(new BorderLayout());
JTextPane pane1 = new JTextPane();
Font font = new Font("SansSerif", Font.ITALIC, 16);
pane1.setFont(font);
pane1.setForeground(Color.red);
jframe1.getContentPane().add(pane1, BorderLayout.CENTER);
jframe1.addWindowListener(this);
jframe1.setSize(300, 200);
jframe1.setVisible(true); }
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent evt) { System.exit(0); }
public static void main(String[] args) {
ListenerWindow1 listen = new ListenerWindow1(); }
}
The execution of the program is shown in Figure 12.8:

Figure 12.8: Showing the JTextPane

The preceding code doesnt produce the result as expected. The text pane uses the font and color specified by the
setFont() and setForeground() methods.
The idea of setting the font style and color of the whole text seems a bit awkward (contrary to the case of less
flexible JTextArea) as each character can have its own font and color. Instead, you should look at the whole
content and set the character attributes. In case the text pane doesnt contain any text, the attributes set will be
used for any text entered later. The following code illustrates the following aspect, where the method
setJTextPaneFont() is the container for the logic to update the font and color attributes:
import javax.swing.*;
import javax.swing.text.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.awt.*;
public class ListenerWindow2 extends WindowAdapter {
public ListenerWindow2() {
JFrame jframe1 = new JFrame("JTextPane Attribute Example");
jframe1.getContentPane().setLayout(new BorderLayout());
JTextPane pane1 = new JTextPane();
Font font = new Font("SansSerif", Font.ITALIC, 16);
setJTextPaneFont(pane1, font, Color.red);
jframe1.getContentPane().add(pane1, BorderLayout.CENTER);
jframe1.addWindowListener(this);
jframe1.setSize(300, 200);
jframe1.setVisible(true); }
public static void setJTextPaneFont(JTextPane pane, Font font, Color c) {
MutableAttributeSet set = pane.getInputAttributes();
StyleConstants.setFontFamily(set, font.getFamily());
StyleConstants.setFontSize(set, font.getSize());
StyleConstants.setItalic(set,(font.getStyle()&Font.ITALIC)!= 0);

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StyleConstants.setBold(set, (font.getStyle() & Font.BOLD) != 0);

StyleConstants.setForeground(set, c);
StyledDocument doc = pane.getStyledDocument();
doc.setCharacterAttributes(0, doc.getLength() + 1, set, false); }
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent evt) { System.exit(0); }
public static void main(String[] args) {
ListenerWindow2 listener = new ListenerWindow2(); }
}
The execution of the program is shown in Figure 12.9:

Figure 12.9: The JTextPane attributes

The preceding example produces 16-point red text, Welcome to Kogent Learning Solutions, within the
JTextPane.
The JTextPane cant be considered a direct replacement for the AWTs TextArea. Swing provides the
JTextArea class to create a behavior similar to the TextArea and support source code compatibility. However,
you should use a JTextPane instead of a JTextArea even in cases where multiple font support is not required
within the text component. For example, embedded images or alternate text alignment is not supported in
JTextArea.

Working with Sound in Applets

The NP appears and says, I want audio to do business with the images. You smile and say, Certainly... true
multimedia presentations often combine image techniques, such as animation with sound. It gives added
interest to the user.
By now you have gone through the drawing and image processing, and you are wondering what in the world
audio has to do with images. In this regards we are going to introduce a discussion.
java.applet.AudioClip defines an interface for objects that can play sound. An object that implements
AudioClip can be told to play() its sound data, stop() playing the sound, or loop() continually.
An applet can call its getAudioClip() method to retrieve sounds over the network. This method takes an
absolute or relative URL to specify where the audio file is located. The viewer may take the sound from a cache
or retrieve it over the network. The following applet gives a simple example:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=SoundAppDemo.class
WIDTH=250
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class SoundAppDemo extends java.applet.Applet implements ActionListener
{
java.applet.AudioClip sound;
public void init()
{
sound = getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), "sound.au");
Button play = new Button("Play Sound");
play.addActionListener(this);
add(play); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e)

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{
if(sound != null)
sound.play(); }
}
The applet retrieves an AudioClip from the server. You must note that the applets only support sound files
having .au extension.

Working with Sound in Application

The Big Boss is unhappy, Java comprises very limited options for sound and sound devices. No Sir, you say.
The initial version of Java has limited options. But now you have Java Media Framework. It enables audio,
video, and other time-based media to be added to applications and applets built on Java technology.
Initially, Java had very less support for sound and sound devices. Only .AU and .WAV files were supported. But
as the time passed, Java evolved with stronger multimedia facilities. The Java Sound API, a very low-level API,
supported multiple audio operations, such as capture and playback, mixing, MIDI sequencing and synthesis, in
a very flexible and extensible framework. It empowered the programmers to experiment with sound the way
they like, but it was still hard to program. Several initiatives emerged for digital video and, ultimately, the Java
Media Framework (JMF) came to take the sound facilities in Java to a new high.
The JMFs cross-platform, powerful, and scalable toolkit lets you embed audio, video, and other time-based
media in various Java applications. You can capture playback, stream, and transcode multiple media formats
using the JMF.
Although the JMF added an entirely different capability to Java, yet a lot is to be done. For example, there is still
limited support for audio standards, such as MPEG-2 Layer 3 (MP3).

Abstract Button: The Foundation of Swing Buttons

But I dont want to use the AbstractButton class, the Novice Programmer says. I want to use the JButton
class. Why do I have to learn about AbstractButton? All buttons in Swing are derived from
AbstractButton, you say, and theres a tremendous number of methods in that class you should know
about, even if only for reference. Really, itll do you good. Oh, says the NP.
The AbstractButton class provides the foundation of the button classes in Java, and like JComponent, it
provides so many methods that we cant ignore it here. Heres the inheritance diagram for AbstractButton:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.AbstractButton
Youll find the fields of the AbstractButton class in Table 12.14, its constructor in Table 12.15, and its methods
in Table 12.16.
Table 12.14: Fields of the AbstractButton class
Field Does this
protected ActionListener actionListener The button models ActionListener
static String It indicates a change to the border painting
BORDER_PAINTED_CHANGED_PROPERTY
protected ChangeEvent changeEvent The buttons ChangeEvent object (only one ChangeEvent is
needed per button)
protected ChangeListener changeListener The buttons model ChangeListener
static String It indicates a change to have the button paint the content area
CONTENT_AREA_FILLED_CHANGED_PROPERTY
static String DISABLED_ICON_CHANGED_ It indicates a change to the icon used when the button has been
PROPERTY disabled
static String It indicates a change to the icon used when the button has been
DISABLED_SELECTED_ICON_CHANGED_PROPERTY disabled and selected

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Table 12.14: Fields of the AbstractButton class

Field Does this
static String FOCUS_PAINTED_CHANGED_ It indicates a change to having the border highlighted when it has
PROPERTY the focus (or not)
static String It indicates a change in the buttons horizontal alignment
HORIZONTAL_ALIGNMENT_CHANGED_ PROPERTY
static String It indicates a change in the buttons horizontal text position
HORIZONTAL_TEXT_POSITION_CHANGED_
PROPERTY
static String ICON_CHANGED_PROPERTY It indicates a change to the icon that represents the button
protected ItemListener itemListener The ItemListener object for this button.
static String MARGIN_CHANGED_PROPERTY It indicates a change to the buttons margins
static String MNEMONIC_CHANGED_PROPERTY It indicates a change to the buttons mnemonic
protected ButtonModel model The data model that determines the buttons state
static String MODEL_CHANGED_ PROPERTY It indicates a change in the button model
static String It indicates a change to the icon used when the button has been
PRESSED_ICON_CHANGED_PROPERTY pressed
static String It indicates a change in the buttons rollover enabled property
ROLLOVER_ENABLED_CHANGED_PROPERTY
static String It indicates a change to the icon used when the cursor is over the
ROLLOVER_ICON_CHANGED_PROPERTY button
static String It indicates a change to the icon used when the cursor is over the
ROLLOVER_SELECTED_ICON_CHANGED_ PROPERTY button and the button is selected
static String It indicates a change to the icon used when the button has been
SELECTED_ICON_CHANGED_PROPERTY selected
static String TEXT_CHANGED_PROPERTY It indicates a change in the buttons text
static String It indicates a change in the buttons vertical alignment
VERTICAL_ALIGNMENT_CHANGED_PROPERTY
static String It indicates a change in the buttons vertical text position
VERTICAL_TEXT_POSITION_CHANGED_PROPERTY

Table 12.15: The constructor of the AbstractButton class

Constructor Does this
AbstractButton() It constructs a new AbstractButton object

Table 12.16: Methods of the AbstractButton class

Method Does this
protected void actionPropertyChanged It updates the buttons state as a result of property changes in the
(Action action, String propertyName) associated action
void addActionListener It adds an action listener to the button
(ActionListener l)
void addChangeListener(ChangeListener l) It adds a change listener to the button
protected void addImpl(Component comp, It adds the specified component to this container at the specified
Object constraints, int index) index
void addItemListener (ItemListener l) It adds an item listener to a checkbox
protected int checkHorizontalKey(int It verifies that key is a legal value for the
key, String exception) horizontalAlignment and horizontalTextPosition
properties

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Table 12.16: Methods of the AbstractButton class

Method Does this
protected int checkVerticalKey(int key, It verifies that key is a legal value for the vertical properties
String exception)
protected void It sets properties on this button to match those in the specified
configurePropertiesFromAction(Action a) Action
protected ActionListener It creates an action listener
createActionListener()
protected PropertyChangeListener It creates and returns a PropertyChangeListener that is
createActionPropertyChangeListener responsible for listening for changes from the specified Action
(Action a) and updating the appropriate properties
protected ChangeListener It returns another ChangeListener implementation
createChangeListener()
protected ItemListener It creates an item listener
createItemListener()
void doClick() It programmatically clicks the button
void doClick (int pressTime) It programmatically clicks the button at a certain time
protected void fireActionPerformed It notifies all listeners that have registered for notification on this
(ActionEvent event) event type
protected void fireItemStateChanged It notifies all listeners that have registered for notification on this
(ItemEvent event) event type
protected void fireStateChanged() It notifies all listeners that have registered for notification on this
event type
String getActionCommand() It gets the action command for this button
Action getAction() It returns the currently set Action for this ActionEvent
Icon getDisabledIcon() It gets the disabled icon
Icon getDisabledSelectedIcon() It gets the disabled selected icon
int getDisplayedMnemonicIndex() It returns the character, as an index, that the look and feel should
provide decoration for as representing the mnemonic character
boolean getHideActionText() It returns the value of hideActionText property, which
determines whether the button displays text from the Action
int getHorizontalAlignment() It gets the horizontal alignment of the icon and text
int getHorizontalTextPosition() It sets the horizontal position of the text relative to the icon
Icon getIcon() It gets the default icon
int getIconTextGap() It gets the amount of space between the text and the icon
displayed in this button
ItemListener[] getItemListeners() It returns an array of all ItemListeners added to this
AbstractButton
String getLabel() It is deprecated and replaced by getText()
Insets getMargin() It gets the margin between the buttons border and the label
int getMnemonic() It gets the keyboard mnemonic from the current model
ButtonModel getModel() It gets the model that this button represents
long getMultiClickThreshhold() It gets the time in milliseconds required between mouse press
events for the button to generate action events
Icon getPressedIcon() It gets the pressed icon for the button
Icon getRolloverIcon() It gets the rollover icon for the button
Icon getRolloverSelectedIcon() It gets the rollover selected icon for the button
Icon getSelectedIcon() It gets the selected icon for the button

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Table 12.16: Methods of the AbstractButton class

Method Does this
Object[] getSelectedObjects() It gets an array (of length 1) containing the label or null if the
button is not selected
String getText() It gets the buttons text.
ButtonUI getUI() It gets the buttons current UI
int getVerticalAlignment() It gets the vertical alignment of the text and icon
int getVerticalTextPosition() It gets the vertical position of the text relative to the icon
boolean imageUpdate(Image img, int It returns False if the current icons image is not equal to that
infoflags, int x, int y, int w, int h) passed in Image img
protected void init For internal use
(String text, Icon icon)
boolean isBorderPainted() It gets the borderPainted property
boolean isContentAreaFilled() It get the contentAreaFilled property
boolean isFocusPainted() It gets the paintFocus property
boolean isRolloverEnabled() It gets the rolloverEnabled property
boolean isSelected() It gets the state of the button
protected void paintBorder(Graphics g) It paints the buttons border if borderPainted property is True
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this AbstractButton object
void removeActionListener It removes an ActionListener from the button
(ActionListener l)
void removeChangeListener It removes a ChangeListener from the button
(ChangeListener l)
void removeItemListener (ItemListener l) It removes an ItemListener from the button
void removeNotify() It notifies this component that it no longer has a parent component
void setAction(Action a) It sets the Action
void setActionCommand It sets the action command for the button
(String actionCommand)
void setBorderPainted (boolean b) It sets the borderPainted property
void setContentAreaFilled It sets the contentAreaFilled property
(boolean b)
void setDisabledIcon (Icon disabledIcon) It sets the disabled icon for the button
void setDisabledSelectedIcon It sets the disabled selected icon for the button
(Icon disabledSelectedIcon)
void setEnabled(boolean b) It enables (or disables) the button
void setFocusPainted (boolean b) It sets the paintFocus property
void setHideActionText(boolean It sets the hideActionText property
hideActionText)
void setHorizontalAlignment It sets the horizontal alignment of the icon and text
(int alignment)
void setHorizontalTextPosition It sets the horizontal position of the text relative to the icon
(int textPosition)
void setIcon(Icon defaultIcon) It sets the buttons default icon
void setIconTextGap(int iconTextGap) It defines the space between icon and text if both the icon as well
as text properties are set
void setLabel (String label) It is deprecated and replaced by setText(text)
void setLayout(LayoutManager mgr) It sets the layout manager for this component

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Table 12.16: Methods of the AbstractButton class

Method Does this
void setMargin(Insets m) It sets the space for margins
void setMnemonic (char mnemonic) It is obsolete and setMnemonic(int) should be preferred
void setMnemonic (int mnemonic) It sets the keyboard mnemonic on the current model
void setModel(ButtonModel newModel) It sets the model that this button represents
void setMultiClickThreshhold It sets the time in milliseconds required between mouse press
(long threshold) events for the button to generate action events
void setPressedIcon (Icon pressedIcon) It sets the pressed icon for the button
void setRolloverEnabled (boolean b) It sets the rolloverEnabled property
void setRolloverIcon It sets the rollover icon for the button
(Icon rolloverIcon)
void setRolloverSelectedIcon It sets the rollover selected icon for the button
(Icon rolloverSelectedIcon)
void setSelected (boolean b) It sets the state of the button
void setSelectedIcon (Icon selectedIcon) It sets the selected icon for the button
void setText(String text) It sets the buttons text
void setUI(ButtonUI ui) It sets the buttons UI
void setVerticalAlignment It sets the vertical alignment of the icon and text
(int alignment)
void setVerticalTextPosition It sets the vertical position of the text relative to the icon
(int textPosition)
void updateUI() It gets a new UI object from the current look and feel

Using Buttons
The NP arrives and says, Im ready to start working with Swing buttons, what can they do? Hmm. you say,
Quite a lot! Better pull up a chair.
Swing buttons are supported in the JButton class. Heres the inheritance diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.AbstractButton
|____javax.swing.JButton
The Swing buttons have more capabilities than their counterparts in AWT, such as you can add tooltip, margins,
mnemonics, and images to the Swing buttons. In addition, a Swing button is capable of performing what an
AWT button does, such as enabling or disabling, adding an action listener and an action command.
Youll find the constructors of the JButton class in Table 12.17 and its methods in Table 12.18. Note that this
class is based on the AbstractButton class, which means it inherits all of that classs functionality (see the
previous solution for the details).
Table 12.17: Constructors of the JButton class
Constructor Does this
JButton() It creates a button without any icon or text
JButton(Action a) It creates a button where properties are taken from the Action
supplied
JButton(Icon icon) It creates a button with an icon
JButton(String text) It creates a button with the given text
JButton(String text, Icon icon) It creates a button with the given text and icon

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Table 12.18: Methods of the JButton class

Method Does this
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this JButton
getAccessibleContext()
String getUIClassID() It gets a string that indicates the name of the look and feel class that
renders this component
boolean isDefaultButton() It gets the value of the defaultButton property
boolean isDefaultCapable() It gets the value of the defaultCapable property
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JButton
void removeNotify() It overrides JComponent.removeNotify to check whether this button is
currently set as the default button on the root pane. If so, it sets the root
panes default button to null to ensure that the root pane doesnt hold
onto an invalid button reference
void setDefaultCapable(boolean It sets the defaultCapable property
defaultCapable)
void updateUI() It resets the UI property to a value from the current look and feel

Lets look at an example that puts the JButton class to work. Here, we change the text and font of a label when
the user clicks a button. This example is very simple, as you can see in the following code.
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=JButtonDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET>*/
public class JButtonDemo extends JApplet {
JButton jbutton1;
JLabel jlabel1;
public void init() {
jbutton1 = new JButton("Click Me");
jlabel1 = new JLabel("Hello");
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(jlabel1);
c.add(jbutton1);
jbutton1.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
Font font = new Font("Serif",Font.ITALIC,14);
jlabel1.setFont(font);
jlabel1.setText("Kogent"); }});
}
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 12.10:

Figure 12.10: Using a Swing button

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As you can see in the figure that when the user clicks the button, the text and font of the text on label changes;
initially, it displays Hello and later Kogent.
Theres a lot more you can do with the JButton objects, and well take a look at the possibilities over the
following few solutions.
Lets look at another program (JButtonDemo1.java) which has some more featuresA text field asks for the
users name and then displays a salutation followed by the users name. For this, it uses JOptionPane (a
Swing component normally used to display messages) to say good morning to the user. In case the user clicks
without entering anything, the program displays an error message again using the JOptionPane:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class JButtonDemo1 extends JFrame {
public static void main(String [] args) { new JButtonDemo1(); }
private JButton ok;
private JTextField textName;
public JButtonDemo1() {
this.setSize(325,100);
this.setTitle("Identify yourself");
this.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
ButtonListener listener = new ButtonListener();
JPanel jpanel1 = new JPanel();
jpanel1.add(new JLabel("Enter your name: "));
textName = new JTextField(15);
jpanel1.add(textName);
ok = new JButton("OK");
ok.addActionListener(listener);
jpanel1.add(ok);
this.add(jpanel1);
this.setVisible(true); }
private class ButtonListener implements ActionListener {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if (e.getSource() == ok) {
String name = textName.getText();
if (name.length() == 0) {
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(JButtonDemo1.this,
"Please don't leave the box empty!", "Empty!!",
JOptionPane.INFORMATION_MESSAGE); }
else {
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(JButtonDemo1.this,
"Good morning " + textName.getText(),
"Greetings to you",
JOptionPane.INFORMATION_MESSAGE); }
textName.requestFocus(); }
}
}
}
The result of this code that appears as shown in Figure 12.11:

Figure 12.11: JOptionPane displaying the message

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The figure depicts the state when the user enters a name and clicks the button. In that case, JOptionPane
displays the message along with the users name.
Figure 12.12 depicts the state when the user clicks the button leaving the text field empty:

Figure 12.12: JOption displaying message not to leave the box empty

Displaying Images in Buttons

I know that you can display images in Swing labels, the NP says, but what about displaying them in
buttons? No problem at all, you say, as long as you have an ImageIcon object.
Its easy to display images in buttons using the ImageIcon class, because several JButton constructors let you
add icons to buttons. You can also set the alignment of the text and image using the following
AbstractButton methods:
setVerticalTextPosition()It sets the vertical text position relative to the image
setHorizontalTextPosition()It sets the horizontal text position relative to the image
setVerticalAlignment()It sets the vertical alignment of the buttons contents
setHorizontalAlignment()It sets the horizontal alignment of the buttons contents
Lets look at an example in which we add an image from ImageButtonDemo.jpg to the button example from
the previous solution:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE= ImageButtonDemo.class
WIDTH=450
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class ImageButtonDemo extends JApplet {
JButton jbutton1 = new JButton("Button", new ImageIcon("button.jpg"));
JTextField jtext1 = new JTextField(20);
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(jbutton1);
c.add(jtext1);
jbutton1.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
jtext1.setText("Displaying image on a Swing Button"); }});
}
}

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The result appears as shown in Figure 12.13:

Figure 12.13: Using a Swing button with an image

As you can see in the figure that the button now displays a large image, making the whole program more
visually interesting.
The next example displays three buttons with images and a text field. Each button represents an illusion image,
which once clicked, displays its name in the text field:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ImageButtonDemo1.class
WIDTH=250
HEIGHT=450>
</APPLET>*/
public class ImageButtonDemo1 extends JApplet
implements ActionListener {
JTextField jtext1;
public void init() {
try {
SwingUtilities.invokeAndWait(
new Runnable() { public void run() { createGUI(); }
});
}
catch (Exception excep) {
System.out.println("Sorry! Can't be created " + excep); }
}
private void createGUI() {
setLayout(new FlowLayout());
ImageIcon Bulge = new ImageIcon("bulg.jpg");
JButton click= new JButton(Bulge);
click.setActionCommand("Optical Illusion - Bulging");
click.addActionListener(this);
add(click);
ImageIcon Wheels = new ImageIcon("wheels.jpg");
click = new JButton(Wheels);
click.setActionCommand("Optical Illusion - Wheels Rotating");
click.addActionListener(this);
add(click);
ImageIcon Zollner = new ImageIcon("illus.jpg");
click = new JButton(Zollner);
click.setActionCommand("Zollner-illusion");
click.addActionListener(this);

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add(click);
jtext1 = new JTextField(20);
add(jtext1); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
jtext1.setText(e.getActionCommand()); }
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 12.14:

Figure 12.14: Displaying text attached with each button

In the result, whichever button is clicked, a text related to that particular figure is displayed.

Using Rollover and Disabled Images

The Big Boss is distraught and says, We have got to jazz our programs up! OK, you say. I can add rollover
images to the buttons, so theyll display an image when the mouse is over them. Why do we have to jazz things
up? Because, the Big Boss says, our competitors have invested years of work and money to make their
programs twice as useful as ours. Shouldnt we do the same? you ask. The BB says, Dont be ridiculous.
You can set a number of icons for buttons. Here are the possibilities (rollover icons appear when the mouse
moves over the button):
Normal icon
Rollover icon
Rollover selected icon
Selected icon
Pressed icon
Disabled icon
Disabled selected icon
Well put these possibilities to work in an example. To add these icons, we just use a method with the matching
name: setIcon(), setRolloverIcon(), setRolloverSelectedIcon(), setSelectedIcon(),
setPressedIcon(), setDisabledIcon(), or setDisabledSelectedIcon(). Heres how this looks in
code (note that to enable rollover events, we call setRolloverEnabled() with a value of True):
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import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ButtonIconsDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET>*/
public class ButtonIconsDemo extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
Icon normalIcon = new ImageIcon("rollover 1.jpg");
Icon rolloverIcon = new ImageIcon("rollover 2.jpg");
Icon pressedIcon = new ImageIcon("rollover 3.jpg");
JButton jbutton1 = new JButton();
jbutton1.setRolloverEnabled(true);
jbutton1.setIcon(normalIcon);
jbutton1.setRolloverIcon(rolloverIcon);
jbutton1.setPressedIcon(pressedIcon);
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(jbutton1); }
}
You can see the result in Figure 12.15:

Figure 12.15: Using the rollover image and other images in a button
In the figure, when the mouse moves over the button, the rollover image becomes visible; and when the button
is pressed, a pressed image becomes visible.

Default Buttons and Mnemonics

If you have taken a look at dialog boxes for your operating system, youll see that one button is usually marked
as the default button, and that button is automatically clicked if the user performs some keyboard action, such as
pressing the Enter key. You can make a button the default button in Swing using the setDefaultButton()
method.
Besides making buttons as default buttons, you can also give each button a mnemonic, which is a keyboard
shortcut, much like those you see in menus. You underline one (case-insensitive) letter in a buttons caption; and
when the button has the focus, typing that character activates the button. If the button does not have a caption,
typing the meta key (for example, thats the Alt key in Windows) and the buttons mnemonic activates the
button.
Lets see this in code. In this case, we add two buttons to an applet and make the first button the default button.
The first button will have the caption Button1, and well make the letter B the buttons mnemonic. Heres what
this looks like in code (note that we give the root pane the focus at the end of the code so that it can intercept key
events and therefore activate the default button when the user presses Enter):
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET

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CODE=DefaultButtonDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET>*/
public class DefaultButtonDemo extends JApplet {
JButton jbutton1 = new JButton("Button1");
JButton jbutton2 = new JButton("Button2");
JTextField jtext1 = new JTextField(20);
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
jbutton1.setMnemonic('1');
getRootPane().setDefaultButton(jbutton1);
c.add(jbutton1);
c.add(jbutton2);
c.add(jtext1);
getRootPane().requestFocus();
jbutton1.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
jtext1.setText("Hello Button1"); }});
jbutton2.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
jtext1.setText("Hello Button2"); }});
}
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 12.16:

Figure 12.16: Using a default button with a mnemonic

As you can see in the figure, the first button appears with a heavy border, indicating its the default button, and
the 1 in its caption is underlined, indicating that its the buttons mnemonic. When the user presses Enter, the
default button is clicked automatically, displaying the message.
Lets take a look at another program that displays two buttonsPress Enter or Click Mouse! and Exit.
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class ClickMe extends JFrame {
public static void main(String [] args) { new ClickMe(); }
private JButton jbutton1, exitButton;
public ClickMe() {
this.setSize(275,100);
this.setTitle("I am counting!!");

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this.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.DO_NOTHING_ON_CLOSE);
ClickListener cl = new ClickListener();
JPanel jpanel1 = new JPanel();
addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {
exitButton.doClick(); }});
jbutton1 = new JButton("Press Enter or Click Mouse!");
jbutton1.setMnemonic('P');
getRootPane().setDefaultButton(jbutton1);
jbutton1.addActionListener(cl);
jpanel1.add(jbutton1);
exitButton = new JButton("EXIT");
exitButton.addActionListener(cl);
jpanel1.add(exitButton);
this.add(jpanel1);
this.setVisible(true); }
private class ClickListener implements ActionListener {
private int clickCount = 0;
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if (e.getSource() == jbutton1) {
clickCount++;
if (clickCount == 1)
jbutton1.setText("You clicked Me!");
else
jbutton1.setText("You clicked " + clickCount
+ " times!");
}
else if (e.getSource() == exitButton) {
if (clickCount > 0)
System.exit(0);
else {
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(ClickMe.this,
"...try clicking once!!",
"In a hurry...!!",
JOptionPane.ERROR_MESSAGE); }
}
}
}
}
When the user clicks the Press Enter or Click Mouse! button, the buttons text changes to You clicked me! If
the user clicks the button again, the button text changes to You clicked 2 times! But if the user presses the Exit
button without pressing even once, an error message gets displayed.
The result of the preceding code is shown in Figure 12.17:

Figure 12.17: The ClickMe program counting the clicks

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Using Toggle Buttons

The NP is back with a question. Does Swing add any fundamentally new types of buttons to Java? Well, you
say, yes and no. I knew youd say that, the NP says. Toggle buttons are new, you say, but they are really
just the base class of checkboxes and radio buttons. Tell me more! the NP says.
Toggle buttons are new in Swing, and they are presented as two-state buttons (actually three states if you count
the disabled state) that can appear as selected or deselected. Heres the inheritance diagram for
JToggleButton, the toggle button class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.AbstractButton
|____javax.swing.JToggleButton
Youll find the constructors of the JToggleButton class in Table 12.19 and its methods in Table 12.20:
Table 12.19: Constructors of the JToggleButton class
Constructor Does this
JToggleButton() It constructs an unselected toggle button without any icon or text
JToggleButton(Action a) It constructs a toggle button with properties taken from the
Action supplied
JToggleButton(Icon icon) It constructs an unselected toggle button with the indicated image
but no text
JToggleButton(Icon icon, boolean It constructs a toggle button with the indicated image and
selected) selection state, but no text
JToggleButton(String text) It constructs an unselected toggle button with the indicated text
JToggleButton(String text, boolean It constructs a toggle button with the indicated text and selection
selected) state
JToggleButton(String text, Icon icon) It constructs a toggle button that has the indicated text and image
and thats initially unselected
JToggleButton(String text, Icon icon, It constructs a toggle button with the indicated text, image, and
boolean selected) selection state

Table 12.20: Methods of the JToggleButton class

Method Does this
AccessibleContext getAccessibleContext() It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this
JToggleButton
String getUIClassID() It gets a string holding the name of the look and feel class that
renders this component
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this toggle button
void updateUI() It resets the UI property to a value from the current look and feel

Well put JToggleButton to use in an example. In this example, we draw a few toggle buttons, most with
icons and some with text. Heres what the code looks like:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

/* <APPLET
CODE=JToggleButtonDemo.class
WIDTH=420
HEIGHT=650>

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</APPLET>*/

public class JToggleButtonDemo extends JApplet

{
public JToggleButtonDemo()
{
Container c = getContentPane();
Icon icon = new ImageIcon("toggle.jpg");
JToggleButton jtbutton1 = new JToggleButton(icon);
JToggleButton jtbutton2 = new JToggleButton(icon, true);
JToggleButton jtbutton3 = new JToggleButton("Click me to toggle!");
JToggleButton jtbutton4 = new JToggleButton("Click me to toggle!!", icon);
JToggleButton jtbutton5 = new JToggleButton("Click me to toggle!", icon,true);

c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(jtbutton1);
c.add(jtbutton2);
c.add(jtbutton3);
c.add(jtbutton4);
c.add(jtbutton5);
}
}
You can see the result of this code in Figure 12.18:

Figure 12.18: Using toggle buttons

As you can see in the figure, you can set the state of a toggle button by passing a value of true to its constructor if
you want it to appear selected initially.

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Creating Toggle Button Groups

The Novice Programmer says, Toggle buttons are new in Swingdo they do anything new besides presenting
the user with a selected or deselected state? Sure, you say. You can also put them together into groups.
You can group toggle buttons as you do other kinds of buttonswith the ButtonGroup class. This means that
only one of the buttons in a group can be selected at once, just as with radio buttons. Heres an example in which
we add an array of five toggle buttons to a group:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ToggleGroupDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=600 >
</APPLET>*/
public class ToggleGroupDemo extends JApplet {
public ToggleGroupDemo() {
Container c = getContentPane();
ButtonGroup bg = new ButtonGroup();
JToggleButton[] jtbuttons = new JToggleButton[] {
new JToggleButton(new ImageIcon("toggle.jpg")),
new JToggleButton(new ImageIcon("toggle.jpg")),
new JToggleButton(new ImageIcon("toggle.jpg")),
new JToggleButton(new ImageIcon("toggle.jpg")),
new JToggleButton(new ImageIcon("toggle.jpg")) };
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
for(int loop_index=0; loop_index < jtbuttons.length; ++loop_index) {
bg.add(jtbuttons[loop_index]);
c.add(jtbuttons[loop_index]); }
}
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 12.19:

Figure 12.19: Using toggle buttons in a group

The toggle buttons in the figure are indeed acting as a group; therefore, when you click one, any other toggle
button that was selected is deselected automatically.

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 Immediate Solutions

Using Checkboxes
The NP says, I need some way for the user to select an option, from many options. In fact, I need some way for
the user to select multiple options from many options. I need.... Checkboxes, you say. What you need is
checkboxes. Right, says the NP.
The JCheckBox class has some advantages over the AWT CheckBox class, such as being able to display images.
Heres the inheritance diagram for the JCheckBox class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.AbstractButton
|____javax.swing.JToggleButton
|____javax.swing.JCheckBox
Youll find the constructors for the JCheckBox class in Table 12.21 and the methods of this class in
Table 12.22:
Table 12.21: Constructors of the JCheckBox class
Constructor Does this
JCheckBox() It constructs an unselected checkbox without any icon or text
JCheckBox(Action a) It constructs a checkbox with properties taken from the Action supplied
JCheckBox(Icon icon) It constructs an unselected checkbox with an icon
JCheckBox(Icon icon, boolean It constructs a checkbox with an icon and indicates whether its initially
selected) selected
JCheckBox(String text) It constructs an unselected checkbox with the given text
JCheckBox(String text, boolean It constructs a checkbox with the given text and indicates whether its
selected) initially selected
JCheckBox(String text, Icon icon) It constructs an unselected checkbox with the given text and icon
JCheckBox(String text, Icon icon, It constructs a checkbox with the given text and an icon and indicates
boolean selected) whether its initially selected

Table 12.22: Methods of the JCheckBox class

Method Does this
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this JCheckBox
getAccessibleContext()
String getUIClassID() It gets a string that indicates the name of the look and feel class that
renders this component
boolean isBorderPaintedFlat() It gets the value of the borderPaintedFlat property
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this checkbox
void setBorderPaintedFlat It sets the borderPaintedFlat property, which is used to give a hint to
(boolean b) the look and feel as to the appearance of the checkbox border
void updateUI() It resets the UI property to a value from the current look and feel

In future Java releases, checkboxes will support HTML text.

Lets take a look at an example. Here, we just display four checkboxes and indicate which one the user clicked
(note that, as with AWT checkboxes, ItemListener is used with JCheckBox objects, not ActionListener):
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET

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CODE=JCheckBoxDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class JCheckBoxDemo extends JApplet implements ItemListener {
JCheckBox jcheck1, jcheck2, jcheck3, jcheck4;
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
jcheck1 = new JCheckBox("Red");
jcheck2 = new JCheckBox("Green");
jcheck3 = new JCheckBox("Blue");
jcheck4 = new JCheckBox("Gray");
jcheck1.addItemListener(this);
jcheck2.addItemListener(this);
jcheck3.addItemListener(this);
jcheck4.addItemListener(this);
c.add(jcheck1);
c.add(jcheck2);
c.add(jcheck3);
c.add(jcheck4);
}
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {
if (e.getItemSelectable() == jcheck1) {
showStatus("You clicked Red color checkbox"); }
else if (e.getItemSelectable() == jcheck2) {
showStatus("You clicked Green color checkbox"); }
else if (e.getItemSelectable() == jcheck3) {
showStatus("You clicked Blue color checkbox"); }
else if (e.getItemSelectable() == jcheck4) {
showStatus("You clicked Gray color checkbox"); }
}
}
You can see the result as shown in Figure 12.20:

Figure 12.20: Using checkboxes

As you can see in the figure, the applet reports on its status bar which checkbox has been clicked when the user
clicks one. Theres more to using checkboxes in Swing, which youll learn in the solutions following the next one
on radio buttons.
Lets take another example of checkboxes, where a user is given the option of choosing pizza toppings of his
choice.
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.border.*;
public class JCheckBoxDemo1 extends JFrame {
public static void main(String [] args) { new JCheckBoxDemo1(); }
private JButton ok;
private JCheckBox pepperoni, mushrooms, anchovies, Extra, onion, sausage;
public JCheckBoxDemo1() { this.setSize(600,140);
this.setTitle("Pizza toppings");

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this.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
ButtonListener listener = new ButtonListener();
JPanel mainPanel = new JPanel();
JPanel sizePanel = new JPanel();
mainPanel.add(sizePanel);
JPanel topPanel = new JPanel();
Border b2 = BorderFactory.createTitledBorder("Varieties available");
topPanel.setBorder(b2);
anchovies = new JCheckBox("Anchovies");
topPanel.add(anchovies);
Extra = new JCheckBox("Extra cheese");
topPanel.add(Extra);
pepperoni = new JCheckBox("Pepperoni");
topPanel.add(pepperoni);
onion = new JCheckBox("Onion");
topPanel.add(onion);
mushrooms = new JCheckBox("Mushrooms");
topPanel.add(mushrooms);
sausage = new JCheckBox("Sausage");
topPanel.add(sausage);
mainPanel.add(topPanel);
ok = new JButton("OK");
ok.addActionListener(listener);
mainPanel.add(ok);
this.add(mainPanel);
this.setVisible(true); }
private class ButtonListener implements ActionListener {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if (e.getSource() == ok) {
String tops = "";
if (pepperoni.isSelected())
tops += "Pepperoni\n";
if (mushrooms.isSelected())
tops += "Mushrooms\n";
if (anchovies.isSelected())
tops += "Anchovies\n";
if (onion.isSelected()) { tops += "Onion\n"; }
if (sausage.isSelected()) { tops += "Sausage\n"; }
if (Extra.isSelected())
tops += "Extra cheese\n";
String msg = "You ordered ";
if (tops.equals("")) { msg += "no toppings."; }
else { msg += ":\n" + tops; }
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(ok,
msg, "Your Order",JOptionPane.INFORMATION_MESSAGE);
pepperoni.setSelected(false);
mushrooms.setSelected(false);
anchovies.setSelected(false);
sausage.setSelected(false);
Extra.setSelected(false);
onion.setSelected(false); }
}
}
}
When the user does not select any of the toppings from the list, a message box gets displayed. In case he/she
selects some, the same message box details the chosen items. You can see the result of the code in Figure 12.21:

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Chapter 12: SwingText Fields, Buttons, Toggle Buttons, Checkboxes, and Radio Buttons

Figure 12.21: The toppings example in progress

The example JCheckBoxDemo1.java uses the isSelected() method. You can read more about this method under the topic
Getting and Setting the State of Checkboxes and Radio Buttons.

Using Radio Buttons

OK, says the NP. I need some radio buttons in my Swing code. Do I make them using the JCheckBox class?
Nope, you say. Although you use the CheckBox class to make radio buttons in AWT programming, radio
buttons have their own class in SwingJRadioButton. Cool! says the NP.
Heres the inheritance diagram for the JRadioButton class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.AbstractButton
|____javax.swing.JToggleButton
|____javax.swing.JRadioButton
Unlike in AWT programming, radio buttons have their own class in Swingthe JRadioButton class. You can
find the constructors of the JRadioButton class in Table 12.23 and its methods in Table 12.24:

In future Java releases, radio buttons will support HTML text.

Table 12.23: Constructors of the JRadioButton class

Constructor Does this
JRadioButton() It constructs an unselected radio button with no set text

JRadioButton(Action a) It constructs a radio button with properties taken from the Action
supplied
JRadioButton(Icon icon) It constructs an unselected radio button with the given image but no text

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 12.23: Constructors of the JRadioButton class

Constructor Does this
JRadioButton(Icon icon, boolean It constructs a radio button with the given image and selection state, but
selected) no text

JRadioButton(String text) It constructs an unselected radio button with the given text
JRadioButton(String text, boolean It constructs a radio button with the given text and selection state
selected)
JRadioButton(String text, Icon It constructs an unselected radio button that has the given text and
icon) image
JRadioButton(String text, Icon It constructs a radio button that has the given text, image, and selection
icon, boolean selected) state

Table 12.24: Methods of the JRadioButton class

Method Does this
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext associated with this JRadioButton
getAccessibleContext()

String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this component

protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this radio button

void updateUI() It resets the UI property to a value from the current look and feel

Lets take a look at an example. Here, we just display four radio buttons and put them into the same button
group so that only one of the four can be selected at a time. Heres what the code looks like:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE= JRadioButtonDemo.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class JRadioButtonDemo extends JApplet implements ItemListener {
JRadioButton jradio1, jradio2, jradio3, jradio4;
ButtonGroup bg;
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
bg = new ButtonGroup();
jradio1 = new JRadioButton("Red");
jradio2 = new JRadioButton("Green");
jradio3 = new JRadioButton("Blue");
jradio4 = new JRadioButton("Gray");
bg.add(jradio1);
bg.add(jradio2);
bg.add(jradio3);
bg.add(jradio4);
jradio1.addItemListener(this);
jradio2.addItemListener(this);
jradio3.addItemListener(this);
jradio4.addItemListener(this);
c.add(jradio1);
c.add(jradio2);
c.add(jradio3);
c.add(jradio4);
}
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {

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if (e.getItemSelectable() == jradio1) {
showStatus("You selected Red color"); }
else if (e.getItemSelectable() == jradio2) {
showStatus("You selected Green color"); }
else if (e.getItemSelectable() == jradio3) {
showStatus("You selected Blue color"); }
else if (e.getItemSelectable() == jradio4) {
showStatus("You selected Gray color"); }
}
}
You can see the result of this code in Figure 12.22:

Figure 12.22: Using radio buttons

All the radio buttons in the figure act together as a part of one group. When you click one, any other radio
button that was selected in the group becomes deselected.
Lets take the previous example of pizza and update it by adding radio buttons to let the user decide on the size
of the pizza as well:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.border.*;
public class JRadioButtonDemo1 extends JFrame {
public static void main(String [] args) { new JRadioButtonDemo1(); }
private JButton ok;
private JRadioButton small, medium, large;
private JCheckBox pepperoni, mushrooms, anchovies, Extra, onion, sausage;
public JRadioButtonDemo1() {
this.setSize(600,200);
this.setTitle("Pizza toppings");
this.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
ButtonListener listener = new ButtonListener();
JPanel mainPanel = new JPanel();
JPanel sizePanel = new JPanel();
Border b1 = BorderFactory.createTitledBorder("Sizes available");
sizePanel.setBorder(b1);
ButtonGroup sizeGroup = new ButtonGroup();
small = new JRadioButton("Small");
small.setSelected(true);
sizePanel.add(small);
sizeGroup.add(small);
medium = new JRadioButton("Medium");
sizePanel.add(medium);

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 Immediate Solutions

sizeGroup.add(medium);
large = new JRadioButton("Large");
sizePanel.add(large);
sizeGroup.add(large);
mainPanel.add(sizePanel);
JPanel topPanel = new JPanel();
Border b2 = BorderFactory.createTitledBorder("Varieties available");
topPanel.setBorder(b2);
anchovies = new JCheckBox("Anchovies");
topPanel.add(anchovies);
Extra = new JCheckBox("Extra cheese");
topPanel.add(Extra);
pepperoni = new JCheckBox("Pepperoni");
topPanel.add(pepperoni);
onion = new JCheckBox("Onion");
topPanel.add(onion);
mushrooms = new JCheckBox("Mushrooms");
topPanel.add(mushrooms);
sausage = new JCheckBox("Sausage");
topPanel.add(sausage);
mainPanel.add(topPanel);
ok = new JButton("OK");
ok.addActionListener(listener);
mainPanel.add(ok);
this.add(mainPanel);
this.setVisible(true); }
private class ButtonListener implements ActionListener {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
String msg = "", tops = "";
if (e.getSource() == ok) { tops = ""; }
if (pepperoni.isSelected()) { tops += "Pepperoni\n"; }
if (mushrooms.isSelected()) { tops += "Mushrooms\n"; }
if (anchovies.isSelected()) { tops += "Anchovies\n"; }
if (onion.isSelected()) { tops += "Onion\n"; }
if (sausage.isSelected()) { tops += "Sausage\n"; }
if (Extra.isSelected()) {
tops += "Extra cheese\n";
msg = "You ordered "; }
if (small.isSelected()) { msg += "A small pizza with "; }
if (medium.isSelected()) { msg += "A Medium pizza with "; }
if (large.isSelected()) { msg += "A Large pizza with "; }
if (tops.equals("")) { msg += "no toppings."; }
else { msg += "the toppings:\n" + tops; }
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(ok, msg, "Your Order",
JOptionPane.INFORMATION_MESSAGE);
pepperoni.setSelected(false);
mushrooms.setSelected(false);
anchovies.setSelected(false);
small.setSelected(true); }
}
}

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The result of the code is displayed in Figure 12.23:

Figure 12.23: Using Radio button and Checkboxes together

The example JRadioButtonDemo1.java uses the isSelected() method. You can read more about this method under the topic
Getting and Setting the State of Checkboxes and Radio Buttons.

Using Checkbox and Radio Button Images

Uh-oh, the NP says, Javas gone all wacky again. We added an image to a checkbox, and now it doesnt work
anymore. You smile and say, Thats because you also have to add a selected image to the checkbox. Otherwise,
the checkboxs appearance wont change when you click it.
Now that you can add images to checkboxes and radio buttons, theres one important point to know: If you use
images in checkboxes or radio buttons, theres no visual indication in the control (such as a checkmark) to show
whether its selected, so you must add a selected image to the control.
Heres an example showing how this works. Here, we add a selected image to a checkbox:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=CheckBoxImageDemo.class
WIDTH=500
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET>*/
public class CheckBoxImageDemo extends JApplet implements ItemListener {
JCheckBox jcheck1;
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
jcheck1 = new JCheckBox("CheckBox 1", new ImageIcon("rollover 4.jpg"));
jcheck1.setSelectedIcon(new ImageIcon("rollover 5.jpg"));
jcheck1.addItemListener(this);
c.add(jcheck1);
}
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {
if (e.getItemSelectable() == jcheck1) {
showStatus("You clicked checkbox 1"); }
}
}

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 Immediate Solutions

You can see the result in Figure 12.24:

Figure 12.24: Using images in checkboxes

When the user clicks the checkbox, the selected image appears as shown in the figure.

Getting and Setting the State of Checkboxes and Radio Buttons

Its easy enough to respond to checkbox and radio button events, but there are times when you want to work
with those controls outside event-handling methods. For example, the user may select a number of options using
checkboxes in a dialog box that dont go into effect until he/she dismisses the dialog box, at which time, you
need to determine which checkboxes are selected.
You can use the isSelected() method to determine whether a checkbox or radio button is selected and the
setState() method to set the state of a checkbox or radio button. Heres an example in which we display four
checkboxes and list which ones are checked when the user clicks any of them. We start by creating an array of
four checkboxes and displaying them:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=StateDemo.class
WIDTH=400
HEIGHT=90 >
</APPLET> */
public class StateDemo extends JApplet implements ItemListener {
JCheckBox checkbox[];
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
checkbox = new JCheckBox[5];
for(int loop_index = 1; loop_index <= checkbox.length - 1; loop_index++) {
checkbox[loop_index] = new JCheckBox("CheckBox " + loop_index);
checkbox[loop_index].addItemListener(this);
c.add(checkbox[loop_index]); }
}
. . .
. . .
}
Now when the user clicks a checkbox, we loop over all the checkboxes, using the isSelected() method to see
whether they are selected, and list the checkboxes that are selected:
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent ie) {
String msg = new String("You selected:\n");
for(int loop_index = 1; loop_index <= checkbox.length - 1; loop_index++) {

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if(checkbox[loop_index].isSelected()) {
msg += " CheckBox " + loop_index; }
}
showStatus(msg);
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 12.25:

Figure 12.25: Determining which checkboxes are selected

As you can see in the figure, when the user selects checkboxes, the applet indicates which ones are checked.

Summary
In this chapter, we provided you with a brief introduction of labels, password field, text area, editor pane, text
pane, buttons, toggle buttons, checkboxes and radio buttons. You learned about the use of labels, image icons,
and how to set text field alignment. Then, you learned how to create password field, editor panes, HTML in
editor panes, and use of RTF files in editor panes. Later, we explored how to create and insert images in text
panes and set text pane attributes. We explored the work with sound and use of buttons.
In the next chapter, you will learn about Swing-Viewports, Scrolling, Sliders, Lists, Tables, and Trees.

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 13
SwingViewports,
Scrolling, Sliders, Lists,
Tables, and Trees
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Handling Viewports 447
Creating Scroll Panes 450
Creating Scroll Pane Headers and Borders 454
Scrolling Images 455
Creating Sliders 456
Filling a Slider 459
Painting Slider Tick Marks 460
Painting Slider Labels 460
Setting the Slider Extent 461
Creating Scrollbars 462
Creating Lists 465
Handling Multiple List Selections 469
Displaying Images in Lists 470
Creating a Custom List Model 471
Creating a Custom List Cell Renderer 472
Handling Double Clicks in Lists 472
Drag and Drop Support 473
Creating a Table 476

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Chapter 13: SwingViewports, Scrolling, Sliders, Lists, Tables, and Trees

If you need an immediate solution to: See page:

Table Sorting and Filtering 478
Adding Rows and Columns to Tables at Runtime 482
Creating Trees 483
Adding Data to Trees 484
Handling Tree Events 486

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In Depth

In Depth
This chapter covers some important Swing topics, namely, Viewports, Scroll panes, Sliders, Scrollbars, List
controls, Tables, and Trees. The controls that are discussed in this chapter have one thing in commonscrolling.
The list control, in particular, is a very important control in Swing, but it does not handle scrolling by itself;
therefore, you need to understand how to work with scrolling before working with lists and many other Swing
controls. Let us take a quick look at the topics in this chapter before digging into the code.

Viewports
The JViewport class is at the heart of scrolling in Swing. A viewport is a window into a view, displaying a
section of your data. You can scroll viewports by yourself. Using viewports, you can move around in your
displayed data, much like handling the scrolling by yourself. Well take a look at using the JViewport class to
scroll images.

Scroll Panes
A common way to implement scrolling in Swing is to use scroll panes because you can scroll components by
using scroll panes. A number of Swing controls, such as the JList control, implement the Scrollable
interface to work with scroll panes. In fact, scroll panes are commonly used with JList controls to create
scrolling lists.

Sliders
Another scrollable control is the Swing slider control, which is supported by the JSlider class. Sliders are
much like the controls you see in audio devices that let you slide a knob along a track. In fact, sliders are similar
to scrollbars, except that you explicitly use sliders to let the user select a value from a continuous range. You can,
of course, do the same with scrollbars, but sliders were introduced because users expected that scrollbars will be
used to scroll other controls, such as text areas.

Scrollbars
Every Graphical User Interface (GUI) user generally knows about scrollbars, and Swing supports them just as
the Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT) does. We will use the JScrollBar class in this chapter, scrolling text
around an applet. When the scroll box (also called the thumb or bubble) is moved, the value of the scrollbar
changes. You can click the arrow buttons at the end of the scrollbar to change the value of the scrollbar by block
increment, or you can click the track of the scrollbar to change its value by unit increment.

Lists
Lists, supported by the JList class in Swing, are very popular controls because they let you present a list of
items in an easy way and hide a long list of items by making the list control scrollable. Well show you how to
scroll long lists as well as cover a number of other Swing topics. For example, you can make multiple selections
in various ways in Swing list boxes. You can also display images, handle double and even triple clicks, and
more. Well take a look at how to implement a new model for lists and cell renderers in order to handle the
actual display of each item in a list in a customized way.

Tables
The tables in Swing are important and powerful. In principle, they were created to constitute an interface related
to database and avoid the inherent complexity of handling data, thus providing flexibility to the programmer.
Nevertheless, its also possible to create a relatively simple JTable if it understands the operation correctly. The
JTable component is flexible enough to show and optionally allow you to edit the tabular data. It presents a
simple view of the data without any caching.

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Trees
Swing provides the JTree class to display data organized in the form of a tree. Each element in the tree is called
the JTree class and defines a component that displays the data arranged in a tree-like structure. Each element in
a tree is called a node, and the base node of a tree is referred to as the root node. A parent node is a node that has
other nodes attached to it, which are known as child nodes. Nodes that have no children are called leaf nodes.
The JTree class can be used to display database metadata, both in terms of the complexity of the structures it
can handle and in terms of the nature of the nodes in the structure. A JTree component is used for displaying
any tree structure virtually. The nodes in a tree can be any type of object, and they all can be different if you
need. To display the menu in a window, you can use the tree structure.
Thats it for the overview of this chapter. You can see that theres a lot coming up. Its time to turn to the
Immediate Solutions section.

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Immediate Solutions
Handling Viewports
Hmm, says the NP, I want to move an image around under programmatic control, without displaying any
scrollbars to the user. Is there any easy way to do that? As it happens, you say, there isyou can use a
viewport.
Viewports represent windows or portals into a view. For example, imagine that you have a huge document, not
all of which will fit on the screen at one time. To present the user with only a part of that document at once, you
can set up a viewport into that document, moving the viewport around the document until it fits. In fact, you
can have multiple viewports to let the user move around inside the data in your programs model at will.
Viewports are supported by the JViewport class, which is the foundation of scrolling in Swing. The inheritance
diagram for this class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JViewport
Youll find the fields for the JViewport class in Table 13.1, its constructor in Table 13.2, and its methods in
Table 13.3:
Table 13.1: Fields of the JViewport class
Field Does this
protected boolean backingStore It is deprecated and returns True when the viewport maintains an
offscreen image of its contents
protected Image backingStoreImage It is the image used for a backing store
static int BACKINGSTORE_SCROLL_MODE It draws the viewport contents into an offscreen image
static int BLIT_SCROLL_MODE It uses the graphics.copyArea() method to implement scrolling
protected boolean isViewSizeSet It returns True when the viewport dimensions have been set
protected Point lastPaintPosition It indicates the last viewPosition painted
protected boolean scrollUnderway It indicates whether a scrolling operation is underway
static int SIMPLE_SCROLL_MODE It uses a very simple method to redraw the entire contents of the
scrollpane each time it is scrolled

Table 13.2: Constructor of the JViewport class

Constructor Does this
JViewport() It constructs a JViewport object

Table 13.3: Methods of the JViewport class

Method Does this
void addChangeListener It adds a change listener
(ChangeListener l)
protected void addImpl It sets the viewports lightweight child, which can be null
(Component child, Object constraints,
int index)
protected boolean computeBlit(int dx, It computes the parameters for a blit operation
int dy, Point blitFrom, Point blitTo,
Dimension blitSize, Rectangle
blitPaint)

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Table 13.3: Methods of the JViewport class

Method Does this
protected LayoutManager It installs a different layout manager
createLayoutManager()

protected JViewport.ViewListener It constructs a listener for the view

createViewListener()
protected void It notifies listeners of a property change
firePropertyChange(String
propertyName, Object oldValue, Object
newValue)
protected void fireStateChanged() It notifies listeners of a state change
AccessibleContext It gets the accessible context
getAccessibleContext()
Dimension getExtentSize() It gets the size of the visible part of the view
Insets getInsets() It gets the insets (border) dimensions as (0, 0, 0, 0) as the borders are
not supported on a JViewport object
Insets getInsets(Insets insets) It gets an Insets object containing this JViewport objects inset
values
int getScrollMode() It returns the current scrolling mode
ViewportUI getUI() It returns the look and feel object that renders this component
String getUIClassID() It returns a string that specifies the name of the look and feel class
that renders this component
Component getView() It gets the JViewports one child or null
Point getViewPosition() It gets the view coordinates that appear in the upper left corner of
the viewport (0, 0 if theres no view)
Rectangle getViewRect() It returns a rectangle whose origin is getViewPosition and size is
getExtentSize()
Dimension getViewSize() It gets the preferred size if the size has been set, otherwise this
method returns the views current size
boolean isBackingStoreEnabled() It is deprecated and replaced by getScrollMode()
boolean isOptimizedDrawingEnabled() JViewport overrides this method to return False
void paint(Graphics g) It paints the image
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JViewport object
void remove (Component child) It removes the viewports lightweight child
void removeChangeListener It removes a change listener from the list
(ChangeListener l)
void repaint(long tm, int x, int y, It repaints the list
int w, int h)
void reshape(int x, int y, int w, int It sets the bounds of this viewport
h)
void scrollRectToVisible It scrolls the view so that the Rectangle within the view becomes
(Rectangle contentRect) visible
void setBackingStoreEnabled It is deprecated and replaced by setScrollMode()
(boolean x)
void setBorder (Border border) It sets a border
void setExtentSize It sets the size of the visible part of the view by using view
(Dimension newExtent) coordinates
void setScrollMode (int mode) It is used to control the method of scrolling the viewports contents

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 13.3: Methods of the JViewport class

Method Does this
void setView(Component view) It sets the JViewports lightweight child (its view)
void setViewPosition (Point p) It sets the view coordinates that appear in the upper left corner of
the viewport
void setViewSize(Dimension newSize) It sets the view coordinates that appear in the upper left corner of
the viewport as well as the size of the view
Dimension toViewCoordinates It converts a size in pixel coordinates to view coordinates
(Dimension size)
Point toViewCoordinates (Point p) It converts a point in pixel coordinates to view coordinates
void updateUI () It resets the UI property to a value from the current look and feel

Lets take a look at a viewport example that enables the user to scroll the viewport, not with scrollbars but with
buttons. Here, we add a viewport with an image in it to a program as well as add a panel containing buttons
with the captions Scroll up and Scroll down. The user can scroll the image in the viewport by clicking the
buttons.
We start by creating a new viewport and then a new panel. We add a label with an image in it to the panel and
then add the panel to the viewport. When the user scrolls the viewport, he/she is actually scrolling the panel.
The following code shows how we create the viewport and add it to the program (note that to actually add the
panel to the viewport, we use the JViewport classs setView() method, which sets the viewports object):
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DemoJViewport.class
WIDTH=500
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJViewport extends JApplet {
public DemoJViewport() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JViewport port = new JViewport();
JPanel jp = new JPanel();
jp.add(new JLabel(new ImageIcon("illus.jpg")));
port.setView(jp);
c.add(port, BorderLayout.CENTER);
c.add(new ButtonPanel(port));
}
}
We also need another panel thats not a part of the viewport to display the buttons the user can use for scrolling.
Well call this panel ButtonPanel. Note that we must pass the viewport to this classs constructor so that it can
scroll the viewport. Heres how we store the viewport passed to the constructor and add the buttons needed for
scrolling:
class ButtonPanel extends JPanel implements ActionListener {
JViewport port;
JButton button1 = new JButton("Scroll up");
JButton button2 = new JButton("Scroll down");

public ButtonPanel(JViewport vp) {

port = vp;
add(button1);
add(button2);
button1.addActionListener(this);
button2.addActionListener(this);
}
/* some code */
}

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All thats left is to implement scrolling when the user clicks a button. To do that, we use the JViewport classs
getViewPosition() method to get the current view position. Then, we change that positionaccording to the
button clickedby 15 pixels and use the setViewPosition() method to set the new viewport position, as
shown in the following code:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
Point position = port.getViewPosition();
if(e.getSource() == button1)
position.y = +15;
else if(e.getSource() == button2)
position.y =-15;
port.setViewPosition(position);
}
}
Now, we add a ButtonPanel object in the applet at the bottom as follows:
public class DemoJViewport extends JApplet {
public DemoJViewport() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JViewport port = new JViewport();
JPanel jp = new JPanel();
jp.add(new JLabel(new ImageIcon("illus.jpg")));
port.setView(jp);
c.add(port, BorderLayout.CENTER);
c.add(new ButtonPanel(port), BorderLayout.SOUTH); }
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 13.1:

Figure 13.1: Scrolling a Viewport

You can see in the figure that the scroll buttons appear at the bottom of the applet. When the user clicks a button,
the image scrolls accordingly.
Normally, you wont go all the way to the JViewport class to handle your scrolling, instead youll use
components, such as scroll panes, which are coming up next.

Creating Scroll Panes

The NP appears and says, Hey, Javas gone all wacky again! We created a new Swing list control, put 40,000
items in it, made only two visible at once, and there are no scrollbars! This is definitely a bug, we are going to file
a report and Hold it, you say. The JList control does not implement scrolling by itself, but you can put it
into a scroll pane. The NP asks, Really? Is that the way its supposed to work?
The JScrollPane class is the Swing lightweight implementation of a scroll pane, and you use it to scroll other
controls. In fact, whenever you display a list, its a standard to display it in a scroll pane to allow the user to
scroll the list. Becouse of to the new Swing Scrollable interface, scroll operations are much more closely

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 Immediate Solutions

coordinated with the control being scrolled (the JViewport, JScrollPane, and JScrollBar classes all
implement this interface). The inheritance diagram for the JScrollPane class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JScrollPane
Youll find the fields for the JScrollPane class in Table 13.4, its constructors in Table 13.5, and its methods in
Table 13.6:
Table 13.4: Fields of the JScrollPane class
Field Does this
protected JViewport columnHeader The column header child
protected JScrollBar horizontalScrollBar The scroll panes horizontal scrollbar child
protected int horizontalScrollBarPolicy The display policy for the horizontal scrollbar
protected Component lowerLeft The component to display in the lower left corner
protected Component lowerRight The component to display in the lower right corner
protected JViewport rowHeader The row header child
protected Component upperLeft The component to display in the upper left corner
protected Component upperRight The component to display in the upper right corner
protected JScrollBar verticalScrollBar The scroll panes vertical scrollbar child
protected int verticalScrollBarPolicy The display policy for the vertical scrollbar
protected JViewport viewport The scroll panes viewport child

Table 13.5: Constructors of the JScrollPane class

Constructor Does this
JScrollPane() It constructs an empty JScrollPane object.
JScrollPane(Component view) It constructs a JScrollPane object that displays the
contents of the indicated component.
JScrollPane(Component view, int vsbPolicy, It constructs a JScrollPane object that displays the view
int hsbPolicy) component in a viewport whose view position can be
controlled with a pair of scrollbars.
JScrollPane(int vsbPolicy, int hsbPolicy) It constructs an empty JScrollPane object with indicated
scrollbar policies.

Table 13.6: Methods of the JScrollPane class

Method Does this
JScrollBar createHorizontalScrollBar() It creates the horizontal scrollbar.
JScrollBar createVerticalScrollBar() It creates the vertical scrollbar.
protected JViewport createViewport() It gets a new JViewport object by default.
AccessibleContext getAccessibleContext() It gets the accessible context associated with this
JScrollPane object.
JViewport getColumnHeader() It gets the column header.
Component getCorner(String key) It gets the component at the indicated corner.
JScrollBar getHorizontalScrollBar() It gets the horizontal scrollbar.
int getHorizontalScrollBarPolicy() It gets the horizontal scrollbar policy value.
JViewport getRowHeader() It gets the row header.

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Table 13.6: Methods of the JScrollPane class

Method Does this
ScrollPaneUI getUI() It gets the look and feel object that renders this component.
String getUIClassID() It gets the key used to look up the ScrollPaneUI class
that provides the look and feel for JScrollPane.
JScrollBar getVerticalScrollBar() It gets the vertical scrollbar.
int getVerticalScrollBarPolicy() It gets the vertical scrollbar policy value.
JViewport getViewport() It gets the current JViewport object.
Border getViewportBorder() It gets the value of the Border object that surrounds the
viewport.
Rectangle getViewportBorderBounds() It gets the bounds of the viewport border.
boolean isValidateRoot() It checks the root.
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JScrollPane object.
void setColumnHeader If an old column header exists, this method removes it. If
(JViewport columnHeader) the new column header is not null, it synchronizes the x
coordinates of its view position with the viewport (if there
is one) and then adds it to the scroll pane.
void setColumnHeaderView It constructs a column-header viewport, if necessary, sets
(Component view) its view, and then adds the column-header viewport to the
scroll pane.
void setCorner(String key, Component corner) It adds a child that will appear in one of the scroll panes
corners (if theres room).
void setHorizontalScrollBar It adds the scrollbar that controls the viewports horizontal
(JScrollBar horizontalScrollBar) view position to the scroll pane.
void setHorizontalScrollBarPolicy (int It determines when the horizontal scrollbar appears in the
policy) scroll pane.
void setLayout (LayoutManager layout) It sets the layout manager for this JScrollPane object.
void setRowHeader (JViewport rowHeader) It sets the new row header. If the new rowHeader is not
null, it synchronizes the y coordinates of its view position
with the viewport (if there is one) and then adds it to the
scroll pane.
void setRowHeaderView (Component view) It constructs a row-header viewport, if necessary, and then
adds the row-header viewport to the scroll pane.
void setUI (ScrollPaneUI ui) It sets the object that provides the look and feel.
void setVerticalScrollBar It adds the scrollbar that controls the viewports vertical
(JScrollBar verticalScrollBar) view position.
void setVerticalScrollBarPolicy(int policy) It determines when the vertical scrollbar appears in the
scroll pane.
void setViewport(JViewport viewport) It forces the view position of the new viewport to be in the
+x, +y quadrant.
void setViewportBorder It adds a border around the viewport.
(Border viewportBorder)
void setViewportView (Component view) It constructs a viewport, if necessary, and then sets its
view.
void updateUI() It is called when the default look and feel changes.

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Lets look at an example in which we add a grid layout of text fields to a panel and scroll that panel in a scroll
pane. Well start by creating a JPanel object full of text fields as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DemoJScrollPane.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJScrollPane extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JPanel jp = new JPanel();
jp.setLayout(new GridLayout(11, 16));
for(int outer = 0; outer <= 10; outer++) {
for(int inner = 0; inner <= 15; inner++) {
jp.add(new JTextField("Text Field " + outer +
", " + inner)); }
}
/* some code */
}
}
Now, well add this new panel to a scroll pane. When you create a scroll pane object, you pass the object to be
scrolled, and you can specify when and where you want the scrollbars with these constants:
HORIZONTAL_SCROLLBAR_ALWAYS
HORIZONTAL_SCROLLBAR_AS_NEEDED
HORIZONTAL_SCROLLBAR_NEVER
VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR
VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR_ALWAYS
VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR_AS_NEEDED
VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR_NEVER
In this case, well always let the scroll pane display scrollbars, as shown in the following code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DemoJScrollPane.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJScrollPane extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JPanel jp = new JPanel();
jp.setLayout(new GridLayout(10, 15));
for(int outer = 0; outer <= 9; outer++) {
for(int inner = 0; inner <= 14; inner++) {
jp.add(new JTextField("Text Field " + outer +
", " + inner)); }
}
JScrollPane scrollpane = new JScrollPane(jp,
ScrollPaneConstants.VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR_ALWAYS,
ScrollPaneConstants.HORIZONTAL_SCROLLBAR_ALWAYS);
c.add(scrollpane); }
}

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The result of adding the scroll pane to the applets content pane is shown in Figure 13.2:

Figure 13.2: Using a Scroll Pane

You see in the figure that the whole grid of text fields appears in the scroll pane, and the user can scroll that grid
with the scrollbars.

Creating Scroll Pane Headers and Borders

The Programming Correctness Czar (PCC) appears and says, So, Java has scroll panes? Well, they dont seem to
be very professionalwith professional controls, you could specify labels or even images to use as row and
column headers. No problem, you say. You can do that in Java, and you can even select the border type as
well. Oh, says the PCC.
You can customize a scroll pane by adding header images or text with the setColumnHeaderView() and
setRowHeaderView() methods. You can also customize the border used in a scroll pane with the
setViewportBorder() method.

You can customize the corners of a scroll pane with the setCorner() method.

As an example, well put this customization to work in the scroll pane example that we have developed in the
previous solution. In this case, well use labels as the row and column headers and add an etched border, as
shown in the following code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DemoJScrollPane1.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJScrollPane1 extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new BorderLayout());
JPanel jp = new JPanel();
jp.setLayout(new GridLayout(10, 15));
for(int outer = 0; outer <= 9; outer++) {
for(int inner = 0; inner <= 14; inner++) {
jp.add(new JTextField("Text Field " + outer +
", " + inner)); }
}
JScrollPane scrollpane = new JScrollPane(jp,
ScrollPaneConstants.VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR_ALWAYS,

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 Immediate Solutions

ScrollPaneConstants.HORIZONTAL_SCROLLBAR_ALWAYS);
JLabel jl1 = new JLabel("Horizontal label");
JLabel jl2 = new JLabel("Vertical label");
scrollpane.setColumnHeaderView(jl1);
scrollpane.setRowHeaderView(jl2);
scrollpane.setViewportBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
c.add(scrollpane); }
}
You can see the result of this code in Figure 13.3:

Figure 13.3: Adding Headers to a Scroll Pane

Scrolling Images
Scroll panes provide an ideal way to scroll imagesall you have to do is display the image in a label (or a similar
component) and add that label to a scroll pane. Heres an example showing how this works:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DemoJScrollPane2.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJScrollPane2 extends JApplet {
public DemoJScrollPane2() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JLabel jl = new JLabel(new ImageIcon("bulg.jpg"));
JScrollPane scrollpane = new JScrollPane(jl);
c.add(scrollpane); }
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 13.4:

Figure 13.4: Scrolling an Image

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Now, the user can scroll a large image, as needed, to handle an image that cant be displayed all at once.

Creating Sliders
The NP is back and says, I have seen a new control in various programssliders. When do you think will we
get those in Java? You smile and say, Quite a while ago.
You can use scrollbars to let the users select a value from a continuous range, but users have become more
familiar with using scrollbars to scroll other controls, such as lists. Therefore, Swing contains the JSlider class
to support slider controls.
Sliders present the user with controls that look like those you see in audio equipment; they are clearly intended
to let the user select a value from a range. To use the slider, the user moves a knob around with the mouse. The
inheritance diagram for the JSlider class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JSlider
You can find the fields for the JSlider class in Table 13.7, its constructors in Table 13.8, and its methods in
Table 13.9:
Table 13.7: Fields of the JSlider class
Field Does this
protected ChangeEvent changeEvent The change event
protected ChangeListener The change listener
changeListener
protected int majorTickSpacing The number of values between the major tick marks
protected int minorTickSpacing The number of values between the minor tick marks
protected int orientation The orientation of the slider
protected BoundedRangeModel The data model, which handles the numeric maximum value,
sliderModel minimum value, and current position value for the slider
protected boolean snapToTicks If True, the thumb resolves to the closest tick mark next to where the
user positioned the thumb

Table 13.8: Constructors of the JSlider class

Constructor Does this
JSlider() It constructs a horizontal slider with the range from 0 to 100 and an
initial value of 50
JSlider(BoundedRangeModel brm) It constructs a horizontal slider by using the indicated bounded
range model
JSlider(int orientation) It constructs a slider by using the indicated orientation with the
range from 0 to 100 and an initial value of 50
JSlider(int min, int max) It constructs a horizontal slider by using the indicated minimum
and maximum values with an initial value of 50
JSlider(int min, int max, int value) It constructs a horizontal slider by using the indicated minimum,
maximum, and initial values
JSlider(int orientation, int min, int It constructs a slider with the indicated orientation and the indicated
max, int value) minimum, maximum, and initial values

Table 13.9: Methods of the JSlider class

Method Does this
void addChangeListener It adds a change listener to the slider
(ChangeListener l)

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 13.9: Methods of the JSlider class

Method Does this
protected ChangeListener You override this method to return your own change listener
createChangeListener() implementation
Hashtable createStandardLabels(int It constructs a hashtable that will draw text labels starting at the
increment) slider minimum
Hashtable createStandardLabels(int It constructs a hashtable that will draw text labels starting at the
increment, int start) start point indicated
protected void fireStateChanged() It sends a change event, whose source is this slider, to each listener
AccessibleContext It gets the accessible context
getAccessibleContext()
int getExtent() It gets the extent, which is the range of values covered by the thumb
boolean getInverted() It returns True if the value range shown for the slider is reversed
Dictionary getLabelTable() It gets the dictionary of what labels to draw
int getMajorTickSpacing() It returns the major tick spacing
int getMaximum() It gets the maximum value supported by the slider
int getMinimum() It gets the minimum value supported by the slider
int getMinorTickSpacing() It returns the minor tick spacing
BoundedRangeModel getModel() It gets the data model that handles the sliders three fundamental
properties: minimum, maximum, and value
int getOrientation() It returns this sliders vertical or horizontal orientation
boolean getPaintLabels() It indicates whether labels are to be painted
boolean getPaintTicks() It indicates whether tick marks are to be painted
boolean getPaintTrack() It indicates whether the track is to be painted
boolean getSnapToTicks() It returns True if the thumb resolves to the closest tick mark next to
where the user positioned the thumb
SliderUI getUI() It gets the UI object, which implements the look and feel for this
component
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this
component
int getValue() It gets the sliders value
boolean getValueIsAdjusting() It returns True if the slider thumb is being dragged
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JSlider object
void removeChangeListener It removes a change listener from the slider
(ChangeListener l)
void setExtent(int extent) It sets the size of the range covered by the thumb
void setFont(Font) It sets the font for this component
void setInverted It passes a value of True to reverse the value range
(boolean b)
void setLabelTable It is used to specify what label will be drawn at any given value
(Dictionary labels)
void setMajorTickSpacing (int n) It sets the major tick spacing
void setMaximum (int maximum) It sets the models maximum property
void setMinimum (int minimum) It sets the models minimum property
void setMinorTickSpacing (int n) It sets the minor tick spacing

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Table 13.9: Methods of the JSlider class

Method Does this
void setModel It sets the model that handles the sliders three fundamental
(BoundedRangeModel newModel) properties: minimum, maximum, and value
void setOrientation(int orientation) It sets the scrollbars orientation to either vertical or horizontal
void setPaintLabels (boolean b) It determines whether labels are painted on the slider
void setPaintTicks (boolean b) It determines whether tick marks are painted on the slider
void setPaintTrack (boolean b) It determines whether the track is painted on the slider
void setSnapToTicks (boolean b) It returns True to make the thumb resolve to the closest tick mark
next to where the user positioned the thumb
void setUI(SliderUI ui) It sets the UI object, which implements the look and feel for this
component
void setValue(int n) It sets the sliders current value
void setValueIsAdjusting It sets the models ValueIsAdjusting property
(boolean b)
protected void updateLabelUIs() It replaces the label UIs with the latest versions from the
UIFactory class
void updateUI() It changes the look and feel of the user interface

Lets put the JSlider class to work in an example. In this case, well just create a slider that can return values
from 0 to 80 and report the current value in an applets status bar. The following code shows how we create a
horizontal slider with the constant SwingConstants.HORIZONTAL (as you might guess, the other possibility is
SwingConstants.VERTICAL) with a minimum value of 0, maximum value of 80, and initial value of 0:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=DemoJSlider.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>
*/
public class DemoJSlider extends JApplet implements ChangeListener {
JSlider slider = new JSlider(SwingConstants.HORIZONTAL, 0, 80, 0);
public void init() {
/* some code */
}
}
Now, in the init() method, well add this slider to the applets content pane. You use change listeners with
sliders, not adjustment listeners, as you do with scrollbars. The ChangeListener interface has only one
method, that is, stateChanged(), which you can see in Table 13.10:
Table 13.10: Method of the ChangeListener interface
Method Does this
void stateChanged (ChangeEvent e) It is invoked when the target of the listener has changed its state

We add a change listener to the slider in this applet and then add the slider to the applets layout, as shown in
the following code:
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
slider.addChangeListener(this);
c.add(slider);
}

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In the stateChanged() method, we use the JSlider() methods getMinimum(), getMaximum(), and
getValue() to display the settings for the slider in the status bar, as shown in the following code:
public void stateChanged(ChangeEvent e) {
JSlider js = (JSlider) e.getSource();
showStatus("Slider minimum: " + js.getMinimum() +
", maximum: " + js.getMaximum() +
", value: " + js.getValue());
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 13.5:

Figure 13.5: Using a Slider

You can see in the figure that the user can move the knob on the slider, and the new value appears.

Filling a Slider
If you are using the default Metal look in Swing, you can fill in a slider, which means that its track will appear
filled from the origin to the sliders knob. To do that, you must set the JSlider classs isFilled client property
to True, which you can do as follows (note that we are adding this code to the slider example from the previous
solution):
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
slider.addChangeListener(this);
slider.putClientProperty("JSlider.isFilled", Boolean.TRUE);
c.add(slider);
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 13.6:

Figure 13.6: Filling a Slider

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You can see that the slider in the figure is filled. The output of both the figures, Figure 13.5 and Figure 13.6,
appears same; therefore, the JSlider is filled by default. Try to run DemoFillJSlider.java by passing
Boolean.FALSE in the method putClientProperty() to notice the difference.

Painting Slider Tick Marks

Hmm, says the NP, users are complaining about the sliders in my programthey say they cant get their
bearings by using a single long slider. Well, you say, you can fix that by adding tick marks.
To paint tick marks in a slider control, you pass a value of True to the setPaintTicks() method and then
indicate the spacing you want for the major (that is, longer) and minor (shorter) ticks by using the
setMajorTickSpacing() and setMinorTickSpacing() methods, as shown in the following code (note
that we are adding this code to the existing slider example):
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
slider.addChangeListener(this);
slider.setPaintTicks(true);
slider.setMajorTickSpacing(20);
slider.setMinorTickSpacing(10);
c.add(slider);
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 13.7:

Figure 13.7: Painting Tick Marks in a Slider

You can see in the figure that the slider now displays tick marks. You can also paint the numeric values for the
major tick markssee the next solution for the details.

Painting Slider Labels

You can use the JSlider classs setPaintLabels() method to display the numeric value for the major tick
marks in the slider. Heres how we do that by adding one line of code to the existing slider example:
public void init() {
Container c= getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
slider.addChangeListener(this);
slider.putClientProperty("JSlider.isFilled", Boolean.TRUE);
slider.setPaintTicks(true);
slider.setPaintLabels(true);
slider.setMajorTickSpacing(20);
slider.setMinorTickSpacing(10);
c.add(slider);
}

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 Immediate Solutions

The result appears as shown in Figure 13.8:

Figure 13.8: Painting Slider Labels

You can see in the figure that the major tick marks are labeled.

Setting the Slider Extent

You can set a sliders extent that bounds the maximum value in the slider. If you set the extent of a slider and its
maximum value is maximum, the sliders value can never exceed maximum minus extent. The following code is an
example in which well add a button to the slider example we have been developing over the last few solutions,
which lets the user set the sliders extent to 50:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DemoExtentSlider.class
WIDTH=400
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoExtentSlider extends JApplet implements ActionListener,
ChangeListener {
JSlider slider = new JSlider(SwingConstants.HORIZONTAL, 0, 80, 0);
JButton button = new JButton("Set extent to 50");
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
slider.addChangeListener(this);
slider.putClientProperty("JSlider.isFilled", Boolean.TRUE);
slider.setPaintTicks(true);
slider.setPaintLabels(true);
slider.setMajorTickSpacing(20);
slider.setMinorTickSpacing(10);
slider.revalidate();
c.add(slider);
button.addActionListener(this);
c.add(button); }
public void stateChanged(ChangeEvent e) {
JSlider js = (JSlider) e.getSource();
showStatus("Slider minimum: " + js.getMinimum() +
", maximum: " + js.getMaximum() +
", value: " + js.getValue() +
", extent: " + js.getExtent()); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
slider.setValue(30);
slider.setExtent(50);
slider.revalidate(); }
}

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When the user clicks the button, the sliders extent is set to 50, and as its maximum value is 80, the sliders value
cant exceed 30. You can see the result in Figure 13.9:

Figure 13.9: Setting a Sliders Extent

Note that even though the slider is at its maximum setting, its value is only 30.

Creating Scrollbars
OK, says the NP, I want to let the users move through the data in my program. I want to let them adjust
values. I want to let them navigate through the items in a long list. I want.... Scrollbars, you say. What you
want is scrollbars. Right, says the NP.
The Swing lightweight scrollbar class is JScrollBar, and its inheritance diagram is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JScrollBar
You can find the fields of the JScrollBar class in Table 13.11, its constructors in Table 13.12, and its methods in
Table 13.13:
Table 13.11: Fields of the JScrollBar class
Field Does this
protected int blockIncrement The block increment
protected BoundedRangeModel model The model that represents the scrollbars minimum, maximum,
extent, and current values
protected int orientation The scrollbars orientation
protected int unitIncrement The unit increment

Table 13.12: Constructors of the JScrollBar class

Constructor Does this
JScrollBar() It constructs a vertical scrollbar
JScrollBar(int orientation) It constructs a scrollbar with the indicated orientation and provides
the values
JScrollBar(int orientation, int It constructs a scrollbar with the indicated orientation, value, extent,
value, int extent, int min, int max) minimum, and maximum values

Table 13.13: Methods of the JScrollBar class

Method Does this
void It adds an adjustment listener
addAdjustmentListener(AdjustmentList
ener l)

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Table 13.13: Methods of the JScrollBar class

Method Does this
protected void It fires an adjustment event
fireAdjustmentValueChanged(int id,
int type, int value)
AccessibleContext It gets the accessible context
getAccessibleContext()
int getBlockIncrement() It is used for backward compatibility with java.awt.Scrollbar
only
int getBlockIncrement(int direction) It gets the amount to change the scrollbars value by the given value,
given a block change request
int getMaximum() It gets the maximum value of the scrollbar that equals the maximum
value minus the extent
Dimension getMaximumSize() It gets the scrollbars maximum size
int getMinimum() It gets the minimum value supported by the scrollbar
Dimension getMinimumSize() It gets the scrollbars minimum size
BoundedRangeModel getModel() It gets the data model that handles the scrollbars four fundamental
properties: minimum, maximum, value, and extent
int getOrientation() It gets the components orientation (horizontal or vertical)
ScrollBarUI getUI() It gets the delegate that implements the look and feel for this
component
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class for this component
int getUnitIncrement() It is used for backward compatibility with java.awt.Scrollbar
only
int getUnitIncrement It gets the amount to change the scrollbars value by the given value,
(int direction) given a unit change request
int getValue() It gets the scrollbars value
boolean getValueIsAdjusting() It returns True if the scrollbar knob is being dragged
int getVisibleAmount() It gets the scrollbars extent
boolean isFocusTraversable () It identifies whether this component can receive the focus
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of the scrollbar
void removeAdjustmentListener It removes an AdjustmentEvent listener
(AdjustmentListener l)
void setBlockIncrement(int It sets the blockIncrement property
blockIncrement)
void setEnabled(Boolean x) It enables the component so that the knob position can be changed
void setMaximum(int maximum) It sets the models maximum property
void setMinimum(int minimum) It sets the models minimum property
void setModel It sets the model that handles the scrollbars four fundamental
(BoundedRangeModel newModel) properties: minimum, maximum, value, and extent
void setOrientation It sets the scrollbars orientation to either vertical or horizontal
(int orientation)
void setUnitIncrement It sets the unitIncrement property
(int unitIncrement)
void setValue(int value) It sets the scrollbars value

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Table 13.13: Methods of the JScrollBar class

Method Does this
void setValueIsAdjusting It sets the models valueIsAdjusting property
(boolean b)
void setValues(int newValue, int It sets the four BoundedRangeModel properties
newExtent, int newMin, int newMax)
void setVisibleAmount It sets the models extent property
(int extent)
void updateUI() It overrides JComponent.updateUI

Lets take an example in which we use a scrollbar to scroll some text in an applet. To do that, we create a new
panel that displays a label with the text Hello ScrollBar! at the vertical position given by the public data
member named vertical. Heres what the panel class looks like:
class DemoPanel extends JPanel {
JLabel label = new JLabel("Hello ScrollBar!");
int vertical = 0;
DemoPanel() { label = new JLabel("Hello ScrollBar!"); add(label); }
public void paintComponent(Graphics g) {
super.paintComponent(g);
label.setLocation(0, vertical); }
public void setScrolledPosition(int newposition) { vertical = newposition; }
}
Now, we can add an object of this new panel class to an applet and a vertical scrollbar in a border layout as
follows:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DemoJScrollBar.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJScrollBar extends JApplet {
private JScrollBar sbar = new JScrollBar(JScrollBar.VERTICAL, 0,
0, 0, 150);
private DemoPanel jp = new DemoPanel();
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.add(jp, BorderLayout.CENTER);
c.add(sbar, BorderLayout.EAST);
sbar.addAdjustmentListener(new AdjustmentListener() {
public void adjustmentValueChanged(
AdjustmentEvent e) {
JScrollBar sb = (JScrollBar)e.getSource();
jp.setScrolledPosition(e.getValue());
jp.repaint(); }});
}
}

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 Immediate Solutions

The result appears as shown in Figure 13.10:

Figure 13.10: Creating and Using a Scrollbar

You can see in the figure that the user can use the scrollbar to move the text up and down in the panel.

Creating Lists
The Big Boss appears in a cloud of cigar smoke and says, We have got 14,389 products now for the user to select
from. How are we going to display all those in a program? No problem, you say. Ill just use a list control.
The Big Boss smiles and says, Here are the product names to type in.
The JList class is the Swing lightweight list control. The inheritance diagram for the JList class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.Jlist<E>
You can do more with JList controls than you can with AWT List controls; for example, you can display
images in Swing lists. In fact, well take a look at what you can do with Swing lists from this point to the end of
the chapter. You can find the constructors of the JList class in Table 13.14 and its methods in Table 13.15:
Table 13.14: Constructors of the JList class
Constructor Does this
JList() It constructs a JList object.
JList(ListModel<E> dataModel) It constructs a JList object that displays the elements in the indicated
data model.
JList(E[ ] listData) It constructs a JList object that displays the elements in the indicated
array.
JList(Vector<? extends E> listData) It constructs a JList object that displays the elements in the indicated
vector.

Table 13.15: Methods of the JList class

Method Does this
void addListSelectionListener It adds a list selection listener.
(ListSelectionListener listener)
void addSelectionInterval(int It makes the selection to be the union of the indicated interval with the
anchor, int lead) current selection.
void clearSelection() It clears the selection.
protected ListSelectionModel It gets an instance of DefaultListSelectionModel.
createSelectionModel()

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Table 13.15: Methods of the JList class

Method Does this
void ensureIndexIsVisible(int It scrolls the viewport to make sure an item is visible.
index)
protected void It notifies the JList list selection listeners that the selection model has
fireSelectionValueChanged(int changed.
firstIndex, int lastIndex, boolean
isAdjusting)
AccessibleContext It gets the accessible context.
getAccessibleContext()
int getAnchorSelectionIndex() It gets the first index argument from the most recent
addSelectionInterval or setSelectionInterval call.
Rectangle getCellBounds(int index1, It gets the bounds of the indicated range of items.
int index2)
ListCellRenderer getCellRenderer() It gets the object that renders the list items.
JList.DropLocation get It returns the location that this component should visually indicate as
DropLocation() the drop location.
DropMode getDropMode() It returns the drop mode for this component.
int getFirstVisibleIndex() It returns the index of the cell in the upper left corner of the JList
object.
int getFixedCellHeight() It gets the fixed cell height value.
int getFixedCellWidth() It gets the fixed cell width value.
int getLastVisibleIndex() It returns the largest list index that is currently visible.
int getLeadSelectionIndex() It gets the second index argument from the most recent
addSelectionInterval or setSelectionInterval call.
int getMaxSelectionIndex() It gets the maximum selected cell index.
int getMinSelectionIndex() It gets the minimum selected cell index.
ListModel getModel() It gets the data model that holds the list of data items.
Dimension It computes the size of the viewport needed to display
getPreferredScrollableViewportSize( VisibleRowCount rows.
)
Object getPrototypeCellValue() It gets the cell width of the prototypical cell (a cell used for the
calculation of cell widths).
int It gets the block increment amount.
getScrollableBlockIncrement(Rectang
le visibleRect, int orientation,
int direction)
boolean getScrollable It gets the height of the tracks viewport.
tracksViewportHeight()
boolean getScrollable It gets the width of the tracks viewport.
tracksViewportWidth()
int It returns the lists font size.
getScrollableUnitIncrement(Rectangl
e visibleRect, int orientation, int
direction)
int getSelectedIndex() It returns the first selected index.
int[ ] getSelectedIndices() It returns an array of all the selected indexes in an increasing order.
Object getSelectedValue() It returns the first selected value or null if the selection is empty.
Object[] getSelectedValues() It returns an array of the values for the selected cells.
Color getSelectionBackground() It gets the background color for selected cells.

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 13.15: Methods of the JList class

Method Does this
Color getSelectionForeground() It gets the foreground color.
int getSelectionMode() It gets whether single-item or multiple-item selections are allowed.
ListSelectionModel It gets the value of the current selection model.
getSelectionModel()
ListUI getUI() It gets the look and feel object that renders this component.
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the UIFactory class that generates the look and
feel for this component.
boolean getValueIsAdjusting() It gets the value of the data models isAdjusting property.
int getVisibleRowCount() It returns the preferred number of visible rows.
Point indexToLocation(int index) It gets the origin of the indicated item in JList coordinates. It gets
null if the index isnt valid.
boolean isSelectedIndex(int index) It returns True if the indicated index is selected.
boolean isSelectionEmpty() It returns True if nothing is selected. This is a convenience method that
just delegates to the selection model.
int locationToIndex(Point location) It converts a point in JList coordinates to the index of the cell at that
location.
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JList object.
void It removes a listener from the list thats notified each time a change to
removeListSelectionListener(ListSel the selection occurs.
ectionListener listener)
void removeSelectionInterval It sets the selection to be the set difference of the indicated interval and
(int index0, int index1) the current selection.
void setCellRenderer It sets the delegate thats used to paint each cell in the list.
(ListCellRenderer cellRenderer)
void setDropMode(DropMode) It sets the drop mode for this component.
void setFixedCellHeight It defines the height of every cell in the list.
(int height)
void setFixedCellWidth(int width) It defines the width of every cell in the list.
void setListData(Object[ ] It constructs a list model from an array of objects and then applies the
listData) setModel() method to it.
void setListData(Vector listData) It constructs a list model from a vector and then applies the
setModel() method to it.
void setModel(ListModel model) It sets the model that represents the contents of the list and clears the
list selection.
void setPrototypeCellValue It sets the prototypeCellValue property and then computes the
(Object prototypeCellValue) fixedCellWidth and fixedCellHeight properties.
void setSelectedIndex(int index) It selects a single cell.
void setSelectedIndices It selects a set of cells.
(int[ ] indices)
void setSelectedValue It selects the indicated object from the list.
(Object anObject, boolean
shouldScroll)
void setSelectionBackground(Color It sets the background color for the selected cells.
selectionBackground)
void setSelectionForeground(Color It sets the foreground color for the selected cells.
selectionForeground)

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Table 13.15: Methods of the JList class

Method Does this
void setSelectionInterval It selects the indicated interval.
(int anchor, int lead)
void setSelectionMode It determines whether single-item or multiple-item selections are
(int selectionMode) allowed.
void setSelectionModel It sets the selection model for the list to a non-null
(ListSelectionModel selectionModel) ListSelectionModel implementation.
void setUI(ListUI ui) It sets the look and feel object that renders this component.
void setValueIsAdjusting It sets the data models isAdjusting property to True.
(boolean b)
void setVisibleRowCount It sets the preferred number of rows in the list that can be displayed
(int visibleRowCount) without a scrollbar.
void updateUI() It sets the UI property with the ListUI object from the
DefaultUIFactory class.

Note that you can get the currently selected items index with the JList classs getSelectedIndex()
method, multiple selections with the getSelectedIndices() method, the actual selected item with the
getSelectedValue() method, and the actual selected items with the getSelectedValues() method.

You should keep in mind that the data in a list is actually maintained by its model, so if you want access to an item thats not
selected, you can use the JList classs getModel() method to get the model and then the models getElementAt() method to get
the actual item.

Well put the JList class to work in this and the following few solutions. To start, we create a simple JList
example that just displays 10 items and reports which one the user clicks. We start by creating a list control with
those items in it as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import javax.swing.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DemoJList.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJList extends JApplet implements ListSelectionListener {
JList list;
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
String[] items = new String[10];
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index <= 9; loop_index++) {
items[loop_index] = "Item " + loop_index; }
list = new JList(items);
/* some code */ }
/* some code */
}
Next, we add this list control to a scroll pane to enable scrolling, set it so that it will display four rows, and add a
selection listener to it, as shown in the following code:
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
String[] items = new String[10];
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index <= 9; loop_index++) {
items[loop_index] = "Item " + loop_index; }
list = new JList(items);
JScrollPane scrollpane = new JScrollPane(list);
list.setVisibleRowCount(4);

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list.addListSelectionListener(this);
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(scrollpane);
}
Now, in the valueChanged() method, we can use the getSelectedIndex() method to get the item the user
clicks and display the number of that item in the status bar:
public void valueChanged(ListSelectionEvent e) {
String msg = "You selected item no: ";
msg += list.getSelectedIndex();
showStatus(msg);
}
When the user clicks an item in the list, the applet displays which item was clicked, as you can see in
Figure 13.11:

Figure 13.11: Handling Selections in a List Control

Note, that theres more than one way to select items in a listyou can make multiple selections in lists as well.
See the next solution for the details.

Handling Multiple List Selections

The Product Support Specialist (PSS) appears and says, Users are unhappy about your new program. They
want to order a dozen products at once, but the list control in the program only lets them order one. So? you
ask. So the Big Boss is going to be very unhappy, the PSS says. OK, you say, Ill set up a multiple-selection
list control.

List Selection Modes

By default, there are three selection modes for JList objects, and you can set the one you want to use with the
setSelectionMode() method. The constants that you can pass to this method and what they mean are as
follows:
SINGLE_SELECTIONSingle selection.
SINGLE_INTERVAL_SELECTIONOne interval selection. The user can select one and only one interval of
items.
MULTIPLE_INTERVAL_SELECTIONMultiple selection intervals.
Well create a multiple-interval selection list control here and show how to determine what items are selected
when the user makes a selection. To start, we just create a list control as in the previous solution, making it a
multiple-interval selection list control. The code is as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import javax.swing.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DemoMultipleSelection.class
WIDTH=300

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HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoMultipleSelection extends JApplet implements ListSelectionListener {
JList list;
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
String[] items = new String[10];
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index <= 9; loop_index++) {
items[loop_index] = "Item " + loop_index; }
list = new JList(items);
JScrollPane scrollpane = new JScrollPane(list);
list.setVisibleRowCount(5);
list.setSelectionMode(ListSelectionModel.MULTIPLE_INTERVAL_SELECTION);
list.addListSelectionListener(this);
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(scrollpane); }
/* some code */
}
When the user makes a selection, we can determine what items were selected in the valueChanged() method
by using the getSelectedIndices() method, which returns an array of the selected indexes. The end result
is that we can report these indexes in the applets status bar as follows:
public void valueChanged(ListSelectionEvent e) {
int[] indexes = list.getSelectedIndices();
String msg = "You selected:";
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < indexes.length; loop_index++) {
msg += " item " + indexes[loop_index]; }
showStatus(msg);
}
You can see the result in Figure 13.12:

Figure 13.12: Handling Multiple Selections in a List Control

The user can click an item to select it and then use the Ctrl key to select other items or the Shift key to select an
interval of items. Whenever a selection is made, the applet reports that selection in its status bar, as you see in
Figure 13.12.

Displaying Images in Lists

We have just got to jazz things up, the Big Boss says. The competition is getting too tough. Well, you ask,
how about adding more features? That costs money, the Big Boss growls. Hmm, you say, I suppose I
could display images in the list controls. Swell, says the Big Boss, get to it.
Getting a Swing list control to display images is not as easy as adding images to a Swing label. In particular, you
have to create your own model and renderer class for the list control, and well do that here. The result we are
aiming for appears in Figure 13.13:

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 Immediate Solutions

Figure 13.13: Adding Images to a List Control

To handle images in a list control, we create a new list control model, MyModel, and a new list control cell
renderer, MyRenderer. To install the new model, which will hold the string for each list item and an image icon
for each item, we can pass an object of the MyModel class to the JList constructor. To install the new renderer,
we can use the setCellRenderer() method. The code is as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DemoImageList.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=400 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoImageList extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
MyModel model = new MyModel();
MyRenderer renderer = new MyRenderer();
JList list = new JList(model);
list.setCellRenderer(renderer);
list.setVisibleRowCount(5);
c.add(new JScrollPane(list)); }
}
This installs the new model and renderersall thats left to do is to actually create the corresponding classes,
and well do that in the next two solutions.

Creating a Custom List Model

Creating a new model for a list is not difficult; all you have to do is store your data by using the addElement()
method. In this case, well create the new model for the list example in the previous solution, which will display
images and text in a list control. In this case, we just make each data element in the model a two-element array;
the first array element will hold the text for the list item, and the second array element will hold the image icon
for the list item. The code is as follows:
class MyModel extends DefaultListModel {
public MyModel() {

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for(int loop_index = 1; loop_index <= 10; loop_index++) {

addElement(new Object[] {"Item " + loop_index,
new ImageIcon("bulg.jpg")});
}
}
}
Thats all it takes. Now, a new model for a list control has been created. To actually draw the icon image, you
have to handle the cell rendering yourself. Well do just that in the next solution.

Creating a Custom List Cell Renderer

Each list item is actually of the class JLabel, so you can use the methods of JLabel, such as setText() and
setIcon(), to display images in a lists cells. Here, well do that by creating a new cell renderer that will draw
the items in the list we have developed over the previous two solutions. To create a cell renderer, you have to
implement the ListCellRenderer interface, which has only one method:
getListCellRendererComponent(). This object is passed to the object to render (which in this case is the
two-element array holding the items text and icon) and returns a cell renderer. The code is as follows (note that
we also indicate whether an item is selected by adjusting its background):
class MyRenderer extends JLabel implements ListCellRenderer {
public MyRenderer() { setOpaque(true); }
public Component getListCellRendererComponent(
JList list, Object obj, int index, boolean isSelected,
boolean focus) {
MyModel model = (MyModel)list.getModel();
setText((String)((Object[])obj)[0]);
setIcon((Icon)((Object[])obj)[1]);
if(!isSelected) {
setBackground(list.getBackground());
setForeground(list.getForeground()); }
else {
setBackground(list.getSelectionBackground());
setForeground(list.getSelectionForeground()); }
return this; }
}
Thats all it takes. Now, the list control will display images, as you see in Figure 13.13.

Handling Double Clicks in Lists

Hey, says the NP, I want to let the user launch an item from a list control by double-clicking it, but the
ListSelectionListener interfaces valueChanged() method is called for single clicks, and I cant tell
whether the list has been double-clicked. Well, you say, you can handle mouse clicks yourself to intercept
double clicks. The NP says, Really? Tell me more!
If you intercept mouse events, you can determine the number of mouse clicks, and by accessing the lists model,
you can determine what list item was clicked.
Lets look at this in code. Here, we just add a list with a number of items in it to an applet and then add a mouse
listener to the list:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DemoListDoubleClick.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoListDoubleClick extends JApplet implements MouseListener {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
String[] items = {"Item 1", "Item 2", "Item 3", "Item 4",

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"Item 5", "Item 6", "Item 7", "Item 8",

"Item 9", "Item 10"};
JList list = new JList(items);
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(new JScrollPane(list));
list.addMouseListener(this); }
/* some code */
}
Now, in the mouseClicked() method, we determine where the mouse was double clicked, then we use the
locationToIndex() method of the list to determine what list item was clicked. Finally, we can determine how
many times the item was clicked with the MouseEvents method getClickCount() and therefore, report the
number of times each item is clicked, as shown in the following code:
public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent e) {
JList list = (JList)e.getSource();
int index = list.locationToIndex(e.getPoint());
String msg = new String("Item " +
++index + " clicked " + e.getClickCount()+" times");
showStatus(msg); }
public void mouseEntered(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mouseExited(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent e) { }
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e) { }
The result appears as shown in Figure 13.14:

Figure 13.14: Handling Double Clicks in a List Control

You can see in the figure that the applet reports the number of times a list item is clicked. This way, you can
handle double and even triple clicks.

Drag and Drop Support

Java provides a drag and drop support for creating a Window-based application. This support not only helps a
programmer to give the drag and drop facility in the application but also helps to package the particular
JComponent and move the same to another location. However, this support had undergone some changes since
Java SE 6. There are two enhancements in this area, which are as follows:
To avoid the use of selection for specifying drop location, drop modes are customized
At the time of transferable operations, additional information can be obtained
The drag and drop features are used by the JList, JTable, JTextComponent, and JTree components. They
have a new setDropMode() method, which accepts a DropMode enum constant described in Table 13.16; each
component has a specific set of drop modes considered as acceptable:

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Table 13.16: Enum Constant Summary

Constant Does this
INSERT It tracks the drop location in terms of the position, where new data is
inserted
INSERT_COLS It tracks the drop location in terms of the column index, where new column
data is inserted to accommodate the dropped data
INSERT_ROWS It tracks the drop location in terms of the row index, where new row data is
inserted to accommodate the dropped data
ON It tracks the drop location in terms of the index of existing items

ON_OR_INSERT It specifies that the data can be dropped on the existing items or in the
insert locations as specified by INSERT
ON_OR_INSERT_COLS It specifies that the data can be dropped on the existing items or in the
insert columns as specified by INSERT_COLS
ON_OR_INSERT_ROWS It specifies that the data can be dropped on the existing items or in insert
rows as specified by INSERT_ROWS
USE_SELECTION It tracks the drop location with the help of the components own internal
selection mechanism

All the components support a drop mode of USE_SELECTION. This is the way of indicating where to drop
something. A DropMode of ON is supported by the JList, JTable, and JTree components. The JTable
component has the following four additional drop-mode options:
INSERT_COLS
INSERT_ ROWS
ON_OR_INSERT_COLS
ON_OR_INSERT_ROWS
The inheritance diagram for the DropMode class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|_ java.lang.Enum<DropMode>
|_ javax.swing.DropMode
While dragging and dropping, a drop mode determines the way a component tracks and shows the drop
location. You can find the methods of the DropMode class in Table 13.17:
Table 13.17: Methods of the DropMode Class
Method Does this
static DropMode valueOf(String It returns the enum constant of this type with the specified name
name)

static DropMode[] values() It returns an array containing the constants of this enum type in the order
they are declared

Various drop-mode options are signified by the DemoDragDrop class. In the JTextField, you are allowed to
enter and highlight anything, and then drag it over the JTree. After that, you can drop the text and view the
different behaviors for various settings of the mode.
The DemoDragDrop class describes different drop-mode options. Consider the following code:
import javax.swing.*;
import javax.swing.tree.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.datatransfer.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.io.*;
public class DemoDragDrop {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Runnable run = new Runnable() {

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public void run() {

JFrame frm = new JFrame(" Demo Drag And Drop");
frm.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
JPanel topPanel = new JPanel(new BorderLayout());
JLabel dragLabel = new JLabel("Drag Me:");
JTextField text = new JTextField();
text.setDragEnabled(true);
topPanel.add(dragLabel,BorderLayout.WEST);
topPanel.add(text,BorderLayout.CENTER);
frm.add(topPanel,BorderLayout.NORTH);
final JTree tree = new JTree();
final DefaultTreeModel model =
(DefaultTreeModel)tree.getModel();
tree.setTransferHandler(new TransferHandler () {
public boolean canImport(TransferHandler.TransferSupport
support) {
if(!support.isDataFlavorSupported(DataFlavor.stringFlavor) ||
!support.isDrop()) {
return false; }
JTree.DropLocation location =
(JTree.DropLocation)support.getDropLocation();
return location.getPath() != null; }
public boolean importData(TransferHandler.
TransferSupport support) {
if(!canImport(support)) { return false; }
JTree.DropLocation location =
(JTree.DropLocation)support.getDropLocation();
TreePath treePath = location.getPath();
Transferable transfer = support.getTransferable();
String transferData;
try {
transferData=
(String)transfer.getTransferData
(DataFlavor.stringFlavor); }
catch(IOException e) { return false; }
catch(UnsupportedFlavorException e) {
return false; }
int childIndex = location.getChildIndex();
if(childIndex == -1) {
childIndex =
model.getChildCount
(treePath.getLastPathComponent()); }
DefaultMutableTreeNode newNode =
new DefaultMutableTreeNode(transferData);
DefaultMutableTreeNode parentNode=
(DefaultMutableTreeNode)treePath.getLastPathComponent();
model.insertNodeInto(newNode,parentNode,childIndex);
TreePath newTreePath = treePath.pathByAddingChild(newNode);
tree.makeVisible(newTreePath);
tree.scrollRectToVisible
(tree.getPathBounds(newTreePath));
return true; }});
JScrollPane scrollpane = new JScrollPane(tree);
frm.add(scrollpane, BorderLayout.CENTER);
JPanel bottomPanel = new JPanel();
JLabel comboLabel = new JLabel("DropMode");
String options[]
= {"USE_SELETION","ON","INSERT","ON_OR_INSERT"};
final DropMode mode[] =
{ DropMode.USE_SELECTION,DropMode.ON,DropMode.
INSERT,DropMode.ON_OR_INSERT};
final JComboBox comboBox = new JComboBox(options);
comboBox.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
int selectedIndex =

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comboBox.getSelectedIndex();
tree.setDropMode(mode[selectedIndex]);
}});
bottomPanel.add(comboLabel);
bottomPanel.add(comboBox);
frm.add(bottomPanel,BorderLayout.SOUTH);
frm.setSize(300,400);
frm.setVisible(true); }
};
EventQueue.invokeLater(run); }
}
The output of this code shows the program window and dragging and dropping of the items of the JTree, as
shown in Figure 13.15(a) and Figure 13.15(b), respectively:

Figure 13.15(a): Displaying the JTree Figure 13.15(b): Showing the Drag and Drop Tree
It is aforementioned that you can type something in the text field of the program window, highlight it, and drag
it over the JTree.

Creating a Table
The Big Boss is concerned and wants to give flexibility to the programmer. Big Boss says, The table in Swing is
important. Is there any complexity in handling the data? No problem Boss you say. JDBC will help here to
fight with complexities. It gives much more flexibility to the programmer. Its easy to create a simple JTable.
A JTable displays similar or dissimilar type of data in the form of a rectangular array. The data contained in
each column can be of basic or class type. Although a JTable can be created in a number of ways, the most
general and convenient way is to create an object that encapsulates the data that the JTable would display. A
JTable can efficiently display the data stored in a database and has to implement the
javax.swing.TableModel interface for the same. The interfaces dealing with javax.swing.JTable are
listed in Table 13.18:
Table 13.18: Interfaces of JTable
Interface Does this
TableCellEditor This interface defines the method that any object needs to
implement. Here, the object would like to be an editor of values
for components, such as JListBox, JComboBox, JTree, or
JTable

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Table 13.18: Interfaces of JTable

Interface Does this
TableCellRenderer This interface defines the method required by any object that
would like to be a renderer for cells in a JTable
TableColumnModel It defines the requirements for a table column model object
suitable for use with JTable
TableModel The TableModel interface specifies the methods that the JTable
will use to interrogate a tabular data model

To create an object of JTable, you just need to pass the TableModel reference in the constructor. This is
shown as follows:
JTable table = new JTable(model);
Here, the variable model holds the object reference that encapsulates the data to be displayed in the JTable.
Next is the implementation of the TableModel interface that lies along with the JTable class in the
javax.swing.table package and contains a total of nine methods. An abstract class, AbstractTableModel,
implements six of the nine methods. Therefore, if you extend the AbstractTableModel class, three methods
still need to be implemented.
The class that implements the TableModel interface actually encapsulates the ResultSet object. Youll study
about ResultSet in Chapter 24.
The full set of methods declared in the TableModel interface is presented in Table 13.19:
Table 13.19: Methods of the TableModel class
Method Does this
void addTableModelListener It adds a listener to the list that is notified each time a change to
(TableModelListener l) the data model occurs
Class<?> It returns the most specific superclass for all the cell values in the
getColumnClass(int columnIndex) column
int getColumnCount() It returns the number of columns in the model
String getColumnName(int columnIndex) It returns the name of the column at columnIndex
int getRowCount() It returns the number of rows in the model
Object getValueAt(int rowIndex, It returns the value for the cell at columnIndex and rowIndex
int columnIndex)
boolean isCellEditable(int rowIndex, It returns True if the cell at rowIndex and columnIndex is editable
int columnIndex)
void removeTableModelListener It removes a listener from the list that is notified each time a
(TableModelListener l) change to the data model occurs
void setValueAt(Object aValue, It sets the value in the cell at columnIndex and rowIndex to
int rowIndex, int columnIndex) aValue

Note that it is the JTable object that actually calls these methods to access and manipulate the data in the table
model. While creating a class that implements the TableModel interface, its better to make it capable of
replacing the ResultSet object at any point of time. This will make a single JTable object capable of
displaying data corresponding to different resultsets just by assigning the reference of another ResultSet
object to the TableModel object. Its easy to accomplish this functionality; you just have to define a method that
accepts a ResultSet object as argument and make the data available with the help of the TableModel
interface, as shown in the following code:
import java.sql.ResultSet;
import java.sql.ResultSetMetaData;
import java.sql.SQLException;
import javax.swing.table.AbstractTableModel;
import java.util.Vector;
class DemoTableModel extends AbstractTableModel {

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public void setResultSet (ResultSet rs) { }

public int getColumnCount() { }
public int getRowCount() { }
public String getValueAt (int row, int column) { }
public String getColumnName (int column) { }
}
You can return to the actual ResultSet object for accessing the data that is returned by the TableModel
interface. However, this will result in making a trip to the database each time. Therefore, its better to avoid the
database trips by caching the data from the ResultSet object in a DemoTableModel object. To ensure this,
the setResultSet() method will have to set it in order. Two sets of information are stored in the
DemoTableModel object. One is the names (String objects) and second is the data (can be of any type,
matching the Structured Query Language (SQL) data types) in the table. For simplicity, the getString()
method is used to access the data. You can extract any SQL data type as a String, and at this point, youll only
focus upon strings.

Table Sorting and Filtering

Java SE made sorting and filtering of the table data much easier. A sorter object manages table sorting and
filtering. With the help of different classes and interfaces, users can simply click on a column to sort elements. In
addition, filtering lets you display only those table rows that match with the user-supplied criteria.

Sorting Rows
For sorting and filtering rows, we use an abstract RowSorter class for supporting two mappings. One is for
mapping rows in a JTable to the elements of the underlying model and the other is for mapping from the
underlying model to the rows. It works with both TableModel and ListModel.
The Java SE provides a TableRowSorter class to work with JTable. The reference of class object
implementing the TableModel interface is passed to the TableRowSorter constructor and then the created
RowSorter is passed to the setRowSorter() method of JTable.
An example for the sorting table class DemoTableSort is as follows:
import javax.swing.*;
import javax.swing.table.*;
import java.awt.*;
public class DemoTableSort {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Runnable run = new Runnable() {
public void run() {
JFrame frm = new JFrame("Sorting Table");
frm.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
Object rows[][] = {
{"AMZN", "Amazon", 43.28},
{"GOOG", "Google", 389.33},
{"MCRSFT", "Microsoft", 28.66},
{"SANSFT", "Sansoft Inc.", 128.76},
{"NOK", "Nokia Corp", 19.73},
{"ORCL", "Oracle Corp.", 14.58},
{"SUNMCRS", "Sun Microsystems Inc.", 5.97},
{"VODA", "Vodafone Group", 39.92},
{"YHO", "Yahoo!", 38.67}
};
String columns[] = {"Symbol", "Name", "Price"};
TableModel model =
new DefaultTableModel(rows, columns) {
public Class getColumnClass(int column) {
Class returnValue;
if ((column >= 0) &&
(column < getColumnCount())) {

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returnValue = getValueAt(0,
column).getClass(); }
else { returnValue = Object.class; }
return returnValue; }
};
JTable table = new JTable(model);
RowSorter<TableModel> rsorter =
new TableRowSorter<TableModel>(model);
table.setRowSorter(rsorter);
JScrollPane scrollpane = new JScrollPane(table);
frm.add(scrollpane, BorderLayout.CENTER);
frm.setSize(300, 150);
frm.setVisible(true); }
};
EventQueue.invokeLater(run); }
}
When you click on one of the column of the displayed table, youll get the contents of that column reordered. In
the following code, we are describing some important lines that are pertinent to sorting:
JTable table = new JTable(model);
RowSorter<TableModel> rsorter =
new TableRowSorter<TableModel>(model);
table.setRowSorter(rsorter);
The first line is used to associate the model with the table. The second line is then used for creating a RowSorter
according to the model. The third line is used for associating the RowSorter with the JTable. When a user
clicks on the column header, it sorts that column. If the same column header is clicked for a second time, it
reverses the sorted order.
Here, youll get three figures that describe the sorting of the table data. Figure 13.16 shows the table of three
columns:

Figure 13.16: Sorting Table when the Column Header Has Not Been Clicked
It is the initial table when the column header has not been clicked.
Figure 13.17 shows the table when a column header Name has been clicked once, and the names are sorted in
an alphabetical order:

Figure 13.17: Sorting Table when the Column Header Name Has Been Clicked Once

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Figure 13.18 shows the table when the column header Name has been double clicked; it sorts the names in
reverse of alphabetic order:

Figure 13.18: Sorting Table when the Column Header Name Has Been Double Clicked

Filtering Table Rows

Filtering is used for displaying rows in a table that resembles with the criteria supplied by the user. An abstract
RowFilter class is used to filter the table contents. It is associated with the TableRowSorter class and
contains only one method for filtering, that is:
boolean include(RowFilter.Entry<? extends M,? extends I> entry)
For every entry in the model related with the RowSorter, the specified entry should be displayed in the present
view of the model specified by the include()method. In various cases, it is not mandatory to build your own
RowFilter implementation. The following six static methods are used by the RowFilter class for creating
filters:
andFilter(Iterable<? extends RowFilter<? super M,? super I>> filters)
dateFilter(RowFilter.ComparisonType type, Date date, int... indices)
notFilter(RowFilter<M,I> filter)
numberFilter(RowFilter.ComparisonType type, Number number, int... indices)
orFilter(Iterable<? extends RowFilter<? super M,? super I>> filters)
regexFilter(String regex, int... indices)
For the RowFilter factory methods that have an argument of indices (dateFilter, numberFilter,
regexFilter), only the set of columns corresponding to the specified indices are checked in the model. If it
does not specify any indices, all columns are checked for a match by using only of the following methods:
dateFilterIt checks for a matching date
numberFilterIt checks for a matching number
notFilterIt is used for reversing another file
andFilter and orFilterIt is used for logically combining other filters
regexFilterIt uses a regular expression for filtering
The DemoTableFilter class in the following code uses a regexFilter to filter table content:
import javax.swing.*;
import javax.swing.table.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.util.regex.*;
public class DemoTableFilter {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Runnable run = new Runnable() {
public void run() {
JFrame frm = new JFrame("Sorting Table");
frm.setDefaultCloseOperation
(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
Object rows[][] = {
{"AMZN", "Amazon", 43.28},
{"GOOG", "Google", 389.33},
{"MCRSFT", "Microsoft", 28.66},
{"SANSFT", "Sansoft Inc.", 128.76},

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{"NOK", "Nokia Corp", 19.73},

{"ORCL", "Oracle Corp.", 14.58},
{"SUNMCRS", "Sun Microsystems Inc.", 5.97},
{"VODA", "Vodafone Group", 39.92},
{"YHO", "Yahoo!", 38.67}
};
Object columns[] = {"Symbol", "Name", "Price"};
TableModel model =
new DefaultTableModel(rows, columns) {
public Class getColumnClass(int column) {
Class returnValue;
if ((column >= 0) &&
(column < getColumnCount())) {
returnValue =
getValueAt(0,
column).getClass();
}else { returnValue = Object.class; }
return returnValue; }
};
JTable table = new JTable(model);
final TableRowSorter<TableModel> rsorter =
new TableRowSorter<TableModel>(model);
table.setRowSorter(rsorter);
JScrollPane scrollpane = new JScrollPane(table);
frm.add(scrollpane, BorderLayout.CENTER);
JPanel jp = new JPanel(new BorderLayout());
JLabel label = new JLabel("Filter");
jp.add(label, BorderLayout.WEST);
final JTextField filterText =
new JTextField("MCR");
jp.add(filterText, BorderLayout.CENTER);
frm.add(jp, BorderLayout.NORTH);
JButton button = new JButton("Filter");
button.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
String text = filterText.getText();
if (text.length() == 0) {
rsorter.setRowFilter(null);
} else {
try {
rsorter.setRowFilter(
RowFilter.regexFilter(text));
}
catch
(PatternSyntaxException
pse) {
System.err.println
("Bad regex pattern");
}
}
}
});
frm.add(button, BorderLayout.SOUTH);
frm.setSize(400, 300);
frm.setVisible(true); }
};
EventQueue.invokeLater(run); }
}
Here, we have specified the string MCR for filtering. The display sets a filter for all strings with the characters
MCR somewhere in them. The characters ^ and $ are used for testing exact matches at the beginning and end
of the string, respectively. Whenever the user presses the Filter button at the bottom, the Matcher.find()

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method is used internally for inclusion testing. The results of this code before and after filtering are displayed in
Figures 13.19 and 13.20, respectively:

Figure 13.19: Sorting Table before Filtering Figure 13.20: Sorting Table after Filtering

Adding Rows and Columns to Tables at Runtime

The Programming Correctness Czar appears and says, OK, with the help of Java we can create Tables. Well,
they dont seem to be very professionalwith professional controls, you could add rows and columns to tables.
No problem, you say. It is possible in Java. Even here, a vector object will provide sufficient flexibility to
accommodate as per the requirement. Oh, says the Programming Correctness Czar.
After creating a table by the TableModel interface, you can add columns and rows to the table. Defining
column_heading as an array with zero elements ensures that you start out with a non-null array even though
there is no ResultSet initially. To store a column name in a String array, you can add a data member to the
DemoTableModel class as:
private String[] column_heading = new String[0];
It is quite impossible to know the number of rows and columns of data in advance. Therefore, you wont want to
use an array. A Vector<> object will provide sufficient flexibility to accommodate as per the requirement. You
can store the content of a row as an array of String objects that you can store as an element in the Vector<>
object. (Youll learn more about the Vector class in Chapter 21.) The data member that stores the rows of data
value is defined as follows:
private Vector<String[]> Rows_data = new Vector<String[]>();
It is quite imperative to set the type for all the data items in a row to String. However, if you want to
accommodate different types within a row, you could use an array of type Object[] to store each row. Here,
you need to remember the import statement for the Vector class, which is defined in the java.util
package. Now, you can implement the setResultSet() method in the DemoTableModel class as follows:
public void setResultSet (ResultSet results) {
try {
ResultSetMetaData metadata = results.getMetaData();
int columns = metadata.getColumnCount();
column_heading = new String[columns];
for (int i = 0; i<columns i++) {
Column_heading[i] = metadata.getColumnLabel (i+1); }
Rows_data.clear();
String[] row_data;
while (results.next()) {
row_data = new String[columns];
for (int i = 0; i < columns; i++) {
row_data[i] = results.getString (i+1); }
Rows_data.addElement (row_data); }
fireTableChanged (null); }
catch (SQLException e) { System.err.printin(e); }
}

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Acquiring access to the ResultSetMetaData (will learn more about ResultSetMetaData in Chapter 24)
interface object corresponding to the ResultSet object is important for retrieving the names and number of
columns. You can use the getColumnLabel() method to obtain a label to be used for the column name. The
label depicts either the column name known to the database or the name you supply in the SELECT statement to
create the ResultSet object. The names of the columns are stored in the column_heading.
To remove any existing object references in the Vector<String[]>, you can use the clear() method. Each
vector element is a reference to an array of String objects, row_data, which is created inside the while loop.
The array elements are assigned values inside the for loop.
Once the array gets created, you store a reference to it in rows_data. After all the rows from the ResultSet
object have been stored, you call the fireTableChanged() method that the DemoTableModel class inherits
from the base class. This method notifies all listeners for the JTable object for this model that the model has
changed. Therefore, the JTable object should redraw itself from scratch. The argument of the
fireTableChanged() method is a reference to an object of the TableModelEvent type that can be used for
recording the portions of the model that have been modified.

Creating Trees
The NP is unhappy and says, Java might comprise very limited options for arranging data. What will be the
simple method to display required data as simple as it can be? No Sir, you say. It is possible with the JTree
class. The JTree class uses a TreeModel to get its data. It displays data organized in a tree-like structure.
The interfaces for dealing with javax.swing.JTree are enlisted in Table 13.20:
Table 13.20: Interfaces of the JTree class
Interface Does this
ImageObserver It observes the constructed images and gets the notifications about
image information
MenuContainer It is the super class of all menu-related containers
Serializable It enables serializability of class by implementing the
java.io.Serializable interface
Accessible It is the main interface for the accessibility package
Scrollable It provides information to scrolling containers, e.g., JScrollPane

An object of a class that implements the TreeNode interface is called a node. The methods declared by the
TreeNode interface that provide the mean of navigating a tree are enlisted in Table 13.21:
Table 13.21: Methods of the TreeNode interface
Method Does this
TreeNode getChildAt(int childIndex) It returns the child TreeNode at index childIndex
int getChildCount() It returns the number of children tree nodes the receiver contains
boolean isLeaf() It returns True if the receiver is a leaf
Enumeration children() It returns the children of the receiver as an Enumeration
boolean getAllowsChildren() It returns True if the receiver allows children
int getIndex(TreeNode node) It returns the index of node in the receivers children
TreeNode getParent() It returns the parent TreeNode of the receiver

The TreeNode interface does not provide enough ability for linking nodes in a tree. Each node must refer to its
parent node so that the tree structure gets created. The MutableTreeNode interface extends the TreeNode
interface and provides declaration of methods to construct the tree. The different methods of the
MutableTreeNode are listed in Table 13.22:

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Table 13.22: Methods of MutableTreeNode

Method Does this
void insert(MutableTreeNode child, It adds child to the receiver at index
int index)
void remove(int index) It removes the child at index from the receiver
void remove(MutableTreeNode node) It removes node from the receiver
void removeFromParent() It removes the receiver from its parent
void It sets the parent of the receiver to newParent
setParent(MutableTreeNode newParent)
void setUserObject(Object object) It resets the user object of the receiver to object

As per your requirement, you can create your own class to define nodes. In most of the cases, the
DefaultMutableTreeNode class in the javax.swing.tree package is sufficient. This class implements the
MutableTreeNode interface and also provides a few methods of its own. The default constructor of this class
creates a node with no parent and children.
The DefaultMutableTreeNode classs objects are most commonly used to create nodes of a tree. A user
object (a value supplied by the user in the DefaultMutableTreeNode constructor) acts as the value
displayed at each node. The toString() method of the user object actually represents what is displayed for
each node.
After you have created the nodes, organize them in a tree structure by using the
parentNode.add(childNode) method. The node is finally passed in the JTree constructor. You usually add
a JScrollPane element to support the change in size of the tree due to node expansion and collapse. The
following code represents a simple tree structure:
DefaultMutableTreeNode root = new DefaultMutableTreeNode("Rootnode");
DefaultMutableTreeNode child1 = new DefaultMutableTreeNode("Child 1");
root.add(child1);
DefaultMutableTreeNode child2 = new DefaultMutableTreeNode("Child 2");
root.add(child2);
JTree tree = new JTree(root);
someWindow.add(new JScrollPane(tree));
When you create more complicated trees, its tough to maintain then when everything is done by hand.
Therefore, its better you first create a simple tree-like data structure and then use that data structure to create
and add other nodes.

Adding Data to Trees

The NP appears and says, I need to know how to add data to trees. Ok, you say. This is very simple. The
easiest approach is to start with the DefaultMutableTreeNode class. Let me tell you more.
A JTree gets its data by using the TreeModel interface. Like a JList, you can have a custom model to replace
the existing tree model and specify the way to extract data. A default TreeModel uses the TreeNode interface
to hold the tree data. You should prefer creating a custom TreeNode interface and leave the TreeModel
interface unchanged. Beginning with the DefaultMutableTreeNode class is considered as the most
convenient way.
For example, the following code represents a potentially infinite tree in which a section in an outline is described
by each node. The root node is 1, the first-level children are 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, etc., and the second-level children are
1.1.1, 1.1.2, etc.. The command-line argument supplied determines the actual number of child node each nodes
that possesses.
Note that the getChildCount() method of the DefaultMutableTreeNode class is called before any of the
child nodes are retrieved. Next, to indicate whether a child node has been created or not, a flag is kept. After the
getChildCount() method is called and if the flag is found to be false, the child nodes are created and added

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 Immediate Solutions

to the tree. You override the isLeaf() method so that the tree doesnt count and further create the nodes. The
code of the DemoJTree.java file is as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
public class DemoJTree extends JFrame {
int n = 5;
public static void main(String[] args) {
int i = 5;
if (args.length > 0)
try { i = Integer.parseInt(args[0]); }
catch(NumberFormatException e) {
System.out.println("Can't parse number using defaultof "); }
new DemoJTree(i); }
public DemoJTree(int i) {
super("Creating a Dynamic JTree");
Container c = getContentPane();
JTree tree = new JTree(new App(1, n));
c.add(new JScrollPane(tree), BorderLayout.CENTER);
setSize(300, 475);
setVisible(true); }
}
The DemoJTree.java will execute only after creating the App.java file because the method of the App.java
is being invoked. The result of the code is displayed in Figure 13.21:

Figure 13.21: Creating a Dynamic Tree

The code for the App.java is as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import javax.swing.tree.*;
class App extends DefaultMutableTreeNode {
private boolean ChildrenDefined = false;
private int outline_num;
private int nChildren;
public App(int outline_num, int nChildren) {
this.outline_num = outline_num;
this.nChildren = nChildren; }
public boolean isLeaf() { return(false); }
public int getChildCount() {
if (!ChildrenDefined)
defineChild();

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return(super.getChildCount()); }
private void defineChild() {
ChildrenDefined = true;
for(int i=0; i<nChildren; i++)
add(new App(i+1, nChildren)); }
public String toString() {
TreeNode parent = getParent();
if (parent == null)
return(String.valueOf(outline_num));
else
return(parent.toString() + "." + outline_num);
}
}
The result of the code, DemoJTree.java, after expanding a few nodes is shown in Figure 13.22:

Figure 13.22: Showing Child Nodes of Tree

Handling Tree Events

A TreeSelectionListener interface is used to handle tree events and contains a single method,
valueChanged(). You start with extracting the currently selected node by calling the
tree.getLastSelectedPathComponent() method, followed by casting it to your node type, which is
generally DefaultMutableTreeNode, and finally extracting the value (user object) at the node by calling the
getUserObject() method. To retrieve the node label, you can just call the toString() method on the result
of the tree.getLastSelectedPathComponent() method. An example is as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import javax.swing.tree.*;
import javax.swing.event.*;
public class DemoTreeEvent extends JFrame
implements TreeSelectionListener {
public static void main(String[] args) { new DemoTreeEvent(); }
private JTree tree;
private JTextField currentSelectionField;
public DemoTreeEvent() {
super("JTree Selections");

Container c = getContentPane();
DefaultMutableTreeNode root =
new DefaultMutableTreeNode("Root");

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 Immediate Solutions

DefaultMutableTreeNode childnode;
DefaultMutableTreeNode grandChildnode;
for(int childIndex=1; childIndex<4; childIndex++) {
childnode = new DefaultMutableTreeNode("Child " + childIndex);
root.add(childnode);
for(int grandChildIndex=1; grandChildIndex<4;
grandChildIndex++) {
grandChildnode =
new DefaultMutableTreeNode("Grandchild " + childIndex + "."
+ grandChildIndex);
childnode.add(grandChildnode); }
}
tree = new JTree(root);
tree.addTreeSelectionListener(this);
c.add(new JScrollPane(tree), BorderLayout.CENTER);
currentSelectionField = new JTextField("Current Selection: NONE");
c.add(currentSelectionField, BorderLayout.SOUTH);
setSize(250, 275);
setVisible(true); }
public void valueChanged(TreeSelectionEvent event) {
currentSelectionField.setText ("Current Selection: " +
tree.getLastSelectedPathComponent().toString()); }
}
The result of the code is shown in Figure 13.23:

Figure 13.23: Showing Selection in Tree

The result of the code after expanding the tree and selecting a node is shown in Figure 13.24:

Figure 13.24: Showing Selection in Tree Branches

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Summary
This chapter has provided a brief introduction of viewports, scrollpanes, sliders, scrollbars, lists, tables, and
trees. Then, it has explained how to handle viewports, create scrollpanes, and scroll images. You have also
learned how to create and fill a slider and to paint the slider labels and slider tick marks. The chapter has
discussed how to create scrollbars, lists, and handle and display images in lists. Further, you have also learned to
create a custom list model and custom list cell renderer. The chapter also explained how to handle double clicks
in lists, implement drag and drop, and create a table.
In the next chapter, you will learn about Combo Boxes, Progress Bars, Tooltips, Separators, and Choosers.

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14
SwingCombo Boxes,
Progress Bars, Tooltips,
Separators, and Choosers
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Creating Combo Boxes 492
Handling Combo Box Selection Events 496
Creating Editable Combo Boxes 497
Adding Images to Combo Boxes 499
Creating a Combo Box Model 500
Creating a Combo Box Custom Renderer 500
Creating Progress Bars 500
Updating Progress Bars 503
Handling Progress Bar Events 504
Creating Separators 507
Resizing Separators Automatically 508
Creating Color Choosers 510
Creating File Choosers 512
Creating File Chooser Filters 518

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In Depth
In this chapter, we are going to cover some important Swing controlscombo boxes, progress bars, separators,
and choosers. Well also take a look at adding tooltips, those small windows that display explanatory text when
you let the mouse rest over a control. All these topics, especially combo boxes, are important topics in Java, and
well take a quick look at them before digging into the code.

Combo Boxes
The combo box is one of the most common controls in Graphical User Interface (GUI) programming, but the
AWT doesnt have a combo box. Swing rectifies that. Combo boxes are combinations of text fields and drop-
down lists. They are very useful in that they let the user either select an item from the list or enter own value into
the text field. Combo boxes are also very compact controlsthey only display one item and a button that the
user can use to display the drop-down list of other items. Combo boxes can function as drop-down lists,
presenting the user with an even more compact way of displaying a list of items than a list control could
manage, and they have become very popular for that reason. In fact, Swing makes the default combo box into a
drop-down list only because the default setting for combo boxes is to make them non-editable, which turns them
into drop-down lists.

Progress Bars
Progress bars are relatively new controls, got popular as a way to give the user some indication of the progress
of a long operation. Originally introduced as a way to show how an installation program is progressing,
progress bars are now used for all kinds of time-consuming operations, such as downloading from the Internet.
They display a colored bar inside them that grows (or shrinks), much like the mercury in a thermometer, to
display visually how an operation is proceeding. You can orient progress bars horizontally or vertically, select
the colors and labels used in them, and handle their events. Even so, progress bars remain simple controls,
because they really only have one functiondisplaying the progress of some task. Youll see all the possibilities
in this chapter.

Choosers
Like the AWT, Swing supports dialog boxes. Unlike the AWT, Swing also supports two dialog boxes that you
dont have to create or customize yourselffile choosers and color choosers. File choosers let the user select a
file for opening or saving, much like any standard file dialog box. Color choosers let the user select a color
among many. Both these choosers represent standard dialog boxes, and Sun has simply saved your time by
creating them for you. Well work with both these choosers in this chapter. We can use the color chooser in
programs immediately; but to actually use the file names returned by file choosers, we will have to wait until we
start working with files in a few chapters.

Tooltips
Tooltips are the small windows that appear and display explanatory text (such as Download Now or Open New
Folder) when the mouse rests over a control. Tooltips can be very useful because GUI users have a great
resistance to reading manuals. All the user has to do is let the mouse ride over your program to see what the
various controls do. On the other hand, bear in mind that too many tooltipsconnected with many different text
items in a text control can be a burden and make your program seem difficult to use.

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 In Depth

Separators
Separators are horizontal or vertical bars that let you organize your controls into groups. Although mostly used
in menus to divide options into logical groupings, separators can also be used in JApplet and JFrame
components, like any other control, as youll see in this chapter.
Thats it for the overview of whats in this chapter. As you can see, theres a lot coming up. Its time to turn to
the Immediate Solutions section now, starting with combo boxes.

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Immediate Solutions
Creating Combo Boxes
Hmm, says the Novice Programmer, I want to let the user select a word from a list of words, but now users
say they want to enter their own words. Sounds reasonable, you say. What about using a combo box? OK,
says the NP. Can you add one to my code?
Combo boxes can be used in two ways in Swing: as normal combo boxes and as drop-down lists. Drop-down
lists let the users make a selection from a list that appears when they click a downwards pointing arrow. Normal
combo boxes, on the other hand, are combinations of text fields and drop-down lists; the users can select an item
from the drop-down list or enter their own text into the text field. Note that unlike list controls, only one item
may be selected at a time in a combo box. Combo boxes are supported by the JComboBox class in Swing, and
heres the inheritance diagram for that class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JcomboBox<E>
Youll find the fields for the JComboBox class in Table 14.1, its constructors in Table 14.2, and its methods in
Table 14.3.
Table 14.1: Fields of the JComboBox class
Field Does this
protected String actionCommand The action command
protected ComboBoxModel The data model
dataModel
protected ComboBoxEditor editor The editor responsible for the text field
protected boolean isEditable It indicates whether the combo box is editable
protected JComboBox.KeySelectionManager The key selection manager
keySelectionManager
protected boolean It indicates whether the drop-down list is enabled as a lightweight
lightWeightPopupEnabled component
protected int maximumRowCount It holds the row count
protected ListCellRenderer<? super E> The cell renderer
renderer
protected Object A reminder for the selected item
selectedItemReminder

Table 14.2: Constructors of the JComboBox class

Constructor Does this
JComboBox() It constructs a JComboBox object
JComboBox(ComboBoxModel<E> aModel) It constructs a JComboBox object that takes items from an existing
combo box model
JComboBox(E[] items) It constructs a JComboBox object that contains the elements in the
indicated array
JComboBox(Vector<E> items) It constructs a JComboBox object that contains the elements in the
indicated vector

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 14.3: Methods of the JComboBox class

Method Does this
void actionPerformed (ActionEvent e) It adds an action
void addActionListener It adds an action listener
(ActionListener l)
void addItem (E item) It adds an item to the item list
void addItemListener It adds an item listener
(ItemListener aListener)
void configureEditor It initializes the editor
(ComboBoxEditor anEditor,
Object anItem)
protected void It sets properties on this combobox to match those in specified
configurePropertiesFromAction(Action Action
a)
void contentsChanged It is fired when contents in list are changed
(ListDataEvent e)
protected PropertyChangeListener It creates and returns a PropertyChangeListener that is
createActionPropertyChangeListener(Act responsible for listening changes from the specified Action and
ion a) updating the appropriate properties
protected It gets an instance of the default key-selection manager
JComboBox.KeySelectionManager
createDefaultKeySelectionManager()
protected void fireActionEvent() It notifies all listeners that have registered interest for notification
on this event type
protected void It notifies all listeners that have registered interest for notification
fireItemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) on this event type
AccessibleContext It gets the accessible context
getAccessibleContext()
Action getAction() It returns the currently set action for this ActionEvent source or
null if no action is set
String getActionCommand() It gets the action command
ComboBoxEditor getEditor() It gets the editor used to edit the selected item in the JComboBox
text field
Object getItemAt(int index) It gets the list item at the indicated index
int getItemCount() It gets the number of items in the list
JComboBox.KeySelectionManager It gets the lists key-selection manager
getKeySelectionManager()
int getMaximumRowCount() It gets the maximum number of items the combo box can display at
once
ComboBoxModel getModel() It gets the data model
ListCellRenderer getRenderer() It gets the renderer
int getSelectedIndex() It gets the index of the currently selected item in the list
Object getSelectedItem() It gets the currently selected item
Object[] getSelectedObjects() It gets an array containing the selected item
ComboBoxUI getUI() It gets the look and feel object that renders this component
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this
component
void hidePopup() It causes the combo box to close its pop-up window

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Table 14.3: Methods of the JComboBox class

Method Does this
void insertItemAt(Object anObject, int It inserts an item into the item list at a given index
index)
protected void It installs an ancestor listener
installAncestorListener()
void intervalAdded It is invoked when items have been added to the internal data
(ListDataEvent e) model
void intervalRemoved It is invoked when values have been removed from the data model
(ListDataEvent e)
boolean isEditable() It returns True if the JComboBox object is editable
boolean isLightWeightPopupEnabled() It returns True if lightweight pop-ups are in use. It returns False if
heavyweight pop-ups are used
boolean isPopupVisible() It determines the visibility of the pop-up
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JComboBox object
void processKeyEvent (KeyEvent e) It handles key events, looking for the Tab key
void removeActionListener It removes an action listener
(ActionListener l)
void removeAllItems() It removes all items from the item list
void removeItem(Object anObject) It removes an item from the item list
void removeItemAt(int anIndex) It removes the item at anIndex. This method works only if the
JComboBox object uses the default data model
void removeItemListener It removes an item listener
(ItemListener aListener)
protected void It is called when the selected item changes
selectedItemChanged()
boolean selectWithKeyChar It selects the list item that corresponds to the indicated keyboard
(char keyChar) character
void setActionCommand It sets the action command that should be included in the event sent
(String aCommand) to action listeners
void setEditable (boolean aFlag) It sets the editable flag
void setEditor It sets the editor used to paint and edit the selected item in the
(ComboBoxEditor anEditor) JComboBox field
void setEnabled (boolean b) It enables the combo box so that items can be selected
void setKeySelectionManager It sets the object that translates a keyboard character into a list
(JComboBox.KeySelectionManager selection
aManager)
void setLightWeightPopupEnabled When displaying the pop-up, the JComboBox object chooses to use
(boolean aFlag) a lightweight pop-up if it fits
void setMaximumRowCount It sets the maximum number of rows the JComboBox object
(int count) displays
void setModel (ComboBoxModel aModel) It sets the data model that the JComboBox object uses to obtain the
list of items
void setPopupVisible (boolean v) It sets the visibility of the pop-up
void setRenderer It sets the renderer that paints the item selected from the list in the
(ListCellRenderer aRenderer) JComboBox field
void setSelectedIndex (int anIndex) It selects the item at index anIndex
void setSelectedItem It sets the selected item in the JComboBox object by specifying the
(Object anObject) object in the list

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Table 14.3: Methods of the JComboBox class

Method Does this
void setUI (ComboBoxUI ui) It sets the look and feel object that renders this component
void showPopup() It causes the combo box to display its pop-up window
void updateUI() It resets the UI property to a value from the current look and feel

The actual data in the combo box is stored in its model, which by default is an object of the
DefaultComboBoxModel class. You can find the methods of this class in Table 14.4. Note that to add and
delete items, you can use the models methods, as shown in the table. To get the model object, you can use the
getModel() method of JComboBox.
Table 14.4: Methods of the DefaultComboBoxModel class
Method Does this
void addElement(EanObject) It adds an item to the end of the model
E getElementAt(int index) It gets the value at the indicated index
int getIndexOf(Object anObject) It gets the index position of the indicated object in the list
Object getSelectedItem() It returns the selected item
int getSize() It gets the length of the list
void insertElementAt It adds an item at a specific index
(E anObject, int index)
void removeAllElements() It empties the list
void removeElement(Object anObject) It removes an item from the model
void removeElementAt(int index) It removes an item at a specific index
void setSelectedItem (Object anObject) It sets the selected item

To add items to a combo box, you can use the addItem() method, passing it an object that it will pass on to its
internal model. We put together an example here showing how this works. In this case, we just create a combo
box and add six itemsthat is, six String objectsto it. Heres the code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoJComboBox.class
WIDTH = 200
HEIGHT = 150 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJComboBox extends JApplet {
JComboBox combobox = new JComboBox();
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
combobox.addItem("Item 1");
combobox.addItem("Item 2");
combobox.addItem("Item 3");
combobox.addItem("Item 4");
combobox.addItem("Item 5");
combobox.addItem("Item 6");
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(combobox); }
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 14.1, where you can see the combo box with its drop-down list open,
displaying all six items.

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Figure 14.1: Creating a combo box

When the user selects an item from that list and releases the mouse button, that item becomes the newly selected
item in the combo box, and it also appears in the text field. Note that, by default, the text field in the combo box
is not editablewell show how to change that in a few pages.
So, how do you retrieve elements from a combo box? Because only one item in a combo box can be selected at
one time, you can get that item with the getSelectedItem() method, which returns the item itself (note that
the item is an object). You can also use getSelectedIndex() to determine the index of the currently selected
item in the combo boxs list, like this:
String item = (String) combobox.getSelectedItem();
int index = (int) combobox.getSelectedIindex();
To get an item at a specific index, use the models getElementAt() method. You can also use the models
insertElementAt() and removeElementAt() methods to edit the list. Note that you can also respond to
combo box events. Well take a look at that in the next solution.

Handling Combo Box Selection Events

The Novice Programmer is back and says, I want to change the drawing color in my program as soon as the
user selects a new color from a combo boxhow can I do that? Its easy, you say. Just make your code
respond to selection events. Aha, says the NP, heres my code, can you fix it?
You can use two types of listeners with combo boxesaction listeners and item listeners. You use action
listeners to handle editing events in the text field, and you use item listeners to handle list selections. Well take a
look at list selections in this solution and editing events in the next solution.
To handle selection events, well just add an item listener to the combo box example developed in the previous
solution:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoJComboBoxEvent.class
WIDTH = 250
HEIGHT = 150 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJComboBoxEvent extends JApplet implements ItemListener
{
JComboBox combobox = new JComboBox();
String msg = "";
public void init()
{
Container c = getContentPane();
combobox.addItem("Item 1");
combobox.addItem("Item 2");
combobox.addItem("Item 3");
combobox.addItem("Item 4");
combobox.addItem("Item 5");
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 Immediate Solutions

combobox.addItem("Item 6");
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(combobox);
combobox.addItemListener(this);
}
. . .
}
Now we add the itemStateChanged() method to this applet that the ItemListener interface needs:
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) { . . . }
This method is passed an object of the ItemEvent class, and we can determine whether the corresponding item
in the combo box list was selected by using the getStateChange() method, like this:
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {
if(e.getStateChange() == ItemEvent.SELECTED)
. . .
}
Well indicate whether an item was selected or deselected in the status bar of the applet like this:
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {
if(e.getStateChange() == ItemEvent.SELECTED)
msg += " Selected: " + (String)e.getItem();
else
msg += " Deselected: " + (String)e.getItem();
showStatus(msg);

}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 14.2:

Figure 14.2: Working with combo box selection events

As you can see, at the bottom of the applet in the figure the code reports every time the user deselects one item
and selects another.

Creating Editable Combo Boxes

Oh no! says the NP. I cant get the text field in my combo box to workI cant seem to enter any text in it.
You smile and say, Thats because you have to make it editable. Oh! says the NP. How do you do that?
To make the text field in a combo box editable, you use the setEditable() method. To handle the editing
events, you use an action listener. Heres an example where we make a combo box editable and add an action
listener to it:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoJComboBoxEdit.class
WIDTH = 200
HEIGHT = 150 >
</APPLET>*/

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public class DemoJComboBoxEdit extends JApplet implements ActionListener {

private JComboBox combobox = new JComboBox();
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
combobox.addItem("Item 1");
combobox.addItem("Item 2");
combobox.addItem("Item 3");
combobox.addItem("Item 4");
combobox.addItem("Item 5");
combobox.addItem("Item 6");
combobox.setEditable(true);
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(combobox);
combobox.getEditor().addActionListener(this); }
. . .
}
Note that we are not adding an action listener to the combo box directly but rather to the editor in the combo box,
which is an object that implements the ComboBoxEditor interface. You get this object with the getEditor()
method. The editor is responsible for the editing actions in the text field in the combo box, and youll find the
methods of ComboBoxEditor in Table 14.5:
Table 14.5: Methods of the ComboBoxEditor interface
Method Does this
void addActionListener (ActionListener l) It adds an action listener
Component getEditorComponent() It returns the editor component
Object getItem() It returns the edited item
void removeActionListener It removes an action listener
(ActionListener l)
void selectAll() It asks the editor to start editing and select everything
void setItem(Object anObject) It sets the item that should be edited

In this example, we display the items text before its edited as well as after it has been edited, and the user
presses Enter. To get the items text before its edited, we use the getSelectedItem() method; and to get the
item after it has been edited, we use the editors getItem() method, like this:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
String msg = (String)combobox.getSelectedItem()
+ " was changed to " + (String)combobox.getEditor().getItem();
showStatus(msg);
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 14.3:

Figure 14.3: Editing the text field in a combo box

When the user edits an item in the text field and presses Enter, the old and new text in the combo box appears in
the applets status bar, as you can see in the figure.

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 Immediate Solutions

Adding Images to Combo Boxes

Say, says the NP, isnt there any way to display images in a combo box? There sure is, you say. Just sit
down and well take a look at it.
You can add images to combo boxes just as you can to list controls. In fact, when you add images to combo
boxes, you actually add images to the list part of the combo box, so the process is much the same as adding
images to lists.
Heres an example in which we create a new model, MyModel, and cell renderer, MyRenderer, for a combo box.
Heres how we add them in the combo box:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoJComboBoxImage.class
WIDTH = 400
HEIGHT = 600 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJComboBoxImage extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
MyModel model = new MyModel();
MyRenderer renderer = new MyRenderer();
JComboBox combobox = new JComboBox(model);
combobox.setRenderer(renderer);
c.add(new JScrollPane(combobox)); }
}
This new model and renderer will store and display images in the combo box, and the result appears as shown
in Figure 14.4:

Figure 14.4: Adding images to combo boxes

Now all that remains is to create the new model and renderer, and well do that in the next two solutions.
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Creating a Combo Box Model

Well create a new combo box model in this solution for use with the combo box in the previous solution (the
one that displays images). This new model, which extends the DefaultComboBoxModel class, will use the
addElement() method to store data elements in the model. Each element is made up of a text string and an
image icon, like this:
class MyModel extends DefaultComboBoxModel
{
public MyModel()
{
for(int loop_index = 1; loop_index <= 10; loop_index++)
{
addElement(new Object[] {"Item " + loop_index,
new ImageIcon("zoll1.jpg")});
}
}
}
To put this model to work, see the next topic.

Creating a Combo Box Custom Renderer

In this solution, well create a renderer that displays images in a combo box (this renderer is for use in the code
in the previous two solutions). To create the cell renderer for a combo box, you can just extend the JLabel class,
which is the class of each item in a combo box, and implement the ListCellRenderer interface. To implement
that interface, we override the getListCellRenderer() method by using the JLabel classs setText()
and setIcon() methods to add text and images in the combo box:
class MyRenderer extends JLabel implements ListCellRenderer
{
public MyRenderer() { setOpaque(true);
}
public Component getListCellRendererComponent(
JList list, Object obj, int index, boolean isSelected,
boolean focus) {
MyModel model = (MyModel)list.getModel();
setText((String)((Object[])obj)[0]);
setIcon((Icon)((Object[])obj)[1]);
if(!isSelected) {
setBackground(list.getBackground());
setForeground(list.getForeground()); }
else {
setBackground(list.getSelectionBackground());
setForeground(list.getSelectionForeground()); }
return this; }
}
The result appears in Figure 14.4, where you can see the images displayed in the combo box.

Creating Progress Bars

Well, the NP says, its true that it takes three hours for my program to sort its internal data, but is that the reason
for users to complain? It surely is, you say, unless you give them some kind of visual indication of whats going
on. How about adding a progress bar to your program. Sure! says the NP, Whats a progress bar?
A progress bar control draws an updated colored bar that displays the progress of some operation. You can set
the minimum and maximum values for a progress bar when you call the JProgressBar constructor, or you can
use the setMinimum() and setMaximum() methods. You can then repeatedly update the progress bar by
calling its setValue() method to indicate the progressive status of an operation. Heres the inheritance
diagram for the JProgressBar class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container

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|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JProgressBar
You can find the fields of the JProgressBar class in Table 14.6 (note that it also inherits two constants from
SwingConstants that you use for orientation: HORIZONTAL and VERTICAL), its constructors in Table 14.7, and
its methods in Table 14.8.
Table 14.6: Fields of the JProgressBar class
Field Does this
protected ChangeEvent changeEvent The change event
protected ChangeListener The change listener
changeListener
protected BoundedRangeModel The data model that holds data values for the progress bar
model
protected int orientation The orientation in which to display the progress bar
protected boolean paintBorder It returns True if there should be a border around the progress bar
protected boolean paintString It returns True if there should be a string label in the progress bar
protected String progressString An optional string that can be displayed on the progress bar

Table 14.7: Constructors of the JProgressBar class

Constructor Does this
JProgressBar() It constructs a horizontal progress bar (the default orientation) that
displays a border but no progress string
JProgressBar(BoundedRangeModel It constructs a horizontal progress bar (the default orientation) to hold the
newModel) data using the specified model
JProgressBar(int orient) It constructs a progress bar with the indicated orientation, which can be
either JProgressBar.VERTICAL or JProgressBar.HORIZONTAL
JProgressBar It constructs a horizontal progress bar using the specified minimum and
(int min, int max) maximum values
JProgressBar(int orient, int min, It constructs a progress bar using the indicated orientation, minimum, and
int max) maximum values

Table 14.8: Methods of the JProgressBar class

Method Does this
void addChangeListener It adds a change listener
(ChangeListener l)
protected ChangeListener It creates a change listener
createChangeListener()
protected void fireStateChanged() It notifies all listeners that have registered interest for notification on this
event type
AccessibleContext It gets the accessible context associated with this JProgressBar object
getAccessibleContext()
ChangeListener[] It gets an array of all the ChangeListeners added to this progress bar
getChangeListeners() with addChangeListener().
int getMaximum() It gets the models maximum value
int getMinimum() It gets the models minimum value
BoundedRangeModel getModel() It gets the data model
int getOrientation() It returns JProgressBar.VERTICAL or JProgressBar.HORIZONTAL
double getPercentComplete() It gets the percentage/percent complete for the progress bar
String getString() It gets the current value of the progress string

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Table 14.8: Methods of the JProgressBar class

Method Does this
ProgressBarUI getUI() It gets the look and feel object that renders this component
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this component
int getValue() It gets the models current value
boolean isBorderPainted() It returns True if the progress bar has a border and false if it does not
boolean isStringPainted() It returns True if a string will be drawn in the progress bar
protected void paintBorder It paints the progress bars border (as long as the borderPainted
(Graphics g) property is True)
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of the JProgressBar object
void removeChangeListener It removes a change listener from the button
(ChangeListener l)
void setBorderPainted It sets whether the progress bar should paint its border
(boolean b)
void setIndeterminate(boolean It sets the indeterminate property of the progress bar is in determinate or
newValue) indeterminate mode.
void setMaximum(int n) It sets the models maximum value to x
void setMinimum(int n) It sets the models minimum value to x
void setModel It sets the data model used by the JProgressBar object
(BoundedRangeModelnewModel)
void setOrientation It sets the progress bars orientation to newOrientation
(int newOrientation)
void setString(String s) It sets the value of the progress string
void setStringPainted It specifies whether the progress bar will render a string
(boolean b)
void setUI (ProgressBarUI ui) It sets the look and feel object that renders this component
void setValue(int n) It sets the models current value to n
void updateUI() It is called by the UIFactory class to indicate that the look and feel has
changed

There are quite a few ways to display progress bars. For example, you can make them horizontal or vertical
when you call the classs constructor or use the setOrientation() method. You can also select the drawing
color for the actual bar, display a label inside the progress bar that indicates the current value, and more. The
basic use of all progress bars, however, is the same no matter what they look likeyou set a minimum and
maximum value for the progress bar (the default values are 0 and 100) and then update its display with the
setValue() method, as appropriate. Here are a few examples showing some of the ways you can display
progress bars:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoJProgressBar.class
WIDTH = 400
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJProgressBar extends JApplet
{
JProgressBar bar1, bar2, bar3,bar4, bar5, bar6;
public void init()
{
Container c= getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
bar1 = new JProgressBar();

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bar1.setValue(40);
c.add(bar1);
bar2 = new JProgressBar();
bar2.setMinimum(70);
bar2.setMaximum(150);
bar2.setValue(120);
bar2.setForeground(Color.green);
c.add(bar2);
bar3 = new JProgressBar();
bar3.setOrientation(JProgressBar.VERTICAL);
bar3.setForeground(Color.red);
bar3.setValue(30);
bar3.setStringPainted(true);
bar3.setBorder(BorderFactory.createRaisedBevelBorder());
c.add(bar3);
bar4 = new JProgressBar();
bar4.setOrientation(JProgressBar.VERTICAL);
bar4.setForeground(Color.blue);
bar4.setValue(70);
bar4.setStringPainted(true);
bar4.setBorderPainted(false);
c.add(bar4);
bar5 = new JProgressBar();
bar5.setOrientation(JProgressBar.VERTICAL);
bar5.setStringPainted(true);
bar5.setString("Hello from Java!");
bar5.setValue(80);
c.add(bar5);
}
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 14.5, where you can see various progress bars displayed in a
number of ways: There is a lot of possibilities here (note, in particular, that you can add a label to the progress
bar to indicate its current setting, and you can customize the progress bars border).
On the other hand, static progress bars, like the one shown in Figure 14.5, arent much used because they dont
do anything:

Figure 14.5: Displaying progress bars

To see how to update a progress bar, take a look at the next solution.

Updating Progress Bars

The NP says, Gah! I put progress bars into my program, but theyre not doing anythingwhats wrong?
Well, you say, thats because you have to call the setValue() method yourself to update them. Oh, says
the NP.

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After creating and displaying a progress bar, its up to you to update it with the setValue() method. Youll
usually do that by dividing your time-consuming task into parts, and youll update the progress bar as each part
completes:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoJProgressBarUpdate.class
WIDTH = 400
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJProgressBarUpdate extends JApplet {
JProgressBar bar = new JProgressBar();
JButton button = new JButton("Increment the progress bar");
public void init() {
Container c= getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(bar);
c.add(button);
bar.setStringPainted(true);
button.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
bar.setValue(bar.getValue() + 15); }});
}
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 14.6:

Figure 14.6: Updating a progress bar

Note that you can update the progress bar just by clicking the button. Usually, of course, your code will update
the progress bar itself because progress bars are used to indicate the progress of time-consuming operations to
the user.

Handling Progress Bar Events

Progress bar events occur every time the progress bars value changes, and you can work with change listeners
to catch those events. It catches the events that occur as they update the value of the progress bar. In this case, we
report the new value of the progress bar each time it changes as well as its minimum and maximum values,
like this:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.event.*;

/* <APPLET

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CODE = DemoJProgressBarEvent.class
WIDTH = 400
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJProgressBarEvent extends JApplet
{
JProgressBar bar = new JProgressBar();
JButton button = new JButton("Increment the progress bar");
public void init()
{
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(button);
bar.setForeground(Color.pink);
c.add(bar);
button.addActionListener(new ActionListener()
{
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e)
{
bar.setValue(bar.getValue() + 15); }});
bar.addChangeListener(new ChangeListener()
{
public void stateChanged(ChangeEvent e)
{
showStatus("Minimum: " + bar.getMinimum()
+ " Maximum: " + bar.getMaximum() +
" Value: " + bar.getValue()); }} );
}
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 14.7:

Figure 14.7: Handling progress bar events

As you can see in the figure, each time the user updates the progress bar, its new value appears in the applets
status bar.
Sometimes, you dont know how long a task is or it may happen that the task may get stuck in the same state for
quite some time. To handle such situations, Java allows you to put the progress bar in the indeterminate mode.
In this mode, an animating progress bar indicates whether the task is functional or not. You can switch to the
default determinate mode when you feel that the progress bar can display more meaningful information.

Creating Tooltips
Say, says the Product Support Specialist, no one seems to read the manuals, ever. Isnt there some way to
make our programs self-explanatory? Well, you say, we could reduce everything to a series of cartoons.
Hmm, says the PSS thoughtfully. Just kidding, you say quickly. Ill add tooltips to the controls in the
program.

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Tooltips are small windows that appear when the user lets the mouse rest on a component. They display some
text that explains the purpose of the control. For example, a Cut buttons tooltip might read Cut selected text.
Tooltips are supported with the Swing JToolTip class, and heres that classs inheritance diagram:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JToolTip
Youll find the constructor of the JToolTip class in Table 14.9 and its methods in Table 14.10:
Table 14.9: The constructor of the JToolTip class
Constructor Does this
JToolTip() It constructs a tooltip

Table 14.10: Methods of the JToolTip class

Method Does this
AccessibleContext It gets the accessible context
getAccessibleContext()
JComponent getComponent() It gets the component the tooltip applies to
String getTipText() It gets the text thats shown in the tooltip
ToolTipUI getUI() It gets the look and feel object that renders this component
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this component
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JToolTip object
void setComponent(JComponent c) It sets the component that the tooltip describes
void setTipText(String tipText) It sets the text shown when the tooltip appears
void updateUI() It is called by the UIFactory class when the look and feel has changed

In fact, many components already have a method, setToolTipText(), that you can use to add a tooltip.
Heres an example in which we add a tooltip to a button:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DemoToolTip.class
WIDTH=300
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoToolTip extends JApplet {
JButton button = new JButton("Click Here");
JTextField text = new JTextField(15);
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
button.setToolTipText("This is a button.");
text.setToolTipText("This is a text field.");
c.add(button);
c.add(text);
button.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
text.setText("Kogent Solutions"); }});
}
}
Its as easy as adding a tooltip to most components. The result appears as shown in Figure 14.8, where you can
see the tooltip with its explanatory text as This is a button:

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Figure 14.8: Using tooltips

For the components with multiple parts, such as tabbed panes, you can reflect the part of component under the
cursor using varied tooltip text. For example, you can give information about what will happen when you click
the tabbed pane in a tooltip using the setToolTipText() method or by passing the tooltip text as an
argument in the addTab() method. For components with no API to set the tooltip text, you can set the tooltip
text using a custom renderer if the component supports renderers.

Creating Separators
The NP says, The Big Boss told me that there are too many text fields in my program and I should divide them
into groups. You can do that in several easy ways, you say, such as adding text fields to panels and giving
the panels various background colors. You can even use separators. By the way, how many text fields are there
in your program? About 2,413, the NP says. Uh-oh, you say.
Separators are horizontal or vertical lines, and they usually appear in menus to separate options into logical
groups, but you can also use them to separate components in a layout. Theyre supported by the JSeparator
class in Swing, and heres that classs inheritance diagram:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JSeparator
You can find the constructors of the JSeparator class in Table 14.11 and its methods in Table 14.12:
Table 14.11: Constructors of the JSeparator class
Constructor Does this
JSeparator() It creates a new horizontal separator
JSeparator(int orientation) It creates a new separator with the indicated horizontal or vertical
orientation

Table 14.12: Methods of the JSeparator class

Method Does this
AccessibleContext It gets the accessible context
getAccessibleContext()
int getOrientation() It gets the orientation of this separator
SeparatorUI getUI() It gets the look and feel object that renders this component
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this component
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JSeparator object
void setOrientation(int It sets the orientation of the separator
orientation)
void setUI(SeparatorUI ui) It sets the look and feel object that renders this component
void updateUI() It is called by the UIFactory class when the look and feel has changed

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Lets look at an example. Here, we put a separator between two text fields in a flow layout. To make a separator
visible, you have to do more than just add it to a layout you also have to give it a preferred size by using its
setPreferredSize() method. The usual way to do that is to use the separators getPreferredSize()
method to get the current width of the separator and then pass that and the new length you want to the
setPreferredSize() method. The setPreferredSize() and getPreferredSize() methods work with
objects of the AWT Dimension class, which has two fields: width and height. Heres how we create the new
separator and get its dimensions:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = DemoJSeparator.class
WIDTH = 300
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJSeparator extends JApplet {
JSeparator separator = new JSeparator(JSeparator.VERTICAL);
Dimension dim = separator.getPreferredSize();
. . .
Now we can put the separator between two text fields, like this, making it 100 pixels high:
public class DemoJSeparator extends JApplet {
JSeparator separator = new JSeparator(JSeparator.VERTICAL);
Dimension dim = separator.getPreferredSize();
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(new JTextField("Kogent Solutions"));
c.add(separator);
c.add(new JTextField("Kogent Solutions"));
separator.setPreferredSize(new Dimension(dim.width, 100));}
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 14.9:

Figure 14.9: Creating a separator

As you can see in the figure, the separator appears between the two text fields.
Theres one problem here, thoughwhat if the user resizes the applet? In that case, you might want to resize the
separator to match. You can do that by handling resizing eventssee the next solution for the details.

Resizing Separators Automatically

To resize a separator, you can catch component resizing events by using the ComponentListener interface,
which handles the resizing events for components, including applets and windows. The methods of this
interface appear in Table 14.13.

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Table 14.13: Methods of the ComponentListener interface

Method Does this
void componentHidden (ComponentEvent e) It is called when the component is made invisible
void componentMoved (ComponentEvent e) It is called when the components position changes
void componentResized (ComponentEvent e) It is called when the components size changes
void componentShown (ComponentEvent e) It is called when the component is made visible

For example, when you resize an applet, you can resize a separator to the new size you want. Heres an example in
which we create a separator between two text fields that goes from the top of an applet windows client area to the
bottom and maintains that extent even when the applet is resized. Heres what the code looks likenote the
resizing code in the ComponentShown (to display the separator the first time) and ComponentResized methods:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = DemoJSeparatorEvent.class
WIDTH = 300
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJSeparatorEvent extends JApplet implements ComponentListener {
JSeparator separator = new JSeparator(JSeparator.VERTICAL);
Dimension dim = separator.getPreferredSize();
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(new JTextField("Kogent Solutions"));
c.add(separator);
c.add(new JTextField("Kogent Solutions"));
addComponentListener(this); }
public void componentShown(ComponentEvent e) {
separator.setPreferredSize(new Dimension(dim.width,getSize().height));
separator.revalidate(); }
public void componentResized(ComponentEvent e) {
separator.setPreferredSize(new Dimension(dim.width,getSize().height));
separator.revalidate(); }
public void componentMoved(ComponentEvent e) { }
public void componentHidden(ComponentEvent e) { }
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 14.10:

Figure 14.10: Creating a separator that resizes itself

As you can see in the figure, the separator extends from the top of the client area in the applet to the bottom
and itll resize itself as the applet does.

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Creating Color Choosers

Now Ive got a real problem, the NP says. I want to let the users select a drawing color for my new program,
SuperDuperArtisticPro, but I cant ask them to just type in new color values. Why not use a color chooser? you
ask. Good idea! the NP says. You write the code and Ill watch.
You can let the user select a color with the Swing JColorChooser class, which is a prebuilt dialog box that
presents the user with several ways of choosing colors. Heres the inheritance diagram for JColorChooser:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.Jcomponent
|____javax.swing.JColorChooser
You can find the fields of the JColorChooser class in Table 14.14, its constructors in Table 14.15, and its
methods in Table 14.16.
Table 14.14: Fields of the JColorChooser class
Field Does this
protected AccessibleContext The accessible context
accessibleContext
static String The chooser panel array property name
CHOOSER_PANELS_PROPERTY
static String The preview panel property name
PREVIEW_PANEL_PROPERTY
static String The selection model property name
SELECTION_MODEL_PROPERTY

Table 14.15: Constructors of the JColorChooser class

Constructor Does this
JColorChooser() It constructs a color chooser pane
JColorChooser(Color initialColor) It constructs a color chooser pane with the indicated initial color
JColorChooser(ColorSelectionModel It constructs a color chooser pane with the indicated color-selection model
model)

Table 14.16: Methods of the JColorChooser class

Method Does this
void addChooserPanel It adds a color chooser panel
(AbstractColorChooserPanel panel)
static JDialog createDialog It constructs and returns a new dialog box with the indicated color
(Component c, String title, chooser and with OK, Cancel, and Reset buttons
boolean modal, JColorChooser
chooserPane, ActionListener
okListener,
ActionListener cancelListener)
AccessibleContext It gets the accessible context
getAccessibleContext()
AbstractColorChooserPanel[] It gets the indicated color panels
getChooserPanels()
Color getColor() It gets the current color value from the color chooser
JComponent getPreviewPanel() It gets the preview panel that shows a chosen color
ColorSelectionModel It gets the data model that handles color selections
getSelectionModel()
ColorChooserUI getUI() It gets the look and feel object that renders this component

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Table 14.16: Methods of the JColorChooser class

Method Does this
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this component
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JColorChooser object
AbstractColorChooserPanel It removes the color panel indicated
removeChooserPanel
(AbstractColorChooserPanel panel)
void setChooserPanels It specifies the color panels used to choose a color value
(AbstractColorChooserPanel
[ ] panels)
void setColor(Color color) It sets the current color of the color chooser to the indicated color
void setColor(int c) It sets the current color of the color chooser to the indicated color
void setColor(int r, int g, int b) It sets the current color of the color chooser to the indicated RGB color
void setDragEnabled It sets the drag enabled property
(boolean b)
void setPreviewPanel It sets the current preview panel
(JComponent preview)
void setSelectionModel It sets the model containing the selected color
(ColorSelectionModel newModel)
void setUI It sets the look and feel object that renders this component
(ColorChooserUI ui)
static Color showDialog(Component It shows a modal color chooser dialog box
component, String title, Color
initialColor)
void updateUI() It is called by the UIManager class when the look and feel has changed

Using a color chooser is easy; all you have to do is to show it with its showDialog() method, passing that
method a parent object, a caption, and a default color. This method returns the color selected by the user as a
Color object (or the default color if the user didnt select a color).
Lets look at an example in which we place a button in a panel and let the user display a color chooser when the
button is clicked. After the user selects a color, the code will set the background of the panel to that color. Heres
what the code looks like:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = DemoJColorChooser.class
WIDTH = 200
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJColorChooser extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JPanel panel = new JPanel();
JButton button;
public void init() {
button = new JButton("Change background color");
button.addActionListener(this);
panel.add(button);
getContentPane().add(panel); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
Color color = JColorChooser.showDialog(DemoJColorChooser.this,
"Select the color of your choice", Color.white);

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panel.setBackground(color); }
}
As you can see, its easy to use a color chooser; the color chooser appears when the user clicks the Change
background color button, as shown in Figure 14.11 (a).
When the user selects a color in the color chooser, the new color appears in the applets panel, as shown in
Figure 14.11 (b).

Figure 14.11: (a) Creating a color chooser

Figure 14.11(b): Changing the color of a panel to the color selected

Creating File Choosers

Hmm, says the NP, I need to get the name of a file from the useris there any quick way of doing that?
Sure, you say. A text file. Well, the NP says, I want to let the user browse for the correct file, if needed.
Oh, you say, then you want a file chooser.
File choosers are dialog boxes that let users specify the name and path of a file, and browse their disk storage if
they need to. File choosers are supported by the JFileChooser class. Heres the inheritance diagram for that
class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JFileChooser

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Youll find the fields of the JFileChooser class in Table 14.17, its constructors in Table 14.18, and its methods
in Table 14.19:
Table 14.17: Fields of the JFileChooser class
Field Does this
static String It identifies whether the AcceptAllFileFilter is used
ACCEPT_ALL_FILE_FILTER_USED_CHANGED_PROPERTY or not.
protected AccessibleContext The accessible context
accessibleContext
static String It indicates that a different accessory component is in use
ACCESSORY_CHANGED_PROPERTY
static String It indicates a change in the mnemonic for the Yes/OK
APPROVE_BUTTON_MNEMONIC_CHANGED_PROPERTY button
static String It indicates a change in the text on the Yes/OK button
APPROVE_BUTTON_TEXT_CHANGED_PROPERTY
static String It indicates a change in the tooltip text for the Yes/OK
APPROVE_BUTTON_TOOL_TIP_TEXT_CHANGED_PROPERTY button
static int APPROVE_OPTION The return value if the Yes/OK button is chosen
static String This is a instruction to approve the current selection
APPROVE_SELECTION
static int CANCEL_OPTION The return value if the Cancel button is chosen
static String CANCEL_SELECTION This is a instruction to cancel the current selection
static String It indicates a change in the list of predefined file filters the
CHOOSABLE_FILE_FILTER_CHANGED_PROPERTY user can choose from
static String It is an instruction to display the control buttons.
CONTROL_BUTTONS_ARE_SHOWN_CHANGED_PROPERTY
static int CUSTOM_DIALOG It is a type value indicating that the file chooser supports a
developer-specified file operation
static String DIALOG_TITLE_CHANGED_PROPERTY It indicates a change in the dialog boxs title
static String DIALOG_TYPE_CHANGED_PROPERTY It indicates a change in the type of files displayed (files
only, directories only, or both files and directories)
static int DIRECTORIES_ONLY This is a instruction to display only directories
static String DIRECTORY_CHANGED_PROPERTY It indicates a directory change
static int ERROR_OPTION The return value if an error occurred
static String FILE_FILTER_CHANGED_PROPERTY It indicates the user changed the kind of files to display
static String FILE_HIDING_CHANGED_PROPERTY It indicates a change in the display-hidden-files property
static String It indicates a change in the kind of selection (single,
FILE_SELECTION_MODE_CHANGED_PROPERTY multiple, and so on)
static String It indicates that a different object is being used to find
FILE_SYSTEM_VIEW_CHANGED_PROPERTY available drives on the system
static String It indicates that a different object is being used to retrieve
FILE_VIEW_CHANGED_PROPERTY file information
static int FILES_AND_DIRECTORIES This is an instruction to display both files and directories
static int FILES_ONLY This is an instruction to display only files
static String It enables multiple-file selections
MULTI_SELECTION_ENABLED_CHANGED_PROPERTY
static int OPEN_DIALOG It indicates that the file chooser supports an Open file
operation

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Table 14.17: Fields of the JFileChooser class

Field Does this
static int SAVE_DIALOG It indicates that the file chooser supports a Save file
operation
static String SELECTED_FILE_CHANGED_PROPERTY It indicates a change in the users single-file selection
static String It indicates a change in the users multiple-file selection
SELECTED_FILES_CHANGED_PROPERTY

Table 14.18: Constructors of the JFileChooser class

Constructor Does this
JFileChooser() It constructs a JFileChooser object
JFileChooser(File currentDirectory) It constructs a JFileChooser object using the given file
as the path
JFileChooser(File currentDirectory, It constructs a JFileChooser object using the given
FileSystemView fsv) current directory and file system view
JFileChooser(FileSystemView fsv) It constructs a JFileChooser object using the given file
system view
JFileChooser(String currentDirectoryPath) It constructs a JFileChooser object using the given path
JFileChooser(String currentDirectoryPath, It constructs a JFileChooser object using the given
FileSystemView fsv) current directory path and file system view

Table 14.19: Methods of the JFileChooser class

Method Does this
Boolean accept(File f) It returns True if the file should be displayed
void addActionListener (ActionListener l) It adds an action listener
void addChoosableFileFilter It adds a filter to the list of choosable file filters
(FileFilter filter)
void approveSelection() It is called by the UI when the user clicks the Save or
Open button
void cancelSelection() It is called by the UI when the user clicks the Cancel
button
void changeToParentDirectory() It changes the directory to be set to the parent of the
current directory
void ensureFileIsVisible (File f) It makes sure that the indicated file is visible
protected void fireActionPerformed(String It notifies all listeners that have registered interest for
command) notification on this event type
FileFilter getAcceptAllFileFilter() It gets the AcceptAll file filter
AccessibleContext getAccessibleContext() It gets the accessible context associated with this
JFileChooser object
JComponent getAccessory() It gets the accessory component
int getApproveButtonMnemonic() It gets the approve buttons mnemonic
String getApproveButtonText() It gets the text used in the approve button in the
FileChooserUI
String getApproveButtonToolTipText() It gets the tooltip text used in the approve button
FileFilter[ ] getChoosableFileFilters() It gets the list of user choosable file filters
File getCurrentDirectory() It gets the current directory
String getDescription (File f) It gets the file description

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 14.19: Methods of the JFileChooser class

Method Does this
String getDialogTitle() It gets the string that goes in the file choosers title bar
int getDialogType() It gets the type of this dialog box
FileFilter getFileFilter() It gets the currently selected file filter
int getFileSelectionMode() It gets the current file-selection mode
FileSystemView getFileSystemView() It gets the file system view
FileView getFileView() It gets the current file view
Icon getIcon(File f) It gets the icon for this file or type of file, depending on
the system
String getName(File f) It gets the file name
File getSelectedFile() It gets the selected file
File[ ] getSelectedFiles() It gets a list of selected files if the file chooser is set to
allow multiple selections
String getTypeDescription (File f) It gets the file type
FileChooserUI getUI() It gets the UI object that implements the look and feel for
this component
String getUIClassID() It gets a string that specifies the name of the look and feel
class that renders this component
boolean isDirectorySelectionEnabled() It is a convenience method that determines whether
directories are selectable
Boolean isFileHidingEnabled() It returns True if hidden files are not shown in the file
chooser
boolean isFileSelectionEnabled() It is a convenience method that determines whether files
are selectable based on the current file-selection mode
boolean isMultiSelectionEnabled() It returns True if multiple files can be selected
boolean isTraversable(File f) It returns True if the file (directory) can be visited
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JFileChooser
object
void removeActionListener It removes an action listener from the button
(ActionListener l)
boolean removeChoosableFileFilter It removes a filter from the list of choosable file filters
(FileFilter f)
void rescanCurrentDirectory() It rescans the file list from the current directory
void resetChoosableFileFilters() It resets the choosable file filter list to its starting state
void setAccessory (JComponent newAccessory) It sets the accessory component
void setApproveButtonMnemonic It sets the approve buttons mnemonic using a character
(char mnemonic)
void setApproveButtonMnemonic It sets the approve buttons mnemonic using a numeric
(int mnemonic) keycode
void setApproveButtonText It sets the text used in the approve button
(String approveButtonText)
void setApproveButtonToolTipText It sets the tooltip text used in the approve button
(String toolTipText)
void setCurrentDirectory(File dir) It sets the current directory
void setDialogTitle It sets the string that goes in the file chooser windows
(String dialogTitle) title bar

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Table 14.19: Methods of the JFileChooser class

Method Does this
void setDialogType(int dialogType) It sets the type of this dialog box
void setFileFilter(FileFilter filter) It sets the current file filter
void setFileHidingEnabled (boolean b) It sets file hiding on or off
void setFileSelectionMode(int mode) It sets the file chooser to allow the user to just select files,
just select directories, or select both files and directories
void setFileSystemView It sets the file system view that the JFileChooser object
(FileSystemView fsv) uses
void setFileView(FileView fileView) It sets the file view used to retrieve UI information, such
as the icon that represents a file or the type description of
a file
void setMultiSelectionEnabled (boolean b) It sets the file chooser to allow multiple file selections
void setSelectedFile(File file) It sets the selected file
void setSelectedFiles It sets the list of selected files if the file chooser is set to
(File[ ] selectedFiles) allow multiple selections
protected void setup (FileSystemView view) It performs constructor initialization and setup
int showDialog (Component parent, String It displays a custom file chooser dialog box with a custom
approveButtonText) approve button
int showOpenDialog (Component parent) It displays an Open File file chooser dialog box
int showSaveDialog (Component parent) It displays a Save File file chooser dialog box
void updateUI() It is called by the UIFactory class when the look and feel
has changed

You can use the JFileChooser classs showOpenDialog() method to show a file chooser for finding files to
open, and you can use the showSaveDialog() method to show a file chooser for specifying the file name and
path to use to save a file. These methods return the following values:
APPROVE_OPTIONIt is returned if the user clicks an approve button, such as Save or Open.
CANCEL_OPTIONIt is returned if the user clicks Cancel.
ERROR_OPTIONIt is returned if there was an error.
You can get the selected file as a File object with the file choosers getSelectedFile() method (youll see
the File class later in this book), and you can use the File classs getPath(), getName(), and other methods
to return information about the file.
Lets look at an example that puts this to work. In this case, we display an Open file chooser when the user
clicks a button (Figure 14.12). We let the user select a file, and then we display that files name and path in a text
field. Because you usually dont open files from applets (for security reasons), well make this example an
application. Heres the code (note that we check the return value from showOpenDialog() to see whether the
user clicked the Open button before displaying the file name in the text field):
import java.awt.*;
import java.io.File;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.filechooser.*;
public class DemoJFileChooser extends JFrame implements ActionListener {
JFileChooser chooser = new JFileChooser();
JButton button = new JButton("Display file chooser");
JTextField text = new JTextField(30);
public DemoJFileChooser() {
super();
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());

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 Immediate Solutions

c.add(button);
c.add(text);
button.addActionListener(this); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
int result = chooser.showOpenDialog(null);
File file = chooser.getSelectedFile();
if(result == JFileChooser.APPROVE_OPTION) {
text.setText("You selected: " + file.getPath()); }
else if(result == JFileChooser.CANCEL_OPTION) {
text.setText("You clicked Cancel"); }
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
JFrame f = new DemoJFileChooser();
f.setBounds(200, 200, 400, 200);
f.setVisible(true);
f.setDefaultCloseOperation(WindowConstants.DISPOSE_ON_CLOSE);
f.addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {
System.exit(0); }} );
}
}
The file chooser that this application displays appears in Figure 14.13. The user can browse and select a file
(Figure 14.13). When he/she does, either by highlighting a file and clicking the Open button in the file chooser or
by simply double-clicking the file in the file chooser, the file chooser closes, and the name and path of the
selected file appear in the text field in the application, as you can see in Figure 14.14:

Figure 14.12: Display file chooser

Figure 14.13: Displaying a file chooser

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Figure 14.14: Determining the chosen file

Thats all there is to it.

Creating File Chooser Filters

There are plenty of ways to customize file choosers, and one of them is to create file filters. You use filters to set
the type of filesbased on their extensionsthat a file chooser will show. File filters are derived from the
FileFilter class. To add a file filter to a file chooser, you use the addChoosableFileFilter() method of
JFileChooser.
Lets look at an example in which we add two new file filters to a file chooserone filter for .gif files and one
for .java files. These two filters will be supported by the MyFilter1 and MyFilter2 classes, so we can use
the addChoosableFileFilter() method to add them to a file chooser, like this:
import java.io.*;
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoJFileChooserFilter.class
WIDTH = 200
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoJFileChooserFilter extends JFrame implements ActionListener {
JFileChooser filechooser = new JFileChooser();
JButton button = new JButton("Display file chooser");
JTextField text = new JTextField(20);
public DemoJFileChooserFilter() {
super();
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(button);
c.add(text);
button.addActionListener(this);
filechooser.addChoosableFileFilter(new MyFilter1());
filechooser.addChoosableFileFilter(new MyFilter2()); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
int result = filechooser.showOpenDialog(null);
if(result == JFileChooser.APPROVE_OPTION) {
text.setText("You selected: " +
filechooser.getSelectedFile().getPath()); }
}
public static void main(String a[]) {
JFrame f = new DemoJFileChooserFilter();
f.setBounds(200, 200, 300, 300);
f.setVisible(true);
f.setDefaultCloseOperation(WindowConstants.DISPOSE_ON_CLOSE);
f.addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {

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 Immediate Solutions

public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {

System.exit(0); }});
}
}
Now we have to create the MyFilter1 and MyFilter2 classes. These classes are derived from the abstract
FileFilter class, and youll find the methods of this class in Table 14.20:
Table 14.20: Methods of the FileFilter class
Method Does this
abstract boolean accept(File f) It returns True if the file is accepted by this filter
abstract String getDescription() It returns the description of this filter

Its not difficult to implement the methods of the FileFilter class; the accept() method is passed a File
object (youll see the File class later in this book). It returns True if the file should be displayed (that is, if its
extension is one that the filter accepts or, usually, if the file corresponds to a directory) and False otherwise. The
getDescription() method returns a string that will be displayed in the file chooser to indicate to the user
what types of files the filter is for.
The MyFilter1 class will accept .gif files (described as Gif Files (*.gif) in this filter) and directories, and
the MyFilter2 class will filter .java files (described as Java Files (*.java) in this filter) and directories.
Heres what these classes look like in code:
import java.io.File;
class MyFilter1 extends javax.swing.filechooser.FileFilter {
public boolean accept(File file) {
String extension = "";
if(file.getPath().lastIndexOf('.') > 0)
extension = file.getPath().substring(
file.getPath().lastIndexOf('.') + 1).toLowerCase();
if(extension != "") { return extension.equals("gif"); }
else { return file.isDirectory(); }
}
public String getDescription() { return "Gif Files (*.gif)"; }
}
class MyFilter2 extends javax.swing.filechooser.FileFilter {
public boolean accept(File file) {
String extension = "";

if(file.getPath().lastIndexOf('.') > 0)
extension = file.getPath().substring(
file.getPath().lastIndexOf('.') + 1).toLowerCase();
if(extension != "") { return extension.equals("java"); }
else { return file.isDirectory(); }
}

public String getDescription() { return "Java Files (*.java)"; }

}
And thats it. The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 14.15, where you can see the .java filter in
action:

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Figure 14.15: Using file filters in a file chooser

Using filters like this, you can make it easy for the user to search for files of a particular type.

Summary
In this chapter, you have learned about the Swings-based controls, combo boxes, progress bars, separators and
classes for tooltips. In the next chapter, youll learn about the panes and layouts part of Swing.

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SwingLayered Panes,
Tabbed Panes, Split Panes,
and Layouts
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Understanding Swing Components and Z-order 523
Making Swing Components Transparent 524
Using Layered Panes 525
Creating Tabbed Panes 527
Specifying Tab Placement in the Tabbed Panes 532
Using Split Panes 535
Making Split Panes One-Touch Expandable 538
Setting Split Pane Orientation 539
Setting Split Pane Divider Size 540
Using the Box Layout Manager 541
Using the Box Class 543
Using the Overlay Layout Manager 547
Chapter 15: SwingLayered Panes, Tabbed Panes, Split Panes, and Layouts

In Depth
In this chapter, well take a look at some of the Swing lightweight containers: layered panes, tabbed panes, and
split panes. Swing provides a number of lightweight containers, including JPanel (which you have already
seen), to let programmers manage components in simple ways. Layered panes let you specify the layer of the
components you add, making it easy to set the Z-order (that is, the stacking order in the Z axis, which points out
of the screen) of components. Tabbed panes let you order the components much like adding them to a collection
of tabbed file folders, and you can click the tabs to open each folder. Finally, split panes let you display two
components side by side and adjust how much of each one is visiblea technique commonly used to support
two views in the same model.
Well also take a look at layouts in this chapter. You first saw the AWT layouts in Chapter 7. Swing supports all
those layouts and two more: box layouts and overlay layouts. Well consider these two new layouts in this
chapter. Box layouts let you create rows or columns of components. Overlay layouts, as the name implies, let
you draw overlapping components. Swing also defines the Box class, which lets you arrange components by
using visual constructs, such as struts, rigid areas, and glue. Youll see all these in this chapter.

Layered Panes
Layered panes, themselves lightweight containers, are important panes of heavyweight Swing containers, such
as JApplet and JFrame. They are divided into a number of vertical layers you can work with, and that Swing
works with as well. This is one of the areas in which the implementation of Swing on top of AWT is not
transparent to the programmer, because you can see the layers that Swing uses to display dialog boxes, drag
components, pop-up menus, and so on. One of the most popular aspects of the layered pane is that its home to
the content pane.

Tabbed Panes
Dialog boxes that let users choose from many options have come to be organized by tabs as programs have
become more complex and offer more options. Setup dialog boxes are customarily implemented this way,
organizing program settings into tabs, such as Display, User Information, General, Files, and so on. Swing
supports tabbed panes to let you create dialog boxes and programs of this kind. As you might expect, all the
Swing capabilities are available here, such as displaying images in the tabs.

Split Panes
Another popular Graphical User Interface (GUI) programming technique today is to let the user split a view into
a models data, thus creating a new view into that data. Word processors often let users split their presentations
into two panes, so they can move around in two areas of a document independently. Swing supports split panes
to let programs present two components side by side. These components can represent views in the same or
separate model data.

Layouts
You first saw the AWT layouts in Chapter 7, and Swing supports those layouts, as well as two more: box layouts
and overlay layouts. Of the two, box layouts are the most popular because they let you arrange components into
vertical and horizontal rows and columns, called boxes. In fact, Swing also supports the Box class, which goes a
step further by letting you specify the spacing and arrangement of components, as youll see in the chapter. The
overlay layout manager lets you overlap components in a well-defined way, and although not as common as
other layout managers, it has its uses.
Thats it for the overview of whats in this chapter. As you can see, theres a lot coming up. Its time to turn to
the Immediate Solutions section, starting with a look at stacking Swing components.

522
 Immediate Solutions

Immediate Solutions
Understanding Swing Components and Z-order
Javas gone all wacky again, says the Novice Programmer. I drew some components in the same area of my
program by mistake, and they actually appeared on top of each other! You smile and say, Thats perfectly
possible. In fact, in Swing, its not uncommon to overlap or overlay components. The NP says, Weird!
When you add lightweight components to a content pane, those components are simply drawn on that pane, so
theres nothing to stop you from making those components overlap (that is, as long as you dont use a layout
managerexcept the overlay layout manager, which would stop overlaying from taking place). When
components overlap, their z-order becomes important; z-order represents the relative placement of components
along the z-axis, which goes out of the screen.
The lightweight components you add first will appear on top of those you add later. You can also add
heavyweight AWT components to your program; and those components, which have their own operating
system window, usually appear on top of Swing components.
Heres an example in which we remove the default border layout manager from a content pane and add a series
of overlapping labels, showing that the first added label will appear on top of the rest. Heres what this looks
like in code (note that we add a border to the labels to make the overlapping visible):
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoZOrder.class
WIDTH = 250
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoZOrder extends JApplet {
JLabel labels[];
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(null);
labels = new JLabel[5];
labels[0] = new JLabel("First");
labels[0].setOpaque(true);
labels[0].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
c.add(labels[0]);
labels[1] = new JLabel("Second");
labels[1].setOpaque(true);
labels[1].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
c.add(labels[1]);
labels[2] = new JLabel("Third");
labels[2].setOpaque(true);
labels[2].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
c.add(labels[2]);
labels[3] = new JLabel("Fourth");
labels[3].setOpaque(true);
labels[3].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
c.add(labels[3]);
labels[4] = new JLabel("Fifth");
labels[4].setOpaque(true);
labels[4].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
c.add(labels[4]);
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 5; loop_index++) {
labels[loop_index].setBounds(30 * loop_index, 30
* loop_index, 110, 50); }
}
}

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The result appears as shown in Figure 15.1:

Figure 15.1: Overlapping controls

As you can see in the figure, the first label added appears on top of the others. The next added label appears on
top of the one added after it and so on, thus defining a different Z-order for each label.
You might also notice that we used the setOpaque() method for each label to make sure that the labels
underneath it dont show throughtake a look at the next solution for more details.

Making Swing Components Transparent

I just saw the strangest program; the NP says, you could actually see through controls to the ones
underneath! Thats not so strange, you say. In fact, many Swing programs do that intentionally. Tell me
more! says the NP.
Because lightweight controls are just drawn in their containers, you can make them transparent. When you make
a control transparent, it doesnt draw its background when drawn or redrawn, so the controls underneath it can
show through. This is a widely used technique that enables you to make it appear as though you are drawing
components that are irregular and nonrectangular.
In the previous solution, we wrote an example in which we overlapped opaque Swing labels, but we can also
explicitly make those labels transparent. You can set the transparency of Swing components with the
setOpaque() method. Heres how we make the labels in the previous solutions example transparent (in fact,
the calls to setOpaque() are actually unnecessary here because the default setting for labels is to make them
transparent):
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoTransparent.class
WIDTH = 250
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoTransparent extends JApplet {
JLabel labels[];
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(null);
labels = new JLabel[5];
labels[0] = new JLabel("First");
labels[0].setOpaque(false);
labels[0].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
c.add(labels[0]);
labels[1] = new JLabel("Second");
labels[1].setOpaque(false);
labels[1].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
c.add(labels[1]);
labels[2] = new JLabel("Third");
labels[2].setOpaque(false);

524
 Immediate Solutions

labels[2].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
c.add(labels[2]);
labels[3] = new JLabel("Fourth");
labels[3].setOpaque(false);
labels[3].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
c.add(labels[3]);
labels[4] = new JLabel("Fifth");
labels[4].setOpaque(false);
labels[4].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
c.add(labels[4]);
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 5; loop_index++) {
labels[loop_index].setBounds(30 * loop_index, 30
* loop_index, 110, 50); }
}
}
The result appears in Figure 15.2, where you can see the overlapping transparent labels:

Figure 15.2: Making controls transparent

Note that theres an explicit way of handling overlapping controls without setting up your own layout manager.
This involves a layered pane, which you can use in most programs. See the next solution for the details.

Using Layered Panes

Im having some trouble, the NP says. I want to let the user drag components around in a Swing container;
but when the components are dragged, they go over some other components and under others. You smile and
say, Thats because you have to keep in mind that components are layered in Swing. You should put what you
want to drag in the drag layer. Hows that? the NP asks.

You have already learned about the layered pane in Chapter 11.

You can use the JLayeredPane methodsmoveToFront(), moveToBack(), and setPosition()to

reposition a component within its layer. The setLayer() method can also be used to change the components
current layer. We first covered JLayeredPane in Chapter 11 where in you could find the fields of the
JLayeredPane class in Table 11.10, its constructors in Table 11.11, and its methods in Table 11.12.
Heres an example showing how to add components to a layered pane. In this case, we replace the content pane
in an applet with a new-layered pane, and we add a label to each standard layer. To set the current layer in the
layered pane, we use the setLayer() method; and to specify what layer to use, we use the constants defined in
the JLayeredPane class, such as JLayeredPane.PALETTE_LAYER. One Swing curiosity is that constants,
such as JLayeredPane.PALETTE_LAYER are actually Integer objects, not integers. However, methods, such
as setLayer(), need integers, so you must use the Integer classs intValue() method to convert such
constants into values you can use, like this:
JLayeredPane.PALETTE_LAYER.intValue()

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Heres how we add labels to all the layers outlined in the preceding list:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoLayeredPane.class
WIDTH = 250
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoLayeredPane extends JApplet {
JLayeredPane layeredpane = new JLayeredPane();
JLabel labels[];
public void init() {
setContentPane(layeredpane);
layeredpane.setLayout(null);
labels = new JLabel[6];
labels[0] = new JLabel("Content layer");
labels[0].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
layeredpane.setLayer(labels[0],
JLayeredPane.FRAME_CONTENT_LAYER.intValue());
layeredpane.add(labels[0]);
labels[1] = new JLabel("Default layer");
labels[1].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
layeredpane.setLayer(labels[1],
JLayeredPane.DEFAULT_LAYER.intValue());
layeredpane.add(labels[1]);
labels[2] = new JLabel("Palette layer");
labels[2].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
layeredpane.setLayer(labels[2],
JLayeredPane.PALETTE_LAYER.intValue());
layeredpane.add(labels[2]);
labels[3] = new JLabel("Modal layer");
labels[3].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
layeredpane.setLayer(labels[3],
JLayeredPane.MODAL_LAYER.intValue());
layeredpane.add(labels[3]);
labels[4] = new JLabel("Popup layer");
labels[4].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
layeredpane.setLayer(labels[4],
JLayeredPane.POPUP_LAYER.intValue());
layeredpane.add(labels[4]);
labels[5] = new JLabel("Drag layer");
labels[5].setBorder(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder());
layeredpane.setLayer(labels[5],
JLayeredPane.DRAG_LAYER.intValue());
layeredpane.add(labels[5]);
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 5; loop_index++) {
labels[loop_index].setBounds(30 * loop_index, 30
* loop_index, 110, 50); }
}
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 15.3, where you can see what layer is on top of what other
layer:

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 Immediate Solutions

Figure 15.3: Adding components to a layered pane

Now we have worked with all the standard layers in a layered pane (you can also define your own layers
numerically).
In Figure 15.3, note that the drag layer appears on top, which makes sense because you want components the
user drags to ride above other components. To implement dragging by using the drag layer, you add the
component you want to drag to the drag layer, make sure the layout manager has been set to null, and then use
the components setLocation() method to position the component in response to the users mouse actions.

Creating Tabbed Panes

My program has so many settings now that the setup dialog box is a little larger than the screen itself, says the
NP. How much larger? you ask. About four times, the NP says. Ah, you say, it sounds like its time to
arrange those options by using a tabbed pane.
The Tabbed panes are useful when a number of components are to be arranged in less space. They provide the
users a content view based upon tabbed files and folders. When a user clicks on a tab, it seems that the folder
corresponding to it opens and displays its contents. The JTabbedPane class is responsible for providing the
Tabbed pane support in Swing. Its inheritance diagram is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JTabbedPane
Youll find the fields for the JTabbedPane class in Table 15.1, its constructors in Table 15.2, and its methods in
Table 15.3.
Table 15.1: Fields of the JTabbedPane class
Field Does this
protected ChangeEvent changeEvent The ChangeEvent object
protected ChangeListener The ChangeListener object added to the model
changeListener
protected SingleSelectionModel The default selection model
model
static int SCROLL_TAB_LAYOUT Its a tab layout policy for providing a subset of available tabs when all
the tabs will not fit within a single run
protected int tabPlacement Where the tabs are placed
static int WRAP_TAB_LAYOUT The tab layout policy for wrapping tabs in multiple runs when all tabs
will not fit within a single run

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Table 15.2: Constructors of the JTabbedPane class

Constructor Does this
JTabbedPane() It constructs an empty TabbedPane object
JTabbedPane(int tabPlacement) It constructs an empty TabbedPane object with the indicated tab
placement of TOP, BOTTOM, LEFT, or RIGHT
JTabbedPane(int tabPlacement, int It creates an empty TabbedPane with the specified tab placement and
tabLayoutPolicy) tab layout policy

Table 15.3: Methods of the JTabbedPane class

Method Does this
Component add(Component component) It adds a component
Component add(Component component, It adds a component at the indicated tab index
int index)
void add(Component component, Object It adds a component to the tabbed pane
constraints)
void add(Component component, Object It adds a component at the indicated tab index
constraints, int index)
Component add(String title, It adds a component with the indicated tab title
Component component)
void It adds a ChangeListener object to this tabbed pane
addChangeListener(ChangeListener l)
void addTab(String title, Component It adds a tab represented by a title and no icon
component)
void addTab(String title, Icon icon, It adds a tab represented by a title and/or icon, either of which can be
Component component) null
void addTab(String title, Icon icon, It adds a tab and tip represented by a title and/or icon, either of which
Component component, String tip) can be null
protected ChangeListener It overrides this method to return a subclass of ModelListener or
createChangeListener() another ChangeListener implementation
protected void fireStateChanged() It sends a ChangeEvent object to each listener
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext object associated with this
getAccessibleContext() JComponent object
Color getBackgroundAt(int index) It gets the tab background color at index
Rectangle getBoundsAt(int index) It gets the tab bounds at index
Component getComponentAt(int index) It gets the component at index
Icon getDisabledIconAt(int index) It gets the tab disabled icon at index
Color getForegroundAt(int index) It gets the tab foreground color at index
Icon getIconAt(int index) It gets the tab icon at index
SingleSelectionModel getModel() It gets the model associated with this tabbed pane
Component getSelectedComponent() It gets the currently selected component for this tabbed pane
int getSelectedIndex() It gets the currently selected index for this tabbed pane
int getTabCount() It gets the number of tabs in this tabbed pane
Component getTabComponentAt(int It returns the tab component at index
index)
int getTabPlacement() It gets the placement of the tabs for this tabbed pane
int getTabRunCount() It gets the number of tab runs currently used to display the tabs
String getTitleAt(int index) It gets the tab title at index

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 15.3: Methods of the JTabbedPane class

Method Does this
String getToolTipText(MouseEvent It gets the tooltip text for the component determined by the mouse event
event) location
String getToolTipTextAt(int index) It returns the tab tooltip text at index
TabbedPaneUI getUI() It gets the UI object that implements the look and feel for this component
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the UI class that implements the look and feel for this
component
int indexOfComponent(Component It gets the index of the tab for the indicated component
component)
int indexOfTab(Icon icon) It gets the first tab index with a given icon
int indexOfTab(String title) It gets the first tab index with a given title and gets -1 if no tab has this
title
int indexOfTabComponent(Component It returns the index of the tab for the specified tab component
tabComponent)
void insertTab(String title, Icon It inserts a component represented by a title and icon
icon, Component component, String
tip, int index)
boolean isEnabledAt(int index) It gets whether the tab at index is currently enabled
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JTabbedPane object
void remove(Component component) It removes the tab that corresponds to the indicated component
void remove(int index) It removes the tab and component that correspond to the specified index
void removeAll() It removes all the tabs from the tabbed pane
void It removes a ChangeListener object from this tabbed pane
removeChangeListener(ChangeListener
l)
void removeTabAt(int index) It removes the tab at index
void setBackgroundAt(int index, It sets the background color
Color background)
void setComponentAt(int index, It sets the component at index to component
Component component)
void setDisabledIconAt(int index, It sets the disabled icon at index to icon, which can be null
Icon disabledIcon)
void setDisplayedMnemonicIndexAt(int It provides a hint to the look and feel as to which character in the text
tabIndex, int mnemonicIndex) should be decorated to represent the mnemonic
void setEnabledAt(int index, boolean It sets whether the tab at index is enabled
enabled)
void setForegroundAt(int index, It sets the foreground color
Color foreground)
void setIconAt(int index, Icon icon) It sets the icon at index to icon, which can be null
void setMnemonicAt(int tabIndex, int It sets the keyboard mnemonic for accessing the specified tab
mnemonic)
void setModel(SingleSelectionModel It sets the model to be used with this tabbed pane
model)
void setSelectedComponent(Component It sets the selected component for this tabbed pane
c)
void setSelectedIndex(int index) It sets the selected index for this tabbed pane
void setTabComponentAt(int index, It sets the component that is responsible for rendering the title for the
component component) specified tab

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Table 15.3: Methods of the JTabbedPane class

Method Does this
void setTabLayoutPolicy(int It sets the policy which the tabbed pane will use in laying out the tabs
tabLayoutPolicy) when all the tabs will not fit within a single run
void setTabPlacement(int It sets the tab placement for this tabbed pane
tabPlacement)
void setTitleAt(int index, String It sets the title
title)
void setUI(TabbedPaneUI ui) It sets the UI object that implements the look and feel for this component
void updateUI() It is called by UIManager when the look and feel has changed

An example will make all this information clearer. In this case, we create a tabbed pane with three tabs and give
each tab its own JPanel object with a label in it. The user will be able to move from tab to tab, seeing all the
labels in turn. We start by creating the panels well use:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = DemoTabbedPane.class
WIDTH = 500
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoTabbedPane extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JTabbedPane tabbedpane = new JTabbedPane();
JPanel jp1 = new JPanel();
JPanel jp2 = new JPanel();
JPanel jp3 = new JPanel();
jp1.add(new JLabel("First Panel"));
jp2.add(new JLabel("Second Panel"));
jp3.add(new JLabel("Third Panel"));
. . .
Now we are ready to add these panels to a tabbed pane, so we create a new tabbed pane and use the addTab()
method to add three tabs to it. We pass the caption to addTab() method for each tab, the image icon to use in
each tab, the components to add to each tab (which are usually objects of the JPanel class), and a tooltip for
each tab, like this:
tabbedpane.addTab("Tab 1",new ImageIcon("tabb.jpg"),jp1, "First Tab");
tabbedpane.addTab("Tab 2",new ImageIcon("tabb.jpg"),jp2, "Second Tab");
tabbedpane.addTab("Tab 3",new ImageIcon("tabb.jpg"),jp3, "Third Tab");
c.setLayout(new BorderLayout());
c.add(tabbedpane); }
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 15.4:

Figure 15.4: Creating a tabbed pane

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 Immediate Solutions

As you can see in the figure, each tab has its own image and caption, as specified to the addTab() method.
Clicking a new tab opens a new folder with a new label in it. Thats all there is to it.
You can do more with tabbed panesspecify the placement you want for the tabs. Here is another example that
will make this information clearer. In this case, we create a tabbed pane with 12 tabs, for months of the year, and
give each tab its own JPanel object with a label in it. The user will be able to move the alignment of tab and the
way tab should be displayed on the frame, seeing all the labels in turn.
import javax.swing.*;
import java.text.*;
import java.awt.*;
public class DemoTabsLayout {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String[] month = new DateFormatSymbols().getShortMonths();
JTabbedPane tabbedpane = new JTabbedPane();
tabbedpane.setTabLayoutPolicy(JTabbedPane.SCROLL_TAB_LAYOUT);
for (int i=0; i<12; i++) {
JPanel tabpanel = new JPanel(new BorderLayout());
JButton tabbutton = new JButton(month[i]);
tabpanel.add(tabbutton);
tabbedpane.add(month[i], tabpanel); }
JFrame frm = new JFrame("Tabs Layout");
frm.getContentPane().add(tabbedpane, BorderLayout.CENTER);
frm.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
frm.setSize(300, 200);
frm.setVisible(true); }
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 15.5:

Figure 15.5: Setting the tab policy

You can see the change if you add the following line of code to the preceding code (after the method
setTabLayoutPolicy()).
tabbedpane.setTabPlacement(JTabbedPane.LEFT);
This will bring the tab to the left side of the screen, as shown in Figure 15.6:

Figure 15.6: Setting the tab on left of window

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Now well make some changes to the previously mentioned code, say we delete the following code statement:
tabbedpane.setTabPlacement(JTabbedPane.LEFT);
and modify the code statement:
tabbedpane.setTabLayoutPolicy(JTabbedPane.SCROLL_TAB_LAYOUT);
to:
tabbedpane.setTabLayoutPolicy(JTabbedPane.WRAP_TAB_LAYOUT);
The result of this modification appears in Figure 15.7:

Figure 15.7: Setting the Tab Strip Layout

Specifying Tab Placement in the Tabbed Panes

The Big Boss is looking over your shoulder and says, No, no, thats all wrong the tabs should go on the left
side. You keep changing your mind, you say. Are you sure you want the tabs on the left? No, no, says the
BB, on the right side, like I said.
You can specify where the tabs appear in a tabbed panetop, bottom, left, or rightusing the
setTabPlacement() method. Heres an example showing how that works. In this case, we let the user select
the orientation of the tabs in a tabbed paneleft, right, top, or bottomby clicking a button. Heres the code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

/*
<APPLET
CODE = DemoTabbedPaneOrient.class
WIDTH = 400
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>
*/

public class DemoTabbedPaneOrient extends JApplet implements

ActionListener {
JTabbedPane tabbedpane = new JTabbedPane(SwingConstants.BOTTOM);
JButton button1, button2, button3, button4;
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JPanel buttonPanel = new JPanel();
JPanel jp1 = new JPanel();
JPanel jp2 = new JPanel();
JPanel jp3 = new JPanel();
tabbedpane.setTabPlacement(JTabbedPane.TOP);
tabbedpane.addTab("Panel 1",
new ImageIcon("tabb.jpg"),
jp1, "First Panel");
tabbedpane.addTab("Panel 2",
new ImageIcon("tabb.jpg"),
jp2, "Second Panel");

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 Immediate Solutions

tabbedpane.addTab("Panel 3",
new ImageIcon("tabb.jpg"),
jp3, "Third Panel");
button1 = new JButton("Top");
button2 = new JButton("Left");
button3 = new JButton("Right");
button4 = new JButton("Bottom");
buttonPanel.add(button1);
buttonPanel.add(button2);
buttonPanel.add(button3);
buttonPanel.add(button4);
button1.addActionListener(this);
button2.addActionListener(this);
button3.addActionListener(this);
button4.addActionListener(this);
c.setLayout(new BorderLayout());
c.add(tabbedpane, BorderLayout.CENTER);
c.add(buttonPanel, BorderLayout.SOUTH);
}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
tabbedpane.setTabPlacement(JTabbedPane.TOP); }
else if(e.getSource() == button2) {
tabbedpane.setTabPlacement(JTabbedPane.LEFT); }
else if(e.getSource() == button3) {
tabbedpane.setTabPlacement(JTabbedPane.RIGHT); }
else if(e.getSource() == button4) {
tabbedpane.setTabPlacement(JTabbedPane.BOTTOM); }
tabbedpane.validate(); }
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 15.8:

Figure 15.8: Setting a tabbed panes orientation

When the user clicks a button, the tabbed pane responds by displaying the tabs in the corresponding orientation,
thus allowing the users to customize the tabbed pane as they like. The Big Boss would be proud.
Now well make another example that will enable users to choose from the choices given under each tab. Heres
the code:
import javax.swing.*;
/* <APPLET code="PickupMenu"
WIDTH=400
HEIGHT=100>
</APPLET>
*/
public class PickupMenu extends JApplet {
public void init() {
try {
SwingUtilities.invokeAndWait(new Runnable()
{

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Chapter 15: SwingLayered Panes, Tabbed Panes, Split Panes, and Layouts

public void run() { createGUI(); }});

}
catch (Exception e) {
System.out.println("Sorry, your order cannot be processed " + e); }
}
private void createGUI() {
JTabbedPane tabbedpane = new JTabbedPane();
tabbedpane.addTab("Pizza", new Pizza());
tabbedpane.addTab("Toppings", new Toppings());
tabbedpane.addTab("Beverage", new Beverage());
tabbedpane.addTab("Add-ons", new AdOn());
add(tabbedpane); }
}

class Pizza extends JPanel {

public Pizza() {
JRadioButton radio1 = new JRadioButton("Classic");
add(radio1);
JRadioButton radio2 = new JRadioButton("Hand-tossed");
add(radio2);
JRadioButton radio3 = new JRadioButton("Special Crust");
add(radio3); }
}
class Toppings extends JPanel {
public Toppings() {
JCheckBox check1 = new JCheckBox("Onion");
add(check1);
JCheckBox check2 = new JCheckBox("Capsicum");
add(check2);
JCheckBox check3 = new JCheckBox("Tomato");
add(check3);
JCheckBox check4 = new JCheckBox("Plain Cheese");
add(check4); }
}
class Beverage extends JPanel {
public Beverage() {
JComboBox combobox = new JComboBox();
combobox.addItem("Coke");
combobox.addItem("Pepsi");
combobox.addItem("7'up");
combobox.addItem("Sprite");
add(combobox); }
}
class AdOn extends JPanel {
public AdOn() {
JButton button1 = new JButton("Garlic Bread");
add(button1);
JButton button2 = new JButton("Chocolate Cake");
add(button2);
JButton button3 = new JButton("Salads");
add(button3); }
}
The result of this code appears in Figure 15.9:

Figure 15.9: Selecting options within a tab

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 Immediate Solutions

Using Split Panes

The Product Support Specialist is back and unhappy. About your new word processor program, the PSS says,
users are complaining. When they edit a document more than a thousand pages long and have to refer to
another part of the document, it can take a long time to scroll back and forth. Whos editing documents more
than a thousand pages long? you want to know. How about adding a split pane to the word processor? the
PSS asks.
You can use split panes to display two components side by side, which can include two views in the same
model. Using split panes, the user can manage two components, dragging the divider between the components
to show more or less of each, as needed. Split panes are supported by the JSplitPane class, and heres the
inheritance diagram for that class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JSplitPane
Youll find the fields of the JSplitPane class in Table 15.4, its constructors in Table 15.5, and its methods in
Table 15.6:
Table 15.4: Fields of the JSplitPane class
Field Does this
static String BOTTOM It is used to add a component at the bottom
static String The bound property name for continuousLayout
CONTINUOUS_LAYOUT_PROPERTY
protected boolean continuousLayout It returns True if views are continuously redisplayed while resizing
static String DIVIDER It is used to add a component that will represent the divider
static String The bound property name for a border
DIVIDER_SIZE_PROPERTY
protected int dividerSize The size of the divider
static int HORIZONTAL_SPLIT A horizontal split indicates the components are split along the x axis
static String The bound property for lastLocation
LAST_DIVIDER_LOCATION_PROPERTY
protected int lastDividerLocation The previous location of the split pane.
static String LEFT It is used to add a component to the left of the other component
protected Component leftComponent The left or top component
static String The bound property for oneTouchExpandable
ONE_TOUCH_EXPANDABLE_PROPERTY
protected boolean It returns True if the split pane is one-touch expandable
oneTouchExpandable
protected int orientation It indicates how the views are split
static String ORIENTATION_PROPERTY The bound property name for the orientation (horizontal or vertical)
static String RIGHT It is used to add a component to the right of the other component
protected Component rightComponent The right or bottom component
static String TOP It is used to add a component above the other component
static int VERTICAL_SPLIT A vertical split indicates the components are split along the y-axis
static String It is used to bound property for the dividerLocation
DIVIDER_LOCATION_PROPERTY

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Table 15.5: Constructors of the JSplitPane class

Constructor Does this
JSplitPane() It constructs a new JSplitPane object with two buttons for the
components
JSplitPane(int newOrientation) It constructs a new JSplitPane object configured with the indicated
orientation and no continuous layout
JSplitPane(int newOrientation, It constructs a new JSplitPane object with the indicated orientation and
boolean newContinuousLayout) redrawing style
JSplitPane(int newOrientation, It constructs a new JSplitPane object with the indicated orientation and
boolean newContinuousLayout, redrawing style and with the indicated components
Component newLeftComponent,
Component newRightComponent)
JSplitPane(int newOrientation, It constructs a new JSplitPane object with the indicated orientation and
Component newLeftComponent, with the specified components, which does not perform continuous
Component newRightComponent) redrawing

Table 15.6: Methods of the JSplitPane class

Method Does this
protected void addImpl(Component It adds comp with the given constraints
comp, Object constraints, int
index)
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext object
getAccessibleContext()
Component getBottomComponent() It gets the component below or to the right of the divider
int getDividerLocation() It gets the location of the divider from the look and feel implementation
int getDividerSize() It gets the size of the divider
int getLastDividerLocation() It gets the last location of the divider
Component getLeftComponent() It gets the component to above or left of the divider
int getMaximumDividerLocation() It gets the maximum location of the divider from the look and feel
implementation
int getMinimumDividerLocation() It gets the minimum location of the divider from the look and feel
implementation
int getOrientation() It gets the orientation
double getResizeWeight() It returns the number that determines how extra space is distributed
Component getRightComponent() It gets the component to the right of or below the divider
Component getTopComponent() It gets the component above or to the left of the divider
SplitPaneUI getUI() It gets the SplitPaneUI object thats providing the current look and feel
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this component
boolean isContinuousLayout() It returns True if the child components are continuously redisplayed and
laid out during user intervention
boolean isOneTouchExpandable() It returns True if the pane provides a UI widget to collapse/expand the
divider
boolean isValidateRoot() It returns True if the root validates
protected void It paints child components
paintChildren(Graphics g)
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JSplitPane object
void remove(Component component) It removes the child component from the pane
void remove(int index) It removes the component at the indicated index
void removeAll() It removes all the child components from the receiver

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 15.6: Methods of the JSplitPane class

Method Does this
void resetToPreferredSizes() It repositions the JSplitPane object based on the preferred size of the
children
void setBottomComponent(Component It sets the component below or to the right of the divider
comp)
void setContinuousLayout(boolean It determines whether the child components are continuously redisplayed
newContinuousLayout) during user actions
void setDividerLocation(double It sets the divider location as a percentage of the JSplitPane objects size
proportionalLocation)
void setDividerLocation(int It sets the location of the divider
location)
void setDividerSize(int newSize) It sets the size of the divider
void setLastDividerLocation(int It sets the last location of the divider to newLastLocation
newLastLocation)
void setLeftComponent(Component It sets the component to the left or above the divider
comp)
void setOneTouchExpandable(boolean It determines whether the JSplitPane object provides a UI widget on the
newValue) divider for quickly expanding/ collapsing the divider
void setOrientation(int It sets the orientation or how the splitter is divided
orientation)
void setResizeWeight(double value) It specifies how to distribute extra space when the size of the split pane
changes
void setRightComponent(Component It sets the component to the right of or below the divider
comp)
void setTopComponent(Component It sets the component above or to the left of the divider
comp)
void setUI(SplitPaneUI ui) It sets the look and feel object that draws this component
void updateUI() It is called by the UIManager object when the look and feel has changed

Well put the JSplitPane class to use in an example here. In this case, we add two text fields to a split pane.
Thats easy enough to dowe just create two text fields and a split pane, like this:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoSplitPane.class
WIDTH = 400
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoSplitPane extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JTextField textfield1 = new JTextField("TextField 1");
JTextField textfield2 = new JTextField("TextField 2");
JSplitPane splitpane = new JSplitPane(JSplitPane.VERTICAL_SPLIT,
textfield1, textfield2);
. . .

If you dont explicitly add components to a split pane, it will display two buttons.

Now we just add the new split pane to the applets content pane as follows:
public class DemoSplitPane extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JTextField textfield1 = new JTextField("TextField 1");
JTextField textfield2 = new JTextField("TextField 2");
JSplitPane splitpane = new JSplitPane(JSplitPane.VERTICAL_SPLIT,
textfield1, textfield2); public void init() {

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Container c = getContentPane();
c.add(splitpane, BorderLayout.CENTER); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) { }
}
Thats all it takes. The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 15.10:

Figure 15.10: Creating a split pane

From now on, the user can adjust the divider between the text fields, showing more or less of each, as needed.
The split pane will manage the view of each text field from now on.

You will learn how to use creating scroll panes in Chapter 13 of this book.

Making Split Panes One-Touch Expandable

Take a look at the new split pane I have put in my program, the NP says. Thats a good one, you agree, but
why isnt it one-touch expandable? The NP replies, Huh?
Making a split pane one-touch expandable adds small arrow buttons to its divider. When an arrow is clicked, it
expands one of the panes to take up the full split pane. This is a useful mechanism if you want to maximize a
component in a split pane, because split panes dont allow components to be reduced below a certain minimum.
You can make a split pane one-touch expandable with the split pane setOneTouchExpandable() method. To
show you how this works, well add a button to the split pane example in the previous solution that, when
clicked, will make the split pane one-touch expandable. To add that button, we first create a new panel and add
it to the layout of the applet, like this:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = DemoExpandableSplitPane.class
WIDTH = 400
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoExpandableSplitPane extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JButton button;
JTextField textfield1 = new JTextField("TextField 1");
JTextField textfield2 = new JTextField("TextField 2");
JSplitPane splitpane = new JSplitPane(JSplitPane.VERTICAL_SPLIT,
textfield1, textfield2);
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JPanel panel = new JPanel();
button = new JButton("Make one-touch expandable");
button.addActionListener(this);
panel.add(button);
c.add(splitpane, BorderLayout.CENTER);
c.add(panel, BorderLayout.SOUTH); }

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 Immediate Solutions

public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {

if(e.getSource() == button) {
splitpane.setOneTouchExpandable(true); }
}
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 15.11:

Figure 15.11: Making a split pane one-touch expandable

When the user clicks the button, two arrows appear in the split panes divider, as you can see in the figure. Now
the split pane is one-touch expandable; for example, when the user clicks the up arrow, the bottom text field
expands to fill the split pane (except for the divider, which is still visible, so the user can click the down arrow to
restore the original appearance).

Setting Split Pane Orientation

No, no, no, says the Big Boss impatiently, we dont want any vertical splits in split panes. We want horizontal
splits. OK, you say. I can do that. When do you want it by the way? Is it done yet? the BB asks.
You can set the orientation of the divider in a split pane by passing the setOrientation() method the
constant JSplitPane.HORIZONTAL_SPLIT or JSplitPane.VERTICAL_SPLIT. Well add this capability to
the split pane example from the previous solution with a new button that lets the user specify a horizontal split,
like this:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoSplitPaneOrient.class
WIDTH = 400
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoSplitPaneOrient extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JButton button1, button2;
JTextField textfield1 = new JTextField("TextField 1");
JTextField textfield2 = new JTextField("TextField 2");
JSplitPane splitpane = new JSplitPane(JSplitPane.VERTICAL_SPLIT,
textfield1, textfield2);
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JPanel panel = new JPanel();
button1 = new JButton("Make one-touch expandable");
button1.addActionListener(this);
panel.add(button1);
button2 = new JButton("Make split horizontal");
button2.addActionListener(this);
panel.add(button2);

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c.add(splitpane, BorderLayout.CENTER);
c.add(panel, BorderLayout.SOUTH); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
splitpane.setOneTouchExpandable(true); }
if(e.getSource() == button2) {
splitpane.setOrientation(JSplitPane.HORIZONTAL_SPLIT); }
}
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 15.12:

Figure 15.12: Setting split pane orientation

You can see the new horizontally oriented split in the figure.

Setting Split Pane Divider Size

You can set the size of the divider that appears in a split pane using the setDividerSize() method, passing it
a new divider width in pixels. Heres an example in which we add a new button to the example from the
previous solution. When the user clicks this button, we get the current divider width with the
getDividerSize() method, add 5 pixels to it, and use the result as the new divider width. Heres what the
code looks like:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = DemoSplitPaneDivider.class
WIDTH = 600
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoSplitPaneDivider extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JButton button1, button2, button3;
JTextField textfield1 = new JTextField("TextField 1");
JTextField textfield2 = new JTextField("TextField 2");
JSplitPane splitpane = new JSplitPane(JSplitPane.VERTICAL_SPLIT,
textfield1, textfield2);
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JPanel panel = new JPanel();
button1 = new JButton("Make one-touch expandable");
button1.addActionListener(this);
panel.add(button1);
button2 = new JButton("Make split horizontal");
button2.addActionListener(this);
panel.add(button2);
button3 = new JButton("Increase divider size");
button3.addActionListener(this);
panel.add(button3);
c.add(splitpane, BorderLayout.CENTER);

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 Immediate Solutions

c.add(panel, BorderLayout.SOUTH); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == button1) {
splitpane.setOneTouchExpandable(true); }
if(e.getSource() == button2) {
splitpane.setOrientation(JSplitPane.HORIZONTAL_SPLIT); }
if(e.getSource() == button3) {
splitpane.setDividerSize(splitpane.getDividerSize() + 5);
}
}
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 15.13:

Figure 15.13: Setting a split pane dividers width

When the user clicks the Increase divider size button, the divider increases in size by 5 pixels each time.

Using the Box Layout Manager

I have got a lot of drawing tools in my program, the NP says, and I want to arrange them vertically in one
large column. Any suggestions? Sure, you say, use a box layout. OK, says the NP, how?
Swing introduces two new layouts: the box layout and the overlay layout. Well first take a look at the box
layout in this solution and the overlay layout later. You can use box layouts to lay components out along the x-
axis in a row or along the y-axis in a column. Heres the inheritance diagram for the BoxLayout class, which
supports the box layout:
java.lang.Object
|____javax.swing.BoxLayout
Youll find the fields of the BoxLayout class in Table 15.7, its constructor in Table 15.8, and its methods in
Table 15.9.
Table 15.7: Fields of the BoxLayout class
Field Does this
static int X_AXIS It indicates that the components should be arranged left to right
static int Y_AXIS It indicates that the components should be arranged top to bottom
static int LINE_AXIS It indicates that the components should be laid out in the direction of a
line of text as determined by the target containers
ComponentOrientation property
static int PAGE_AXIS It indicates that the components should be laid out in the direction that
lines flow across a page as determined by the target containers
ComponentOrientation property

Table 15.8: The constructor of the BoxLayout class

Constructor Does this
BoxLayout(Container target, int axis) It constructs a box layout manager

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Table 15.9: Methods of the BoxLayout class

Method Does this
float getLayoutAlignmentX(Container It gets the alignment along the x axis for the container
target)
float getLayoutAlignmentY(Container It gets the alignment along the y axis for the container
target)
void invalidateLayout(Container It indicates that a child has changed its layout information
target)
void layoutContainer(Container It is called by the AWT when the indicated container needs to be laid
target) out
Dimension maximumLayoutSize(Container It gets the maximum dimensions the target container can use to lay out
target) the components it contains
Dimension minimumLayoutSize(Container It gets the minimum dimensions needed to lay out the components
target) contained in the indicated target container
Dimension It gets the preferred dimensions for this layout, given the components
preferredLayoutSize(Container target) in the indicated target container

Heres an example in which we arrange three panels using box layoutstwo vertically and one horizontally
and add four text fields to each panel. This simply entails using a new box layout manager in each panel
like this:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DemoBoxLayout.class
WIDTH = 400
HEIGHT = 200 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoBoxLayout extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JPanel panel1, panel2, panel3;
panel1 = new JPanel();
panel2 = new JPanel();
panel3 = new JPanel();
panel1.setLayout(new BoxLayout(panel1, BoxLayout.Y_AXIS));
panel2.setLayout(new BoxLayout(panel2, BoxLayout.X_AXIS));
panel3.setLayout(new BoxLayout(panel3, BoxLayout.Y_AXIS));
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
panel1.add(new JTextField("TextField 1"));
panel1.add(new JTextField("TextField 2"));
panel1.add(new JTextField("TextField 3"));
panel1.add(new JTextField("TextField 4"));
panel2.add(new JTextField("TextField 1"));
panel2.add(new JTextField("TextField 2"));
panel2.add(new JTextField("TextField 3"));
panel2.add(new JTextField("TextField 4"));
panel3.add(new JTextField("TextField 1"));
panel3.add(new JTextField("TextField 2"));
panel3.add(new JTextField("TextField 3"));
panel3.add(new JTextField("TextField 4"));
c.add(panel1);
c.add(panel2);
c.add(panel3); }
}

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 Immediate Solutions

The result appears in Figure 15.14, where you can see the three box layouts:

Figure 15.14: Creating box layouts

This example was relatively easy to create and run.
However, theres more box layout power availabletake a look at the Box class in the next solution.

Using the Box Class

Box layouts are fine, says the NP, but I need more control. For example, I want to space the controls in a row
myself, but I cant do that with a box layout. Sure you can, you say, if you use the Box class. Hows that?
the NP asks.
The Box class uses a box layout and adds methods to let you work with the following constructs to extend that
layout:
GlueIt expands to fill the empty region between components. You can use glue to space components
evenly.
StrutsThe vertical or horizontal distances that you specify and add to the layout to space components as
you want them. Struts are fixed in one dimension and fill the other dimension as needed.
Rigid areasRectangular areas that do not resize themselves. Heres the inheritance diagram for the Box
class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.Box
Youll find the fields of the Box class in Table 15.10, its constructor in Table 15.11, and its methods in Table 15.12.
Table 15.10: The fields of the Box class
Field Does this
protected AccessibleContext The AccessibleContext object
accessibleContext
protected EventListenerList The list of event listeners for this component
listenerList
public static final string The comment to display when the cursor is over the component
TOOL_TIP_TEXT_KEY
protected transient ComponentUI ui The look and feel delegate for this component
public static final int The constant used by some of the APIs to mean that no condition is defined
UNDEFINED_cONDITION
public static final int The constant used for registerKeyboardAction that means the
WHEN_ANCESTOR_OF_FOCUSED_COMPONENT command should be invoked when the receiving component is an ancestor
of the focused component or is itself the focused component

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Table 15.10: The fields of the Box class

Field Does this
public static final int The constant used for registerKeyboardAction that means the
WHEN_FOCUSED command should be invoked when the component has the focus
public static final int The constant used for registerKeyboardAction that means the
WHEN_IN_FOCUSED_WINDOW command should be invoked when the receiving component is in the
window that has the focus or is itself the focused component
public static final float The specification of an alignment to the bottom of the component
BOTTOM_ALIGNMENT
public static final float The specification of an alignment to the center of the component
CENTER_ALIGNMENT
public static final float The specification of an alignment to the left side of the component
LEFT_ALIGNMENT
public static final float The specification of an alignment to the right side of the component
RIGHT_ALIGNMENT
public static final float TOP The specification of an alignment to the top of the component
ALIGNMENT
static final int ABORT The image being tracked asynchronously is aborted before the production
completes
static final int ALLBITS The image previously drawn is complete and can be drawn again in its final
form
static final int ERROR The image being tracked asynchronously encounters an error and no further
information is displayed
static final int FRAMEBITS An another complete frame of a multi- frame image previously drawn
becomes available
static final int HEIGHT The height of the base image becomes available
static final int PROPERTIES The properties of an image becomes available
static final int SOMEBITS The more number of pixels required to draw a scaled variation of the image
becomes available
static final int WIDTH The width of the base image becomes available

Table 15.11: The constructor of the Box class

Constructor Does this
Box(int axis) It constructs a box that displays its components along its specified axis

Table 15.12: The methods of the Box class

Method Does this
static Component createGlue() It constructs a glue component
public static Box It constructs a box that displays its components from top to bottom
createVerticalBox()
static Component It constructs a horizontal glue component
createHorizontalGlue()
static Component It constructs an invisible, fixed-width strut
createHorizontalStrut(int width)
static Component It constructs an invisible component thats always the indicated size
createRigidArea(Dimension d)
public static Component It constructs a box that displays its components from top to bottom
createRigidArea(Dimension d)
static Component It constructs a vertical glue component
createVerticalGlue()

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 15.12: The methods of the Box class

Method Does this
static Component It constructs an invisible, fixed-height strut
createVerticalStrut(int height)
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext object
getAccessibleContext()
void setLayout(LayoutManager l) It throws an AWTError object (a Box object can only use BoxLayout)
protected void It is used for painting the box
paintComponent(Graphic g)

Heres an example using the Box class. In this case, we use the createGlue(), createRigidArea(),
createHorizontalStrut(), and createVerticalStrut() methods of the Box class to create glue, rigid
areas, and struts. These components can be added to box layouts, so well create six panels, each with a box layout,
and add text areas to the panels using glue, struts, and rigid areas to show how all this works. Heres the code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import javax.swing.border.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = DemoBox.class
WIDTH = 550
HEIGHT = 350 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoBox extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
JPanel panel1 = new JPanel();
panel1.setBorder(
BorderFactory.createTitledBorder( BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder(), "Glue"));
panel1.setLayout(new BoxLayout(panel1, BoxLayout.X_AXIS));
panel1.add(Box.createGlue());
panel1.add(new JTextField("TextField 1"));
panel1.add(Box.createGlue());
panel1.add(new JTextField("TextField 2"));
panel1.add(Box.createGlue());
panel1.add(new JTextField("TextField 3"));
panel1.add(Box.createGlue());
c.add(panel1);
JPanel panel2 = new JPanel();
panel2.setBorder(
BorderFactory.createTitledBorder(
BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder(), "Struts"));
panel2.setLayout(new BoxLayout(panel2, BoxLayout.X_AXIS));
panel2.add(new JTextField("TextField 1"));
panel2.add(Box.createHorizontalStrut(20));
panel2.add(new JTextField("TextField 2"));
panel2.add(Box.createHorizontalStrut(20));
panel2.add(new JTextField("TextField 3"));
c.add(panel2);
JPanel panel3 = new JPanel();
panel3.setBorder(BorderFactory.createTitledBorder
(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder(), "Rigid"));
panel3.setLayout(new BoxLayout(panel3, BoxLayout.X_AXIS));
panel3.add(Box.createRigidArea(new Dimension(10, 40)));
panel3.add(new JTextField("TextField 1"));
panel3.add(Box.createRigidArea(new Dimension(10, 40)));
panel3.add(new JTextField("TextField 2"));
panel3.add(Box.createRigidArea(new Dimension(10, 40)));
panel3.add(new JTextField("TextField 3"));

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c.add(panel3);
JPanel panel4 = new JPanel();
panel4.setBorder(BorderFactory.createTitledBorder
(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder(),"Glue"));
panel4.setLayout(new BoxLayout(panel4, BoxLayout.Y_AXIS));
panel4.add(Box.createGlue());
panel4.add(new JTextField("TextField 1"));
panel4.add(Box.createGlue());
panel4.add(new JTextField("TextField 2"));
panel4.add(Box.createGlue());
panel4.add(new JTextField("TextField 3"));
panel4.add(Box.createGlue());
c.add(panel4);
JPanel panel5 = new JPanel();
panel5.setBorder(BorderFactory.createTitledBorder
(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder(), "Struts"));
panel5.setLayout(new BoxLayout(panel5, BoxLayout.Y_AXIS));
panel5.add(new JTextField("TextField 1"));
panel5.add(Box.createVerticalStrut(30));
panel5.add(new JTextField("TextField 2"));
panel5.add(Box.createVerticalStrut(30));
panel5.add(new JTextField("TextField 3"));
c.add(panel5);
JPanel panel6 = new JPanel();
panel6.setBorder(BorderFactory.createTitledBorder
(BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder(), "Rigid"));
panel6.setLayout(new BoxLayout(panel6, BoxLayout.Y_AXIS));
panel6.add(Box.createRigidArea(new Dimension(40, 60)));
panel6.add(new JTextField("TextField 1"));
panel6.add(Box.createRigidArea(new Dimension(40, 60)));
panel6.add(new JTextField("TextField 2"));
panel6.add(Box.createRigidArea(new Dimension(40, 60)));
panel6.add(new JTextField("TextField 3"));
c.add(panel6); }
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 15.15:

Figure 15.15: Using the Box class

As you can see, using the Box class is an easy way to extend box layouts, allowing you to customize the spacing
between the components.

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 Immediate Solutions

Using the Overlay Layout Manager

My program is getting pretty cramped, says the NP. Is there any easy way I can overlap the controls? Are
you sure you want to do that? you ask. Sure, says the NP. Well, you say, you can remove the layout
manager and locate your controls yourself, or you can use the overlay manager. Theres an overlay manager?
the NP asks. Tell me more!
You can use the overlay manager to overlay components in Swing. This layout manager is supported by the
OverlayLayout class. Heres the inheritance diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____javax.swing.OverlayLayout
Youll find the constructor for this class in Table 15.13 and its methods in Table 15.14:
Table 15.13: The constructor of the OverlayLayout class
Constructor Does this
OverlayLayout(Container target) It constructs an overlay layout manager

Table 15.14: The methods of the OverlayLayout class

Method Does this
void addLayoutComponent(Component It adds the indicated component to the layout
comp, Object constraints)
void addLayoutComponent(String name, It adds the indicated component to the layout
Component comp)
float getLayoutAlignmentX(Container It gets the alignment along the x axis for the container
target)
float getLayoutAlignmentY(Container It gets the alignment along the y axis for the container
target)
void invalidateLayout(Container It indicates a child has changed its layout related information, which
target) causes any cached calculations to be flushed
void layoutContainer(Container It is called by the AWT when the indicated container needs to be laid
target) out
Dimension maximumLayoutSize(Container It gets the maximum dimensions needed to layout the components
target)
Dimension minimumLayoutSize(Container It gets the minimum dimensions needed to layout the components
target)
Dimension It gets the preferred dimensions for this layout, given the components
preferredLayoutSize(Container target)
void removeLayoutComponent(Component It removes the indicated component from the layout
comp)
Container getTarget() It returns the container that uses this layout manager

Heres how you use an overlay layout. In this kind of a layout, you add components to a container so that their
alignment points are at the same location. Each of these components also has an alignment attribute between 0.0
and 1.0, which you set with the setAlignmentX() and setAlignmentY() methods (the default value is 0.5).
These specify where the alignment point is in each dimension. For example, an x alignment attribute of 0.5 refers
to the center of the component in the x direction.
After you set the minimum, maximum, and preferred size of the components, the overlay layout manager
attempts to resize the components, so their alignment points overlap, and it maintains that overlap, if possible,
even when the container is resized.
Lets look at an example to make this clearer. In this case, we overlap two text fields, specify their minimum,
maximum, and preferred sizes, and set their alignment points, so one component will appear in the upper left
and the other in the lower right. Heres the code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;

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/*<APPLET
CODE = DemoOverlayLayout.class
WIDTH = 300
HEIGHT = 300 >
</APPLET>*/
public class DemoOverlayLayout extends JApplet {
public void init() {
Container c = getContentPane();
JPanel panel = new JPanel();
panel.setLayout(new OverlayLayout(panel));
panel.setBackground(Color.white);
panel.setBorder(
BorderFactory.createTitledBorder(
BorderFactory.createEtchedBorder(),
"Overlay Layout"));
JTextField textfield1 = new JTextField("TextField 1");
JTextField textfield2 = new JTextField("TextField 2");
textfield1.setMinimumSize(new Dimension(35, 35));
textfield2.setMinimumSize(new Dimension(35, 35));
textfield1.setPreferredSize(new Dimension(120, 120));
textfield2.setPreferredSize(new Dimension(120, 120));
textfield1.setMaximumSize(new Dimension(140, 140));
textfield2.setMaximumSize(new Dimension(140, 140));
textfield1.setAlignmentX(0.3f);
textfield1.setAlignmentY(0.3f);
textfield2.setAlignmentX(0.9f);
textfield2.setAlignmentY(0.9f);
panel.add(textfield1);
panel.add(textfield2);
c.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
c.add(panel); }
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 15.16, where you can see the two overlapped text fields:

Figure 15.16: Using the overlay layout manager

Summary
In this chapter, you have learned about different panes such as layered, tabbed, and split. You have also come
across how to make split panes one-touch expandable, set split pane orientation, use of box layout manager, and
the Box class. Lastly, we discussed use of overlay layout manager.
In the next chapter, youll learn about the menus and toolbars put a dash instead an important part of any
application.

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 16
SwingMenus
and Toolbars
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Creating a Menu Bar 551
Creating a Menu 552
Creating a Menu Item 555
Creating a Basic Menu System 557
Adding Images to Menu Items 559
Creating Checkbox Menu Items 560
Creating Radio Button Menu Items 562
Creating Submenus 564
Creating Menu Accelerators 565
Enabling/Disabling and Changing Menu Items at Runtime 567
Adding and Removing Menu Items at Runtime 568
Adding Buttons and Other Controls to Menus 569
Creating Pop-Up Menus 570
Creating Toolbars 574
Adding Combo Boxes and Other Controls to Toolbars 576

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Chapter 16: SwingMenus and Toolbars

In Depth
In this chapter, well cover two of the most important Swing componentsmenus and toolbars. Both of these
components are familiar to all GUI users, and youll see how to work with them in Swing. Lets see first what
Swing has to offer here in the overview itself.

Menus
Swing menus provide some substantial improvements over AWT menus, such as the ability to display images,
the ability to set a menu items look and feel, and, notably, the ability to display menus in applet windows.
Swing menus are supported by the JMenuBar, JMenu, and JMenuItemclasses, which support menu bars,
menus, and menu items, respectively. As in AWT, Swing menus are actually built by using buttons behind the
scenes, so you can use action listeners with them.
In this chapter, well take a look at what Swing menus have to offer, including creating basic menus, adding
images to menu items, creating checkbox and radio button menu items and submenus, adding controls such as
buttons to menus, creating menu accelerators and mnemonics, and more. Well also take a look at creating pop-
up menus here. Swing menus are more complex and powerful than their AWT components, as youll see.

Toolbars
Toolbars are popular GUI controls, and they are new in Swing. Like menus, toolbars are built by the use of
buttons in Swing. They provide a bar of buttons that are clickable, just like menu items. In fact, toolbars and
menus are closely related youll often add buttons to toolbars that represent popular menu items to save the
user from the trouble of opening a menu.
Well know about Swing toolbars, which are supported by the JtoolBar class, including adding images to
toolbar buttons, letting the user align the toolbar against any edge of a window, and adding other controls, such
as combo boxes, to toolbars.
Thats it for the overview of whats in this chapter. As you can see, theres a lot coming up. Its time to turn to
the Immediate Solutions section, which starts with a look at stacking Swing components.

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 Immediate Solutions

Immediate Solutions
Creating a Menu Bar
The Novice Programmer appears and says, The Big Boss says I need to add a menu system to my program.
How in the world do I do that? With three components: you say, menu bars, menus, and menu items. Get
some coffee and well start with menu bars. OK, the NP says.
To add a menu system to a Swing program, you must first create a menu bar using the JmenuBar class. You
can add the menu bar to applets or frame windows with the setJMenuBar()method. Heres the inheritance
diagram for the JmenuBar class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JMenuBar
You can find the constructor for JmenuBar in Table 16.1 and its methods in Table 16.2:
Table 16.1: The constructor of the JMenuBar class
Constructor Does this
JMenuBar() It constructs a new menu bar

Table 16.2: Methods of the JMenuBar class

Method Does this
JMenu add(JMenu c) It appends the indicated menu to the end of the menu bar
void addNotify() It overrides JComponent.addNotify to register this menu bar
AccessibleContextgetAccessibleConte It gets the AccessibleContext object associated with its JMenuBar
xt()
Component getComponent() It is implemented to be a MenuElement object
Component getComponent(int i) It gets the component at the indicated index
intgetComponentIndex(Componentc) It gets the index of the indicated component
JMenugetHelpMenu() It gets the help menu for the menu bar
Insets getMargin() It gets the margin between the menu bars border and its menus
JMenugetMenu(int index) It gets the menu at the indicated position in the menu bar
intgetMenuCount() It gets the number of items in the menu bar
SingleSelectionModelgetSelectionMod It gets the model object that handles single selections
el()
MenuElement[] getSubElements() It returns the menus in its menu bar
MenuBarUIgetUI() It gets the menu bars current UI
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this
component
booleanisBorderPainted() It returns True if the menu bars border should be painted
booleanisSelected() It returns True if the menu bar has a component selected
void It is implemented to be a MenuElement object but does nothing
menuSelectionChanged(booleanisInclu currently
ded)
protected void paintBorder It paints the menu bars border
(Graphics g)
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JMenuBar

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Chapter 16: SwingMenus and Toolbars

Table 16.2: Methods of the JMenuBar class

Method Does this
protected boolean They are subclassed to check all the child menus
processKeyBinding(KeyStrokeks,
KeyEvent e, int condition, boolean
pressed)
void processKeyEvent(KeyEvent e, It is implemented to be a MenuElement object but does nothing
MenuElement[] path,
MenuSelectionManager manager)
void processMouseEvent(MouseEvent It is implemented to be a MenuElement object but does nothing
event, MenuElement[] path,
MenuSelectionManager manager)
void removeNotify() It overrides JComponent.removeNotify to unregister this menu bar
void setBorderPainted It sets whether the border should be painted
(boolean b)
void setHelpMenu(JMenu menu) It sets the help menu that appears when the user selects the Help option
in the menu bar
void setMargin(Insets m) It sets the margin between the menu bars border and its menus
void setSelected(Component sel) It sets the selected component
void setSelectionModel It sets the model object to handle single selections
(SingleSelectionModelmodel)
void setUI(MenuBarUIui) It sets the look and feel object that renders this component
void updateUI() It is called by UIFactory when the look and feel has changed

Well put the JmenuBar class to work upon the next few solutions while creating a basic menu system. The
next step is to create menus to add to the menu bar, and well do that in the next solution.

Creating a Menu
The NP is back and says, I have created a menu bar, but nothing appears in itwhats up? You smile and say,
You have got to add menus to it explicitly. Ah, says the NP, now you can show me how that works.
You create the menus in a menu bar with the Jmenu class. Heres the inheritance diagram for that class (note
that Jmenu is actually subclassed from JMenuItem, which is the case because JMenuItem, which is subclassed
from AbstractButton, can respond to button clicks):
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.AbstractButton
|____javax.swing.JMenuItem
|____javax.swing.JMenu
Youll find the field of the JMenuclass in Table 16.3, its constructors in Table 16.4, and its methods in Table 16.5:
Table 16.3: The field of the JMenu class
Field Does this
protected It is the pop-ups window-closing listener
JMenu.WinListenerpopupListener

Table 16.4: Constructors of the JMenu class

Constructor Does this
JMenu() It constructs a new JMenu
JMenu(Action a) It constructs a menu whose properties are taken from the Action
supplied

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Table 16.4: Constructors of the JMenu class

Constructor Does this
JMenu(String s) It constructs a new JMenu with the string as its text
JMenu(String s, boolean b) It constructs a new JMenu with the string as its text and specifies
whether it has a tear-off menu, as indicated by the boolean value

Table 16.5: Methods of the JMenu class

Method Does this
JMenuItem add(Action a) It constructs a new menu item attached to the indicated Action object
and appends it to the end of this menu
Component add(Component c) It appends a component to the end of this menu
Component add(Component c, int It adds the specified component to this container at the given position
index)
JMenuItem add(JMenuItemmenuItem) It appends a menu item to the end of this menu
JMenuItem add(String s) It constructs a new menu item with the indicated text and appends it to
the end of this menu
void addMenuListener It adds a listener for menu events
(MenuListener l)
void addSeparator() It appends a new separator to the end of the menu
void applyComponentOrientation It sets the ComponentOrientation property of this menu and all
(ComponentOrientation o) components contained within it
protected PropertyChangeListener It creates an action change listener
createActionChangeListener
(JMenuItem b)
protected JmenuItem It is a factory method that creates the JMenuITem object for actions
createActionComponent(Action a) added to the JMenu
protected JMenu.WinListener It creates a window-closing listener
createWinListener(JPopupMenu p)
void doClick(intpressTime) It programmatically performs a click action
protected void fireMenuCanceled() It notifies all listeners that have registered for this notification that this
event occurred
protected void fireMenuDeselected() It notifies all listeners that have registered for this notification
protected void fireMenuSelected() It notifies all listeners that have registered for this notification
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext object
getAccessibleContext()
Component getComponent() It returns the java.awt.Componentobject used to paint this
MenuElement
int getDelay() It gets the suggested delay before the menus PopupMenu is popped up
or down
JMenuItem getItem(intpos) It gets the JMenuItem object at the indicated position
int getItemCount() It gets the number of items on the menu, including separators
Component getMenuComponent(int n) It gets the component at position n
int getMenuComponentCount() It gets the number of components on the menu
Component[] getMenuComponents() It gets an array of the menus subcomponents
MenuListener[] getMenuListeners() It gets an array of all the MenuListeners added to this JMenu with
addMenuListener()
JpopupMenu getPopupMenu() It gets the pop-up menu associated with this menu
protected Point getPopupMenuOrigin() It computes the origin for the JMenus popup menu

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Table 16.5: Methods of the JMenu class

Method Does this
MenuElement[] getSubElements() It gets an array containing the submenu components for this menu
component
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this
component
JMenuItem insert It inserts a new menu item attached to the indicated Action object at a
(Action a, intpos) given position
JMenuItem insert It inserts the indicated JMenuItem object at a given position
(JMenuItem mi, intpos)
void insert(String s, intpos) It inserts a new menu item with the indicated text at a given position
void insertSeparator It inserts a separator at the indicated position
(int index)
boolean isMenuComponent It returns True if the indicated component exists in the submenu
(Component c) hierarchy
boolean isPopupMenuVisible() It returns True if the menus pop-up window is visible
boolean isSelected() It returns True if the menu is currently selected (popped up)
boolean isTearOff() It returns True if the menu can be torn off
boolean isTopLevelMenu() It returns True if the menu is a top-level menu
void menuSelectionChanged It is called when the menu bar selection changes
(booleanisIncluded)
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JMenu
protected void It overrides processKeyEvent to process events
processKeyEvent(KeyEvent e)
void remove(Component c) It removes the component
void remove(intpos) It removes the menu item at the given position
void remove(JMenuItem item) It removes the indicated menu item
void removeAll() It removes all menu items from this menu
void removeMenuListener It removes a listener for menu events
(MenuListener l)
void setAccelerator It is not defined for JMenu
(KeyStrokekeyStroke)
void setComponentOrientation It sets the language-sensitive orientation that is to be used to order the
(ComponentOrientation o) elements or text within this component
void setDelay(int d) It sets the suggested delay before the menus PopupMenu is popped up
or down
void setMenuLocation It sets the location of the pop-up component
(int x, int y)
void setModel(ButtonModelnewModel) It sets the data model for the menu button
void setPopupMenuVisible It sets the visibility of the menus pop-up portion
(boolean b)
void setSelected(boolean b) It sets the selection status of the menu
void updateUI() It is called by UIFactory when the look and feel has changed

When you have created menus by using the JMenu class, you populate those menus with menu items (see the
next solution for the details).

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 Immediate Solutions

Creating a Menu Item

All right, says the NP, I have created some menus. How do I add menu items to those menuswith the
JMenuItem class?You have got it, you say.
The actual items in Swing menus are supported by the JMenuItem class. Heres the inheritance diagram for
this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.AbstractButton
|____javax.swing.JMenuItem
Youll find the constructors for the JMenuItem class in Table 16.6 and its methods in Table 16.7:
Table 16.6: Constructors of the JMenuItem class
Constructor Does this
JMenuItem() It constructs a menu item
JMenuItem(Action a) It constructs a menu item whose properties are taken from the Action
supplied
JMenuItem(Icon icon) It constructs a menu item with an icon
JMenuItem(String text) It constructs a menu item with text
JMenuItem(String text, Icon icon) It constructs a menu item with the supplied text and icon
JMenuItem(String text, int It constructs a menu item with the indicated text and keyboard
mnemonic) mnemonic

Table 16.7: Methods of the JMenuItem class

Method Does this
protected void It updates the buttons state in response to property changed in the
actionPropertyChanged(Action action, associated action.
String propertyName)
void addMenuDragMouseListener It adds a MenuDragMouseListener object
(MenuDragMouseListener l)
void It adds a MenuKeyListener to the menu item
addMenuKeyListener(MenuKeyListener
l)
protected void It sets the properties on this button to match those in the specified
configurePropertiesFromAction(Action Action
a)
protected void It fires the mouse dragged event
fireMenuDragMouseDragged
(MenuDragMouseEvent event)
protected void It fires the mouse entered event
fireMenuDragMouseEntered
(MenuDragMouseEvent event)
protected void It fires the mouse exited event
fireMenuDragMouseExited
(MenuDragMouseEvent event)
protected void It fires the mouse released event
fireMenuDragMouseReleased
(MenuDragMouseEvent event)
protected void fireMenuKeyPressed It fires the key pressed event
(MenuKeyEvent event)
protected void fireMenuKeyReleased It fires the key released event
(MenuKeyEvent event)

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Table 16.7: Methods of the JMenuItem class

Method Does this
protected void It fires the key typed event
fireMenuKeyTyped(MenuKeyEvent event)
KeyStrokegetAccelerator() It gets the KeyStroke that serves as an accelerator for the menu item
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext object associated with this
getAccessibleContext() JMenuItem
Component getComponent() It returns the java.awt.Component used to paint this object
MenuDragMouseListener[] It returns an array of all the MenuDragMouseListeners added to
getMenuDragMouseListeners() this JMenuItem with addMenuDragMouseListener()
MenuKeyListener[] It returns an array of all the MenuKeyListeners added to this
getMenuKeyListeners() JMenuItem with addMenuKeyListener()
MenuElement[] getSubElements() It returns an array containing the submenu components for this menu
component
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this
component
protected void init(String text, It initializes the menu item with the indicated text and icon
Icon icon)
boolean isArmed() It determines whether the menu item is armed
void menuSelectionChanged It is called by the MenuSelectionManager when the MenuElement is
(booleanisIncluded) selected or unselected
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JMenuItem
void processKeyEvent(KeyEvent e, It processes a key event forwarded from the MenuSelectionManager
MenuElement[] path,
MenuSelectionManager manager)
void It handles a mouse drag in a menu
processMenuDragMouseEvent(MenuDragMo
useEvent e)
void It handles a keystroke in a menu
processMenuKeyEvent(MenuKeyEvent e)
void processMouseEvent(MouseEvent e, It processes a mouse event forwarded from the
MenuElement[] path, MenuSelectionManager
MenuSelectionManager manager)
void It removes a MenuDragMouseListener
removeMenuDragMouseListener(MenuDrag
MouseListener l)
void removeMenuKeyListener It removes a MenuKeyListener from the menu item
(MenuKeyListener l)
void It sets the key combination that invokes the menu items action
setAccelerator(KeyStrokekeyStroke) listeners without navigating the menu hierarchy
void setArmed(boolean b) It identifies the menu item as armed
void setEnabled(boolean b) It enables or disables the menu item
void setModel(ButtonModelnewModel) It sets the model that this button represents
void setUI(MenuItemUIui) It sets the look and feel object that renders this component
void updateUI() It is called by UIFactory when the look and feel has changed

As you can see in Tables 16.6 and 16.7, the JMenuItem class has a lot to offerfor example, you can determine
whether a menu item is armed (that is, it will be selected if the user releases the mouse) with the
isArmed()and setArmed()methods.
This one and the previous two solutions have introduced menu bars, menus, and menu items in Swing; well put
these elements together in the next solution to create a basic menu system.

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 Immediate Solutions

Creating a Basic Menu System

I have created a menu bar object, menu objects, and menu item objects, the NP says, but how do I put them all
together? Sit down and well go through it, you say, its not that hard.
The previous three solutions have introduced the classes needed to create menus in Swing programming:
JMenuBar, JMenu, and JMenuItem. Well put those classes to work in an example that displays two menus
File and Editin a menu bar. When the user clicks a menu item, the code will display which item was clicked in
the applets status bar.
We start by creating a menu bar with the JMenuBar class. Then we create the File menu with the JMenu class
and three menu items for that menuNew, Open, and Exitusing the JMenuItem class:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = Menu.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET>*/
public class Menu extends JApplet implements ActionListener
{
public void init()
{
JMenuBar jmenubar = new JMenuBar();
JMenu jmenu1 = new JMenu("File");
JMenuItem jmenuitem1 = new JMenuItem("New..."),
jmenuitem2 = new JMenuItem("Open..."),
jmenuitem3 = new JMenuItem("Exit");
...
Now we can add the three menu items to the File menu by using the JMenu()classs add()method. Action
listeners are used with menu items, so well give each menu item an action command and add an action listener
to each item (note that menu separators can be added with the addSeparator()method):
public void init(){
JMenuBar jmenubar = new JMenuBar();
JMenu jmenu1 = new JMenu("File");
JMenuItem jmenuitem1 = new JMenuItem("New..."),
jmenuitem2 = new JMenuItem("Open..."),
jmenuitem3 = new JMenuItem("Exit");
jmenu1.add(jmenuitem1);
jmenu1.add(jmenuitem2);
jmenu1.addSeparator();
jmenu1.add(jmenuitem3);
jmenuitem1.setActionCommand("You selected New");
jmenuitem2.setActionCommand("You selected Open");
jmenuitem3.setActionCommand(You selected Exit);
jmenuitem1.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem2.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem3.addActionListener(this);
...
We can create the Edit menu in the same way, giving it three itemsCut, Copy, and Paste:
public void init(){
JMenuBar jmenubar = new JMenuBar();
JMenu jmenu1 = new JMenu("File");
JMenuItem jmenuitem1 = new JMenuItem("New..."),
jmenuitem2 = new JMenuItem("Open..."),
jmenuitem3 = new JMenuItem("Exit");
jmenu1.add(jmenuitem1);
jmenu1.add(jmenuitem2);
jmenu1.addSeparator();
jmenu1.add(jmenuitem3);
jmenuitem1.setActionCommand("You selected New");

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jmenuitem2.setActionCommand("You selected Open");

jmenuitem3.setActionCommand(You selected Exit);
jmenuitem1.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem2.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem3.addActionListener(this);
JMenu jmenu2 = new JMenu("Edit");
JMenuItem jmenuitem4 = new JMenuItem("Cut"),
jmenuitem5 = new JMenuItem("Copy"),
jmenuitem6 = new JMenuItem("Paste");
jmenu2.add(jmenuitem4);
jmenu2.add(jmenuitem5);
jmenu2.add(jmenuitem6);
jmenuitem4.setActionCommand("You selected Cut");
jmenuitem5.setActionCommand("You selected Copy");
jmenuitem6.setActionCommand("You selected Paste");
jmenuitem4.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem5.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem6.addActionListener(this);
...
}
All thats left is to use the JMenuBar classs add()method to add the menus to the menu bar and to add the
menu bar itself to the applet with the setJMenuBar() method:
public void init(){
JMenuBar jmenubar = new JMenuBar();
JMenu jmenu1 = new JMenu("File");
JMenuItem jmenuitem1 = new JMenuItem("New..."),
jmenuitem2 = new JMenuItem("Open..."),
jmenuitem3 = new JMenuItem("Exit");
jmenu1.add(jmenuitem1);
jmenu1.add(jmenuitem2);
jmenu1.addSeparator();
jmenu1.add(jmenuitem3);
jmenuitem1.setActionCommand("You selected New");
jmenuitem2.setActionCommand("You selected Open");
jmenuitem3.setActionCommand(You selected Exit);
jmenuitem1.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem2.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem3.addActionListener(this);
JMenu jmenu2 = new JMenu("Edit");
JMenuItem jmenuitem4 = new JMenuItem("Cut"),
jmenuitem5 = new JMenuItem("Copy"),
jmenuitem6 = new JMenuItem("Paste");
jmenu2.add(jmenuitem4);
jmenu2.add(jmenuitem5);
jmenu2.add(jmenuitem6);
jmenuitem4.setActionCommand("You selected Cut");
jmenuitem5.setActionCommand("You selected Copy");
jmenuitem6.setActionCommand("You selected Paste");
jmenuitem4.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem5.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem6.addActionListener(this);
jmenubar.add(jmenu1);
jmenubar.add(jmenu2);
setJMenuBar(jmenubar);
}
The menu system is now displayed to the user. When the user clicks a menu item, well get the items action
command and display it in the applets status bar, like this, by using the actionPerformed()method. Heres
the code:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e){
JMenuItem jmenuitem = (JMenuItem)e.getSource();
showStatus(jmenuitem.getActionCommand());
}
}

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 Immediate Solutions

Thats all to create a basic menu system. Working with menus in Swing is much like working with them in AWT,
with the obvious difference that applet windows in AWT cant display menus. The result of this code appears as
shown in Figure 16.1, where you can see the menu system at work.

Figure 16.1: A basic menu system

Adding Images to Menu Items

The Aesthetic Design Coordinator says, Your menu items are so blandcant you jazz things up a bit? Well,
you say, I can add images to them. Great! says the ADC, Ill send you the images I want to use. Um,
you say.
Its simple to add images to menu items in Swing programming; you just add an icon to the appropriate
constructor call. Heres how we add an image to each menu item in the example from the previous solution:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = MenuImages.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET>*/
public class MenuImages extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
ImageIcon icon = new ImageIcon("blug2.jpg");
ImageIcon icon1 = new ImageIcon("cut.jpg");
ImageIcon icon2 = new ImageIcon("copy.jpg");
ImageIcon icon3 = new ImageIcon("paste.jpg");
public void init() {
JMenuBar jmenubar = new JMenuBar();
JMenu jmenu1 = new JMenu("File");
JMenuItem jmenuitem1 = new JMenuItem("New...", icon),
jmenuitem2 = new JMenuItem("Open...", icon),
jmenuitem3 = new JMenuItem("Exit", icon);
jmenu1.add(jmenuitem1);
jmenu1.add(jmenuitem2);
jmenu1.addSeparator();
jmenu1.add(jmenuitem3);
jmenuitem1.setActionCommand("You selected New");
jmenuitem2.setActionCommand("You selected Open");
jmenuitem3.setActionCommand("You selected Exit");
jmenuitem1.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem2.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem3.addActionListener(this);
JMenu jmenu2 = new JMenu("Edit");
JMenuItem jmenuitem4 = new JMenuItem("Cut", icon1),
jmenuitem5 = new JMenuItem("Copy", icon2),
jmenuitem6 = new JMenuItem("Paste", icon3);

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jmenu2.add(jmenuitem4);
jmenu2.add(jmenuitem5);
jmenu2.add(jmenuitem6);
jmenuitem4.setActionCommand("You selected Cut");
jmenuitem5.setActionCommand("You selected Copy");
jmenuitem6.setActionCommand("You selected Paste");
jmenuitem4.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem5.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem6.addActionListener(this);
jmenubar.add(jmenu1);
jmenubar.add(jmenu2);
setJMenuBar(jmenubar);
setJMenuBar(jmenubar);
}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
JMenuItem jmenuitem = (JMenuItem)e.getSource();
showStatus(jmenuitem.getActionCommand()); }
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 16.2:

Figure 16.2: Adding images to menu items

As you can see in the figure, each menu item now displays an image.

Creating Checkbox Menu Items

The Product Support Specialist appears and says, Users are unhappy with your new program, especially the
Make All Text Invisible menu item, because they never know whether that option is enabled until its too late.
OK, you say. Ill add a checkmark in front of the item to show when its active.
Swing menus support checkbox menu items just as AWT menus do. You use the JcheckBoxMenuItem class to
create checkbox menu items in Swing programming. Heres the inheritance diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.AbstractButton
|____javax.swing.JMenuItem
|____javax.swing.JCheckBoxMenuItem
Youll find the constructors for the JCheckBoxMenuItem class in Table 16.8 and its methods in Table 16.9:
Table 16.8: Constructors of the JCheckBoxMenuItem class
Constructor Does this
JcheckBoxMenuItem() It constructs an unselected checkbox menu item
JCheckBoxMenuItem(Action a) It creates a menu item whose properties are taken from the action
supplied

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 16.8: Constructors of the JCheckBoxMenuItem class

Constructor Does this
JcheckBoxMenuItem(Icon icon) It constructs an initially unselected check box menu item with an
icon
JcheckBoxMenuItem(String text) It constructs an initially unselected check box menu item with text
JCheckBoxMenuItem(String text, boolean It constructs a check box menu item with the indicated text and the
b) selection state
JCheckBoxMenuItem(String text, Icon It constructs an initially unselected check box menu item with the
icon) indicated text and icon
JCheckBoxMenuItem(String text, Icon It constructs a check box menu item with the indicated text, icon,
icon, boolean b) and selection state

Table 16.9: Methods of the JCheckBoxMenuItem class

Method Does this
AccessibleContextgetAccessibleContext() It gets the AccessibleContext object
Object[] getSelectedObjects() It gets an array (length 1) containing the selected checkbox menu
items label
booleangetState() It gets the selected state of the item
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this
component
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JCheckBoxMenuItem object
void setState(boolean b) It sets the selected state of the item

Lets look at an example. In this case, we add four checkbox items to a menu by using the JCheckBoxMenuItem
class. Heres how we create and add those items to a menu (note that action listeners can be used with checkbox
menu items):
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = MenuCheckBox.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET>*/
public class MenuCheckBox extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JCheckBoxMenuItem
jcheckboxmenuitem1 = new JCheckBoxMenuItem("MBA"),
jcheckboxmenuitem2 = new JCheckBoxMenuItem("MCA"),
jcheckboxmenuitem3 = new JCheckBoxMenuItem("BTECH"),
jcheckboxmenuitem4 = new JCheckBoxMenuItem("MTECH");
public void init() {
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
JMenuBar jmbar = new JMenuBar();
JMenu jmenu = new JMenu("COURSES");
jcheckboxmenuitem1.addActionListener(this);
jcheckboxmenuitem2.addActionListener(this);
jcheckboxmenuitem3.addActionListener(this);
jcheckboxmenuitem4.addActionListener(this);
jmenu.add(jcheckboxmenuitem1);
jmenu.add(jcheckboxmenuitem2);
jmenu.add(jcheckboxmenuitem3);
jmenu.add(jcheckboxmenuitem4);
jmbar.add(jmenu);

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setJMenuBar(jmbar);
}

...
}
When the user clicks a checkbox item, we list the state of all four items as follows:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
showStatus("MBA: " + jcheckboxmenuitem1.getState() +
" MCA: " + jcheckboxmenuitem2.getState() +
" BTECH: " + jcheckboxmenuitem3.getState() +
" MTECH: " + jcheckboxmenuitem4.getState());
}
Thats all it takes. The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 16.3:

Figure 16.3: Creating checkbox menu items

As you can see in the figure, the checkboxes appear as they should be in the menu.

Creating Radio Button Menu Items

OK, says the NP, I know you create checkbox menu items with the JCheckBoxMenuItem class. But what
about radio buttons? Dont you have to add checkbox items to a group? Almost right, you say. In fact, you
add the JradioButtonMenuItem objects to a group.
You use the JradioButtonMenuItem class to create radio button menu items in Swing. Heres the inheritance
diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.AbstractButton
|____javax.swing.JMenuItem
|____javax.swing.JRadioButtonMenuItem
Youll find the constructors for the JradioButtonMenuItem class in Table 16.10 and its methods in
Table 16.11:
Table 16.10: Constructors of the JRadioButtonMenuItem class
Constructor Does this
JRadioButtonMenuItem() It constructs a JRadioButtonMenuItem
JRadioButtonMenuItem(Action a) It creates a radio button menu item whose properties are taken from the
action supplied
JRadioButtonMenuItem(Icon icon) It constructs a JRadioButtonMenuItem with an icon
JRadioButtonMenuItem(Icon icon, It constructs a JRadioButtonMenuItem with the indicated image and
boolean selected) selection state, but no text

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 16.10: Constructors of the JRadioButtonMenuItem class

Constructor Does this
JRadioButtonMenuItem(String text) It constructs a JRadioButtonMenuItem with text
JRadioButtonMenuItem(String text, It constructs a radio button menu item with the indicated text and the
booleanselected) selection state
JRadioButtonMenuItem(String text, It constructs a JRadioButtonMenuItem with the indicated text and icon
Icon icon)
JRadioButtonMenuItem(String text, It constructs a radio button menu item that has the indicated text, image,
Icon icon, boolean selected) and selection state

Table 16.11: Methods of the JRadioButtonMenuItem class

Method Does this
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext object
getAccessibleContext()
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this component
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JRadioButtonMenuItem

Lets look at an example. In this case, we add four radio buttons to a menu and add an item listener to indicate
when each radio button is selected or deselected. Heres what the code looks like:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = MenuRadioButton.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET>*/
public class MenuRadioButton extends JApplet implements ItemListener {
JRadioButtonMenuItem
jradiobuttonmenuitem1 = new JRadioButtonMenuItem("Uttar Pradesh"),
jradiobuttonmenuitem2 = new JRadioButtonMenuItem("Delhi"),
jradiobuttonmenuitem3 = new JRadioButtonMenuItem("Assam"),
jradiobuttonmenuitem4 = new JRadioButtonMenuItem("Chennai");
public void init() {
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
JMenuBar jmenubar = new JMenuBar();
JMenu jmenu = new JMenu("Radio Button Menu Items");
jmenu.add(jradiobuttonmenuitem1);
jmenu.add(jradiobuttonmenuitem2);
jmenu.add(jradiobuttonmenuitem3);
jmenu.add(jradiobuttonmenuitem4);
ButtonGroup group = new ButtonGroup();
group.add(jradiobuttonmenuitem1);
group.add(jradiobuttonmenuitem2);
group.add(jradiobuttonmenuitem3);
group.add(jradiobuttonmenuitem4);
jradiobuttonmenuitem1.addItemListener(this);
jradiobuttonmenuitem2.addItemListener(this);
jradiobuttonmenuitem3.addItemListener(this);
jradiobuttonmenuitem4.addItemListener(this);
jmenubar.add(jmenu);
setJMenuBar(jmenubar); }
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {
JMenuItem jmenuitem = (JMenuItem) e.getSource();
String itemtext = jmenuitem.getText();
if(e.getStateChange() == ItemEvent.SELECTED)
itemtext += " was selected";
else
itemtext += " was deselected";

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showStatus(itemtext); }
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 16.4, where you can see the radio buttons in the menu
at work:

Figure 16.4: Creating radio button menu items

When the user clicks a radio button, this applet indicates which one was selected in the status bar.

Creating Submenus
My menus are getting too big, the NP says. I want to let the user select the drawing color in my program by
selecting menu items, but all the colors are crowding out the other items in the menu. You should try putting
all the colors into a submenu, you say. How many colors do you want to display? About 3,000, says the NP.
You say, Uh-oh.
Submenus, also called cascading menus, are menus you open from other menus. Swing indicates that a menu item
is actually a submenu by adding a clickable arrow to the right of the menu item; when the user clicks the arrow,
the submenu opens.
You can create submenus easily in Swing. All you do to create a new menu is add items to the menu and then
add the menu itself as an item in another menu. Heres an example to make this clearer. In this case, we add four
menu items and three submenu items. Heres what this looks like in code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = SubMenus.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET>*/
public class SubMenus extends JApplet
{
public void init()
{
JMenuBar jmenubar = new JMenuBar();
JMenu jm = new JMenu("Sub Menus", true);
JMenu jsubmenu = new JMenu("Cascading Menu", true);
jm.add("Item 1");
jm.add("Item 2");
jm.add("Item 3");
jsubmenu.add("Sub Item a");
jsubmenu.add("Sub Item b");
jsubmenu.add("Sub Item c");

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 Immediate Solutions

jm.add(jsubmenu);
jmenubar.add(jm);
setJMenuBar(jmenubar);
}
}
The result of this code appears, as shown in Figure 16.5:

Figure 16.5: Creating submenus

As you can see, the submenu opens when the user selects the corresponding menu item.

Creating Menu Accelerators

Say, says the Programming Correctness Czar, what about those menu items I sometimes see that have
keyboard shortcuts? But you cant do that in Java. Sure can, you say, with menu accelerators.
Menu accelerators provide keyboard access to menu items.
In accelerators, you specify the actual keystrokes involved to trigger a menu item, such as F1, Ctrl+X, and so on
(the meta key isnt used in menu accelerators unless you specify that it should be). You can add an accelerator to
a menu item (not menus) with the setAccelerator()method, which takes an object of the KeyStroke class
that defines the keystroke if you want to use as the accelerator. Heres the inheritance diagram for the
KeyStroke class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.AWTKeyStroke
|________javax.swing.KeyStroke
You can find the methods of the KeyStroke class in Table 16.12:
Table 16.12: Methods of the KeyStroke class
Method Does this
static KeyStroke getKeyStroke(char It returns a shared instance of a keystroke thats activated when
keyChar) the key is pressed.
static KeyStroke getKeyStroke(char These are deprecated and they use getKeyStroke(char).
keyChar, booleanonKeyRelease)
static KeyStroke getKeyStroke(intkeyCode, It returns a shared instance of a keystroke given a char code and
int modifiers) a set of modifiers. The key is activated when its pressed.
static KeyStroke getKeyStroke(intkeyCode, It gets a shared instance of a keystroke given a numeric
int modifiers, booleanonKeyRelease) keycode and a set of modifiers.
static KeyStroke getKeyStroke(String s) It parses a string and returns a KeyStroke.
static KeyStroke It returns a keystroke from an event.
getKeyStrokeForEvent(KeyEventanEvent)

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You can use the virtual key constants defined in the KeyEventclassKeyEvent.VK_A,KeyEvent.VK_ENTER,
and KeyEvent.VK_TABto specify the keycode when creating a KeyStroke object. The modifiers you can
specify can be any combination of the following:
InputEvent.SHIFT_DOWN_MASK
InputEvent.CTRL_DOWN_MASK
InputEvent.META_DOWN_MASK
InputEvent.ALT_DOWN_MASK
InputEvent.ALT_GRAPH_DOWN_MASK
Well put this together in an example. In this case, we add a mnemonic, the letter C to the Copyitem in the Edit
menu and give it the accelerator Ctrl+C. Heres how that looks in code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = MenuAccelerator.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET>*/
public class MenuAccelerator extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
public void init() {
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
JMenuBar jmenubar = new JMenuBar();
JMenu jmenu = new JMenu("Edit");
JMenuItem jmenuitem = new JMenuItem("Copy...");
jmenu.add(jmenuitem);
jmenu.add("Open ...");
jmenuitem.setMnemonic(KeyEvent.VK_C);
KeyStroke keystroke = KeyStroke.getKeyStroke(KeyEvent.VK_C,
Event.CTRL_MASK);
jmenuitem.setAccelerator(keystroke);
jmenuitem.addActionListener(this);
jmenubar.add(jmenu);
setJMenuBar(jmenubar); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
showStatus("You selected the Copy item."); }
}
The result is shown in Figure 16.6, where you see the accelerator (Ctrl+C) in the Copy menu item:

Figure 16.6: Menu mnemonics

Providing accelerators like this can speed up things for users who dont want to switch from the keyboard to the
mouse and back again.

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 Immediate Solutions

Enabling/Disabling and Changing Menu Items at Runtime

That Johnson, the NP says, clicked the wrong option in my program at the wrong time, which made my code
try to check email when it wasnt even connected to the Internet! Silly Johnson, you say. How about
disabling menu items when they are not appropriate? Perfect! says the NP.
You can enable and disable menu items with the setEnabled()method; when a menu item is disabled, it
appears dimmed and cannot be clicked. Heres a quick example: In this case, we let the user disable a menu item
in an applets Edit menu. To do that, we add two items to the Edit menuDisable bottom item and Enable
bottom item. When the user clicks Disable bottom item, we disable a third menu item in the Edit menu and
switch its caption to Disabled item with the setText()method; when the user clicks Enable bottom item, we
enable the third item and switch its caption to Enabled item. Heres what this looks like in code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = MenuDisable.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET>*/
public class MenuDisable extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JMenuBar jmenubar = new JMenuBar();
JMenu menu1 = new JMenu("File");
JMenu menu2 = new JMenu("Edit");
JMenuItem jmenuitem1 = new JMenuItem("Save..."),
jmenuitem2 = new JMenuItem("Save As..."),
jmenuitem3 = new JMenuItem("Exit"),
jmenuitem4 = new JMenuItem("Disable bottom item"),
jmenuitem5 = new JMenuItem("Enable bottom item"),
jmenuitem6 = new JMenuItem("Enabled item");

public void init() {

menu1.add(jmenuitem1);
menu1.add(jmenuitem2);
menu1.addSeparator();
menu1.add(jmenuitem3);
jmenuitem1.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem2.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem3.addActionListener(this);

menu2.add(jmenuitem4);
menu2.add(jmenuitem5);
menu2.add(jmenuitem6);
jmenuitem4.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem5.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem6.addActionListener(this);

jmenubar.add(menu1);
jmenubar.add(menu2);
setJMenuBar(jmenubar); }

public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {

JMenuItem jmenuitem = (JMenuItem)e.getSource();
if(jmenuitem == jmenuitem4) {
jmenuitem6.setText("Disabled item");
jmenuitem6.setEnabled(false); }
if(jmenuitem == jmenuitem5) {
jmenuitem6.setText("Enabled item");
jmenuitem6.setEnabled(true); }
}
}

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Chapter 16: SwingMenus and Toolbars

You can see the result of this code in Figure 16.7:

Figure 16.7: Disabling menu items

When the user selects an item in the Edit menu, the bottom item in that menu is enabled or disabled accordingly,
and its caption is changed to match. Thats all there is to it.

You shouldnt disable too many menu items at oncedoing so gives your program an inaccessible feel.

Adding and Removing Menu Items at Runtime

The Big Boss says, We are providing the options available in our new program on the users ability to pay. You
say, What? After we have determined how much money the user has, well enable the appropriate number of
menu items. You say, What?
You can add menu items to menus at runtime with the add() method and remove them with the remove()
method. Heres an example in which we add a new menu item to a menu when the user clicks Add item, and
we remove it when the user clicks Remove item. Heres what the code looks like:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = MenuUpdate.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET>*/
public class MenuUpdate extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JMenuBar jmenubar = new JMenuBar();
JMenu menu1 = new JMenu("File");
JMenu menu2 = new JMenu("Format");
JMenuItem jmenuitem1 = new JMenuItem("New..."),
jmenuitem2 = new JMenuItem("Open..."),
jmenuitem3 = new JMenuItem("Exit"),
jmenuitem4 = new JMenuItem("Add item"),
jmenuitem5 = new JMenuItem("Remove item"),
jmenuitem6 = new JMenuItem("New item");
public void init() {
menu1.add(jmenuitem1);
menu1.add(jmenuitem2);
menu1.addSeparator();
menu1.add(jmenuitem3);
jmenuitem1.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem2.addActionListener(this);
menu2.add(jmenuitem4);
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 Immediate Solutions

menu2.add(jmenuitem5);
jmenuitem4.setActionCommand("You selected Font");
jmenuitem4.addActionListener(this);
jmenuitem5.setActionCommand("You selected Font");
jmenuitem5.addActionListener(this);
jmenubar.add(menu1);
jmenubar.add(menu2);
setJMenuBar(jmenubar); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
JMenuItem jmenuitem = (JMenuItem)e.getSource();
if(jmenuitem == jmenuitem4) { menu2.add(jmenuitem6); }
if(jmenuitem == jmenuitem5) { menu2.remove(jmenuitem6); }
}
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 16.8, where you can see the new item added when the user
clicks Add item:

Figure 16.8: Adding and removing menu items at runtime

The user can remove the new item by clicking the Remove item. Note that you can create new menu items on the
fly with the new operator, and you can add as many menu items to your menus as you like at runtime.

Adding Buttons and Other Controls to Menus

You can add controls, such as buttons, to Swing menus. In fact, doing so is easy; you just use the JMenu classs
add()method. For example, heres how we add a Jbutton object to a menu, making the code display a
message Hello User! when the user clicks the button:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = MenuControls.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET>*/
public class MenuControls extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
public void init() {
JMenuBar jmenubar = new JMenuBar();
JMenu menu1 = new JMenu("File");
JMenuItem jmenuitem1 = new JMenuItem("New..."),
jmenuitem2 = new JMenuItem("Save..."),
jmenuitem3 = new JMenuItem("Save As");
JButton jbutton = new JButton("Click Here!");
jbutton.setActionCommand("Hello User! ");
jbutton.addActionListener(this);
menu1.add(jmenuitem1);
menu1.add(jmenuitem2);

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menu1.addSeparator();
menu1.add(jbutton);
menu1.addSeparator();
menu1.add(jmenuitem3);
JMenu jmenu2 = new JMenu("Edit");
JMenuItem jmenuitem4 = new JMenuItem("Cut"),
jmenuitem5 = new JMenuItem("Copy"),
jmenuitem6 = new JMenuItem("Paste");
jmenu2.add(jmenuitem4);
jmenu2.add(jmenuitem5);
jmenu2.add(jmenuitem6);
jmenubar.add(menu1);
jmenubar.add(jmenu2);
setJMenuBar(jmenubar); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
JButton jbutton = (JButton)e.getSource();
showStatus(jbutton.getActionCommand()); }
}
The result of this code appears in Figure 16.9:

Figure 16.9: Adding a button to a menu

As you can see in the figure, we have added a completely functional button to the File menu of the applet.

Creating Pop-Up Menus

The Big Boss is annoyed and says, All these new features to keep up with, all these programmers to hire! The
expense! Now its pop-up menus, no less! Thats OK, you say. I can add those to our programs if I just put in
a little overtime. The BB yells, The expense! The expense!
Pop-up menus are the menus that the user can display by clicking the mouse (usually the right mouse button)
when its positioned over a component. In Swing, pop-up menus are supported by the (you guessed it)
JPopupMenu class. Heres the inheritance diagram for that class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JPopupMenu
Youll find the constructors for the JPopupMenu class in Table 16.13 and its methods in Table 16.14:
Table 16.13: Constructors of the JPopupMenu class
Constructor Does this
JPopupMenu() It constructs a JPopupMenu
JPopupMenu(String label) It constructs a JPopupMenu with the indicated title

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Table 16.14: Methods of the JPopupMenu class

Method Does this
JMenuItem add(Action a) It appends a new menu item to the end of the menu, which initiates the
indicated action
JMenuItem add(JMenuItem menuItem) It appends the indicated menu item
JMenuItem add(String s) It constructs a new item with the indicated text and appends it to the end
of the menu
void It adds a PopupMenu listener
addPopupMenuListener(PopupMenuList
ener l)
void addSeparator() It appends a new separator at the end of the menu
protected PropertyChangeListener It creates an action changed listener
createActionChangeListener(JMenuIt
em b)
protected void It informs listeners that this pop-up menu is cancelled
firePopupMenuCanceled()
protected void It informs PopupMenuListeners that this pop-up menu will become
firePopupMenuWillBecomeInvisible invisible
()
protected void It informs PopupMenuListeners that this pop-up menu will become
firePopupMenuWillBecomeVisible() visible
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext object
getAccessibleContext()
Component getComponent() It gets the JPopupMenu used to paint the receiving element
Component It gets the component at the indicated index
Container.getComponent(int i)
int getComponentIndex(Component c) It gets the index of the indicated component
static boolean It returns the default value for the
getDefaultLightWeightPopupEnabled() defaultLightWeightPopupEnabled property
Component getInvoker() It gets the component thats the invoker of this pop-up menu (that is,
the component in which the pop-up menu is to be displayed)
String getLabel() It gets the pop-up menus label
Insets getMargin() It gets the margin between the pop-up menus border and its contained
components
SingleSelectionModel It gets the model object that handles single selections
getSelectionModel()
MenuElement[] getSubElements() It should return an array containing the MenuElements
PopupMenuUI getUI() It gets the look and feel object that renders this component
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that renders this
component
void insert(Action a, int index) It inserts a menu item for the indicated Action object at a given position
void insert(Component component, It inserts the indicated component into the menu at a given position
int index)
boolean isBorderPainted() It checks whether the border should be painted
boolean It returns True if lightweight pop-ups are in use and false if heavyweight
isLightWeightPopupEnabled() pop-ups are in use
boolean isVisible() It returns True if the pop-up menu is visible
void It is called when the menu selection is changed
menuSelectionChanged(booleanisIncl
uded)

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Table 16.14: Methods of the JPopupMenu class

Method Does this
void pack() It lays out the container so that it uses the minimum space to display its
contents
protected void It paints the pop-up menus border
paintBorder(Graphics g)
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this
void processKeyEvent(KeyEvent e, It processes a key event
MenuElement[]path,
MenuSelectionManager manager)
void processMouseEvent(MouseEvent It processes a mouse event
event, MenuElement[] path,
MenuSelectionManager manager)
void remove(int pos) It removes the component at the indicated index
void It removes a PopupMenu listener
removePopupMenuListener(PopupMenuL
istener l)
void setBorderPainted(boolean b) It sets whether the border should be painted
static void It sets the default value for the lightWeightPopupEnabled property
setDefaultLightWeightPopupEnabled(
boolean aFlag)
void setInvoker(Component invoker) It sets the invoker of this pop-up menu
void setLabel(String label) It sets the pop-up menus label
void setLightWeightPopupEnabled It chooses whether to use a lightweight pop-up if it fits
(boolean aFlag)
void setLocation(int x, int y) It sets the location of the upper-left corner of the pop-up menu
void setPopupSize(Dimension d) It sets the size of the pop-up by using a Dimension object
void setPopupSize(int width, int It sets the size of the pop-up
height)
void setSelected(Component sel) It sets the currently selected component
void It sets the model object to handle single selections
setSelectionModel(SingleSelectionM
odel model)
void setUI(PopupMenuUI ui) It sets the look and feel object that draws this component
void setVisible(boolean b) It sets the visibility of the menu
void show(Component invoker, int It displays the pop-up menu
x, int y)
void updateUI() It is called by UIFactory when the look and feel has changed

You create pop-up menus, add new items to them with the add() method, and then display them with the
show() method.
Lets look at an example. In this case, we create a pop-up menu with three items in itFind, Find Next, and
Replacewhich will appear when the user right-clicks with the mouse. A pop-up menu needs to be the child of
some other component, so well add a text field to an applet and cover the applet with the text field. Heres what
creating the text field and the pop-up menu looks like in code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = PopUp.class
WIDTH = 350

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HEIGHT = 280 >

</APPLET>*/
public class PopUp extends JApplet implements MouseListener
{
JTextField jtextfield = new JTextField("Right click me!", JTextField.CENTER);
JPopupMenu jpopupmenu = new JPopupMenu();
public void init()
{
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
jpopupmenu.add(new JMenuItem("Find", new ImageIcon("desert.jpg")));
jpopupmenu.add(new JMenuItem("Find Next", new ImageIcon("desert.jpg")));
jpopupmenu.add(new JMenuItem("Replace", new ImageIcon("desert.jpg")));
jtextfield.addMouseListener(this);
contentPane.add(jtextfield);
}

...

}
Now when the user clicks a mouse button, we can check whether the right mouse button was clicked by using
the MouseEventclasss getModifiers() method and the mask for the right mouse button
InputEvent.BUTTON3_MASK. If the right mouse button was indeed clicked, well show the new pop-up menu
at the mouse location, like this:
public void mousePressed (MouseEvent e)
{
if((e.getModifiers() & InputEvent.BUTTON3_MASK) == InputEvent.BUTTON3_MASK)
jpopupmenu.show(jtextfield, e.getX(), e.getY());
}
public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent e) {}
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e) {}
public void mouseEntered(MouseEvent e) {}
public void mouseExited(MouseEvent e) {}
The result appears as shown in Figure 16.10:

Figure 16.10: Displaying a pop-up menu

When the user right-clicks the text field in the applet, the pop-up menu appears at the mouse location
(Figure 16.10). Thats all there is to display pop-up menus.

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Creating Toolbars
Menus are fine, says the NP, but sometimes Im working too fast to use them, so I have got a lot of menu
accelerators in my program. But now I keep forgetting them. You smile and say, Have you tried adding a
toolbar?
Toolbars display buttons and other controls that represent common actions in your program, such as saving a
file or pasting the contents of the clipboard. Buttons in a toolbar often represent frequently used menu items in
your menu system. In Swing, you use the JToolBar class to create toolbars. Heres the inheritance diagram for
the JToolBar class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JToolBar
You can find the constructors for the JToolBarclass in Table 16.15 and its methods in Table 16.16:
Table 16.15: Constructors of the JToolBar class
Constructor Does this
JToolBar() It constructs a new toolbar
JToolBar(int orientation) It constructs a new toolbar with the given orientation
JToolBar(String name) It creates a new tool bar with the specified name
JToolBar(String name, int orientation) It creates a new tool bar with a specified name and orientation

Table 16.16: Methods of the JToolBarclass

Method Does this
JButton add(Action a) It adds a new JButton that initiates the action
protected void addImpl(Component comp, It adds the indicated component to this container at the indicated
Object constraints, int index) index
void addSeparator() It appends a toolbar separator
void addSeparator(Dimension size) It appends a toolbar separator with the given dimensions
protected PropertyChangeListener It creates an action changed listener
createActionChangeListener(JButton b)
protected JButton createActionComponent It creates the JButton for actions added to the JToolBar
(Action a)
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext
getAccessibleContext()
Component getComponentAtIndex(int i) It gets the component at the indicated index
int getComponentIndex(Component c) It gets the index of the indicated component
Insets getMargin() It gets the margin between the toolbars border and its buttons
intgetOrientation() It gets the current orientation of the toolbar
ToolBarUI getUI() It gets the toolbars current user interface
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that draws this
component
boolean isBorderPainted() It checks whether the border should be painted
boolean isFloatable() It returns True if the toolbar can be dragged by the user
boolean isRollover() It returns the rollover state
protected void paintBorder(Graphics g) It paints the toolbars border
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JToolBar object

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Table 16.16: Methods of the JToolBarclass

Method Does this
void setBorderPainted(boolean b) It sets whether the border should be painted
void setFloatable(boolean b) It sets whether the toolbar can be made to float
void setMargin(Insets m) It sets the margin between the toolbars border and its buttons
void setOrientation(int o) It sets the orientation of the toolbar
void setRollover(boolean rollover) It sets the rollover state of this toolbar
void setUI(ToolBarUIui) It sets the look and feel object that renders this component
void updateUI() It is called by UIFactory when the look and feel has changed

Heres an example in which we add a toolbar with two buttons to a program. Note that in many ways, a toolbar
just acts as a component that contains other components you have to add it to the layout of your program
where you want it. However, when you have done that, the user can grasp the toolbar handle, which appears on
the left in toolbars, and realign the toolbar against any edge of the window it appears in. In fact, the user can
simply leave the toolbar floating in mid space, not aligned against any edge of the window at all.
In the code for this example, we simply use the JToolBar classs add()method to add two buttons to a
toolbar, and we use its addSeparator()method to add some space between the buttons. We also add code to
make the applet display which of the toolbar buttons the user has clicked, and we add the toolbar to the north
section of the content panes border layout. Heres the code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = ToolBar.class
WIDTH = 500
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET>*/
public class ToolBar extends JApplet implements ActionListener{
JButton jbutton1 = new JButton("Button 1", new ImageIcon("bulg2.jpg"));
JButton jbutton2 = new JButton("Button 2", new ImageIcon("bulg2.jpg"));
JButton setrollbutton = new JButton("Set Rollover");
JToolBar jtoolbar = new JToolBar();
JToolBar setrollover = new JToolBar();
public void init(){
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
jbutton1.addActionListener(this);
jbutton2.addActionListener(this);
setrollbutton.addActionListener(this);
jtoolbar.add(jbutton1);
jtoolbar.addSeparator();
jtoolbar.add(jbutton2);
setrollover.add(setrollbutton);
contentPane.add(jtoolbar, BorderLayout.NORTH);
contentPane.add(setrollover, BorderLayout.SOUTH);
jtoolbar.setFloatable(false);
jtoolbar.setRollover(false);}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e){
if(jtoolbar.isRollover()){
if(e.getSource() == jbutton1){
showStatus("You clicked button 1"); }
else if (e.getSource() == jbutton2){

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showStatus("You clicked button 2");}

}
else{
showStatus("Rollover is not set! SET THE ROLLOVERFIRST");}
if(e.getSource() == setrollbutton){
jtoolbar.setRollover(true);
showStatus("Setting Rollover Successful");}

}
}
The result of this code is shown in Figure 16.11, where you can see the two buttons in the toolbar, placed on the
top of the screen, and one button in the toolbar, placed at the bottom of the screen:

Figure 16.11: Displaying a toolbar with two buttons

As Rollover of toolbar, at the top of the screen, is set to false, youll not be able to click the buttons to get the
button specific message on status bar. To get those messages, first set the Rollover to true by clicking the button,
which is in the toolbar placed at the bottom.
Also note the toolbar handle on the left in the toolbar, which the user can use to move the toolbar around,
aligning it as needed or leaving it free floating.

Adding Combo Boxes and Other Controls to Toolbars

The Product Support Specialist is in an unhappy mood and says, Users are complaining again. You have got 20
buttons in your toolbar for selecting the font, and there isnt room for any other buttons. Hmm, you say, that
could be a problem. Ill put various font options into a combo box in the toolbar instead. The normally
lugubrious PSS brightens momentarily.
You can add combo boxes and other controls to toolbars by using the JToolBar classs add()method. Heres
an example in which we add a combo box to the toolbox example developed in the previous solution:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = ToolBr.class
WIDTH = 500
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET>*/
public class ToolBr extends JApplet implements ActionListener,
ItemListener{
JButton jbutton1 = new JButton("Button 1", new

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 Immediate Solutions

ImageIcon("bulg2.jpg"));
JButton jbutton2 = new JButton("Button 2", new
ImageIcon("bulg2.jpg"));
JComboBox jcombobox = new JComboBox();
public void init(){
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
JToolBar jtoolbar = new JToolBar();
jbutton1.addActionListener(this);
jbutton2.addActionListener(this);
jcombobox.addItem("Item 1");
jcombobox.addItem("Item 2");
jcombobox.addItem("Item 3");
jcombobox.addItem("Item 4");
jcombobox.addItemListener(this);
jtoolbar.add(jbutton1);
jtoolbar.addSeparator();
jtoolbar.add(jbutton2);
jtoolbar.addSeparator();
jtoolbar.add(jcombobox);
contentPane.add(jtoolbar, BorderLayout.NORTH);}
...
}
When the user selects an item in the combo box, we display that item in the status bar:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e){
if(e.getSource() == jbutton1) {showStatus("You clicked button 1");}
else if (e.getSource() == jbutton2) {showStatus("You clicked button 2");}
}
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e){
String outString = "";
if(e.getStateChange() == ItemEvent.SELECTED)
outString += "Selected: " + (String)e.getItem();
else
outString += "Deselected: " + (String)e.getItem();
showStatus(outString);
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 16.12:

Figure 16.12: Adding a combo box to a toolbar

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When the user clicks an item in the combo box, the applet will display that item in the status bar.

Summary
In this chapter, you have read about the menu and toolbars. You have also learned how to create a menu bar and
add images to the menu, create toolbars with combo boxes and other controls.
In the next chapter, youll come across different windows, desktop panes, and dialog boxes.

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SwingWindows,
Desktop Panes, Inner
Frames, and Dialog Boxes
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Creating a Window 581
Designing Shaped and Translucent Windows 583
Creating a Frame Window 588
Creating a Desktop Pane 589
Creating Internal Frames 591
Using JOptionPane to Create Dialog Boxes 598
Creating Option Pane Confirmation Dialog Boxes 604
Creating Option Pane Message Dialog Boxes 605
Creating Option Pane Text Field Input Dialog Boxes 606
Creating Option Pane Combo Box Input Dialog Boxes 608
Creating Option Pane Internal Frame Dialog Boxes 609
Creating Dialog Boxes with JDialog 609
Getting Input from Dialog Boxes Created with JDialog 613
Chapter 17: SwingWindows, Desktop Panes, Inner Frames, and Dialog Boxes

In Depth
In this chapter, well take a look at handling all kinds of windows in Swing. Well cover how to work with the
JWindow, JFrame, JDesktopPane, JInternalFrame, JOptionPane, and JDialog classes. These classes can
be conveniently broken down into two categorieswindows and dialog boxes.

Windows
The JWindow and JFrame classes are the counterparts of the AWT Window and Frame classes, and they serve
the same purpose. You can use the JWindow class to create a simple window thats, in fact, nothing more than a
blank rectangle. Although, you can add borders and controls to JWindow objects, you usually use the JFrame
class to create windows that you present to the user.
The JDesktopPane and JInternalFrame classes are new in Swing, although together they represent
something thats become common in GUIsa multipledocument interface. Objects of the JDesktopPane
class present a space in which you can display multiple internal frames of the JInternalFrame class. For
example, a word processor application may let the user open several views into the same document, or multiple
documents, using a desktop with a number of internal frame windows. Internal frames are lightweight, drawn
windows that appear inside the other windows. In fact, desktop panes are lightweight components, too, derived
from JLayeredPane, and you can add internal frame windows to the layers, you select, of a desktop pane.

Dialog Boxes
Swing provides a lot of support for dialog boxes with the JOptionPane class. Using the methods of this class,
you can display all kinds of dialog boxesmessage dialog boxes, confirmation dialog boxes, input dialog boxes,
and more. As youll see here, its easy to create dialog boxes by using JOptionPane.
In addition to JOptionPane, Swing also has the JDialog class, which you can use as the foundation of your
own custom dialog box class. Well cover how to use both JOptionPane and JDialog in this chapter in depth.
Thats it for the overview of whats in this chapter. As you can see, theres a lot coming up. Its time to turn to
the Immediate Solutions section, starting with a look at the JWindow class.

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 Immediate Solutions

Immediate Solutions
Creating a Window
The Novice Programmer appears and says, I want to create an entirely customized window in my program.
For that, you say, you need the JWindow class, which displays an entirely blank window. OK, says the NP,
can you code it for me?
The JWindow class is much like the AWT Window class because it displays a blank window that you can
customize as you like. In fact, JWindow objects are so unadorned that youll generally use the JFrame class
instead. However, if you really need simplicity, JWindow is the place to start. Heres the inheritance diagram for
this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____java.awt.Window
|____javax.swing.JWindow
You can find the constructors for JWindow in Table 17.1 and its methods in Table 17.2:
Table 17.1: Constructors of the JWindow class
Constructor Does this
JWindow() It constructs a window
JWindow(Frame owner) It constructs a window with the indicated owner frame
JWindow It constructs a window with the specified
(GraphicsConfiguration gc) GraphicsConfiguration of a screen device
JWindow(Window owner) It constructs a window with the indicated owner window
JWindow(Window owner, It constructs a window with the specified owner window and
GraphicsConfiguration gc) GraphicsConfiguration of a screen device

Table 17.2: Methods of the JWindow class

Method Does this
Graphics getGraphics() It creates a graphics context for this component
protected void addImpl It adds components to the content pane instead
(Component comp, Object
constraints, int index)
protected JRootPane It is called by the constructor methods to create the default root pane
createRootPane()
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext object
getAccessibleContext()
Container getContentPane() It gets the contentPane object for this window
Component getGlassPane() It gets the glassPane object for this window
JLayeredPane getLayeredPane() It gets the layeredPane object for this window
JRootPane getRootPane() It gets the rootPane object for this window
TransferHandler It gets the transferHandler property
getTransferHandler()
protected boolean It determines whether calls to add and setLayout cause an exception
isRootPaneCheckingEnabled() to be thrown
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JWindow
void remove(Component comp) It removes the indicated component from this container

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Table 17.2: Methods of the JWindow class

Method Does this
void repaint (long time, int x, It repaints the specified rectangle of this component in milliseconds
int y, int width, int height)
void setContentPane It sets the contentPane property
(Container contentPane)
void setGlassPane It sets the glassPane property
(Component glassPane)
void setLayeredPane It sets the layeredPane property
(JLayeredPane layeredPane)
void setLayout By default, the layout of this component may not be set
(LayoutManager manager)
protected void setRootPane It sets the rootPane property
(JRootPane root)
protected void It determines whether calls to add and setLayout cause an exception
setRootPaneCheckingEnabled to be thrown
(boolean enabled)
void It sets the transferHandler property, which is a mechanism to support
setTransferHandler(TransferHandler transfer of data into this component
newHandler)
void update(Graphics g) It calls the paint(g) method to draw the graphics
protected void windowInit() It is called by constructors to initialize the JWindow properly

When you create a JWindow object, you can add a border to it with the root panes setBorder() method,
show the window with the setVisible(true) method, hide it with the setVisible(false) method, and
get rid of it with the dispose() method. Note that the default layout in a JWindow object is a border layout.
Well create a JWindow object now for example. In this case, we add a button to an applet and display the
window when that button is clicked. We also add a border to the window and a button that, when clicked, will
dispose of the window. Note that JWindow objects have content panes just like other windows, so we add the
button to that pane. Also note that before a window can be displayed, it must be given a size, which we do here
with the setBounds() method. Heres the code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = Window.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET> */
public class Window extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JWindow jwindow = new JWindow();
public void init() {
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
JButton jbutton = new JButton("Display window");
JButton jwindowbutton = new JButton("Close");
contentPane.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
contentPane.add(jbutton);
jwindow.getRootPane().setBorder(
BorderFactory.createRaisedBevelBorder() );
Container windowContentPane = jwindow.getContentPane();
windowContentPane.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
windowContentPane.add(jwindowbutton);
jwindowbutton.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
jwindow.dispose(); } });
jbutton.addActionListener(this); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {

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jwindow.setBounds(200, 200, 100, 100);

jwindow.setVisible(true); }
}
The result of this code appears as shown in Figure 17.1, where you can see the new window that appears when
the user clicks the Display window button:

Figure 17.1: A basic JWindow window

As you can see, the window has a border and a button (as well as a warning that Swing adds, indicating that the
window is an applet window).

Although in this example, we pass numeric values to the windows setBounds() method, you can also set the location of the
window with respect to its parent window. First, you can get the location of the applet windows content pane like this: Point loc
= contentPane.getLocation(). This point is in local coordinates, so you can convert it into screen coordinates, like this:
SwingUtilities.convertPointToScreen(loc, contentPane). Then you are free to use loc with setBounds().

Designing Shaped and Translucent Windows

In Java, we can design various shaped and translucent windows. The translucent windows are more attractive to
the users, so they are more preferred than the normal windows. Translucency is achieved by changing the
opacity of the entire window or by using the per-pixel or uniform translucency that manages the translucency or
opacity level of each pixel on the entire window. The translucency value of a window is called alpha value. The
general opacity is normally modified compared to per-pixel translucency (opacity) as it consumes less system
resources.
We can design different shaped windows in Java by making the desirable area of the windows as transparent.
For designing the different shaped and translucent windows, we can use the java.awt.Window class and its
subclasses, such as javax.swing.JFrame, javax.swing.JDialog, and java.awt.Frame.
Now, well discuss how to create the different shaped and translucent windows in detail.

Creating Translucent Windows

In creating translucent windows, every pixel of the window possesses same translucency. The
setOpacity(float) method is invoked to maintain the translucency of all the pixels of a window. The
argument float passed to this method represents the translucency level of the window, and it ranges between 0
and 1. The lower value represents more transparency of the window.
The code of the TranslucentWindowEg.java source file that uses the setOpacity() method to make 25%
translucent window is as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import static java.awt.GraphicsDevice.WindowTranslucency.*;
public class TranslucentWindowEg extends JFrame {
public TranslucentWindowEg() {

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super("This is a Translucent Window");

setLayout(new GridBagLayout());
setSize(300,200);
setLocationRelativeTo(null);
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
//Add a sample button.
add(new JButton("A Button"));
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
// Determine if the GraphicsDevice supports translucency.
GraphicsEnvironment ge =
GraphicsEnvironment.getLocalGraphicsEnvironment();
GraphicsDevice gd = ge.getDefaultScreenDevice();
//If translucent windows aren't supported, exit.
if (!gd.isWindowTranslucencySupported(TRANSLUCENT)) {
System.err.println(
"Translucency is not supported");
System.exit(0);
}
JFrame.setDefaultLookAndFeelDecorated(true);
// Create the GUI on the event-dispatching thread
SwingUtilities.invokeLater(new Runnable() {
@Override
public void run() {
TranslucentWindowEg tw = new TranslucentWindowEg();
// Set the window to 75% opaque (25% translucent).
tw.setOpacity(0.75f);
tw.setVisible(true);
}
});
}
}
We can see the result of this code in Figure 17.2:

Figure 17.2: A translucent window

You see in the figure that the translucent window displays a button, and the window is 75% opaque.

Per-Pixel Translucency Windows

For creating per-pixel translucent windows, the alpha values need to be defined over the rectangular area on the
window. When the alpha value is 0, 255, and 128, the pixel is fully transparent, fully opaque, and 50 percent
transparent, respectively.
To create a smooth interpolation between the alpha values, the GradientPaint class is used. By invoking the
setBackground(new Color(0,0,0,0)) method on the window, the software to use the alpha values renders per-
pixel translucency. In fact, invoking setBackground(new Color(0,0,0,alpha) where alpha is less than 255 creates
per-pixel transparency windows. So, if you invoke setBackground(new Color(0,0,0,128)), the window is
designed with 50 percent translucency for each background pixel.
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 Immediate Solutions

The steps required to implement the code using per-pixel translucency are as follows:
1. Invoke setBackground (new Color(0,0,0,0)) on the window.
2. Create a JPanel instance that overrides the paintComponent() method.
3. Create a GradientPaint instance in the paintComponent() method.
The GradientPaint class smoothly estimates the alpha values from the top to the bottom of the rectangle.
4. Set the GradientPaint instance as the panel's paint() method.
The code for designing per-pixel translucent window is as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import static java.awt.GraphicsDevice.WindowTranslucency.*;
public class PerPixelTranslucentWindowEg extends JFrame {
public PerPixelTranslucentWindowEg () {
super("Per-Pixel Translucent Window");
setBackground(new Color(0,0,0,0));
setSize(new Dimension(300,200));
setLocationRelativeTo(null);
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
JPanel panel = new JPanel() {
@Override
protected void paintComponent(Graphics g) {
if (g instanceof Graphics2D) {
final int R = 240;
final int G = 240;
final int B = 240;
Paint p =
new GradientPaint(0.0f, 0.0f, new Color(R, G, B, 0),
0.0f, getHeight(), new Color(R, G, B, 255), true);
Graphics2D g2d = (Graphics2D)g;
g2d.setPaint(p);
g2d.fillRect(0, 0, getWidth(), getHeight());
}
}
};
setContentPane(panel);
setLayout(new GridBagLayout());
add(new JButton("kogent"));
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
// Determine what the GraphicsDevice can support.
GraphicsEnvironment ge =
GraphicsEnvironment.getLocalGraphicsEnvironment();
GraphicsDevice gd = ge.getDefaultScreenDevice();
boolean isPerPixelTranslucencySupported =
gd.isWindowTranslucencySupported(PERPIXEL_TRANSLUCENT);
//If translucent windows aren't supported, exit.
if (!isPerPixelTranslucencySupported) {
System.out.println(
"Per-pixel translucency is not supported");
System.exit(0);
}
JFrame.setDefaultLookAndFeelDecorated(true);
// Create the GUI on the event-dispatching thread
SwingUtilities.invokeLater(new Runnable() {
@Override
public void run() {
PerPixelTranslucentWindowEg gtw = new
PerPixelTranslucentWindowEg ();
// Display the window.
gtw.setVisible(true);
}

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});
}
}
The result for the preceding program of per-pixel translucent window is shown in Figure 17.3:

Figure 17.3: Creating per-pixel translucent window

You can see that it is displaying Kogent on the button.

Uniform Translucency Windows

For creating uniform translucency window, translucency should be kept constant for every pixel. This is
achieved by invoking the setOpacity(float) method in the Window class. The invoked float argument
denotes windows transparency level and should possess an inclusive value between 0 and 1. There is also a
corresponding getOpacity() method.
The code shown below creates a window that is 15 percent opaque (85 percent translucent):
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import static java.awt.GraphicsDevice.WindowTranslucency.*;
public class UniformTranslucentWindowDemo extends JFrame {
public UniformTranslucentWindowDemo() {
super("Uniform Translucent Window");
setLayout(new GridBagLayout());
setSize(300,200);
setLocationRelativeTo(null);
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);

//Add a sample button.

add(new JButton("Welcome Button"));
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Determine if the GraphicsDevice supports translucency.
GraphicsEnvironment ge =
GraphicsEnvironment.getLocalGraphicsEnvironment();
GraphicsDevice gd = ge.getDefaultScreenDevice();

//If translucent windows aren't supported, exit.

if (!gd.isWindowTranslucencySupported(TRANSLUCENT)) {
System.err.println( "Translucency is not supported");
System.exit(0);
}
JFrame.setDefaultLookAndFeelDecorated(true);

// Create the GUI on the event-dispatching thread

SwingUtilities.invokeLater(new Runnable() {
@Override
public void run() {
UniformTranslucentWindowDemo tw = new UniformTranslucentWindowDemo();

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 Immediate Solutions

// Set the window to 15% opaque (85% translucent).

tw.setOpacity(0.15f);

// Display the window.

tw.setVisible(true);
}
});
}
}
The result is shown in Figure 17.4 showing 15 percent opaqueness on the window:

Figure 17.4: Creating uniform translucent window

Creating Different Shaped Windows

Different shaped windows are created by clipping the window using the setShape(Shape) method. Through
this method, the different shapes are set to the windows that appear eye-catching to the users. The clipping of the
window depends on the passed shape argument. The setShape() method is called in the
componentResized() method of the component event listener where the shape is accurately calculated and set.
Let us write the code for creating the oval-shaped window named as ShapedWindowEg.java as follows:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.geom.Ellipse2D;
import static java.awt.GraphicsDevice.WindowTranslucency.*;

public class ShapedWindowEg extends JFrame {

public ShapedWindowEg () {
super("ShapedWindow");
setLayout(new GridBagLayout());

// It is best practice to set the window's shape in

// the componentResized method. Then, if the window
// changes size, the shape will be correctly recalculated.
addComponentListener(new ComponentAdapter() {
// Give the window an elliptical shape.
// If the window is resized, the shape is recalculated here.
@Override
public void componentResized(ComponentEvent e) {
setShape(new Ellipse2D.Double(0,0,getWidth(),getHeight()));
}
});

setUndecorated(true);
setSize(300,200);

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setLocationRelativeTo(null);
setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
add(new JButton("I am a Button"));
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Determine what the GraphicsDevice can support.
GraphicsEnvironment ge =
GraphicsEnvironment.getLocalGraphicsEnvironment();
GraphicsDevice gd = ge.getDefaultScreenDevice();
final boolean isTranslucencySupported =
gd.isWindowTranslucencySupported(TRANSLUCENT);

//If shaped windows aren't supported, exit.

if (!gd.isWindowTranslucencySupported(PERPIXEL_TRANSPARENT)) {
System.err.println("Shaped windows are not supported");
System.exit(0);
}

//If translucent windows aren't supported,

//create an opaque window.
if (!isTranslucencySupported) {
System.out.println(
"Translucency is not supported, creating an opaque window");
}

// Create the GUI on the event-dispatching thread

SwingUtilities.invokeLater(new Runnable() {
@Override
public void run() {
ShapedWindowEg sw = new ShapedWindowEg ();
// Set the window to 50% translucency, if supported.
if (isTranslucencySupported) {
sw.setOpacity(0.8f);
}
// Display the window.
sw.setVisible(true);
}
});
}
}
The result of the code is shown in Figure 17.5, showing the oval shape of a window:

Figure 17.5: Using the JFrame class

Creating a Frame Window

So the NP says, I was wrong. I didnt want to start with just a basic window; I want to use a frame window
that already supports resizing, minimizing, maximizing, and so on. OK, you say. It looks like you want the
JFrame class.

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 Immediate Solutions

We have been using the JFrame class as the foundation of Swing applications, so you are already familiar with
this class. We are including it in this chapter on windows and dialog boxes for completeness.
Heres a quick example of using a JFrame window in which we add a panel to the window and then draw in
the panel and add a text field to it. Because JFrame windows are used as the basis of Swing applications. Heres
the code:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class JFrameDemo extends JFrame {
jpanel j;
public JFrameDemo() {
super("Here is the window");
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
j = new jpanel();
contentPane.add(j); }
public static void main(String args[]) {
final JFrame f = new JFrameDemo();
f.setBounds(100, 100, 300, 300);
f.setVisible(true);
f.setDefaultCloseOperation(DISPOSE_ON_CLOSE);
f.addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {
System.exit(0); } });
}
}
class jpanel extends JPanel {
JTextField jtextfield = new JTextField("Kogent Solutions!");
jpanel() {
setBackground(Color.pink);
add(jtextfield); }
public void paintComponent (Graphics g) {
super.paintComponent(g);
g.drawString(" Welcome to Kogent Learning Solutions!", 60, 80);
}
}
You can see the result of this code in Figure 17.6:

Figure 17.6: Using the JFrame class

As you see in the figure, the frame window already displays minimize, maximize, and close buttons.

Creating a Desktop Pane

The Big Boss appears and says, Our Java word processor isnt keeping pace with the competition. They can
open five documents at once. Thats nothing, you say. Using a desktop pane, I can open 10 documents at
once and display them all. You are hired, the BB says. You say, I already work here.

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The Swing desktop pane mimics a desktop and allows you to display multiple objects on it. In the next solution,
well add inner frame windows to a desktop pane. Heres the inheritance diagram for the JDesktopPane class,
which the class Swing uses to support desktop panes:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JLayeredPane
|____javax.swing.JDesktopPane
Youll find the constructor of the JDesktopPane class in Table 17.3 and its methods in Table 17.4:
Table 17.3: The constructor of the JDesktopPane class
Constructor Does this
JDesktopPane() It constructs a new JDesktopPane

Table 17.4: Methods of the JDesktopPane class

Method Does this
protected void addImpl(Component It adds the specified component to this container at the specified index
comp, Object constraints, int
index)
AccessibleContext It gets the AccessibleContext
getAccessibleContext()
JInternalFrame[ ] getAllFrames() It gets all JInternalFrames displayed in the desktop
JInternalFrame[]getAllFramesInLaye It gets all JInternalFrames displayed in the given layer of the desktop
r(int layer)
DesktopManager getDesktopManager() It gets the DesktopManager that handles desktop-specific UI actions
int getDragMode() It gets the current dragging style used by the desktop pane
JInternalFrame getSelectedFrame() It returns the currently active JInternalFrame in this JDesktopPane
or null if no JInternalFrame is currently active
DesktopPaneUI getUI() It gets the look and feel object that draws this component.
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that draws this component
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JDesktopPane.
void remove(int index) It removes all the components from this pane
void removeAll() It removes all the components from this container
JInternalFrame selectFrame(boolean It selects the next JInternalFrame in this desktop pane
forward)
void setDesktopManager It sets the DesktopManager that will handle desktop-specific UI actions
(DesktopManager d)
void setDragMode(int dragMode) It sets the dragging style used by the desktop pane
void setSelectedFrame It sets the currently active JInternalFrame in this JDesktopPane
(JInternalFrame f)
void setUI It sets the look and feel object that draws this component
(DesktopPaneUI ui)
void updateUI() It is called by UIManager when the look and feel has changed

Heres an example in which we just add a desktop pane to an applets content pane. The code looks like:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET

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CODE = DesktopFrame.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280>
</APPLET> */
public class DesktopFrame extends JApplet {
JDesktopPane jdesktoppane = new JDesktopPane();
public void init() {
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
contentPane.add(jdesktoppane, BorderLayout.CENTER); }
}
The result of this code is shown in Figure 17.7:

Figure 17.7: A basic desktop pane

You can see a blank desktop pane in the figure, but its not much good to anyonedesktop panes are useful as
containers, not components, so you need to add something to them. Well do that in the next solution, where we
cover internal frames.

You will learn how to use creating scroll panes in Chapter 13 and also how to use using split panes in Chapter 15 of this book.

Creating Internal Frames

The Big Boss isnt impressed with the desktop pane in your program. Whats the point? the BB asks. The
point is, you say, you can display windows inside the desktop pane. Convince me, the BB says. No
problem, you say.
Internal frames, as supported by the JInternalFrame class, are lightweight frame windows that appear inside
the other windows. This is one of the biggest and most popular of all the Swing classes, and well put it to work
here. Heres the inheritance diagram for the JInternalFrame class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JInternalFrame

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Youll find the fields of the JInternalFrame class in Table 17.5, its constructors in Table 17.6, and its methods
in Table 17.7:
Table 17.5: Fields of the JInternalFrame class
Field Does this
protected boolean closable It indicates whether the frame can be closed
static String CONTENT_PANE_PROPERTY It is the bound property name
protected JInternalFrame.JDesktopIcon It is displayed when the frame is iconified
desktopIcon
static String FRAME_ICON_PROPERTY It is the FRAME_ICON_PROPERTY bound property name
protected Icon frameIcon It is shown in the top-left corner of the frame
static String GLASS_PANE_PROPERTY It is the GLASS_PANE_PROPERTY bound property name
protected boolean iconable It returns True if the frame can be minimized and displayed as an
icon image
static String IS_CLOSED_PROPERTY It indicates that the frame is closed
static String IS_ICON_PROPERTY It indicates that the frame is iconified
static String IS_MAXIMUM_PROPERTY It indicates that the frame is maximized
static String IS_SELECTED_PROPERTY It indicates that this frame has selected status
protected boolean isClosed It return True if the frame has been closed
protected boolean isIcon It returns True if the frame has been iconified
protected boolean isMaximum It returns True if the frame has been expanded to its maximum
size
protected Boolean isSelected It returns True if the frame is currently selected
static String LAYERED_PANE_PROPERTY It is the LAYERED_PANE_PROPERTY bound property name
protected boolean maximizable It returns True if the frame can be expanded to the size of the
desktop pane
static String MENU_BAR_PROPERTY It is the bound MENU_BAR_PROPERTY property name
protected boolean resizable It returns True if the frames size can be changed
static String ROOT_PANE_PROPERTY It is the bound ROOT_PANE_PROPERTY property name
protected JRootPane rootPane The JRootPane instance for this frame
protected Boolean It returns True when calling the add and setLayout methods
rootPaneCheckingEnabled cause an exception to be thrown
protected String title It displayes the title in the frames title bar
static String TITLE_PROPERTY It is the bound TITLE_PROPERTY property name

Table 17.6: Constructors of the JInternalFrame class

Constructor Does this
JInternalFrame() It constructs a nonresizable, nonclosable, nonmaximizable, and
noniconifiable JinternalFrame
JInternalFrame (String title) It constructs a nonresizable, nonclosable, nonmaximizable, and
noniconifiable JInternalFrame with the given title
JInternalFrame (String title, boolean It constructs a nonclosable, nonmaximizable, and noniconifiable
resizable) JInternalFrame with the given title, which can be resized if
resizable is True
JInternalFrame(String title, boolean It constructs a nonmaximizable and noniconifiable
resizable, boolean closable) JInternalFrame with the given title and with the ability to be
resized and closed as given

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Table 17.6: Constructors of the JInternalFrame class

Constructor Does this
JInternalFrame(String title, boolean It constructs a noniconifiable JInternalFrame with the
resizable, boolean closable, boolean indicated title and with the ability to be resized, closed, and
maximizable) maximized as given
JInternalFrame(String title, boolean It constructs a JInternalFrame with the indicated title and with
resizable, boolean closable, boolean the ability to be resized, closed, maximized, and iconified as given
maximizable, boolean iconifiable)

Table 17.7: Methods of the JInternalFrame class

Method Does this
protected void addImpl (Component comp, It adds child components to the contentPane
Object constraints, int index)
void addInternalFrameListener It adds the given internal frame listener to receive internal frame
(InternalFrameListener l) events from this internal frame
protected JRootPane createRootPane() It is called by the constructor to set up JRootPane
void dispose() It disposes of this internal frame
protected void fireInternalFrameEvent It fires an internal frame event
(int id)
AccessibleContext getAccessibleContext() It gets the AccessibleContext
Container getContentPane() It gets the contentPane
int getDefaultCloseOperation() It gets the default operation that occurs when the user closes this
window
JInternalFrame.JDesktopIcon It gets the JDesktopIcon used when this JInternalFrame is
getDesktopIcon() iconified
JDesktopPane getDesktopPane() It searches the hierarchy for a JDesktop instance
Container getFocusCycleRootAncestor() It always returns null because JInternalFrames must always
be roots of a focus traversal cycle
Component getFocusOwner() If this JInternalFrame is active, this method returns the child
that has focus
Icon getFrameIcon() It gets the image displayed in the title bar of the frame
Component getGlassPane() It gets the glassPane object for this frame
InternalFrameListener[]getInternalFrameL It returns an array of all the InternalFrameListeners added
isteners() to this JInternalFrame with addInternalFrameListener
JMenuBar getJMenuBar() It gets the current JMenuBar for this JInternalFrame or null if
no menu bar has been set
Cursor getLastCursor() It returns the last cursor that was set by the setCursor() method
Component getMostRecentFocusOwner() It returns the child component of this JInternalFrame that will
receive the focus when this JInternalFrame is selected
int getLayer() It is a convenience method for getting the layer attribute of this
component
JLayeredPane getLayeredPane() It gets the layeredPane object for this frame
JMenuBar getMenuBar() It is deprecated and replaced by getJMenuBar()
Rectangle getNormalBounds() If the JInternalFrame is not in maximized state, this method
returns getBounds(); otherwise, it returns the bounds that the
JInternalFrame would be restored to
JRootPane getRootPane() It gets the rootPane object for this frame

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Table 17.7: Methods of the JInternalFrame class

Method Does this
String getTitle() It gets the title of the JInternalFrame
InternalFrameUI getUI() It gets the look and feel object that draws this
JInternalFrame
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the look and feel class that draws this
component
String getWarningString() It gets the warning string thats displayed with this window
boolean isClosable() It gets whether this JInternalFrame can be closed by some user
action
boolean isClosed() It returns True if this JInternalFrame is currently closed
boolean isIcon() It returns True if the JInternalFrame is currently iconified
boolean isIconifiable() It returns True if the JInternalFrame can be iconified by some
user action
boolean isMaximizable() It returns True if the JInternalFrame can be maximized by
some user action
boolean isMaximum() It returns True if the JInternalFrame is currently maximized
boolean isResizable() It returns True if the JInternalFrame can be resized by some
user action
protected boolean It returns True if calls to add and setLayout cause an exception
isRootPaneCheckingEnabled() to be thrown
boolean isSelected() It returns True if the JInternalFrame is the currently selected
frame
void moveToBack() It moves this component to position -1 if its parent is a
JLayeredPane
void moveToFront() It moves this component to position 0 if its parent is a
JLayeredPane
void pack() It lays out children of this JInternalFrame to use their
preferred size
protected void It calls the paint() method
paintComponent(Graphics g)
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JInternalFrame
void remove(Component comp) It removes the indicated component
void It removes the indicated internal frame listener
removeInternalFrameListener(InternalFram
eListener l)
void reshape(int x, int y, int width, It moves and resizes this component
int height)
void restoreSubcomponentFocus() This method directs the internal frame to restore focus to the last
subcomponent that had focus
void setClosable(boolean b) It determines whether this JInternalFrame can be closed by
some user action
void setClosed(boolean b) Passing True to this method closes the frame
void setContentPane (Container c) It sets this JInternalFrames content pane
void setCursor (Cursor cursor) It sets cursor image to specified cursor
void setDefaultCloseOperation It sets the operation that will occur by default when the user closes
(int operation) this window
void setDesktopIcon It sets the JDesktopIcon associated with this JInternalFrame
(JInternalFrame.JDesktopIcon d)

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Table 17.7: Methods of the JInternalFrame class

Method Does this
void setFrameIcon (Icon icon) It sets an image to be displayed in the title bar of the frame
(usually in the top-left corner)
void setGlassPane (Component glass) It sets this JInternalFrames glassPane property
void setIcon(boolean b) It iconifies and deiconifies the frame
void setIconifiable (boolean b) It specifies that the JInternalFrame can be made an icon by
some user action
void setJMenuBar (JMenuBar m) It sets the JMenuBar for this JInternalFrame
void setLayer (Integer layer) It sets the layer attribute of this component
void setLayeredPane It sets this JInternalFrames layeredPane property
(JLayeredPane layered)
void setLayout It sets the layout of the contentPane
(LayoutManager manager)
void setMaximizable (boolean b) It specifies that the JInternalFrame can be maximized by some
user action
void setMaximum(boolean b) It maximizes and restores the frame
void setMenuBar(JMenuBar m) It is deprecated and replaced by setJMenuBar(JMenuBar m)
void setNormalBounds (Rectangle r) It sets the normal bounds for this frame (the bounds that the frame
will be restored to from its maximized state)
void setResizable (boolean b) It specifies that the JInternalFrame can be resized by some
user action
protected void setRootPane It sets the rootPane property
(JRootPane root)
protected void It determines whether calls to add and setLayout cause an
setRootPaneCheckingEnabled exception to be thrown
(boolean enabled)
void setSelected (boolean selected) It selects and deselects the JInternalFrame
void setTitle(String title) It sets the JInternalFrame title
void setUI (InternalFrameUI ui) It sets the UI delegate for this JInternalFrame
void show() It sets the visible state of the object
void show() It shows this internal frame and brings it to the front
void toBack() It sends this internal frame to the back
void toFront() It brings this internal frame to the front
void updateUI() It is called by UIManager when the look and feel has changed

Well now put together an example showing how to use internal frames in a desktop pane. We start by adding a
desktop pane to an applet, and we add a JPanel object as well. We place a button with the caption New
internal frame in the panel. When the user clicks that button, the applet displays a new internal frame in the
desktop pane. Each internal frame will enclose a text area object of the JTextArea class (which youll see in a
few chaptersfor our purposes here, it acts like the AWT TextArea class), thus allowing the user to enter text.
Heres how we set up the applet with a desktop pane and the button New internal frame:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/*
<APPLET
CODE = InternalFrame.class
WIDTH = 450
HEIGHT = 300>

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</APPLET>
*/
public class InternalFrame extends JApplet implements ActionListener
{
JDesktopPane jdesktoppane = new JDesktopPane();
static int framenumber = 1;
public void init()
{
JPanel jpanel = new JPanel();
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
JButton jbutton = new JButton("New internal frame");
jpanel.add(jbutton);
contentPane.add(jpanel, BorderLayout.SOUTH);
contentPane.add(jdesktoppane, BorderLayout.CENTER);
jbutton.addActionListener(this);}
}
The real action takes place when the user clicks the button to display a new internal frame. We give each internal
frame a new caption in its title bar, so we must keep track of the number of internal frames in a new variable.
Next, we create, configure, and add new internal frames to the desktop pane. Heres how we create and
configure the internal frames, setting their locations and titles. We enable them so that the user can close, resize,
maximize, and minimize these frames, and we add a text area to the frames content panes. Note, in particular,
that internal frames must be made visible with the setVisible() method. After the components have been
added to the content pane, the pack() method is used to resize the frame window to match its contents. Also
note that when internal frames are added to desktop panes by using the add() method, a layer must be
specified to add those frames to. Heres what the code looks like:
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event)
{
JInternalFrame jinternalframe = new JInternalFrame();
Container contentPane = jinternalframe.getContentPane();
jinternalframe.setLocation(20, 20);
jinternalframe.setTitle("Internal Frame " + framenumber);
framenumber++;
jinternalframe.setClosable(true);
jinternalframe.setResizable(true);
jinternalframe.setMaximizable(true);
jinternalframe.setIconifiable(true);
jinternalframe.setVisible(true);
contentPane.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
contentPane.add(new JTextArea(5, 20), "Center");
jinternalframe.pack();
jdesktoppane.add(jinternalframe, 5);
}
The result of this code is shown in Figure 17.8:

Figure 17.8: Creating internal frames in a desktop pane

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As you can see in the figure, you can create multiple internal frame windows in this applet, and you can resize
and move them around. You can even minimize them, as you see in the figure.
Now coming to the second example, InternalframeEg.java, to create an applet. Following is the code to
display the use of Internal Frame in applet:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.util.*;
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
import java.net.URL;
import javax.swing.border.*;
import javax.swing.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = InternalframeEg.class
WIDTH = 400
HEIGHT = 400>
</APPLET> */
public class InternalframeEg extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JDesktopPane jdesktoppane = new JDesktopPane();
static int framenumber = 1;
String msg="";
TextArea txt1;
public void init() {
JPanel jpanel = new JPanel();
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
JButton jbutton = new JButton("New internal frame");
txt1= new TextArea("output displayed here",3,30);
jpanel.add(jbutton);
jpanel.add(txt1);
contentPane.add(jpanel, BorderLayout.SOUTH);
contentPane.add(jdesktoppane, BorderLayout.CENTER);
jbutton.addActionListener(this); }
InternalFrameAdapter activator1 = new InternalFrameAdapter() {
public void internalFrameActivated(InternalFrameEvent e) {
JInternalFrame fr = (JInternalFrame)e.getSource();
InternalFrameListener[] jarr=fr.getInternalFrameListeners();
txt1.setText(" "+ jarr[1] + " " + jarr[2]+ " "); }
public void internalFrameIconified(InternalFrameEvent e) {
JInternalFrame fr = (JInternalFrame)e.getSource();
txt1.setText(" " +fr.getMostRecentFocusOwner()); }
public void internalFrameClosed(InternalFrameEvent e) {
JInternalFrame fr = (JInternalFrame)e.getSource();
txt1.setText(" " +fr.getFocusCycleRootAncestor()); }
};
InternalFrameAdapter activator2 = new InternalFrameAdapter() {
public void internalFrameOpened(InternalFrameEvent e) {
JInternalFrame fr = (JInternalFrame)e.getSource();
txt1.setText("2nd listener event "); }
};
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event) {
String str= event.getActionCommand();
if(str.equals("New internal frame")) {
JInternalFrame jinternalframe = new JInternalFrame();
Container contentPane = jinternalframe.getContentPane();
jinternalframe.setLocation(20, 20);
jinternalframe.setTitle("Frame " + framenumber);
if(framenumber==1) {
jinternalframe.addInternalFrameListener(activator1);
jinternalframe.addInternalFrameListener(activator2); }
else if(framenumber==2){ }
framenumber++;
jinternalframe.setClosable(true);
jinternalframe.setResizable(true);

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jinternalframe.setMaximizable(true);
jinternalframe.setIconifiable(true);
jinternalframe.setVisible(true);
contentPane.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
contentPane.add(new JTextArea(5, 15), "Center");
jinternalframe.pack();
jdesktoppane.add(jinternalframe, 2); }
}
}
Output of this code is as shown in Figure 17.9:

Figure 17.9: Showing the Initialization of application using Internal Frame

Now click the button `New internal frame` displayed in the applet. This will initialize and create internal frame.
The output of this action is shown in Figure 17.10:

Figure 17.10: Showing the initialization and creation of Internal Frame

Using JOptionPane to Create Dialog Boxes

The Novice Programmer is distraught and says, The Product Support Specialist wants me to add 12 new dialog
boxes to my program! Isnt that a lot of coding? Probably not, you say, using the Swing JOptionPane
class. Oh, says the NP, calming down and beginning to smile.
The JOptionPane class supports a pane that you use in dialog boxes; in fact, it also provides convenient
methods for creating dialog boxes that contain option panes. Heres the inheritance diagram for JOptionPane:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component

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|____java.awt.Container
|____javax.swing.JComponent
|____javax.swing.JOptionPane
Youll find the fields of the JOptionPane class in Table 17.8, its constructors in Table 17.9, and its methods in
Table 17.10:
Table 17.8: Fields of the JOptionPane class
Field Does this
static int CANCEL_OPTION The return value from the class method if CANCEL is chosen
static int CLOSED_OPTION The return value from the class method if the user closes the
window without selecting anything
static int DEFAULT_OPTION The look and feel should not supply any options but only use the
options from the JOptionPane
static int ERROR_MESSAGE It is used for error messages
protected Icon icon The icon used in the pane
static String ICON_PROPERTY The bound property name for the icon
static int INFORMATION_MESSAGE It is used for information messages
static String The bound property name for initialSelectionValue
INITIAL_SELECTION_VALUE_PROPERTY
static String INITIAL_VALUE_PROPERTY The bound property name for initialValue
protected Object initialSelectionValue The initial value to select in selectionValues
protected Object initialValue The value that should be initially selected in the options
static String INPUT_VALUE_PROPERTY The bound property name for inputValue
protected Object inputValue The value the user has entered
protected Object message The message to display
static String MESSAGE_PROPERTY The bound property name for the message
static String MESSAGE_TYPE_PROPERTY The bound property name for the type
protected int messageType The message type
static int NO_OPTION The return value from the class method if the NO button is clicked
static int OK_CANCEL_OPTION The type used for showConfirmDialog
static int OK_OPTION The return value from the class method if OK is chosen
static String OPTION_TYPE_PROPERTY The bound property name for optionType
protected Object[] options The options to display to the user
static String OPTIONS_PROPERTY The bound property name for the option
protected int optionType The option type (DEFAULT_OPTION, YES_NO_OPTION,
YES_NO_CANCEL_OPTION, or OK_CANCEL_OPTION)
static int PLAIN_MESSAGE It indicates that no icon should be used
static int QUESTION_MESSAGE It is used for questions
static String The bound property name for selectionValues.
SELECTION_VALUES_PROPERTY
protected Object[] selectionValues The array of values, the user can choose from
static Object UNINITIALIZED_VALUE It indicates that the user has not yet selected a value
protected Object value The currently selected value. It will be a valid option,
UNINITIALIZED_VALUE, or null
static String VALUE_PROPERTY The bound property name for the value

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Table 17.8: Fields of the JOptionPane class

Field Does this
static String WANTS_INPUT_PROPERTY The bound property name for wantsInput
protected Boolean wantsInput If True, a UI widget will be provided to the user to get input
static int WARNING_MESSAGE It is used for warning messages
static int YES_NO_CANCEL_OPTION The type used for showConfirmDialog
static int YES_NO_OPTION The type used for showConfirmDialog
static int YES_OPTION The return value from the class method if YES is chosen

Table 17.9: Constructors of the JOptionPane class

Constructor Does this
JOptionPane() It constructs a JOptionPane with a test message
JOptionPane(Object message) It constructs an instance of JOptionPane to display a message by
using the plain-message message type and the default options
delivered by the UI
JOptionPane(Object message, int It constructs an instance of JOptionPane to display a message
messageType) with the indicated message type and the default options
JOptionPane(Object message, int It constructs an instance of JOptionPane to display a message
messageType, int optionType) with the indicated message type and the options
JOptionPane(Object message, int It constructs an instance of JOptionPane to display a message
messageType, int optionType, Icon icon) with the indicated message type, options, and icon
JOptionPane(Object message, int It constructs an instance of JOptionPane to display a message
messageType, int optionType, Icon icon, with the indicated message type, icon, and options
Object[] options)
JOptionPane(Object message, int It constructs an instance of JOptionPane to display a message
messageType, int optionType, Icon icon, with the indicated message type, icon, and options, with the
Object[] options, Object initialValue) initially selected option indicated

Table 17.10: Methods of the JOptionPane class

Method Does this
JDialog createDialog It constructs and returns a new JDialog
(Component parentComponent, String
title)
JDialog createDialog (String title) It creates and returns a new parentless JDialog with the
specified title
JInternalFrame It constructs and returns an instance of JInternalFrame
createInternalFrame(Component
parentComponent,String title)
AccessibleContext getAccessibleContext() It gets the AccessibleContext
static JDesktopPane It gets the indicated components desktop pane
getDesktopPaneForComponent
(Component parentComponent)
static Frame getFrameForComponent It gets the indicated components frame
(Component parentComponent)
Icon getIcon() It gets the icon this pane displays
Object getInitialSelectionValue() It gets the initial selection value
Object getInitialValue() It gets the initial value
Object getInputValue() It gets the value the user has entered, if wantsInput is True

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Table 17.10: Methods of the JOptionPane class

Method Does this
int getMaxCharactersPerLineCount() It gets the maximum number of characters to place on a line in a
message
Object getMessage() It gets the message object which this pane displays
int getMessageType() It gets the message type
Object[] getOptions() It gets the choices the user can make
int getOptionType() It gets the type of options displayed
static Frame getRootFrame() It gets the frame to use for the class methods in which a frame is
not provided
Object[] getSelectionValues() It gets the selection values
OptionPaneUI getUI() It gets the UI object that implements the look and feel for this
component
String getUIClassID() It gets the name of the UI class that implements the look and feel
for this component
Object getValue() It gets the value the user has selected
boolean getWantsInput() It returns True if a parentComponent will be provided for the
user to input
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JOptionPane
void selectInitialValue() It requests that the initial value be selected, which will set focus to
the initial value
void setIcon(Icon newIcon) It sets the icon to display
void setInitialSelectionValue It sets the initial selection value
(Object newValue)
void setInitialValue It sets the initial value thats to be enabled
(Object newInitialValue)
void setInputValue (Object newValue) It sets the users input value
void setMessage (Object newMessage) It sets the option panes message object
void setMessageType (int newType) It sets the option panes message type
void setOptions (Object[] newOptions) It sets the options, this pane displays
void setOptionType (int newType) It sets the options to display
static void setRootFrame It sets the frame to use for class methods in which a frame is not
(Frame newRootFrame) provided
void setSelectionValues It sets the selection values for a pane that provides the user with a
(Object[]newValues) list of items to choose from
void setUI(OptionPaneUI ui) It sets the UI object that implements the look and feel for this
component
void setValue (Object newValue) It sets the value the user has chosen
void setWantsInput If newValue is true, a component is added to allow the user to
(boolean newValue) input a value
static int showConfirmDialog It brings up a modal dialog box with the options Yes, No, and
(Component parentComponent, Object Cancel
message)
static int It brings up a modal dialog box where the number of choices is
showConfirmDialog(Component determined by the optionType parameter
parentComponent, Object message, String
title, int optionType)

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Table 17.10: Methods of the JOptionPane class

Method Does this
static int It brings up a modal dialog box where the number of choices is
showConfirmDialog(Component determined by the optionType parameter and where the
parentComponent, Object message, String messageType parameter determines the icon to display
title, int optionType, int
messageType)
static int It brings up a modal dialog box with an indicated icon, where the
showConfirmDialog(Component number of choices is determined by the optionType parameter
parentComponent, Object
message, String title, int
optionType, int
messageType, Icon icon)
static String It shows a question message dialog box requesting input from the
showInputDialog(Component user parented to parentComponent
parentComponent, Object
message)
static String It shows a dialog box requesting input from the user parented to
showInputDialog(Component parentComponent with the dialog box having the title title
parentComponent, Object and the message type messageType
message, String title, int
messageType)
static Object It prompts the user for input in a blocking dialog box where the
showInputDialog(Component initial selection, possible selections, and all other options can be
parentComponent, Object indicated
message, String title, int
messageType, Icon icon,
Object[] selectionValues,
Object initialSelectionValue)
static String showInputDialog It shows a question message dialog box requesting input from the
(Object message) user
static int It brings up an internal dialog box with the options Yes, No, and
showInternalConfirmDialog Cancel
(Component parentComponent,
Object message)
static int It brings up an internal dialog box where the number of choices is
showInternalConfirmDialog determined by the optionType parameter
(Component parentComponent,
Object message, String
title, int optionType)
static int It brings up an internal dialog box where the number of choices is
showInternalConfirmDialog determined by the optionType parameter and where the
(Component parentComponent, Object messageType parameter determines the icon to display
message, String title, int optionType,
int messageType)
static int It brings up an internal dialog box with an indicated icon, where
showInternalConfirmDialog the number of choices is determined by the optionType
(Component parentComponent, Object parameter
message, String title, int optionType,
int messageType, Icon icon)
static String It shows an internal question message dialog box requesting input
showInternalInputDialog from the user parented to parentComponent
(Component parentComponent, Object
message)

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Table 17.10: Methods of the JOptionPane class

Method Does this
static String showInternalInputDialog It shows an internal dialog box requesting input from the user
(Component parentComponent, Object parented to parentComponent, with the dialog box having the
message, String title, int messageType) title title and the message type messageType
static Object showInternalInputDialog It prompts the user for input in a blocking internal dialog box
(Component parentComponent, Object where the initial selection, possible selections, and all other
message, String title, int messageType, options can be indicated
Icon icon, Object[]
selectionValues, Object
initialSelectionValue)
static void showInternalMessageDialog It brings up an internal confirmation dialog box
(Component parentComponent, Object
message)
static void showInternalMessageDialog It brings up an internal dialog box that displays a message using a
(Component parentComponent, Object default icon set by the messageType parameter
message, String title, int messageType)
static void showInternalMessageDialog It brings up an internal dialog box displaying a message and
(Component parentComponent, Object specifying all parameters
message, String title, int messageType,
Icon icon)
static int showInternalOptionDialog It brings up an internal dialog box with an indicated icon, where
(Component parentComponent, Object the initial choice is set by the initialValue parameter and the
message, String title, int optionType, number of choices is determined by the optionType parameter
int messageType, Icon icon, Object[]
options, Object
initialValue)
static void showMessageDialog It brings up a confirmation dialog box
(Component parentComponent, Object
message)
static void showMessageDialog It brings up a dialog box that displays a message using a default
(Component parentComponent, icon set by the messageType parameter
Object message, String
title, int messageType)
static void showMessageDialog It brings up a dialog box displaying a message and specifying all
(Component parentComponent, Object parameters
message, String title, int messageType,
Icon icon)
static int showOptionDialog It brings up a modal dialog box with an indicated icon, where the
(Component parentComponent, Object initial choice is determined by the initialValue parameter and
message, String title, int optionType, the number of choices is set by the optionType parameter
int messageType, Icon icon, Object[]
options, Object
initialValue)
void updateUI() It is called by UIManager when the look and feel has changed

You can use the JOptionPane static methods (that is, class methods, which you invoke directly by using the
class, like this: JOptionPane.showMessageDialog()) to display four types of dialog boxes. Here are those
methods and the dialog boxes they create:
showMessageDialog()It displays some message to the user.
showConfirmDialog()It asks a confirming question and receives a yes/no/cancel response.
showInputDialog()It prompts for input.
showOptionDialog()A configurable dialog box.

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For each of these methods, theres also an internal (lightweight) frame version, such as
showInternalMessageDialog(), showInternalInputDialog(), and so on, in case you want to stick to
internal frames to conserve system resources.
All these methods can return an integer indicating which button the user has clicked; the possible values are
YES_OPTION, NO_OPTION, CANCEL_OPTION, OK_OPTION, and CLOSED_OPTION. These dialog boxes are modal,
which means the user must dismiss them before continuing with the rest of the program (clicking any other
window in the program just results in a beep).
All this is best understood through examples, so well dissect this class by using several examples over the next
few solutions.

Creating Option Pane Confirmation Dialog Boxes

The Product Support Specialist says, We need to make sure the users are okay with this. You ask, We need to
make sure they are okay with displaying the sum after theyve clicked the Add button? Use a confirmation
dialog box, the PSS says.
Confirmation dialog boxes let the user click buttons to confirm or stop an action. You use the
showConfirmDialog() static method of JOptionPane to create this kind of dialog box. The JOptionPane
constants you can use with this method to indicate which buttons you want displayed are DEFAULT_ OPTION,
YES_NO_OPTION, YES_NO_CANCEL_OPTION, and OK_CANCEL_OPTION.
Heres an example in which we display a confirmation dialog box with a Yes button and a No button. To display
that dialog box, we place a button in an applet, giving the button the caption Display dialog. When that button
is clicked, we use showConfirmDialog() to display the new dialog box, and we use the return value from that
method to indicate which button was clicked by displaying a message in the applets status bar. Heres what this
looks like in code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DialogConfirm.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280>
</APPLET>
*/
public class DialogConfirm extends JApplet
{
JWindow jwindow = new JWindow();
public void init()
{
final Container contentPane = getContentPane();
JButton jbutton = new JButton("Display dialog");
contentPane.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
contentPane.add(jbutton);
jbutton.addActionListener(new ActionListener()
{
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e)
{
int result = JOptionPane.showConfirmDialog((Component)
null, "Choose Yes or No", "Choose Yes or No",
JOptionPane.YES_NO_OPTION);
if (result == JOptionPane.YES_OPTION) {
showStatus("You clicked Yes.");
} else {

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showStatus("You clicked No.");

}
}
});
}
}
The result of this code is shown in Figure 17.11, where you can see the Yes/No dialog box:

Figure 17.11: A confirmation dialog box

Clicking a button will close the dialog box, and the applet will indicate which button was clicked by displaying a
message in the status area.

Creating Option Pane Message Dialog Boxes

No, no, says the Product Support Specialist. I didnt mean you should use a confirmation dialog box thereit
should be a message dialog box. OK, you say, if you are sure.
Message dialog boxes let you display messages to the user, and you use the JOptionPane classs
showMessageDialog() static method to create this kind of dialog box, passing the message you want to
display to that method. You can select the type of icon you want to display in these dialog boxes; the
JOptionPane constants you can use with this method to indicate which icon you want displayed are
INFORMATION_MESSAGE, ERROR_MESSAGE, WARNING_MESSAGE, QUESTION_MESSAGE, and PLAIN_MESSAGE.
Heres an example that shows you how to use all these types of message dialog boxes. In this case, we add a
button for each type of dialog box, and clicking each button will display the corresponding dialog box:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

/* <APPLET
CODE = DialogMessage.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET> */

public class DialogMessage extends JApplet implements ActionListener {

JButton jbutton1 = new JButton("Display information dialog");
JButton jbutton2 = new JButton("Display error dialog");
JButton jbutton3 = new JButton("Display warning dialog");
JButton jbutton4 = new JButton("Display question dialog");
JButton jbutton5 = new JButton("Display plain dialog");

public void init() {

Container contentPane = getContentPane();
contentPane.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
contentPane.add(jbutton1);
contentPane.add(jbutton2);
contentPane.add(jbutton3);

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contentPane.add(jbutton4);
contentPane.add(jbutton5);
jbutton1.addActionListener(this);
jbutton2.addActionListener(this);
jbutton3.addActionListener(this);
jbutton4.addActionListener(this);
jbutton5.addActionListener(this); }

public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {

String dialogtitle = "Dialog";
String dialogmessage = "Kogent Learning Solutions Inc";
int dialogtype = JOptionPane.PLAIN_MESSAGE;
if(e.getSource() == jbutton1) { dialogtype = JOptionPane.INFORMATION_MESSAGE; }
else if (e.getSource() == jbutton2) {
dialogtype = JOptionPane.ERROR_MESSAGE; }
else if (e.getSource() == jbutton3) {
dialogtype = JOptionPane.WARNING_MESSAGE; }
else if (e.getSource() == jbutton4) {
dialogtype = JOptionPane.QUESTION_MESSAGE; }
else if (e.getSource() == jbutton5) {
dialogtype = JOptionPane.PLAIN_MESSAGE; }
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog((Component) null,
dialogmessage, dialogtitle, dialogtype); }
}
The result of this code is shown in Figure 17.12, where you can see the buttons in the applet, representing the
possible message dialog box types, as well as an information dialog box:

Figure 17.12: Creating different types of message dialog boxes

Creating Option Pane Text Field Input Dialog Boxes

No, says the Product Support Specialist, thats not what I wanted at all. I didnt want a message dialog box, I
wanted an input dialog box to let the user enter some text. Hmm, you say.
You can use the JOptionPane classs showInputDialog() method to display a dialog box with a text field
that lets the user enter text. This method will return the text the user enters into the text field or null if the user
clicks the Cancel button.
Heres an example in which we just read some text input from the user and display that text in an applets status
bar. The code, itself, is pretty simple. Here it is:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DialogTextEg.class
WIDTH = 350

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HEIGHT = 280>
</APPLET> */
public class DialogTextEg extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JButton jbutton = new JButton("Display dialog");
String message = "Enter the text";
public void init() {
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
contentPane.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
contentPane.add(jbutton);
jbutton.addActionListener(this); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
String result = JOptionPane.showInputDialog(message);
if(result == null) { showStatus("You clicked Cancel"); }
else { showStatus("You typed: " + result); }
}
}
The result of this code is shown in Figure 17.13(a). On clicking the Display dialog button, the input dialog box
appears, as shown in Figure 17.13(b). When the user clicks the OK button, the dialog box disappears and the text
from the text field in the dialog box appears in the applets status bar as shown in Figure 17.13(c).
Note that we can put showInputDialog() to other uses as wellfor example, you can display a combo box in
a dialog box. See the next solution for the details.

Figure 17.13(a): A basic text-input dialog box Figure 17.13(b): Enter the text

Figure 17.13(c): Message is displayed

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Chapter 17: SwingWindows, Desktop Panes, Inner Frames, and Dialog Boxes

Creating Option Pane Combo Box Input Dialog Boxes

No, no, the Product Support Specialist says, I didnt want a text field in that dialog box, I wanted a....
Combo box? you ask. How did you know? the PSS asks. Telepathy, you say.
You can use the JOptionPane classs showInputDialog() method to display a variety of controls; in this
solution, well use a combo box. To do that, we pass a combo box to showInputDialog() as well as an array
holding the items we want in that combo box and the item we want selected by default. In this case, we list a
variety of desserts and let the user select one. When the user clicks the OK button, we display the selection in the
status bar of the applet. Heres the code:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DialogCombo.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280>
</APPLET> */
public class DialogCombo extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JButton jbutton = new JButton("Display dialog");
public void init() {
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
contentPane.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
contentPane.add(jbutton);
jbutton.addActionListener(this); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
String dialogtitle = "Dialog";
String dialogmessage = "Which one do you like best?";
String[] desserts = { "cheesecake", "ice cream", "mousse",
"carrot cake" };
String dessert = (String)JOptionPane.showInputDialog(
DialogCombo.this, dialogmessage, dialogtitle,
JOptionPane.QUESTION_MESSAGE, null,
desserts, desserts[0]);
if(dessert == null) { showStatus("You clicked Cancel"); }
else { showStatus("Your favorite: " + dessert); }
}
}
The result of this code is shown in Figure 17.14, where you can see the combo box in the dialog box:

Figure 17.14: An input dialog box with a combo box

When the user selects an item from the combo box and clicks OK, the dialog box closes and the selected item
appears in the applets status bar.

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 Immediate Solutions

Creating Option Pane Internal Frame Dialog Boxes

In addition to the heavyweight JOptionPane dialog boxes created in the previous few examples, you can create
lightweight internal dialog boxes that appear inside a container. The JOptionPane static methods you can use
to create these types of dialog boxes are as follows:
showInternalMessageDialog()It displays some message to the user
showInternalConfirmDialog()It asks a confirming question and receives a yes/no/cancel response
showInternalInputDialog()It prompts for input
showInternalOptionDialog()A configurable dialog box
Heres an example in which we display an internal message dialog box on a desktop pane when the user clicks
the button Display internal dialog. Heres what the code looks like:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = OptionPaneInternal.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280 >
</APPLET> */
public class OptionPaneInternal extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
private JButton jbutton = new JButton("Display internal dialog");
JDesktopPane jdesktoppane = new JDesktopPane();
public void init() {
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
contentPane.add(jbutton, BorderLayout.SOUTH);
contentPane.add(jdesktoppane);
jbutton.addActionListener(this); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
JOptionPane.showInternalMessageDialog(
jdesktoppane, "Kogent Solutions", "Dialog",
JOptionPane.INFORMATION_MESSAGE); }
}
The result appears as shown in Figure 17.15, where you can see the internal message dialog box:

Figure 17.15: An internal message dialog box

Creating Dialog Boxes with JDialog

Well, says the Novice Programmer, the simple JOptionPane dialog boxes are very nice, but we want to
build my own dialog boxes. From scratch? you ask. From scratch, the NP confirms. Then you want the
JDialog class, you say.

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The JDialog class is the foundation of dialog boxes you customize in Swing. Heres the inheritance diagram for
this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.awt.Component
|____java.awt.Container
|____java.awt.Window
|____java.awt.Dialog
|____javax.swing.JDialog
Youll find the fields of the JDialog class in Table 17.11, its constructors in Table 17.12, and its methods in
Table 17.13:
Table 17.11: Fields of the JDialog class
Field Does this
protected AccessibleContext accessibleContext The accessible context
protected JRootPane rootPane The root pane
protected Boolean rootPaneCheckingEnabled It determines whether root pane checking is enabled

Table 17.12: Constructors of the JDialog class

Constructor Does this
JDialog() It constructs a modeless dialog box
JDialog(Dialog owner) It constructs a modeless dialog box with the given dialog
box as its owner
JDialog(Dialog owner, boolean modal) It constructs a modal or nonmodal dialog box without a
title and with the indicated owner dialog box
JDialog(Dialog owner, String title) It constructs a nonmodal dialog box with the indicated title
and with the indicated owner dialog box
JDialog(Dialog owner, String title, boolean It constructs a modal or nonmodal dialog box with the
modal) indicated title and the indicated owner frame
JDialog(Dialog owner, String title, boolean It constructs a modal or non-modal dialog with the
modal, GraphicsConfiguration gc) specified title, owner dialog, and
GraphicsConfiguration
JDialog(Frame owner) It constructs a nonmodal dialog box without a title with the
specified frame as its owner
JDialog(Frame owner, boolean modal) It constructs a modal or nonmodal dialog box without a
title and with the indicated owner frame
JDialog(Frame owner, String title) It constructs a nonmodal dialog box with the indicated title
and with the indicated owner frame
JDialog(Frame owner, String It constructs a modal or nonmodal dialog box with the
title, boolean modal) indicated title and the indicated owner frame
JDialog(Frame owner, String title, boolean It constructs a modal or nonmodal dialog with the
modal, GraphicsConfiguration gc) specified title, owner Frame, and
GraphicsConfiguration
JDialog(Window owner) It constructs a nonmodal dialog box without a title with the
specified Window as its owner
JDialog(Window owner, Dialog.ModalityType It constructs a dialog with the specified owner Window,
modal) modality, and an empty title
JDialog(Window owner, String title) It constructs a nonmodal dialog with the specified title and
owner Window
JDialog(Window owner, String title, It constructs a dialog with the specified title, owner
Dialog.ModalityType maodal) Window, and modality

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 17.13: Methods of the JDialog class

Method Does this
protected void addImpl (Component comp,Object They add children to the contentPane instead
constraints, int index)
protected JRootPane createRootPane() It is called by the constructor methods to create the default
rootPane
protected void dialogInit() It is called by the constructors to initialize the JDialog
properly
AccessibleContext getAccessibleContext() It gets the AccessibleContext
Container getContentPane() It gets the contentPane
int getDefaultCloseOperation() It gets the operation that occurs when the user initiates a
close operation on this dialog box
Component getGlassPane() It gets the glassPane object for this dialog box
JMenuBar getJMenuBar() It gets the menu bar set on this dialog box
JLayeredPane getLayeredPane() It gets the layeredPane object for this dialog box
JRootPane getRootPane() It gets the rootPane object for this dialog box
protected Boolean It returns True if root pane checking is enabled
isRootPaneCheckingEnabled()
protected String paramString() It gets a string representation of this JDialog
protected void processWindowEvent It handles window events depending on the state of the
(WindowEvent e) defaultCloseOperation property
void remove(Component comp) It removes the indicated component from this container
void repaint(long time, int x, int y, int It repaints the specified rectangle of this component within
width, int height) time milliseconds
void setContentPane (Container contentPane) It sets the contentPane property
void setDefaultCloseOperation (int operation) It sets the operation that will occur by default when the
user closes this dialog box
static void It provides a hint as to whether or not newly created
setDefaultLookAndFeelDecorated(boolean dflnf) JDialogs should have their Window decorations
void setGlassPane(Component glassPane) It sets the glassPane property
void setJMenuBar (JMenuBar menu) It sets the menu bar for this dialog box
void setLayeredPane (JLayeredPane It sets the layeredPane property
layeredPane)
void setLayout (LayoutManager manager) It sets the layout of the contentPane instead
protected void setRootPane(JRootPane root) It sets the rootPane property
void setTransferHandler(TransferHandler It sets the transferHandler property, which is a mechanism to
newHandler) support transfer of data into this component
protected void setRootPaneCheckingEnabled It returns True if calls to add() and setLayout() will
(boolean enabled) cause an exception to be thrown
void update(Graphics g) It simply calls paint(g)

Well create a dialog box example by using the JDialog class here. In this case, we make the dialog box modal
by passing a final parameter set to True to the JDialog constructor, and we add two buttons to the dialog box
Yes and No. By adding action listeners to these buttons, we can tell which button was clicked, and we can

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indicate that in the applets status bar. After a button is clicked, we call the dialog boxs dispose() method to
dispose of it. Heres what the code looks like (note that as with other Swing windows, you add controls to a
JDialog object by using its content pane):
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

/*<APPLET
CODE = Dialog.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280>
</APPLET> */

public class Dialog extends JApplet implements ActionListener {

JLabel jlabel = new JLabel("Click the Yes or No button");
JButton jbutton1 = new JButton("Display dialog"),
jbutton2 = new JButton("Yes"),
jbutton3 = new JButton("No");
private JDialog dialog = new JDialog((Frame) null, "Dialog", true);

public void init() {

Container contentPane = getContentPane();
Container dialogContentPane = dialog.getContentPane();
contentPane.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
contentPane.add(jbutton1);
dialogContentPane.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
dialogContentPane.add(jlabel);
dialogContentPane.add(jbutton2);
dialogContentPane.add(jbutton3);
jbutton1.addActionListener(this);
jbutton2.addActionListener(this);
jbutton3.addActionListener(this); }

public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {

if(e.getSource() == jbutton1) {
dialog.setBounds(200, 200, 200, 120);
dialog.setVisible(true); }
else if(e.getSource() == jbutton2) {
showStatus("You clicked Yes");
dialog.dispose(); }
else if(e.getSource() == jbutton3) {
showStatus("You clicked No");
dialog.dispose(); }
}
}
The result of this code is shown in Figure 17.16:

Figure 17.16: A basic JDialog dialog box

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 Immediate Solutions

As you can see in the figure, the dialog box does display Yes and No buttons. Clicking a button closes the dialog
box and a message appears in the applets status bar indicating which button was clicked.
Note that the dialog box in Figure 17.16 only accepts button input from the user; for a more advanced example,
see the next solution.
In the previously mentioned code, you can replace:
private JDialog dialog = new JDialog((Frame) null,
"Dialog", true);
with:
private JDialog dialog = new JDialog((Frame) null,
"Dialog", true, getGraphicsConfiguration());

Getting Input from Dialog Boxes Created with JDialog

You can configure dialog boxes created with the JDialog class as you like, and well take a look at an example
in this solution. Here, we display a text field in which the user can enter text. If clicking on the OK button closes
the dialog box, the code will display the text the user entered into the text field in the applets status bar;
otherwise, if the user clicks the Cancel button, the code displays the message You clicked Cancel. Heres what
the code looks like:
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DialogInput.class
WIDTH = 350
HEIGHT = 280>
</APPLET> */
public class DialogInput extends JApplet implements ActionListener {
JLabel jlabel = new JLabel("Enter the text:");
JTextField jtextfield = new JTextField(15);
JButton jbutton1 = new JButton("Display dialog"),
jbutton2 = new JButton("OK"),
jbutton3 = new JButton("Cancel");
private JDialog dialog = new JDialog((Frame) null, "Dialog", true);
public void init() {
Container contentPane = getContentPane();
Container dialogContentPane = dialog.getContentPane();
contentPane.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
contentPane.add(jbutton1);
dialogContentPane.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
dialogContentPane.add(jlabel);
dialogContentPane.add(jtextfield);
dialogContentPane.add(jbutton2);
dialogContentPane.add(jbutton3);
jbutton1.addActionListener(this);
jbutton2.addActionListener(this);
jbutton3.addActionListener(this); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
if(e.getSource() == jbutton1) {
dialog.setBounds(200, 200, 200, 150);
dialog.setVisible(true); }
else if(e.getSource() == jbutton2) {
showStatus(jtextfield.getText());
dialog.dispose(); }
else if(e.getSource() == jbutton3) {
showStatus("You clicked Cancel");
dialog.dispose(); }
}
}

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The result of this code appears in Figure 17.17, where you can see the dialog box with the text field:

Figure 17.17: A JDialog dialog box with a text field

When the user enters text and clicks OK, the text appears in the status bar of the applet.

Summary
In this chapter, you have learned how to create a simple window and frame-based window. You have also read
about working with dialog boxes, such as confirmation dialog box and message dialog box.
In the next chapter, youll read about the Streams Handling File and I/O.

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 18
Working with
Streams, Files,
and I/O Handling
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Working with Streams 630
Working with the Reader Class 640
Working with the Writer Class 641
Accepting Input from the Keyboard with the InputStreamReader Class 641
Working with the OutputStreamWriter Class 643
Working with Files 643
Working with the RandomAccessFile Class 649
Working with Character Arrays 651
Working with Buffers 654
Working with the PushbackReader Class 656
Working with the PrintWriter Class 657
Working with the StreamTokenizer Class 659
Implementing the Serializable Interface 661
Working with the Console Class 665
Working with the Clipboard 667
Working with the Printer 667
Printing with the Formatter Class 668
Scanning Input with the Scanner class 671

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Chapter 18: Working with Streams File and I/O Handling

In Depth
In this chapter, well take a look at stream, I/O, and file handling in Java. Using streams is the way you handle
I/O in languages such as Java. A stream is composed of bytes or characters (which are used to be considered
much the same in Java until Unicode and its 2-byte characters arrived) that you can read from or write to, and
you can connect them to various data sources and storeseven byte and character arrays.

Streams, Readers, and Writers

The concept of streams was introduced to make programming more uniform for handling disparate data sources
or stores. When using streams, you use the java.io package, and you can handle input and output in much the
same waywhether you are working with a disk file, a memory buffer, or a network.
In Java, stream I/O is based on the InputStream, OutputStream, Reader, and Writer classes.
InputStream and OutputStream are for byte-oriented streams (such as when you work with binary files),
and the Reader and Writer classes are for character-oriented streams (as when you work with text files). You
dont use these classes directly; instead, you derive classes from them. In fact, Java has already done a lot of that
for you so much, so that there are dozens of classes to work with.
In fact, the I/O stream classes have become somewhat of a thicket in Javathere seems to be at least one
available for every possible use and some of you probably havent thought of. Some streams provide data
buffering, some do not. Some are designed to work with data in memory buffers, some with files. Well cover the
important ones here.
Typically, you use a stream classs constructor to create a stream; the stream classes are usually divided into
input and output streams, so you select the one thats appropriate. After you have a stream object, you can use
its methodstypically read() and write()to transfer the data. When you are done with the stream object,
you typically use its close() method to close it and end your work with the data source or store.

NIO
Initially, New Input Output, also known as NIO, was introduced with the J2SE 1.4 by Sun Microsystems. It is a
collection of Java programming language Application Programming Interface (API) that provides features for
performing I/O operations.
The APIs of NIO were created for providing accessibility to the low-level I/O operations. The objective of
creating such high-level APIs is to enable an implementation that can easily utilize the most effective operations
of the existing platform.
The java.nio package and its sub-packages contain the Java NIO APIs. Some of their features are as follows:
Buffers for the primitive type data
Character set encoders and decoders
Pattern matching on the basis of Perl-style regular expressions (in package java.util.regex)A new
primitive I/O abstraction provisionA file interface inclusion, which supports locking and memory mapping
of files up to Integer.MAX_VALUE bytes (2 GiB)
A multiplexed, non-blocking I/O facility for writing scalable servers

Essentials in NIO
NIO is built on two fundamental itemsbuffers and channels. These are used in data handlinga buffer holds
data, while a channel represents an open connection to an I/O device, such as a file or a socket. Generally, to use
the NIO system, you obtain a channel to an I/O device and a buffer to hold that data. Operating can be done on
the buffer by providing input or output data.

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 In Depth

Buffers
Buffers are the integral part of the java.nio package. All buffers are subclasses of the Buffer class. The
Buffer class defines the core functionalitycurrent position, limit, and capacity. The current position is the
index in the buffer where the next read or write operation takes place. The current position is advanced by most
read and write operations. The limit in the index is the end of the buffer. The capacity is the number of elements
that the buffer can hold.
The Buffer class also supports the mark() and reset() methods. It defines several methods, which are
shown in Table 18.1, and Table 18.2 shows the specific buffer sub classes derived from the Buffer class:
Table 18.1: The methods of the Buffer class
Method Description
abstract Object array() It returns an array backing this buffer.
abstract int arrayOffset() It returns the offset of the first element of the buffer in backing array.
int capacity() It returns the number of elements that the invoking buffer is capable of
holding.
Buffer clear() It clears the invoking buffer and returns a reference to the buffer.
Buffer flip() It sets the invoking buffers limit to the current positions and resets the
current positions to 0. It returns a reference to the buffer.
abstract boolean hasArray() It returns true if the buffer is backed by some accessible array.
boolean hasRemaining() It returns true if there are elements remaining in the invoking buffer;
otherwise, it returns false.
abstract boolean isDirect() It returns true if the buffer is direct.
abstract boolean is ReadOnly() It returns true if the invoking buffer is read only; otherwise, it returns
false.
int limit() It returns the invoking buffers limit.
Buffer limit(int n) It sets the invoking buffer limit to n. It returns a reference to the buffer.
Buffer mark() It sets the mark and returns a reference to the invoking buffer.
int position() It returns the current positions.
Buffer position(int n) It sets the invoking buffers current position to n. It returns a reference to
the buffer
int remaining() It returns the number of elements between current position and the limit.
Buffer reset() It resets the current position of the invoking buffer to the previously set
mark. It returns a reference to the buffer.
Buffer rewind() It sets the positions of the invoking buffer to 0. It returns a reference to the
buffer.

Table 18.2: The specific buffer subclasses derived from the Buffer class
ByteBuffer CharBuffer
DoubleBuffer FloatBuffer
IntBuffer LongBuffer
MappedByteBuffer(a subclass of ShortBuffer
ByteBuffer; used to map a file
to a buffer)

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All buffers support methods that perform different operations. For example, the allocate() method is used
for allocating a buffer manually . On the other hand, the wrap()method is used for wrapping an array inside a
buffer. Moreover, a subsequence of a buffer can be created by using the slice()method. The Buffer class also
supports various get() and put() methods, which allow you to get data from a buffer or put data into a
buffer. The get() and put() methods are described in Table 18.3:
Table 18.3: The get() and put() methods
Method Description
abstract byte get() It returns the byte at the current position.
ByteBuffer get(byte vals[]) It copies the invoking buffer into the array referred to by vals. It returns a
reference to the buffer.
ByteBuffer get(byte vals[], int It copies num elements from the invoking buffer into the array referred to
start, int num) by vals, beginning from the index specified by start. It returns a reference
to the buffer. If there are not num elements remaining in the buffer, a
BufferUnderflowException exception is thrown.
abstract byte get(int idx) It returns byte at the index specified by idx within the invoking buffer.
abstract bytebuffer put(byte b) It copies b into the invoking buffer at the current position. It returns a
reference to the buffer.
final ByteBuffer put(byte It copies all elements of vals into the invoking buffer, beginning from the
vals[]) current position. It returns a reference to the buffer.
ByteBuffer put(byte vals[], int It copies num elements from vals, beginning from start, into the invoking
start, int num) buffer. It returns a reference to the buffer if the buffer cannot hold all the
elements a BufferOverflowException is thrown.
ByteBuffer put(ByteBuffer bb) It copies the elements in bb to the invoking buffer, beginning from the
current position. If the buffer cannot hold all of the elements, a
BufferOverflowException is thrown. It returns a reference to the
buffer
abstract ByteBuffer put(int idx, It copies b into the invoking buffer at the location specified by idx. It
byte b) returns a reference to the buffer.

Channels
A channel represents an open connection to an I/O source or destination and is defined in the
java.nio.channels package.
A channel can be retrieved by using the getChannel()method on an object supporting channels. Table 18.4
shows its I/O classes:
Table 18.4: The I/O classes supported by the getChannel() method
DatagramSocket FileInputStream
FileOutputStream RandomAccessFile
ServerSocket Socket

To obtain a channel, you first obtain an object of one of these classes and then call getChannel() on that object.
The type of channel returned totally depends upon the type of object on which the getChannel() method is
called.
For example, when the getChannel()method is called using a FileInputStream, FileOutputStream, or
RandomAccessFile object, a channel of type FileChannel is returned. When called on a Socket,
getChannel() method returns a SocketChannel.

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 In Depth

Channels such as FileChannel and SocketChannel support various read() and write() methods that
allow you to perform I/O operations through the channel. For example, a few of the read() and write()
methods defined for FileChannel are listed in Table 18.5 in which all can throw an IOException:
Table 18.5: The read() and write() methods of the FileChannel class
Method Description
abstract int read(ByteBuffer bb) It reads bytes from the invoking channel into bb until the buffer is full or
there is no more input. It returns the number of bytes actually read.
abstract int read(ByteBuffer bb, Beginning at the file location specified by start, read bytes from the
long start) invoking channels into bb until the buffer is full or there is no more
input. The current position is unchanged. It returns the number of bytes
actually read or 1 if start is beyond the end of the file.
abstract int write(ByteBuffer bb) It writes the contents of bb to the invoking channel, starting at the
current position. It returns the number of bytes written.
abstract int write(ByteBuffer bb, Beginning at the file location specified by start, writes the contents of bb
long start) to the invoking channel. The current position is unchanged. It returns
the number of bytes written.

The methods are supported by all channels that let access to and control over them. For example, the map()
method is supported by FileChannel which allows you to map a file to a buffer. Heres a simple example
that uses all three types of stream to produce channels that are writeable, readable/writeable, and readable:
import java.io.*;
import java.nio.*;
import java.nio.channels.*;

public class GetChannelDemo {

private static final int BSIZE = 1024;
public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception
{
FileChannel filechl = new FileOutputStream("file6.txt").getChannel();
filechl.write(ByteBuffer.wrap("Some text ".getBytes()));
filechl.close();
filechl = new RandomAccessFile("file6.txt", "rw").getChannel();
filechl.position(filechl.size());
filechl.write(ByteBuffer.wrap("Some more text".getBytes()));
filechl.close();
filechl = new FileInputStream("file6.txt").getChannel();
ByteBuffer buff = ByteBuffer.allocate(BSIZE);
filechl.read(buff);
buff.flip();
while(buff.hasRemaining())
System.out.print((char)buff.get());}
}
Create a file named file6.txt before executing this code file in the same location where you are saving Java
and the class files. The result is as shown in Figure 18.1:

Figure 18.1: The output of the GetChannelDemo class

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Charsets and Selectors

NIO supports two more entitiescharsets and selectors. A charset allows mapping of bytes to characters. An
encoder encodes a sequence of characters into bytes, while a decoder decodes a sequence of bytes into
characters. The classes defined in the java.nio.charset package support charsets, encoders, and decoders.
Selectors allow you to execute I/O operations through multiple channels. The classes defined in the
java.nio.channels package support selectors. There are three sets of keys maintained by a selector: key set,
selected-key set, and cancelled-key set.
Each time a channel is registered with a selector, a selection key is created. A selection key encapsulates two
operation setsInterest Set and Ready Set.

Enhancements in NIO with Java 8

Several improvements have been made to the standard java.nio.charset.Charset and extended charset
implementations. These improvements are as follows:
Inclusion of a new SelectorProvider implementation for Solaris operating system on the basis of the Solaris
event port technique. This implementation is expected to enhance performance or scalability for some
server workloads. The /dev/poll SelectorProvider continues to be the default. You can use the Solaris event
port technique by running with the system property java.nio.channels.spi.Selector, whose value is set
to sun.nio.ch.EventPortSelectorProvider. Reduction in the size of <JDK_HOME>/jre/lib/charsets.jar file
Performance improvement for the java.lang.String(byte[], *) constructor and the java.lang.String.getBytes()
method.

The Path Interface

The Path acts as an object that may be used to locate a file in the file system. Usually, it represents a system-
dependent file path. The Path also represents a path that is categorized and composed of an arrangement of
directory and file name elements separated by a special separator or delimiter. The root element that identifies a
file system hierarchy should be present. The name element that is farthest from the root element of the
hierarchy is the name of the file or directory and the other name elements are directory names. The Path
represents a root and an arrangement of names, or simply one or more name elements. The Path is considered
to be an empty path if its only name element is empty. Accessing a file using an empty path is similar to
accessing the default directory of the file system. The Path interface defines the getFileName(),
getParent(), getRoot(), and subpath() methods to access the path elements or a subsequence of its name
elements.
Paths are utilized with the Files class for performing operations on files, directories, and other kinds of files.
For example, suppose we want a BufferedReader object to read text from a file "file.txt" and the file is located
in a directory "info" relative to the current working directory and is UTF-8 encoded. To implement this, the
following code snippet should be used:
Path path = FileSystems.getDefault().getPath("info", "file.txt");
BufferReader reader = Files.newBufferedReader(path, StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
The methods of the Path interface class are provided in Table 18.6:
Table 18.6: Methods of the Path interface
Method Does this
int compareTo(Path other) It compares two abstract paths lexicographically.
boolean endsWith(Path other) It checks whether or not the resulting path ends with the given
path.
boolean endsWith(String other) It checks if this path ends with a Path constructed by converting the
given path string in exactly the same manner specified by the
endsWith(Path) method.

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Table 18.6: Methods of the Path interface

Method Does this
boolean equals(Object other) It checks whether or not the given object is a path.
Path getFileName() It returns the name of the file or directory denoted by this path as a
Path object.
FileSystem getFileSystem() It returns the file system that created this object.
Path getName(int index) It returns a name element of this path as a Path object.
int getNameCount() It returns the number of name elements in the path.
Path getParent() It returns the parent path or null if this path does not have a parent.
Path getRoot() It returns the root component of this path as a Path object or null if
this path does not have a root component.
int hashCode() It computes a hash code for this path.
boolean isAbsolute() It states whether or not this path is absolute.
Iterator<Path> iterator() It returns an iterator over the name elements of this path.
Path normalize() It returns a normalized path in which redundant name of elements
are eliminated.
WatchKey register(WatchService It registers the file located by this path with a watch service.
watcher, WatchEvent.Kind<?>... events)
WatchKey register(WatchService It registers the file located by this path with a watch service. The
watcher, WatchEvent.Kind<?>[] events, parameters of this method defines modifications that qualify how
WatchEvent.Modifier... modifiers) the directory is registered.
Path relativize(Path other) It creates a relative path between this path and a given path.
Path resolve(Path other) It resolves the given path against this path.
Path resolve(String other) It translates a given path string to a Path and resolves it against
this Path in exactly the same manner specified by the resolve
method.
Path resolveSibling(Path other) It resolves the given path against resulting path's parent path.
Path resolveSibling(String other) It translates a given path string to a Path and resolves it against this
path's parent path in exactly the same manner specified by the
resolveSibling method.
boolean startsWith(Path other) It checks if this path starts with the given path.
boolean startsWith(String other) It checks if this path starts with a Path constructed by converting
the given path string in exactly the same manner specified by the
startsWith(Path) method.
Path subpath(int beginIndex, int It returns a relative Path that is a subsequence of the name elements
endIndex) of this path.
Path toAbsolutePath() It returns a Path object representing the absolute path of this path.
File toFile() It returns a File object representing this path.
Path toRealPath(LinkOption... options) It returns the real path of an existing file.
String toString() It returns the string representation of this path.
URI toUri() It returns a URI to represent this path.

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The Files Class

The Files class comprises static methods, exclusively, which perform operations on files, directories, or other
kinds of files. The inheritance diagram for the Files class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.nio.file.Files
The Files class exposes the methods described in Table 18.7:
Table 18.7: Methods and their description
Table 18.7: Methods of the Files class
Method Does this
static long copy(InputStream in, Path It copies all bytes from an input stream to a file.
target, CopyOption... options)
static long copy(Path source, It copies all bytes from a file to an output stream.
OutputStream out)
static Path copy(Path source, Path It copies a file to a target file.
target, CopyOption... options)
static Path createDirectories(Path It generates a directory by creating all nonexistent parent
dir, FileAttribute<?>... attrs) directories first.
static Path createDirectory(Path dir, It generates a new directory.
FileAttribute<?>... attrs)
static Path createFile(Path path, It generates a new and empty file; if the file already exists, then it
FileAttribute<?>... attrs) does not create any file.
static Path createLink(Path link, It generates a new link (directory entry) for an existing file (optional
Path existing) operation).
static Path createSymbolicLink(Path It generates a symbolic link to a target (optional operation).
link, Path target,
FileAttribute<?>... attrs)
static Path createTempDirectory(Path It generates a new directory in the specified directory using the
dir, String prefix, given prefix to generate its name.
FileAttribute<?>... attrs)
static Path It generates a new directory in the default temporary-file directory
createTempDirectory(String prefix, and uses the given prefix to generate its name.
FileAttribute<?>... attrs)
static Path createTempFile(Path dir, It generates a new empty file in the specified directory and uses the
String prefix, String suffix, given prefix and suffix strings to generate its name.
FileAttribute<?>... attrs)
static Path createTempFile(String It generates an empty file in the default temporary-file directory
prefix, String suffix, using the given prefix and suffix to generate its name.
FileAttribute<?>... attrs)
static void delete(Path path) It deletes a file.
static boolean deleteIfExists(Path It deletes a file if it exists.
path)
static boolean exists(Path path, It checks whether or not a file exists.
LinkOption... options)
static Object getAttribute(Path It reads the file attribute value.
path, String attribute, LinkOption...
options)
static <V extends FileAttributeView> It returns a file attribute view of a given type.
V getFileAttributeView(Path path,
Class<V> type, LinkOption... options)

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Table 18.7: Methods of the Files class

Method Does this
static FileStore getFileStore(Path It returns the FileStore object specifying the path where the file
path) is stored.
static FileTime It returns a file's last modified time.
getLastModifiedTime(Path path,
LinkOption... options)
static UserPrincipal getOwner(Path It returns the owner of a file.
path, LinkOption... options)
static Set<PosixFilePermission> It returns a file's POSIX file permissions.
getPosixFilePermissions(Path path,
LinkOption... options)
static boolean isDirectory(Path path, It checks whether or not a file is a directory.
LinkOption... options)
static boolean isExecutable(Path It checks whether or not a file is executable.
path)
static boolean isHidden(Path path) It states whether or not a file is considered hidden.
static boolean isReadable(Path path) It checks whether or not a file is readable.
static boolean isRegularFile(Path It checks whether or not a file is a regular file with opaque content.
path, LinkOption... options)
static boolean isSameFile(Path path, It checks if two paths locate the same file.
Path path2)
static boolean isWritable(Path path) It checks whether or not a file is writable.
static Path move(Path source, Path It moves or renames a file to a target file.
target, CopyOption... options)
static BufferedReader It opens a file to read text from it and returns a new
newBufferedReader(Path path, Charset BufferedReader object with default buffer size. This
cs) BufferedReader object is used to read the content of the file.
static BufferedWriter It opens or creates a file to write text and returns a new
newBufferedWriter(Path path, Charset BufferedWriter object with default buffer size. This
cs, OpenOption... options) BufferedWriter object is used to write the text in the file.
static SeekableByteChannel It opens or creates a file to access it and returns a seekable byte
newByteChannel(Path path, channel, which is used to access the file.
OpenOption... options)
static SeekableByteChannel It opens or generates a file, returning a seekable byte channel to
newByteChannel(Path path, Set<? access the file by accepting the path and attributes of the file as
extends OpenOption> options, arguments.
FileAttribute<?>... attrs)
static DirectoryStream<Path> It opens a directory and returns a DirectoryStream to iterate
newDirectoryStream(Path dir) over all entries in the directory.
static DirectoryStream<Path> It opens a directory, returning a DirectoryStream to iterate over
newDirectoryStream(Path dir, the entries in the directory. In this method entries are filtered by
DirectoryStream.Filter<? super Path> given filter.
filter)
static DirectoryStream<Path> It opens a directory, returning a DirectoryStream to iterate over
newDirectoryStream(Path dir, String the entries in the directory. In this method entries are filtered by
glob) matching the String representation.
static InputStream It opens a file, returning an input stream to read from the file.
newInputStream(Path path,
OpenOption... options)

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Table 18.7: Methods of the Files class

Method Does this
static OutputStream It opens or generates a file, returning an output stream that may be
newOutputStream(Path path, used to write bytes to the file.
OpenOption... options)
static boolean notExists(Path path, It checks whether or not the file located by this path does not exist.
LinkOption... options)
static String probeContentType(Path It probes the content type of a file.
path)
static byte[] readAllBytes(Path path) It reads all the bytes from a file.
static List<String> readAllLines(Path It reads all lines from a file.
path, Charset cs)
static <A extends It reads a file's attributes as a bulk operation.
BasicFileAttributes>
A readAttributes(Path path, Class<A>
type, LinkOption... options)
static Map<String,Object> It reads a set of file attributes as a bulk operation.
readAttributes(Path path, String
attributes, LinkOption... options)
static Path readSymbolicLink(Path It reads the target of a symbolic link (optional operation).
link)
static Path setAttribute(Path path, It sets the value of a file attribute.
String attribute, Object value,
LinkOption... options)
static Path setLastModifiedTime(Path It updates a file's last modified time attribute.
path, FileTime time)
static Path setOwner(Path path, It updates the file owner.
UserPrincipal owner)
static Path It defines a file's POSIX permissions.
setPosixFilePermissions(Path path,
Set<PosixFilePermission> perms)
static long size(Path path) It returns the size of a file (in bytes).
static Path walkFileTree(Path It walks a file tree rooted at a given starting file. It does not follow
start, FileVisitor<? super Path> symbolic links automatically but when the option parameter
visitor) contains the FOLLOW_LINKS option then symbolic links are
followed by this method.
static Path walkFileTree(Path start, It walks a file tree rooted at a given starting file. It does not allow to
Set<FileVisitOption> options, int follow symbolic links , and visit all levels of the file tree.
maxDepth, FileVisitor<? superPath>
visitor)
static Path write(Path path, It writes bytes to a file.
byte[] bytes, OpenOption... options)
static Path write(Path path, It writes lines of text to a file.
Iterable<? extends CharSequence>
lines, Charset cs, OpenOption...
options)

The Paths Class

The Paths class includes entirely static methods that return a Path by changing a path string or URI. This class
is introduced in the Java SE 7 release. It is one of the primary features of the java.nio.file package. The
inheritance diagram for the Paths class is as follows:

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 In Depth

java.lang.Object
|____java.nio.file.Paths
The methods of the Paths class are listed in Table 18.8:
Table 18.8: Methods of the Paths class
Method Does this
static Path get(String first, String It converts the strings passed as arguments to a Path by joining all
more) the specified strings.
static Path get(URI uri) It changes the given URI to a Path.

The File Attribute Interfaces

An attribute view provides a read-only view of the transparent values, or metadata, associated with objects in a
file system. The FileAttributeView interface is extended by several other interfaces that view to other
specific sets of file attributes. The FileAttributeView interface is selected by requesting the
Files.getFileAttributeView(java.nio.file.Path, java.lang.Class<V>,
java.nio.file.LinkOption...) method with a type-token to identify the required view. You can identify
views by name as well.
The FileStoreAttributeView interface provides access to file store attributes. The
FileStoreAttributeView interface of a given type is obtained by invoking the
FileStore.getFileStoreAttributeView(java.lang.Class<V>) method.
Various interfaces of the file attributes are provided in Table 18.9:
Table 18.9: Interface Summary
Interface Does this
AclFileAttributeView A file attribute view that supports reading or updating a file's ACL
or file owner attributes.
AttributeView An object that provides a read-only or updatable view of non-
opaque values associated with an object in a file system.
BasicFileAttributes Basic attributes associated with a file in a file system.
BasicFileAttributeView A file attribute view that provides a view of a basic set of file
attributes common to many file systems.
DosFileAttributes File attributes associated with a file in a file system that supports
legacy "DOS" attributes.
DosFileAttributeView A file attribute view that provides a view of the legacy "DOS" file
attributes.
FileAttribute<T> An object that encapsulates the value of a file attribute that can be
set atomically when creating a new file or directory by invoking the
createFile() or createDirectory() methods.
FileAttributeView An attribute view that is a read-only or updatable view of non-
opaque values associated with a file in a filesystem.
FileOwnerAttributeView A file attribute view that supports reading or updating the owner of
a file.
FileStoreAttributeView An attribute view that is a read-only or updatable view of the
attributes of a FileStore.
GroupPrincipal A UserPrincipal representing a group identity used to
determine access rights to objects in a file system.
PosixFileAttributes File attributes associated with files on file systems used by operating
systems that implement the Portable Operating System Interface
(POSIX) family of standards.

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Table 18.9: Interface Summary

Interface Does this
PosixFileAttributeView A file attribute view that provides a view of the file attributes
commonly associated with files on file systems used by operating
systems that implement the POSIX family of standards.
UserDefinedFileAttributeView A file attribute view that provides a view of a file's user-defined
attributes, sometimes known as extended attributes.
UserPrincipal A Principal representing an identity used to determine access rights
to objects in a file system.

The FileSystem Class

The FileSystem class is the collection of objects providing an interface, which is used to access files and other
objects present in the file system. It is the default file system used with the FileSystems.getDefault()
method invoked. This method allows accessibility to the file system that can be easily retrieved by the JVM.
The FileSystem class defines methods for creating file systems that provide access to other types of file
systems.
The FileSystem class provides the following types of objects:
The getPath() method converts the path of a system, which is in String format, into a Path object. This
object is used to locate a file and retrieve its content.
The getPathMatcher() method creates a PathMatcher object, which is used to perform matching
operations on paths.
The getFileStores() method returns an object for performing iteration on the exisiting file stores.
The getUserPrincipalLookupService() method returns the userPrincipaLookupService,
which is used to lookup users or groups by name.
The newWatchService() method constructs a WatchService used to look the objects for changes and
events.
The getRootDirectory() method returns an object for performing iteration on the root directories
present in the file system.
The file system sometimes have single hierarchy of files with one top-level root directory or several distinct
hierarchy of files, each with its own top-level root directory.
Generally, a file system contains one or more essential file stores that are used to store the files on the system.
The file attributes or metadata and features of one file store will differ from the other.
When you create an object of the FileSystem class, the file system is opened to access files and can be closed by
calling its close() method. If the file system is closed, then any attempt to access objects from the files will
result into the ClosedFileSystemException exception. You cannot close the File systems that are created by
the default provider. Whenever you want to close the file system, the close() method can be invoked but the
way a file system will be closed is provider specific. In other words, the type of provider used with the file
system will determine during the runtime how the system will be closed.
A file system provides read-only or read-write operations to retrieve the data from the file system. When the file
system is created, you can check whether it provides read-only access by using the isReadOnly() method of
the file system. When you try to write or change in any file store through an object related to its read only file
system, the object throws the ReadOnlyFileSystemException exception. File systems are secure when they
are used by several simultaneous threads. The inheritance diagram for this class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.nio.file.FileSystem

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The constructors of the FileSystem class are provided in Table 18.10 and its methods in Table 18.11:
Table 18.10: The constructor of the FileSystem class
Constructor Does this
Protected FileSystem() It is used to initialize a new instance of the FileSystem class.

Table 18.11: Methods of the FileSystem class

Method Does this
abstract void close() It closes the file system that is currently in use.
abstract Iterable<FileStore> It returns an object to iterate over the underlying file stores.
getFileStores()
abstract Path getPath(String first, It changes a path string, or a sequence of strings to a Path. The
String... more) sequence of strings are joined together to form a Path string.
abstract PathMatcher It returns a PathMatcher to perform the math operation on the
getPathMatcher(String String representation of Path object.
syntaxAndPattern)
abstract Iterable<Path> It returns an object to iterate over the paths of the root directories.
getRootDirectories()
abstract String getSeparator() It returns the name separator, represented as a string.
abstract UserPrincipalLookupService It returns the UserPrincipalLookupService for this file system
getUserPrincipalLookupService() (optional operation).
abstract boolean isOpen() It returns a boolean value specifying whether or not this file system
is open.
abstract boolean isReadOnly() It returns a boolean value specifying whether or not this file system
allows only read-only access to its file stores.
abstract WatchService It creates a new WatchService (optional operation).
newWatchService()
abstract FileSystemProvider It returns the provider that created this file system.
provider()
abstract Set<String> It returns the set of the names of the file attribute views supported
supportedFileAttributeViews() by this FileSystem.

The FileSystems Class

The FileSystems class gives collection of methods for file systems. The getDefault() method provided by
this class returns the default file system and the collection of methods to create other types of file systems.
Whenever the default provider is loaded, the method of this class will definitely be invoked for the first time.
The default provider is denoted by the URI scheme "file, which creates the file system that allows you to
retrieve the data. But if the process of loading or instantiating the default provider is not successful, an
undetermined error occurs.
The installedProviders() method is invoked for the first time by calling any of the
newFileSystem() methods defined by the FileSystems class. This method identifies and loads all installed
file system providers. With the help of the service-provider loading capability, the installed providers can be
loaded, which are defined by service loader class. If the system class loader is not found, then the extension class
loader is used. But if there is no extension class loader, then the bootstrap class loader is used for loading the file
system.
Generally, you can install the providers by storing them in a JAR file, which is configured on the application
classpath. You can also store the providers to be installed in the extension directory. The JAR file includes a
provider-configuration, that is, java.nio.file.spi.FileSystemProvider, in the source directory META-
INF/services. The ordering in which the installed providers are available depends upon the implementation of
the provider. If during the instantiation of a provider, the getScheme() method returns the same URI pattern

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as that of the earlier instantiated provider, then the file system provider is rejected because of duplicity. You
should note that the URI schemes are case-insensitive. During instantiation, a provider can retrieve the data
related to the default provider from files in the secured manner, but the circular loading of other installed
providers should be avoided. (This is because the circular loading of installed providers can cause an unknown
error).
The FileSystems class also defines some methods that allow you to specify the ClassLoader to be used
while locating a provider. If a thread starts loading of installed file system providers and another thread requests
a method that also wants to load the providers, then the method will block until the loading completes. The
inheritance diagram for this class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.nio.file.FileSystems

The methods of the FileSystems class are listed in Table 18.12:

Table 18.12: Methods of the FileSystems class
Method Does this
static FileSystem getDefault() It returns the default FileSystem.
static FileSystem getFileSystem(URI It returns a reference to an existing FileSystem.
uri)
static FileSystem newFileSystem(Path It creates a new FileSystem to access the contents of a file as a
path, ClassLoader loader) file system.
static FileSystem newFileSystem(URI It creates a new file system that is identified by a URI.
uri, Map<String,?> env)
static FileSystem newFileSystem(URI It creates a new file system that is identified by a URI.
uri, Map<String,?> env, ClassLoader
loader)

The FileStore Class

(The FileStore class defines the storage for files ). A file store is a volume or partition in which files are
stored. You can obtain the location of the storage of files by calling the getFileStore() method. Another
methods of the FileStore class, getFileStores() method, is used to count the total number of file stores. A
file store can support more than one FileStoreAttributeView class which provides the read-only or
updatable view of the FileStore attributes. The inheritance diagram for this class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.nio.file.FileStore
The constructor of the FileStore class listed in Table 18.13 and its methods in Table 18.14:
Table 18.13: The constructor of the FileStore class
Constructor Does this
protected FileStore() It initializes new instance of this class.

Table 18.14: Methods of the FileStore class

Method Does this
abstract Object getAttribute(String It reads the value of a file store attribute.
attribute)
abstract <V extends It returns a FileStoreAttributeView of the given type.
FileStoreAttributeView>V
getFileStoreAttributeView(Class<V>
type)
abstract long getTotalSpace() It returns the size of the file store in bytes.
abstract long getUnallocatedSpace() It returns the number of unallocated bytes in the file store.

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Table 18.14: Methods of the FileStore class

Method Does this
abstract long getUsableSpace() It returns the number of bytes available to this Java virtual machine
on the file store.
abstract boolean isReadOnly() It states whether this file store is read-only.
abstract String name() It returns the name of this file store.
abstract boolean It states whether or not this file store supports the file attributes
supportsFileAttributeView(Class<? identified by the given file attribute view.
extends FileAttributeView> type)
abstract boolean It states whether or not this file store supports the file attributes
supportsFileAttributeView(String identified by the given file attribute view.
name)
abstract String type() It returns the type of this file store.

Prospects of NIO
Only time and usage can tell whether the new approach will someday replace the traditional approach.
However, it is certain that the NIO APIs offer an exciting new way to think about and handle various types of
operations.
So what more does NIO give us? A lot, but not everythingnative code is still required. Some things that could
be done only with native code are now provided in NIO.
Theres a lot coming up next: I/O is a huge topic in Java. Its time to turn to the Immediate Solutions section.

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Immediate Solutions
Working with Streams
Generally, programs use the data from external sources, which can be from the remote machines or from the
local files on the same system. Java uses the concept of streams for reading data from the system and writing
data to it.
Stream sources include files, buffers, sockets, threads, and other streams. Stream destinations include the same
objects as stream sources and others as well, such as printers. There are generally two types of streams: input
stream and output stream. In case of input stream, a stream of data items flows from a source, whereas, in case
of output stream, the data items flow to a destination.

The InputStream Class

The Novice Programmer appears and says, Im ready to start working with files. Where do I start? You start,
you say, with the InputStream and OutputStream classes.
The InputStream and OutputStream classes are the base classes for byte-oriented I/O in Java, so its worth
taking a look at the methods that these classes provide to all other byte-oriented stream classes. Heres the
inheritance diagram for the InputStream class, on which you base input streams:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.InputStream
The InputStream is an abstract class that defines Javas model of streaming byte input. All the methods of this
class will throw an IOException.
Youll find the constructor of the InputStream class in Table 18.15 and its methods in Table 18.16:
Table 18.15: The constructor of the InputStream class
Constructor Does this
InputStream() It constructs an InputStream object

Table 18.16: Methods of the InputStream class

Method Does this
int available() It gets the number of bytes that can be read from this input stream
void close() It closes this input stream
void mark(int readlimit) It marks the current position in this input stream
boolean markSupported() It returns True if this input stream supports the mark() and reset()
methods
abstract int read() It reads the next byte of data from the input stream
int read(byte[] b) It reads some number of bytes from the input stream and stores them into
the buffer array b
int read(byte[ ] b, int off, int It reads up to len bytes of data from the input stream into an array of
len) bytes
void reset() It repositions this stream to the position where the mark() method was
last called on this input stream
long skip(long n) It skips over n bytes of data from this input stream

Well take a look at the OutputStream class in the next solution.

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The OutputStream Class

The counterpart of the InputStream class, introduced in the previous section, is the OutputStream class, on
which you base output streams. The inheritance diagram for the OutputStream class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.OutputStream
The OutputStream class refers to an abstract class defining streaming byte output. All the methods of this class
return void and throw IOException in case of errors. While InputStream implements the Closeable
interface, OutputStream implements the Closeable and Flushable interfaces both.
Youll find the constructor of the OutputStream class in Table 18.17 and its methods in Table 18.18:
Table 18.17: The constructor of the OutputStream class
Constructor Does this
OutputStream() It constructs an OutputStream object.

Table 18.18: Methods of the OutputStream class

Method Does this
void close() It closes this output stream.
void flush() It flushes this output stream and writes any waiting buffered output bytes.
void write(byte[ ] b) It writes b.length bytes from the given byte array to this output stream.
void write(byte[] b, int It writes len bytes from the given byte array, starting at offset off, to this
off, int len) output stream.
abstract void write(int b) It writes the given byte to this output stream.

Now that you have seen InputStream and OutputStream, its time to put these classes to work, starting in
the next solution.

The ByteArrayInputStream Class

I have got a huge array of bytes in my program, the NP says, and Im always losing my place in it. Too bad
you cant treat an array of bytes like a file and open an input stream from it! But you can, you say. The NP is
astounded.
You can use the ByteArrayInputStream class to open an input stream from an array of bytes in memory.
Heres the inheritance diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.InputStream
|____java.io.ByteArrayInputStream
Youll find the fields of the ByteArrayInputStream class in Table 18.19, its constructors in Table 18.20, and its
methods in Table 18.21:
Table 18.19: Fields of the ByteArrayInputStream class
Field Does this
protected byte[] buf It is an array of bytes that was supplied by the creator of the stream.
protected int count It is the number of characters in the input stream buffer.
protected int mark It is the currently marked position in the stream.
protected int pos It is the index of the next character to read from the input stream.

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Table 18.20: Constructors of the ByteArrayInputStream class

Constructor Does this
ByteArrayInputStream(byte[] buf) It constructs a ByteArrayInputStream object.
ByteArrayInputStream(byte[] buf, It constructs a ByteArrayInputStream object that uses buf as its buffer
int offset, int length) array. In this case, we are just creating a memory buffer with the text.

Table 18.21: Methods of the ByteArrayInputStream class

Method Does this
int available() It gets the number of bytes that can be read from this input.
void close() It closes this input stream.
void mark(int readAheadLimit) It sets the current marked position in the stream.
boolean markSupported() It returns True if this ByteArrayInputStream object supports
mark()/reset().
int read() It reads the next byte of data.
int read(byte[] b, int off, int It reads up to len bytes of data into an array of bytes from this input
len) stream.
void reset() It resets the buffer to the marked position.
long skip(long n) It skips n bytes of input from this input stream.

Heres an example. In this case, we are just creating a memory buffer with the text Dreamtech Press in it and
then opening a ByteArrayInputStream object to that buffer, reading and displaying the text byte by byte:
import java.io.*;
class ByteArrayInputStreamDemo
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException
{
byte data[] = "Dreamtech Press".getBytes();
ByteArrayInputStream in = new ByteArrayInputStream(data);
int character;
while((character = in.read()) != -1) {
System.out.print((char) character); }
}
}
The output from this code is shown in Figure 18.2, showing a string stored in an array of bytes:

Figure 18.2: An array storing a number of bytes

Thats all it takes.

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Take the case of another example, where the reset() method is used to read the same input twice, i.e. the
string Dreamtech is read and printed once in lowercase and then again in uppercase:
import java.io.*;
class ResetDemo
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException
{
String p = "Dreamtech";
byte B[] = p.getBytes();
ByteArrayInputStream in = new ByteArrayInputStream(B);
for (int j=0; j<2; j++)
{
int N;
while ((N = in.read()) != -1)
{
if (j == 0) { System.out.print((char) N); }
else {
System.out.print(Character.toUpperCase((char) N)); }
}
System.out.println();
in.reset(); }
}
}
The output is shown in Figure 18.3, showing the same input printed twice:

Figure 18.3: Input printed twice

The ByteArrayOutputStream Class

So you can read bytes with ByteArrayInputStream, says the Novice Programmer. Can you also write
them? Sure, you say, with ByteArrayOutputStream.
The ByteArrayOutputStream class lets you write streams of bytes to buffers. Heres the inheritance diagram
for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.OutputStream
|____java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream
Youll find the fields of the ByteArrayOutputStream class in Table 18.22, its constructors in Table 18.23, and
its methods in Table 18.24:
Table 18.22: Fields of the ByteArrayOutputStream class
Field Does this
protected byte[] buf The buffer where data is stored
protected int count The number of bytes in the buffer

Table 18.23: Constructors of the ByteArrayOutputStream class

Constructor Does this
ByteArrayOutputStream() It constructs a new byte array output stream
ByteArrayOutputStream(int size) It constructs a new byte array output stream with a buffer of the given size

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Table 18.24: Methods of the ByteArrayOutputStream class

Method Does this
void close() It closes this output stream

void reset() It resets the count field of this byte array output stream to zero

int size() It gets the current size of the buffer

byte[] toByteArray() It constructs a newly allocated byte array

String toString() It converts the buffers contents into a string

String toString(int hibyte) It is deprecated and it uses the toString() method

String toString(String enc) It converts the buffers contents into a string

void write(byte[ ] b, int off, It writes len bytes from the given byte array starting at offset off
int len)

void write(int b) It writes the given byte to this byte array output stream

void writeTo(OutputStream out) It writes the complete contents of this byte array output stream to the
given output stream argument

Heres an example. In this case, we are writing bytes to a ByteArrayOutputStream object, writing bytes to a
memory buffer, and sending bytes to a file output stream:
import java.io.*;
class ByteArrayOutputStreamDemo
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException
{
ByteArrayOutputStream bytearrayoutputstream = new
ByteArrayOutputStream();
byte data[] = " Welcome to Dreamtech Press ".getBytes();
bytearrayoutputstream.write(data);
System.out.println(bytearrayoutputstream.toString());
byte buffer[] = bytearrayoutputstream.toByteArray();
for (int loop_index = 0; loop_index < data.length; loop_index++)
{
System.out.print((char) buffer[loop_index]); }
OutputStream fileoutputstream = new FileOutputStream("file.txt");
bytearrayoutputstream.writeTo(fileoutputstream);
fileoutputstream.close(); }
}
The result can be seen in Figure 18.4, showing the bytes to be stored in the buffer:

Figure 18.4: Bytes stored in the buffer

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 Immediate Solutions

The BufferedInputStream Class

Good Lord!, says the Novice Programmer, My code interprets data from an input stream, and sometimes itd
be handy to be able to reset the stream and go back to an earlier position. You can do that with buffered
streams, you say. Wow! the NP says.
Using the BufferedInputStream class, you can use the mark() and reset() methods to actually move
backward in a buffered input stream. The inheritance diagram for this class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.InputStream
|____java.io.FilterInputStream
|____java.io.BufferedInputStream
Youll find the fields of the BufferedInputStream class in Table 18.25, its constructors in Table 18.26, and its
methods in Table 18.27:
Table 18.25: Fields of the BufferedInputStream class
Field Does this
protected byte[] buf The internal buffer where the data is stored.
protected int count The count of bytes in the buffer.
protected int marklimit The maximum read-ahead allowed after a call to the mark() method.
protected int markpos The value of the pos field at the time the last mark() method was
called.
protected int pos The position in the buffer.

Table 18.26: Constructors of the BufferedInputStream class

Constructor Does this
BufferedInputStream(InputStream in) It constructs a BufferedInputStream object and saves its argument,
the input stream in, for later use.
BufferedInputStream(InputStream in, It constructs a BufferedInputStream object with the given buffer
int size) size.

Table 18.27: Methods of the BufferedInputStream class

Method Does this
int available() It gets the number of bytes that can be read from this input.
void close() It closes this input stream.
void mark(int readAheadLimit) It sets the current marked position in the stream.
boolean markSupported() It tests whether this input stream supports the mark() and reset()
methods.
int read() It reads the next byte of data.
int read(byte[] b, int off, int It reads bytes from this byte input stream into the given byte array,
len) starting at the given offset.
void reset() It resets the buffer to the marked position.
long skip(long n) It skips n bytes of input from this input stream.

Heres an example. In this case, well remove comments from a ByteArrayInputStream object that are
delimited with the # character. That means when we encounter a # character, well just stop displaying bytes
until we encounter a closing #.
For the purposes of this example, well only use comments that dont include spaces. Note that sometimes the #
character is a valid character in text, so if we encounter a # and stop displaying text and then encounter a space

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before seeing a closing #, the text was not a comment. Therefore, we have to move back to the first # and
redisplay the text up to the space.
Well write this example using the mark() and reset() methods; we mark a location, then, if needed, use the
reset() method to go back to that location. Heres what the code looks like (note that you pass a length, in
bytes, to the mark() method that indicates the maximum number of bytes youll read before possibly using
reset()):
import java.io.*;
class BufferedInputStreamDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException {
byte data[] = "Welcome to Dreamtech Press.#comment_goes_here#".getBytes();
ByteArrayInputStream in = new ByteArrayInputStream(data);
BufferedInputStream bufferedinputstream = new
BufferedInputStream(in);
int character;
boolean silentflag = false;
while ((character = bufferedinputstream.read()) != -1) {
switch(character) { case '#':
if (silentflag) { silentflag = false; }
else {
silentflag = true;
bufferedinputstream.mark(100); }
break;
case ' ':
if (silentflag) {
silentflag = false;
System.out.print("#");
bufferedinputstream.reset(); }
else
System.out.print((char) character);
break;
default:
if (!silentflag) System.out.print((char) character);
}
}
}
}
Heres the output of this code: E:\Java8\chapter18\>java BufferedInputStreamDemo
Welcome to Dreamtech Press.

The BufferedOutputStream Class

The BufferedOutputStream class is the output counterpart of the BufferedInputStream class (see the
previous solution). The inheritance diagram for the BufferedOutputStream class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.OutputStream
|____java.io.FilterOutputStream
|____java.io.BufferedOutputStream
Youll find the fields of the BufferedOutputStream class in Table 18.28, its constructors in Table 18.29, and its
methods in Table 18.30:
Table 18.28: Fields of the BufferedOutputStream class
Field Does this
protected byte[] buf The internal buffer where data is stored.
protected int count The number of bytes in the buffer.

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Table 18.29: Constructors of the BufferedOutputStream class

Constructor Does this
BufferedOutputStream(OutputStrea It constructs a new-buffered output stream.
m out)
BufferedOutputStream(OutputStrea It constructs a new buffered output stream to write data with the given
m out, int size) buffer size.

Table 18.30: Methods of the BufferedOutputStream class

Method Does this
void flush() It flushes this buffered output stream.
void write(byte[] b, int off, It writes len bytes from the given byte array, starting at offset off, to this
int len) buffered output stream.
void write(int b) It writes the given byte to this buffered output stream.

The idea behind BufferedOutputStream is that you dont have to write data to disk every time a byte is
written, because output is buffered. To force a write operation, you can use the flush() method.

The FileInputStream Class

I need to open an image file and work with its individual bytes, the NP says. How can I do that? You can
use the FileInputStream class to work with the bytes in a file, you say. The NP says, Tell me more!
The FileInputStream class is specially designed to work with byte-oriented input from files and is derived
from InputStream. The inheritance diagram for the FileInputStream class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.InputStream
|____java.io.FileInputStream
Youll find the constructors of the FileInputStream class in Table 18.31 and its methods in Table 18.32:
Table 18.31: Constructors of the FileInputStream class
Constructor Does this
FileInputStream(File file) It constructs a FileInputStream object by opening a connection to an
actual file
FileInputStream(FileDescriptor It constructs a FileInputStream object by using the file descriptor
fdObj) fdObj
FileInputStream(String name) It constructs a FileInputStream object by opening a connection to an
actual file given by the file named by name

Table 18.32: Methods of the FileInputStream class

Method Does this
int available() It gets the number of bytes that can be read from this file input stream
void close() It closes this file input stream
protected void finalize() It makes sure that the close() method of this file input stream is called
when there are no more references to it
FileDescriptor getFD() It gets the FileDescriptor object
int read() It reads a byte of data from this input stream
int read(byte[] b) It reads up to b.length bytes of data from this input stream called when
there are no more references to it into an array of bytes
int read(byte[ ] b, int off, int It reads up to len bytes of data from this input stream into an array of
len) bytes
long skip(long n) It skips over and discards n bytes

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All the constructors can throw a FileNotFoundException. To create a file input stream, you use the
FileInputStream classs constructor. The reading methods you use with this class are as follows:
int read()It reads a byte of data from this input stream and returns it.
int read(byte[] b)It reads up to b.length bytes of data from this input stream into an array of
bytes and returns the number of bytes read.
int read(byte[] b, int off, int len)It reads up to len bytes of data from this input stream
into an array of bytes and returns the number of bytes read.
Lets consider an example: We open the source code file of the application, read and display 50 bytes of code,
skip 50 bytes with the skip() method, and then read and display 50 more bytes (note that we can also
determine how many bytes are waiting there to be read using the available() method, and we can close the
stream at the end of the code):
import java.io.*;
class FileInputStreamDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception {
int size;
FileInputStream fileinputstream = new
FileInputStream("FileInputStreamDemo.java");
System.out.println("Available bytes: " + (size
=fileinputstream.available()));
System.out.println("Reading 20 bytes....");
byte bytearray[] = new byte[20];
if (fileinputstream.read(bytearray) != 20) {
System.out.println("Could not get 20 bytes"); }
System.out.println(new String(bytearray, 0, 20));
System.out.println("Skipping 20 bytes...");
fileinputstream.skip(20);
System.out.println("Reading 20 bytes....");
if (fileinputstream.read(bytearray) != 20) {
System.out.println("Could not get 20 bytes"); }
System.out.println(new String(bytearray, 0, 20));
fileinputstream.close(); }
}
The output from this code is shown in Figure 18.5, showing the input to a file:

Figure 18.5: The FileInputStreamDemo Class

An untrusted applet is not allowed to read and write files at all. So, unless you make specific security arrangements, you should
not try to read or write files from applets. Therefore, for the sake of convenience, all the programs in this chapter are
applications.

The FileOutputStream Class

OK, says the Novice Programmer, I know you use FileInputStream to read from files, but what class do
you use if you want to write to a file? You smile and say, I bet you can guess.

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 Immediate Solutions

You can use the FileOutputStream class to write data, byte by byte, to a file. They can throw a
FileNotFoundException class or a SecurityException class. Remember that the creation of a
FileOutputStream class is not dependent on the file that already exists. In fact, the FileOutputStream class
will create the file before opening it for output. An IOException is thrown in case you try to open a read-only
file. All FileOutputStream methods have a void return type.
The inheritance diagram for that class, which is derived from the OutputStream class, is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.OutputStream
|____java.io.FileOutputStream
The constructors of the FileOutputStream class are provided in Table 18.33 and its methods in Table 18.34:
Table 18.33: Constructors of the FileOutputStream class
Constructor Does this
FileOutputStream(File file) It constructs a file output stream to write to the given File object.
FileOutputStream(File file, It constructs a file output stream to write to the file represented by the
boolean append) specified File object.
FileOutputStream(FileDescriptor It constructs an output file stream to write to the given file descriptor.
fdObj)
FileOutputStream(String name) It constructs an output file stream to write to the file with the given name.
FileOutputStream(String name, It constructs an output file stream to append to the file with the given
boolean append) name.

Table 18.34: Methods of the FileOutputStream class

Method Does this
void close() It closes this file output stream.
protected void finalize() It makes sure that the close() method of this file output stream is called
when there are no more references to this stream.
FileChannel getChannel() It gets the unique FileChannel object associated with this file output
stream.
FileDescriptor getFD() It gets the file descriptor associated with this stream.
void write(byte[ ] b) It writes b.length bytes from the given byte array to this file output
stream.
void write(byte[] b, int off, It writes len bytes from the given byte array, starting at offset off, to this
int len) file output stream.
void write(int b) It writes the given byte to this file output stream.

The writing methods you use with this class are as follows:
void write(byte[] b)Writes b.length bytes from the given byte array to this file output stream.
void write(byte[] b, int off, int len)Writes len bytes from the given byte array, starting at
offset, to the file output stream.
void write(int b)Writes the given byte to the file output stream.
Heres an example in which we write the string of text This is a string of text. to a file in three waysbyte by
byte, all at once, and in part. Heres what the code looks like:
import java.io.*;
class FileOutputStreamDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception {
byte data[] = "This is a string of text.".getBytes();
FileOutputStream fileoutputstream1 = new
FileOutputStream("file1.txt");
for (int loop_index = 0; loop_index < data.length; loop_index++) {

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fileoutputstream1.write(data[loop_index]); }
FileOutputStream fileoutputstream2 = new
FileOutputStream("file2.txt");
fileoutputstream2.write(data);
FileOutputStream fileoutputstream3 = new
FileOutputStream("file3.txt");
fileoutputstream3.write(data, 5, 10);
fileoutputstream1.close();
fileoutputstream2.close();
fileoutputstream3.close(); }
}
Compile and execute this code and find three files-file1.txt, file2.txt, and file3.txt that are created.

Working with the Reader Class

OK, says the Novice Programmer, Im going to work with characters, instead of just bytes including Unicode.
How do I handle that? With the Reader and Writer classes, you say. Tell me more! says the NP.
You use the Reader and Writer classes to read and write character-streams. As with InputStream and
OutputStream, you base classes on Reader and Writer instead of using them directly. The Reader
implements the Closeable and Readable interfaces. All the methods of this class throw an IOException on
error conditions. Heres the inheritance diagram for Reader:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Reader
Youll find the field of the Reader class in Table 18.35, its constructors in Table 18.36, and its methods in
Table 18.37:
Table 18.35: The field of the Reader class
Field Does this
protected Object lock The lock used to synchronize operations.

Table 18.36: Constructors of the Reader class

Constructor Does this
protected Reader() It constructs a new character-stream.
protected Reader(Object lock) It constructs a new character stream reader whose critical sections will
synchronize on the given lock.

Table 18.37: Methods of the Reader class

Method Does this
abstract void close() It closes the stream.
void mark(int readAheadLimit) It marks the present position in the stream.
boolean markSupported() It tells whether this stream supports the mark() operation.
int read() It reads a single character.
int read(char[ ] cbuf) It reads characters into an array.
abstract int read(char[] cbuf, It reads characters into a portion of an array.
int off, int len)
boolean ready() It tells whether this stream is ready to be read.
void reset() It resets the stream.
long skip(long n) It skips characters.

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Working with the Writer Class

The Writer class is the character-based counterpart of the Reader class (see the previous solution). Heres the
inheritance diagram for Writer:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Writer
The Writer implements the Closeable, Flushable, and Appendable interfaces. A void value is returned
and an IOException is thrown by all the methods in this class in the event of errors. Youll find the field of
the Writer class in Table 18.38, its constructors in Table 18.39, and its methods in Table 18.40:
Table 18.38: The field of the Writer class
Field Does this
protected Object lock The lock used to synchronize operations on this stream.

Table 18.39: Constructors of the Writer class

Constructor Does this
protected Writer() It creates a new character-stream writer.
protected Writer(Object lock) It creates a new character-stream writer whose critical sections will
synchronize on the given lock.

Table 18.40: Methods of the Writer class

Method Does this
Writer append(char char) It appends the character to the end of the output stream.
Writer append(CharSequence It appends the string to the end of the output stream.
chars)
Writer append(CharSequence csq, It appends a subsequence of the specified character sequence to this
int start, int end) writer.
abstract void close() It closes the stream, flushing it first.
abstract void flush() It flushes the stream.
void write(char[] cbuf) It writes an array of characters.
abstract void write(char[ ] It writes a portion of an array of characters.
cbuf, int off, int len)
void write(int c) It writes a single character.
void write(String str) It writes a string.
void write(String str, int off, It writes a portion of a string.
int len)

Accepting Input from the Keyboard with the InputStreamReader

Class
Well, says the Novice Programmer, all I want to do is read input from the keyboard. Can I use System.in?
Yes, you say, but construct an InputStreamReader stream from it first. Oh, the NP says.
You usually construct an InputStreamReader stream from System.in for reading keys from the keyboard.
After that, you can use the read() method of the InputStreamReader class for reading the text typed by the
user. Heres the inheritance diagram for InputStreamReader:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Reader
|____java.io.InputStreamReader

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Youll find the constructors of the InputStreamReader class in Table 18.41 and its methods in Table 18.42:
Table 18.41: Constructors of the InputStreamReader class
Constructor Does this
InputStreamReader(InputStream It creates an InputStreamReader object.
in)
InputSreamReader(InputStream in, It creates an InputStreamReader that uses the given charset.
Charset cs)
InputSreamReader(InputStream in, It creates an InputStreamReader that uses the given charset decoder.
CharsetDecoder dec)
InputStreamReader(InputStream It creates an InputStreamReader object that uses the named character
in, String enc) encoding.

Table 18.42: Methods of the InputStreamReader class

Method Does this
void close() It closes the stream.
String getEncoding() It gets the name of the character encoding.
int read() It reads a single character.
int read(char[ ] cbuf, int off, It reads characters into a portion of an array.
int len)
boolean ready() It returns True if this stream is ready to be read.

Heres an example: Well just read keys from the keyboard and echo them. Note that the input stream does not
become available until the user presses the Enter key. Heres what the code looks like:
import java.io.*;
class InputStreamReaderDemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
try {
String character;
InputStreamReader inputstreamreader = new InputStreamReader(System.in);
BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(inputstreamreader);
character = br.readLine();
System.out.print(character);
}
catch (IOException e) { }
}

}
The output of this code is shown in Figure 18.6, printing the string taken from the keyboard as an input:

Figure 18.6: Taking input from the user

Note that the echoed line appears after the user enters text and presses the Enter key.

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Working with the OutputStreamWriter Class

The OutputStreamWriter class works as a bridge from character streams to byte streams. This class performs
the encoding of characters into bytes with the help of a specified character set. Heres the inheritance diagram for
OutputStreamWriter:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Writer
|____java.io.OutputStreamWriter
Youll find the constructors and methods of the OutputStreamWriter class in Table 18.43 and Table 18.44,
respectively:
Table 18.43: Constructors of the OutputStreamWriter class
Constructor Does this
OutputStreamWriter(OutputStream It constructs an OutputStreamWriter object.
out)
OutputSreamWriter(OutputStream It creates an OutputStreamWriter that uses the given charset.
out, Charset cs)
OutputSreamWriter(OutputStream It creates an OutputStreamWriter that uses the given charset encoder.
out, CharsetEncoder enc)
OutputStreamWriter(OutputStream It constructs an OutputStreamWriter object that uses the named
out, String enc) character encoding.

Table 18.44: Methods of the OutputStreamWriter class

Method Does this
void close() It closes the stream.
void flush() It flushes the stream.
String getEncoding() It gets the name of the character encoding being used by this stream.
void write(char[ ] cbuf, int It writes a section of an array of characters.
off, int len)
void write(int c) It writes a single character.
void write(String str, int off, It writes a portion of a string.
int len)

Working with Files

After learning about the streams which provide a simple model for reading and writing data that supported all
the operations common with a disk file, you will learn how to work with a file using the non-stream
file I/O.
The File class handles files that are machine-dependent in an independent manner, that is, you can create
platform-independent code easily that keeps monitoring and manipulating files using the File class. This class
is available in the java.io package.

Using the File Class

Hmm, says the Novice Programmer, little bit of an embarrassmentmy program tried to open a file that
didnt exist, right when I was running it for the Big Boss. Well, you say, why didnt you first test whether
the file existed using the File classs exists() method? The NP says, Now you tell me!
Except for the File class, most of the classes that are defined by java.io operate on streams, i.e., they deal
directly with files and the file system. The File class does not state how information is accessed from or stored
in files. Instead, it describes the properties of a file itself.

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You can use the File class to determine a lot about files, such as their sizes; whether you can write to them;
whether an item is a file, directory, or named pipe; and a lot more for manipulating the information associated
with a disk file, such as permissions, time, date, and for navigating subdirectory hierarchies. Heres the
inheritance diagram for the File class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.File
A Java directory is considered to be an additional property, in which an array of filenames can be verified by
using the list() method. Youll find the fields for the File class in Table 18.45, its constructors in Table 18.46,
and its methods in Table 18.47:
Table 18.45: Fields of the File class
Field Does this
static String pathSeparator It is a system-dependent path-separator string.
static char pathSeparatorChar It is a system-dependent path-separator character.
static String separator It is a system-dependent default name-separator character, represented as
a string for convenience.
static char separatorChar It is a system-dependent default name-separator character.

Table 18.46: Constructors of the File class

Constructor Does this
File(File parent, String child) It constructs a new File instance from a parent pathname and a child
pathname string.
File(String pathname) It constructs a new File instance by converting the given pathname
string into an abstract pathname.
File(String parent, String It constructs a new File instance from a parent pathname string and a
child) child pathname string.
File(URI uri) It constructs a new File instance by converting the given file:URI into an
abstract pathname.

Table 18.47: Methods of the File class

Method Does this
boolean canExecute() It returns True if the application can execute the file denoted by this
abstract pathname.
boolean canRead() It returns True if the application can read the file given by this abstract
pathname.
boolean canWrite() It returns True if the application can modify the file given by this abstract
pathname.
int compareTo(File pathname) It compares two abstract pathnames.
int compareTo(Object o) It compares this abstract pathname to another object.
boolean createNewFile() It constructs a new, empty file.
static File It constructs an empty file in the default temporary file directory.
createTempFile(String prefix,
String suffix)
static File It constructs a new, empty file in the given directory.
createTempFile(String prefix,
String suffix, File directory)
boolean delete() It deletes the file or directory.
void deleteOnExit() It requests that the file or directory given by this pathname be deleted
when the virtual machine exits.

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Table 18.47: Methods of the File class

Method Does this
boolean equals(Object obj) It compares this pathname for equality with the given object.
boolean exists() It compares whether the file given by this abstract pathname exists.
File getAbsoluteFile() It gets the absolute form of this abstract pathname.
String getAbsolutePath() It gets the absolute pathname string of this abstract pathname.
File getCanonicalFile() It gets the canonical form of this abstract pathname.
String getCanonicalPath() It gets the canonical pathname string of this abstract pathname.
long getFreeSpace() It gets the number of unallocated bytes in the partition named by this
abstract pathname.
String getName() It gets the name of the file or directory given by this abstract pathname.
String getParent() It gets the pathname string of this abstract pathnames parent or gets null
if this pathname does not name a parent directory.
File getParentFile() It gets the abstract pathname of this abstract pathnames parent or gets
null if this pathname does not name a parent directory.
String getPath() It converts this abstract pathname into a pathname string.
long getTotalSpace() It gets the size of the partition named.
long getUsableSpace() It gets the number of bytes available on the partition named.
int hashCode() It computes a hash code for this abstract pathname.
boolean isAbsolute() It returns True if this abstract pathname is absolute.
boolean isDirectory() It returns True if the file given by this abstract pathname is a directory.
boolean isFile() It returns True if the file given by this abstract pathname is a normal file.
boolean isHidden() It returns True if the file named by this abstract pathname is a hidden file.
long lastModified() It returns the time that the file given by this abstract pathname was last
modified.
long length() It returns the length of the file given by this abstract pathname.
String[ ] list() It returns an array of strings naming the files and directories in the
directory given by this abstract pathname.
String[ ] list(FilenameFilter It returns an array of strings naming the files and directories in the
filter) directory given by this pathname that satisfies the given filter.
File[ ] listFiles() It returns an array of abstract pathnames indicating the files in the
directory.
File[ ] listFiles(FileFilter It returns an array of abstract pathnames indicating the files and
filter) directories in the directory that fulfills the given filter.
File[ ] listFiles(FilenameFilter It accepts the FilenameFilter object and returns an array of abstract
filter) pathnames indicating the files and directories in the directory that fulfills
the given filter.
static File[ ] listRoots() It lists the available file system roots.
boolean mkdir() It creates the directory named by this abstract pathname.
boolean mkdirs() It creates the directory named by this pathname, including any necessary
but nonexistent parent directories.
boolean renameTo(File dest) It renames the file given by this pathname.
boolean setExecutable(boolean It sets owners execute permission for this abstract pathname.
executable)

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Table 18.47: Methods of the File class

Method Does this
boolean setExecutable It sets owners or everybodys execute permission for this abstract
(boolean executable, boolean pathname.
ownerOnly)
boolean setLastModified(long It sets the last modified time of the file or directory.
time)
boolean setReadable(boolean It sets owners read permission for this abstract pathname.
readable)
boolean setReadable(boolean It sets read permission for the owner of the file or other users for the given
readable, boolean ownerOnly) abstract pathname.
boolean setReadOnly() It marks the file or directory named by this pathname so that it can only be
read.
boolean setWritable(boolean It sets owners write permission for this abstract pathname.
writable)
boolean setWritable(boolean It sets owners or everybodys write permission for this abstract
writable, boolean ownerOnly) pathname.
String toString() It gets the pathname string of this abstract pathname.
URI toURI() It constructs a file URI that represents this abstract pathname.
URL toURL() It converts this abstract pathname into a URL. It is recommended that
abstract pathname should be converted to URI first using the toURI()
method and then use URI.toURL() as it helps in escaping illegal
characters.

Note that you can use isFile() to determine whether an item is a true file or something else, such as a
directory (which you can check with isDirectory()) or a named pipe. In other words, the isFile()method
returns true if called on a file (and behaves like one) and false if called on a directory. Use toURL() to convert a
files path into a URL, rename files, and do more with the File class. The isAbsolute() method returns true
if the file has an absolute path and false if it is relative.
Lets look at an example. Here, we put several of the methods of the File class to work, getting some
information about a file named file.txt. Heres what the code looks like:
import java.io.File;
class FileDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
File file1 = new File("file.txt");
System.out.println("File: " + file1.getName() + (file1.isFile() ?
" is a file" : " is a named pipe or directory"));
System.out.println("Size: " + file1.length());
System.out.println("Path: " + file1.getPath());
System.out.println("Parent: " + file1.getParent());
System.out.println("Absolute Path: " + file1.getAbsolutePath());
System.out.println("File was last modified: " +
file1.lastModified());
System.out.println(file1.exists() ? "File exists" :
"File does not exist");
System.out.println(file1.canRead() ? "File can be read from" :
"File cannot be read from");
System.out.println(file1.canWrite() ? "File can be written to" :
"File cannot be written to");
System.out.println(file1.isDirectory() ? "File is a directory" :
"File is not a directory");
System.out.println(file1.isFile() ? "is a true file" :
"is a special file");

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System.out.println(file1.isAbsolute() ? "is absolute" :

"is not absolute"); }
}
Create a file named file.txt before executing this code file in the same location where you are saving Java and
class files. The result of this code is shown in Figure 18.7 (note that the time the file was last modified is returned
in the usual fashionin milliseconds since 1/1/70which you can convert into a more readable date with the
Date class):

Figure 18.7: Creating a file

In the preceding case, getName() returns the name of the file, getParent() returns the name of the parent
directory, and exists() returns true.
The File class is not symmetrical, which signifies that there are many methods that allow you to monitor the
properties of a simple file, though no simultaneous function exists to change those attributes. This class also
includes two useful utility methods:
boolean renameTo(File newname)Here newname refers to the new filename. This will return true
upon success and false if the directory cannot be renamed.
boolean delete()This utility method deletes a directory if the directory is empty. This will return true
if it deletes the file and false if the file cannot be deleted.
As you can see, using the File class, you can determine a great deal about files and directories.

Using the FileReader Class

How can I read a character-based file? the NP asks. Well, you say, probably the best way is with the
FileReader class. Great, says the NP, lets write some code!
You use the FileReader class to create a character-based stream that reads from a file. Heres the inheritance
diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Reader
|____java.io.InputStreamReader
|____java.io.FileReader
This class only defines constructors in addition to the functionality it inherits from InputStreamReader, and
youll find them in Table 18.41. All the constructors can throw a FileNotFoundException.
Heres an example. In this case, well open a file, file.txt, having the contents Welcome to Dreamtech
Press, read that files data into a buffer, and then display the data:
import java.io.*;
class FileReaderDemo
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
FileReader filereader = new FileReader("file.txt");
char data[] = new char[1024];

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int charsread = filereader.read(data);

System.out.println(new String(data, 0, charsread));
filereader.close();
}
}
The output of this program is shown in Figure 18.8, reading the file:

Figure 18.8: Reading the text from the file

As you can see, working with FileReader is relatively a simple process in Table 18.48:
Table 18.48: Constructors of the FileReader class
Constructor Does this
FileReader(File file) It constructs a FileReader object
FileReader(FileDescriptor fd) It constructs a FileReader object from a file descriptor
FileReader(String fileName) It constructs a FileReader object from a file name

Using the FileWriter Class

The FileWriter class is the character-based writer counterpart of the FileReader class (see the previous
solution for more details). Heres the inheritance diagram for the FileWriter class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Writer
|____java.io.OutputStreamWriter
|____java.io.FileWriter
This class only defines constructors in addition to the functionality it inherits from OutputStreamWriter, and
youll find them in Table 18.49:
Table 18.49: Constructors of the FileWriter class
Constructor Does this
FileWriter(File file) It constructs a FileWriter object from a File object
FileWriter(File file, It constructs a FileWriter object given a File object
boolean append)
FileWriter(FileDescriptor fd) It constructs a FileWriter object from a file descriptor
FileWriter(String fileName) It constructs a FileWriter object from a file name
FileWriter(String fileName, It constructs a FileWriter object for appending
boolean append)

The constructors can throw an IOException.

Creation of a FileWriter is not dependent on the file that already exists. It creates the file before opening it for
output when an object is already created. An IOException is thrown in case you attempt to open a read-only
file. Heres an example: Well write data from a character buffer to a file, character by character, all at once, and
in part, using FileWriter:

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import java.io.*;
class FileWriterDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception {
char data[] = {'T','h','i','s',' ','i','s',' ','a',
' ','s','t','r','i','n','g',' ','o','f',
' ','t','e','x','t','.' };
FileWriter filewriter1 = new FileWriter("f1.txt");
for (int loop_index = 0; loop_index < data.length; loop_index++) {
filewriter1.write(data[loop_index]); }
FileWriter filewriter2 = new FileWriter("f2.txt");
filewriter2.write(data);
FileWriter filewriter3 = new FileWriter("f3.txt");
filewriter3.write(data, 5, 10);
filewriter3.append("Dreamtech Press");
filewriter1.close();
filewriter2.close();
filewriter3.close(); }
}
After executing the code, three files named f1.txt, f2.txt and f3.txt will be created in the same location where you
have saved the .java file.

Working with the RandomAccessFile Class

Using the RandomAccessFile class, you can move around in a file using the seek() method. Thats what
random access is all aboutbeing able to move around in a file at random. The inheritance diagram for the
RandomAccessFile class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.RandomAccessFile
RandomAccessFile is not the child class of InputStream or OutputStream; instead, it encapsulates a
random-access file. It also implements the Closeable interface. RandomAccessFile supports positioning
requests, i.e., you can position the file pointer within the file.
With random access comes the type of access:
rFile is read and not written.
rwFile is opened in the read-write mode.
rwsFile is opened for read-write operation and every change to the content/metadata needs to be written
synchronously to the underlying storage device.
rwdFile is opened for read-write operation and every change to the content needs to be written
synchronously to the underlying storage device.
The seek() method is used to set the current position of the file pointer within the file. Youll find the
constructors of the RandomAccessFile class in Table 18.50 and its methods in Table 18.51:
Table 18.50: Constructors of the RandomAccessFile class
Constructor Does this
RandomAccessFile(File file, It constructs a random-access file stream to read from and optionally to
String mode) write to the file given by the File argument.
RandomAccessFile(String name, It constructs a random-access file stream to read from and optionally to
String mode) write to a file with the given name.

Table 18.51: Methods of the RandomAccessFile class

Method Does this
void close() It closes this random-access file stream.
FileChannel getChannel() It gets the unique File Channel object associated with this file.
FileDescriptor getFD() It gets the file descriptor object associated with this stream.

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Table 18.51: Methods of the RandomAccessFile class

Method Does this
long getFilePointer() It gets the current offset in this file.
long length() It gets the length of this file.
int read() It gets a byte of data from this file.
int read(byte[] b) It gets up to b.length bytes of data from this file into an array of bytes.
int read(byte[ ] b, int off, int It gets up to len bytes of data from this file into an array of bytes.
len)
boolean readBoolean() It gets a boolean from this file.
byte readByte() It gets a signed 8-bit value from this file.
char readChar() It gets a Unicode character from this file.
double readDouble() It gets a double from this file.
float readFloat() It gets a float from this file.
void readFully(byte[ ] b) It gets b.length bytes from this file into the byte array, starting at the
current file pointer.
void readFully(byte[] b, int It gets exactly len bytes from this file into the byte array, starting at the
off, int len) current file pointer.
int readInt() It gets a signed 32-bit integer from this file.
String readLine() It gets the next line of text from this file.
long readLong() It gets a signed 64-bit integer from this file.
short readShort() It gets a signed 16-bit number from this file.
int readUnsignedByte() It gets an unsigned 8-bit number from this file.
int readUnsignedShort() It gets an unsigned 16-bit number from this file.
String readUTF() It gets a string from this file.
void seek(long pos) It sets the file-pointer offset at which the next read or write happens.
void setLength(long newLength) It sets the length of this file.
int skipBytes(int n) It attempts to skip over n bytes of input.
void write(byte[] b) It writes b.length bytes from the given byte array to this file, starting at
the file pointer.
void write(byte[ ] b, int off, It writes len bytes from the given byte array, starting at offset off, to this
int len) file.
void write(int b) It writes the given byte to this file.
void writeBoolean(boolean v) It writes a boolean to the file as a 1-byte value.
void writeByte(int v) It writes a byte to the file as a 1-byte value.
void writeBytes(String s) It writes the string to the file as a sequence of bytes.
void writeChar(int v) It writes a char to the file as a 2-byte value, high byte first.
void writeChars(String s) It writes a String to the file as a sequence of characters.
void writeDouble(double v) It converts the double argument to a long and then writes that long value
to the file.
void writeFloat(float v) It converts the float argument to an int and then writes that int value
to the file.
void writeInt(int v) It writes an int to the file as 4 bytes, high byte first.

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Table 18.51: Methods of the RandomAccessFile class

Method Does this
void writeLong(long v) It writes a long to the file as 8 bytes, high byte first.
void writeShort(int v) It writes a short to the file as 2 bytes, high byte first.
void writeUTF(String str) It writes a string to the file using UTF-8 encoding.

Note that one of the attractions of the RandomAccessFile class is that you can both read and write using this
class, without having to break things up into input and output objects.

Working with Character Arrays

A string is a contiguous array of characters, so different operations can be performed on a string by using the
array of characters. The operations performed on strings include dividing them up into parts called substrings,
combining them together to create new strings, and replacing parts of them with other strings.

Using the CharArrayReader Class

You can use ByteArrayInputStream and ByteArrayOutputStream to read and write bytes from an
array, the NP says, but what about characters? Are there CharArrayInputStream and
CharArrayOutputStream classes? No, you say. Remember that you use readers and writers with
character-streams, which means you should use CharArrayReader and CharArrayWriter instead.
You use CharArrayReader to read from a character array. Heres the inheritance diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Reader
|____java.io.CharArrayReader
Youll find the fields of the CharArrayReader class in Table 18.52, its constructors in Table 18.53, and its
methods in Table 18.54:
Table 18.52: Fields of the CharArrayReader class
Field Does this
protected char[] buf The character buffer.
protected int count The number of characters in the buffer.
protected int markedPos The position of the current mark in the buffer.
protected int pos The current buffer position.

Table 18.53: Constructors of the CharArrayReader class

Constructor Does this
CharArrayReader(char[] buf) It constructs a CharArrayReader object from the given array of
characters.
CharArrayReader(char[] buf, int It constructs a CharArrayReader object from the given array of
offset, int length) characters.

Table 18.54: Methods of the CharArrayReader class

Method Does this
void close() It closes the stream.
void mark(int readAheadLimit) It marks the present position in the stream.
boolean markSupported() It returns True if this stream supports the mark operation.
int read() It reads a single character.

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Table 18.54: Methods of the CharArrayReader class

Method Does this
int read(char[ ] b, int off, int It reads characters into a portion of an array.
len)
boolean ready() It tells whether this stream is ready to be read
void reset() It resets the stream to the most recent mark
long skip(long n) It skips characters

Heres an example. In this case, we just read characters from an array and print them out:
import java.io.*;
public class CharArrayReaderDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException {
char data[] = {'T','h','i','s',' ','i','s',' ','a',
' ','s','t','r','i','n','g',' ','o','f',
' ','t','e','x','t','.' };
CharArrayReader chararrayreader = new CharArrayReader(data);
int character;
while((character = chararrayreader.read()) != -1) {
System.out.print((char)character); }
}
}
Heres the output of this code:
E:\Java8\chapter18\>java CharArrayReaderDemo
This is a string of text.
Take the case of this example which constructs one object using the entire sentence, while the other object has
only the first six letters:
import java.io.*;
public class CharArrayReaderDemo1 {
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException {
String t = "The quick brown fox ran over the mount";
int l = t.length();
char w[] = new char[l];
t.getChars(0, l, w, 0);
CharArrayReader input1 = new CharArrayReader(w);
CharArrayReader input2 = new CharArrayReader(w, 0, 6);
int j;
System.out.println("All the characters:");
while((j = input1.read()) != -1) { System.out.print((char)j); }
System.out.println();
System.out.println("First 6 characters:");
while((j = input2.read()) != -1) { System.out.print((char)j); }
System.out.println(); }
}
The result of the code is shown in Figure 18.9:

Figure 18.9: Writing the characters from the array

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Using the CharArrayWriter Class

The CharArrayWriter class is the writer counterpart of the CharArrayReader class (see the previous
solution). You use this class to write to character arrays. Heres the inheritance diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Writer
|____java.io.CharArrayWriter
Youll find the fields of the CharArrayWriter class in Table 18.55, its constructors in Table 18.56, and its
methods in Table 18.57:
Table 18.55: Fields of the CharArrayWriter class
Field Does this
protected char[] buf The buffer where data is stored.
protected int count The number of characters in the buffer.

Table 18.56: Constructors of the CharArrayWriter class

Constructor Does this
CharArrayWriter() It constructs a new CharArrayWriter object.
CharArrayWriter(int initialSize) It constructs a new CharArrayWriter object with the given initial size.

Table 18.57: Methods of the CharArrayWriter class

Method Does this
CharArrayWriter append(char c) It appends the specified character to this writer.
CharArrayWriter append It appends the specified character sequence to this writer.
(CharSequence csq)
CharArrayWriter append It appends a subsequence of the specified character sequence to this writer.
(CharSequence csq, int
start, int end)
void close() It closes the stream.
void flush() It flushes the stream.
void reset() It resets the buffer.
int size() It gets the current size of the buffer.
char[] toCharArray() It gets a copy of the input data.
String toString() It converts input data to a string.
void write(char[ ] c, int off, It writes characters to the buffer.
int len)
void write(int c) It writes a character to the buffer.
void write(String str, int off, It writes a portion of a string to the buffer.
int len)
void writeTo(Writer out) Writes contents of buffer to another character-stream.

Lets concentrate on two constructors. In the first form, a buffer with a default size is created. In the second, a
buffer is created with a size equal to that specified by initialSize. The buf field of the CharArrayWriter
class stores the buffer, which will be increased automatically. The number of characters stored in the buffer is
contained in the count field of the CharArrayWriter class. Both buf and count are protected fields.

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Look at this example which demonstrates this concept of CharArrayWriter:

import java.io.*;
class CharArrayWriterDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException {
CharArrayWriter f = new CharArrayWriter();
String W = "I/O stream classes have become a thicket in Java";
char buf[] = new char[W.length()];
W.getChars(0, W.length(), buf, 0);
f.write(buf);
System.out.println("\nBuffer of default size:");
System.out.println(f.toString());
System.out.println("\n\nWhat goes into the array-->");
char A[] = f.toCharArray();
for (int j=0; j<A.length; j++) { System.out.print(A[j]); }
System.out.println("\n\nFinally going to FileWriter()-->");
FileWriter f2 = new FileWriter("cofbean.txt");
f.writeTo(f2); f2.close();
System.out.println("\n........ after a quick reset");
f.reset();
for (int j=0; j<3; j++)
f.write('O'); System.out.println(f.toString());
}
}
This code will create a file cofbean.txt in the current directory to store the string I/O stream classes have
become a thicket in Java. But after the call to reset(), the three 0s end up in the beginning. See the output of
the code in Figure 18.10:

Figure 18.10: Using the CharacterArrayWriter class

Working with Buffers

In the java.io package, a file or stream is a sequence of bytes or byte array(s). The DataInput and
DataOutput interfaces can help out, but they work on streams and don't allow byte order to be specified. Here,
the NIO Buffer class and its subclasses come in use. A commonly used buffer class is ByteBuffer.
It allows a byte array (or block of memory/file) to be managed as a buffer with methods to deal with the current
read/write position, maximum position, and array of bytes.

Using the BufferedReader Class

My files are line oriented, says the Novice Programmer. Is there some easy way to read them in line by line
instead of character by character? Certainly, you say, you can use the readLine() method of the
BufferedReader class. Great. says the NP. You write the code, Ill watch.
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The BufferedReader class provides a buffered character reader class and the readLine() method. Heres the
inheritance diagram for BufferedReader:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Reader
|____java.io.BufferedReader
The BufferedReader class consists of two constructors. In the first one, a buffered character-stream uses a
default buffer size. In the second, the size of the buffer is passed in sz. Youll find the constructors of the
BufferedReader class in Table 18.58 and its methods in Table 18.59:
Table 18.58: Constructors of the BufferedReader class
Constructor Does this
BufferedReader(Reader in) It constructs a buffering character input stream.
BufferedReader(Reader in, int It constructs a buffering character input stream that uses an input buffer of
sz) the given size.

Table 18.59: Methods of the BufferedReader class

Method Does this
void close() It closes the stream.
void mark(int readAheadLimit) It marks the present position in the stream.
boolean markSupported() It returns True if this stream supports the mark operation.
int read() It reads a single character.
int read(char[ ] cbuf, int off, It reads characters of a portion of an array.
int len)
String readLine() It reads a line of text.
boolean ready() It tells whether this stream is ready to be read.
void reset() It resets the stream to the most recent mark.
long skip (long n) It skips characters.

Heres another example using the BufferedReader class. In this case, we read the file file4.txt line by line
with the readLine() method. Heres the content of that file:
This is a wonderful program where you can find the capability of File() class.
Some streams provide data buffering.
And some do not.
Some are designed to work with data in memory buffers.
Some with files.
Heres the code:
import java.io.*;
class BufferedReaderDemo
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
FileReader filereader = new FileReader("file4.txt");
BufferedReader bufferedreader = new BufferedReader(filereader);
String instring;
while((instring = bufferedreader.readLine()) != null) {
System.out.println(instring); } filereader.close(); }
}
Heres the output of the code when its run:
E:\Java8\chapter18\>java BufferedReaderDemo
This is a wonderful program where you can find the capability of File() class.
Some streams provide data buffering.
And some do not.
Some are designed to work with data in memory buffers.
Some with files.

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Using the BufferedWriter Class

The BufferedWriter class is the writer counterpart of the BufferedReader class (see the previous solution).
Heres the inheritance diagram for the BufferedWriter class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Writer
|____java.io.BufferedWriter
Youll find the constructors of the BufferedWriter class in Table 18.60 and its methods in Table 18.61:
Table 18.60: Constructors of the BufferedWriter class
Constructor Does this
BufferedWriter(Writer out) It constructs a buffered character-output stream.
BufferedWriter(Writer out, int It constructs a new-buffered character-output stream that uses an output
sz) buffer of the given size.

Table 18.61: Methods of the BufferedWriter class

Method Does this
void close() It closes the stream.
void flush() It flushes the stream.
void newLine() It writes a line separator.
void write(char[] cbuf, int off, It writes a section of an array of characters.
int len)
void write(int c) It writes a single character.
void write(String s, int off, It writes a portion of a string.
int len)

In Table 18.60, the first form of constructor creates a buffered stream with a default size and in the second
constructor, the size of the buffer is passed in sz.

Working with the PushbackReader Class

The PushbackReader class enables characters to be pushed back into the stream. When you use this classs
unread() method, you can return one or more characters to the stream. Heres the inheritance diagram for the
PushbackReader class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Reader
|____java.io.FilterReader
|____java.io.PushbackReader
Youll find the constructors of the PushbackReader class in Table 18.62 and its methods in Table 18.63:
Table 18.62: Constructors of the PushbackReader class
Constructor Does this
PushbackReader(Reader in) It creates a new pushback reader.
PushbackReader(Reader in, int It creates a new pushback reader with a pushback buffer of the given size.
size)

Table 18.63: Methods of the PushbackReader class

Method Does this
void close() It closes the stream.
void mark(int readAheadLimit) It marks the present position in the stream.

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Table 18.63: Methods of the PushbackReader class

Method Does this
boolean markSupported() It returns True if this stream supports the mark operation.
int read() It reads a single character.
int read(char[ ] cbuf, int off, It reads characters into a portion of an array.
int len)
boolean ready() It tells whether this stream is ready to be read.
void reset() It resets the stream.
long skip(long n) It keeps character while reading.
void unread(char[] cbuf) It pushes back an array of characters.
void unread(char[] cbuf, int It pushes back a section of an array of characters.
off, int len)
void unread(int c) It pushes back a single character.

In Table 18.62, the first form of constructor creates a buffered stream that allows one character to be pushed back
at a time and in the second one, the size of the pushback buffer is passed in size.

Working with the PrintWriter Class

The methods of this class are used to print formatted representation of objects to a text output stream. Methods
of this class never throw I/O exception. If automatic flushing is enabled, that will take place only when one of
the println(), printf(), or format() method is invoked. We can check for some error using the
checkError() method.
Here is the inheritance diagram for the PrintWriter class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Writer
|____java.io.PrintWriter
Youll find the constructors of the PrintWriter class in Table 18.64 and its methods in Table 18.65:
Table 18.64: Constructors of the PrintWriter class
Constructor Does this
PrintWriter(File file) It creates a new PrintWriter with a specified file without automatic line
flushing.
PrintWriter(File file, String It creates a new PrintWriter with a specified file and charset, without
csn) automatic line flushing.
PrintWriter(OutputStream out) It creates a new PrintWriter with existing OutputStream without
automatic line flushing.
PrintWriter (OutputStream out, It creates a new PrintWriter with existing OutputStream.
boolean autoFlush)
PrintWriter(String fileName) It creates a new PrintWriter without automatic line flushing with a
given fine name.
PrintWriter(String fileName, It creates a new PrintWriter without automatic line flushing with a
String csn) given file name and charset.
PrintWriter(Writer out) It creates a PrintWriter without automatic line flushing.
PrintWriter(Writer out, boolean It creates a PrintWriter.
autoFlush)

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The flushing of output buffer, whenever the println(), printf(), or format() method is called, is
controlled by the autoFlush parameter. If this parameter is true, the flushing automatically takes place.
Table 18.65: Methods of the PrintWriter class
Method Does this
PrintWriter append(char c) It appends the given character to the writer.
PrintWriter append(CharSequence It appends the given character sequence to the writer.
csq)
PrintWriter append(CharSequence It appends subsequence of given character sequence to the writer.
csq, int start, int end)
boolean checkError() It flushes the stream it not closed and checks its error states.
void clearError() It clears error state of the stream.
void close() It closes stream, returns system resources associated with stream.
void flush() It flushes the stream.
PrintWriter format(Locale l, It writes args according to the formatted string and let you specify
String format, Object args) locale.
PrintWriter format(String It writes args according to the formatted string with default locale.
format, Object args)
void print(boolean b) It prints a boolean value.
void print(char c) It prints a character.
void print(char[] c) It prints an array of characters.
void print(double d) It prints a double-precision floating-point number.
void print(float f) It prints a floating-point number.
void print(int i) It prints an integer.
void print(long l) It prints a long integer.
void print(Object ob) It prints an object
void print(String s) It prints a string
PrintWriter printf(Locale l, It writes arguments to this writer according to formatted string and let
String fmt, Object args) you specify Locale.
PrintWriter printf(String fmt, It writes arguments to this writer according to formatted string.
Object args)
void println() It terminates the current line by writing the line separator string.
void println(boolean x) It prints a boolean value and then terminates the line.

void println(char x) It prints a character and then terminates the line.

void println(char[] x) It prints an array of characters and then terminates the line.

void println(double x) It prints a double-precision floating-point number and then

terminates the line.

void println(float x) It prints a floating-point number and then terminates the line.

void println(int x) It prints an integer and then terminates the line.

void println(long x) It prints a long integer and then terminates the line.

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Table 18.65: Methods of the PrintWriter class

Method Does this
void println(Object x) It prints an Object and then terminates the line.

void println(String x) It prints a String and then terminates the line.

protected void setError() It indicates that an error has occurred.

void write(char[] buf) It writes an array of characters.

void write(char[] buf, int off, It writes a portion of an array of characters.

int len)

void write(int c) It writes a single character.

void write(String s) It writes a string.

void write(String s, int off, It writes a portion of a string.

int len)

Similarly, we have set, of println() methods and write() methods of this class. The format() method is
also supported, which works exactly like the printf() method.
Here is an example:
import java.io.PrintWriter;
public class PrintWriterDemo
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
PrintWriter out = new PrintWriter(System.out, true);
out.println("Dreamtech Press");
}
}
Compile and run the code, and the result is shown in Figure 18.11:

Figure 18.11: Working with the PrintWriter class

Working with the StreamTokenizer Class

What are you doing? you ask the Novice Programmer. Writing the code to break a character input stream up
into words. Why not use a stream tokenizer? you ask. OK, says the NP, Whats that?
You can use a StreamTokenizer class to break an input stream into tokens, such as words. Heres the
inheritance diagram for the StreamTokenizer class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.StreamTokenizer

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Youll find the fields of the StreamTokenizer class in Table 18.66, its constructors in Table 18.67, and its
methods in Table 18.68:
Table 18.66: Fields of the StreamTokenizer class
Field Does this
double nval The value of a number token.
String sval The string giving the characters of a word token.
static int TT_EOF A constant indicating that end of the stream is read.
static int TT_EOL A constant indicating that the end of the line has been read.
static int TT_NUMBER A constant indicating that a number token has been read.
static int TT_WORD A constant indicating that a word token has been read.
int ttype It contains the type of the token just read.

Table 18.67: Constructors of the StreamTokenizer class

Constructor Does this
StreamTokenizer It is deprecated as in JDK 1.1, the preferred way to tokenize an input
(InputStream is) stream that converts it into a character stream. For example,
Reader rd= new BufferedReader(new
InputStreamReader(is));
StreamTokenizer strt= new StreamTokenizer(rd);
StreamTokenizer(Reader r) It constructs a tokenizer that parses the given character-stream.

Table 18.68: Methods of the StreamTokenizer class

Method Does this
void commentChar(int ch) The character argument starts a single-line comment.
void eolIsSignificant It returns True if the ends of lines are treated as tokens.
(boolean flag)
int lineno() It gets the current line number.
void lowerCaseMode It determines whether word tokens are automatically lowercased.
(boolean fl)
int nextToken() It parses the next token from the input stream of this tokenizer.
void ordinaryChar(int ch) It specifies that the character argument is ordinary in this tokenizer.
void ordinaryChars It specifies that all characters in the range low to high are considered
(int low, int hi) ordinary in this tokenizer.
void parseNumbers() It specifies that numbers should be parsed by this tokenizer.
void pushBack() It pushes back a token.
void quoteChar(int ch) It indicates that matching pairs of this character delimit string constants.
void resetSyntax() It resets this tokenizers syntax table so that all characters are ordinary.
void slashSlashComments It sets whether the tokenizer recognizes C++-style comments.
(boolean flag)
void slashStarComments It sets whether the tokenizer recognizes C-style comments.
(boolean flag)
String toString() It gets the string representation of the current stream token.

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Table 18.68: Methods of the StreamTokenizer class

Method Does this
void whitespaceChars It makes all characters in the range low to high white space characters.
(int low, int hi)
void wordChars It specifies that all characters in the range low to high are word
(int low, int hi) characters.

Heres an example in which we use FileReader to read from a file, file.txt, whose content is the string
Welcome to Dreamtech Press. We divide that text into words, verify words with the TT_WORD field, and
retrieve the current value of token as a string using the sval field, which is as follows:
import java.io.*;
class StreamTokenizerDemo
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
FileReader filereader = new FileReader("file.txt");
StreamTokenizer streamtokenizer = new StreamTokenizer(filereader);
String instring;
while(streamtokenizer.nextToken() != StreamTokenizer.TT_EOF) {
if(streamtokenizer.ttype == StreamTokenizer.TT_WORD)
System.out.println(streamtokenizer.sval); }
filereader.close(); }
}
The output of this example is shown in Figure 18.12 using the StreamTokenizer class:

Figure 18.12: Using the StreamTokenizer class

Implementing the Serializable Interface

Uh-oh, says the Novice Programmer, now I really have a problem. I want to write objects out to a file and
read them back in. No way, right? Of course theres a way, you say. You can serialize your objects.
Serialization is the process of writing objects to a stream and reading them from the stream. This is particularly
useful when you want to save the state of your program to a persistent storage area, such as a file. Later on, you
may restore these objects by the process of deserialization. To be serialized, your objects must implement the
Serializable interface.
This interface has no fields, constructors, or methodsit just shows that an object is serializable. To work with
serializable objects, you use the ObjectInputStream and ObjectOutputStream classes, which are derived
from InputStream and OutputStream respectively. Heres the inheritance diagram for
ObjectInputStream:
java.lang.Object
|____java.io.InputStream
|____java.io.ObjectInputStream

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Youll find the constructors of the ObjectInputStream class in Table 18.69 and its methods in Table 18.70:
Table 18.69: Constructors of the ObjectInputStream class
Constructor Does this
protected ObjectInputStream() It constructs an ObjectInputStream object.
ObjectInputStream It creates an ObjectInputStream object that reads from the given
(InputStream in) InputStream.

Table 18.70: Methods of the ObjectInputStream class

Method Does this
int available() It gets the number of bytes that can be read.
void close() It closes the input stream.
void defaultReadObject() It reads the nonstatic and nontransient fields of the current class from this
stream.
protected boolean It enables the stream to allow objects read from the stream to be replaced.
enableResolveObject(boolean
enable)
int read() It reads a byte of data.
int read(byte[] b, int off, int It reads into an array of bytes.
len)
boolean readBoolean() It reads in a Boolean.
byte readByte() It reads an 8-bit byte.
char readChar() It reads a 16-bit char.
protected ObjectStreamClass It reads a class descriptor from the serialization stream.
readClassDescriptor()
double readDouble() It reads a 64-bit double.
ObjectInputStream.GetField It reads the persistent fields from the stream and makes them available by
readFields() name.
Float readFloat() It reads a 32-bit float.
void readFully(byte[ ] data) It reads bytes, blocking until all bytes are read.
void readFully(byte[] data, int It reads bytes, blocking until all bytes are read.
offset, int size)
int readInt() It reads a 32-bit int.
String readLine() It is deprecated and it uses a buffered stream instead.
long readLong() It reads a 64-bit long.
Object readObject() It reads an object from the ObjectInputStream.
protected Object It is called by trusted subclasses of ObjectOutputStream.
readObjectOverride()
Short readShort() It reads a 16-bit short.
Object readUnshared() It reads an unshared object from the ObjectInputStream.
protected void It allows subclasses to read and verify their own stream headers.
readStreamHeader()

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Table 18.70: Methods of the ObjectInputStream class

Method Does this
int readUnsignedByte() It reads an unsigned 8-bit byte.
int readUnsignedShort() It reads an unsigned 16-bit short.
String readUTF() It reads a UTF format string.
void It registers an object to be validated before the graph is returned.
registerValidation(ObjectInputVa
lidation obj, int prio)
protected Class It loads the local class equivalent of the given stream class description.
resolveClass(ObjectStreamClass
v)
protected Object It allows trusted subclasses of ObjectInputStream to substitute one
resolveObject(Object obj) object for another.
protected Class It returns a proxy class that implements the interfaces named in a proxy
resolveProxyClass (String class descriptor.
[] interfaces)
int skipBytes(int len) It skips bytes.

Heres the inheritance diagram for ObjectOutputStream:

java.lang.Object
|____java.io.OutputStream
|____java.io.ObjectOutputStream
Youll find the constructors of the ObjectOutputStream class in Table 18.71 and its methods in Table 18.72.
Table 18.71: Constructors of the ObjectOutputStream class
Constructor Does this
protected ObjectOutputStream() It creates an ObjectOutputStream object.
ObjectOutputStream(OutputStream It constructs an ObjectOutputStream object that writes to the given
out) OutputStream.

Table 18.72: Methods of the ObjectOutputStream class

Method Does this
protected void It implements this method to allow class data to be stored in the stream.
annotateClass(Class cl)
protected void It implements this method to store custom data in the stream along with
annotateProxyClass descriptors for dynamic proxy classes.
(Class cl)
void close() It closes the stream.
void defaultWriteObject() It writes the nonstatic and nontransient fields of the current class to this
stream.
protected void drain() It clears any buffered data in ObjectOutputStream.
protected boolean It enables the stream to replace objects in the stream.
enableReplaceObject(boolean
enable)
void flush() It flushes the stream.

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Table 18.72: Methods of the ObjectOutputStream class

Method Does this
ObjectOutputStream.PutField It retrieves the object used to buffer persistent fields.
putFields()
protected Object It allows trusted subclasses of ObjectOutputStream to substitute one
replaceObject(Object obj) object for another.
void reset() It disregards the state of any objects already written to the stream.
void useProtocolVersion(int It specifies the stream protocol version to use when writing the stream.
version)
void write(byte[] b) It writes an array of bytes.
void write(byte[ ] b, int off, It writes a sub array of bytes.
int len)
void write(int data) It writes a byte.
void writeBoolean(boolean data) It writes a Boolean.
void writeByte(int data) It writes an 8-bit byte.
void writeBytes(String data) It writes a string as a sequence of bytes.
void writeChar(int data) It writes a 16-bit char.
void writeChars(String data) It writes a string as a sequence of chars.
void writeDouble(double data) It writes a 64-bit double.
void writeFields() It writes the buffered fields to the stream.
void writeFloat(float data) It writes a 32-bit float.
void writeInt(int data) It writes a 32-bit int.
void writeLong(long data) It writes a 64-bit long.
void writeObject(Object obj) It writes the given object to the ObjectOutputStream.
protected void It is called by trusted subclasses to override the default writeObject()
writeObjectOverride(Object obj) method.
void writeShort(int data) It writes a 16-bit short.
protected void It is provided so subclasses can append or prepend their own headers to
writeStreamHeader() the stream.
void writeUnshared It writes an unshared object to the ObjectOutputStream.
(Object obj)
void writeUTF(String data) It is primitive data-write operation of the given string.

Now we are back to serialization. Serialization is also required to implement Remote Method Invocation (RMI).
The RMI works in this way: RMI on one machine invokes a method of a Java object on a remote machine; an
object may be passed as an argument to that remote method; the sending machine serializes the object and
transfers it; and finally, the receiving machine deserializes it.
Heres an example showing how serialization works. In this case, we create a new serializable class named
NewString (file named as NewString.java). This class has a constructor that takes a string and one method
toString(), that returns that string (note that we implement the Serializable interface here):
import java.io.*;
class NewString implements Serializable {

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String data;
public NewString(String instring) { data = instring; }
public String toString() { return data; }
}
After creating a new object of the NewString class containing the text Dreamtech Press!, we use a
FileOutputStream stream as encapsulated by an ObjectOutputStream stream to write that object out to a
fileserialized.dat. Next, we use a FileInputStream stream encapsulated in an ObjectInputStream
stream to read that object back from the file and display its text. The code is as follows:
import java.io.*;
public class SerializationDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
NewString inobject, outobject;
inobject = new NewString("");
outobject = new NewString("Dreamtech Press!");
try {
FileOutputStream fileoutputstring = new
FileOutputStream("serialized.dat");
ObjectOutputStream objectoutputstream = new
ObjectOutputStream(fileoutputstring);
objectoutputstream.writeObject(outobject);
objectoutputstream.flush();
objectoutputstream.close();
FileInputStream fileinputstring = new
FileInputStream("serialized.dat");
ObjectInputStream objectinputstream = new
ObjectInputStream(fileinputstring);
inobject = (NewString)objectinputstream.readObject();
objectinputstream.close(); }
catch(Exception e){ }
System.out.println(inobject); }
}
Compile NewString.java and SerializationDemo.java. The output of this code is shown in
Figure 18.13:

Figure 18.13: Output of the SerializationDemo class

Working with the Console Class

The java.io.Console class has different methods for accessing character-based console device related to the
existing Java Virtual Machine (JVM). The existence of associated console depends upon the manner in which the
virtual machine is invoked. If it is started by using the command line, then its console exists, and if it is started
by some background job scheduler, then it does not have any console. A connected console of a JVM is
represented by the java.io.Console class, which can be obtained by using the System.console() method.
All read and write operations are synchronized. This guarantees the atomic completion of critical operations.

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The inheritance diagram of the Console class is as follows:

java.lang.Object
|____java.io.Console
Youll find the methods of the Console class in Table 18.73:
Table 18.73: Methods of the Console class
Method Does this
void flush() It flushes console and all buffered output is written immediately.
Console format(String fmt, It writes a formatted string to this consoles output stream according to the
Object args) given format string and arguments.
Console printf(String It writes a formatted string to this consoles output stream using the
fmt,Object args) specified format string and arguments.
Reader reader() It returns unique Reader object associated with this console.
String readLine() It reads a single line of text from the console.
String readLine(String fmt, It provides a formatted prompt and reads a single line of text from the
Object args) console.
char[] readPassword() It reads password from the console with echoing disabled.
char[] readPassword(String fmt, It provides formatted prompt and reads password from the console with
Object args) echoing disabled.
PrintWriter writer() It returns unique PrintWriter object associated with this console.

With the end of console, the input stream read methods of this class return null. All methods throw
NullPointerException on passing a null argument to them.
Using this new console API, the formatted output can be written and read easily as it is integrated with
Formatter API. The readLine() methods are key methods for user input here. readLine(String fmt,
Object args) is a combination of formatted output with user input. A first time support to read password
from console has been introduced through the readPassword() methods.
Here is an example using the java.io.Console object:
import java.io.*;
public class ConsoleDemo{
public static void main(String args[]) {
int MIN_PASSWORD_LENGTH = 8;
char[] password;
Console console=System.console();
do {
password = console.readPassword( "Enter password (minimum

of %d characters): ", MIN_PASSWORD_LENGTH);

console.printf("Password Length is %d\n", password.length);
} while (password.length < MIN_PASSWORD_LENGTH);
}
}
You can see the result in Figure 18.14, given how the Console object is obtained and how its methods are being
used:

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Figure 18.14: Output for the ConsoleDemo class

Execute this code and enter a string of length 8 or more to exit.

Working with the Clipboard

You can use the Java toolkits getSystemClipboard() method and ClipboardOwner interface to place data
into the Clipboard and retrieve it from the Clipboard.
Heres an example. This code places the text Dreamtech into the Clipboard (note that we have to create an
object that has a toolkita Frame object hereto use getSystemClipboard()):
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.datatransfer.*;

public class ClipBoardDemo

{
public static void main(String[] argv)
{
useClipboard useclipboard = new useClipboard();
}
}
class useClipboard extends Frame implements ClipboardOwner
{
useClipboard()
{
Clipboard clipboard = getToolkit().getSystemClipboard();
StringSelection contents = new StringSelection("Dreamtech");
clipboard.setContents(contents, this);
System.exit(0);
}
public void lostOwnership(Clipboard clipboard,
Transferable contents)
{
System.out.println("Clipboard contents replaced");
}
}
Running of this code will copy string into the Clipboard. You can paste the copied string Dreamtech from the
Clipboard to any other editor.

Working with the Printer

You can use the Java toolkits getPrintJob() method to create a new print job for the printer, and you can use
the print jobs getGraphics() method to get a Graphics object that you can use to draw on the printed page.

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Heres an example that draws a small graphics figure on a page and then prints it (note that we have to create an
object that has a toolkita Frame object hereto use getPrintJob()):
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class PrinterDemo

{
public static void main(String[] argv)
{
usePrinter useprinter = new usePrinter();
}
}
class usePrinter extends Frame {
usePrinter() {
PrintJob printjob = getToolkit().getPrintJob(this,
"Print graphics", null);
Graphics g = printjob.getGraphics();
g.drawRect(2, 2, 100, 100);
g.drawLine(2, 2, 100, 100);
g.dispose();
printjob.end();
System.exit(0); }
}
Being able to use the printer this way is a very powerful aspect of Java I/O. The result is shown in
Figure 18.15:

Figure 18.15: Working with the printer

Printing with the Formatter Class

Similar to the printf() function in C, the class java.util.Formatter allows you to perform string
formatting. This class was introduced in J2SE 5 and it depends heavily on the varargs feature.

Using the System.out.printf() Method

The most important thing about Formatter is that you should avoid direct interaction with it. Instead of this,
you can use the new PrintStream method printf(). PrintStream is not new for you because you are
already familiar with System.out.println() calls. The following example illustrates the printf() method:
public class PrinterDemo1

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{
public static void main(String[] argv)
{
String inls = "LKJ";
String cnt = "just because";
System.out.printf("reason: %s (noted by %s)", cnt, inls);
}
}
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
reason: just because (noted by LKJ)
In the previous printf() example, a format string with embedded format specifiers is passed to printf().
After this, pass a list of arguments corresponding to each format specifier. The previous example has two format
specifiers: %s and %s, and these correspond to the cnt argument and inls argument respectively.
The format specifier %s has some significance. The letter `s signifies a String conversion and % signifies the
start of a format specifier. Some characters that trigger the end of format are called conversions. A string
conversion signifies that Java calls toString() on the corresponding argument and substitutes the result for
the format specifier.

Using the String.format() Method

Sometimes you need only formatted string and print is not required. In such a case, you can employ the
static() method format on the String class. The flollowing example shows some numeric conversions:
public class PrinterDemo2
{
public static void main(String[] argv)
{
int i = 91;
String str = String.format("char: %c integral: %d octal: %o hex:
%x %n", i, i, i, i);
System.out.println(str); }
}
In the preceding example, platform-specific line separator is denoted by %n. After print, the output of String
would be:
char: [ integral: 91 octal: 133 hex: 5b
Flagging is supported by numeric conversions that support flags for padding, grouping, justification, and sign.

There are four arguments, each using same reference, i.e., you can supply a single argument if all are same and that will be
used more than once.

Following example shows how one can use the same argument more than once against a format string:
String str = String.format("char: %c integral: %<d octal: %<o hex: %<x %n", i);
In the preceding example, reference can be used only once. The less-than sign (<) is used very frequently and
bears some special significance. It signifies that the same argument must be used as the last format specifier.

Formatting Dates Using the String.format() Method

Many date-related conversions are provided by Formatter. For example, consider the following code:
import java.util.*;

public class PrinterDemo3

{
public static void main(String[] argv)
{

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int i = 65;
String str =String.format("%1$td %1$tb %1$ty", new Date());
System.out.println(str);
}
}
The preceding code produces a string with the value, as shown in Figure 18.16:

Figure 18.16: Displaying the current date

In the preceding example, all three format specifiers target the first argument. To designate which argument to
use, 1$ is used in the format specifier.
Date conversion is done by using a two-character sequence starting with a t. The date part to converted, is
represented by the second character of the sequence. Consider a sequence td. This sequence in the first specifier
converts the day of the month.

Using the java.util.Formatter Class

Nowadays, the Formatter class is equipped with many new formatting capabilities. This class supports
internationalization by allowing you to pass a Locale to the constructor.
The Appendable object is the latest interface that defines the append() methods. Formatter allows to pass an
Appendable object. Since the Appendable objects encapsulate the append() methods, formatter can store its
results in a text collector, such as a stream object. To implement this interface, all relevant Java classes
(e.g., StringBuffer and PrintStream) are modified by Oracle. The following example shows how to
implement it:
import java.util.*;

public class PrinterDemo4

{
public static void main(String[] argv)
{
double avg = 6.0e23;
StringBuffer buf = new StringBuffer();
Formatter frmter = new Formatter(buf, Locale.US);
frmter.format("avg's number: %e %n", avg);
frmter.format("base of the natural log: %e %n", Math.E);
System.out.println(buf.toString());
}
}

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The corresponding output is shown in Figure 18.17 doing the calculations:

Figure 18.17: Performing calculation

The Formatter class encapsulates many conversions and some additional features. See Java API
documentation pages for java.util.Formatter for more details.

Scanning Input with the Scanner class

You can read input from either the keyboard or a text file by using the Scanner class. This class provides simple
and Sun-standard mechanism for reading input. When you are using tjXXXXx.jar file, you can access the
Scanner class by importing edu.fcps.Scanner, and after J2SE 5, you can access the complete Scanner class
by importing java.util.Scanner. A simple text Scanner is used for parsing primitive types and strings
through regular expressions.
Whenever a Scanner receives an input, it breaks it into tokens. For breaking, Scanner uses delimiter pattern,
which by default matches whitespace. These tokens are then converted into values of different types using the
methods discussed here. The following code allows a user to read a number from System.in:
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
int i = scan.nextInt();
Consider another example in which code allows long types to be assigned from entries in a file myNumbers:
Scanner scan = new Scanner(new File("myNumbers"));
while (scan.hasNextLong()) { long aLng = scan.nextLong(); }
We know that the default value of delimiters is whitespace, but Scanner also allows the use of delimiter other
than whitespace. The following example reads several items from a string:
import java.util.*;
public class ScannerDemo{
public static void main(String[] argv) {
String input = "10 fish 20 fish green fish white fish";
Scanner s = new Scanner(input).useDelimiter("\\s*fish\\s*");
System.out.println(s.nextInt());
System.out.println(s.nextInt());
System.out.println(s.next());
System.out.println(s.next());
s.close(); }
}
The output of the code is shown in Figure 18.18, showing the text in different lines:

Figure 18.18: Scanning input with the ScannerDemo class

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The output of the preceding code is shown in Figure 18.18, taking input from the Scanner class.

Summary
In this chapter, you have learned the use of file class and to work with streams. Then, we have explored the
RandomAccessFile, Reader and Writer classes. Following that, we have discussed to input the value from the
keyboard with the InputStreamReader class and work with the OutputStreamWriter class. You have next
learned to work with files, character arrays, and buffers. Moving further, we have discussed how to work with
the StreamTokenizer class, Serializable interface, and Console class. You have also learned to work with printer
and clipboard. Lastly, you have learned to print with the Formatter class and scan input with the Scanner class.
In the next chapter, you will learn to work with multiple threads.

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Working with
Multiple Threads
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Getting the Main Thread 678
Naming a Thread 678
Pausing a Thread 679
Creating a Thread with the Runnable Interface 681
Creating a Thread with the Thread Class 684
Creating Multiple Threads 686
Joining Threads 688
Checking if a Thread Is Alive 689
Setting Thread Priority and Stopping Threads 690
Synchronizing 692
Communicating between Threads 704
Suspending and Resuming Threads 705
Creating Graphics Animation with Threads 707
Eliminating Flicker in Graphics Animation Created Using Threads 710
Suspending and Resuming Graphics Animation 711
Using Double Buffering 713
Simplifying Producer-Consumer with the Queue Interface 715
Implementing Concurrent Programming 717
Simplifying Servers Using the Concurrency Utilities 718
Knowing Various Concurrency Utilities 719
Learning about the java.util.concurrent Package 719
Learning about the java.util.concurrent.locks Package 721
Learning about the java.util.concurrent.atomic Package 722
Chapter 19: Working with Multiple Threads

In Depth
In this chapter, we are going to take a look at multithreaded programming in Java and how it lets you support
graphics animation. A thread is a lightweight entity within a process. Multiple threads can occur within the same
process and share the memory. In fact, Java is one of the few programming languages that supports
multithreading. We can also say that multithreading is a specialized form of multitasking.
There are two types of multitaskingProcess-based and Thread-based. In process-based multitasking, the
computer is able to run two or more programs concurrently. For example, you can listen to music and use the
notepad at the same time. On the other hand, a thread-based multitasking involves a single program to perform
two or more tasks simultaneously. For example, a text editor can format text at the same time it is being printed.
With the use of multithreading, maximum usage of resources occurs in minimum time. By keeping the idle time
to minimum, efficient programs can be created that makes maximum utilization of the CPU.

Many components in Java, most Swing component methods notably, are not thread-safe.

Using Threads in Java

When a Java program starts, it has one threadthe main thread. You can interact with the main thread in
various ways (as youll see in this chapter) such as getting or setting its name, pausing it, and more. However,
you can also start other threads. You call the start() method of the object to start the thread and place the code
that you want to execute in the run() method. There are two ways to create new threads. One is to declare a
class that is a subclass of the Thread class. This subclass should override the run method of the Thread class, and
you can then allocate and start an instance of that class. For example, heres how you can define a new thread
class that starts when you create an instance of it:
class CustomThread extends Thread {
CustomThread() { start(); }
public void run() { } //Do the work this thread was created for
}
You can then create and start a thread of this type, like this:
CustomThread thread1 = new CustomThread();
Another way to create a thread is to create a class that implements the Runnable interface.
Secondly, this class then implements the run() method. An instance of the class that is passed at the time of
creating a thread object can then be allocated. Heres how this looks in code:
class CustomThread implements Runnable {
Thread thread;
CustomThread() {
thread = new Thread(this, "second");
thread.start(); }
public void run() { } //Do the work this thread was created for
}
This code would then create a thread of this type and start it running:
CustomThread thread1 = new CustomThread();
Its also worth noting that every thread has a name for identification purposes (in fact, more than one thread
may have the same name). Every thread also has a priority, and threads with higher priorities are executed in
preference to threads with lower priorities.
Let us take one more example to understand this better.
class CreateThreadDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
new NewThread(); // create a new thread

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try {
for(int k = 10; k > 6; k--) {
System.out.println("Parent Thread: " + k);
Thread.sleep(1000); }
}
catch (InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println("Parent Interrupted."); }
System.out.println("Exiting Parent."); }
}
class NewThread implements Runnable{
Thread T;
NewThread() { //a new, second thread
T = new Thread(this, "Creating Thread");
System.out.println("Child Thread : " + T);
T.start(); } // Start the thread
// Point of entry for the second thread.
public void run() {
try {
for(int j = 10; j > 6; j--) {
System.out.println("Child Thread: " + j);
Thread.sleep(500); } }
catch (InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println("Child interrupted."); }
System.out.println("Exiting Child."); }
}
Heres the output of the code:
Child Thread: Thread[Creating Thread,5,main]
Parent Thread: 10
Child Thread:10
Child Thread: 9
Child Thread:8
Parent Thread: 9
Child Thread:7
Exiting Child.
Parent Thread: 8
Parent Thread: 7
Exiting Parent.

Life Cycle of a Thread

A thread is the smallest unit of processing. It is lightweight and therefore easy to access. From the creation of the
thread to its termination, it follows a cycle known as the life cycle of a thread. According to Oracle, a thread has
six states. They are as follows:
New
Runnable
Blocked
Waiting
Timed_Waiting
Terminated

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The diagrammatical representation of the life cycle of a thread is shown in Figure 19.1:

Figure 19.1: Thread Life Cycle UML State Diagram

The various states in the life cycle of a thread, as the figure shows, are as follows:
1. NewBefore the start() method is invoked and an instance of a thread is created, the thread comes to
new state.
2. RunnableThe life of a thread begins from this state. After the start() method is invoked, the thread
first enters the runnable state. It can also enter this state after running, waiting, sleeping, or coming back
from the blocked state. Here, the thread is waiting for its request to be addressed by the processor.
3. BlockedWhen the thread is in the waiting or suspended or blocked state, it is not allowed to enter the
runnable state or running state; then it appears to be in the blocked state.
4. WaitingThe thread is said to be in the waiting state when it waits indefinitely for another thread to
complete an action.
5. Timed_WaitingA thread that is waiting for another thread to perform an action for up to a specified
waiting time is in this state. When the thread is waiting for a specified time interval and transitions back to
the runnable state on expiration of the interval or occurrence of what it was waiting for, it is said to be in the
Timed_Waiting state.
6. TerminatedWhen the thread has completed the execution of the run() method, its life cycle comes to an
end. The thread is killed by invoking the stop() method, coming to the dead state.

Synchronization of Threads
Thread synchronization, also known as serialization, is a mechanism to ensure that no two concurrently
executing threads possess the same parts of a program at the same time. If a thread holds some part of a process
to access, the other thread must wait till the execution of the first thread finishes.
Basically, the object accessed by a thread is locked by it so that no other thread can access it. Synchronization is
used to control access to the systems, such as multiprocessor systems, systems supporting multithreading, and
distributed systems, consisting of bulky data, such as database for colleges or hospitals and many more.
There are two synchronization techniques:
To control the order in which the code is executed to perform different tasks
To prevent the obstacles that can arise when two threads share the same resource at the same time

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Multithreaded Custom Class Loader

The function of the java.lang.ClassLoader class is to locate the bytecode for some specific class and then
transform that bytecode into a usable class during runtime. The runtime system provides class loaders that can
locate bootstrap classes, extension classes, and user classes.
If custom class loaders restrict to an acyclic class loader delegation model, they will never face the condition of
deadlocks. The ClassLoader recognizes the acyclic delegation model. In this type of model, a class loader always
consists of a parent (delegate). When a request for a class is made, the primary task of the class loader is to first
check whether the class requested is already loaded. If the class is not already found, the class loader asks its
parent to find the location of the class; and if the parent is not able to locate the class either, the class loader itself
tries to find the location of the class.
In Java 8, the process of creation of new custom loaders is similar to those in the previous versions of Java, that
is, create a subclass of ClassLoader and then override the findClass() and loadClass() methods.
With the release of Java SE, you can avoid deadlocks by following these rules:
Ensure that the custom class loader for the concurrent class loading is safe.
a. Decide for the internal locking scheme. Example: java.lang.ClassLoader uses the locking scheme
based on the name of class that is requested.
b. Remove all synchronization on the lock of the class loader object.
c. Ensure that critical sections are protected in case of multiple threads loading different classes.
Invoke java.lang.ClassLoaders static method registerAsParallelCapable(). This signifies that all the
instances of the custom class loader are safe.
Ensure that all the classes that the custom class loader extends also invoke the
registerAsParallelCapable() method in their class initializers. Ensure that they are multithread safe
for concurrent class loading.
Thats it for the overview of whats in this chapter. Its time to turn to the Immediate Solutions section.

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Immediate Solutions
Getting the Main Thread
The NP appears and says, Threads? I have been programming Java for a while now, and I cant see any
threads. You smile and say, Every Java program has at least one thread, called the main thread, and you can
take a look at it with the currentThread() method.
The currentThread() method of the Thread class gets the current thread; if you are executing in the main
thread, this method gets the main thread. Heres an example in which we are getting the main thread of an
application and printing out its name by using the getName() method (note that you can set a threads name
with setName()see the next solution):
class MainThread
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Thread thread = Thread.currentThread();
System.out.println("The name of main thread is \"" + thread.getName()+"\"");
}
}
The output of this code is shown in Figure 19.2, displaying the name of the main thread:

Figure 19.2: Displaying the Name of the Main Thread

Naming a Thread
One way to distinguish threads is by name, and you can set the name of a thread with the setName() method.
Heres an example in which we rename the main thread in an application and display that name:
class SetThreadName
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Thread thread = Thread.currentThread();
System.out.println("Main thread's original name is " +
thread.getName());
thread.setName("Kogent");

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 Immediate Solutions

System.out.println("Main thread's name is now " + thread.getName());

}
}
The output of this code is shown in Figure 19.3, changing the name of the thread:

Figure 19.3: Giving Name to the Main Thread

After you have given a thread a name, you can use the getName() method to check the name and thus;
determine which thread you are working with in a section of code that many threads execute (such as the code
in a Thread classs run() method).

Pausing a Thread
Sometimes, you want to pause a threads execution, and you can do that with the sleep() method. You pass
this method the amount of time to pause, in milliseconds (a millisecond is one-thousandth of a second), and the
thread will wait that amount of time before continuing. Heres an example in which we print out a message,
pausing for a second between words:
class SleepDemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
try
{
System.out.println("Welcome");
Thread.sleep(1000);
System.out.println("to");
Thread.sleep(1000);
System.out.println("Kogent Solutions.");
}
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
}
}

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The result is shown in Figure 19.4:

Figure 19.4: Pausing a Thread

When you run this code, youll see that the words appear with a one-second pause between them.
Lets look at another example on sleeping in Figure 19.5:
class NewThread implements Runnable {
String Tn;
Thread t;
NewThread(String threadname) {
Tn = threadname;
t = new Thread(this, Tn);
System.out.println("New thread: " + t);
t.start(); }
public void run() {
try {
for(int j = 75; j > 50; j--) {
System.out.println(Tn + ": " + j);
Thread.sleep(100); }
}
catch (InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println(Tn + " breaking up..."); }
System.out.println(Tn + " finishing..."); }
}
class Sleep {
public static void main(String args[]) {
NewThread ob1 = new NewThread("1");
NewThread ob2 = new NewThread("2");
try {
Thread.sleep(1500);
ob1.t.suspend();
System.out.println("Thread 1's sleeping in progress");
Thread.sleep(1500);
ob1.t.resume();
System.out.println("Waking up thread One");
ob2.t.suspend();
System.out.println("Thread 2 starting to sleep...");

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 Immediate Solutions

Thread.sleep(1500);
ob2.t.resume();
System.out.println("Thread Two, waking up..."); }
catch (InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println("Main thread broken"); }
try {
System.out.println("Waiting for threads to finish.");
ob1.t.join();
ob2.t.join(); }
catch (InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println("Main thread broken"); }
System.out.println("Finishing Main thread"); }
}

Figure 19.5: Sleeping of a Thread

Creating a Thread with the Runnable Interface

I want to create a new thread to spell check a document while the user is doing other things, the NP says.
How do I do that? Well, you say, there are two ways to create your own threadsimplementing the
Runnable interface and extending the Thread class. Hmm, says the NP, lets start with Runnable.
Implementing the Runnable interface is one of the two ways to create your own threads in Java. This interface
has only one method: run(). You place the code you want to have the new thread execute in that method.
When you create a new Runnable object, you can pass that object to the constructor of the Thread class to
create the new thread.
Heres an example in which we create a new class that implements the Runnable interface. It passes itself to a
Thread class constructor and starts itself when an object of this class is created. When it runs, it prints out its
name once a second for 10 seconds and then quits. Heres the code for this new Runnable class, which we call
SecondThread (note that the actual work is done in the run() method and that the code is executed with the
Thread classs start() method):
class SecondThread implements Runnable {
Thread thread;
SecondThread() {
thread = new Thread(this, "second");
System.out.println("Starting Child Thread.");
thread.start(); }
public void run() {

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try {
(Thread.currentThread()).setName("Child");
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 10; loop_index++) {
System.out.println((Thread.currentThread()).getName()+
" thread here...\n");
Thread.sleep(1000); }
}
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
System.out.println("Second thread Ending."); }
}
Heres the application that will create a new thread of the SecondThread class and run it; note that we are also
having the main thread print out its name so that you can see the two threads alternatively:
class RunnableDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println("Starting Parent Thread.");
SecondThread secondthread = new SecondThread();
try {
(Thread.currentThread()).setName("Parent");
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 10; loop_index++) {
System.out.println((Thread.currentThread()).getName()+
" thread here...");
Thread.sleep(1000); }
}
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
System.out.println("Parent Thread Ending."); }
}
The result of this code is shown in Figure 19.6:

Figure 19.6: Alternate Printing of Threads

Note that the two threads alternately print out their names (also note that you cant guarantee that theyll be
displayed alternatively alternatethats up to the operating system).
Let us take another example of creating a thread. The easiest way to do that is to write a class that extends the
Thread class. All that needed to start a thread is to create an instance of the Thread class and call its start()
method.
Look at this class named CountDownClock clock that extends the Thread class:
public class CountDownClock extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
for (int t = 20; t >= 0; t--)
{

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System.out.println("T minus " + t);

try { Thread.sleep(1000); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
}
}
}
Now, let us create a class that extends the Thread class. But, there is a twistthe Thread class can have one
superclass. In this case, you must create a class that implements the Runnable interface instead of extending the
Thread class.
As you already know that the Runnable interface marks an object that can be run as a thread. So, a code for the
creation of the Runnable object named LaunchTask is as follows:
public class LaunchTask implements Runnable
{
private int start;
private String message;
public LaunchTask(int start, String message)
{
this.start = start;
this.message = message;
}
public void run()
{
try { Thread.sleep(20000 - (start * 1000)); }
catch (InterruptedException e){ }
System.out.println(message);
}
}
Now, well write the code for the main() method that will use LaunchTask and CountDownClock to
produce the result:
public class CountDown
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Thread clock = new CountDownClock();
Runnable flood, ignition, liftoff;
flood = new LaunchTask(16, "READY->Flood the pad!");
ignition = new LaunchTask(6, "STEADY-->Start engines!");
liftoff = new LaunchTask(0, "GO-->Liftoff!");
clock.start();
new Thread(flood).start();
new Thread(ignition).start();
new Thread(liftoff).start();
}
}
Heres the result of the code:
D:\Java8\chapter19>java CountDown
T minus 20
T minus 19
T minus 18
T minus 17
T minus 16
READYFlood the pad!
T minus 15
T minus 14
T minus 13
T minus 12
T minus 11
T minus 10
T minus 9
T minus 8
T minus 7
T minus 6

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STEADYStart engine!
T minus 5
T minus 4
T minus 3
T minus 2
T minus 1
GOLiftoff!
T minus 0

Creating a Thread with the Thread Class

OK, says the NP, I know I can create a new thread by using the Runnable interface... Or, you say, using
the Thread class. Tell me more! says the NP.
The Thread class supports new threads. It also implements the Runnable interface, so you dont have to.
Heres the inheritance diagram for Thread:
java.lang.Object
|____java.lang.Thread
Youll find the fields for the Thread class in Table 19.1, its constructors in Table 19.2, and its methods in
Table 19.3:
Table 19.1: Fields of the Thread class
Field Does this
static int MAX_PRIORITY The maximum priority a thread can have
static int MIN_PRIORITY The minimum priority a thread can have
static int NORM_PRIORITY The default priority assigned to a thread

Table 19.2: Constructors of the Thread class

Constructor Does this
Thread() It constructs a new Thread object.
Thread(Runnable target) It constructs a new Thread object using a Runnable object.
Thread(Runnable target, String It constructs a new Thread object with a Runnable object and a name.
name)
Thread(String name) It constructs a new Thread object with a name.
Thread(ThreadGroup group, It constructs a new Thread object as part of a group.
Runnable target)
Thread(ThreadGroup group, It constructs a new Thread object with a Runnable object. This Thread
Runnable target, String name) object has the specified name as its name and belongs to the thread group
referred to by group.
Thread(ThreadGroup group, It constructs a new Thread object so that it has target as its run object, has
Runnable target, the specified name as its name, belongs to the thread group referred to by
String name, group, and has the specified stack size.
long stackSize)
Thread(ThreadGroup group, String It constructs a new Thread object thats part of a group and has a name.
name)

Table 19.3: Methods of the Thread class

Method Does this
static int activeCount() It gets the current number of active threads in this threads thread group.
void checkAccess() It determines whether the currently running thread has the permission to
modify this thread.
int countStackFrames() It is deprecated. The definition of this call depends on suspend, which is
deprecated.
static Thread currentThread() It gets a reference to the currently executing Thread object.

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 19.3: Methods of the Thread class

Method Does this
static void dumpStack() It prints a stack trace of the current thread.
static int enumerate(Thread[] It copies to the indicated array every active thread in this threads thread
tarray) group.
ClassLoader It gets the context ClassLoader for this thread.
getContextClassLoader()
String getName() It gets this threads name.
int getPriority() It gets this threads priority.
ThreadGroup getThreadGroup() It gets the thread group to which this thread belongs.
void interrupt() It interrupts this thread.
static boolean It returns true if the current thread has been interrupted.
interrupted()
boolean isAlive() It returns true if this thread is alive.
boolean isDaemon() It returns true if this thread is a daemon thread.
boolean isInterrupted() It returns true if this thread has been interrupted.
void join() It waits for this thread to die.
void join(long millis) It waits at most millis milliseconds for this thread to die.
void join(long millis, int It waits at most millis milliseconds plus nanos nanoseconds for this
nanos) thread to die.
void resume() It is deprecated. This method exists solely for use with suspend, which is
deprecated.
void run() If this thread was constructed using a separate Runnable interface run
object, that Runnable objects run method is called.
void setContextClassLoader It sets the context ClassLoader for this thread.
(ClassLoader cl)
void setDaemon(boolean on) It marks this thread as either a daemon thread or a user thread.
void setName(String name) It changes the name of this thread to be equal to the argument name.
void setPriority It changes the priority of this thread.
(int newPriority)
static void sleep It causes the currently executing thread to sleep for the indicated number
(long millis) of milliseconds.
static void sleep It causes the currently executing thread to sleep for the indicated number
(long millis, int nanos) of milliseconds plus the indicated number of nanoseconds.
void start() It causes this thread to begin execution, which means that the Java Virtual
Machine will call the run method of this thread.
void stop() It is deprecated. This method is considered inherently unsafe.
void stop(Throwable obj) It is deprecated. This method is considered inherently unsafe.
void suspend() It is deprecated. This method has been deprecated because its considered
inherently deadlock prone.
String toString() It gets a string representation of this thread.
static void yield() It indicates that the current thread is willing to yield its current use of a
processor.

Heres an example in which we create a thread and have it print out its name 10 times, once a second. Note that
in this case, we are calling the threads constructor and passing it a name for this thread, and then we are calling
the threads start() method to start execution of the code in the run method. The action takes place in the
run() method, thats where we have the thread print out its name every second. Heres the code:

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class ChildThread extends Thread { ChildThread() { super("Child"); start(); }

public void run() { try {
System.out.println("Child Thread Started.");
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 10; loop_index++) {
System.out.println((Thread.currentThread()).getName()+ "
thread here...");
Thread.sleep(1000);
}
}
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
System.out.println("Child Thread Ended."); }
}
Heres an application in which we use the ChildThread class and also print out the name of the main thread
every second:
class ThreadDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ChildThread childthread = new ChildThread();
try {
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 10; loop_index++) {
System.out.println((Thread.currentThread()).getName()+
" thread here...");
Thread.sleep(1000); }
}
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
}
}
The result of this code is shown below. Note that both threads are running and displaying their names, once a
second:
D:\Java8\chapter19>java ThreadDemo
main thread here...
Child Thread Started.
Child thread here...
main thread here...
Child thread here...
main thread here...
Child thread here...
main thread here...
Child thread here...
main thread here...
Child thread here...
main thread here...
Child thread here...
main thread here...
Child thread here...
main thread here...
Child thread here...
main thread here...
Child thread here...
main thread here...
Child thread here...
Child Thread Ended.

Creating Multiple Threads

I know I can start a second thread, the NP says, but what about starting four new threads? You smile and
say, No problem.
You can create and run multiple threads in a programjust give each thread a new object. Heres an example in
which we create four new threads and have each one print out its name once a second:
class CustomThread extends Thread {
CustomThread(String name) {
super(name);
start(); }

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 Immediate Solutions

public void run() {

try {
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 4; loop_index++) {
System.out.println((Thread.
currentThread()).getName()+ " thread here...");
Thread.sleep(1000); }
}
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
System.out.println((Thread.currentThread()).getName() +" ending."); }
}
class MultiThreadDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
CustomThread thread1 = new CustomThread("First");
CustomThread thread2 = new CustomThread("Second");
CustomThread thread3 = new CustomThread("Third");
CustomThread thread4 = new CustomThread("Fourth");
try {
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 10; loop_index++) {
System.out.println((Thread.currentThread()).getName()+ "
thread here...");
Thread.sleep(1000); }
}
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
}
}
The result of this code is shown below:
D:\Java8\chapter19>java MultiThreadDemo
First thread here...
Third thread here...
Second thread here...
main thread here...
Fourth thread here...
Second thread here...
First thread here...
Third thread here...
main thread here...
Fourth thread here...
Second thread here...
Third thread here...
First thread here...
main thread here...
Fourth thread here...
Third thread here...
First thread here...
Second thread here...
main thread here...
Fourth thread here...
First ending.
Second ending.
Third ending.
main thread here...
Fourth ending.
main thread here...
main thread here...
main thread here...
main thread here...
main thread here...
Let us take another example to understand this concept better:
class NewThread implements Runnable {
String name;
Thread t;
NewThread(String threadname) {
name = threadname;
t = new Thread(this, name);

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System.out.println("New thread: " + t);

t.start(); }
public void run() {
try {
for(int i = 100; i > 95; i--) {
System.out.println(name + ": " + i);
Thread.sleep(1000); }
}
catch (InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println(name + "Interrupted"); }
System.out.println(name + " exiting."); }
}
class StartThread {
public static void main(String args[]) {
new NewThread("1:");
new NewThread("2:");
new NewThread("3:");
try { Thread.sleep(10000); }
catch (InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println("Parent thread Interrupted"); }
System.out.println("Parent thread exiting."); }
}
The result of the code is shown below:
New thread: Thread[1:,5,main]
New thread: Thread[2:,5,main]
New thread: Thread[3:,5,main]
1:: 100
3:: 100
2:: 100
2:: 99
3:: 99
1:: 99
2:: 98
1:: 98
3:: 98
2:: 97
3:: 97
1:: 97
2:: 96
1:: 96
3:: 96
2: exiting.
3: exiting.
1: exiting.
Parent thread exiting.

Joining Threads
I need more control over threads, the NP says. Say I need to be able to wait until a thread is done executing
before going on with the rest of the program. Any way to check that? Certainly. you say. You can use the
join() method to wait until a thread is done. Really? the NP asks excitedly.
The Thread classs join() method waits until a thread is finished executing (also called waiting for a thread to
die) before returning. Heres an example in which we create four new threads and wait for each one to finish
executing before ending the main application:
class CustomThread extends Thread
{
CustomThread(String name)
{
super(name);
start();
}
public void run()
{

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 Immediate Solutions

try {
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 4; loop_index++) {
System.out.println((Thread.currentThread()).getName()+ "
thread here...");
Thread.sleep(1000); } }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
System.out.println((Thread.currentThread()).getName()+" ending.");}
}
class JoinDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
CustomThread thread1 = new CustomThread("First");
CustomThread thread2 = new CustomThread("Second");
CustomThread thread3 = new CustomThread("Third");
CustomThread thread4 = new CustomThread("Fourth");
try {
thread1.join();
thread2.join();
thread3.join();
thread3.join(); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
}
}
The output of this code is shown below:
C:\src>java JoinDemo
Second thread here...
First thread here...
Third thread here...
Fourth thread here...
Fourth thread here...
Third thread here...
Second thread here...
First thread here...
Third thread here...
First thread here...
Second thread here...
Fourth thread here...
Second thread here...
First thread here...
Fourth thread here...
Third thread here...
First ending.
Third ending.
Fourth ending.
Second ending.

Checking if a Thread Is Alive

Uh-oh, says the NP, I have lost a thread. How do I know if its still doing anything? No problem at all! you
say. To check on a thread, you can use the isAlive() method to see whether the thread is still active. How
does it work? the NP asks.
Heres an example in which we create and run four new threads. As the threads are executing, we use the
isAlive() method on the first new thread, and when all threads are done (which we verify with the join()
method), we check that thread again with isAlive(). Heres the code:
class CustomThread extends Thread
{
CustomThread(String name)
{
super(name);
start(); }
public void run() {
try {
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < 4; loop_index++) {
System.out.println((Thread.

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currentThread()).getName()+ " thread here...");

Thread.sleep(1000); }
}
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
System.out.println((Thread.currentThread()).getName() + "
ending."); }
}
class isAliveDemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
CustomThread thread1 = new CustomThread("first");
CustomThread thread2 = new CustomThread("second");
CustomThread thread3 = new CustomThread("third");
CustomThread thread4 = new CustomThread("fourth");
System.out.println("Thread1 is alive- "+thread1.isAlive());
try {
thread1.join();
thread2.join();
thread3.join();
thread3.join(); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
System.out.println(thread1.isAlive()); }
}
The output of this code is shown below.
Note the reported value of isAlive(), which is true when thread1 is running and False after that thread has
quit:
D:\Java8\chapter19>java isAliveDemo
first thread here...
third thread here...
Thread1 is alive- true
second thread here...
fourth thread here...
first thread here...
third thread here...
second thread here...
fourth thread here...
first thread here...
third thread here...
fourth thread here...
second thread here...
third thread here...
first thread here...
second thread here...
fourth thread here...
first ending.
third ending.
second ending.
fourth ending.
false

Setting Thread Priority and Stopping Threads

Hmm, says the NP, Im getting the hang of threads, but theres a problem. Im working on my new program,
SuperDuperMultiThreaded DataCrunch, and some tasks are more important than others. For instance, I want to
download images the user has asked before doing any spelling check for a document. Well, you say, you can
give threads different priorities. The NP says, Tell me more!
Each thread in Java has a priority, which is between Thread.MAX_PRIORITY and Thread.MIN_PRIORITY.
Here are the priorities that are currently defined:
MAX_PRIORITYThe maximum priority that a thread can have

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MIN_PRIORITYThe minimum priority that a thread can have

NORM_PRIORITYThe default priority assigned to a thread
The value of Thread.MAX_PRIORITY is 10, Thread.MIN_PRIORITY is 1, and NORM_PRIORITY is 5.
Setting priorities is a very tricky business because its operating system dependent, and the actual results depend
very much on what else is running at the same time. Nonetheless, you can set the relative priorities of threads.
Heres an example in which we give four threads different priorities and just have them count for 5 seconds.
Then, we end them and display their results to get an indication of their relative execution speeds. Heres the
code (note that to stop the threads, we are using a flag thats checked in the run() method and is defined as
volatile, which means its value can be changed by another thread):
class Counter implements Runnable {
Thread thread;
int counter = 0;
volatile boolean goflag;
public Counter(int p) {
thread = new Thread(this);
thread.setPriority(p); }
public void start() {
goflag = true;
thread.start(); }
public void run() {
while (goflag)
counter++; }
public void end() { goflag = false; }
}
class PriorityDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Counter thread1 = new Counter(Thread.NORM_PRIORITY + 2);
Counter thread2 = new Counter(Thread.NORM_PRIORITY + 1);
Counter thread3 = new Counter(Thread.NORM_PRIORITY - 1);
Counter thread4 = new Counter(Thread.NORM_PRIORITY - 2);
thread1.start();
thread2.start();
thread3.start();
thread4.start();
try { Thread.sleep(5000); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
thread1.end();
thread2.end();
thread3.end();
thread4.end();
System.out.println("Thread 1 is counted: " + thread1.counter);
System.out.println("Thread 2 is counted: " + thread2.counter);
System.out.println("Thread 3 is counted: " + thread3.counter);
System.out.println("Thread 4 is counted: " + thread4.counter); }
}
To stop the threads, we call the custom end() method, which sets a flag named goflag to False, which in turn
stops the code in the run() method. In the early days of Java, you could stop a thread with a built-in stop()
method, but that method is now deprecated because its unsafeit can leave operating system access monitors
in an unstable state. Instead, to stop a thread, you now use the preceding method that is, checking some flag
that you can set from outside the thread.
In the output, note that the different number of counts from the threads with different priorities (your results
may vary, of course, depending on your operating system and machine speed). The output of the code is shown
in Figure 19.7, showing the threads in accordance with their priorities:

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Figure 19.7: Counting the Threads with Different Priorities

Synchronizing
Well, says the NP, I guess I cant use threads anymore. I have one object that stores the data in my program,
and I cant have many different threads working with that same object at the same timewhat if one thread
changes part of the data object and then another thread changes the same part of the data object before the first
thread is finished? Chaos! Well, you smile, you can prevent new threads from working with objects like that
until the current thread is finished by synchronizing your threads. Wow! says the NP.
Excluding other threads from an operation until that operation has completed is called synchronization. Heres an
example that shows why synchronization is useful. In this case, we have four new threads, all working with one
shared data object. This object prints out a start message and an end message, and it completes a half-second task
between the messages. Ideally, the data object should start, perform its task, and end before the next thread
starts a new task but thats not the way it works hereeach thread grabs the data object for itself. Heres
the code:
class SynchronizeDemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Shared shared = new Shared();
CustomThread thread1 = new CustomThread(shared, "one");
CustomThread thread2 = new CustomThread(shared, "two");
CustomThread thread3 = new CustomThread(shared, "three");
CustomThread thread4 = new CustomThread(shared, "four");
try {
thread1.join();
thread2.join();
thread3.join();
thread4.join(); }
catch(InterruptedException e) { }
}
}
class CustomThread extends Thread {
Shared shared;
public CustomThread(Shared shared, String string) {
super(string);
this.shared = shared;
start(); }
public void run() { shared.doWork(Thread.currentThread().getName()); }
}
class Shared {

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void doWork(String string) {

System.out.println("Starting " + string);
try { Thread.sleep((long) (Math.random() * 500)); }
catch (InterruptedException e) {}
System.out.println("Ending " + string); }
}
The output of this code is shown in Figure 19.8, showing the synchronization between the threads at various
intervals:

Figure 19.8: Synchronization between Threads

Note that each task overlaps the other.
This is a problem if you are working with actual datawhat if you read some data from the data object, worked
on it, and were about to rewrite it, but another thread has already done the same thing? When you rewrite the
data, the changes from the other thread will be lost. As you can see, its important to be able to block access to
other threads to critical resources at times. Take a look at the next two solutions to see how this works.

Synchronizing Code Blocks

OK, says the NP, I know there can be a problem when multiple threads access the same object or resource, but
how do I block the threads access to new threads until the current one is done with that object or resource?
There are two ways, you say. OK, the NP says. Whats the first way?
The two ways to synchronize thread code execution are synchronizing blocks of code and synchronizing
methods. Well take a look at synchronizing blocks of code in this solution and synchronizing methods in the
next. To synchronize a block of code, you use the synchronized() method, indicating the object you want to
restrict access to. Extending the example from the previous solution, the process looks like this:
class SynchronizeDemo1 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Shared shared = new Shared();
CustomThread thread1 = new CustomThread(shared, "two");
CustomThread thread2 = new CustomThread(shared, "one");
CustomThread thread3 = new CustomThread(shared, "five");
CustomThread thread4 = new CustomThread(shared, "four");
try {
thread1.join();
thread2.join();
thread3.join();
thread4.join(); }
catch(InterruptedException e) { }
}
}
class CustomThread extends Thread {
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Shared shared;
public CustomThread(Shared shared, String string) {
super(string);
this.shared = shared;
start(); }
public void run() {
synchronized(shared) {
shared.doWork(Thread.currentThread().getName()); }
}
}
class Shared {
void doWork(String string) {
System.out.println("Stop " + string);
try { Thread.sleep((long) (Math.random() * 500)); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
}
}
The output of this code is shown in Figure 19.9, showing the synchronization between code blocks:

Figure 19.9: Synchronization between Code Blocks

Note that each task starts and ends before any other thread starts a new task.

Synchronizing Methods
Besides synchronizing code blocks, you can also block access to other threads by synchronizing methods. In this
case, you use the synchronized keyword when defining a method. Heres how we modify the doWork()
method in the Shared class and synchronize the threads:
class SynchronizeDemo2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Shared shared = new Shared();
CustomThread thread1 = new CustomThread(shared, "one");
CustomThread thread2 = new CustomThread(shared, "two");
CustomThread thread3 = new CustomThread(shared, "three");
CustomThread thread4 = new CustomThread(shared, "four");
try {
thread1.join();
thread2.join();
thread3.join();
thread4.join(); }
catch(InterruptedException e) { }
}
}
class CustomThread extends Thread {

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Shared shared;
public CustomThread(Shared shared, String string) {
super(string);
this.shared = shared;
start(); }
public void run() { shared.doWork(Thread.currentThread().getName()); }
}
class Shared {
synchronized void doWork(String string) {
System.out.println("Starting " + string);
try { Thread.sleep((long) (Math.random() * 500)); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
System.out.println("Ending " + string); }
}
Now, only one thread at a time can enter the doWork() method. The output of this code is shown in
Figure 19.10:

Figure 19.10: Synchronization between Methods

Let us look into another program that uses synchronized() method. In this program, in order to enter an
objects monitor, just call a method that has been modified with the synchronized keyword. While a thread is
inside a synchronized() method, all other threads that try to call it on the same instance have to wait. To
relinquish control to the next waiting thread, the object returns from the synchronized() method:
class Callme {
void call(String msg) {
System.out.print("**" + msg);
try { Thread.sleep(1000); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { System.out.println("Stop..."); }
System.out.println("****"); }
}
class Caller implements Runnable {
String ms;
Callme target;
Thread h;
public Caller(Callme targ, String s) {
target = targ;
ms = s;
h = new Thread(this);
h.start(); }
public void run() { synchronized(target) { target.call(ms); } }
}
class Sync {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Callme target = new Callme();
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Caller c1 = new Caller(target, "Your");

Caller c2 = new Caller(target, "JAVA");
Caller c3 = new Caller(target, "Synchronized");
try {
c1.h.join();
c2.h.join();
c3.h.join(); }
catch(InterruptedException e) { System.out.println("Stop..."); }
}
}
The result of the code is shown below:
D:\Java8\chapter19>java Sync
**Your****
**JAVA****
**Synchronized****

Synchronizing Classes
Synchronization gives you the choice of adding the synchronized keyword to a method or wrapping a code
section in a synchronized block. Several mechanisms for coordinating between different threads in an
application have been added. Another useful category of classes in java.util.concurrent is the
synchronizers. This set of classes coordinates and controls the flow of execution for one or more threads.
The Semaphore, CyclicBarrier, CountdownLatch, and Exchanger classes are all examples of
synchronizers. These classes have methods that are called by threads, which may or may not block on the basis
of the state and rules of the specific synchronizer being used.

The Semaphore Class

Prior to acquiring an item, a thread must obtain a permit from the semaphore, ensuring that an item will be
available for use. Once the thread finishes with the item, it goes back to the pool, and a permit is given back to
the semaphore, enabling another thread to acquire that item. The semaphore encapsulates the synchronization
needed to restrict permit to the pool, separately from any synchronization required for maintaining the
consistency of the pool itself.
Consider an example of a queue of people who came for their Aadhaar card registration. Each of them will be
allotted a token number. The next day, they will be called according to their token number. A person who got a
token number has occupied a certain position that is locked by him/her, and no other person shall be granted
the same token number.
So, we can say that a semaphore restricts multiple numbers of users accessing the same token.
Let us discuss some of the terms related to synchronization. They are lock, permit, and block.
A lock is created so as to control the access of multiple threads over the same resource. It provides exclusive
access to a shared resource, which means it allows only one thread to access an object at a time.
A permit is like a token to a lock that allows the thread to access a resource. A thread must have a permit from
the semaphore before obtaining a resource. When the thread stops, it returns the permit to the semaphore,
allowing another thread to access next.
A block indicates that a thread is waiting for the lock or permit to access the resource.
With those definitions in mind, lets look at the new Semaphore class, the class in Java that offers support for
semaphores. You create the object of class with one of the following two constructors presented in Table 19.4:
Table 19.4: Constructors of the Semaphore class
Constructor Does this
Semaphore(int permits) It creates a semaphore with a given number of permits and non-fair
fairness settings
Semaphore(int permits, boolean It creates a semaphore with a given number of permits and the given
fair) fairness settings

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The methods of the Semaphore class and their functions are listed in Table 19.5:
Table 19.5: Methods of the Semaphore class
Method Does this
void acquire() It acquires a permit from this semaphore, blocking until one is available,
or the thread is interrupted
void acquire(int permits) It acquires the given number of permits from this semaphore, blocking
until all are available, or the thread is interrupted
void acquireUninterruptibly() It acquires a permit from this semaphore, blocking until one is available
void It acquires the given number of permits from this semaphore, blocking
acquireUninterruptibly(int permits) until all are available
int availablePermits() It returns the current number of permits available in this semaphore
int drainPermits() It acquires and returns all permits that are immediately available
protectedCollection<thread> It returns a collection containing threads that may be waiting to acquire
getQueuedThreads()
int getQueueLength() It returns an estimate of the number of threads waiting to acquire
boolean hasQueuedThreads() It queries whether any threads are waiting to acquire
boolean isFair() It returns true if this semaphore has fairness set true
protectedvoid reducePermits It shrinks the number of available permits by the indicated reduction
(int reduction)
void release() It releases a permit, returning it to the semaphore
void release(int permits) It releases the given number of permits, returning them to the
semaphore
string toString() It returns a string identifying this semaphore as well as its state
boolean tryAcquire() It acquires a permit from this semaphore, only if one is available at the
time of invocation
booloean tryAcquire(int permits) It acquires the given number of permits from this semaphore, only if all
are available at the time of invocation
boolean tryAcquire(int permits, It acquires the given number of permits from this semaphore, if all
long timeout, TimeUnit unit) become available within the given waiting time, and the current thread
has not been interrupted
boolean tryAcquire(long timeout, It acquires a permit from this semaphore, if one becomes available
TimeUnit unit) within the given waiting time, and the current thread has not been
interrupted

The created semaphore has a non-fair setting. This means that First In First Out (FIFO) behavior is not
guaranteed. To prevent starvation (a thread never getting a resource), it is better to create a fair semaphore.
However, there are throughput advantages if you ignore fairness. To acquire a permit from a semaphore, the
following two methods are invoked:
acquire()
acquire(int permits)
The acquire() method gets a single permit.
The acquire(int permits) method gets the requested number of permits. The methods block until a permit
is available, or the waiting thread is interrupted. If the thread is interrupted, an InterruptedException is
thrown.
The next two methods we are going to discuss, too, acquire permits, but their threads are dormant and
uninterruptible until the required numbers of permits are available. If a thread is interrupted while waiting, it is
regained after the resource becomes available:
acquireUninterruptibly()
acquireUninterruptibly(int permits)

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The tryAcquire() method does not block. If the required number of permits is available, the methods return
true. If the permits are not available, false is returned. All permits must be true to get available. The fairness
setting is ignored with these untimed tryAcquire() methods:
tryAcquire()
tryAcquire(int permits)
The timed versions work similar to the untimed version, but wait for the specified TimeUnit before returning. If
interrupted while waiting, the methods throw an InterruptedException:
tryAcquire(long timeout, TimeUnit unit)
tryAcquire(int permits, long timeout, TimeUnit unit)
The following line shows how to wait 40 seconds for one permit:
boolean acq = tryAcquire(40, TimeUnit.SECONDS)
Now, lets look at an example that uses the Semaphore class. The following program, TestingSemaphore,
matches with an auction house service system. The service allows customers to see multiple items available for
purchase and displays an average of the prices of these items. However, due to licensing limitations, only two
threads can access the service at a time. To simulate the price sampling and averaging, the TestingSemaphore
program waits 30 milliseconds and then returns a random number from 0 to 100. If the service is concurrently
accessed after the limit of two threads is reached, a second pricing scheme is used. This latter scheme doesnt
have the licensing restriction but returns a less-reliable price (in this example, $20). Here is the
TestingSemaphore program:
import java.util.concurrent.*;
import java.util.*;
public class TestingSemaphore {
private static final int COUNT_LOOP = 100;
private static final int MAX_AVAILABLE = 2;
private final static Semaphore sphore = new
Semaphore(MAX_AVAILABLE, true);
private static class Price {
private static final Random rnd = new Random();
public static int getPrice() {
int prc = rnd.nextInt(100);
try { Thread.sleep(30); }
catch (InterruptedException ex) { ex.printStackTrace(); }
return prc; }
public static int getunfavPrice() { return 20; }
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
for (int i=0; i< COUNT_LOOP; i++) {
final int count = i;
new Thread() {
public void run() {
int prc;
if (sphore.tryAcquire()) {
try { prc = Price.getPrice(); }
finally { sphore.release(); }
} else { prc = Price.getunfavPrice(); }
System.out.println(count + ": " + prc); }
}.start();
}
}
}
Depending on the speed of your machine, you might need to modify the 50 millisecond delay for getting
reasonable results. Reasonable results means that you get some random values generated and some $20 values.
One sample runs as shown in Figure 19.11:

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Figure 19.11 :Working of Semaphore

Your results might differ.
Notice how the results for pass 0 and 1 dont appear until after many other results. You then get more 20s before
seeing more good results. Each call to the average pricing service takes time, therefore the interspersed results.
With the use of a semaphore, the program controls access to the limited resources. MUTEX-Mutual Exclusion
semaphore or mutex is a special case of semaphore. Semaphores that allow an arbitrary resource count are called
counting semaphores, while semaphores which are limited to the values 0 and 1 (or locked/unlocked,
unavailable/available) are called binary semaphores (same functionality that mutexes have).
There are many features that are common in both mutexes and locks, except that mutexes have one additional
feature that locks fail to have. It is the ability of the mutex to be released by a thread that is different from the one
holding the permit.

The CyclicBarrier Class

The next synchronization pillar is the barrier. A barrier allows a common point (called a barrier point) for a set of
threads to wait for each other before continuing their execution. The class that facilitates this functionality is
called CyclicBarrier. This class allows one set of threads to pass through the barrier point till the time the
next set of threads arrives without the requirement to create a new barrier.
An example used to define barriers is the splitting of a task into subtasks or segments such that each subtask or
segment can be executed separately. For example, imagine a two-dimensional array or matrix, and you want the
sum of all the values in the matrix. If you have a multiprocessor system, the splitting of the matrix will be faster.
By dividing it into two halves, each processor sums up the values in its half. Then, when both sums are done,
you add the sums together and return the combined total. Thats exactly the use of a barrier. The barrier restricts
the final addition till the addition of both halves is calculated.
The CyclicBarrier class allows you to create a barrier in one of the two ways. You can make a barrier with a
number of threads, or with a number of threads and a barrier action. A barrier action is a Runnable task that
executes when all the threads have joined together but before the threads are released to run on their own.
CyclicBarrier(int parties)
CyclicBarrier(int parties, Runnable barrierAction)
After each of the parties finishes its individual task, the party joins the barrier by calling its await() method.
This blocks that party until all parties are present. If a barrier action is provided, it runs before releasing all the
parties.

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To demonstrate, the following code, App.java, performs a parallel summation of the elements of a triangular
matrix:
import java.util.concurrent.*;
public class App {
private static int matrices[][] = {
{1},
{2, 2},
{3, 3, 3},
{4, 4, 4, 4},
{5, 5, 5, 5, 5}
};
private static int res[];
private static class Summer extends Thread {
int row;
CyclicBarrier barrier;
Summer(CyclicBarrier barrier, int row) {
this.barrier = barrier;
this.row = row; }
public void run() {
int cols = matrices[row].length;
int sum = 0;
for (int i=0; i<cols; i++) { sum += matrices[row][i]; }
res[row] = sum;
System.out.println("Results for row " + row + " are : " +
sum);
try { barrier.await(); }
catch (InterruptedException ex) { ex.printStackTrace(); }
catch (BrokenBarrierException ex) { ex.printStackTrace(); }
}
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
final int rows = matrices.length;
res = new int[rows];
Runnable merger = new Runnable() {
public void run() {
int sum = 0;
for (int i=0; i<rows; i++) { sum += res[i]; }
System.out.println("Results are: " + sum); }
};
CyclicBarrier barrier = new CyclicBarrier(rows, merger);
for (int i=0; i<rows; i++) { new Summer(barrier, i).start(); }
System.out.println("Waiting..."); }
}
Compile and run the program. The result is shown in Figure 19.12:

Figure 19.12: Printing Rows and Columns by Using the CyclicBarrier Class

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Creating a new thread and scheduling it doesnt necessarily cause the system to pause the existing thread.
Multiple threads might be created, all with the same priority. The system simply picks one thread to schedule at
that priority level. If you wish to reuse a cyclic barrier, you can call the reset method of CyclicBarrier
between usages.

The CountDownLatch Class

The next synchronization aid is called a latch. Latching variables specify conditions that never change after being
set. This provides a way to start several threads and have them wait until a signal is received from a
coordinating thread. Latching works well with tasks where you want no process to run until everything needed
is initialized. Latching also works well for multiplayer games, where you dont want any player to start until all
players have joined.
The CountDownLatch class encapsulates a latch that is initialized with a given count. The constructor takes the
count as its one argument. The count works in a way similar to the threads argument to the CyclicBarrier
constructor. It indicates how many times a countDown() method must be called, one for each party involved.
After the full count is reached, any threads waiting, because of an await() method, are released.
The following program, TestingLatch, demonstrates the use of a CountDownLatch. The program creates a
set of threads but doesnt let any thread start until all the threads are created:
import java.util.concurrent.*;
public class TestingLatch {
private static final int COUNT = 5;
private static class Work implements Runnable {
CountDownLatch Latch_start;
CountDownLatch Latch_stop;
String name;
Work(CountDownLatch Latch_start, CountDownLatch Latch_stop,
String name) {
this.Latch_start = Latch_start;
this.Latch_stop = Latch_stop;
this.name = name; }
public void run() {
try { Latch_start.await(); }
catch (InterruptedException ex) { ex.printStackTrace(); }
System.out.println("Running: " + name);
Latch_stop.countDown(); }
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
CountDownLatch Signal_start = new CountDownLatch(1);
CountDownLatch Signal_stop = new CountDownLatch(COUNT);
for (int i=0; i<COUNT; i++) {
new Thread(new
Work(Signal_start, Signal_stop,Integer.toString(i))).start(); }
System.out.println("Go");
Signal_start.countDown();
try { Signal_stop.await(); }
catch (InterruptedException ex)
{ ex.printStackTrace(); }
System.out.println("Done"); }
}
The main thread waits on a second latch to make sure that other threads are finished. This example could have
simply used a join operation on the created threads; however, imagine if you needed to synchronize threads at
different phases through their lifetime, instead of just at the end. The result is shown in Figure 19.13:

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Figure 19.13: Using the CountDownLatch Class

The Exchanger Utility

The Exchanger is the last of the synchronization utilities covered in this chapter. It offers a simple way of
communicating between threads, that is, by passing a specific object between two threads. Thats why theres
<V> after the class name. Instead of using the Piped streams for stream-based, inter-thread communication
(where one side writes and the other reads), the Exchanger code relies on a single exchange() method for the
transfer of one-off data between threads. The Exchanger constructor takes no arguments here, other than
identifying the type of object to exchange:
Exchanger<List<Integer>> exchanger = new Exchanger<List<Integer>>();
To exchange objects, you call the exchange() method. The method transfers objects in both directions, not
just one:
V exchange(V x)
When one of the threads is consuming a resource and the other one is producing, an exchanger is used. When
the buffer used by the producer is full, the producer waits for the consumer. When the buffer consumed by the
consumer is empty, it waits for the producer. After both waits occur, the two threads swap buffers.
Heres an example that uses the Exchanger. The FillLoop class is the producer type. The EmptyLoop class is
the consumer. When the producers data structure is full, it tries to exchange with the consumer. When the
consumers data structure is empty, it tries to exchange data structures with the producer. When both the
producer and consumer are waiting, the exchange happens.
import java.util.*;
import java.util.concurrent.*;
public class ExchangerDemo {
private static final int FULL = 10;
private static final int COUNT = FULL * 20;
private static final Random rnd = new Random();
private static volatile int sum = 0;
private static Exchanger<List<Integer>> exchanger =
new Exchanger<List<Integer>>();
private static List<Integer> EmptyBuffer;
private static List<Integer> FullBuffer;
private static CountDownLatch Latch_stop = new CountDownLatch(2);
private static class FillLoop implements Runnable {
public void run() { List<Integer> currentBuf = EmptyBuffer;
try {
for (int i = 0; i < COUNT; i++) {
if (currentBuf == null)
break;
Integer item = rnd.nextInt(100);

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System.out.println("Added: " + item);

currentBuf.add(item);
if (currentBuf.size() == FULL)
currentBuf = exchanger.exchange(currentBuf);
}
}
catch (InterruptedException ex) {
System.out.println("Bad exchange on filling side");}
Latch_stop.countDown(); }
}
private static class EmptyLoop implements Runnable {
public void run() {
List<Integer> currentBuf = FullBuffer; try {
for (int i = 0; i < COUNT; i++) {
if (currentBuf == null) break;
Integer item = currentBuf.remove(0);
System.out.println("Got: " + item);
sum += item.intValue();
if (currentBuf.isEmpty()) {
currentBuf =
exchanger.exchange(currentBuf); }
}
}
catch (InterruptedException ex) {
System.out.println("Bad exchange on emptying side");
}
Latch_stop.countDown(); }
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
EmptyBuffer = new ArrayList<Integer>();
FullBuffer = new ArrayList<Integer>(FULL);
for (int i=0; i<FULL; i++) { FullBuffer.add(rnd.nextInt(100)); }
new Thread(new FillLoop()).start();
new Thread(new EmptyLoop()).start();
try { Latch_stop.await(); }
catch (InterruptedException ex) { ex.printStackTrace(); }
System.out.println("Sum of all items is.... " + sum); }
}
The filling and emptying loops run a fixed number of times before stopping. They use a CountDownLatch to
tell the main thread when they are done. The output includes sections of Added and Got values that should
match, though the actual numbers might differ in your runs. The result is shown in Figure 19.14:

Figure 19.14: Using the Exchanger Class

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Communicating between Threads

No! says the NP I have got a threading problem. Part of my program is writing data and part of it is reading
databut sometimes, the reading part gets ahead of the writing part! Thats a classic producer/consumer
problem, you say, and you can fix it with the wait() and notify() methods. The NP smiles and says, You
can?
Often, threads will need to coordinate between themselves, especially when the output of one thread is used by
another thread. One way of coordinating threads is to use the wait(), notify(), and notifyAll() methods:
wait()It makes a thread sleep until notify() or notifyAll() method is called.
notify()It starts the first thread that called wait() on the same object.
notifyAll()It starts all the threads that called wait() on the same object.
The usual process is for the reader thread to call wait()method and the writer thread to call notify()
method when the data the reader wants to read is ready. Heres an example. In this case, a writer thread will call
an objects doWork() method, which is a time-consuming method, to write some data, and a reader thread will
call the same objects getResult() method to read the results. Clearly, we want the reader thread to have to
wait until doWork()method is done. Therefore, all we have to do is call wait() in getResult()method to
make the reader thread wait and call notify()method in doWork() when the writer thread is done, and the
data is ready to be read. Heres what the code looks like:
class Shared {
int data = 0;
synchronized void doWork() {
try { Thread.sleep(1000); }
catch(InterruptedException e) { }
data = 1;
notify(); }
synchronized int getResult() {
try { wait(); }
catch(InterruptedException e) { }
return data; }
}
class CustomThread1 extends Thread {
Shared shared;
public CustomThread1 (Shared shared, String string) {
super(string);
this.shared = shared;
start(); }
public void run() {
System.out.println("The result is " + shared.getResult()); }
}
class CustomThread2 extends Thread {
Shared shared;
public CustomThread2 (Shared shared, String string) {
super(string);
this.shared = shared;
start(); }
public void run() { shared.doWork(); }
}
class Waiting {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Shared shared = new Shared();
CustomThread1 thread1 = new CustomThread1(shared, "one");
CustomThread2 thread2 = new CustomThread2(shared, "two"); }
}
Heres the output of this code. Note that the reader thread did wait until the writer thread was through:
C:\>java Waiting
The result is 1

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Suspending and Resuming Threads

In the early days of Java, threads supported both a suspend() method and a resume() method, which you
could use to temporarily halt and start a thread again. Unfortunately, like the stop() method, both suspend()
and resume()methods have been deprecated. In this case, these methods are deprecated because they are
deadlock-prone and can block access to other threads. However, you can create your own suspend() and
resume methods, and well show how to do that here.
Note that when sub-classing the Thread class, you cant call your new suspend and resume methods
suspend() and resume(), because Java will complain that you are trying to override deprecated methods.
Therefore, in this example, well call these methods newSuspend() and newResume() (this isnt a problem
when working with an object that implements the Runnable interface instead). As is the case when you
implement a new stop()method (see the solution Setting Thread Priority and Stopping Threads earlier in
this chapter), these methods work by setting a flag thats checked in the run() method. When you set that flag
to true in the newSuspend()method, you use the wait()method in the run method to suspend the thread,
and you wake the thread up again with the notify() method in the newResume() method. Heres how this
looks in code:
class CustomThread extends Thread {
volatile boolean goFlag = true;
CustomThread(String name) {
super(name);
start(); }
public void run() {
try {
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index <=3; loop_index++) {
System.out.println(Thread.currentThread().getName()
+ "here...");
Thread.sleep(500);
synchronized(this) {
while(!goFlag) { wait(); }
}
}
}
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
}
public void newSuspend() { goFlag = false; }
synchronized public void newResume() {
goFlag = true;
notify(); } }
class SuspendDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
CustomThread thread1 = new CustomThread("one");
CustomThread thread2 = new CustomThread("two");
try {
Thread.sleep(1000);
System.out.println("Suspending thread one...");
thread1.newSuspend();
Thread.sleep(1000);
System.out.println("Resuming thread one...");
thread1.newResume(); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
try {
thread1.join();
thread2.join(); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
}
}

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The output of this code is shown in Figure 19.15:

Figure 19.15: Suspending Threads

Note that threads one and two run until the code suspends thread one; then, when the code starts thread one
again, they alternate again.
Even though the methods suspend() and resume() seem to be having a better approach, they should not be
used. The function suspend() was deprecated by Java 2 because it could cause serious system failures. The
resume() method was deprecated by Java 2 too. This was because it cannot be used without the suspend()
method. The best way would be that we design a run() method that would periodically check whether the
thread should suspend or resume. This can be accomplished using a counter variable. As long as this counter
is set to running, the run() method must continue to execute. If this variable is set to suspend, the thread must
pause. If it is set to stop, the thread must terminate:
class NewThread implements Runnable
{
String SR;
Thread h;
boolean counter;
NewThread(String threadname) {
SR = threadname;
h = new Thread(this, SR);
System.out.println("Begin thread: " + h);
counter = false;
h.start(); }
public void run() {
try {
for(int i = 30; i > 15; i--) {
System.out.println(SR + ": " + i);
Thread.sleep(200);
synchronized(this) {
while(counter) { wait(); }
}
}
}
catch (InterruptedException e)
{
System.out.println(SR + " Suspended..."); }
System.out.println(SR + " Ending..."); }
void mysuspend() { counter = true; }
synchronized void myresume()
{
counter = false;
notify();

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}
}
class SuspendResume {
public static void main(String args[]) {
NewThread ob1 = new NewThread("One");
NewThread ob2 = new NewThread("Two");
try {
Thread.sleep(1000);
ob1.mysuspend();
System.out.println("Suspending One...");
Thread.sleep(1000);
ob1.myresume();
System.out.println("Resuming One...");
ob2.mysuspend();
System.out.println("Suspending Two...");
Thread.sleep(1000);
ob2.myresume();
System.out.println("Resuming Two..."); }
catch (InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println("Main thread Suspended..."); }
try {
System.out.println("Waiting for threads to finish.");
ob1.h.join();
ob2.h.join(); }
catch (InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println("Main thread Suspended"); }
System.out.println("Main thread exiting..."); }
}
The result is shown in Figure 19.16:

Figure 19.16: Resuming Threads

Creating Graphics Animation with Threads

Hey, says the NP, I just thought of somethingusing threads is ideal when you want to support graphics
animation, isnt it? Sure is, you say. Great, says the NP, you write the code, and Ill watch.
Heres an example showing how graphics animation by using threads can work. In this applet, we load four
images into an image array and then we cycle through them in the paint() method, making Java call that
method repeatedly by calling repaint() in a new thread.
Theres one interesting point herealthough the Thread classs stop() method has been deprecated, Web
browsers and the Oracle appletviewer still call this method when the page containing the applet is no longer the
current page. To stop the applets animation thread so that it doesnt keep taking up system resources until the

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browser decides to unload it, you can place code in the stop() method yourself but that means you cant
base your code on the Thread class, because stop() has been deprecated there. Therefore, well write an
example by using the Runnable interface, which doesnt have a deprecated stop() method. Heres the code:
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
/*<APPLET
CODE = Whirll.class
WIDTH = 300
HEIGHT = 300>
</APPLET>*/
public class Whirll extends Applet implements Runnable {
Image whirlImages[] = new Image[4];
Image nowImage;
int whirlIndex = 0;
Thread whirlThread;
boolean animateFlag = true;
public void init() {
whirlImages[0] = getImage(getCodeBase(), "whirl1.gif");
whirlImages[1] = getImage(getCodeBase(), "whirl2.gif");
whirlImages[2] = getImage(getCodeBase(), "whirl3.gif");
whirlImages[3] = getImage(getCodeBase(), "whirl4.gif"); }
public void start() {
whirlThread = new Thread(this);
whirlThread.start(); }
public void stop() { animateFlag = false; }
public void run() {
while(animateFlag) {
nowImage = whirlImages[whirlIndex++];
if(whirlIndex > 3)whirlIndex = 0;
repaint();
try {Thread.sleep(200);}
catch(InterruptedException e) { }
}
}
public void paint (Graphics g) {
if(nowImage != null)
g.drawImage(nowImage, 10, 10, this); }
}
You can see the result of this code in Figure 19.17:

Figure 19.17: Displaying Graphics Animation

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This applet makes the image you see in that figure. It appears to whirl around.
Well create another example that would create a ball that travels across a componentstarting from the left side
of the component and moving toward the right:
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.geom.*;
/*<APPLET
CODE = MoveBall.class
WIDTH = 300
HEIGHT = 300>
</APPLET>*/
public class MoveBall extends JApplet {

private final int WIDTH = 350;

private final int HEIGHT = 300;
private PaintSurface canvas;
public void init() {
this.setSize(WIDTH, HEIGHT);
canvas = new PaintSurface();
this.add(canvas, BorderLayout.CENTER);
Thread t = new AnimationThread(this);
t.start(); }
}
class AnimationThread extends Thread {
JApplet c;
public AnimationThread(JApplet c) { this.c = c; }
public void run() {
while (true) {
c.repaint();
try {Thread.sleep(30);}
catch (InterruptedException ex) { }
}
}
}
class PaintSurface extends JComponent {
int x_pos = 20;
int y_pos = 50;
int d = 20;
public void paint(Graphics g) {
Graphics2D g2 = (Graphics2D)g;
g2.setRenderingHint(RenderingHints.KEY_ANTIALIASING,
RenderingHints.VALUE_ANTIALIAS_ON);
x_pos += 4;
Shape ball = new Ellipse2D.Float(
x_pos, y_pos, d, d);
g2.setColor(Color.YELLOW);
g2.fill(ball); }
}

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You can see the result of this code in Figure 19.18, where the applet moves the ball acrossfrom left to right:

Figure 19.18: Ball Moving across the Applet

However, theres one problem in both these programs. Here, we have implemented these examples as the
JApplet class, and each time the image is redrawn, the background behind the image is also redrawn, so the
animation flickers a lot. Moreover, everything is drawn straight to the screen. To fix this problem, see the next
solution.

Eliminating Flicker in Graphics Animation Created Using Threads

Hmm, says the NP. I can create graphics animation by using threads now, but it sure flickers a lot. No
problem, you say. Just override the update() method. The NP asks, Hows that?
In AWT programming, when you redraw an image, its background is redrawn first, which can make for a lot of
flickering in graphics animation. The way to fix this is to override the update() method, which does the
redrawing. When you override update(), the images background is not redrawn. In fact, you can do more
you can make the paint() method only redraw the area covered by the image you want to redraw by using the
Graphics classs clipRect() method, like this:
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
/*<APPLET
CODE = Whirl2.class
WIDTH = 300
HEIGHT = 300 >
</APPLET>*/
public class Whirl2 extends Applet implements Runnable {
Image whirlImages[] = new Image[4];
Image nowImage;
int whirlIndex = 0;
Thread whirlThread;
boolean animateFlag = true;
public void init() {
whirlImages[0] = getImage(getCodeBase(), "whirl1.gif");
whirlImages[1] = getImage(getCodeBase(), "whirl2.gif");
whirlImages[2] = getImage(getCodeBase(), "whirl3.gif");
whirlImages[3] = getImage(getCodeBase(), "whirl4.gif");
}
public void start()

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{
whirlThread = new Thread(this);
whirlThread.start();
}
public void stop() { animateFlag = false; }
public void run()
{
while(animateFlag)
{
nowImage = whirlImages[whirlIndex++];
if(whirlIndex > 3)whirlIndex = 0;
repaint();
try { Thread.sleep(200); }
catch(InterruptedException e) { }
}
}
public void paint (Graphics g)
{
if(nowImage != null) g.drawImage(nowImage, 10, 10, this);
}
public void update(Graphics g) {
g.clipRect(100, 100, 280, 280);
paint(g); }
}
Now, the image shown in Figure 19.19 will rotate practically flicker-free:

Figure 19.19: Rotation of the Image

Suspending and Resuming Graphics Animation

What if I want to suspend and resume graphics animation? Can I do that? the NP asks. Sure, you say, no
problem. Just use the standard suspend and resume techniques. Great, says the NP, show me how.
Heres an example that adds a button to suspend and resume the animation developed over the previous two
solutions. This puts to work the thread suspend and resume techniques (that is, using a boolean flag and the
wait() and notify() methods) discussed in the solution Suspending and Resuming Threads, earlier in this
chapter:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
/*<APPLET

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CODE = Whirl3.class
WIDTH = 300
HEIGHT = 300 >
</APPLET>*/
public class Whirl3 extends Applet implements ActionListener, Runnable {
Image whirlImages[] = new Image[4];
Image nowImage;
int whirlIndex = 0;
Thread whirlThread;
Button suspendButton, resumeButton;
boolean animateFlag = true;
boolean goFlag = true;
public void init()
{
whirlImages[0] = getImage(getCodeBase(), "whirl1.gif");
whirlImages[1] = getImage(getCodeBase(), "whirl2.gif");
whirlImages[2] = getImage(getCodeBase(), "whirl3.gif");
whirlImages[3] = getImage(getCodeBase(), "whirl4.gif");
suspendButton = new Button("Suspend");
add(suspendButton);
suspendButton.addActionListener(this);
resumeButton = new Button("Resume");
add(resumeButton);
resumeButton.addActionListener(this);
}
public synchronized void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e)
{
if(e.getSource() == suspendButton){goFlag = false;}
if(e.getSource() == resumeButton) {
goFlag = true;
notify();
}
}
public void start()
{
whirlThread = new Thread(this);
whirlThread.start(); }
public void stop() { animateFlag = false; }
public void run() {
while(animateFlag) {
nowImage = whirlImages[whirlIndex++];
if(whirlIndex > 3)whirlIndex = 0;
repaint();
try {
Thread.sleep(200);
synchronized(this) {
while(!goFlag)
wait(); }
}
catch(InterruptedException e) { }
}
}
public void paint (Graphics g)
{
if(nowImage != null) g.drawImage(nowImage, 10, 10, this);
}
public void update(Graphics g)
{
g.clipRect(150,100,200,280);
paint(g);
}
}

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The result of this code is shown in Figure 19.20:

Figure 19.20: Displaying Graphics Animation with the Suspend and Resume Buttons

Using Double Buffering

Double buffering is the process of creating images off-screen and flashing them on screen as required, which
means you dont have to create the image while the user watches. You can create a graphics buffer by creating
an Image object and then using that objects getGraphics() method to get a Graphics object for the image
that you can use to draw in. Heres an example showing how double buffering works. This example draws a
succession of boxes off-screen and then displays them, thus creating an animation:
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
/*<APPLET
CODE=DBuffer.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET>*/
public class DBuffer extends Applet implements Runnable
{
Image image1;
Thread thread1;
Graphics graphics;
int loop_index = 0;
boolean goFlag = true;
public void init()
{
image1 = createImage(100, 100);
graphics = image1.getGraphics();
}
public void start() {
thread1 = new Thread(this);
thread1.start();
}
public void stop() { goFlag = false; }
public void run()
{
while(goFlag)
{
repaint();
try { Thread.sleep(100); }

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catch(InterruptedException e) { }
}
}
public void paint (Graphics g) {
loop_index += 5;
if(loop_index >= 100) loop_index = 5;
graphics.setColor(new Color(255, 255, 255));
graphics.fillRect(0, 0, 50, 50);
graphics.setColor(new Color(0, 255, 255));
graphics.drawRect(0, 0, loop_index, loop_index);
g.drawImage(image1, 10, 10, this); }
}
The result of the code is shown in Figure 19.21:

Figure 19.21: An Applet Showing a Succession of Boxes

Let us take a look at another code that will use a technique called double buffering, which will produce smooth,
flicker-free animation. This technique first draws an off-screen image, and when everything is done, the off-
screen image is drawn on the screen, thus reducing nasty flickering:
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE = DoubleBuffering.class
WIDTH = 300
HEIGHT = 300>
</APPLET>*/
public class DoubleBuffering extends Applet implements MouseMotionListener {
Graphics bufferGraphics;
Image offscreen;
Dimension dim;
int curX, curY;
public void init() {
dim = getSize();
addMouseMotionListener(this);
setBackground(Color.white);
offscreen = createImage(dim.width,dim.height);
bufferGraphics = offscreen.getGraphics(); }
public void paint(Graphics g) {
bufferGraphics.clearRect(0,0,dim.width,dim.width);
bufferGraphics.setColor(Color.gray);
bufferGraphics.drawString("Double-buffered for you",2,10);
bufferGraphics.fillRect(curX,curY,20,20);
g.drawImage(offscreen,0,0,this); }
public void update(Graphics g) { paint(g); }

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public void mouseMoved(MouseEvent evt) {

curX = evt.getX();
curY = evt.getY();
repaint(); }
public void mouseDragged(MouseEvent evt) { }
}
Update is called automatically when repaint() is called. The update() method is always required for good
double buffering. By this, the applet immediately starts to repaint rather than wiping the previous drawings off
first. Flickering is caused by the wiping-off action. The result of the code is shown in Figure 19.22:

Figure 19.22: Applet Showing Flicker-Free Drawing

Simplifying Producer-Consumer with the Queue Interface

Until Java 5, we were rolling our own Queues. Now the util package comes with a new interface,
java.util.Queue, with various implementations (including a retrofitted LinkedList). There are various
queues, including Priority Queues, Blocking Queues, Delay Queues, and Synchronous Queues. We are here
dealing with simplification of producer-consumer with the java.util.Queue interface.
One of the fundamental data structures in Computer Science is the queue. Youll recall that a queue is a data
structure in which elements are removed in the same order in which they were added. Unfortunately, First in
First Out (FIFO) data structure was ignored in the earlier versions of Java. After Java 1.5, queue support has
become innate for the first time.
Queues are typically restricted to a given size.
For enqueuing and dequequing via the offer or add methods and the remove or poll methods respectively, if the
queue fails to provide enqueuing or dequeuing operation, you need not wait for the execution of the program.
The java.util.concurrent.BlockingQueue interface adds the put() and take() methods to the
collection. BlockingQueue executions are designed to be used for producer-consumer queues. The
relationship of producer/consumer can be understood as the producer writes to a queue (more specifically a
BlockingQueue), just to suppose. There are a number of consumers reading from that queue, and you want all
that to happen in a sequential manner. It implies that each consumer needs to wait for the previous consumer
before it is allowed to grab an item from the queue. To create such a setup using code, you must spawn one
producer thread that would simply write to a queue and also spawn several consumer threads that read from
the same thread. It is to be taken into consideration that the threads will block one another until the current
thread will grab the item from the queue.
The code here shows the class Producer writing to a BlockingQueue. Notice that objects in the run() method
(which you are obligated to implement, since you extended Thread) are put onto the BlockingQueue after

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waiting for a random amount of time (ranging from 100 500 milliseconds). The object put onto the queue is
simply a String object consisting of the timestamp when the message was produced.
The actual work of enqueuing the object is done by the statement:
blockingQueue.put("Enqueued at: " + time)
The put() method throws an InterruptedException. Accordingly, the put() operation catches the
operation thrown, which is surrounded by a try and a catch block. The messages that are thrown from the
producer belong to the Consumer object, which extends from the Thread object and, therefore, must implement
the run() method.
The Consumer class is very similar in design to the Producer class. The Consumer class makes use of the
take() method to dequeue messages from the queue rather than putting messages on the BlockingQueue.
As already stated, this occurs because the thread waits until something is actually on the queue. If, onto the
queue, queuing of objects is stopped by the Producer thread, the Consumer thread will have to wait till there is
an item available in the queue. The following code illustrates the TestBlockingQueue class that spawns four
consumer threads, which try and grab objects from the BlockingQueue:
import java.util.concurrent.BlockingQueue;
import java.util.concurrent.LinkedBlockingQueue;
import java.util.Date;
import java.util.Random;
import java.io.PrintStream;
class Producer extends Thread
{
private BlockingQueue<String> blockQ;
private PrintStream prnStr;
public Producer(BlockingQueue<String> blockQ, PrintStream prnStr)
{
this.prnStr = prnStr;
this.blockQ = blockQ;
}
public void run()
{
try {
while(true)
{
String time = String.format("%tc",new Date());
prnStr.println("Putting item on BlockingQueue
at time: " + time);
blockQ.put("Enqueued at: " + time);
Random generate = new Random();
int randomSlp = generate.nextInt(5) + 1;
Thread.sleep(randomSlp * 100);
}
}
catch (InterruptedException e) { e.printStackTrace(); }
}
}
class Consumer extends Thread
{
private BlockingQueue blockQ;
private String consumName;
private PrintStream prnStr;
public Consumer(String consumName, BlockingQueue blockQ,
PrintStream prnStr)
{
consumName = this.consumName;
blockQ = this.blockQ; prnStr = this.prnStr; }
public void run()
{
while (true) {
try {
prnStr.println(this.consumName + blockQ.take());
}

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catch (InterruptedException ie) { ie.printStackTrace(); }

}
}
}
public class TestBlockingQueue
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
BlockingQueue<String> blkQue = new LinkedBlockingQueue<String>();
Producer prod = new Producer(blkQue, System.out);
Consumer consP = new Consumer("ConsumerP", blkQue, System.out);
Consumer consQ = new Consumer("ConsumerQ", blkQue, System.out);
Consumer consR = new Consumer("ConsumerR", blkQue, System.out);
Consumer consS = new Consumer("ConsumerS", blkQue, System.out);
prod.start();
consP.start();
consQ.start();
consR.start();
consS.start();
}
}
The following line creates the BlockingQueue:
BlockingQueue<String> blkQue = new LinkedBlockingQueue<String>();
And it shows how it deploys the LinkedBlockingQueue implementation of the BlockingQueue. As the
BlockingQueue is an abstract class, it is not possible to directly instantiate it. Another option could be to use
the queue type, ArrayBlockingQueue. The advantage of using it is that it uses an array to store data, whereas
the LinkedBlockingQueue class uses a linked list. An ArrayBlockingQueue has fixed size. However, in
case of a LinkedBlockingQueue, you can specify the maximum size, which is by default unbounded.
During the execution of the class, the dequeuing of objects from the queue happens in a sequential order, as
shown in Figure 19.23:

Figure 19.23: Consumer Threads

Further, other consumer threads are blocked by one consumer thread from accessing the BlockingQueue till
the time it is able to dequeue an object from the queue. Messages are dequeued from the BlockingQueue by
these threads in the same order as you spawned them.

Implementing Concurrent Programming

There is a built-in language support for threads in Java, and they are used to handle programs in an easy
manner. Some of the built-in primitives, such as synchronized blocks, Object.wait(), and
Object.notify(), are not enough to perform many programming tasks.

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With J2SE 5, a new path to multithreading was provided in the Java programming language. The real processes
for coordinating threads with wait() and notify() are now elaborated with new and sophisticated
mechanisms for working with threads. Here, we will focus on concurrency mechanisms that are included in Java
SE 7.0. The new packages are now a part of the java.util.concurrent package.

Limitations of Synchronization Previous to J2SE 5

While creating multithreaded applications, one of the most difficult problems faced was related to data
synchronization. Such errors make design harder and are usually difficult to detect. Built-in synchronization has
the following limitations:
No option to withdraw an operation of trying to acquire a lock that is already held or to give up after
waiting for a specific period of time or to cancel an attempt to lock after an interrupt
No option provided to alter the semantics of a lock, such as, with regard to re-entrancy, read as opposed to
write protection, or fairness
No access control for synchronization. Any method can perform synchronized (res) for any accessible
resource
Synchronization is possible only inside methods and blocks. It implies that a lock cannot be acquired in one
method and released in another
These problems can be overcome with the help of the utility classes that control locking, mutex for instance,
which is another term used for a lock. However, a mutex never nests the way synchronization methods or blocks
do, as shown here:
public class Mutex
{
public void acq() throws InterruptedException { }
public void rel() { }
public boolean attmpt(long msec) throws InterruptedException { }
}
and it can be used as:
try { mutex.acq();
try {

}
finally { mutex.rel();
} catch(InterruptedException ie) { }
Developers can use the standardized classes that provide building blocks for creating various applications.

Simplifying Servers Using the Concurrency Utilities

Similar to Java SE 7, Java SE 8 too comes with support for multiprogramming in the Java programming
language. Originally, threads were coordinated with the help of methods, such as wait() and notify().
However, they are now enhanced by using advanced mechanisms to work with threads. The
java.util.concurrent package offers advanced mechanisms that provide several concurrency utilities.
These utilities enable the process of developing multithreaded applications and servers easier.
In addition, such standards will improve the quality of such applications. The Java Community Process has
defined the package as JSR 166: Concurrent Utilities. The primary goal of the JSR 166 specification is to
standardize a framework that brings together commonly used utilities for concurrent programming into a small
package, which developers can learn easily.
Its other goals are to facilitate high-quality implementations containing classes and interfaces for atomic
variables, locks, barriers, semaphores and condition variables, queues and associated collections created for
multithreaded use, and thread pools and a custom execution framework.

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Knowing Various Concurrency Utilities

As you have just read, the java.util.concurrent package contains classes and interfaces that are used to
simplify the process of developing concurrent classes and applications. This package facilitates high-quality
implementations of common building blocks that can be used to create concurrent applications. The package
contains classes, enhanced to facilitate concurrent access, including:
Task scheduling frameworkThe Executor framework aims at standardizing tasks such as invocation,
scheduling, execution, and control of asynchronous tasks as per execution policies. The processes are
permitted to run in a newly created thread or in a pool of threads or in a single background thread. Further,
the built-in implementations enable policies that can be configured such as queue length limits and
saturation policy. These policies will help in improving the accuracy of applications by avoiding runaway
source consumption.
Concurrent collectionsSeveral collection classes have been introduced, which include Queue and
BlockingQueue interfaces, and high-quality concurrent implementations of Map, List, and Queue as well.
Atomic variablesThe java.util.concurrent.atomic package facilitates developers to automatically
calculate values that can be of primitive types or references. The implementation of this package offers high
quality performance that can be available through synchronization. This package helps in using high-
performance concurrent algorithms, counters, and sequence number generators.
SynchronizersSynchronization classes that facilitate coordination between threads have been added
including semaphores, mutexes, barriers, latches, and exchangers.
LocksYou can use the synchronized keyword for locking purposes. However, as already stated, there are
restrictions with this built-in monitor. The java.util.concurrent.locks facilitates a high-quality lock
implementation and also enables developers to provide a timeout when trying to acquire a lock, multiple
condition variables per lock, non-nested scoped locks.
Nanosecond-granularity timingThe introduction of the new java.lang.System.nanotime()
method facilitates high-precision timing facilities. This method provides access to nanosecond-granularity
time source to make relative time measurements and methods, and accept timeouts such as
BlockingQueue.offer(), BlockingQueue.poll(), Lock.tryLock(), Condition.await(), and
Thread.sleep(). It should be noted that the precision of nanotime() is platform-dependent.
The following are the benefits of using the new java.util.concurrent package:
Reduced programming effortDevelopers need not have to write new code as they can easily use a
standard class.
Increased performanceThe implementations are much faster and more scalable as compared to typical
implementations because of the fact that they have been developed and tested by concurrency and
performance experts.
Increased reliabilityWhile using low-level concurrency primitives, such as synchronized wait() and
notify(), it becomes challenging to correctly use these primitives. Further, errors are also difficult to detect
or debug. On the contrary, the concurrency utilities are standardized and comprehensively tested for
deadlock, starvation, or race conditions.
Improved maintainabilityAs applications are based on standardized packages, they become easier to
maintain.
Increased productivityDevelopers can easily understand the standard library classes and, hence, need
not have to learn new APIs.

Learning about the java.util.concurrent Package

The java.util.concurrent package has already been discussed in the preceding topic. In this section, we
discuss the interfaces classes in the package. The interfaces and their description are mentioned in Table 19.6 and
the classes in Table 19.7:

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Table 19.6: Interfaces of the concurrent package

Interface Does this
BlockingDeque<E> It is deque that additionally supports blocking operations that wait
for the deque to become non-empty when retrieving an element and
wait for space to become available in the deque when storing an
element
BlockingQueue<E> It is queue that additionally supports operations that wait for the
queue to become non-empty when retrieving an element, and wait
for space to become available in the queue when storing an element
Callable<V> It is a task that returns a result and may throw an exception
CompletionService<V> It is the service that decouples the production of new asynchronous
tasks from the consumption of the results of completed tasks
ConcurrentMap<K,V> It creates a Map providing additional atomic putIfAbsent(),
remove(), and replace() methods
ConcurrentNavigableMap<K,V> A ConcurrentMap supporting NavigableMap operations
Delayed The mix-in style interface for marking objects that should be acted
upon after a given delay
Executor An object that executes submitted Runnable tasks
ExecutorService It is the executor that provides methods to manage termination and
methods that can produce a Future for tracking progress of one or
more asynchronous tasks
Future<V> The Future represents the result of an asynchronous computation
RejectedExecutionHandler The handler for tasks that cannot be executed by a
ThreadPoolExecutor
RunnableFuture<V> A Future that is Runnable
RunnableScheduledFuture<V> A ScheduledFuture that is Runnable
ScheduledExecutorService An ExecutorService that can schedule commands to run after a
given delay, or to execute periodically
ScheduledFuture<V> A delayed result-bearing action that can be cancelled
ThreadFactory An object that creates new threads on demand

Table 19.7: Classes of the concurrent package

Class Does this
AbstractExecutorService It provides default implementation of ExecutorService execution
methods
ArrayBlockingQueue<E> A bounded blocking queue backed by an array
ConcurrentHashMap<K,V> A hash table supporting full concurrency of retrievals and adjustable
expected concurrency for updates
ConcurrentLinkedQueue<E> An unbounded thread-safe queue based on linked nodes
ConcurrentSkipListMap<K,V> A ConcurrentNavigableMap implementation which is scalable
ConcurrentSkipListSet<E> A concurrent NavigableSet implementation based on
ConcurrentSkipListMap which is scalable
CopyOnWriteArrayList<E> A thread-safe variant of ArrayList in which all mutative
operations (add, set, and so on) are implemented by making a fresh
copy of the underlying array.
CopyOnWriteArraySet<E> A set that uses CopyOnWriteArrayList for all of its operations
CountDownLatch A synchronization aid that allows one or more threads to wait until a
set of operations being performed in other threads completes

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Table 19.7: Classes of the concurrent package

Class Does this
CyclicBarrier A synchronization aid that allows a set of threads to all wait for each
other to reach a common barrier point
DelayQueue<E extends Delayed> An unbounded blocking queue of Delayed elements, in which an
element can only be taken when its delay has expired
Exchanger<V> A synchronization point at which two threads can exchange objects
ExecutorCompletionService<V> A CompletionService that uses a supplied Executor to execute
tasks
Executors Factory and utility methods for Executor, ExecutorService,
ScheduledExecutorService, ThreadFactory, and Callable
classes defined in this package
FutureTask<V> A cancellable asynchronous computation
LinkedBlockingDeque<E> A blocking deque based on linked nodes which is optionally
bounded
LinkedBlockingQueue<E> An optionally-bounded blocking queue based on linked nodes
PriorityBlockingQueue<E> An unbounded blocking queue that uses the same ordering rules as
class PriorityQueue and supplies blocking retrieval operations
ScheduledThreadPoolExecutor A ThreadPoolExecutor that can additionally schedule commands
to run after a given delay, or to execute periodically
Semaphore A counting semaphore
SynchronousQueue<E> A blocking queue in which each put must wait for a take, and vice
versa
ThreadPoolExecutor An ExecutorService that executes each submitted task using one
of possibly several pooled threads, normally configured using
Executors factory methods
ThreadPoolExecutor.AbortPolicy A handler for rejected tasks that throws a
RejectedExecutionException
ThreadPoolExecutor.CallerRunsPolicy A handler for rejected tasks that runs the rejected task directly in the
calling thread of the execute method, unless the executor has been
shut down, in which case the task is discarded
ThreadPoolExecutor.DiscardOldestPoli A handler for rejected tasks that discards the oldest unhandled
cy request and then retries execute, unless the executor is shut down, in
which case the task is discarded
ThreadPoolExecutor.DiscardPolicy A handler for rejected tasks that silently discards the rejected task

Learning about the java.util.concurrent.locks Package

The java.util.concurrent.locks provides classes for locking and waiting for conditions that are distinct
from built-in synchronization and monitors. Even if this framework has awkward syntax, it brings greater
flexibility when using locks and conditions. The interfaces and classes of this package are mentioned in the
tables that follow. This package provides reader/writer locks.

Reader/Writer Locks
When using a thread to read data from an object, you do not need to prevent another thread from reading data
at the same time. As long as threads are just reading the data and not making any modifications to it, there is
absolutely no reason to lock threads. The java.util.concurrent.locks package provides classes that
implement this type of locking.
The ReadWriteLock interface provides locks for read-only and for writing. Multiple reader threads can use
readLock()simultaneously till the time there are no writers. The writeLock() is exclusive. Using

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reader/writer locks increases concurrency and results in better performance, rather than using a mutual
exclusion lock. However, such an improvement in the performance can be benefitted only on a multi-processor.
The interfaces and their description are mentioned in Table 19.8 and the classes in Table 19.9:
Table 19.8: Interfaces of the java.util.concurrent.locks package
Interface Does this
Condition Condition factors out the Object monitor methods (wait, notify and
notifyAll) into distinct objects to give the effect of having multiple
wait-sets per object, by combining them with the use of arbitrary Lock
implementations.
Lock Lock implementations provide more extensive locking operations than
can be obtained using synchronized methods and statements.
ReadWriteLock A ReadWriteLock maintains a pair of associated locks, one for read-only
operations and one for writing.

Table 19.9: Classes of java.util.concurrent.locks package

Class Does this
AbstractOwnableSynchronizer A synchronizer which may be exclusively owned by a thread
AbstractQueuedLongSynchronizer An AbstractQueuedSynchronizer maintaining synchronization state
as long.
AbstractQueuedSynchronizer It provides a framework for implementing blocking locks and related
synchronizers (semaphores, events, etc.) that rely on FIFO wait queues.
LockSupport It is a basic thread blocking primitives for creating locks and other
synchronization classes.
ReentrantLock A re-entrant mutual exclusion Lock with the same basic behavior and
semantics as the implicit monitor lock accessed using synchronized
methods and statements, but with extended capabilities
ReentrantReadWriteLock An implementation of ReadWriteLock supporting similar semantics to
ReentrantLock
ReentrantReadWriteLock.ReadLock The lock returned by method ReentrantReadWriteLock.readLock()
ReentrantReadWriteLock.WriteLock The lock returned by method ReentrantReadWriteLock.writeLock()

Learning about the java.util.concurrent.atomic Package

The java.util.concurrent.atomic package provides classes that support lock-free thread-safe
programing on single variables. The classes here extend the notion of volatile values, fields, and array elements.
The classes of this package are listed in Table 19.10:
Table 19.10: Classes of the java.util.concurrent.atomic package
Class Does this
AtomicBoolean The boolean value that may be updated atomically
AtomicInteger An int value that may be updated atomically
AtomicIntegerArray An int array in which elements may be updated atomically
AtomicIntegerFieldUpdater<T> The reflection-based utility that enables atomic updates to designated
volatile int fields of designated classes
AtomicLong A long value that may be updated atomically
AtomicLongArray A long array in which elements may be updated atomically

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Table 19.10: Classes of the java.util.concurrent.atomic package

Class Does this
AtomicLongFieldUpdater<T> A reflection-based utility that enables atomic updates to designated
volatile long fields of designated classes
AtomicMarkableReference<V> An AtomicMarkableReference maintains an object reference along
with a mark bit, that can be updated atomically
AtomicReference<V> An object reference that may be updated atomically
AtomicReferenceArray<E> An array of object references in which elements may be updated
atomically
AtomicReferenceFieldUpdater<T,V> A reflection-based utility that enables atomic updates to designated
volatile reference fields of designated classes
AtomicStampedReference<V> An AtomicStampedReference maintains an object reference along with
an integer stamp, that can be updated atomically

Multiple operations are treated as atomic if using the classes that belong to this package. For instance, you
cannot use a volatile integer with the ++ operator as this operator has several instructions.
The AtomicInteger class contains a method using which the integer it holds can be incremented atomically
without synchronization. For complicated tasks, atomic classes can be used. These tasks include writing code
that needs no synchronization. The following code is a sample sequence number generator that uses the
AtomicLong class:
import java.util.concurrent.atomic.*;
public class SampleSequenceGenerator
{
private AtomicLong number = new AtomicLong(0);
public long next()
{
return number.getAndIncrement();
}
}
Objects belonging to the classes AtomicBoolean, AtomicInteger, AtomicLong, and AtomicReference
facilitate access and updates to a single variable of the corresponding type. Furthermore, all these classes have
their own utility methods for that type, e.g., atomic increment methods.
These classes also have the getAndSet() method that assigns a new value to the variable and returns the
previous value without using any synchronization locks. Methods such as compareAndSet() and
weakCompareAndSet()are conditional modifier methods that take two arguments. The first argument takes
the original value when the method starts, and the second argument takes a new value to assign the data to.
The java.util.concurrent package facilitates concurrency utilities. There are no new features added to the
classes that belong to this package; however, these classes are more efficient to use and provide more quality
implementations for data synchronization techniques. This package has provided all the functionalities for
concurrent programming what the collection framework has provided for data structures, thereby refraining the
developer from making any new inventions that might possibly lead to incorrect implementations.
The java.util.concurrent package also enables you to create applications that are shorter, cleaner, more
reliable, easy to read and write, and easy to maintain.
If developers are using this package, it does not mean that their task has reduced. They will still have to create
applications that should be able to handle any synchronization issues.
There can be overlap between the classes. For instance, a semaphore having a single permit can be utilized to
hold a lock. Therefore, prior to using a new package in an efficient and protected manner, there are several
details that must be explored and clearly understood. It is always a good practice to review the packages and
their classes before actually using them.

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Summary
In this chapter, you have read about the Threads, including creating a thread and naming a thread. You have
learned how to use the Runnable interface. Further on, there was a comprehensive discussion on Double
Buffering, Synchronization, and the java.util.concurrent Package.
In the next chapter, youll read about performing Networking and Security with Java.

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Networking and
Security with Java
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Understanding Networking Interfaces and Classes in the java.net Package 734
Understanding the InetAddresses 736
Caching InetAddress 736
Creating and Using Sockets 740
Creating TCP Clients and Servers 743
Understanding the Whois Example 746
Submitting an HTML Form from a Java Program 748
Handling URL 749
Using the URLConnection Objects 752
Working with Datagrams 756
Datagrams Server and Client 758
Working with BART 759
Learning about the java.security Package 761
Chapter 20: Networking and Security with Java

In Depth
Networking is a particularly important topic in Java. In this chapter, well take a look at the URL class, which is
how about Java handles URLs, the URLConnection class, which allows you to get information about Web
pages (including their content), and the Socket class, which you use to create sockets for communication across
the Internet and intranets. The Socket class is particularly powerfulusing it, you can write client/server
Internet programs in which the client is on one machine and the server is on another.
In this chapter, youll also come across with Security concepts in Java. These concepts basically tell you about the
various classes and policies required for providing security in Java.
As we all know that Java, is much more appropriate as the networking language than any other language like
C++ or FORTRAN for networking, which makes it be called programming for the Internet by its creators. In
light of the preceding fact, the support provided by the java.net package for networking will be the focus of
this chapter.

Basics of Networking
The systems connected over a network through the Internet connect to each other with the help of Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram Protocol (UDP). In Java, programming is done on the application layer
that uses the concept of classes in the java.net package; these classes provide a system-independent network.
Consider an example of communication that occurs between two ends, such as a telephone conversation. TCP
ensures that the data send from one end to other goes in the same order as it was sent. Otherwise, error occurs.
The examples of applications that need a consistent communication network are Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Telnet. The success of these applications depends on the sequence in
which the data is set and received over the network. To read the data from the Uniform Resource Locator (URL),
the data must be received in the same order it was sent. Otherwise, a corrupt zip file or an HTML file is
retrieved in the end.
The UDP is connectionless unlike TCP. It sends datagrams (independent packets of data) from one application to
another. Here, there is no significance of the order of delivery and cannot be guaranteed because each message is
not related to the other.
Basically, a computer has a single physical connection with a network, and all the other devices are associated
with it through this network. The data transmitted over the network is identified by its address that consists of
IP address and port number.
Ports are specified by 16-bit numbers and ranged from 0 to 65,535. However, the port numbers that are ranging
from 0 to 1023 are reserved to be used by the protocols, such as HTTP and FTP, and other services of system.
These ports are known as well-known ports.
In case of datagram-based communication, such as UDP, the port number of destination is contained by the
datagram, packet and UDP transfers the packet to the destination accordingly. On the other hand, in case of
connection-based communication, such as TCP, a socket with a particular port number encapsulates a server
application. This allows the registration of the server with the system to receive all data efficiently.
Java programs use the TCP or UDP protocols for communicating over the Internet by using the classes in
java.net. The URL, URLConnection, Socket, and ServerSocket classes, all use TCP for communicating over
the network. The DatagramPacket, DatagramSocket, and MulticastSocket classes use UDP for
communicating over the network.
Networking includes two types of programsclient programs and server programs. A server program is a
program that provides services to one or more users who run client programs to access those services. These
client and server computers interact with each other through well-established protocols, which define the nature
of the communications between clients and servers.

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 In Depth

Networking Enhancements in Java SE 8

With the evolution of Java SE 8, some additions have been made in the networking feature of Java. The various
networking enhancements in Java SE 8 are as follows:
Addition of a new class java.net.URLPermission. The is used for providing permission for accessing a
resource (or collection of resources) defined by a given URL, and for a given set of request methods and
request headers which can be set by a user.
Addition of the jdk.net package which contains socket options that are platform specific and a way to set
these options on all of the standard socket types. The definition of socket options is provided in the
jdk.net.ExtendedSocketOptions package. The first socket option is defined with the name
SO_FLOW_SLA for creating socket flows for multi-tenant applications. The way of setting and getting these
extended options is provided by the class jdk.net.Sockets.

In a multi-tenancy architecture, a software applications single instance is used for serving multiple customers.

Changes in the class HttpURLConnection. When a security manager is installed in this class, a method is
called, which will try to open a connection. For this, the caller must provide one of the following conditions:
a "connect" SocketPermission to the combination of host/port of the destination URL
a URLPermission that allows this request
In case automatic redirection is enabled, this request gets redirected to the other destination. But the caller must
have the permission for connecting to the host/URL that is redirected.

JDK 8 Security Enhancements

The various features and enhancements in JDK 8 release are as follows:
Enabled TLS 1.1 and TLS 1.2 protocolsThe TLS 1.1 and TLS 1.2 protocols are enabled by the SunJSSE
provider by default on the client.
Limited doPrivilegedA version of the method AccessController.doPrivileged is added, which allows code
to emphasize on a subset of its permissions or privilege, without restricting full searching of the stack for
checking other permissions.
Addition of stronger algorithms for encryption of passwordAlgorithms such as
PBEWithSHA256AndAES_128 and PBEWithSHA512AndAES_256 are added to the SunJCE provider for
better encryption of password.
SSL/TLS Server Name Indication (SNI) extension support in JSSE serverThe feature of SNI extension
extends the SSL/TLS protocols. It is done to specify with what server name the client is trying to connect
while handshaking. By default, the SNI extension for client applications has been enabled by SunJSSE in
JDK 7. However, JDK 8 supports the SNI extension only for the server applications.
Support AEAD algorithmsThe enhancement is done in SunJCE provider for supporting
AES/GCM/NoPadding cipher implementation along with GCM algorithm parameters. The SunJSSE
provider is also enhanced for supporting AEAD mode-based cipher suites.
Enhancements in KeyStoreFor accepting a password and storing it securely as a secret key, the
importpassword command option is added to the keytool utility. Moreover, a new class with the name
java.security.DomainLoadStoreParameter is added for supporting DKS keystore type. More number of new
classes such as java.security.PKCS12Attribute are added and other security APIs gets updated for
supporting enhancements in KeyStore.
SHA-224 Message digestsThe enhancement of cryptographic algorithms is done in JDK 8 with the SHA-
224 variant of the SHA-2 family of message-digest implementations.
Enhanced support for NSA suite B cryptographyThe enhancement done in NSA suite B cryptography
includes the following:
OID registration for NSA Suite B cryptography algorithms

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Support for generation of 2048-bit DSA key pair and additional signature algorithms for 2048-bit DSA
keys such as SHA224withDSA and SHA256withDSA
Keysize limitation pncrease from 1024 to 2048 for Diffie-Hellman (DH)
Better support for high entropy random number generationThe SecureRandom class allows
cryptographically strong random numbers to be generated for private or public keys, ciphers, signed
messages, etc. The getInstanceStrong() method is provided in JDK 8 for returning an instance of the
strongest SecureRandom implementation. Other changes done in the SecureRandom class are as follows:
For UNIX-like platforms, two new implementations NativePRNGBlocking and
NativePRNGNonBlocking were introduced, which provide blocking and non-blocking, behavior,
respectively
SHA1PRNG and NativePRNG are fixed to follow the SecureRandom seed source properties in the
java.security file
Addition of a new PKIXRevocationChecker classThe PKIXRevocationChecker class uses the PKIX
algorithm for verifying the cancellation status of certificates. Moreover, the PKIXRevocationChecker class
supports end-entity certificate checking, best-effort checking, and mechanism-specific options and
parameters.
64-bit PKCS11 for WindowsIn JDK 8, the PKCS 11 provider support has been enhanced for Windows
from 32 bit to include 64 bit.
New rcache types in Kerberos 5 replay cachingKerberos 5 includes two new rcache types such as none
and dfl. The type none signifies no rcache at all, whereas the type dfl signifies the DFL style file-based
rcache. Moreover, the acceptor-requested subkey is also supported. The rcache and subkey are configured
by using the sun.security.krb5.rcache and sun.security.krb5.acceptor.subkey system properties.
Protocol transition and constrained delegation for Kerberos 5JDK 8 supports Kerberos 5 protocol
transition and constrained delegation.
Weak encryption disabled by defaultBy default, the DES-related Kerberos 5 encryption types are not
supported, but can be enabled by adding the allow_weak_crypto=true in the krb5.conf file.
Unbound SASL for the GSS-API/Kerberos 5 mechanismThe Krb5LoginModule principal value in a
JAAS configuration file is set to asterisk (*) on the acceptor side for denoting an unbound acceptor. This
means the server can be accessed by the initiator using any service principal name if the acceptor includes
the long-term secret keys to that service. Using the GSSContext.getTargName() method, the name can be
accessed by the acceptor after establishing the context.
SASL service for multiple host namesWhile building a SASL server, you can set the server name to null
for denoting an unbound server; therefore, a service can be requested by a client with the help of any server
name. After establishing a context, the server can access the name as a negotiated property by using the key
name SASL.BOUND_SERVER_NAME.
JNI bridge to native JGSS on Mac OS XJNI bridge to native JGSS is now supported on Mac OS X. You
can enable it by setting the system property sun.security.jgss.native to true.
Support stronger ephemeral DH keys in the SunJSSE providerDuring the handshaking of SSL/TLS in
the SunJSSE provider, make ephemeral DH key match with the length of the certificate key. A new system
property, jdk.tls.ephemeralDHKeySize, is defined for customizing the ephemeral DH key sizes. The
minimum acceptable DH key size is 1024 bits, except for exportable cipher suites or legacy mode.
Support cipher suites preference customization in JSSEThe SunJSSE provider allows the preference of
client's cipher suite by default. However, you can change the behavior of the server's cipher suite preference
by invoking SSLParameters.setUseCipherSuitesOrder(true) in the server.

Sockets in Java
An IP Port on a specific host machine is called a Socket. The emergence of sockets was first apparent in early Unix
systems in the 1970s and have now become the standard low-level communication primitive.

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There exists a close resemblance of a network socket with an electrical socket. The plugs have their own standard
way of delivering the payload. It is very easy to plug in the socket and communicate by anything that
understands the standard protocol.
Lets now understand the two types of socketsconnection-oriented sockets, almost always based on TCP, and
connectionless sockets, usually based on User Datagram Protocol (UDP). There are quite a few distinguishing
differences between the two of them as TCP-type sockets guarantee data arrival and in the correct order,
whereas UDP-type ones do not. The major point to note here is that despite the preceding reason, many
sophisticated users sometimes use UDP.

It may appear obvious that server sockets execute on servers and client sockets execute on clients. However, it may not be
true all the time- servers can be socket servers, and socket clients, and clients can judicially run server sockets.

Client-Server Networking
The relationship between two computer programs in which one program, the client, makes a service request
from another program, the server, which fulfills the request is self-explanatory to discriminate the server from
the client. A network architecture comprises clients and servers among which communication occurs. A server is
a powerful computer that manages disk drives (file servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic (network
servers), whereas clients are those computers on which users run their applications. Clients depend on servers for
various resources, such as files, devices, and even processing power.
For the programs running on a network, client server model is a better idea to be implemented compared with a
single computer. The client server model is preferred for distributed systems where the systems are at several
locations.
An example of cash withdrawal from an ATM machine uses the concept of client server model. The customer
requests to the ATM machine for cash from his/her account the ATM machine forwards the request from the
user to the bank and after verification (through its database) from the bank, the bank sends approval to the
ATM. Further, the ATM responds back by providing the cash according to the instructions given in the field of
amount. It automatically generates the receipt if the user asks for it and deducts the amount from the customers
account.

Proxy Servers
In simple words, a proxy server can be viewed as a bridge between the client application, such as a Web
browser, and a real server. It gets and gathers all requests from the real server to view if it can satisfy the
requests itself. If not, it forward the request to the real server. The following two main goals are served by proxy
servers:
Improve performanceTo improve the performance of all users, a proxy server is used. A proxy server
saves the response for all the requests for a limit of time. Consider an example where both user A and user
B access the World Wide Web through a proxy server. User A first requests for a webpage like a website of
Java called page 1. After some time, user B also requests for the same page; instead of iterating the request
to the server, it invokes page 1 from user A, which was already fetched by user A. It is a time-saving process
and proxy servers support hundreds and thousands of users. The major online services that establish an
array of proxy servers are Yahoo, America Online, MSN, and many others.
Filter requestsProxy servers can also be used to filter requests, which means to allow only those requests
that are appropriate for the organization. For example, a college might use a proxy server to prevent its
students from accessing a specific set of websites.
So we can conclude that a proxy server is a connection between a LAN and an external network such as the
Internet. These days, proxy servers are facing competition from NAT and firewalls. In order to remain in
demand, the role of proxy servers has been widened to content caching and authentication besides guard-dog
security and connection sharing.

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Internet Addressing
A computer accessing the Internet has a specific address which is a number that uniquely finds each computer
on the Internet. On the Internet, there is only one type of electronic address. Once we know someones Internet
address, we can send mail, transfer files, have a conversation, and even find out information about that person.
The word address on the Internet is always referred to as an electronic address which consists of the forma
string followed by a @ character (the at sign), which is further followed by the unique name of a computer.
The part of the address mentioned after @ character is known as domain. Each part of a domain is called a sub-
domain and they are separated by periods. For example, xyz@pccrrn.co.uk.
In the example, there are three sub-domainspccrrn, co, and uk. You can understand a domain name by looking
at the sub-domains, considering them from right to left. The name is created so that each sub-domain notifies the
user about the computer. Top-level domain is the rightmost sub-domain. As it is read to the left, the sub-
domains become more specific. The top-level domain uk, means the computer is in the United Kingdom. The
next sub-domain, co, refers to a company. Next, pccrrn tells the user that is the name of a specific computer.

Generally, only lowercase letters are used for Internet addresses. There is no need to mix in uppercase letters. If an address
has some of the letters in uppercase, it is always safe to change them to lowercase.

Domain Name Service

The Internet wouldnt be user friendly if users had to refer their intended addresses as numbers. So, a parallel
hierarchy of names to go with all these numbers exists. Such a hierarchy is called Domain Name Service (DNS).
Lets understand the concept this way. Host names are created using a naming standard called DNS. If DNS
wouldnt have existed, we would be ordering books from 176.32.98.166 instead of www.amazon.com; we might
sell our CDs at 23.207.146.7 instead of www.ebay.com and; wed search the Web at 173.194.36.84 instead of
www.google.com.
The DNS server on the Internet resolve hostnames for their corresponding IP addreses. DNS is related to URL,
which stands for universal resource locator. URL is a naming scheme that can uniquely identify any resource
(file) on the internet.

Inet4Addresses and Inet6Addresses

As we had discussed in the Internet Addressing section that all Internet addresses consist of 32 bit values,
organized as four 8-bit values. IP addresses are represented by the dotted-decimal notation. In the dotted-
decimal notation, each group of eight bits is called an octet and is specified by its decimal equivalent, such as
192.167.134.12. Besides the IP addresses, a port must be used for accessing data from a computer over the
Internet. For example, the port number for the Web protocol HTTP is 80. Port numbers are specified with a
colon. For example, the HTTP service on a server whose IP address is 192.167.134.20 is 192.167.143.20:80.
There are three classes provided for IP addressingInetaddress, Inet4address, and Inet6address.
Inetaddress is either a 32- or 128-bit unsigned number used by IP. Inet4Address is provided for
representing 32-bit IPv4address and 128-bit IPv6addresses. An IPv4address is represented by the
form nnn.nnn.nnn.nnn, where n is an integer. Inet4Address and Inet6Address are the subclasses of
InetAddress, as shown in Figure 20.1:

Figure 20.1: The InetAddress

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 In Depth

There are two classes for socket addressing, namely, SocketAddress and InetSocketAddress, as
shown in Figure 20.2:

Figure 20.2: The SocketAddress and its class

SocketAddress refers to an abstract socket address not dependent on a particular protocol. It is used for sub-
classing for a particular protocol. The InetSocketAddress class is a subclass of the SocketAddress class; it
specifies an IP socket address. It can contain an IP address and a port (e.g. 80), or a hostname (e.g., oracle.com)
and a port (e.g., 2000), or a port only (e.g., 1110). In the latter case, a wildcard IP address is assumed.

The URL Class

No browser can identify any information from the Web without using URL. URLs are nothing but Uniform
Resource Locator and identify a resource anywhere on the Internet. The advent of URLs with World Wide Web.
Tim Berners-Lee defined a flexible way to locate all the resources of the network. WWW is a light collection of
high-level protocols and file formats; URL transforms this loose collection into heavy collection when the
information is accurately defined.
The URL is based on four componentsprotocol (separated from the rest by a colon); host name or IP address of
the host to use; port number; and actual file path (most of the HTTP servers will append a file named
index.html). Some protocols used are http, ftp, gopher, and file. Nowadays, almost everything is being done
by HTTP.
For example, http://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/java/net/URL.html specifies
that the protocol used is http (HyperText Transfer Protocol) and that the information is available on a host
machine named docs.oracle.com. The name of the information on that host machine is
/javase/8/docs/api/java/net/URL.html and its accurate meaning is dependent on both protocol
and host.
A URL can optionally indicate a port, which is the port number to the TCP connection made on the remote
host machine. If the port is not specified, the default port is used. Example: the default port for HTTP is 80.
A relative URL can be specified with sufficient information required to reach the resource relative to another
URL. Relative URLs are frequently used within HTML pages. For example, if the content of the URL
http://docs.oracle.com/index.html contains within it the relative URL, URL.html, it would be
shorthand for http://docs.oracle.com/URL.html.

The URI Class

The term URI stands for Uniform Resource Identifier.
This class provides constructors for the URI instances to be created with the help of their components or by
parsing (analyzing) their string forms to access the various components of an instance and methods for
normalizing and judging URI instances. Instances of this class are immutable, which means that once the object
is created, it cannot be modified.
Every URL is a URI, but not every URI is a URL. This is because there is another subdivision of URIs, Uniform
Resource Names (URNs), which name the resources but do not specify their location. The news and ISBN URIs
are examples of URNs.
A URL classs instance specifies the syntactic components of a URL along with some of the information needed
for accessing the resource that is described by it.
A URL must always define a scheme, that is, it must be absolute. A URL string follows this scheme for parsing.
A stream handler is necessary for URL scheme, and without this, it is impossible to create a URL instance. A

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URL manages the syntactic operation of resolution as well as the I/O functions of looking up for the host and
setting up the connection to the resource.

URI Syntax and Components

At the highest level, a URI reference (called URI) in string has a syntax [scheme:] scheme-specific-part
[#fragment], where square brackets [..] denote optional components and the symbols : and # denote for
themselves. An opaque URI is referred to as an absolute URI and its scheme-specific portion does not initiate
with a slash symbol ('/'). Opaque URIs are not further parsed. The examples for opaque URIs are:
mailto:java-net@oracle.com
mailto:java-net@java.sunrise.com
news:comp.lang.java
Urn: isbn:087149110x
A hierarchical URI is either an absolute URI or a relative URI. In absolute URI, the scheme-specific part of
hierarchical URI starts with a slash character, whereas in case of relative URI, the scheme is not specified. An
instance of hierarchical URIs is as follows:
http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/javase/8-compatibility-guide-2156366.html
A URI component has nine components, as shown in Table 20.1:
Table 20.1: The component and its type of URI Instance
Component Type
Scheme String

Scheme-specific-part String

Authority String

User-info String

Host String

Port int

Path String

Query String

Fragment String

At any given instance, a particular component remains undefined or defined by using a unique value. The
former are represented by null, while later are represented by -1. A String component is defined with the
empty string as its value.
The type of URI being represented decides whether any particular component would be defined or not. A
scheme component is present in an absolute URI. An opaque URI comprises a scheme-specific part and a
fragment, but contains no other components. A hierarchical URI always comprises a path that can be empty and
a scheme-specific-part that might contain any of the other components.

TCP/IP and Datagram

TCP/IP provides serialized, expected, reliable, and flexible stream of packet data. But it comes with a cost. TCP
includes many complications. One of the complications is that once the datagram gets released to its target, there
is no guarantee that the datagram will arrive or someone is there for catching it. Similarly, when the datagram is
received, it could be damaged as well.

Blackboard Assignment Retrieval Transaction

Bart, short for Blackboard Assignment Retrieval Transaction, is named such because it enables blackboard
assignments to be retrieved randomly.

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 In Depth

On calling the server, BartS, the protocol (Bart) used by the client, BartC, to communicate with the Bart server
is called because it allows you to randomly retrieve blackboard assignments. Bart server, BartS, communicates
over port 1234. A supporting class is also required that helps in network programming. This class, BartQ, has a
single method named getQuote() that returns one of the 20 randomly selected blackboard sentences.
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class BartQuote {
ArrayList<String> q = new ArrayList<String>();
public BartQuote() {
q.add("I will not waste chalk.");
q.add("I will not skateboard in the halls.");
q.add("I will not burp in class.");
q.add("I will not instigate a revolution.");
q.add("It's potato, not potatoe.");
q.add("I will not encourage others to fly.");
q.add("Tar is not a plaything.");
q.add("I will not sell school property.");
q.add("I will not get very far with this attitude.");
q.add("I will not sell land in Florida.");
q.add("I will not grease the monkey bars.");
q.add("I will not hide behind the Fifth Amendment.");
q.add("I am not a dentist.");
q.add("I will finish what I sta");
q.add("Hamsters cannot fly.");
q.add("I will not aim for the head.");
q.add("I will not expose the ignorance of the faculty.");
q.add("I will not conduct my own fire drills.");
q.add("I will not fake seizures.");
q.add("This punishment is not boring and meaningless.");
}
public String getQuote() {
int i = (int)(Math.random() * q.size());
return q.get(i);
}
}
Just compile this program. Well look at a full-fledged program that shows us the communication between the
server and client using the class BartQuote in the Immediate Solutions section.

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Immediate Solutions
Understanding Networking Interfaces and Classes in the java.net
Package
Now lets understand how Java relates to all the network concepts. OK, says the NP. So does Java support the
functionality of networks? You smile and say, Java makes it easy to connect to other computers using classes
from the java.net package.
Java supports TCP/IP suite for networking by enhancing the already created I/O interface and adding the
required features for creating I/O objects. Java supports both TCP and UDP protocols. The former is used for
stream-based I/O across the network, and the latter supports point-to-point transfer of datagrams.

The Networking Interfaces and Classes

The interfaces of the java.net package can be found in Table 20.2 and classes in Table 20.3:
Table 20.2: Interfaces of the java.net package
Interface Description
ContentHandlerFactory This interface defines a factory for content handlers
CookiePolicy Its implementation decides which cookies should be accepted and which
should be rejected
CookieStore It represents a storage for cookie
DatagramSocketImplFactory This interface defines a factory for datagram socket implementations
FileNameMap A simple interface, which provides a mechanism to map between a file
name and a MIME type string
SocketImplFactory This interface defines a factory for socket implementations
SocketOptions Interface of methods to get/set socket options
URLStreamHandlerFactory This interface defines a factory for URL stream protocol handlers

Table 20.3: Classes of the java.net package

Class Description
Authenticator The class Authenticator represents an object that knows how to obtain
authentication for a network connection
CacheRequest It represents channels for storing resources in the ResponseCache
CacheResponse It represents channels for retrieving resources from the ResponseCache
ContentHandler The abstract class ContentHandler is the superclass of all classes that
read an Object from a URLConnection
CookieHandler A CookieHandler object provides a callback mechanism to hook up a
HTTP state management policy implementation into the HTTP protocol
handler
CookieManager A class providing concrete implementation of CookieHandler
Datagram Packet This class represents a datagram packet
Datagram Socket This class represents a socket for sending and receiving datagram packets
DatagramSocketImpl It is abstract datagram and multicast socket implementation base class
HttpURLConnection A URLConnection with support for HTTP-specific features

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Table 20.3: Classes of the java.net package

Class Description
IDN This class has methods to convert Internationalized Domain Names
(IDNs) between a normal Unicode representation and an ASCII
Compatible Encoding (ACE) representation
Inet4Address This class represents an Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) address
Inet6Address This class represents an Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) address
InetAddress This class represents an Internet Protocol (IP) address
InetSocketAddress This class implements an IP Socket Address (IP address + port number). It
can also be a pair (hostname + port number), in which case an attempt will
be made to resolve the hostname
InterfaceAddress It represents a Network Interface address
JarURLConnection A URLConnection to a Java ARchive (JAR) file or an entry in a JAR file
MulticastSocket The multicast datagram socket class is useful for sending and receiving IP
multicast packets
NetPermission This class is for various network permissions
NetworkInterface This class represents a Network Interface made up of a name, and a list of
IP addresses assigned to this interface
PasswordAuthentication The class PasswordAuthentication is a data holder that is used by
Authenticator
Proxy This class represents a proxy setting, typically a type (http, socks) and a
socket address
ProxySelector It selects the proxy server to use, if any, when connecting to the network
resource referenced by a URL
ResponseCache It represents implementations of URLConnection caches
SecureCacheResponse It represents a cache response originally retrieved through secure means,
such as TLS
ServerSocket This class implements server sockets
Socket This class implements client sockets (also called just sockets)
SocketAddress This class represents a SocketAddress with no protocol attachment
SocketImpl The abstract class SocketImpl is a common superclass of all classes that
actually implement sockets
SocketPermission This class represents access to a network via sockets
URI It represents a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) reference or an
Internationalized Resource Identifier (IRI) reference
URL Class URL represents a Uniform Resource Locator, a pointer to a
resource on the World Wide Web
URLClassLoader This class loader is used to load classes and resources from a search path
of URLs referring to both JAR files and directories
URLConnection The abstract class URLConnection is the superclass of all classes that
represent a communications link between the application and a URL
URLDecoder It is utility class for HTML form decoding
URLEncoder It is utility class for HTML form encoding
URLStreamHandler The abstract class URLStreamHandler is the common superclass for all
stream protocol handlers

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Understanding the InetAddresses

The platform on which TCP and UDP are built is called Internet Protocol (IP) address. An IP address comprises
either a 32-bit or 128-bit unsigned number used by IP and uses host name with which either it may be
constructed or have done a reverse host name resolution. An IP address specifies a number used for identifying
a particular host computer on the Internet. Going by that logic, the designers of Java could have simply
represented IP addresses as long numbers. The various address types are as follows:
UnicastAs the name indicates, it is an identifier for a single interface. The unicast address is of the
following types:
The Unspecified AddressIt is also known as any local or wildcard, it has no address. Basically, it is
not assigned to any node. Example of its use is as the target of bind, which allows a server to create a
client connection on any interface in case the server host has multiple interfaces. You must avoid using
the unspecified address as the destination address of an IP packet.
The Loopback AddressesThis is the address assigned to the loopback interface. Data received at this
IP address circulates around and gets IP input on the local host. This address is often used when
testing a client.
MulticastMulticast refers to an identifier for a collection of interfaces. A packet provided to a multicast
address gets delivered to all interfaces determined by that address.

IP Addresses Scope
The IP address scope can be divided into:
Link-local addressesThese addresses are developed to address a single link for various requirements
such as configuration of auto-address for neighbor discovery.
Site-local addressesThese addresses are developed for addressing inside of a site despite the requirement
for a global prefix.
Global addressesThey are distinct across the Internet.

Host Name Resolution

The resolution of host name-to-IP address can be achieved by using the combination of configuration
information of local machine and network naming services such as DNS and Network Information Service (NIS).
The specific naming services(s) used by default is the local machine configured. For any host name, its
corresponding IP address is returned.
Reverse name resolution specifies returning of host names for any IP address related to it. The methods for
resolving host names to their IP addresses and vice versa are provided by the InetAddress class.

Caching InetAddress
The InetAddress class provides the efficiency of caching successful as well as unsuccessful resolutions of host
name. DNS spoofing attacks are guarded by the positive caching, while negative caching improves the
performance of the system, but for a very short period of time.
Under some conditions, where it can be predicted that DNS spoofing attacks (falsifying the data) are not
possible, a Java security property can be set to a different Time-To-Live value for positive caching. Similarly, an
admin can configure negative caching TTL value when required. The two properties of Java security that can
control the values of TTL for both positive and negative resolutions of host name are as follows:
networkaddress.cache.ttl (default: -1)Denotes the policy of caching for successful name
lookups from the name service. The value is mentioned as integer that signifies the number of seconds for
caching the successful lookup. A value of -1 indicates cache forever.
networkaddress.cache.negative.ttl (default: 10)Denotes the policy of caching for
unsuccessful name lookups from the name service. The value mentioned as integer signifies the number of
seconds for caching the failure of unsuccessful lookups.

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 Immediate Solutions

A value of 0 indicates "never cache". A value of -1 indicates "cache forever".

Table 20.4 describes the methods of the InetAddress class:

Table 20.4: Methods of the InetAddress class
Method Does this
boolean equals(Object obj) It compares this object against the specified object
byte[] getAddress() It returns the raw IP address of this InetAddress object
static InetAddress[] It is given the name of a host, returns an array of its IP addresses, based on
getAllByName(String host) the configured name service on the system
static InetAddress It returns an InetAddress object given the raw IP address
getByAddress(byte[] addr)
static InetAddress It creates an InetAddress based on the provided host name and IP
getByAddress(String host, address No name service is checked for the validity of the address
byte[] addr)
static InetAddress It determines the IP address of a host, given the hosts name
getByName(String host)
String getCanonicalHostName() It gets the fully qualified domain name for this IP address
String getHostAddress() It returns the IP address string in textual presentation
String getHostName() It gets the host name for this IP address
static InetAddress getLocalHost() It returns the local host
int hashCode() It returns a hashcode for this IP address
boolean isAnyLocalAddress() It is utility routine to check if the InetAddress in a wildcard address
boolean isLinkLocalAddress() It is utility routine to check if the InetAddress is an link local address
boolean isLoopbackAddress() It is utility routine to check if the InetAddress is a loopback address
boolean isMCGlobal() It is utility routine to check if the multicast address has global scope
boolean isMCLinkLocal() It is utility routine to check if the multicast address has link scope
boolean isMCNodeLocal() It is utility routine to check if the multicast address has node scope
boolean isMCOrgLocal() It is utility routine to check if the multicast address has organization scope.
boolean isMCSiteLocal() It is utility routine to check if the multicast address has site scope
boolean isMulticastAddress() It is utility routine to check if the InetAddress is an IP multicast address
boolean isReachable(int timeout) It is used to test whether that address is reachable
boolean It is used to test whether that address is reachable
isReachable(NetworkInterface netif
, int ttl, int timeout)
boolean isSiteLocalAddress() It is utility routine to check if the InetAddress is a site local address
String toString() It converts this IP address to a String

Some points about this class are as follows:

This class does not contain a constructor. Therefore, the standard method of creating it is by calling one of
its static methods, such as getByName().
The isReachable(), getAllByName(), and getByName() methods throw exceptions.
Several of these methods use the DNS server configured for the system in order to perform DNS queries.
This class is part of java.net package. Thus, any program using it must import either java.net.
InetAddress or java.net.*.

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Lets look at this program which prompts the user for a host name and then it looks up the IP addresses for the
host name and displays the results. Once done, it asks the user if he or she wants to look up another host:
import java.util.Scanner;
import java.net.*;

public class Hosting

{
static Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("============================================");
System.out.println("Welcome to a website that prompts you for a host name. Enter 1 ,
it shows the IP address and asks for more.");
System.out.println("============================================");
String host;
do {
System.out.print("\nPlease enter a host name: ");
host = sc.nextLine();
try {
InetAddress[] addresses =
InetAddress.getAllByName(host);
for (InetAddress ip : addresses)
System.out.println(ip.toString());
}
catch (UnknownHostException e)
{
System.out.println("Can't find this host.");
}
} while (doAgain());
}
private static boolean doAgain()
{
System.out.println();
String s;
while (true)
{
System.out.print("Look up another? (Y or N) ");
s = sc.nextLine();
if (s.equalsIgnoreCase("Y")) { return true; }
else if (s.equalsIgnoreCase("N")) { return false; }
}
}
}
The result is shown in Figure 20.3:

Figure 20.3: Searching for IP address from the given host name

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 Immediate Solutions

Factory() Method
Since the InetAddress class has no visible constructors, factory methods have to be used to create an
InetAddress object. Factory methods are those where static methods in a class return an instance of that class.
Instead of overloading a constructor with various parameter lists and cluttering the result, it is better to have
unique method names. The commonly used InetAddress factory methods are:
static InetAddress getbyName(Stringhost)
throws UnknownHostException
static InetAddress getLocalHost()
throws UnknownHostException
static InetAddress[] getAllbyName(Stringhost)
throws UnknownHostException
The InetAddress representing the local host object is returned by the getLocalHost() method. When the
host name is passed to the getByName() method, it returns an InetAddress. An UnknownHostException
is thrown by these methods if they are unable in finding the name of host.
A single name can be used for representing various machines on the Internet. An array of InetAddresses is
returned by the getAllByName() factory methods. This array displays all of the addresses that a particular
name resolves to. An UnknownHostException is thrown if it is not able to resolve the name to at least one
address.
InetAddress also involves the factory method getByAddress(), which retrieves an IP address and returns
an InetAddress object. You can use either an IPv4 or an IPv6 address. In the following example, address and
name of the local machine and two well-known Internet websites are printed:
import java.net.*;

class InetTest
{

public static void main(String args[]) throws UnknownHostException

{
System.out.println("Printing IP address of Localhost");
InetAddress Adr = InetAddress.getLocalHost();
System.out.println(Adr);
System.out.println("\nPrinting IP address of Computer Deepak");
Adr = InetAddress.getByName("deepak");

System.out.println(Adr);
System.out.println("\nPrinting IP addresses for host
name www.google.com");

InetAddress in[] = InetAddress.getAllByName("www.google.com");

for(int i = 0; i < in.length; i++)
System.out.println(in[i]);
}
}
It is important to note here that the result shown in Figure 20.4 might differ slightly as per the scenario:

Figure 20.4: Inet addressing

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Instance() Method
The InetAddress class also contains the Instance methods, which you can use on the objects returned by the
methods discussed earlier. The most commonly used methods are:
boolean equals(Object obj)
byte[] getAddress()
String getHostAddress()
String getHostName()
boolean isMulticastAddress()
String toString()
Internet addresses are searched in a hierarchical series of cached servers. In other words, your local host machine
may know a specific name-to-IP-address mapping automatically. For other names, it may ask for a local DNS
server for IP address data. If that server does not have a particular address, it can go to a remote site and ask for
it. This can continue all the way up to the root server (top). This process might take a long time, so it is advisable
to structure your code so that you cache IP address information locally rather than viewing it repeatedly.

Creating and Using Sockets

OK, says the NP, I want to start working with the Internet up close and personal. Are you sure? you ask.
Im sure, says the NP. In that case, you say, check out the Socket class.
Communication over the Internet involves sockets for creating connections. Sockets connect to numbered
communication ports. The bottom 1,024 ports are reserved for system use (for example, port 21 is for FTP, 23 is
for Telnet, 25 is for email, 80 is for HTTP connections, and 119 is for Usenet connections). Java supports sockets
with the Socket class. Heres the inheritance diagram for the Socket class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.net.Socket
Youll find the constructors of the Socket class in Table 20.5 and its methods in Table 20.6:
Table 20.5: Constructors of the Socket Class
Constructor Does this
Socket() It creates an unconnected socket with the system-default type of
SocketImpl
Socket(InetAddress address, It creates a stream socket and connects it to the specified port number at
int port) the specified IP address
Socket(InetAddress host, int port, It is deprecated and it uses DatagramSocket instead of UDP transport
boolean stream)
Socket(InetAddress address, It creates a socket and connects it to the specified remote address on the
int port, InetAddress localAddr, specified remote port.
int localPort)
Socket(Proxy proxy) It creates an unconnected socket, specifying the type of proxy that
should be used regardless of any other settings
protected Socket(SocketImpl impl) It creates an unconnected Socket with a user-specified SocketImpl
Socket(String host, int port) It creates a stream socket and connects it to the specified port number on
the named host
Socket(String host, int port, It is deprecated and it uses DatagramSocket instead of UDP transport
boolean stream)
Socket(String host, int port, It creates a socket and connects it to the specified remote host on the
InetAddress localAddr, specified remote port
int localPort)

Table 20.6: Methods of the Socket Class

Method Does this
void bind (SocketAddress bindpoint) It binds the socket to a local address.
void close() It closes the socket.

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Table 20.6: Methods of the Socket Class

Method Does this
void connect It connects this socket to the server.
(SocketAddress endpoint)
void connect It connects this socket to the server with a specified timeout value.
(SocketAddress endpoint,
int timeout)
SocketChannel getChannel() It returns the unique SocketChannel object associated with this socket,
if any.
InetAddress getInetAddress() It returns the address to which the socket is connected.
InputStream getInputStream() It returns an input stream for this socket.
boolean getKeepAlive() It tests if SO_KEEPALIVE is enabled.
InetAddress getLocalAddress() It gets the local address to which the socket is bound.
int getLocalPort() It returns the local port to which this socket is bound.
SocketAddress It returns the address of the endpoint this socket is bound to, or null if it
getLocalSocketAddress() is not bound yet.
boolean getOOBInline() It tests if OOBINLINE is enabled.
OutputStream getOutputStream() It returns an output stream for this socket.
int getPort() It returns the remote port to which this socket is connected.
int getReceiveBufferSize() It gets the value of the SO_RCVBUF option for this Socket, that is, the
buffer size used by the platform for input on this Socket.
SocketAddress It returns the address of the endpoint this socket is connected to, or null
getRemoteSocketAddress() if it is unconnected.
boolean getReuseAddress() It tests if SO_REUSEADDR is enabled.
int getSendBufferSize() It gets the value of the SO_SNDBUF option for this Socket, that is the
buffer size used by the platform for output on this Socket.
int getSoLinger() It returns setting for SO_LINGER.
int getSoTimeout() It returns setting for SO_TIMEOUT.
boolean getTcpNoDelay() It tests if TCP_NODELAY is enabled.
int getTrafficClass() It gets traffic class or type-of-service in the IP header for packets sent
from this Socket.
boolean isBound() It returns the binding state of the socket.
boolean isClosed() It returns the closed state of the socket.
boolean isConnected() It returns the connection state of the socket.
boolean isInputShutdown() It returns whether the read-half of the socket connection is closed.
boolean isOutputShutdown() It returns whether the write-half of the socket connection is closed.
void sendUrgentData (int data) It sends one byte of urgent data on the socket.
void setKeepAlive (boolean on) It enables/disables SO_KEEPALIVE.
void setOOBInline (boolean on) It enables/disables OOBINLINE (receipt of TCP urgent data). By default,
this option is disabled and TCP urgent data received on a socket is
silently discarded.
void setPerformancePreferences It sets performance preferences for this socket.
(int connectionTime,
int latency,int bandwidth)
void setReceiveBufferSize It sets the SO_RCVBUF option to the specified value for this Socket.
(int size)
void setReuseAddress (boolean on) It enables/disables the SO_REUSEADDR socket option.

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Table 20.6: Methods of the Socket Class

Method Does this
void setSendBufferSize (int size) It sets the SO_SNDBUF option to the specified value for this Socket.
static void setSocketImplFactory It sets the client socket implementation factory for the application.
(SocketImplFactory fac)
void setSoLinger (boolean on, It enables/disables SO_LINGER with the specified linger time in
int linger) seconds.
void setSoTimeout (int timeout) It enables/disables SO_TIMEOUT with the specified timeout, in
milliseconds.
void setTcpNoDelay (boolean on) It enables/disables TCP_NODELAY (disable/enable Nagles algorithm).
void setTrafficClass (int tc) It sets traffic class or type-of-service octet in the IP header for packets
sent from this Socket.
void shutdownInput() It places the input stream for this socket at end of stream.
void shutdownOutput() It disables the output stream for this socket.
String toString() It converts this socket to a String.

Heres an example. In this case, well connect to port 80 at sun.com, the HTTP port, and get the main Web page
at www.sun.com, index.html by writing an HTTP GET request to that port. To write to a socket, you can use
a PrintWriter object, and to read from it, you use a BufferedReader object. Heres what the code looks like
(note that we terminate the HTTP request with two newline characters):
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
public class SocketDemo
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
try {
Socket s = new Socket("www.sun.com", 80);
BufferedReader in = new BufferedReader(new
InputStreamReader(s.getInputStream()));
PrintWriter out = new PrintWriter(s.getOutputStream());
out.print("GET /index.html\n\n");
out.flush();
String line;
while ((line = in.readLine()) != null) {
System.out.println(line); }
}
catch (Exception e){ }
}
}
The output of this code is shown in Figure 20.5, which shows reading and writing to a socket:

Figure 20.5: Reading and writing to a socket

This example used the Oracle Web servers HTTP port to connect to. However, you can create both sides of the
connectionthe client and the serverin Java. See the next solution.

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 Immediate Solutions

Creating TCP Clients and Servers

The Big Boss appears and Says, We need a secret way of communicating over the Internet for our spies in the
field. We have spies? You ask. The BB says, Set up a client/server program that can communicate over the
Internet and make sure you scramble everything. You say, Hmm!
Using BufferedReader and PrintWriter objects, you can communicate over the Internet with socketsall
you need is a Domain Name System (DNS) address for the server and a free port on that server (DNS addresses
are those groups of four numbers, separated by dots, that specify Internet addresses).
Heres an example. Well set up a client program that connects to a server program, sends a message, and gets a
message back. In this case, well use the DNS 127.0.0.1 (the localhost), which means that both the server and the
client will be on the same machine. However, we can use any DNS address for a longer time till we put the
server script on the machine. Well use an arbitrary portnumber 8765. When you are picking a port number,
remember that the port cannot be in use and that both the client and server will connect to the same port. Heres
the client application, which sends the message Dreamtech Press! to the server and reads what the server
sends back:
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
class ClientCode
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
int character;
Socket socket = new Socket("127.0.0.1", 8765);
InputStream in = socket.getInputStream();
OutputStream out = socket.getOutputStream();
String string = "Dreamtech Press!\n";
byte buffer[] = string.getBytes();
out.write(buffer);
while ((character = in.read()) != -1)
{
System.out.print((char) character);
}
socket.close();
}
}
Heres the server application, which reads the message from the client and returns it, after prefacing it with the
text The server got this:
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;

public class ServerCode

{
public static void main(String[] args )
{
try {
ServerSocket socket = new ServerSocket(8765);
Socket insocket = socket.accept( );
BufferedReader in = new BufferedReader
(new InputStreamReader(insocket.getInputStream()));
PrintWriter out =
new PrintWriter(insocket.getOutputStream(), true);
String instring = in.readLine();
out.println("The server got this: " + instring);
insocket.close();
}
catch (Exception e) { }
}
}

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To run these applications, youll need two console windows (for example, in Windows, open two DOS
windows). Run the server first in one window as shown in Figure 20.6(a) and then the client in the other. When
you do, the client reports as shown in Figure 20.6(b):

Figure 20.6(a): TCP server window

Figure 20.6(b): TCP client window

As you can see, the client sent its message to the server, which sent a confirming message back. Now you are
writing Internet client/server applications in Java.

TCP/IP Client Sockets

A socket refers to a special object that is used for establishing connection between the client and server
computers. A socket is used for connecting I/O system of Java with other programs that reside either on the
local machine or on any other machine on the Internet.
There are two kinds of TCP sockets in Java. One is for server and other is for clients. The ServerSocket class is
designed to be a listener, which helps servers establish socket connections with clients. The Socket class is
designed to connect to server sockets and initiate protocol exchanges.
Lets have an understanding of how to program sockets in Java using the TCP/IP protocol only since it is more
widely used than UDP/IP and make sure that java.net package is imported when you start off with the
program sockets.
To start with the socket programming, you should know how to open a socket. If you are programming a client,
then you need to open a socket like this:
Socket MyClient;
MyClient = new Socket("My Machine name", PortNumber);
In the preceding code snippet, My Machine name refers to the machine on which you are attempting for
opening a connection and PortNumber refers to the port (a number) on which the server you are attempting to
connect to is executing. You should select a port number by keeping in mind that port numbers ranging from 0
to 1,023 remain reserved for privileged users. These port numbers remain reserved for some standard services,
such as email, FTP, and HTTP. When selecting a port number for your server, the port number greater than 1023
is chosen. Consider the exceptions as well, the preceding can be written as:
Socket MyClient;
try { MyClient = new Socket("My Machine name", PortNumber); }
catch (IOException e) { System.out.println(e); }

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 Immediate Solutions

Here arises the need to create an input stream using DataInputStream class to receive response from the
server that allows you to read lines of text and Java primitive data types in a portable way by having methods
such as read(), readChar(), readInt(), readDouble(), and readLine():
DataInputStream inputstr;
try { inputstr = new DataInputStream(MyClient.getInputStream()); }
catch (IOException e) { System.out.println(e); }
After creating the input stream, there arises the need to create an output stream on the client side to send
information to the server socket using the class PrintStream or DataOutputStream of java.io:
PrintStream output;
try { output = new PrintStream(MyClient.getOutputStream()); }
catch (IOException e) { System.out.println(e); }
The PrintStream class contains methods that are used to display textual representation of primitive data
types. Its Write() and println() methods need to be remembered here. Also, you may want to use the
DataOutputStream:
DataOutputStream out;
try { out = new DataOutputStream(MyClient.getOutputStream()); }
catch (IOException e) { System.out.println(e); }
The class DataOutputStream enables you to create primitive data types of Java and its various methods are
used to write a single Java primitive type to the output stream. The method writeBytes() is a useful one.
After creating the input stream and output stream, you need to close the sockets. The output and input streams
must always be closed before closing the socket on the client side:
try {
output.close();
inputstr.close();
MyClient.close();
}
catch (IOException e) { System.out.println(e); }
In this way, you can close the socket after creating the input stream and output stream. There are two
constructors which are used to create a Socket object in order to establish a connection between the client and
server:
Socket(String hostname, int port)
Socket(InetAddress Adr, int port)
A socket can be monitored any time for the address and the port information associated with it by using the
following methods:
InetAddress getInetAddress()
int getPort()
int getLocalPort()
With accomplishing this, the access to input and output streams can be easily gained. The getPort() and
getLocalPort() throw an IOException if the sockets get invalidated due to the loss of connection on the net. These
streams are used exactly like the I/O stream to send and receive the data, like:
InputStream getInputStream()
OutputStream getOutputStream()
Some points about the Socket class are as follows:
Even though the Socket class has constructors, the normal way to create a socket is to use the attach()
method of the ServerSocket class.
An object of the OutputStream class is returned by the getOutputStream() method. This is the same
class used by System.out. Therefore, the print() and println() methods can be used for sending data
to the socket.
Exceptions are thrown by all the constructors and methods of the Socket class. Only the methods
getInetAddress(), getPort(), isBound() and isClosed() of the Socket class do not throw exception.
Thus, you need to enclose calls to these methods in try/catch statement.

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Understanding the Whois Example

On the InterNIC server, the open connection to a whois port (port43) provides the command-line argument to
the socket and then the returned data gets printed. InterNIC may view the argument as a registered Internet
domain name, then provide the IP address back and contact information of that site:
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;

class AppWhois
{
public static void main (String args[]) throws Exception
{
int c;
Socket sokt = null;
try{
sokt = new Socket("whois.internic.net", 43, true);
InputStream inputstr= sokt.getInputStream();
OutputStream outputstr = sokt.getOutputStream();
String st = (args.length == 0 ? "hotmail.com" : args[0]) + "\n";
byte buf[] = st.getBytes();
outputstr.write(buf);
while ((c = inputstr.read()) != -1) {
System.out.print((char) c); }
}
catch(IOException exc){
System.out.println(exc);
}
sokt.close();
}
}
If, for example, you obtain information about xxxxxxx site, youd get something similar to the following:
Whois Server Version 2.0

Domain names in the .com and .net domains can now be registered
with many different competing registrars. Go to http://www.internic.net
for detailed information.

HOTMAIL.COM.AU
HOTMAIL.COM.BR
HOTMAIL.COM.IS.HOSTED.ON.PROFITHOSTING.NET
HOTMAIL.COM.IS.N0T.AS.1337.AS.GULLI.COM
HOTMAIL.COM.ZZZZZ.GET.LAID.AT.WWW.SWINGINGCOMMUNITY.COM
HOTMAIL.COM

To single out one record, look it up with "xxx", where xxx is one of the
records displayed above. If the records are the same, look them up
with "=xxx" to receive a full display for each record.
. . .

TCP/IP Server Sockets

As we all know that Java has a different Socket class that must be used for creating server applications. You can
use the ServerSocket class for building servers that listen either for local or remote client programs for
connecting them on published ports. Since the Web is driving most of the activities on the internet, we here
develop an operational Web (http) server. If you are programming a server, then this is how you open a socket:
ServerSocket MyService;
try { MyService = new ServerSocket(PortNumber); }
catch (IOException e) { System.out.println(e); }

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A Socket object must be created from the ServerSocket class for the implementation of the server to listen
for connections and accept them from clients:
Socket clientSocket = null;
try { serviceSocket = MyService.accept(); }
catch (IOException e) { System.out.println(e); }
Once the socket is opened in the server, DataInputStream can be used to receive input from the client through
the input stream on the server side:
DataInputStream input;
try { input = new DataInputStream(serviceSocket.getInputStream()); }
catch (IOException e) { System.out.println(e); }
Similarly, in order to create an Output stream on the server side, the class PrintStream is used to send
information to the client:
PrintStream output;
try { output = new PrintStream(serviceSocket.getOutputStream()); }
catch (IOException e) { System.out.println(e); }

You can use the class DataOutputStream as described in the Client Socket.

The important point to note here is that the output and input streams must be closed before closing the socket.
To close the socket on the server side:
try {
output.close();
input.close();
serviceSocket.close();
MyService.close();
}
catch (IOException e) { System.out.println(e); }
There exists a remarkable difference between a normal socket and a ServerSocket. While creating a
ServerSocket, it registers itself with the system for client connection. The constructors over here simply reflect
the port number indicating the length of time you would be in queue before it can refuse or leave the client
connection pending. The default is 50. Under adverse conditions, the constructors will throw an IOException.
Here are three of its constructors:
ServerSocket(int port)
ServerSocket(int port, int maxQueue)
ServerSocket(int port, int maxQueue, InetAddress localAddress)
ServerSocket has a method known as accept(), which acts as a blocking call and waits for a client to start
communication, and then return with a normal Socket that is then used for communication with the client.
Table 20.7 shows the list of constructors of ServerSocket and its methods are defined in Table 20.8:
Table 20.7: Constructors of the ServerSocket
Constructor Does this
ServerSocket() It creates an unbound server socket
ServerSocket(int port) It creates a server socket, bound to the specified port
ServerSocket(int port, int backlog) It creates a server socket and binds it to the specified local port
number, with the specified backlog
ServerSocket(int port, int backlog, It creates a server with the specified port, listen backlog, and local IP
InetAddress bindAddr) address to bind to

Table 20.8: Methods of the ServerSocket

Method Does this
Socket accept() It listens for a connection to be made to this socket and accepts it
void bind It binds the ServerSocket to a specific address (IP address and port
(SocketAddress endpoint) number)

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Table 20.8: Methods of the ServerSocket

Method Does this
void bind(SocketAddress endpoint, It binds the ServerSocket to a specific address (IP address and port
int backlog) number)
void close() It closes this socket
ServerSocketChannel getChannel() It returns the unique ServerSocketChannel object associated with
this socket, if any
InetAddress getInetAddress() It returns the local address of this server socket
int getLocalPort() It returns the port on which this socket is listening
SocketAddress It returns the address of the endpoint this socket is bound to, or null if
getLocalSocketAddress() it is not bound yet
int getReceiveBufferSize() It gets the value of the SO_RCVBUF option for this ServerSocket, that
is the proposed buffer size that will be used for Sockets accepted from
this ServerSocket
boolean getReuseAddress() It tests if SO_REUSEADDR is enabled
int getSoTimeout() It retrieves setting for SO_TIMEOUT
protected void implAccept Subclasses of ServerSocket use this method to override accept()
(Socket s) to return their own subclass of socket
boolean isBound() It returns the binding state of the ServerSocket
boolean isClosed() It returns the closed state of the ServerSocket
void It sets performance preferences for this ServerSocket
setPerformancePreferences(int connec
tionTime, int latency,
int bandwidth)
void setReceiveBufferSize It sets a default proposed value for the SO_RCVBUF option for sockets
(int size) accepted from this ServerSocket
void setReuseAddress(boolean on) It enables/disables the SO_REUSEADDR socket option
static void setSocketFactory It sets the server socket implementation factory for the application
(SocketImplFactory fac)
void setSoTimeout It enables/disables SO_TIMEOUT with the specified timeout, in
(int timeout) milliseconds
String toString() It returns the implementation address and implementation port of this
socket as a String

Submitting an HTML Form from a Java Program

Javas gone all wacky again! the NP says. I have got lots of bells and whistles in my program, but I cant seem
to submit an HTML form to the server. Thats because this is Java, not JavaScript, you say, but there is a
way using sockets.
Many programmers expect that Java has some method of submitting HTML forms, but theres no such method
built in. On the other hand, you can create your own technique using sockets and connecting to a Web servers
port 80 (the HTTP port). Heres an example in which we submit data to a Perl script, reg.cgi, which lets us
register users online by recording their names and email addresses in a file named reg.log:
#!/usr/local/bin/perl
use CGI;
$co = new CGI;
print $co->header,
$co->start_html(-title=>'CGI Example',
-author=>'Steve',-meta=>{'keywords'=>'CGI Perl'},
-BGCOLOR=>'white',-LINK=>'red');
if ($co->param()) {

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$! = 0;
open FILEHANDLE, ">>reg.log";
print FILEHANDLE "Date: " . `date`;
print FILEHANDLE "Name: " . $co->param('name') . "\n";
print FILEHANDLE "email: " . $co->param('email') . "\n";
close FILEHANDLE;
unless ($!) { print "Thanks for registering."; }
else { print "Sorry, there was an error: $!"; }
}
print $co->end_html;
We pass two parameters to this CGI script: name and email. We do that by appending a string beginning with a
question mark to the end of this scripts URL, giving those parameters like this:
?name=Steve&email=me@here
Note that you can handle spaces in the parameters values by using a plus sign (+) instead of a space. To pass
this string to reg.cgi, we use an HTTP GET request, like this:
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
public class reg
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
try {
Socket s = new Socket("localhost", 80);
BufferedReader in = new BufferedReader(new
InputStreamReader(s.getInputStream()));
PrintWriter out = new PrintWriter(s.getOutputStream());
out.print("GET " + "/yourname/cgi/reg.cgi?name
=Steve&email=me@here\n\n");
out.flush();
String line;
while ((line = in.readLine()) != null) {
System.out.println(line); }
}
catch (Exception e){ }
}
}
Thats all it takes. This effectively calls the URL http://localhost//yourname/cgi/
reg.cgi?name=Steve&email=me@here. This is how you send data to an HTML form. When you install
reg.cgi on the server (using your server name and the correct URL for the script) and run this program, youll
get a confirming Web page back from reg.cgi, which reg.java prints out:
C:\>java reg
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//IETF//DTD HTML//EN">
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>CGI Example</TITLE>
<LINK REV=MADE HREF="mailto:Steve">
<META NAME="keywords" CONTENT="CGI Perl">
</HEAD><BODY BGCOLOR="white" LINK="red">
Thanks for registering.
</BODY>
</HTML>
Thats it. Now you can submit an HTML form from Java.

Handling URL
In Java, you handle URLs with the URL classfor example, you can pass a URL object to the getImage()
method of the Applet class to load in images. Heres the inheritance diagram for the URL class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.net.URL

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URL, called Uniform Resource Locator, uniquely identifies or addresses information on the Internet. There are
many items of software (and Java classes) that work directly with URLs. Javas URL class has several
constructors (each can throw a MalformedURLException) and methods, which are listed in Table 20.9 and
Table 20.10, respectively:
Table 20.9: Constructor of the URL class
Constructors Does this
URL(String spec) It creates a URL object from the String representation
URL(String protocol, String host, It creates a URL object from the specified protocol, host, port number,
int port, String file) and file
URL(String protocol, String host, It creates a URL object from the specified protocol, host, port number,
int port, String file, file, and handler
URLStreamHandler handler)
URL(String protocol, String host, It creates a URL from the specified protocol name, host name, and file
String file) name
URL(URL context, String spec) It creates a URL by parsing the given spec within a specified context
URL(URL context, String spec, It creates a URL by parsing the given spec with the specified handler
URLStreamHandler handler) within a specified context

Table 20.10: Methods of the URL class

Method Does this
boolean equals(Object obj) It compares two URLs
String getAuthority() It returns the authority part of this URL
Object getContent() It gets the contents of this URL
Object getContent (Class [ ] It returns the contents of this URL
classes)
String getFile() It gets the file name of this URL
String getHost() It gets the hostname of this URL, if applicable
String getPath () It returns the path part of this URL
int getPort() It gets the port number of this URL
String getProtocol() It gets the protocol name of this URL
String getQuery () It returns the query part of this URL
String getRef() It gets the anchor (also known as the reference) of this URL
String getUserInfo () It returns the userInfo part of this URL
int hashCode() It constructs an integer suitable for hashtable indexing
URLConnection openConnection() It gets a URLConnection object that represents a connection to the
remote object referred to by the URL
InputStream openStream() It opens a connection to this URL and returns an input stream for
reading from that connection
boolean sameFile(URL other) It compares two URLs, excluding the ref fields
protected void set(String protocol, It sets the fields of the URL
String host, int port, String file,
String ref)
protected void set (String protocol, It sets the specified eight fields of the URL
String host, int port, String
authority, String userInfo, String
path, String query, String ref)
static void It sets an applications URLStreamHandlerFactory. The
setURLStreamHandlerFactory URLStreamHandlerFactory instance constructs a stream protocol
(URLStreamHandlerFactory fac) handler from a protocol name.

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Table 20.10: Methods of the URL class

Method Does this
String toExternalForm() It constructs a string representation of this URL in standard URL form
String toString() It constructs a string representation of this URL
URI toURI() It returns a URI equivalent to this URL

The most common form used includes the specification of the URL with a String that is similar to what you see
in a browser:
URL(String spec)
The other two forms of constructors break up the URL into its component parts as:
URL(String protocol, String host, int port, String file)
URL(String protocol, String host, String file)
The constructors that allow you to use an existing URL as a reference context and then create a new URL from
that context are:
URL(URL Context, String spec)
Heres an example that puts the URL class to work. In this case, we create a URL object for the Web page
https://www.oracle.com/java/index.html and then use the URL classs methods to get various parts of
the URL:
import java.net.*;
class URLDemo {
public static void main (String args[]) throws MalformedURLException {
URL httpurl = new URL("https://www.oracle.com/java/index.html");
System.out.println("Protocol: "+ httpurl.getProtocol ());
System.out.println("Port: "+ httpurl.getPort ());
System.out.println("Host: "+ httpurl.getHost ());
System.out.println("File: "+ httpurl.getFile ());
System.out.println("Ext: "+ httpurl.toExternalForm ()); }
}
The result is shown in Figure 20.7:

Figure 20.7: Handling URL

The result shows that the port is 1. This means that the one was not explicitly set. Once a URL object is created,
the data associated with it can be easily retrieved. You can create a URLConnection object for accessing the
actual bits or content information of a URL. A URLConnection object is created from the URL class using the
openConnection() method. The syntax for the method is as follows:
url.openconnection()
openConnection() has the following general form:
URLConnection openConnection()
The preceding code snippet returns a URLConnection object related to the invocation of the URL object. It may
throw an IOException.
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Using the URLConnection Objects

Hey, says the NP, why cant I download Web pages using the URL class? You smile and say, For that, you
can use the URLConnection class.
You can use the URLConnection class to get a great deal of information about Web pages. Heres the
inheritance diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.net.URLConnection
Youll find the fields of the URLConnection class in Table 20.11, its constructor in Table 20.12, and its methods
in Table 20.13:
Table 20.11: Fields of the URLConnection class
Field Does this
protected boolean It returns True if this URL is being examined in a context in which it can
allowUserInteraction support user interactions
protected boolean It returns False if this connection object has not created a link to the
connected indicated URL
protected boolean doInput It sets by the setDoInput() method
protected boolean doOutput It sets by the setDoOutput() method
protected long Some protocols skip the fetching of the object unless the object has been
ifModifiedSince modified recently
protected URL url It represents the remote object on the World Wide Web to which this
connection is opened
protected boolean useCaches It returns True if the protocol is allowed to use caching

Table 20.12: The constructor of the URLConnection class

Constructor Does this
protected URLConnection(URL url) It constructs a URL connection to the specified URL

Table 20.13: Methods of the URLConnection class

Method Does this
void addRequestProperty It adds a general request property specified by a key-value pair.
(String key, String value)
abstractvoid connect() It opens a communications link to the resource referenced by this URL, if
such a connection has not already been established.
boolean getAllowUserInteraction() It returns the value of the allowUserInteraction field for this object.
int getConnectTimeout() It returns setting for connect timeout.
Object getContent() It retrieves the contents of this URLConnection.
Object getContent It retrieves the contents of this URLConnection.
(Class[] classes)
String getContentEncoding() It returns the value of the content-encoding header field.
int getContentLength() It returns the value of the content-length header field.
String getContentType() It returns the value of the content-type header field.
long getDate() It returns the value of the date header field.
boolean getDefaultUseCaches() It returns the default value of a URLConnection's useCaches flag.
boolean getDoInput() It returns the value of this URLConnection's doInput flag.
boolean getDoOutput() It returns the value of this URLConnection's doOutput flag.

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Table 20.13: Methods of the URLConnection class

Method Does this
long getExpiration() It returns the value of the expired header field.
static FileNameMap It loads filename map (a mimetable) from a data file.
getFileNameMap()
String getHeaderField(int n) It returns the value for the nth header field.
String getHeaderField It returns the value of the named header field.
(String name)
long getHeaderFieldDate It returns the value of the named field parsed as date.
(String name,long Default)
int getHeaderFieldInt It returns the value of the named field parsed as a number.
(String name, int Default)
String getHeaderFieldKey It returns the key for the nth header field.
(int n)
long getIfModifiedSince() It returns the value of this objects ifModifiedSince field.
InputStream getInputStream() It returns an input stream that reads from this open connection.
long getLastModified() It returns the value of the last-modified header field.
OutputStream getOutputStream() It returns an output stream that writes to this connection.
Permission getPermission() It returns a permission object representing the permission necessary to
make the connection represented by this object.
int getReadTimeout() It returns setting for read timeout.
Map<String,List<String>> It returns an unmodifiable Map of general request properties for this
getRequestProperties() connection.
String getRequestProperty It returns the value of the named general request property for this
(String key) connection.
URL getURL() It returns the value of this URLConnection's URL field.
boolean getUseCaches() It returns the value of this URLConnection's useCaches field.
static String It tries to determine the content type of an object, based on the specified
guessContentTypeFromName file component of a URL.
(String fname)
static String It tries to determine the type of an input stream based on the characters at
guessContentTypeFromStream(InputS the beginning of the input stream.
tream is)
void setAllowUserInteraction It sets the value of the allowUserInteraction field of this
(boolean allowuserinteraction) URLConnection.
void setConnectTimeout It sets a specified timeout value, in milliseconds, to be used when opening
(int timeout) a communications link to the resource referenced by this
URLConnection.
static void It sets the default value of the allowUserInteraction field for all
setDefaultAllowUserInteraction(boo future URLConnection objects to the specified value.
lean defaultallowuserinteraction)
static void It is deprecated. The instance specific setRequestProperty() method
setDefaultRequestProperty should be used after an appropriate instance of URLConnection is
(Stringkey, String value) obtained. Invoking this method will have no effect.
void setDefaultUseCaches It sets the default value of the UseCaches field to the specified value.
(boolean defaultusecaches)
void setDoInput It sets the value of the doInput field for this URLConnection to the
(boolean doinput) specified value.

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Table 20.13: Methods of the URLConnection class

Method Does this
static void setFileNameMap It sets the FileNameMap.
(FileNameMap map)
void setIfModifiedSince It sets the value of the ifModifiedSince field of this URLConnection
(long ifmodifiedsince) to the specified value.
void setReadTimeout It sets the read timeout to a specified timeout, in milliseconds.
(int timeout)
void setRequestProperty It sets the general request property.
(String key, String value)
void setUseCaches It sets the value of the useCaches field of this URLConnection to the
(boolean usecaches) specified value.
String toString() It returns a String representation of this URLConnection.

Heres an example in which we check on a fictitious URL: http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/

java/index.html. Heres the code (note that we can use the getInputStream() method to actually get the
Web page content):
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
import java.util.Date;

class URLConnectionDemo
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
int character;
URL url = new
URL("http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/index.html");
URLConnection urlconnection = url.openConnection();
System.out.println("Content type: " +
urlconnection.getContentType());
System.out.println("Document date: " + new
Date(urlconnection.getDate()));
System.out.println("Last modified: " + new
Date(urlconnection.getLastModified()));
System.out.println("Document expires: " +
urlconnection.getExpiration());
int contentlength = urlconnection.getContentLength();
System.out.println("Content length: " + contentlength);
if (contentlength > 0)

{
InputStream in = urlconnection.getInputStream();
while ((character = in.read()) != -1)
{
System.out.print((char) character);
}
in.close();
}
}
}

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 Immediate Solutions

The output of the code is shown in Figure 20.8, showing the URL content:

Figure 20.8: Showing the URL connection to display the information

If you use it, make sure you specify a URL in the code.
To access the attributes of a remote resource, URLConnection is used, which first inspects the properties of the
remote object itself before transporting it locally. The HTTP protocol specification opens these attributes which
are then used by the URL objects using the HTTP protocol.
You need to create a URLConnection with the help of the openConnection() method of a URL object if you
want to view properties and content of the document:
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
import java.util.Date;

class URLConn
{
public static void main (String args[]) throws Exception
{
int c;
URL httpurl = new
URL("http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/index.html");
URLConnection httpurlCon = httpurl.openConnection();
long d = httpurlCon.getDate();

if (d==0) { System.out.println ("No date information."); }

else
System.out.println("Date: " + new Date(d));
System.out.println ("Content-Type: " +
httpurlCon.getContentType());
d = httpurlCon.getExpiration();

if(d == 0) { System.out.println ("No expiration information."); }

else
System.out.println ("Expires: " + new Date(d));
d = httpurlCon.getLastModified();

if (d == 0){System.out.println ("No last modified information.");}

else
System.out.println ("Last-Modified: " + new Date(d));
int len = httpurlCon.getContentLength();

if (len == -1)
System.out.println ("Content length unavailable.");
else { System.out.println ("Content-Length: " + len); }

if (len != 0) {
System.out.println ("=== Content ===");
InputStream input = httpurlCon.getInputStream();
int I = len;

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while (((c = input.read()) != -1) && (--I > 0))

{
System.out.print((char) c); }
input.close(); }
else { System.out.println ("No content available."); }
}
}
The program establishes an HTTP connection to www.oracle.com, as shown in Figure 20.9:

Figure 20.9: Forming a URL connection

You can list out the values of header and access the content. The output may vary depending on the conditions.
The URL and URLConnection classes are required for simple programs that want to connect to HTTP servers to
fetch the content.

Working with Datagrams

It is not always necessary to have a guaranteed, point-to-point channel by TCP-based protocols, because some
applications might prefer to have independent packages of information which need no confirmation of its arrival
or any sort of guarantee. Here comes the time of action for UDP protocol which sends small packages of data
called Datagrams in order to transfer data from one end to the other.
The DatagramPacket and DatagramSocket classes available in the java.net package are used for
implementing system-independent datagram communication through UDP.
In other words, Java implements Datagrams on top of the UDP protocol by using these two classes. The object
of the DatagramPacket class is the data container, and the DatagramSocket class is used for sending or
receiving the DatagramPacket.

DatagramPacket
The information passed through one datagram packet is independent of the other. In this, each message is
routed from one machine to another based solely on information contained within that packet; different packets
can be routed differently even if they are sent from a single machine regardless of the order. This means that it
might arrive in any order and this delivery is not guaranteed. DatagramPacket defines several constructors,
which you can see in Table 20.14 and the methods in Table 20.15:
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 Immediate Solutions

Table 20.14: Constructors for the DatagramPacket class

Constructors Does this
DatagramPacket(byte[] buf, It constructs a DatagramPacket for receiving packets of length
int length)
DatagramPacket(byte[] buf, It constructs a DatagramPacket for sending packets of length to the
int length, InetAddress address, specified port number on the specified host
int port)
DatagramPacket(byte[] buf, It constructs a DatagramPacket for receiving packets of length,
int offset, int length) specifying an offset into the buffer
DatagramPacket(byte[] buf, It constructs a DatagramPacket for sending packets of length with offset
int offset, int length, to the specified port number on the specified host
InetAddress address, int port)
DatagramPacket(byte[] buf, It constructs a DatagramPacket for sending packets of length with offset
int offset, int length, to the specified port number on the specified host
SocketAddress address)
DatagramPacket(byte[] buf, It constructs a DatagramPacket for sending packets of length to the
int length, SocketAddress address) specified port number on the specified host

The constructor DatagramPacket(byte[], int length) specifies a buffer that is used for receiving data
and the packets size. It is used for receiving data over a datagram socket. The other syntax of constructor
DatagramPacket(byte[], int offset, int length) also contains an offset into the buffer at which
data will be stored. The third syntax of the constructor DatagramPacket(byte[], int length,
InetAddress, ipAddress, int port) specifies a target address and a port in addition, which are used by
DatagramSocket for determining the location to which the data in the packet will be sent.
The next constructor DatagramPacket(byte[], int offset, int length, InetAddress, ipAddress,
int port) is used for transmitting packets starting at the particular offset into the data.
There are various methods for accessing the internal state of a DatagramPacket class, which are provided in
Table 20.15:
Table 20.15: Methods of the DatagramPacket class
Methods Does this
InetAddress getAddress() It returns the IP address of the machine to which this datagram is being
sent or from which the datagram was received
byte[] getData() It returns the data buffer
int getLength() It returns the length of the data to be sent or the length of the data received
int getOffset() It returns the offset of the data to be sent or the offset of the data received
int getPort() It returns the port number on the remote host to which this datagram is
being sent or from which the datagram was received
SocketAddress getSocketAddress() It gets the SocketAddress (usually IP address + port number) of the
remote host that this packet is being sent to or is coming from
void It sets the IP address of the machine to which this datagram is being sent
setAddress(InetAddress iaddr)
void setData(byte[] buf) It sets the data buffer for this packet
void setData(byte[] buf, It sets the data buffer for this packet
int offset, int length)
void setLength(int length) It sets the length for this packet
void setPort(int iport) It sets the port number on the remote host to which this datagram is being
sent
void It sets the SocketAddress (usually IP address + port number) of the
setSocketAddress(SocketAddress ad remote host to which this datagram is being sent
dress)

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Datagrams Server and Client

The messages written into the window at the server and across the network to the client side, where they are
shown, illustrate the concept of Datagram Server and Client.
Following is the code for server:
import java.net.*;
class ServerApp
{
public static int servPort = 997;
public static int clntPort = 998;
public static int buff_size = 1024;

public static DatagramSocket ds;

public static byte buff[] = new byte[buff_size];
public static void Server() throws Exception
{
int pos =0;
while (true)
{
int c = System.in.read();
switch (c)
{
case -1:
System.out.println ("Server Quits");
return;
case '\r':
break;
case '\n':
ds.send(new DatagramPacket
(buff,pos,InetAddress. getLocalHost(),clntPort));
pos = 0;
break;
default:
buff[pos++] = (byte) c; }
}
}
public static void main (String args[]) throws Exception
{
ds = new DatagramSocket (servPort);
Server();
}
}
Following is the code for client:
import java.net.*;

class ClientApp
{
public static int servPort = 997;
public static int clntPort = 998;

public static int buff_size = 1024;

public static DatagramSocket ds;
public static byte buff[] = new byte[buff_size];
public static void client() throws Exception
{
while(true)
{
DatagramPacket p = new DatagramPacket(buff, buff.length);
ds.receive (p);
System.out.println (new String (p.getData(), 0,
p.getLength())); }
}
public static void main (String args[]) throws Exception

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 Immediate Solutions

{
ds = new DatagramSocket (clntPort);
client();
}
}
The preceding programs are restricted by the DatagramSocket constructor to running between two ports on
the local machine. To run the programs, use:
java ServerApp
in one window; this will be the server. Then run:
java ClientApp
This will be the client. Data that is typed into the window at the server side will be written across the network to
the client-side, where it is displayed after a newline is received, as shown in Figure 20.10:

Figure 20.10: Connection between Client and Server

Working with BART

Now, lets design a client program that communicates with a server, BartServer. Each time a client, in our
case BartClient, connects to the server, it asks for a host name. Then it connects to the server at that host,
requests a quote, and displays the result on the screen 5 times. Now lets write the server program with the
name, BartServer2:
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
import java.util.*;

public class BartServer2

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int port = 1234;
BartQuote bart = new BartQuote();
try {
System.out.println("BartServer 2.0");
System.out.println("Listening on port " + port);
ServerSocket ss = new ServerSocket(port);
while (true) {
Socket s = ss.accept();
System.out.println("Connection established!");
Thread t = new Thread(new BartThread(s, bart));
t.start(); }
}
catch (Exception e) { System.out.println("System exception!"); }
}
}
class BartThread implements Runnable
{
private Socket s;
private BartQuote bart;
public BartThread(Socket socket, BartQuote bart)
{
this.s = socket;
this.bart = bart; }

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public void run() {

String client = s.getInetAddress().toString();
System.out.println("Connected to " + client);
try {
Scanner in = new Scanner(s.getInputStream());
PrintWriter out;
out = new PrintWriter(s.getOutputStream(),
true);
out.println("Welcome to the Bart Server");
out.println("Enter BYE to exit.");
while (true) {
String input = in.nextLine();
if (input.equalsIgnoreCase("bye"))
break;
else if (input.equalsIgnoreCase("get")) {
out.println(bart.getQuote());
System.out.println("Serving " + client); }
else { out.println("Huh?"); }
}
out.println("So long, suckers!");
s.close(); }
catch (Exception e) { e.printStackTrace(); }
System.out.println("Closed connection to " + client); }
}
Just compile the code. Now lets type the code for the client, BartClient, as follows:
import java.net.*;
import java.util.*;
import java.io.*;

public class BartClient

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int port = 1234;
System.out.println("Welcome to the Bart Client\n");
Socket s = getSocket(port);
try {
System.out.println("Connected on port " + port);
Scanner in = new Scanner(s.getInputStream());
PrintWriter out;
out = new PrintWriter(s.getOutputStream(), true);
in.nextLine();
in.nextLine();
out.println("get");
String quote = in.nextLine();
out.println("bye");
s.close();
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
System.out.println(quote);
}
catch (Exception e) { e.printStackTrace(); }
}
private static Socket getSocket(int port)
{
Socket s;
String host;
InetAddress ip;
Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
while (true) {
System.out.print(
"What server do you want to connect to?");
host = sc.nextLine();
try {
ip = InetAddress.getByName(host);
s = new Socket(ip, port);

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 Immediate Solutions

return s; }
catch (UnknownHostException e) {
System.out.println("The host is unknown."); }
catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("Network error."); }
}
}
}
Compile and execute the preceding code. The result of the Bart program is as follows (it differs from system to
system):
C:\> Java BartClient
Welcome to the Bart Client
What server do you want to connect to?yahoo.com
The host is unknown.
What server do you want to connect to?//appl
The host is unknown.
What server do you want to connect to?server_dt
Network error.
What server do you want to connect to?allen
Connection established!
Connected on port 1234
Connected to /192.168.0.51
Serving /192.168.0.51
Closed connection to /192.168.0.51
I will not fake seizures.
I will not fake seizures.
I will not fake seizures.
I will not fake seizures.
I will not fake seizures.
Interactive Session Ended
The procedure to connect to the server is placed in the getSocket() method. This method prompts the user for
a host name. The host name is read from the console and the method returns with the user that the program can
connect to.

Learning about the java.security Package

The java.security package provides classes and interfaces for security framework. The classes of this
package implement access control security architecture. This implemented security architecture is easily
configurable. Using this package, we can avail all support for the generation and storage of cryptographic public
keys. It also supports number of cryptographic operations which includes operations for message digest and
generation of signature. This package also contains classes for signed/guarded objects and random number
generation. Most of the classes are provider-based. These classes define their own programming interface and
applications may write to these interfaces. The implementation can be written by any third party and plugged as
required. It helps developers as they can take advantage of the number of provider-based implementations and
they need not rewrite the codes.
The interfaces of the java.security package can be found in Table 20.16 and their classes in Table 20.17:
Table 20.16: Interfaces of the java.security package
Interface Description
DomainCombiner It provides a means to dynamically update the ProtectionDomains
associated with the current AccessControlContext
Guard This interface represents a guard, which is used to protect access to
another object
Key It is a top level interface for all keys
KeyStore.Entry It is a marker interface for KeyStore entry types
KeyStore.LoadStoreParameter It is a marker interface for KeyStore load and store parameters
KeyStore.ProtectionParameter It is a marker interface for keystore protection parameters

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Table 20.16: Interfaces of the java.security package

Interface Description
Policy.Parameters It is a marker interface for Policy parameters
Principal This interface represents the abstract notion of a principal, which can be
used to represent any entity
PrivateKey It is a private key
PrivilegedAction<T> It is a computation to be performed with privileges enabled
PrivilegedExceptionAction<T> It is a computation to be performed with privileges enabled, that throws
one or more checked exceptions
PublicKey It is a public key

Table 20.17: Classes of the java.security package

Classe Description
AccessControlContext It is used to make system resource access decisions based on the context it
encapsulates
AccessController It is used for access control operations and decisions
AlgorithmParameterGenerator It is used to generate a set of parameters to be used with a certain
algorithm
AlgorithmParameterGeneratorSpi This class defines the Service Provider Interface (SPI) for the
AlgorithmParameterGenerator class, which is used to generate a set
of parameters to be used with a certain algorithm
AlgorithmParameters It is used as an opaque representation of cryptographic parameters
AlgorithmParametersSpi This class defines the Service Provider Interface (SPI) for the
AlgorithmParameters class, which is used to manage algorithm
parameters
AllPermission It is a permission that implies all other permissions
AuthProvider It defines login() and logout() methods for a provider
BasicPermission This class extends the Permission class, and can be used as the base
class for permissions that want to follow the same naming convention as
BasicPermission
CodeSigner It encapsulates information about a code signer
CodeSource CodeSource class extends the concept of a codebase to encapsulate not
only the location (URL) but also the certificate chains that were used to
verify signed code originating from that location
DigestInputStream It is a transparent stream that updates the associated message digest by
using the bits going through the stream
DigestOutputStream It is a transparent stream that updates the associated message digest by
using the bits going through the stream
GuardedObject It is an object that is used to protect access to another object
KeyFactory It is used to convert keys (opaque cryptographic keys of type Key) into
key specifications (transparent representations of the underlying key
material), and vice versa
KeyFactorySpi It defines the Service Provider Interface (SPI) for the KeyFactory class
KeyPair It is a simple holder for a key pair (a public key and a private key)
KeyPairGenerator It is used to generate pairs of public and private keys
KeyPairGeneratorSpi It defines the Service Provider Interface (SPI) for the KeyPairGenerator
class
KeyRep It is standardized representation for serialized Key objects

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 20.17: Classes of the java.security package

Classe Description
KeyStore It represents a storage facility for cryptographic keys and certificates.
KeyStore.Builder It is a description of a to-be-instantiated KeyStore object.
KeyStore.CallbackHandlerProtection It is a ProtectionParameter encapsulating a CallbackHandler
KeyStore.PasswordProtection It is a password-based implementation of ProtectionParameter
KeyStore.PrivateKeyEntry It is a KeyStore entry that holds a PrivateKey and corresponding
certificate chain
KeyStore.SecretKeyEntry A KeyStore entry that holds a SecretKey
KeyStore.TrustedCertificateEntry A KeyStore entry that holds a trusted Certificate
KeyStoreSpi It defines the Service Provider Interface (SPI) for the KeyStore class
MessageDigest It provides applications, the functionality of a message digest algorithm,
such as SHA-1 or SHA-256
MessageDigestSpi It defines the Service Provider Interface (SPI) for the MessageDigest
class
Permission It is an abstract class for representing access to a system resource
PermissionCollection It is an abstract class representing a collection of Permission objects
Permissions It represents a heterogeneous collection of Permissions
Policy This object is responsible for determining whether code executing in the
Java runtime environment has permission to perform a security-sensitive
operation
PolicySpi It defines the SPI for the Policy class
ProtectionDomain It encapsulates the characteristics of a domain, which encloses a set of
classes whose instances are granted a set of permissions when being
executed on behalf of a given set of Principals
Provider It represents a provider for the Java Security API, where a provider
implements some or all parts of Java Security
Provider.Service It is description of a security service
SecureClassLoader SecureClassLoader class extends ClassLoader with additional
support for defining classes with an associated code source and
permissions which are retrieved by the system policy by default
SecureRandom It provides a cryptographically strong Random Number Generator (RNG)
SecureRandomSpi It defines the SPI for the SecureRandom class
Security It centralizes all security properties and common security methods
SecurityPermission This class is for security permissions
Signature This Signature class is used to provide applications, the functionality of
a digital signature algorithm
SignatureSpi It defines the SPI for the Signature class
SignedObject It is a class for the purpose of creating authentic runtime objects whose
integrity cannot be compromised without being detected
Timestamp Timestamp class encapsulates information about a signed timestamp
UnresolvedPermission This class is used to hold Permissions that were unresolved when the
Policy was initialized
URIParameter It is a parameter that contains a URI pointing to data intended for a
PolicySpi or ConfigurationSpi implementation

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The Permission Class

The two most important classes of the java.security package are java.security.Permission and
java.security.Policy.
The Permission class is an abstract class in the java.security package which represents access to a system
resource. A permission has a name and abstract functions defining the semantics of a particular Permission
subclass. A Permission object may include a list of permitted actions. For example, for an object of the
java.io.FilePermission class (which extends Permission class), the pathname of the file or directory
is the permission name, and the actions permitted (like read, write) on the object are represented by an
action list.
All subclasses of the Permission class must implement the implies() method to compare Permissions.
Heres the inheritance diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.security.Permission
The constructor of the java.security.Permission can be found in Table 20.18 and its methods can be
constructor in Table 20.19:
Table 20.18: The constructor of the java.security.Permission class
Method Does this
Permission(String name) It creates a permission with a name specified

Table 20.19: Methods of the java.security.Permission class

Method Does this
void checkGuard (Object object) It implements the guard interface for a permission
abstract Boolean equals It checks two Permission objects for equality
(Object obj)
abstract String getActions() It gives actions as a String
String getName() It gives name of this Permission
abstract int hashCode() It gives hash code value for this Permission object
abstract Boolean implies It checks if the specified permissions actions are implied by this objects
(Permission permission) actions
PermissionCollection It yields an empty PermissionCollection for a given Permission
newPermissionCollection() object, or null if one is not defined
String toString() It yields a string describing this Permission

The Policy Class

An object of the Policy class is used to find if the code executing in Java runtime environment has permission
to perform security-sensitive operations.
In the runtime, there is only one Policy object installed at a time. A Policy object is installed by using the
setPolicy() method and can be obtained by using the getPolicy() method. If no Policy object is
installed, getPolicy() installs a default Policy implementation. To provide a custom implementation, we
can subclass the Policy class. After an instance of the Policy object is installed, Java runtime calls the
implies() method to find whether the running code can perform operations protected by SecurityManager.
The refresh() method enables the Policy object in refreshing/reloading its data. Heres the inheritance
diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.security.Policy

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 Immediate Solutions

The nested classes of the java.security.Policy class are given in Table 20.20, the fields in Table 20.21, and
the methods in Table 20.22:
Table 20.20: Nested class of the java.security.Policy class
Class Description
static interface It represents a marker interface for Policy parameters
Policy.Parameters

Table 20.21: Field summary of the java.security.Policy class

Field Description
static PermissionCollection It is a read-only empty PermissionCollection instance
UNSUPPORTED_EMPTY_COLLECTION

Table 20.22: Methods of the java.security.Policy class

Method Does this
static Policy It yields a Policy object of the specified type
getInstance(String type,
Policy.Parameters params)
static Policy It yields a Policy object of the specified type
getInstance(String type,
Policy.Parameters params,
Provider provider)
static Policy It yields a Policy object of the specified type
getInstance(String type,
Policy.Parameters params,
String provider)
Policy.Parameters getParameters() It yields Policy parameters
PermissionCollection It yields a PermissionCollection object containing the set of
getPermissions(CodeSource codesour permissions granted to the specified CodeSource
ce)
PermissionCollection It yields a PermissionCollection object containing the set of
getPermissions(ProtectionDomain do permissions granted to the specified ProtectionDomain
main)
static Policy getPolicy() It yields the installed Policy object
Provider getProvider() It yields the Provider of this Policy
String getType() It yields the type of this Policy
boolean It evaluates the global policy for the permissions granted to the
implies(ProtectionDomain domain, ProtectionDomain and tests whether the permission is granted
Permission permission)
void refresh() It refreshes/reloads the policy configuration
static void setPolicy(Policy p) It sets the system-wide Policy object

Let us see the implementation of the Policy class in the following solution:
import java.security.*;
import java.util.Enumeration;

public class SecurityApp {

public static void main(String args[]) {
ProtectionDomain domain1 = "".getClass().getProtectionDomain();

PermissionCollection pc = Policy.getPolicy().getPermissions(domain1);

Enumeration e1 = pc.elements();
for (; e1.hasMoreElements();) {
Permission per = (Permission) e1.nextElement();

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System.out.println(per);

}
}
}
The output of the preceding code is shown in Figure 20.11:

Figure 20.11: Showing the permissions for the user

Summary
In this chapter, you have learned about networking interfaces and classes, the InetAddresses, and caching
InetAddresses. Then, we have explained how to create and use sockets, create TCP clients and servers. Then,
we have discussed the whois example, as well as how to submit an HTML form. Next, you have learned to use
the URL, URL connection objects. You have also come to know datagram packets, datagram server and client.
Toward the end, you have learned BART and java.security package.
In the next chapter, you will learn about the Collections framework.

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21
Collections
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Using the Collection Interface 776
The Queue Interface 777
The List Interface 777
The Set Interface 778
The SortedSet Interface 779
Using the Collection Classes 779
Using the Comparator Interface 792
Using the Iterator Interface 793
Using the ListIterator Interface 793
Using the AbstractMap Class 795
Using the HashMap Class 796
Using the TreeMap Class 799
Using the Arrays Class 801
Learning the Fundamentals of Enumerations 804
The Legacy Classes and Interfaces 810
Using the Aggregate Operations 818
Using the java.util.function Package 819
Chapter 21: Collections

In Depth
In this chapter, well take a look at the collection classes in Java, which are supported by java.util. As
you can infer from the name, the collection classes let you group elements in various ways. They collection
classes also define several methods that provide easier way of working with items. These classes are
important, not just for their utility but because many other Java methods use or return objects of these
classes, such as the ArrayList and HashMap classes.
The original Java release did not introduce Collections within it. So Java used ad hoc classes, such as Dictionary,
Vector, Stack, and Properties. The drawback was that these classes lacked a unifying scheme and were not
designed to be easily extended or adapted. Collections were finally added by J2SE 1.2. Java SE 8 has significantly
increased the power and streamlined the use of collections framework.

The Collection Interfaces

Here are six collection interfaces:
CollectionIt is the top of the collection hierarchy. It supports basic grouping of elements.
DequeIt extends Queue to handle a double-ended queue. (Added in Java SE 6).
ListIt extends Collection to implement lists of objects.
SetIt extends Collection to implement sets, in which all elements must be unique.
MapIt does not have duplicate keys and each key should map to at least one value. This interface
generally maps values with keys.
SortedSetIt extends Set to implement a sorted set.
SortedMap It extends Map to implement a sorted map.
QueueIt extends Collection to handle special type of lists.
The implementations of the interfaces are provided in Table 21.1:
Table 21.1: Implementations of the Interfaces
Interface Hash Table Resizable Array Balanced Tree Linked List
Collection HashSet ArrayList TreeSet LinkedList
Set HashSet TreeSet
SortedSet TreeSet
List ArrayList LinkedList
Map HashMap TreeMap
SortedMap TreeMap
Queue LinkedList
Deque LinkedList

Youll see the details in this chapter; in particular, theres a standard set of classes that implement the collection
interfacesthe collection classes.

The Collection Classes

Here are the standard collection classes that implement the collection interfaces:
AbstractCollectionIt implements the Collection interface.
AbstractListIt extends AbstractCollection and implements the List interface.
AbstractQueueIt extends AbstractCollection and implements parts of the Queue interface.
AbstractSequentialListIt extends AbstractList into a sequential (not random access) list.

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LinkedListIt extends AbstractSequentialList into a linked list, where each element knows where
the next element is.
ArrayListIt implements a dynamic (resizable) array.
ArrayDequeIt implements a dynamic double-ended queue by extending AbstractCollection and
implementing the Deque interface (added by Java SE 6).
AbstractSetIt extends AbstractCollection and implements the Set interface.
HashSetIt extends AbstractSet to be used with a hash.
TreeSetIt extends AbstractSet to implement a set stored in tree form.
Note the HashSet class, which implements a set using a hash internally. In Java, hash stores information using
hashing; this converts a key to a hashcode thats then used to access the corresponding value. You dont deal with
the hashcode yourselfits generated internally in Java.

The Map Interfaces

You can also use maps in Java. A map stores data in key/value pairs, much like an array, where the indexes are,
themselves, objects. Typically, keys are strings, and you can look up an object in a map by using that object. Here
are the map interfaces:
MapIt implements a map.
Map.EntryThe inner class of Map that describes a key/value pair in a map.
NavigableMap It extends SortedMap to handle the retrieval of entries based on closest match searches
(added by Java SE 6).
SortedMapIt extends Map to keep the keys in ascending order.
Java also derives some standard classes from these interfacesthe map classes.

The Map Classes

Here are the standard map classes defined by Java:
AbstractMapIt implements the Map interface.
HashMapIt extends AbstractMap using a hash.
TreeMapIt extends AbstractMap using a tree.
WeakHashMapIt extends AbstractMap using a hash with weak keys, which means that elements whose
keys are no longer in use will be discarded.
Youll also see other classes here that are not technically members of the collection frameworkArrays,
Vector, Stack, Hashtable, and others. These older collections have been rebuilt on collection framework
functionality. In fact, most standard computing collections are implemented in Java in various ways; for
example, the TreeSet class implements a set using a tree internally, which means access time is quick.
HashSet implements a set using a hash internally, which means that adding and removing elements from such
a set should always take the same amount of time, no matter how large the set grows.

Collections Framework Enhancements in Java SE 8

The Java platform provides support for the collection framework. It is known that a collection is an object
representing the group of objects. The collection framework is an architecture representing and manipulating
collections.
The collections framework enhancements in Java SE 8 are as follows:
Support for lambda expressions, streams, and aggregate operations
Performance improvement for HashMaps with key collisions
Improved type inference
Lets learn more about these enhancements in detail in the following subsections.

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Support for Lambda Expressions, Streams, and Aggregate Operations

In Java SE8, the Java Collections Framework supports lambda expressions, streams, and aggregate operations.
Moreover, the Stream Application Program Interface (API) is integrated into the Collections API, and as a result,
bulk operations on collections, such as sequential or parallel map-reduce transformations, can be performed.
Lets now first learn about the enhancements in lambda expression and streams in Java SE 8.

Lambda Expressions and Streams in Java SE 8

In Java SE 8, new classes are added and improvement in the existing classes has been made for taking advantage
of lambda expressions and streams. The new and enhanced classes are available in the following packages:
java.utilIntegrates the Java Collections Framework with streams and provides general utility
functionality used by streams
java.util.functionIncludes general purpose functional interfaces that provide target types for
lambda expressions and references for method
java.util.streamIncludes the majority of interfaces and classes that provide functionality to streams
and aggregate operations
Besides the additions made to the existing classes, some other additions include methods that accept instances of
functional interfaces, which can be invoked with lambda expressions or method references. The
java.util.function and java.util.stream packages are two new packages included in Java SE8. Lets
discuss about each in detail.
The java.util.function Package
The java.util.function package includes interfaces that can be used by the JDK and with the code
developed by a user. The package also includes enough functionality that can meets the common requirements
of lambda expressions. This package also provides functional interfaces such as FileFilter that fulfills specific
purposes.
The interfaces in the java.util.function package are annotated with FunctionalInterface. However, putting
this annotation is not compulsory for making the compiler to identify an interface as a functional interface. The
annotations are merely used for capturing design intent and providing help to the compiler to determine the
accidental violations of design intent.
Functional interfaces generally focus on abstract concepts such as functions, actions, or predicates. While using
functional interfaces or referring the variables typed as functional interfaces, you need to refer to the abstract
concepts; for example, you can use "this function" in place of "the function represented by this object." The
different types of functional interfaces and their description are presented in Table 21.2:
Table 21.2: Types of Interfaces and their Description
Interface Description
BiConsumer<T,U> Signifies an operation that takes two input arguments and gives no result
BiFunction<T,U,R> Signifies a function that takes two arguments and generates a result
BinaryOperator<T> Signifies an operation on two operands of the same type, providing a result of the
same type as the operands
BiPredicate<T,U> Signifies a predicate (boolean-valued function) of two arguments
BooleanSupplier Signifies a supplier of boolean-valued results
Consumer<T> Signifies an operation that takes a single input argument and gives no result
DoubleBinaryOperator Signifies an operation on two double-valued operands and generating a double-valued
result
DoubleConsumer Signifies an operation that gets a single double-valued argument and gives no result
DoubleFunction<R> Signifies a function that takes a double-valued argument and generates a result
DoublePredicate Signifies a predicate (boolean-valued function) of one double-valued argument
DoubleSupplier Signifies a supplier of double-valued results

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Table 21.2: Types of Interfaces and their Description

Interface Description
DoubleToIntFunction Signifies a function that takes a double-valued argument and generates an int-valued
result
DoubleToLongFunction Signifies a function that takes a double-valued argument and generates a long-valued
result
DoubleUnaryOperator Signifies an operation on a single double-valued operand that generates a double-
valued result
Function<T,R> Signifies a function that takes one argument and generates a result
IntBinaryOperator Signifies an operation on two int-valued operands and generating an int-valued result
IntConsumer Signifies an operation that takes a single int-valued argument and gives no result
IntFunction<R> Signifies a function that takes an int-valued argument and generates a result
IntPredicate Signifies a predicate (boolean-valued function) of one int-valued argument
IntSupplier Signifies a supplier of int-valued results
IntToDoubleFunction Signifies a function that takes an int-valued argument and generates a double-valued
result
IntToLongFunction Signifies a function that takes an int-valued argument and generates a long-valued
result
IntUnaryOperator Signifies an operation on a single int-valued operand that generates an int-valued
result
LongBinaryOperator Signifies an operation on two long-valued operands and generates a long-valued result
LongConsumer Signifies an operation that takes a single long-valued argument and gives no result
LongFunction<R> Signifies a function that takes a long-valued argument and generates a result
LongPredicate Signifies a predicate (boolean-valued function) of one long-valued argument
LongSupplier Signifies a supplier of long-valued results
LongToDoubleFunction Signifies a function that takes a long-valued argument and generates a double-valued
result
LongToIntFunction Signifies a function that takes a long-valued argument and generates an int-valued result
LongUnaryOperator Signifies an operation on a single long-valued operand that generates a long-valued result
ObjDoubleConsumer<T> Signifies an operation that takes an object-valued argument and a double-valued
argument and gives no result
ObjIntConsumer<T> Signifies an operation that takes an object-valued argument and an int-valued
argument and gives no result
ObjLongConsumer<T> Signifies an operation that takes an object-valued argument and a long-valued
argument and gives no result
Predicate<T> Signifies a predicate (boolean-valued function) of one argument
Supplier<T> Signifies a supplier of results
ToDoubleBiFunction<T,U> Signifies a function that takes two arguments and generates a double-valued result
ToDoubleFunction<T> Signifies a function that generates a double-valued result
ToIntBiFunction<T,U> Signifies a function that takes two arguments and generates an int-valued result
ToIntFunction<T> Signifies a function that generates an int-valued result
ToLongBiFunction<T,U> Signifies a function that takes two arguments and generates a long-valued result
ToLongFunction<T> Signifies a function that generates a long-valued result
UnaryOperator<T> Signifies an operation on a single operand that produces a result of the same type as its
operand

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The java.util.stream Package

The stream class is the main abstraction provided in this package. Classes such as Stream, IntStream,
LongStream, and DoubleStream are streams over objects and the primitive int, long, and double types. Streams
can be obtained by several ways, which are as follows:
They can be obtained from a Collection using the stream() and parallelStream() methods.
They can be obtained from an array using the Arrays.stream (Object[])method.
They can be obtained from static factory methods on the stream classes, such as Stream.of(Object[]),
IntStream.range(int,int), or Stream.iterate(Object, UnaryOperator).
The lines of a file can be obtained from the BufferedReader.lines()method.
Streams of file paths can be obtained from the methods in Files.
Streams of random numbers can be obtained from the Random.ints ()method.
Various other stream-bearing methods in the JDK are BitSet.stream (), Pattern.splitAsStream
(java.lang.CharSequence), and JarFile.stream().
The various interfaces available in the java.util.stream package and their description are listed in Table 21.3:
Table 21.3: Interfaces and their Description
Interface Description
BaseStream<T,S extends BaseStream<T,S>> Refers to the base interface for streams, which are sequences of
elements that support sequential and parallel aggregate
operations
Collector<T,A,R> Refers to a mutable reduction operation that accumulates input
elements into a mutable result container, optionally transforming
the accumulated result into a final representation after the
processing of all the input elements
DoubleStream Refers to a sequence of primitive double- valued elements which
support sequential and parallel aggregate operations
DoubleStream.Builder Refers to a mutable builder for a DoubleStream
IntStream Refers to a sequence of primitive int-valued elements which
support sequential and parallel aggregate operations
IntStream.Builder Refers to a mutable builder for an IntStream
LongStream Refers to a sequence of primitive long-valued elements which
support sequential and parallel aggregate operations
LongStream.Builder Refers to a mutable builder for a LongStream
Stream<T> Refers to a sequence of elements which support sequential and
parallel aggregate operations
Stream.Builder<T> Refers to a mutable builder for a Stream

Table 21.4 presents the classes in the java.util.stream package:

Table 21.4: Classes in the java.util.stream Package and their Description
Class Description
Collectors Contains implementations of Collector that implements
several useful reduction operations, such as gathering elements
into collections, summarizing elements on the basis of different
criteria, etc.
StreamSupport Provides low-level utility methods to create and manipulate
streams

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The main differences between stream and collections are as follows:

No storageA stream does not store elements as it is not a data structure, whereas a collection does.
Functional natureWhenever an operation is performed on a stream, it produces a result and therefore
does not alter its source. For example, when the filtering operation is performed on a stream, which is
retrieved from a collection, it generates a new Stream. This new stream does not contain filtered
elements and is created instead of deleting elements present in the source collection. On the other hand, in a
collection, the elements are deleted from the existing collection.
Laziness-seekingSeveral operations on stream can be lazily implemented due to which optimization can
take place. These operations may include filtering, mapping, or duplicate removal. Generally, stream
operations are broken down into intermediate (or Stream-producing) operations and terminal (or value- or
side-effect-producing) operations. Intermediate operations are always considered lazy. On the other hand,
optimization cannot take place in a collection.
Possibly unboundedStreams do not have a finite size unlike collections.
ConsumableThe elements of a stream are only visited once during the life of a stream. Like an Iterator, a
new stream must be generated to revisit the same elements of the source. However, in a collection, the
elements can be navigated again and again.

Aggregate Operations
An operation that is performed on a data structure rather than on an individual element is known as an
aggregate operation. Aggregate operations, like forEach, give an impression that these are like iterators.
However, they are different from iterators in the following ways:
They use internal iterationAggregate operations perform internal iteration as they do not contain a
method like next, which enables them to iterate to the next element of the collection. With the help of
internal delegation, your application identifies the collection over which it iterates. But the JDK identifies
the iteration over the collection. On the other hand, with the help of external iteration, your application can
determine about the collection over which it iterates and the way it iterates. However, there is a limitation
with external iterators as they can only iterate sequentially over the elements of a collection. This limitation
does not exist with internal iterators. Moreover, the internal iteration takes benefits of parallel computing,
which involves breaking a problem into subproblems and then solving them simultaneously.
They process elements from a streamAggregate operations do not process elements directly from a
collection, but directly from a stream. Therefore, they are also called stream operations.
They support behavior as parametersThe lambda expressions can also be specified as parameters for
most of the aggregate operations which allow customization of the behavior of a specific aggregate
operation.
To better understand the concept of aggregate operations, consider a scenario in which you are developing a
social networking site. You want to provide the facility that allows an administrator to perform different actions,
such as sending a message to the members of the social networking application, which satisfy certain criteria.
Suppose the members of this social networking application are represented by the following SNMember class:
public class SNMember {
public enum Gender {
M, FM
}
String sname;
LocalDate mem_birthday;
Gender sex;
String email;
// ...
public int getMemage() {
// ...
}
public String getMemname() {
// ...
}
}
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Consider the following code snippet which prints the name of all members contained in the collection memlist
using the for-each loop:
for (SNMember sn : memlist) {
System.out.println(sn.getMemname());
}
Now, consider the following code snippet which prints all the members present in the collection memlist, but
with the use of aggregate operation forEach:
memlist
.stream()
.forEach(e -> System.out.println(e.getMemname());
In the previous code snippet, the aggregate operation for-each loop is used.
Pipelines and Streams
A pipeline refers to a sequence of aggregate operations. Consider the following code snippet that prints the male
members available in the collection memlist with a pipeline that comprises the aggregate operations such as
filter and forEach:
memlist
.stream()
.filter(e -> e.getsex() == SNMember.Gender.M)
.forEach(e -> System.out.println(e.getMemname()));
A pipeline consists of the following components:
SourceIt might be a collection, an array, a generator function, or an I/O channel. In the previous code
snippet, the example of a source is the collection memlist.
Zero or more intermediate operations An intermediate operation, such as filter, produces a new stream.
StreamA stream does not store elements; instead, it carries values from a source through a pipeline. In the
previous code snippet, a stream is created from the collection memlist by invoking the method stream.
PredicateA new stream is returned by the filter operation. This stream comprises those elements that
match its predicate. In the preceding code snippet, the predicate is the lambda expression e -> e.getsex() ==
SNMember.Gender.M, which gives the boolean value(true or false). It returns true if the sex field of object e
has the value SNMember.Gender.M. Subsequently, the filter operation returns a stream that comprises all
male members in the collection memlist.
Terminal operationA pipleline also comprises a terminal operation, such as forEach, which generates a
non-stream result, such as a primitive value, a collection, or no value at all. In the preceding code snippet,
the parameter of the forEach operation is the lambda expression e -> System.out.println(e.getMemname()),
which invokes the method getMemname on the object e.

Performance Improvement for HashMaps with Key Collisions

The performance has been improved for HashMap objects where lots of collisions occur in the keys. A String
hash function included in Java 7 update 6 is now removed from JDK 8 along with the
jdk.map.althashing.threshold system property. Hash bins, having very large number of colliding keys, enhance
performance by saving their entries in a balanced tree and not in the linked list. This modification in JDK 8
implies only to HashMap, LinkedHashMap, and ConcurrentHashMap.
This modification might bring a change to the order of iteration in HashMap and HashSet in very rare situations.
Any specific order of iteration is not mentioned for HashMap objects and any code that relies on iteration order
should be fixed.
There is no change in the java.util.Hashtable class other than obsoleting the feature introduced in 7u6.
The features added in Java 7 update 6 only apply to WeakHashMap and Hashtable, but these have been
removed in JDK 8.

Improved Type Inference

The Java compiler takes the benefit of target typing for inferring the type parameters belonging to a generic
method invocation. The target type of an expression refers to the data type that is expected by the Java compiler

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depending on the location of appearance of expression. For example, earlier, that is, in Java SE7, an assignment
statement's target type is used for type inference. However, in case of Java SE 8, the target type for type inference
is used. Consider the following code snippet in which a method invocation's target types are used for inferring
the data types of its arguments:
List<String> strLst = new ArrayList<>();
strLst.add("B");
strLst.addAll(Arrays.asList());
In the preceding code snippet, the method addAll is expecting a Collection object as its parameter and the
method Arrays.asList returns a List object. This will work as List in a subtype of Collection.
Now, consider the case of generics; the target type of addAll is Collection<? extends String>. On the
other hand, the Arrays.asList() method returns a List<T> instance. In Java SE 8, the compiler infers that
the value of the type variable T is String. The compiler can infer this by using the target type Collection<?
extends String>.
Thats it for the overview of whats in this chapter. Theres a lot coming up next the collection framework is
very large. Its time to turn to the Immediate Solutions section.

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Immediate Solutions
Using the Collection Interface
The Collection interface revolves around the objects to provide maximum generality. For example, all
general-purpose collection executions have a constructor that takes Collection parameter. This constructor,
known as a conversion constructor, initializes the new collection to hold all of the elements in the intended
location, whatever be the collections subinterface or implementation type. You can say that it permits you to
convert the collections type.
Consider an example that you have a Collection<String> co, which can be a List, a Set, or another kind of
Collection. It creates a new ArrayList (an implementation of the List interface), which consists of all the
elements in co. The code using the Collection<String> co is as follows:
List<String> list = new ArrayList<String>(co);
The foundation of the collection framework is the Collection interface, and because the collection classes
implement this interface, well take a look at its methods here for reference. Youll find the methods for the
Collection interface in Table 21.5:
Table 21.5: Methods of the Collection interface
Method Does this
boolean add(E e) It adds the given element.
boolean addAll It adds all the elements in the given collection.
(Collection c)
void clear() It removes all the elements from this collection.
boolean contains(E e) It returns True if this collection contains the given element.
boolean containsAll(Collection c) It returns True if this collection contains all the elements in the
given collection.
boolean equals(E e) It compares the given object with this collection for equality.
int hashCode() It gets the hashcode value for this collection.
boolean isEmpty() It returns True if this collection has no elements.
Iterator iterator() It gets an iterator over the elements in this collection.
boolean remove(E e) It removes a single instance of the given element.
boolean removeAll(Collection c) It removes all of this collections elements that are also contained
in the given collection (Optional Operation).
default boolean removeIf(Predicate<? It removes all the elements of this collection which satisfy the
super E> filter) given predicate.
boolean retainAll(Collection c) It keeps only the elements in this collection which are contained in
the given collection (Optional Operation).
int size() It gets the number of elements in this collection.
default Spliterator<E> HYPERLINK It creates a Spliterator over the elements in this collection.
"http://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/java/util
/Collection.html" \l "spliterator--" spliterator()
default Stream<E> stream() It returns a sequential Stream with this collection as its source.
Object[] toArray() It gets an array containing all the elements in this collection.
<T> T[] toArray(T[ ] a) It gets an array containing all the elements in this collection whose
type is that of the given array.

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The Queue Interface

A Queue is a collection of elements to hold them before processing starts. Besides basic Collection operations,
queues provide additional insertion, deletion, and inspection operations. The Queue interface follows:
public interface Queue<E> extends Collection<E>
{
E element();
boolean offer(E e);
E peek();
E poll();
E remove();
}
Each Queue method exists in the following two forms:
1. It throws an exception if the operation fails.
2. It returns a special value if the operation fails (either null or false, depending on the operation).
The methods of the Queue interface are listed in Table 21.6:
Table 21.6: Methods of the Queue interface
Method Does this
boolean add(E e) It inserts specified elements into this queue and returns true. If no
available space, then it throws an IllegalStateExcetion.
E element() It retrieves and returns the element at the head of this queue.
boolean offer(E e) Ii inserts element and returns true if the element is inserted into the
queue.
E peek () It returns the item at the head of this queue without removing it from the
queue. It throws an exception if the queue is empty and returns null.
E pool() It retrieves and removes the head of this queue. If the queue is empty,
then it returns null.
E remove() It retrieves and removes the head of this queue.

The List Interface

The List interface is the foundation of classes such as LinkedList and ArrayList. It is basically an extension
of the Collection interface that stores the behavior of a collection. So, well take a look at the methods of this
interface for reference. The methods of the List interface are provided in Table 21.7:
Table 21.7: Methods of the List interface
Method Does this
void add It inserts the given element at the given position in this list.
(int index, E element)
boolean add(E e) It adds the given element to the end of this list.
boolean addAll(Collection<? extends It adds all the elements in the given collection to the end of this list.
E> c)
boolean addAll(int index, It inserts all the elements in the given collection into this list.
Collection<? extends E> c)
void clear() It removes all the elements from this list.
boolean contains(Object o) It returns True if this list contains the given element.
boolean containsAll It returns True if this list contains all the elements of the given collection.
(Collection<?> c)
boolean equals(Object o) It compares the given object with this list for equality.
Object get(int index) It gets the element at the given position in this list.

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Table 21.7: Methods of the List interface

Method Does this
int hashCode() It gets the hashcode value for this list.
int indexOf(Object o) It gets the index of the first occurrence of the given element in this list or
-1 if this list does not contain the element.
boolean isEmpty() It returns True if this list contains no elements.
Iterator iterator() It gets an iterator over the elements in this list in proper sequence.
int lastIndexOf(Object o) It gets the index of the last occurrence of the given element in this list or -
1 if this list does not contain the element.
ListIterator listIterator() It gets a list iterator over the elements in this list (in proper sequence).
ListIterator listIterator It gets a list iterator of the elements in this list, starting at the given
(int index) position in this list.
Object remove(int index) It removes the element at the given position in this list.
boolean remove(Object o) It removes the first occurrence in this list of the given element.
boolean removeAll It removes from this list all of its elements that are contained in the given
(Collection<?> c) collection (optional operation).
default replaceAll(UnaryOperator<E> It replaces each element of this list with the result of applying the
operator) operator to that element.
boolean retainAll It keeps only the elements in this list that are contained in the given
(Collection<?> c) collection.
E set(int index, E element) It replaces the element at the given position in the list with the new
element.
int size() It gets the number of elements in this list.
default void sort(Comparator<? super It sorts this list according to the order induced by the specified
E> c) Comparator.
default Spliterator<E> spliterator() It creates a Spliterator over the elements in this list.
List<E> subList(int fromIndex, int It returns a view of the portion of this list between the specified
toIndex) fromIndex, inclusive, and toIndex, exclusive.
List subList(int fromIndex, int It gets a view of the section between the given fromIndex (inclusive)
toIndex) and toIndex.
Object[] toArray() It gets an array containing all the elements in this list in proper sequence
(from first to last element).
<T> T[] toArray It gets an array containing all the elements in this list in proper sequence
(T[ ] a) (from first to last element); the runtime type of the returned array is that
of the specified array.

The Set Interface

The Set interface is the foundation of classes such as HashSet and TreeSet, and it is used by the collection
framework to implement sets. Therefore, well take a look at this interface for reference. The methods of the Set
interface are provided in Table 21.8:
Table 21.8: Methods of the Set Interface
Method Does this
boolean add(E e) It adds the given element to this set.
boolean addAll (Collection<? extends It adds all the elements in the given collection.
E> c)
void clear() It removes all the elements from this set.

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Table 21.8: Methods of the Set Interface

Method Does this
boolean contains(Object o) It returns True if this set contains the given element.
boolean containsAll It returns True if this set contains all the elements of the given collection.
(Collection<?> c)
boolean equals(Object o) It compares the given object with this set for equality.
int hashCode() It gets the hashcode value for this set.
boolean isEmpty() It returns True if this set contains no elements.
Iterator iterator() It gets an iterator over the elements in this set.
boolean remove(Object o) It removes the given element from this set if it is present.
boolean removeAll It removes all elements contained in the given collection.
(Collection<?> c)
boolean retainAll It keeps only the elements in this set that are contained in the given
(Collection<?> c) collection.
int size() It gets the number of elements in this set (its cardinality).
Object[] toArray() It gets an array containing all the elements in this set.
<T> T[] toArray It gets an array containing all the elements in this set whose runtime type
(T[ ] a) is that of the given array.

The SortedSet Interface

The SortedSet interface maintains a sorted set, and youll find the methods of this interface in Table 21.9:
Table 21.9: Methods of the SortedSet Interface
Method Does this
Comparator<? Super E> comparator() It returns the comparator used to order the elements in this set or null if
this set uses the natural ordering.
E first() It gets the first (lowest) element currently in this set.
SortedSet headSet It gets a view of the section of this set whose elements are strictly less
(Object toElement) than toElement.
E last() It gets the last (highest) element currently in this set.
default Spliterator<E> spliterator() It creates a Spliterator over the elements in this sorted set.
SortedSet<E> subSet It gets a view of the portion of this set whose elements range from
(E fromElement, E toElement) fromElement to toElemen.
SortedSet<E> tailSet It gets a view of the portion of this set whose elements are greater than
(E fromElement) or equal to fromElement.

Using the Collection Classes

We have discussed earlier that a collection is a series of items of the same type unlike arrays. The main drawback
of arrays was that you could not know or predict the number of items of the list. The solution to this was to
create your own list. The Collection class contains exclusive static methods that operate on or return
collections. It contains polymorphic (more than one feature) algorithms that operate on collections, "wrappers",
which return a new collection.

The AbstractCollection Class

The AbstractCollection class is the implementation of the Collection interface upon which many Java
collection classes are built, so well take a look at AbstractCollection for reference. Heres the inheritance
diagram for this class:

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java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractCollection
Youll find the constructor for the AbstractCollection class in Table 21.10 and its methods in Table 21.11:
Table 21.10: The constructor of the AbstractCollection class
Constructor Does this
protected AbstractCollection() It constructs an AbstractCollection object.

Table 21.11: Methods of the AbstractCollection class

Method Does this
boolean add(E e) It ensures that this collection contains the given element.
boolean addAll(Collection<? It adds all the elements in the given collection to this collection.
extends E> c)
void clear() It removes all the elements from this collection.
boolean contains(Object o) It returns True if this collection contains the given element.
boolean containsAll It returns True if this collection contains all the elements in the given
(Collection<?> c) collection.
boolean isEmpty() It returns True if this collection contains no elements.
abstract Iterator iterator() It gets an iterator over the elements contained in this collection.
boolean remove(Object o) It removes the given element from this collection.
boolean removeAll It removes all of this collections elements that are also contained in the
(Collection<?> c) given collection.
boolean retainAll (Collection<?> It keeps only the elements contained in the given collection.
c)
abstract int size() It gets the number of elements in this collection.
Object[] toArray() It gets an array containing all the elements in this collection.
<T> T[] toArray(T[ ] a) It gets an array that contains all the elements in this collection.
String toString() It gets a string representation of this collection.

The AbstractList Class

The AbstractList class extends the AbstractCollection class. It is the foundation of other classes such as
ArrayList, which supports dynamic arrays. Therefore, well refer AbstractList here for reference. The
inheritance diagram for this class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractCollection
|____java.util.AbstractList
Youll find the field of the AbstractList class in Table 21.12, its constructor in Table 21.13, and its methods in
Table 21.14:
Table 21.12: The field of the AbstractList class
Field Does this
protected int modCount It indicates the number of times this list has been modified.

Table 21.13: The constructor of the AbstractList class

Constructor Does this
protected AbstractList() It constructs an AbstractList object.

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Table 21.14: Methods of the AbstractList class

Method Does this
void add It inserts the given element into this list.
(int index, E element)
boolean add(E e) It adds the given element to the end of this list.
boolean addAll It inserts the elements in the given collection into this list.
(int index, Collection<? extends
E> c)
void clear() It removes all the elements from this list.
boolean equals(Object o) It compares the given object with this list for equality.
abstract Object get It gets the element at the given position in this list.
(int index)
int hashCode() It gets the hashcode value for this list.
int indexOf(Object o) It gets the index of the first occurrence of the given element in this list, or -1
if this list does not contain the element.
Iterator iterator() It gets an iterator over the elements in this list in proper sequence.
int lastIndexOf(Object o) It gets the index of the last occurrence of the given element in this list, or -1
if this list does not contain the element.
ListIterator listIterator() It gets a list iterator over the elements in this list (in proper sequence).
ListIterator listIterator It gets a list iterator of the elements in this list (in proper sequence), starting
(int index) at the given position in this list.
E remove(int index) It removes the element at the given position in this list.
protected void removeRange It removes from this list all the elements whose index is between
(int fromIndex, int fromIndex and toIndex.
toIndex)
E set(int index, E element) It replaces the element at the given position in this list with the new element.
List subList(int fromIndex, int It gets a view of the portion of this list between the specified fromIndex
toIndex) (inclusive) and toIndex (exclusive).

The AbstractSequentialList Class

The AbstractSequentialList class is derived from the AbstractList class. It is the foundation of classes
such as LinkedList. Lets look at the inheritance diagram for the AbstractSequentialList class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractCollection
|____java.util.AbstractList
|____java.util.AbstractSequentialList
Youll find the constructor of the AbstractSequentialList class in Table 21.15 and its methods in
Table 21.16:
Table 21.15: The constructor of the AbstractSequentialList class
Constructor Does this
protected AbstractSequentialList() It constructs an AbstractSequentialList object.

Table 21.16: Methods of the AbstractSequentialList class

Method Does this
void add It inserts the given element at the given position in this list (optional
(int index, E element) operation).
boolean addAll(int index, It inserts all the elements in the given collection into this list at the specified
Collection<? extends E> c) position (optional operation).
Object get(int index) It gets the element at the given position in this list.

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Table 21.16: Methods of the AbstractSequentialList class

Method Does this
Iterator<E> iterator() It gets an iterator over the elements in this list.
abstract ListIterator<E> It gets a list iterator over the elements in this list.
listIterator(int index)
E remove(int index) It removes the element at the given position in this list (optional operation).
E set It replaces the element at the given position in this list with the specified
(int index, E element) element (optional operation).

The ArrayList Class

The Novice Programmer appears and says, Good Lord! My code stores phone numbers in an array, but we are
never sure whether the user will store 3 phone numbers there or 10,000, so I have to set up an array with enough
space for 10,000 numbers. Unless, you say, you use an ArrayList object, which is a dynamic array that can
grow at runtime. The NP says, Wow!
The ArrayList class is an array class that can grow or shrink at runtime. Note that arrays of this class must
hold objects, not just simple data types. Heres the inheritance diagram for this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractCollection
|____java.util.AbstractList
|____java.util.ArrayList
Youll find the constructors of the ArrayList class in Table 21.17 and its methods in Table 21.18:
Table 21.17: Constructors of the ArrayList class
Constructor Does this
ArrayList() It constructs an ArrayList object.
ArrayList (Collection<? extends E> It constructs a list containing the elements of the given collection.
c)
ArrayList(int initialCapacity) It constructs an empty list with the given initial capacity.

Table 21.18: Methods of the ArrayList class

Method Does this
void add(int index, E element) It inserts the given element at the given position in this list.
boolean add(E e) It adds the given element to the end of this list.
boolean addAll It adds all the elements in the given collection to the end of this list in the
(Collection<? extends E> c) order that they are returned by the specified collections Iterator.
boolean addAll It inserts all the elements in the given collection into this list, starting at the
(int index, Collection<? extends given position.
E> c)
void clear() It removes all the elements from this list.
Object clone() It gets a copy of this ArrayList instance.
boolean contains It returns True if this list contains the given element.
(Object elem)
void ensureCapacity It increases the capacity of this ArrayList instance.
(int minCapacity)
void forEach(Consumer<? super E> It performs the given action for each element of the Iterable until all
action) elements have been processed or the action throws an exception.
Object get(int index) It gets the element at the given position in this list.
int indexOf(Object elem) It returns the index of the first occurrence of the given element in this list, or
-1 if this list does not contain the element.
boolean isEmpty() It returns true if this list has no elements.

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Table 21.18: Methods of the ArrayList class

Method Does this
int lastIndexOf It gets the index of the last occurrence of the given element in this list, or -1
(Object elem) if this list has no element.
E remove(int index) It removes the element at the given position in this list.
boolean remove(Object elem) It removes the first occurrence of the specified element from this list, if it is
present.
protected void removeRange It removes from this list all the elements whose index is between
(int fromIndex, int toIndex) fromIndex and toIndex.
E set(int index, E element) It replaces the element at the given position in this list with the given
element.
int size() It gets the number of elements in this list.
void sort(Comparator<? super E> c) It sorts this list according to the order induced by the specified Comparator.
Spliterator<E> spliterator() It creates a late-binding and fail-fast Spliterator over the elements in this list.
List<E> subList(int fromIndex, int It returns a view of the portion of this list between the specified fromIndex,
toIndex) inclusive, and toIndex, exclusive.
Object[] toArray() It gets an array containing all the elements in this list in proper
sequence(from first to last element).
<T> T[] toArray(T[] a) It gets an array containing all the elements in this list in proper
sequence(from first to last element); the runtime type of the returned array
is that of the specified array.
void trimToSize() It trims the capacity to be the lists current size.

You can add elements to an ArrayList object with the add() method, get an element at a certain index with
the get() method, and remove elements with the remove() method.
Lets consider an example in which we add elements to an array at runtime. Remember we are using two forms
of the add() method: general form and the form that allows to add an element at a specific location(index). We
are also using the remove() method to remove one element. The Iterator interface is defined in the
java.util package. This Iterator interface has three methodshasNext(), next(), and remove().
These methods are all you need to access each element of a collection, as you see here:
import java.util.*;
class Arraylist
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
ArrayList<String> arraylist = new ArrayList<String>();
arraylist.add("Item 0");
arraylist.add("Item 2");
arraylist.add("Item 3");
arraylist.add("Item 4");
arraylist.add("Item 5");
arraylist.add("Item 6");
arraylist.add(1, "Item 1");

System.out.println("\nUsing the add method");

System.out.println(arraylist);

arraylist.remove("Item 5");

System.out.println(arraylist);
System.out.println("\nUsing the Iterator interface");
String s;
Iterator e = arraylist.iterator();
while (e.hasNext())
{

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s = (String)e.next();
System.out.println(s);
}
}
}
Heres the output of this example:
C:\>java Arraylist
Using the add method
[Item 0, Item 1, Item 2, Item 3, Item 4, Item 5, Item 6]
[Item 0, Item 1, Item 2, Item 3, Item 4, Item 6]

Using the Iterator interface

Item 0
Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
Item 4
Item 6

Generics is on the leading edge of Object-Oriented Programming. You can get by without knowing anything about generics, but
it is better to just have an idea about them so as to learn how ArrayList and LinkedList classes use the new generics feature.

The ArrayDeque Class

The ArrayDeque class was added in Java SE 6. It extends AbstractCollection and implements the Deque
interface. It does not add methods on its own. The ArrayDeque class forms a dynamic array which has no
limitations on capacity. The Deque interface supports implementation that limits capacity, but does not require
such restrictions.
The ArrayDeque class is a generic class and its inheritance diagram is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractCollection
|____java.util.ArrayDeque
Youll find the constructors of the ArrayDeque class in Table 21.19 and its methods in Table 21.20:
Table 21.19: Constructors of the ArrayDeque class
Constructor Does this
ArrayDeque() It constructs an ArrayDeque object.
ArrayDeque(Collection<? extends E> It constructs a deque containing the elements of the given collection.
c)
ArrayDeque(int numElements) It constructs an empty deque with the given initial capacity.

Table 21.20: Methods of the ArrayDeque class

Method Does this
boolean add(E e) It adds the given element to the end of this deque.
void addFirst(E e) It adds the given element to the front of this deque.
void addLast (E e) It inserts the given element at the end of this deque.
void clear() It removes all the elements from this deque.
ArrayDeque<E> clone() It gets a copy of this ArrayDeque instance.
boolean contains (Object elem) It returns True if this deque contains the given element.
Iterator<E> descendingIterator() It returns an iterator over the elements in this deque in reverse sequential
order.
E element() It retrieves, but does not remove, the head of the queue represented by this
deque.
E getFirst() It retrieves, but does not remove, the first elements of this deque.

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Table 21.20: Methods of the ArrayDeque class

Method Does this
E getLast() It retrieves, but does not remove, the last elements of this deque.
boolean isEmpty() It returns true if this deque has no elements.
Iterator<E> iterator() It returns an iterator over the elements in this deque.
boolean offer(E e) It inserts the specified element at the end of this deque.
boolean offerFirst(E e) It inserts the specified element at the front of this deque.
boolean offerLast(E e) It inserts the specified element at the end of this deque.
E peek() It retrieves, but does not remove, the head of the queue represented by this
deque, or return null if this deque is empty.
E peekFirst() It retrieves, but does not remove, the first element of this deque, or return
null if this deque is empty.
E peekLast() It retrieves, but does not remove, the last element of this deque, or return
null if this deque is empty.
E poll() It retrieves and removes, the head of the queue represented by this deque,
or return null if this deque is empty.
E pollFirst() It retrieves and removes the first element of this deque or return null if this
deque is empty.
E pollLast() It retrieves and removes the last element of this deque or return null if this
deque is empty.
E pop() It pops an element from the stack represented by this deque.
void push(E e) It pushes an element from the stack represented by this deque.
E remove() It retrieves and removes the head of the queue represented by this deque.
E removeFirst() It retrieves and removes the first element of this deque.
E removeLast() It retrieves and removes the last element of this deque.
boolean removeFirstOccurrence It removes the last occurrence of the specified element in this deque.
(Object o)
int size() It returns the number of elements in this deque.
Spliterator<E> spliterator() It creates a late-binding and fail-fast Spliterator over the elements in this
deque.
Object toArray() It returns an array containing all of the elements in this deque in proper
sequence(from first to last element).
<T> T[] toArray(T[] a) It returns an array containing all of the elements in this deque in proper
sequence(from first to last element); the runtime type of the returned array
is that of the specified array.

To build a linked list, you can use the add(), addFirst(), and addLast() methods; to get an element at a
certain index, you can use the get(), getFirst(), and getLast() methods; to set an elements value, you
can use the set method; and to remove an element, you can use the remove(), removeFirst(), and
removeLast() methods.
Heres an example which demonstrates ArrayDeque by using it to create a stack:
import java.util.*;
class ArrayDequeDemo { public static void main(String args[])
{
ArrayDeque<String> arrdeque= new ArrayDeque<String>();
arrdeque.push("Item 0"); arrdeque.push("Item 2");
arrdeque.push("Item 3");
arrdeque.push("Item 4");
arrdeque.push("Item 5");
arrdeque.push("Item 6");

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System.out.println("Popping the stack: ");

while (arrdeque.peek() != null)
{
System.out.println(arrdeque.pop() + " ");
}
System.out.println();
}
}
Heres the output of this example:
C:\>java ArrayDequeDemo
Popping the stack:
Item 6
Item 5
Item 4
Item 3
Item 2
Item 0

The LinkedList Class

The Programming Correctness expert arrives and says, Well, Java has many features of C++, but what about
support for programming constructs such as linked lists? No problem, you say.
The LinkedList class supports linked lists in which a record of items is maintained in these lists. With the use
of such a list, you can move one element to the next using an iterator, which youll learn in this chapter. The
inheritance diagram for the LinkedList class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractCollection
|____java.util.AbstractList
|____java.util.AbstractSequentialList
|____java.util.LinkedList
Youll find the constructors of the LinkedList class in Table 21.21 and its methods in Table 21.22:
Table 21.21: Constructors of the LinkedList class
Constructor Does this
LinkedList() It constructs a LinkedList object.
LinkedList(Collection<? extends E> It constructs a list containing the elements of the given collection.
c)

Table 21.22: Methods of the LinkedList class

Method Does this
void add(int index, E element) It inserts the given element at the given position.
boolean add(E e) It adds the given element to the end of this list.
boolean addAll (Collection<? It adds all the elements in the given collection to the end of this list.
extends E> c)
boolean addAll(int index, It inserts all the elements in the given collection into this list.
Collection<? extends E> c)
void addFirst(E e) It inserts the specified element at the beginning of this list.
void addLast(E e) It adds the specified element to the end of this list.
void clear() It removes all the elements from this list.
Object clone() It gets a copy of this LinkedList object.
boolean contains(Object o) It returns True if this list contains the given element.
Iterator<E> descendingIterator() It gets an iterator over the elements in this deque in reverse sequential order.
E element() It gets, but does not remove, the head (first element) of this list.
E get(int index) It gets the element at the given position in this list.

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Table 21.22: Methods of the LinkedList class

Method Does this
E getFirst() It gets the first element in this list.
E getLast() It gets the last element in this list.
int indexOf(Object o) It gets the index of the first occurrence of the specified element in this list, or
-1 if this list does not contain the element.
int lastIndexOf(Object o) It gets the index of the last occurrence of the specified element in this list or
-1, if this list does not contain the element.
ListIterator<E> listIterator(int It gets a list iterator of the elements in this list, starting at the given position
index) in the list.
boolean offer(E e) It appends the specified elements as the tail (last element) of this list.
boolean offerFirst It inserts the specified element at the front of this list.
(E e)
boolean offerLast(E e) It inserts the specified element at the end of this list.
E peak() It gets the element, but does not remove, the head (first element) of this list.
E peakFirst() It gets the element, but does not remove, the first element of this list, or
returns null if this list is empty.
E peakLast() It gets the element, but does not remove, the last element of this list, or
returns null if this list is empty.
E poll() It gets and removes the head (first element) of this list.
E pollFirst() It gets and removes the first element of this list, or returns null if this list is
empty.
E pollLast() It gets and remove the last element of this list or returns null if this list is empty.
E pop() It pops an element from the stack represented by this list.
void push(E e) It pushes an element onto the stack represented by this list.
E remove(int index) It removes the element at the given position in this list.
boolean remove(Object o) It removes the first occurrence of the given element in this list.
E removeFirst() It removes and returns the first element from this list.
boolean removeFirstOccurrence It removes the first occurrence of the specified element in this list.
(Object e)
E removeLast() It removes and returns the last element from this list.
boolean It removes the last occurrence of the specified element in this list.
removeLastOccurrence(Object e)
E set(int index, E element) It replaces the element at the given position in this list with the given
element.
int size() It gets the number of elements in this list.
Spliterator<E> HYPERLINK It creates a late-binding and fail-fast Spliterator over the elements in this list.
"http://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/
java/util/LinkedList.html" \l "spliterator--"
spliterator()
Object[] toArray() It gets an array containing all the elements in this list in the correct order.
<T> T[] toArray (T[] a) It gets an array containing all the elements in this list in the correct order.

To build a linked list, you can use the add(), addFirst(), and addLast() methods; to get an element at a
certain index, you can use the get(), getFirst(), and getLast() methods; to set an elements value, you
can use the set() method; and to remove an element, you can use the remove(), removeFirst(), and
removeLast() methods.

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Heres an example: We are simply building a linked list, adding some elements, and then removing some elements:
import java.util.*;

class Linkedlist
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
LinkedList<String> linkedlist1 = new LinkedList<String>();
linkedlist1.add("Item 2");
linkedlist1.add("Item 3");
linkedlist1.add("Item 4");
linkedlist1.add("Item 5");
linkedlist1.addFirst("Item 0");
linkedlist1.addLast("Item 6");
linkedlist1.add(1, "Item 1");
System.out.println(linkedlist1);
linkedlist1.remove("Item 6");
System.out.println(linkedlist1);
linkedlist1.removeLast();

System.out.println(linkedlist1);
System.out.println("\nUpdating linked list items");

linkedlist1.set(0, "Red");
linkedlist1.set(1, "Blue");
linkedlist1.set(2, "Green");
linkedlist1.set(3, "Yellow");
linkedlist1.set(4, "Purple");
System.out.println(linkedlist1);
}
}
Heres the output of this example:
[Item 0, Item 1, Item 2, Item 3, Item 4, Item 5, Item 6]
[Item 0, Item 1, Item 2, Item 3, Item 4, Item 5]
[Item 0, Item 1, Item 2, Item 3, Item 4]

Updating linked list items

[Red, Blue, Green, Yellow, Purple]

Generics is on the leading edge of Object-Oriented Programming. You can move further without knowing much about generics,
but it is preferable to have an idea about them so as to get utter knowledge on how the ArrayList and LinkedList classes use the
new generic features.

The Generic Class

In case of the ArrayList and LinkedList classes, the compiler does not allow us to add the wrong type of
data because it took the benefit of a new feature of Java 1.5 called Generics.
This feature will be used in the LinkedList class to implement a particular type of collection stacks. In this
case, the items are always added to the beginning of the list and also retrieved from the beginning of the list.
Lets begin by designing a GenStack class that uses a LinkedList to execute a stack:
import java.util.*;

public class GenStack<E>

{
private LinkedList<E> list = new LinkedList<E>();
public void push(E item) { list.addFirst(item); }
public E pop() { return list.poll(); }
public E peek() { return list.peek(); }
public boolean hasItems() { return !list.isEmpty(); }
public int size() { return list.size(); }
}

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The formal type parameter <E> specifies the type of elements that are stored in the list. Compile the code now.
Now well make an example that works with the GenStack class:
import java.util.*;

public class StackTest

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
GenStack<String> gs = new GenStack<String>();
System.out.println("Pushing Tomato, Potato , Onion and Capsicum
into the stack...");
gs.push("Tomato"); gs.push("Potato "); gs.push("Onion ");
gs.push("Capsicum "); System.out.println("...Done...\n");
System.out.println("The stack contains" + gs.size() + " items in the
stack and the top item is " + gs.peek() + ".\n");
System.out.println("When the " + gs.size() + " items in the stack
are Popped, they are displayed as: ");
while (gs.hasItems()) { System.out.println(gs.pop()); }
System.out.println("\nNow there are " + gs.size() + " item(s) in
the stack and the top item is " + gs.peek() + ".\n"); }
}
When the items are popped off the stack, they come out in a reverse mannerthats a normal behavior of stack
based on LIFO (Last-in First-out) principle. The result of the example is as follows:
Pushing Tomato, Potato, Onion and Capsicum into the stack...
...Done...

The stack contains 4 items in the stack and the top item is Capsicum.

When the 4 items in the stack are Popped, they are displayed as:
Capsicum
Onion
Potato
Tomato

Now there are 0 item(s) in the stack and the top item is null.

The HashSet Class

A set is defined as a group of unique elements, and the HashSet class supports sets that use a hash internally
for storage. Because this class uses a hash internally, methods such as contains(), remove(), add(), and
size() always take the same amount of time to execute. The inheritance diagram for this class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractCollection
|____java.util.AbstractSet
|____java.util.HashSet
Youll find the constructors of the HashSet class in Table 21.23 and its methods in Table 21.24:
Table 21.23: Constructors of the HashSet class
Constructor Does this
HashSet() It constructs a new, empty set.
HashSet(Collection<? extends E> c) It constructs a new set containing the elements in the given collection.
HashSet(int initialCapacity) It constructs a new, empty set with the given initial capacity and default
load factor (0.75).
HashSet (int initialCapacity, It constructs a new, empty set with the given initial capacity and the given
float loadFactor) load factor.

Table 21.24: Methods of the HashSet class

Method Does this
boolean add(E e) It adds the given element to this set if its not already present.

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Table 21.24: Methods of the HashSet class

Method Does this
void clear() It removes all the elements from this set.
Object clone() It gets a copy of this HashSet instance.
boolean contains(Object o) It returns True if this set contains the given element.
boolean isEmpty() It returns True if this set contains no elements.
Iterator<E> iterator() It gets an iterator over the elements in this set.
boolean remove(Object o) It removes the given element from this set if its present.
int size() It gets the number of elements in this set.
Spliterator<E> spliterator() It creates a late-binding and fail-fast Spliterator over the elements in this set.

Heres an example in which we add elements to a set and then print out that set:
import java.util.*;

class Hashset
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
HashSet<String> hashset1 = new HashSet<String>();
hashset1.add("Item 0");
hashset1.add("Item 1");
hashset1.add("Item 2");
hashset1.add("Item 3");
hashset1.add("Item 4");
hashset1.add("Item 5");
hashset1.add("Item 6");
System.out.println(hashset1);
}
}
One thing to note about hashes is that you cant guarantee the order in which elements are stored internally. In
fact, when you print out this set, you can see that all elements are stored in exactly reverse order:
C:\>java Hashset
[Item 0, Item 4, Item 3, Item 2, Item 1, Item 6, Item 5]

The TreeSet Class

The TreeSet class uses a tree construct for internal storage to implement a set, which means that access times
are fast. The elements of the TreeSet class are stored in a sorted order and its inheritance diagram is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractCollection
|____java.util.AbstractSet
|____java.util.TreeSet
Youll find the constructors for the TreeSet class in Table 21.25 and its methods in Table 21.26:
Table 21.25: Constructors of the TreeSet class
Constructor Does this
TreeSet() It constructs a new, empty tree set, sorting according to the natural ordering
of its elements.
TreeSet (Collection<? extends E> It constructs a new tree set containing the elements in the given collection,
c) sorting according to the natural ordering of its elements.
TreeSet (Comparator<? super E> It constructs a new, empty tree set, sorted according to the given
comparator) comparator.
TreeSet (SortedSet<E> s) It constructs a new tree set containing the same elements and using the
same ordering as the given sorted set.

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Table 21.26: Methods of the TreeSet class

Method Does this
boolean add(E e) It adds the given element to this set.
boolean addAll It adds all the elements in the given collection.
(Collection<? extends E> c)
E ceiling(E e) It returns the least element in this set greater than or equal to the given
element, or null if there is no such element.
void clear() It removes all the elements from this set.
Object clone() It gets a shallow copy of this TreeSet instance.
Comparator <? super E> comparator() It gets the comparator used to order the element in this set or null if this
set uses the natural ordering.
boolean contains(Object o) It returns True if this set contains the given element.
Iterator<E> descendingIterator() It returns an iterator over the elements in this set in descending order.
NavigableSet<E> descendingSet() It returns a reverse order view of the elements contained in this set.
E first() It gets the first (lowest) element currently in this set.
E floor(E e) It gets the greatest element in this set less than or equal to the given
element, or null if there is no such element.
SortedSet<E> headset(E e) Equivalent to navigableHeadSet (Object e) SortedSet interface.
NavigableSet<E> headSet(E It returns a view of the portion of this set whose elements are less than (or
toElement, boolean inclusive) equal to, if inclusive is true) toElement.
E higher(E e) It returns the least element in this set, which is greater than the given
element, or null if there is no such element.
boolean isEmpty() It returns True if this set contains no elements.
Iterator<E> iterator() It gets an iterator over the elements in this set in ascending order.
E last() It gets the last (highest) element currently in this set.
E lower(E e) It returns the greatest element in this set strictly less than the given
element, or null if there is no such element.
NavigableSet<E> subSet(E It returns a view of the portion of this set whose elements range from
fromElement, boolean fromInclusive, fromElement to toElement.
E toElement, boolean toInclusive)
SortedSet<E> subSet(E fromElement, It returns a view of the portion of this set whose elements range from
E toElement) fromElement, inclusive, to toElement, exclusive.
SortedSet<E> tailSet(E fromElement) It returns a view of the portion of this set whose elements are greater than
or equal to fromElement.
NavigableSet<E> tailSet(E It returns a view of the portion of this set whose elements are greater than
fromElement, boolean inclusive) (or equal to, if inclusive is true) fromElement.
E pollFirst() It gets and removes the first element, or returns null if this set is empty.
E pollLast() It gets and removes the last element, or returns null if this set is empty.
boolean remove(E e) It removes the given element from this set if its present.
int size() It gets the number of elements in this set.

The TreeSet class just implements a set using a tree for internal storage. A difference from the HashSet class is
that elements in a TreeSet object are stored in sorted order. Heres the same example as the previous one,
where we stored elements in a HashSet object; however, this time we are using a TreeSet object:
import java.util.*;

class Treeset
{
public static void main(String args[])

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{
TreeSet<String> treeset1 = new TreeSet<String>();
treeset1.add("Item 0");
treeset1.add("Item 1");
treeset1.add("Item 2");
treeset1.add("Item 3");
treeset1.add("Item 4");
treeset1.add("Item 6");
treeset1.add("Item 5");
System.out.println(treeset1);
}
}
Heres the output of this example (note that, unlike the HashSet example in the previous solution, the TreeSet
elements are sorted in ascending order):
C:\>java Treeset
[Item 0, Item 1, Item 2, Item 3, Item 4, Item 5, Item 6]
In fact, you can specify the sorting order for the TreeSet objectssee the next solution for the details.

Using the Comparator Interface

The Novice Programmer appears and says, I like the speed of TreeSet objects; on the other hand, sometimes I
want to find out whats in those objects and sort the elements in a particular order. No problem, you say,
just build up a Comparator class. Hows that? the NP asks.
You can use a comparator to find the sorting order used in the TreeSet objects; for example, with the
implementation of the Comparator interface. The methods of this interface are provided in Table 21.27:
Table 21.27: Methods of the Comparator interface
Method Does this
int compare(Object obj1, It compares its two arguments.
Object obj2)
boolean equals(Object obj) It specifies whether another object is equal to this comparator.

The compare() method compares two objects, obj1 and obj2, and returns -1 if obj1 is less than obj2; 0 if
they are equal; and 1 if obj1 is greater than obj2. By overriding this method, you can support a custom sorting
order.
Heres an example in which we sort a TreeSet object in ascending orderexcept for one element, Item 3, which
we always want to appear at the beginning of the set. Heres what this looks like in code:
import java.util.*;

class ComparatorDemo
{
@SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
public static void main(String args[])
{
TreeSet<String> treeset = new TreeSet<String>(new NewComparator());
treeset.add("Item 0");
treeset.add("Item 1");
treeset.add("Item 2");
treeset.add("Item 3");
treeset.add("Item 4");
treeset.add("Item 5");
treeset.add("Item 6");
Iterator iterator = treeset.iterator();
while(iterator.hasNext()) { System.out.println(iterator.next()); }
}
}
class NewComparator implements Comparator {
public int compare(Object obj1, Object obj2) {
if (((String) obj1).equals("Item 3")) return -1;

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return ((String) obj1).compareTo((String) obj2); }

}
Heres the output of this example. Note that Item 3 comes first:
C:\>java ComparatorDemo
Item 3
Item 0
Item 1
Item 2
Item 4
Item 5
Item 6

Using the Iterator Interface

Hmm, says the Novice Programmer, I want to loop over all the elements in a list. How do I do that? With
an iterator, you say. OK, says the NP, but whats an iterator?
The methods of the Iterator interface can be used to move through an accumulation using the next()
method, allowing you to cycle through the elements of the collection. The methods of the Iterator interface
are shown in Table 21.28:
Table 21.28: Methods of the Iterator interface
Method Does this
boolean hasNext() It returns True if the iteration has more elements.
Object next() It gets the next element in the iteration.
void remove() It removes the last element returned.

Heres an example in which we print out each element in a linked list from first to last using an iterator and the
methods next() and hasNext() (which returns True if the collection has a next element):
import java.util.*;
class IteratorDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
LinkedList<String> linkedlist = new LinkedList<String>();
linkedlist.add("Item 0");
linkedlist.add("Item 1");
linkedlist.add("Item 2");
linkedlist.add("Item 3");
linkedlist.add("Item 4");
linkedlist.add("Item 5");
linkedlist.add("Item 6");
Iterator<String> iterator = linkedlist.iterator();
while(iterator.hasNext()) { System.out.println(iterator.next()); }
}
}
Heres the output of this example:
C:\>java IteratorDemo
Item 0
Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
Item 4
Item 5
Item 6
Besides iterators, you can also use list iterators. See the next solution.

Using the ListIterator Interface

Well, says the Novice Programmer, iterators are fine, but I want to work through a collection backwards. No
way, huh? No problem, you say, just use a list iterator. The NP says, Tell me more!
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Whereas iterators can only work forward through a list using the next() method, list iterators also support the
previous() method, so they can work backwards through lists. This is particularly useful for linked lists,
where each element often must know about the next and previous elements (called a bidirectional linked list). This
is handy, for example, when you are implementing a buffer that can grow or shrink. Youll find the methods of
the ListIterator interface in Table 21.29:
Table 21.29: Methods of the ListIterator interface
Method Does this
void add(E e) It inserts the given element into the list.
boolean hasNext() It returns True if this list iterator has more elements in the forward direction.
boolean hasPrevious() It returns True if this list iterator has more elements in the reverse direction.
E next() It gets the next element in the list.
int nextIndex() It gets the index of the element that would be returned by a subsequent call to
next().
E previous() It gets the previous element in the list.
int previousIndex() It gets the index of the element that would be returned by a subsequent call to
previous.
void remove() It removes from the list the last element that was returned by next or
previous.
void set(E e) It replaces the last element returned by next or previous with the given
element.

Heres an example in which we print a linked list backward:

import java.util.*;

class Listiterator
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
LinkedList<String> linkedlist = new LinkedList<String>();
linkedlist.add("Item 0");
linkedlist.add("Item 1");
linkedlist.add("Item 2");
linkedlist.add("Item 3");
linkedlist.add("Item 4");
linkedlist.add("Item 5");
linkedlist.add("Item 6");
ListIterator<String> listiterator = linkedlist.listIterator();
while(listiterator.hasNext())
{
listiterator.set("This is " + listiterator.next()); }
while(listiterator.hasPrevious()) {
System.out.println(listiterator.previous()); }
}
}
Heres the output of this example:
C:\>java Listiterator
This is Item 6
This is Item 5
This is Item 4
This is Item 3
This is Item 2
This is Item 1
This is Item 0
Heres another example in which we modify and print an arraylist backwards:
import java.util.*;
class ListArray {
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public static void main(String args[]) {

ArrayList<String> arr = new ArrayList<String>();
arr.add("Item 1");
arr.add("Item 2");
arr.add("Item 3");
arr.add("Item 4");
arr.add("Item 5");
arr.add("Item 6");
System.out.print("The contents of arr:\n");
Iterator<String> iter = arr.iterator();
while(iter.hasNext()) {
String itrTxt = iter.next();
System.out.print(itrTxt + " "); }
System.out.println();
ListIterator<String> litarr = arr.listIterator();
while(litarr.hasNext()) {
String itrTxt = litarr.next();
litarr.set(itrTxt + " |_|"); }
System.out.print("\nContents of arr modified:\n");
iter = arr.iterator();
while(iter.hasNext()) {
String itrTxt = iter.next();
System.out.print(itrTxt + " "); }
System.out.println();
System.out.print("\nContents listed backwards:\n");
while(litarr.hasPrevious()) {
String itrTxt = litarr.previous();
System.out.print(itrTxt + " "); }
System.out.println(); }
}
Heres the result of this example:
The contents of arr:
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6

Contents of arr modified:

Item 1 |_| Item 2 |_| Item 3 |_| Item 4 |_| Item 5 |_| Item 6 |_|

Contents listed backwards:

Item 6 |_| Item 5 |_| Item 4 |_| Item 3 |_| Item 2 |_| Item 1 |_|

Using the AbstractMap Class

The AbstractMap class is the base of the map classes in Java, so well give a quick glance to refer it. The
inheritance diagram for the AbstractMap class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractMap
Youll find the constructor of the AbstractMap class in Table 21.30 and its methods in Table 21.31:
Table 21.30: The constructor of the AbstractMap class
Constructor Does this
protected AbstractMap() It constructs an AbstractMap object.

Table 21.31: Methods of the AbstractMap class

Method Does this
void clear() It removes all mappings.
boolean containsKey It returns True if this map contains a mapping for the given key.
(Object key)
boolean containsValue It returns True if this map maps one or more keys to the specified.
(Object value)

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Table 21.31: Methods of the AbstractMap class

Method Does this
abstract Set<Map.Entry<K,V>> It returns a Set.
entrySet()
boolean equals(Object o) It compares the given object with this map for equality.
V get(Object key) It gets the value to which the specified key is mapped or null if this map
contains no mapping for the given key.
int hashCode() It gets the hashcode value for this map.
boolean isEmpty() It returns True if this map contains no key/value mappings.
Set<K> keySet() It returns a Set.
V put(K key, V value) It associates the given value with the given key in this map.
void putAll(Map<? extends K,? It copies all the mappings from the given map to this map.
extends V> m)
Object remove(Object key) It removes the mapping for a key from this map, if it is present.
int size() It gets the number of key/value mappings in this map.
String toString() It gets a string representation of this map.
Collection<V> values() It returns a Collection.

Using the HashMap Class

Im writing a phonebook application, the Novice Programmer says, and its hard to keep track of the people
in it by converting them into indexes in an array. Wouldnt it be great if I could access an array using strings
such as peoples names instead of numeric indexes? You can. you say, Just use a map.
Maps make it possible to store data as key/value pairs, where both the key and the values are the objects. For
example, creation of a map indexed with strings and not numbers. The inheritance diagram for the HashMap
class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractMap
|____java.util.HashMap
Youll find the constructors for the HashMap class in Table 21.32 and its methods in Table 21.33:
Table 21.32: Constructors of the HashMap class
Constructor Does this
HashMap() It constructs a new, empty map.
HashMap(int initialCapacity) It constructs a new, empty map with the given initial capacity.
HashMap(int initialCapacity, float It constructs a new, empty map with the given initial capacity and the given
loadFactor) load factor.
HashMap (Map<? extends K,? extends It constructs a new map with the same mappings as the given map.
V> m)

Table 21.33: Methods of the HashMap class

Method Does this
void clear() It removes all of the mappings from this map.
Object clone() It gets a copy of this HashMap instance.
boolean containsKey (Object key) It returns True if this map contains a mapping for the given key.
boolean containsValue It returns True if this map maps one or more keys to the given value.
(Object value)
Set<Map.Entry<K,V>> entrySet() It returns a Set.

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Table 21.33: Methods of the HashMap class

Method Does this
void forEach(BiConsumer<? super It performs the given action for each entry in this map until all entries have
K,? super V> action) been processed or the action throws an exception.
V get(Object key) It gets the value to which the given key is mapped, or null if this map
contains no mapping for the key.
V getOrDefault(Object key, V It returns the value to which the specified key is mapped or defaultValue if
defaultValue) this map contains no mapping for the key.
boolean isEmpty() It returns True if this map contains no key/value mappings.
Set<K> keySet() It returns a Set.
V put(K key, V value) It associates the given value with the given key in this map.
void putAll (Map<? extends K,? It copies all the mappings from the given map to this map.
extends V> m)
V remove(Object key) It removes the mapping for the specified key from this map if present.
boolean remove(Object key, Object It removes the entry for the specified key only if it is currently mapped to
value) the specified value.
boolean replace(K key, V oldValue, It replaces the entry for the specified key only if currently mapped to the
V newValue) specified value.
void replaceAll(BiFunction<? super It replaces each entry's value with the result of invoking the given function
K,? super V,? extends V> function) on that entry until all entries have been processed or the function throws an
exception.
int size() It gets the number of key/value mappings in this map.
Collection<V> values() It gets a Collection.

The put() method is used to add a key/value pair to a map, and the get() method is used to retrieve a value,
given a key. For example, the string drink will be left holding the text root beer after this example executes:
hashmap.put("drink", "root beer");
String drink = hashmap.get("drink");
You can also get a set corresponding to the map with the entrySet() method, and you can iterate over that set
using the Map.Entry interface. Heres an example in which we create a map and then print out all the
key/value pairs in the map:
import java.util.*;

class Hashmap
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
HashMap<String, String> hashmap1 = new HashMap<String, String>();
hashmap1.put("Item 0", "Value 0");
hashmap1.put("Item 1", "Value 1");
hashmap1.put("Item 2", "Value 2");
hashmap1.put("Item 3", "Value 3");
hashmap1.put("Item 4", "Value 4");
hashmap1.put("Item 5", "Value 5");
hashmap1.put("Item 6", "Value 6");
Set set = hashmap1.entrySet();
Iterator iterator = set.iterator();
while(iterator.hasNext())
{
Map.Entry mapentry = (Map.Entry) iterator.next();
System.out.println(mapentry.getKey() + "/" +
mapentry.getValue());
}
}
}

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Heres the output of this example:

C:\>java Hashmap
Item 0/Value 0
Item 4/Value 4
Item 3/Value 3
Item 2/Value 2
Item 1/Value 1
Item 6/Value 6
Item 5/Value 5
The following code iterates through the System property map [available through
System.getProperties()], and displays each key-value pair:
import java.util.Map;
import java.util.Properties;
import java.util.Set;

public class SetEntry

{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Properties props = System.getProperties();
Set<Map.Entry<Object,Object>> entrySet = props.entrySet();
for (Map.Entry entry: entrySet)
{
System.out.println(entry.getKey() + ": " +
entry.getValue());
}
}
}
Notice the following line:
Set<Map.Entry<Object,Object>> entrySet = props.entrySet();
A set of Map.Entry objects is returned by the entrySet() method of the Properties object that doesnt
require any casting operations for the for-each construct.
for (Map.Entry entry: entrySet) { . . . }
The result is as shown here:
C:\> java SetEntry
java.runtime.name: Java(TM) SE Runtime Environment
sun.boot.library.path: C:\Program Files\Java\jre1.8.0_31\bin
java.vm.version: 25.31-b07
java.vm.vendor: Oracle Corporation
java.vendor.url: http://java.oracle.com/
path.separator: ;
java.vm.name: Java HotSpot(TM) 64-Bit Server VM
file.encoding.pkg: sun.io
user.country: IN
user.script:
sun.java.launcher: SUN_STANDARD
sun.os.patch.level:
java.vm.specification.name: Java Virtual Machine Specification
user.dir: E:\Java8\chapter21
java.runtime.version: 1.8.0_31-b13
java.awt.graphicsenv: sun.awt.Win32GraphicsEnvironment
java.endorsed.dirs: C:\Program Files\Java\jre1.8.0_31\lib\endorsed
os.arch: amd64
java.io.tmpdir: C:\Users\DEEPAK~1\AppData\Local\Temp\
line.separator:
java.vm.specification.vendor: Oracle Corporation
user.variant:
os.name: Windows 8.1
sun.jnu.encoding: Cp1252
java.library.path: C:\ProgramData\Oracle\Java\javapath;C:\Windows\Sun\Java\bin;C
:\Windows\system32;C:\Windows;C:\ProgramData\Oracle\Java\javapath;C:\Program Fil

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es\Java\jdk1.8.0_25\bin;;.
java.specification.name: Java Platform API Specification
java.class.version: 52.0
sun.management.compiler: HotSpot 64-Bit Tiered Compilers
os.version: 6.3
user.home: C:\Users\Deepak Sharma
user.timezone:
java.awt.printerjob: sun.awt.windows.WPrinterJob
file.encoding: Cp1252
java.specification.version: 1.8
java.class.path: .
user.name: Deepak Sharma
java.vm.specification.version: 1.8
sun.java.command: SetEntry
java.home: C:\Program Files\Java\jre1.8.0_31
sun.arch.data.model: 64
user.language: en
java.specification.vendor: Oracle Corporation
awt.toolkit: sun.awt.windows.WToolkit
java.vm.info: mixed mode
java.version: 1.8.0_31
java.ext.dirs: C:\Program Files\Java\jre1.8.0_31\lib\ext;C:\Windows\Sun\Java\lib
\ext
sun.boot.class.path: C:\Program Files\Java\jre1.8.0_31\lib\resources.jar;C:\Prog
ram Files\Java\jre1.8.0_31\lib\rt.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jre1.8.0_31\lib\sunr
sasign.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jre1.8.0_31\lib\jsse.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\
jre1.8.0_31\lib\jce.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jre1.8.0_31\lib\charsets.jar;C:\Pr
ogram Files\Java\jre1.8.0_31\lib\jfr.jar;C:\Program Files\Java\jre1.8.0_31\class
es
java.vendor: Oracle Corporation
sun.stderr.encoding: cp437
file.separator: \
java.vendor.url.bug: http://bugreport.sun.com/bugreport/
sun.io.unicode.encoding: UnicodeLittle
sun.cpu.endian: little
sun.stdout.encoding: cp437
sun.desktop: windows
sun.cpu.isalist: amd64

Using the TreeMap Class

The TreeMap class executes a map with the use of a tree internally to store data. The inheritance diagram for
this class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractMap
|____java.util.TreeMap
Youll find the constructors for the TreeMap class in Table 21.34 and its methods in Table 21.35:
Table 21.34: Constructors of the TreeMap class
Constructor Does this
TreeMap() It constructs a new, empty tree map, using natural ordering of its keys.
TreeMap(Comparator<? super K> It constructs a new, empty tree map, ordered according to the given
comparator) comparator.
TreeMap(Map<? extends K,? extends It constructs a new tree map containing the same mappings as the given
V> m) map, ordered according to the natural ordering of its keys.
TreeMap(SortedMap<K,? extends V> It constructs a new tree map containing the same mappings and using the
m) same ordering as the given sorted map.

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Table 21.35: Methods of the TreeMap class

Method Does this
Map.Entry(K,V) ceilingEntry It returns a key-value mapping associated with the least key greater than or
(K key) equal to the given key, or null if there is no such key.
K ceilingKey It returns the least key greater than or equal to the given key, or null if there
(K key) is no such key.
void clear() It removes all of the mappings from this map.
Object clone() It gets a copy of this TreeMap instance.
Comparator <? super K> It gets the comparator used to order the keys in this map, or null if this map
comparator() uses the natural ordering.
boolean containsKey It returns True if this map contains a mapping for the specified key.
(Object key)
boolean containsValue It returns True if this map maps one or more keys to the specified value.
(Object value)
NavigableSet<K> descendingKeySet() It returns a reverse order NavigableSet view of the keys contained in this
map.
NavigableMap<K,V> descendingMap() It returns a reverse order view of the mappings contained in this map.
Set<Map.Entry<K,V>> entrySet() It returns a Set.
Map.Entry<K,V> firstEntry() It returns a key-value mapping associated with the least key in this map, or
null if the map is empty.
K firstKey() It returns the first (lowest) key currently in this map.
Map.Entry<K,V> floorEntry(K key) It returns a key-value mapping associated with the greatest key less than or
equal to the given key, or null if there is no such key.
K floorKey(Object key) It returns the greatest key less than or equal to the given key, or null if there
is no such key.
void forEach(BiConsumer<? super It performs the given action for each entry in this map until all entries have
K,? super V> action) been processed or the action throws an exception.
V get(Object key) It gets the value to which the specified key is mapped, or null if this map
contains no mapping for the key.
SortedMap <K,V> headMap Equivalent to navigableHeadMap (Object toKey) SortedMap interface.
(K toKey)
Map.Entry <K,V> higherEntry(K key) It returns a key-value mapping associated with the least key strictly greater
than the given key or null if there is no such key.
K higherKey(K key) It returns the least key strictly greater than the given key or null if there is
no such key.
Set<K> keySet() It returns a Set.
Map.Entry<K,V> lastEntry() It returns a key-value mapping associated with the greatest key in this map,
or null if the map is empty.
K lastKey() It gets the last key currently in this map.
Map.Entry< K key, It returns a key-value mapping associated with the greatest key strictly less
V value > lowerEntry(K key) than the given key, or null if the map is empty.
K lowerKey(K key) It returns the greatest key strictly less than the given key, or null if there is
no such key.
SortedMap<K,V> headMap It returns a view of the portion of this map whose keys are strictly less than
(K toKey) toKey.
SortedMap<K,V> subMap(K formKey, K It returns a view of the portion of this map whose keys range from
toKey) fromKey (inclusive) to toKey (exclusive).
SortedMap<K,V> tailMap(K formKey) It returns a view of the portion of this map whose keys are greater than or
equal to formKey.

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Table 21.35: Methods of the TreeMap class

Method Does this
Map.Entry<K key, V value> It removes and returns a key-value mapping associated with the least key in
pollFirstEntry() this map, or null if the map is empty.
Map.Entry<K,V> pollLastEntry() It removes and returns a key-value mapping associated with the greatest
key in this map, or null if the map is empty.
V put(K key, Object V) It associates the specified value with the specified key in this map.
void putAll (Map<? extends K,? It copies all the mappings from the specified map to this map.
extends V> map)
V remove(Object key) It removes the mapping for this key.
int size() It gets the number of key/value mappings.
SortedMap<K,V> subMap(K Equivalent to navigableSubMap (Object formKey, Object toKey)
fromKey, K toKey) SortedMap interface.
SortedMap<K,V> tailMap(K fromKey) Equivalent to navigableTailMap (Object formKey) SortedMap
interface.
Collection<V> values() It returns a Collection.

Using the Arrays Class

What are you doing? you ask the Novice Programmer. Writing code to sort an array, replies the NP. Why
dont you just use the Arrays class? you ask. Hows that? the NP asks.
The Arrays class can be used to work with arrays, including sorting and searching arrays. The inheritance
diagram for this class is as follows:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.Arrays
Youll find the methods for the Arrays class in Table 21.36:
Table 21.36: Methods of the Arrays class
Method Does this
static <T> List<T> asList(T a) It gets a fixed-size list.
static int binarySearch It searches the given array of bytes for the given value.
(byte[] a, byte key)
static int binarySearch It searches the given array of characters for the given value.
(char[] a, char key)
static int binarySearch It searches the given array of doubles for the given value.
(double[] a, double key)
static int binarySearch It searches the given array of floats for the given value.
(float[ ] a, float key)
static int binarySearch It searches the given array of ints for the given value.
(int[] a, int key)
static int binarySearch It searches the given array of longs for the given value.
(long[] a, long key)
static int binarySearch It searches the given array for the given object.
(Object[] a, Object key)
static <T> int binarySearch(T[] a, It searches the given array for the given object using a comparator.
T key, Comparator<? super T> c)
static int binarySearch It searches the given array of shorts for the given value.
(short[] a, short key)

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Table 21.36: Methods of the Arrays class

Method Does this
static boolean[] copyOf It copies the specified array, truncating or padding with false (if necessary)
(boolean[] original, int so the copy has the specified length.
newLength)
static byte[] copyOf(byte[] It copies the specified array, truncating or padding with zeros (if necessary)
original, int newLength) so the copy has the specified length.
static char[] copyOf(char[] It copies the specified array, truncating or padding with null characters (if
original, int newLength) necessary) so the copy has the specified length.
static double[] copyOf It copies the specified array, truncating or padding with zeros (if necessary)
(double[] original, int so the copy has the specified length.
newLength)
static float[] copyOf It copies the specified array, truncating or padding with zeros (if necessary)
(float[] original, int so the copy has the specified length.
newLength)
static int[] copyOf(int[] It copies the specified array, truncating or padding with zeros(if necessary)
original, int newLength) so the copy has the specified length.
static long[] copyOf(long[] It copies the specified array, truncating or padding with zeros (if necessary)
original, int newLength) so the copy has the specified length.
static short[] copyOf It copies the specified array, truncating or padding with zeros (if necessary)
(short[] original, int so the copy has the specified length.
newLength)
static boolean equals It returns True if the two given arrays of booleans are equal.
(boolean[] a, boolean[] a2)
static boolean equals It returns True if the two given arrays of bytes are equal to one another.
(byte[] a, byte[] a2)
static boolean equals It returns True if the two given arrays of characters are equal to one another.
(char[] a, char[] a2)
static boolean equals It returns True if the two given arrays of doubles are equal.
(double[] a, double[] a2)
static boolean equals It returns True if the two given arrays of floats are equal.
(float[] a, float[] a2)
static boolean equals It returns True if the two given arrays of ints are equal.
(int[] a, int[] a2)
static boolean equals It returns True if the two given arrays of longs are equal.
(long[] a, long[] a2)
static boolean equals It returns True if the two given arrays of objects are equal.
(Object[ ] a, Object[ ] a2)
static boolean equals It returns True if the two given arrays of shorts are equal to one another.
(short[ ] a, short[ ] a2)
static void fill It assigns the given boolean value to each element of the given array of
(boolean[] a, boolean val) Booleans.
static void fill(boolean[] It assigns the given boolean value to each element of the given range of the
a, int fromIndex, int given array of Booleans.
toIndex, boolean val)
static void fill(byte[] a, It assigns the given byte value to each element of the given array of bytes.
byte val)
static void fill(byte[] a, It assigns the given byte value to each element of the given range of the
int fromIndex, int toIndex, given array of bytes.
byte val)

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Table 21.36: Methods of the Arrays class

Method Does this
static void fill(char[] a, It assigns the given character value to each element of the given array of
char val) characters.
static void fill(char[] a, It assigns the given character value to each element of the given range of the
int fromIndex, int toIndex, char given array of characters.
val)
static void fill(double[] It assigns the given double value to each element of the given array of
a, double val) doubles.
static void fill(double[] It assigns the given double value to each element of the given range of the
a, int fromIndex, int given array of doubles.
toIndex, double val)
static void fill(float[] a, It assigns the given float value to each element of the given array of
float val) floats.
static void fill(float[] a, It assigns the given float value to each element of the given range of the
int fromIndex, int toIndex, given array of floats
float val)
static void fill(int[] a, It assigns the given int value to each element of the given array of ints.
int val)
static void fill(int[] a, It assigns the given int value to each element of the given range of the
int fromIndex, int toIndex, int given array of ints.
val)
static void fill(long[] a, It assigns the given long value to each element of the given range of the
int fromIndex, int given array of longs.
toIndex, long val)
static void fill(long[] a, It assigns the given long value to each element of the given array of longs
long val)
static void fill(Object[] It assigns the given object reference to each element of the given range of
a, int fromIndex, int the given array of objects.
toIndex, Object val)
static void fill(Object[] a, It assigns the given object reference to each element of the given array of
Object val) objects.
static void fill(short[] a, It assigns the given short value to each element of the given range of the
int fromIndex, int toIndex, short given array of shorts.
val)
static void fill(short[] a, It assigns the given short value to each element of the given array of shorts.
short val)
static void sort(byte[] a) It sorts the given array of bytes into ascending numerical order.
static void sort(byte[] a, int It sorts the given range of the given array of bytes into ascending numerical
fromIndex, int toIndex) order.
static void sort(char[] a) It sorts the given array of characters into ascending numerical order.
static void sort(char[] a, It sorts the given range of the given array of characters into ascending
int fromIndex, int toIndex) numerical order.
static void sort It sorts the given array of doubles into ascending numerical order.
(double[] a)
static void sort(double[] It sorts the given range of the given array of doubles into ascending
a, int fromIndex, int toIndex) numerical order.
static void sort It sorts the given array of floats into ascending numerical order.
(float[] a)
static void sort(float[] a, int It sorts the given range of the given array of floats into ascending
fromIndex, int toIndex) numerical order.

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Table 21.36: Methods of the Arrays class

Method Does this
static void sort(int[] a) It sorts the given array of ints into ascending numerical order.
static void sort(int[] a, It sorts the given range of the given array of ints into ascending numerical
int fromIndex, int toIndex) order.
static void sort(long[] a) It sorts the given array of longs into ascending numerical order.
static void sort(long[] a, It sorts the given range of the given array of longs into ascending
int fromIndex, int toIndex) numerical order.
static void sort It sorts the given array of objects into ascending order, according to the
(Object[] a) natural ordering of its elements.
static void sort(Object[] It sorts the given array of objects according to the order induced by the
a, Comparator c) given comparator.
static void sort(Object[] It sorts the given range of the given array of objects into ascending order,
a, int fromIndex, int according to the natural ordering of its elements.
toIndex)
static void sort(Object[] It sorts the given range of the given array of objects according to the
a, int fromIndex, int order induced by the given comparator.
toIndex, Comparator c)
static void sort(short[] a) It sorts the given array of shorts into ascending numerical order.
static void sort(short[] a, int It sorts the given range of the given array of shorts into ascending
fromIndex, int toIndex) numerical order.

Heres an example in which we create an array, print it out, sort it, and then search for a particular element:
import java.util.*;

class ArrayDemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int array[] = new int[10];
for(int loop_index = 9; loop_index > 0; loop_index--)
array[loop_index] = -loop_index;
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < array.length; loop_index++)
System.out.print(array[loop_index] + " ");
System.out.println();

Arrays.sort(array);
for(int loop_index = 0; loop_index < array.length; loop_index++)
System.out.print(array[loop_index] + " ");
System.out.println();
System.out.print("Found -5 at position " +
Arrays.binarySearch(array, -5));
}
}
Note that these are static methods and can be used without instantiating an object of this class.
Heres the output of this example:
C:\>java ArrayDemo
0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Found -5 at position 4

Learning the Fundamentals of Enumerations

The Novice Programmer appears in a serious mood. Puffing on his cigar, he says, If we talk about any other
computer language, C++ for example, there is a term known as enumeration. As named integer constants, these

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features help the user in a great way. But what about Java? You say, No, you are wrong. The long felt need is
over. Now, there is an enumeration feature in Java too. But it functions a little different from other codes.
Lets talk about the basics of enumerations in detail. In the original version of Java, one feature is absent and
many programmers felt that this feature is one of the vital features in a code.
Many programmers felt that this was needed very much. This is known as Enumeration. In its simplest form,
you can define Enumeration as a list of named constants.
An Enumeration type can be considered to be a special form of class while defining an enumeration type at the
time of writing code. The specified enumeration constant gets created as objects of the class that contains the
enum class. This class is defined in the java.lang package as a superclass. The object corresponding to each
enumeration constants stores the constants name in a field. The toString() method is inherited by the
enumeration class type from the enum class.
Enumeration in Java is different in existence from other languages, though it seems to be similar. In C++,
enumeration is a list of named integer constants, while in Java, enumeration defines a class type. This concept is
elaborated by making enumeration into classes.
Using the new enum keywords, an Enumeration is created. For example, given here is a simple enumeration that
lists various Wheat varieties:
enum Wheat { Durum, Spelt, CommonWheat, Emmer }
Enumeration constants are the identifiers such as Durum, Spelt, and so on each of which is implicitly declared as
a public and static member of Wheat. In addition to this, their type is the type of enumeration in which they
are declared, which is Wheat in this case. These constants in Java are known as self-typed which self corresponds
to the enclosed enumeration.
You can create a variable of enumeration type once you have defined enumeration. However, it is found that,
even though enumeration defines a class type, you do not instantiate an enum by using a new. Instead, you
declare and use an enumeration variable in much the same way as you have done in the case of the primitive
types. For example, the code given here declares al as a variable of enumeration type Wheat:
Wheat al ;
The only values that al can assign are those defined by the enumeration, because al is of type Wheat. For
example, the value Emmer is assigned to al by this:
al= Wheat.Emmer;
The point to note here is that the symbol Emmer is preceded by Wheat. The == relational operator can be used
for comparing the two enumeration constants for equality.
For example, this statement compares the value in al with the Spelt constant:
if(al = = Wheat.Spelt) //.
An enumeration value can also be used for controlling a switch statement. Actually, it is very necessary that all
of the case statements must use constants from the same enum as that used by the switch expression. For
example, this switch is perfectly valid:
switch (al) {
case Spelt:
case CommonWheat :
In the case statements, you can note that the names of the enumeration constants can be used without being
qualified by the name of the enumeration type. For example, CommonWheat is used, but not
Wheat.CommonWheat. The reason behind this is that the type of the enumeration in the switch expression has
already implicitly declared the enum type of the case constants. So, for case statement, there is no requirement
for the constants to be passed with their enum type name. In fact, a compilation error will occur if you will do so.
When an enumeration constant is shown, such as in a println() statement, the result will be its name. For
example, in the given statement:
System.out.println(Wheat.Durum);
The name Durum is displayed as output. The code explained here will put together all the pieces and examine
the Wheat enumeration:
enum Wheat { Emmer,Durum, CommonWheat, Spelt }
class EnumDemo

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{
public static void main (String args[])
{
Wheat al;
al = Wheat.Emmer;
System.out.println("Value of al is : " + al);
System.out.println();
al = Wheat.Emmer;
if (al == Wheat.Spelt)
{
System.out.println ("al contains Spelt.\n");
}
switch(al) {
case Emmer:
System.out.println("It is ancient time wheat."); break;
case Durum:
System.out.println("It is second most widely cultivated wheat.");
break;
case CommonWheat:
System.out.println("It is most wildly cultivated wheat."); break;
case Spelt:
System.out.println("It is found in limited quantities."); break;
}
}
}
Heres the output is as follows:
Value of al is: Emmer
It is ancient time wheat.

The values() and valueOf() Methods

Two predefined methods, namely, values() and valueOf(), are present automatically in all enumeration.
Given are their general forms. One form is:
public static enum-type[] values()
And the other is:
public static enum-type valueOf(String str)
The values() method returns an array containing a set of the enumeration constants. On the other hand, the
enumeration constant whose value corresponds to the string passed in str is returned by the valueOf()
method. In both cases it is found that enum-type is the type of the enumeration. For example, in the case of the
Wheat enumeration shown earlier, the return type of Wheat.valueOf(Durum) is Durum. The values()
and valueOf() methods are demonstrated by the following code:
enum Wheat { Emmer,Durum, CommonWheat, Spelt }
class WheatC
{
public static void main (String args[])
{
Wheat al;
System.out.println("Here are all Wheat constant:");
Wheat allwheat[] = Wheat.values();
for(Wheat a : allwheat)
System.out.println(a);
System.out.println();
al = Wheat.valueOf("Durum");
System.out.println("al contains "+al);
}
}
Heres the output of the code as follows:
Here are all Wheat constants:
Emmer
Durum
CommonWheat

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Spelt

al contains Durum
The point to be noted here is that this code uses a for-each style for loop to cycle through the array of
constants which can be obtained by calling values(). For better understanding, the variable allwheat was
formed and thus assigned a reference to the enumeration array. However, this step is not necessary to explain.
Because, by another way, the for could have been written as shown here by eliminating the need for the
allwheat variable:
for (Wheat a : Wheat.values()) { System.out.println(a); }
Now, you have to notice that, by calling valueOf(), the value corresponding to the name Durum is obtained:
al = Wheat.ValueOf (Durum);
We have discussed in the preceding topic that valueOf()returns the enumeration value related to the name of
the constant which is denoted as a string.

Java Enumeration as a Class Type

As already explained, the enumeration of Java is a class type. Although you do not instantiate an enum using
new, it has much more the same capabilities as other classes have. Here, the important fact is that enum defines a
class that gives power to the Java enumeration. However, as far as other codes are concerned, that enumeration
simply does not have this priority. For example, you can give them constructors, add instance variables and
methods, and even implement interfaces.
You must keep in mind that each enumeration constant is an instance of its own enumeration type. Thus, at the
time when you define a constructor for an enum, the constructor is called only after each enumeration constant is
created. Moreover, each enumeration constant contains its own copy of an instance variable, which is defined by
the enumeration. For example, see the following version of the Mango:
enum Mango {
Brooks(10), Manilla(9), Alphanso(12), Kesar(15), Maya(8);
private int price;
Mango(int p) { price = p;}
int getPrice() { return price;}
}
class Apple5
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Mango ap;
System.out.println("Kesar costs "+Mango.Kesar.getPrice()+ " cents. \n");
System.out.println("All mango prices:");
for(Mango a : Mango.values())
System.out.println(a + " costs " + a.getPrice() + " cents.");
}
}
The output of the code is as follows:
Kesar costs 15 cents.

All mango prices:

Brooks costs 10 cents.
Manilla costs 9 cents.
Alphanso costs 12 cents.
Kesar costs 15 cents.
Maya costs 8 cents.
Here, the version of Mango adds three things to it. The first one which is used to hold the price of each variety of
Mango is the instance variable price. The second one is the Mango constructor, which is to pass the price of a
Mango. And finally, the third one which returns the value of price is the method getPrice().

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When the variable ap is declared in main(), then the constructor for Mango is called once for each of the
constant which is specified. You have to notice how the argument to the constructor is specified, by putting them
inside parentheses after each constant, as shown here:
Brooks(10), Manilla(9), Alphanso(12), Kesar(15), Maya(8);
Here, these values are passed to the p parameter of Mango(), and after that, it assigns this value to price.
Again, for each of the constant, the constructor is called only once. The reason being that each enumeration
constant has its own copy of price. In order to obtain the price of a specified type of Mango, you can have it by
calling getPrice(). For example, in main(), the price of a Kesar is obtained by the following call:
Mango.Kesar.getPrice()
In order to obtain the prices of all varieties, you have to go by cycling through the enumeration using a for loop.
The reason is, there is a copy of price for each enumeration constant, and also the value associated with one
constant is separate and distinct from the value associated with another constant. As you have already noticed,
this is a powerful concept. This concept is only available when enumeration is implemented as classes, as Java
does.
In the preceding example, there is only one constructor, but an enum can provide multiple overloaded forms,
like it provides in any other class. For example, this version of Mango provides a default constructor that
initializes the price to 1, just to indicate that there is no price data available here:
enum Mango
{
Brooks(10), Manilla(9), Alphanso(), Kesar(15), Maya(8);
private int price;
Mango(int p) { price = p; }
Mango() {price = -1; }
int getPrice() { return price; }
}
However, please note that in this version, Alphanso is not given as an argument. This means that the default
constructor is called and the value 1 has been given to Alphansos price variable.
Lets mention about two different restrictions that apply to the enumeration. The first restriction to remember is
that an enumeration cant inherit another class. The second restriction is, an enum cannot be a superclass. To
make it simpler, an enum cant be extended.

Enumeration Inheriting Enum

We know that at declaration time for enum, you cant inherit a superclass. Therefore, all enumerations
automatically inherit one: java.lang.Enum. This class defines various methods that are meant to be used by all
enumerations. The constructor and methods are shown in Table 21.37 and Table 21.38, respectively:
Table 21.37: Showing the constructor of the Enum
Constructor Does this
protected Enum(String name, int The only constructor
ordinal)

Table 21.38: Showing the methods of the Enum

Methods Does this
protected Object clone() It throws CloneNotSupportedException.
int compareTo(E o) It compares this enum with the specified object for order.
boolean equals It returns true if the specified object is equal to this enum constant.
(Object other)
protected void finalize() Enum classes cannot have finalized methods.
Class<E> getDeclaringClass() It returns the Class object corresponding to this enum constants enum type.
int hashCode() It returns a hash code for this enum constant.
String name() It returns the name of this enum constant, exactly as declared in its enum
declaration.

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Table 21.38: Showing the methods of the Enum

Methods Does this
int ordinal() It returns the ordinal of this enumeration constant (its position in its enum
declaration, where the initial constant is assigned an ordinal of zero).
String toString() It returns the name of this enum constant, as contained in the declaration.
static valueOf(Class<T> It returns the enum constant of the specified enum type with the specified
enumType, String name) name`.

Questions that arise over here are what do you mean by ordinal value and how can you achieve it? You can
obtain a value that symbolizes an enumeration constants position in the list of constants. This is obtained by
calling the ordinal() method as follows:
final int ordinal()
The preceding statement returns the ordinal value of the invoking constant. Note that ordinal values begin at
Zero. Thus, Brooks has an ordinal value of Zero, Manilla has an ordinal value of 1, Alphanso has an ordinal
value of 2, and so on and so forth in the Mango enumeration.
You can perform comparison between the ordinal values of two constants of the similar enumeration by using
the compareTo() method. It has this general form:
final int compareTo(enum-type e)
where enum-type is the type of enumeration and e is the constant that is compared to the constant being
requested. Also keep in mind that both the requested constant and e must be of the same enumeration. If the
invoking constant has an ordinal value less than es, then compareTo()returns a negative value. Moreover, if
the two ordinal values are similar, then zero is returned, and if the value of the invoking constant is greater than
es, then compareTo() returns a positive value.
To obtain the equality, you can compare an enumeration constant with any other object by using equals(),
which overrides the equal() method defined by Object. Although equals() can compare an enumeration
constant to any other object, those two objects will remain equal if both of them refer to the same constant, that
too within the same enumeration. For better understanding, make a note that having ordinal values in common
will not cause equals() to return true if the two constants are from different enumerations.
As discussed earlier, you can perform the comparison between two enumeration references for equality by using
the == operator. You will get it by the following code which examines the ordinal(),compareTo(), and
equals() methods:
enum Mango { Brooks, Manilla, Alphanso, Kesar, Maya }
class Apple6
{
public static void main (String args[])
{
Mango ap, ap2, ap3;
System.out.println("Here are all mango constants" + " and their
ordinal values: ");
for (Mango a : Mango.values())
System.out.println(a +" " + a.ordinal());
ap = Mango.Alphanso;
ap2 = Mango.Manilla;
ap3 = Mango.Alphanso;
System.out.println();
if(ap.compareTo(ap2) < 0)
System.out.println(ap + " comes before " + ap2);
if(ap.compareTo(ap2) > 0)
System.out.println(ap2 + " comes before " + ap);
if(ap.compareTo(ap2) == 0)
System.out.println(ap + " equals " + ap3);
System.out.println();
if(ap.equals(ap2)) { System.out.println("Error"); }
if(ap.equals(ap3)) { System.out.println("Error"); }

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if(ap == ap3) { System.out.println(ap + " = = " + ap3); }

}
}
Heres the output of the code:
Here are all mango constants and their ordinal values:
Brooks 0
Manilla 1
Alphanso 2
Kesar 3
Maya 4

Manilla comes before Alphanso

Error
Alphanso = = Alphanso

The Enumeration Interface

You use the Enumeration interfaces methods to loop over elements in classes such as Hashtable. This
interface is a useful one, and well put it to work later in this chapter. For now, well list its methods for
reference. Youll find the methods for the Enumeration interface in Table 21.39:
Table 21.39: Methods of the Enumeration interface
Method Does this
boolean hasMoreElements() It returns True if this enumeration contains more elements.
Object nextElement() It gets the next element of this enumeration.

The Legacy Classes and Interfaces

Talking about earlier versions of Java, legacy classes and interfaces formed the collections framework and now
they are reconstructed in coming versions. With the Java SE 7 release, for legacy file I/O code, the
java.io.File class was the process used for file I/O; however, it has the following demerits:
Many methods didn't throw exceptions when they failed, so it was impossible to retrieve a useful error
message.
The rename method didn't work properly across platforms.
There was no real support for symbolic links.
Needed more support for metadata, such as file permissions, file owner, and other security attributes.
Executing file metadata was inefficient.
It was impossible to write a reliable code that could iteratively walk a file tree and result back accurately if
there were circular symbolic links.
So, you have the legacy code that uses java.io.File and would prefer taking benefit of the
java.nio.file.Path functionality with minimal impact on your code.
The various legacy classes defined by java.util package are:
Dictionary
Hashtable
Stack
Vector
Properties
The Java Native Interface is developed for using Java in order to encapsulate native legacy code on small
embedded platforms. We must know why existing technologies for encapsulating legacy code, Java Native
Interface (JNI), is not enough for an important range of small embedded platforms, and we depict how the JNI
provides previously missing functionality.

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The Vector Class

The Vector class predates the collection framework, and it implements a dynamic array. Because of the
appearance of the collection framework, Vector has been rewritten to be compatible with it. Heres the
inheritance diagram for Vector:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractCollection
|____java.util.AbstractList
|____java.util.Vector
Youll find the fields of the Vector class in Table 21.40, its constructors in Table 21.41, and its methods in
Table 21.42:
Table 21.40: Fields of the Vector class
Field Does this
protected int capacityIncrement This is the amount by which the capacity of the vector is increased when its
size exceeds its capacity.
protected int elementCount Total number of components in this Vector object.
protected Object[] elementData The array where the components of the vector are stored.

Table 21.41: Constructors of the Vector class

Constructor Does this
Vector() It constructs an empty vector.
Vector(Collection c) It constructs a vector containing the elements of the given collection.
Vector(int initialCapacity) It constructs an empty vector with the given initial capacity.
Vector(int initialCapacity, int It constructs an empty vector with the given initial capacity and capacity
capacityIncrement) increment.

Table 21.42: Methods of the Vector class

Method Does this
void add(int index, Object It inserts the given element.
element)
boolean add(Object o) It adds the given element to the end of this vector.
boolean addAll It adds all the elements in the given collection to the end of this vector in the
(Collection c) order that they are returned by the given collections iterator.
boolean addAll(int index, It inserts all the elements in the given collection into this vector at the given
Collection c) position.
void addElement(Object obj) It adds the given component to the end of this vector, increasing its size by
one.
int capacity() It gets the current capacity of this vector.
void clear() It removes all the elements from this vector.
Object clone() It gets a clone of this vector.
boolean contains (Object elem) It returns True if this vector contains the specified element.
boolean containsAll It returns True if this vector contains all the elements in the given collection.
(Collection c)
void copyInto(Object[] It copies the components of this vector into the given array.
anArray)
Object elementAt(int index) It gets the component at the given index.
Enumeration elements() It gets an enumeration of the components of this vector.
void ensureCapacity It increases the capacity of this vector, if necessary.
(int minCapacity)

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Table 21.42: Methods of the Vector class

Method Does this
boolean equals(Object o) It compares the given object with this vector for equality.
Object firstElement() It gets the first component of this vector.
Object get(int index) It gets the element at the given position in this vector.
int hashCode() It gets the hashcode value for this vector.
int indexOf(Object elem) It returns the index of the first occurrence of the given element. In this
vector, or -1 if this vector does not contain element.
int indexOf It searches for the first occurrence of the given argument, beginning the
(Object elem, int index) search at index.
void insertElementAt It inserts the given object as a component in this vector at the given index.
(Object obj, int index)
boolean isEmpty() It tests whether this vector has no components.
Object lastElement() It gets the last component of the vector.
int lastIndexOf It gets the index of the last occurrence of the specified element in this vector
(Object elem) or -1 if this vector does not contain the element.
int lastIndexOf It returns the index of the last occurrence of the specified element in this
(Object elem) vector, searching backwards from index, or returns -1 if the element is not
found.
int lastIndexOf It searches backwards for the given object and returns an index to it.
(Object elem, int index)
Object remove(int index) It removes the element at the given position in this vector.
boolean remove(Object o) It removes the first occurrence of the given element.
boolean removeAll It removes from this vector all its elements that are contained in the given
(Collection c) collection.
void removeAllElements() It removes all components from this vector and sets its size to zero.
boolean removeElement(Object obj) It removes the first occurrence of the argument from this vector.
void removeElementAt It deletes the component at the given index.
(int index)
protected void removeRange It removes from this list all the elements whose indexes are between
(int fromIndex, int fromIndex and toIndex.
toIndex)
boolean retainAll It keeps only the elements in this vector that are contained in the given
(Collection c) collection.
Object set It replaces the element at the given position in this vector with the given
(int index, Object element) element.
void setElementAt It sets the component at the given index of this vector to be the given object.
(Object obj, int index)
void setSize(int newSize) It sets the size of this vector.
int size() It gets the number of components in this vector.
List subList(int fromIndex, It gets a view of the portion of this list between fromIndex and toIndex.
int toIndex)
Object[] toArray() It gets an array containing all the elements in this vector.
Object[] toArray It gets an array containing all the elements in this vector.
(Object[] a)
String toString() It gets a string representation of this vector.
void trimToSize() It trims the capacity of this vector to the current size.

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Each vector has a capacity, which is the maximum size it can grow to. When you exceed that size, the capacity is
automatically increased. You can use the add() and addElement() methods to add elements to a vector, the
remove() and removeElement() methods to remove elements, and the contains() method to do a search.
Heres an example using the Vector class in which we create a vector, check its size and capacity, and search
for an element:
import java.util.*;

class VectorDemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Vector<Number> vector = new Vector<Number>(5);
System.out.println("Capacity: " + vector.capacity());
vector.addElement(new Integer(0));
vector.addElement(new Integer(1));
vector.addElement(new Integer(2));
vector.addElement(new Integer(3));
vector.addElement(new Integer(4));
vector.addElement(new Integer(5));
vector.addElement(new Integer(6));
vector.addElement(new Double(3.14159));
vector.addElement(new Float(3.14159));
System.out.println("Capacity: " + vector.capacity());
System.out.println("Size: " + vector.size());
System.out.println("First item: " + (Integer)
vector.firstElement());
System.out.println("Last item: " + (Float) vector.lastElement());
if(vector.contains(new Integer(3)))
System.out.println("Found a 3.");
}
}
Heres the output of this example:
C:\>java VectorDemo
Capacity: 5
Capacity: 10
Size: 9
First item: 0
Last item: 3.14159
Found a 3.

The Stack Class

The Novice Programmer is back and says, I wish I could reverse the elements of a listIm converting a
number to base 20, and each time I divide by 20, the new digits come off in reverse order. No problems, you
say. Just put them on a stack and pop them to reverse the order. Great! says the NP.
The Stack class is built on the Vector class, and it implements a stack construct. Heres the inheritance
diagram for the Stack class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.AbstractCollection
|____java.util.AbstractList
|____java.util.Vector
|____java.util.Stack
Youll find the constructor for the Stack class in Table 21.43 and its methods in Table 21.44:
Table 21.43: The constructor of the Stack class
Constructor Does this
Stack() It creates an empty stack.

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Table 21.44: Methods of the Stack class

Method Does this
boolean empty() It returns True if this stack is empty.
Object peek() It gets the object at the top of this stack without removing it.
Object pop() It removes the object at the top of this stack and returns that object.
Object push(Object item) It adds an item onto the top of this stack.
int search(Object o) It gets the position of an object on this stack.

You use the push() method to add an element to a stack and the pop() method to retrieve it; note that
elements come off a stack in the reverse order in which they were added to it. Heres an example in which we
push and then pop elements on a stack:
import java.util.*;

class StackDemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Stack<Integer> stack1 = new Stack<Integer>();
try {
stack1.push(new Integer(0));
stack1.push(new Integer(1));
stack1.push(new Integer(2));
stack1.push(new Integer(3));
stack1.push(new Integer(4));
stack1.push(new Integer(5));
stack1.push(new Integer(6));

System.out.println((Integer) stack1.pop());
System.out.println((Integer) stack1.pop());
System.out.println((Integer) stack1.pop());
System.out.println((Integer) stack1.pop());
System.out.println((Integer) stack1.pop());
System.out.println((Integer) stack1.pop());
System.out.println((Integer) stack1.pop());
}
catch (EmptyStackException e) { }
}
}
Heres the output of this example:
C:\>java StackDemo
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

The Dictionary Class

The Dictionary class is a class used by classes such as Hashtable, and it stores elements much like a map
does, although it was introduced before the collection framework appeared. Because it forms the foundation of
the Hashtable class, well include Dictionary here for reference. Heres the inheritance diagram for
Dictionary:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.Dictionary

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Youll find the constructor for Dictionary in Table 21.45 and its methods in Table 21.46:
Table 21.45: The constructor of the Dictionary class
Constructor Does this
Dictionary() It creates a dictionary.

Table 21.46: Methods of the Dictionary class

Method Does this
abstract Enumeration It gets an enumeration of the values in this dictionary.
elements()
abstract Object get It gets the value for this key.
(Object key)
abstract boolean isEmpty() It returns True if this dictionary has no keys.
abstract Enumeration keys() It gets an enumeration of the keys in this dictionary.
abstract Object put It maps the given key to the given value in this dictionary.
(Object key, Object value)
abstract Object remove It removes the key and its value from this dictionary.
(Object key)
abstract int size() It gets the number of entries in this dictionary.

The Hashtable Class

The Hashtable class implements the Map interface, and it was how you used to implement maps before the
collection framework come. Heres the inheritance diagram for Hashtable:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.Dictionary
|____java.util.Hashtable
Youll find the constructors for the Hashtable class in Table 21.47 and its methods in Table 21.48:
Table 21.47: Constructors of the Hashtable class
Constructor Does this
Hashtable() It constructs a new, empty hashtable.
Hashtable (int initialCapacity) It constructs a new, empty hashtable with the given initial capacity.
Hashtable(int initialCapacity, It constructs a new, empty hashtable with the given initial capacity and the
float loadFactor) given load factor.
Hashtable(Map t) It constructs a new hashtable with the same mappings as the given map.

Table 21.48: Methods of the Hashtable class

Method Does this
void clear() It clears this hashtable so that it contains no keys.
Object clone() It creates a copy of this hashtable.
boolean contains It returns True if some key maps into the given value in this hashtable.
(Object value)
boolean containsKey It returns True if the given object is a key in this hashtable.
(Object key)
boolean containsValue It returns True if this hashtable maps one or more keys to this value.
(Object value)
Enumeration elements() It gets an enumeration of the values in this hashtable.
Set entrySet() It gets a set view of the entries contained in this hashtable.
boolean equals(Object o) It compares the given object with this map for equality.
Object get(Object key) It gets the value to which the given key is mapped in this hashtable.

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Table 21.48: Methods of the Hashtable class

Method Does this
int hashCode() It gets the hashcode value for this map, as per the definition in the Map
interface.
boolean isEmpty() It tests whether this hashtable maps no keys to values.
Enumeration keys() It gets an enumeration of the keys in this hashtable.
Set keySet() It gets a set view of the keys contained in this hashtable.
Object put It maps the given key to the given value in this hashtable.
(Object key, Object value)
void putAll(Map t) It copies all the mappings from the given map to this hashtable.
protected void rehash() It increases the capacity of and internally reorganizes this hashtable.
Object remove(Object key) It removes the key (and its corresponding value) from this hashtable.
int size() It gets the number of keys in this hashtable.
String toString() It gets a string representation of this Hashtable object in the form of a set
of entries.
Collection values() It gets a collection view of the values contained in this hashtable.

You store and retrieve key/value pairs in a hashtable using the put() and get() methods. You can get an
Enumeration object for the keys in a hashtable using the keys() method, and you can use that object to loop
over the elements of the hash. Heres an example in which we create a hashtable and then print out its
key/value pairs:
import java.util.*;

class HashTable
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Hashtable<String, String> hashtable1 = new Hashtable<String, String>();
hashtable1.put("Item 0", "Value 0");
hashtable1.put("Item 1", "Value 1");
hashtable1.put("Item 2", "Value 2");
hashtable1.put("Item 3", "Value 3");
hashtable1.put("Item 4", "Value 4");
hashtable1.put("Item 5", "Value 5");
hashtable1.put("Item 6", "Value 6");
Enumeration keys = hashtable1.keys();
while(keys.hasMoreElements())
{
String key = (String) keys.nextElement();
System.out.println(key + "/" + hashtable1.get(key));
}
}
}
Heres the output of this example. Note that the hash determines the order in which elements are stored in a
hash, and you cant count on any specific order:
C:\>java HashTable
Item 0/Value 0
Item 6/Value 6
Item 5/Value 5
Item 4/Value 4
Item 3/Value 3
Item 2/Value 2
Item 1/Value 1

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The Properties Class

The Properties class is derived from the Hashtable class (see the previous solution) and uses string keys
and values. This class maintains the properties of various other classes, and an object of the Properties class is
returned by those classess getProperty() method. Heres the inheritance diagram for the Properties class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.Dictionary
|____java.util.Hashtable
|____java.util.Properties
Youll find the single field of the Properties class in Table 21.49, its constructors in Table 21.50, and its
methods in Table 21.51:
Table 21.49: The field of the Properties class
Field Does this
protected Properties A property list that contains default values for keys
defaults

Table 21.50: Constructors of the Properties class

Constructor Does this
Properties() It constructs a property list.
Properties(Properties defaults) It constructs a property list with the given defaults.

Table 21.51: Methods of the Properties class

Method Does this
String getProperty It searches for the property with the given key.
(String key)
String getProperty It searches for the property with the given key and returns the default value
(String key, String defaultValue) if the key is not found.
void list(PrintStream out) It prints this property list to the given output stream.
void list(PrintWriter out) It prints this property list to the given writer stream.
void load It reads a property list from the input stream.
(InputStream inStream)
Enumeration propertyNames() It gets an enumeration of all the keys in this property list.
void save(OutputStream out, String It is deprecated and it uses the store method instead.
header)
Object setProperty It calls the hashtable method put.
(String key, String value)
void store It writes this property list in this Properties table to the output stream in
(OutputStream out, String a format acceptable for use with the load method.
header)
Set <String> It returns a set of keys in this property list where the key and its
stringPropertyNames() corresponding value are strings, including distinct keys in the default
property list if a key of the same name has not already been found from the
main properties list.

You can put property values into a Properties object with the setProperty() method, and you can get
property values with the getProperty() method. Heres an example in which we create a Properties
object, add property values to it, and then retrieve a property value. Note, in particular, that you can supply a
default value to getProperty() that it will return if theres no property value matching the property you have
requested:
import java.util.*;

class PropertiesDemo

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{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Properties properties1 = new Properties();
Set states; String outString;
properties1.setProperty("Property 0", "Value 0");
properties1.setProperty("Property 1", "Value 1");
properties1.setProperty("Property 2", "Value 2");
properties1.setProperty("Property 3", "Value 3");
properties1.setProperty("Property 4", "Value 4");
properties1.setProperty("Property 5", "Value 5");
properties1.setProperty("Property 6", "Value 6");
outString = properties1.getProperty("Property 3", "Missing");
System.out.println(outString);
outString = properties1.getProperty("Property 7", "Missing");
System.out.println(outString);
}
}
Heres the output of this example:
C:\>java PropertiesDemo
Value 3
Missing

Using the Aggregate Operations

It has been discussed earlier that aggregate operations are performed on a data structure rather than on an
individual element. In order to better understand the concept of aggregate operations, consider the following
example in which we are displaying the capital of countries with their country code:
public class CountriesCapital {
Integer CountryCode;
String CountryName;
String CapitalName;
Integer States;

CountriesCapital() {}
CountriesCapital(int cCode, String cName, String capName, int states) {
this.CountryCode = cCode;
this.CountryName = cName;
this.CapitalName = capName;
this.States = states;
}
public String toString() {
return "" + CountryCode + ", " + CountryName + ", " + CapitalName + ", " + States;
}
}
Lets create a class with the name CountryCapitalDemo which uses the earlier created CountriesCapital class
in it:
import java.util.*;
import java.util.stream.*;
public class CountryCapitalDemo {
private static List<CountriesCapital> countriesCapital = Arrays.asList(
new CountriesCapital(91, "India", "Delhi", 36),
new CountriesCapital(1, "USA", "Washington", 50),
new CountriesCapital(43, "Austria", "Vienna", 40),
new CountriesCapital(86, "China", "Beijing", 55),
new CountriesCapital(81, "Japan", "Tokyo", 50),
new CountriesCapital(61, "Australia", "Canberra", 8),
new CountriesCapital(33, "France", "Paris", 27),
new CountriesCapital(64, "New Zealand", "Wellington", 53),

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 Immediate Solutions

new CountriesCapital(94, "Sri Lanka", "Colombo", 22)

);
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Output with Lambda Expressions:");
withLExpression();
}
private static void withLExpression() {
List<CountriesCapital> cc = countriesCapital.stream().filter(c -> c.CountryCode >
40).collect(Collectors.toList());
printList(cc);
}
private static void printList(List<CountriesCapital> cc) {
cc.forEach(c -> System.out.println("\t" + c));
System.out.println();
}
}
Heres the output of this example:
Output with Lambda Expressions:
91, India, Delhi, 36
43, Austria, Vienna, 40
86, China, Beijing, 55
81, Japan, Tokyo, 50
61, Australia, Canberra, 8
64, New Zealand, Wellington, 53
94, Sri Lanka, Colombo, 22

Using the java.util.function Package

It is aforementioned that the java.util.function package includes interfaces that can be used by the JDK and with
the code developed by a user. This package also includes enough functionality that can fulfill the common
requirements of the lambda expressions. Consider the following example in which the java.util.function
package is used:
import java.util.List;
import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.time.chrono.IsoChronology;
import java.time.LocalDate;

public class Employee {

public enum Sex {

M, F
}

String empName;
LocalDate empBirthday;
Sex empGender;
String empEmailAddress;

Employee(String name, LocalDate bday, Sex gen, String email) {

empName = name;
empBirthday = bday;
empGender = gen;
empEmailAddress = email;
}

public int getAge() {

return empBirthday
.until(IsoChronology.INSTANCE.dateNow())
.getYears();

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public void printPerson() {

System.out.println(empName + ", " + this.getAge());
}

public Sex getGender() {

return empGender;
}

public String getName() {

return empName;
}

public LocalDate getBirthday() {

return empBirthday;
}

public static int compareByAge(Employee a, Employee b) {

return a.empBirthday.compareTo(b.empBirthday);
}

public static List<Employee> createRoster() {

List<Employee> roster = new ArrayList<>();

roster.add(
new Employee(
"Deepak",
IsoChronology.INSTANCE.date(1987, 11, 20),
Employee.Sex.M,
"deepak.sharma@dreamtechpress.com"));
roster.add(
new Employee(
"Puneet",
IsoChronology.INSTANCE.date(1986, 7, 15),
Employee.Sex.M, "puneet@dreamtechpress.com"));
roster.add(
new Employee(
"Nikhil",
IsoChronology.INSTANCE.date(1991, 8, 13),
Employee.Sex.M, "nikhil@dreamtechpress.com"));
roster.add(
new Employee(
"Hari Narayan",
IsoChronology.INSTANCE.date(1991, 8, 18),
Employee.Sex.M, "hari.narayan@dreamtechpress.com"));

return roster;
}

}
Lets now create a class with the name ReferenceMethodsDemo which uses the Employee class created earlier:
import java.util.*;
import java.util.function.Supplier;

public class ReferenceMethodsDemo {

public static <T, SOURCE extends Collection<T>, DEST extends Collection<T>>
DEST transElmnts(SOURCE sCollection, Supplier<DEST> cFactory) {

DEST res = cFactory.get();

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 Immediate Solutions

for (T tt : sCollection) {
res.add(tt);
}
return res;
}

public static void main(String... args) {

List<Employee> roster = Employee.createRoster();

for (Employee e : roster) {

e.printPerson();
}

Employee[] rstrArray =
roster.toArray(new Employee[roster.size()]);

class EmployeeAgeComparator
implements Comparator<Employee> {
public int compare(Employee e, Employee ee) {
return e.getBirthday().compareTo(ee.getBirthday());
}
}

Arrays.sort(rstrArray, new EmployeeAgeComparator());

Arrays.sort(rstrArray,
(Employee e, Employee ee) -> {
return e.getBirthday().compareTo(ee.getBirthday());
}
);

Arrays.sort(rstrArray, Employee::compareByAge);
class CmprsnProvider {
public int cmprByEmpName(Employee e, Employee ee) {
return e.getName().compareTo(ee.getName());
}

public int compareByAge(Employee e, Employee ee) {

return e.getBirthday().compareTo(ee.getBirthday());
}
}
CmprsnProvider myComparisonProvider = new CmprsnProvider();
Arrays.sort(rstrArray, myComparisonProvider::cmprByEmpName);

String[] stringArray = { "Deepak", "Puneet", "Nikhil", "Amit", "Hari", "Chirag" };

Arrays.sort(stringArray, String::compareToIgnoreCase);

Set<Employee> rosterSet = transElmnts(roster, HashSet::new);

System.out.println("New way of Display:");
rosterSet.stream().forEach(q -> q.printPerson());
}
}
Heres the output of the preceding example:
Deepak, 27
Puneet, 28
Nikhil, 23
Hari Narayan, 23
New way of Display:

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Deepak, 27
Hari Narayan, 23
Puneet, 28
Nikhil, 23

Summary
In this chapter, you have read about the collections framework which included the Collection interface and
collection classes. You have also come across generics in Java.
In the next chapter, youll read about creating packages and interfaces. Youll also come across jar files and
annotations used in Java.

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22
Creating Packages,
Interfaces, JAR Files,
and Annotations
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Creating a Package 832
Creating Packages that have Subpackages 832
Creating an Interface 833
Implementing an Interface 834
Extending an Interface 835
Using Interfaces for Callbacks 835
Performing Operations on a JAR File 836
Marker Annotations 842
Single Member Annotations 843
Chapter 22: Creating Packages, Interfaces, JAR Files, and Annotations

In Depth
In this chapter, we are going to take a look at several important Java topicscreating packages, interfaces, JAR
files, and annotations. All these topics are popular and good to have under your belt.

Packages and Interfaces

We have been using packages and interfaces throughout the book, and in this chapter, well look at how to
create them. Being able to create your own packages is a useful skillone that allows you to divide class
libraries into smaller units, much as Oracle has done with the Java packages. Youll see how to create packages
in code and how to arrange class files on the disk to match package structure. Well also take a look at how to
create interfaces, which is Javas answer to multiple inheritance.

JAR Files
To make it easier to download class files from the Web, Java supports Java Archive (JAR) files. The archives pack
files using the ZIP format, and youll see how to create JAR files and use them with the JAR tool that comes with
Java. In addition, JAR files are the foundation of other parts of Java, such as Java beans.

The Core Java API Package

All of the core API packages defined by Java and their functioning are given in Table 22.1:
Table 22.1: The core Java API packages
Package Primary function
java.applet It provides supports for applets constructions
java.awt It provides Graphical User Interfaces capabilities
java.awt.color It provides supports for color spaces and profiles
java.awt.datatransfer Data transfers to and from the system clipboard
java.awt.dnd It provides supports for drag-and-drop operations
java.awt.event It handles events
java.awt.font It represents various types of fonts
java.awt.geom It provides the facility to work with geometric shapes
java.awt.im It allows input of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean characters to text editing
components
java.awt.im.spi It supports alternative input devices
java.awt.image It processes images
java.awt.image.renderable It supports rendering- independent images
java.awt.print It provides general print capabilities
java.beans It allows you to build software components
java.beans.beancontext It provides an execution environment for Beans
java.io It inputs and outputs data
java.lang It provides core functionality
java.lang.annotation It provides supports for annotations
java.lang.instrument It provides supports for program instrumentation
java.lang.invoke It provides dynamic language support provided directly by the Java core
class libraries and virtual machine

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 In Depth

Table 22.1: The core Java API packages

Package Primary function
java.lang.management It provides supports for management of the execution environment
java.lang.ref It enables some interaction with the garbage collector
java.lang.reflect It analyzes code at runtime
java.math It handles large integers and decimal numbers
java.net It supports networking
java.nio Top-level package for the NIO classes and encapsulates buffers
java.nio.channels It encapsulates channels, used by the NIO system
java.nio.channels.spi It supports service providers for channels
java.nio.charset It encapsulates character sets
java.nio.charset.spi It supports service providers for character sets
java.nio.file It defines interfaces and classes for the JVM to access files, file attributes,
and file systems.
java.nio.file.attribute Interfaces and classes providing access to file and file system attributes
java.nio.file.spi It provides service-provider classes for the java.nio.file package
java.rmi It provides remote method invocation
java.rmi.activation It activates persistent objects
java.rmi.dgc It manages distributed garbage collection
java.rmi.registry It maps names to remote object references
java.rmi.server It supports remote method invocation
java.security It handles certificates, keys, digests, signatures, and other security
functions
java.security.acl It manages access control lists
java.security.cert It parses and manages certificates
java.security.interfaces It defines interfaces for Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) keys
java.security.spec It specifies keys and algorithm parameters
java.sql It communicates with a Structured Query Language (SQL) database
java.text It provides the facilities for formatting, searching, and manipulating texts
java.util It contains common utilities
java.util.concurrent It supports the concurrent utilities
java.util.jar It creates and reads JAR files
java.util.logging It supports logging of information relating to user preference
java.util.prefs It encapsulates information relating to user and system preferences
java.util.regex It supports regular expression processing
java.util.spi It supports service providers for the utility classes in java.util (Added
by Java SE 6)

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Chapter 22: Creating Packages, Interfaces, JAR Files, and Annotations

Table 22.1: The core Java API packages

Package Primary function
java.util.stream It provides classes to support functional-style operations on streams of
elements, such as map-reduce transformations on collections
java.util.zip It reads and writes compressed and uncompressed ZIP files

The java.lang Package

The java.lang package offers classes that are primarily required for the designing of Java programming
language. Java defines the following subpackages:
java.lang.annotation
java.lang.instrument
java.lang.management
java.lang.reflect
java.lang.invoke
java.lang.ref

The java.lang.annotation Subpackage

Javas new annotation is supported by the java.lang.annotation subpackage. It defines the Annotation
interface and the ElementType and RetentionPolicy enumerations.

The java.lang.instrument Subpackage

The java.lang.instrument subpackage is used for defining the characteristics that you can use for adding
instrumentation to several aspects of execution of a program. It defines the Instrumentation and
ClassFileTransformer interfaces, and the ClassDefinition class.

The java.lang.management Subpackage

The java.lang.management subpackage offers execution environment and management supports for the
JVM. You can verify and manage various aspects of program execution by using the features available in the
java.lang.management package.

The java.lang.reflect Subpackage

The java.lang.reflect subpackage offers interfaces and classes for obtaining reflective information about
them. Reflection is the ability of software to examine itself. It is an important feature, especially when using
components called Java Beans. It allows you to monitor a software component and describe its capabilities
dynamically at runtime rather than at compile time. There are 10 classes in this package. They are listed in
Table 22.2:
Table 22.2: Classes of the java.lang.reflect subpackage
Class Does this
AccesssibleObject It is the base class for Field, Method and Constructor objects
Array It provides static methods to dynamically create and access Java arrays
Constructor<T> It provides information about a constructor
Executable It is used as a superclass for the common functionality of Method and
Constructor.
Field It provides information about, and dynamic access to, a single field of a
class or an interface
Method It provides information about a method

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 In Depth

Table 22.2: Classes of the java.lang.reflect subpackage

Class Does this
Modifier It provides details about class and member access modifiers
Parameter It provides information about method parameters
Proxy It supports dynamic proxy classes
ReflectPermission It allows reflection of private or protected members of class

The java.lang.invoke Subpackage

The java.lang.invoke subpackage includes support for dynamic language offered directly by the Java core
class libraries and virtual machine.
As we have explained earlier in the Java Virtual Machine Specification, there are several types included in this
package that have special relations to dynamic language support in the virtual machine:
The class MethodHandle includes signature polymorphic methods. You can connect these methods
irrespective of their descriptor type. Mainly, the linkage of method requires exact matching of type
descriptors.
Immediate constants of the classes MethodHandle and MethodType are supported by the JVM bytecode
format.

The java.lang.ref Subpackage

The java.lang.ref subpackage supports reference-object classes that have interaction with the garbage
collector up to a certain limit. The programs may use a reference object to establish references with various other
objects in a manner that the latter object may still be retrieved by the collector. The programs may also organize
to be notified later when the collector has analyzed that the reachability of a given object has altered.

Basics of Annotation
The Java platform provides an annotation (also known as Metadata) facility that permits defining and use of
your own annotation types. It has specific syntaxes for declaring annotation types, for annotating declarations,
APIs for reading annotations, a class file representation for annotations, and an annotation-processing tool.
Although annotations do not affect the program semantics directly, they do affect the way used by tools and
libraries for treating programs, and that may affect the semantics of the running program. Annotations may be
reflected at runtime or may be read from the source files and/or class files. These also complement the use of
javadoc tags. A javadoc tag or an annotation is generally used for markup intended to produce or affect
documentation.
Annotation type declarations and normal interface declarations are quite similar. As in the interface keyword, an
at sign (@) precedes the annotation type declarations, which is further followed by a parenthesized list of
element-value pairs. Each method defined by the declaration defines an element of the annotation type. They
must not have any parameters or throws clause. Return types for this declaration are limited to String,
primitives, enums, Class, annotations, and arrays of the preceding types. Methods can have default
values. Shown here is an example of annotation type declaration:
public @interface RequestForEnhancement
{
int identification();
String abstract();
String operator() default "[unassigned]";
String date() default "[unimplemented]";
}
After defining an annotation type, the annotate declarations can be made. You can use annotation anywhere like
other modifiers, such as public, static, or final, as it is a special kind of modifier. Conventionally, other
modifiers are preceded by annotations. These values must be compile-time constants.

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Even though annotations cannot include the extends clause, they automatically extend the Annotation
interface. Thus, Annotation can be termed as the super-interface and is declared in the
java.lang.annotation package. Just look at this code:
@classic(txt = Know me, uni = 224)
public static void Classical() { . . . }
In the example, youll notice that within an annotation (@classic), its members are given values. This
annotation is linked with the method Classical().

Other Built-In Annotations

Java defines 11 built-in annotations. From them, six were imported from java.lang.annotation and five
more were included from java.lang:
@Retention
@Documented
@Target
@Native
@Repeatable
@Retention
@Inherited
@Overdrive
@Deprecated
@SuppressWarnings
@FunctionalInterface
@ SafeVarargs

@Retention Annotation
The @Retention annotation can only be used as an annotation to another annotation. Moreover, it provides
the retention policy for Java. A retention policy can determine the point with the help of which an annotation can
be discarded. The java.lang.annotation.RetentionPolicy class includes three such policies:
Retention policy of SOURCEAn annotation of this policy is not included during compilation and retained
only in the source file.
Retention policy of CLASSDuring compilation, an annotation of this policy gets stored in the class file
and does not have availability during runtime through the JVM.
Retention policy of RUNTIME In the class file, an annotation of this policy gets stored and is also available
at runtime through the JVM.
@Retentation (RetentionPolicy.RUNTIME)
@interface classica { }
In short, it can be said that the new Metadata facility lets you embed annotation into a program. Various
programming tools, in turn, process the annotations. For example, a tool might generate Java source code as
requested by an annotation. In the Metadata facility, a programmer describes an action, but relies on a tool in
actually providing the code. This type of approach reduces the amount of repetitious code that a programmer
may be required to enter manually resulting in considerable time saving.

@Documented Annotation
The @Documented annotation can be defined as a marker interface that informs a tool about the documentation
of an annotation. It can only be used as an annotation to an annotation declaration.

@Target Annotation
The @Target annotation defines the types of declaration to which an annotation can be applied. It is used as
annotation for other annotations as well. The @Target annotation takes on constant argument from the

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ElementType enumeration. This argument specifies the types of declaration to which the annotation can be
applied. Table 22.3 shows the constants along with the type of declaration to which they correspond:
Table 22.3: The Target constants and their type of declaration
Target constant Target annotation
ANNOTATION_TYPE Another annotation
CONSTRUCTOR Constructor
TYPE Class, interface, or enumeration
FIELD Field
LOCAL_VARIABLE Local variable
PARAMETER Parameter
PACKAGE Package
METHOD Method

In a @Target annotation, you can mention one or more of these values. You must specify multiple values inside
a braces-delimited list. For example, to specify that a @Target annotation applies only to fields and local
variables:
@Target ({ ElementType.FIELD, ElementType.LOCAL_VARIABLE })

@Native Annotation
The @Native annotation specifies a field that defines a constant value which can be referenced from native
code. This annotation can be used as a hint by tools that are used for generating native header files. These files
are used for determining whether a header file is needed or not, and if needed, then what declarations it should
have.

@Repeatable Annotation
The @Repeatable annotation is used for indicating that an annotation type whose declaration it (meta-) annotates
is repeatable. The value of the @Repeatable annotation specifies the stored annotation type for the repeatable
annotation type.

@Retention Annotation
The @Retention annotation specifies the time of retention of annotations having annotated type are to be
retained. The default value of the retention policy is RetentionPolicy.CLASS in case no Retention annotation
is available on as annotation type declaration.
The @Retention meta-annotation is affected only if you use the meta-annotated type directly for annotation.

@Inherited Annotation
The @Inherited annotation can be referred to as a marker annotation that can only be used on declaration of
another annotation. In addition to this, it only affects that annotation which is used on class declaration. The
@Inherited annotation allows the superclass annotation to be inherited by a subclass. Therefore, whenever a
request is made for a particular annotation to the subclass, the superclass is checked if the annotation for the
subclass is not available. Suppose that annotation is available in the superclass which is annotated with the
@inherited keyword, then an annotation is returned.

@Override Annotation
The @Override annotation is used only on methods and can be referred to as a marker annotation. A method
annotated with the @ Overdrive keyword needs to override a method from a superclass. If it does not
override a method, a compile-time error appears. This annotation can be used for ensuring overriding of a
superclass method.

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@Deprecated Annotation
The @Deprecated annotation specifies that a declaration is removed and replaced by a newer form.

@SuppressWarnings Annotation
The @SuppressWarnings the annotation specifies suppressing of one or more notifications that might be
provided by the compiler. The suppressed notifications are required to be mentioned by names in the form of
string. You can apply this annotation to any type of declaration.

@FunctionalInterface
An informative annotation type is used for specifying an interface type declaration that is intended to be
a functional interface. Generally, a functional interface contains has exactlyonly one abstract method.
Since Default methods cannot be treated as abstract as they have an implementation.
You can create instances of functional interfaces by using lambda expressions, method references, or constructor
references.
Compilers must generat an error message, if a type is annotated with this annotation type, unless the following
conditions are satisfied:
The type is an interface type and not an annotation type, enum, or class.
The annotated type fulfills the need of a functional interface.
The compiler treats any interface satisfying the definition of a functional interface as a functional interface
sirrespective of whether or not a @FunctionalInterface annotation is available on the interface declaration.

@ SafeVarargs
Application of the @SafeVarargs annotation to a method or constructor suppresses unchecked notifications
about a non-reifiable variable arity (vararg) type and creation of parameterized array creation at call sites.
In addition to the imposing of usage restrictionsconstraints imposed applied by its HYPERLINK
"http://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/java/lang/annotation/Target.html" \o "annotation in
java.lang.annotation" @Target meta-annotation, compilers are need to implement more usage constraints on this
annotation type. It is a compile-time error in case of declaration of a method or a constructor annotated with
a @SafeVarargs annotation, and either:
the declaration is a fixed arity method or constructor, or
the declaration is a variable arity method neither static nor final.
Compilers issue notifications when this annotation type is used for to a method or constructor declaration,
where the following conditions hold:
The element type of the variable arity parameter is reifiable which includes primitive types: Object,
and String.
Unsafe operations are performed by the body of the method or constructor. Array Sometimes, unchecked
warnings are not generated by some unsafe operations. For example, consider the following code snippet:
@SafeVarargs // Not actually safe!
static void m(List<String>... stringLists) {
Object[] array = stringLists;
List<Integer> tmpLlist = Arrays.asList(42);
array[0] = tmpLlist; // Semantically invalid, but compiles without warnings
String str = stringLists[0].get(0); // Oh no, ClassCastException at runtime!
}
The aliasing in the preceding code snippet leads to the ClassCastException exception at runtime. The
statement arr[0]=tmplst is semantically invalid, but will execute without warnings. However, the statement
String str=stringLists[0].get(0) gets executed and will give the ClassCastException exception.

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 In Depth

Type Annotations and Pluggable Type Systems

Before the release of Java SE 8, you could only apply annotations to declarations. But the release of Java SE 8has
let you apply annotations to any type. Some instances where types are used are implements clauses, object
creation expressions (new), and casts and throws clauses. This kind of annotation is known as type
annotation.
Type annotations allow better analysis of Java programs and ensure stronger type checking. A type checking
framework is not provided in Java SE 8, but it enables you to write (or download) a type checking framework.
This framework can be implemented as single or multiple pluggable modules that can be used in conjunction
with the Java compiler.

Repeating Annotations
In Java SE8, you can use repeating annotations in situations where you want to apply the same annotation to a
declaration or type use. Suppose you want to use a timer service which allows you to execute a method at a
specified time like the UNIX cron service. For creating this timer service, you need to write a code. Using the
code, you can set a timer for executing a method, doPeriodicCleanup, on every months last day and on every
Saturday at 10:00 p.m. Now, in order to set the timer for execution, you need to write an @Schedule annotation
and use it twice for the doPeriodicCleanup method: first for specifying the last day of the month and the
second for specifying Saturday at 10 p.m., as shown in the following statements:
@Schedule(dayOfMonth="last")
@Schedule(dayOfWeek="Sat", hour="23")
public void doPeriodicCleanup() { ... }
In the preceding statements, an annotation to a method is applied. Now, you can repeat an annotation anywhere
so that you will be able to use a standard annotation. The repeating annotations are stored in a container
annotation that is generated automatically by the Java compiler for compatibility reasons. For making the
compiler to do this, the following two declarations are needed in your code:
The annotation type must be specified with the @Repeatable meta-annotation
The containing annotation type must contain a value element with an array type

Retrieving Annotations
Reflection API provides various methods that can be used for retrieving annotations. The behavior of these
methods remains unchanged, which return a single annotation, such as
AnnotatedElement.getAnnotationByType(Class<T>), if there is availability of one annotation of the requested
type. In case there is availability of more than one annotation of the requested type, you can retrieve them by
getting their container annotation first. In this way, legacy code functions continuously. Other methods were
also introduced in Java SE 8 for scanning through the container annotation for returning multiple annotations
together, such as AnnotatedElement.getAnnotations(Class<T>).
Thats it for the overview of what is in this chapter. Theres a great deal coming up, so its time to turn to the
Immediate Solutions section.

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Immediate Solutions
Creating a Package
Good Lord! says the Novice Programmer, I have so many classes that things are getting pretty cluttered now.
How can I wade through all this mess? Well, you say, why not divide your classes into packages? That will
let you arrange your class files in a directory structure much like youd arrange files when you have too many of
them. Problem solved. Great, says the NP, tell me how it works.
When you have a number of class files, its often a good idea to arrange them on disk by using a directory
hierarchy. In fact, Java packages were originally designed to reflect such a file organization. You can arrange
class files into a directory hierarchy and let Java know whats going on with the packages. For example, if you
have a package named package1 with one class in it, app.class, the class file would go into a directory
named package1, like this:
package1
|____app
Multiple class files in the same package go into the same directory:
package1
|____app1
|____app2
|____app3
As long as the package1 directory is in a location that Java will search (see Chapter 1 for more information on
where Java will search for class files and how to use the CLASSPATH environment variable), Java will look for
the class files you list as part of that package in that directory.
You need to indicate what package a class file is part of by using the package statement in your code. Heres an
example where we are creating app.class and indicating that its part of package1 by using the package
statement:
package package1;
public class app {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
After we have compiled app.class and stored it in the package1 directory, we can import the app class into
my code with statements such as the following, just as we would with any other Java package:
import package1.*;
or
import package1.app;
The Java runtime tool also knows about packages; since app.class is itself an application, we can run this
class with a command line that specifies the app classs package by using a dot (.) for the directory separator:
E:\Java8\chapter22>java package1.app
Hello from Java!
In fact, the dot package separator comes in handy when you create subpackages of packagestake a look at the
next solution for the details.

Creating Packages that have Subpackages

Hmm, says the Novice Programmer, I understand that you can put class files into a package by setting up the
correct directory structure and by using the package statement, but what if the packages have subpackages?
How deep can I nest the package structure? As deep as you want, you say, that is, as deep as your operating
system supports nested directories.
When you have a lot of class files, you may want to organize them into quite a complex package structure, and
you do that by creating the corresponding directory structure on disk, including giving and subdirectories. For
example, if you want the app class to be in package2, which itself is a subpackage of package1, this is the
directory structure youd use:

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 Immediate Solutions

package1
|____package2
|____app
To create this package structure in code, you just use the dot package separator. Heres an example:
package package1.package2;

public class app

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("Hello from Java!");
}
}
Now you can import the app class into your code with statements such as these:
import package1.package2.*;
or
import package1.package2.app;
Since here app is already an application class, you can also run it like this, specifying the package structure:
E:\Java8\chapter22>java package1.package2.app
Hello from Java!

Creating an Interface
Well, the NP says, I want to derive a new class from two base classes, but I know that Java doesnt support
multiple inheritance, so.... So you have to use interfaces, you say.
We have used interfaces throughout the book, and well take a look at how to create one here. When you create
an interface, you specify the methods for the interface, and when you implement the interface, you provide code
for those methods. Interfaces have two advantages over inheritance:
A class can extend to only one other class, but as many interfaces as you need.
They are easier to work with than interfaces because you dont have to provide any implementation details
in the interface.

When an interface is declared as public, it can be used by other classes as well.

Heres an example in which we create an interface named Printem that has one method: printText(). We
implement this interface in a class named class1. To create an interface, we simply use the interface
statement and list the prototypes (declarations without bodies) of the methods we want in the interface, like this:
interface Printem { void printText(); }
Now we can implement this interface in class1:
interface Printem { void printText(); }

class interfaces
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
class1 object1 = new class1();
object1.printText();
}

}
class class1 implements Printem
{
public void printText() { System.out.println("Dreamtech Press"); }
}

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The output of the code is shown in Figure 22.1:

Figure 22.1: Printing text using interface

Implementing an Interface
You can create classes that partly implement an interface, but these classes must be declared abstract because
they are only partial implementations and therefore cannot be instantiated into objects. Heres an example in
which we create an interface with two methods: printText1() and printText2():
interface Printem { void printText1(); void printText2(); }
Next, we create a new class, Class1, that implements the interface but only defines one method,
printText1() (note that we must declare this class abstract as it is not a full implementation of the interface):
interface Printem { void printText1(); void printText2(); }
abstract class Class1 implements Printem
{
public void printText1() { System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
Finally, we can create a new class, Class2, that extends Class1 and defines the printText2() method,
which means we can instantiate objects of Class2 as shown here:
interface Printem { void printText1(); void printText2(); }

abstract class Class1 implements Printem

{
public void printText1() { System.out.println("Hello from Dreamtech Press"); }
}

class Class2 extends Class1

{
public void printText2()
{
System.out.println("Hello from Java interfaces!");
}
}

public class Interfaces2

{

public static void main(String[] args)

{
Class2 object2 = new Class2();
object2.printText1();
object2.printText2();
}

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The output of this code is shown in Figure 22.2:

Figure 22.2: Implementing an interface

Note that partial implementations can be useful, such as when you want to specify how some of an interfaces
methods, but not all, should work in a series of subclasses.
In fact, an interface is a kind of type, just like class. As a result, you can use an interface as the type for a variable,
parameter, or method return value. For example, consider this interface:
public interface Play { void play(); }
. . .
Play gme = getGame();
gme.play();
. . .
Here the method getGame() returns an object that implements the Play interface and this object is assigned to
a variable of type Play. Then the objects play() method is called.

Extending an Interface
Interfaces are extended with the use of extends keyword. An interface that is getting extended is known as the
superinterface; on the other hand, the interface which is extending an existing interface is known as the
subinterface.
public interface color
{
void blue();
void red();
}
public interface shirt
{
void sz1();
void sz2();
}
public interface combination extends color, shirt { void combin1(); }
When the extends keyword is used with interfaces, all the fields of the superinterface are copied into the
subinterface. In other words, three interfaces are declaredthe first defines two methods blue() and red();
the second defines two methods sz1() and sz2(); and the third extends color and shirt, and adds a
method of its own called combin1().

Using Interfaces for Callbacks

A callback is a technique wherein an object lets another object know that the second object should call one of the
first objects methods whenever a certain event happens. The first object used in this technique is known as an
event listener as it waits till it is called by the other object. The second object in this technique is known as the
event source as it is the source of events that provides calls to the listener.
Such callbacks are handled in Java through Interfaces. The callbacks are generally used in graphical Swing
applications, where event listeners are built for handling the events of user interface, such as mouse clicks.

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Lets look at this example where we have implemented callbacks. In this example, a timer is implemented in the
class Ticking. This timer generates events after regular intervals and sets up a listener object for handling these
events:
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.*;

public class Ticking

{

public static void main(String[] args)

{
Timer tm = new Timer(1000, new Ticker());
tm.start();
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null, "You wish to exit...cool...Click OK"); }
}

class Ticker implements ActionListener

{
private boolean tick = true;

public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent event)

{
if (tick) { System.out.println("Tick..."); }
else { System.out.println("Tock..."); }
tick = !tick;
}

}
Here we have used the ActionListener interface that consists of a single method named
actionPerformed(). A parameter of type ActionEvent is received by the actionPerformed() method.
The result displays the messages Tick and Tock. on the console, as shown in Figure 22.3:

Figure 22.3: Displaying Tick and Tock

Performing Operations on a JAR File

A Java Archive (JAR) file comprises various directories and isolated files that are saved in a condensed format in
zip pattern. The .jar is the extension for JAR files. A JAR file is unzipped using software and then all its contents
are extracted.
Also, many processors, such as the Java Virtual Machine, or browsers, can use the files in a JAR directly without
extracting the files.

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Creating a JAR File

Wow, says the Novice Programmer, my class files are getting huge and there are a lot of them. Do you have
any idea what that does to the download times for my applets? You smile and say, I sure dowhich is why
you should be using JAR files. What files? the NP asks.
A JAR file allows you to wrap various files into one. In fact, JAR files compress their contents by using the ZIP
format, so if your applet needs a lot of large files, it makes sense to create and download a JAR file. Web
browsers only need one connection rather than new connections for each sub file, which can improve download
times. The digital signature is used by the files in a JAR file for proving their origin. You create JAR files with the
jar tool, and well take a look at that tool in this and the next few solutions. This tool comes with Java, and heres
how you use it:
jar [options] [manifest] destination input-file [additional input files]
Here, options refer to the options you can use with the jar tool, and they are much like the options you can use
with the UNIX tar tool. The optional manifest argument consists of the name of a manifest file, which supports
digital signing and lists the contents of the JAR file. When you create a Java bean, you use the manifest file to
indicate which classes are beans, as well do later in this chapter. Here are the possible options you can use with
the jar tool:
cIt creates a new or empty archive on the standard output.
tIt lists the table of contents from standard output.
x fileIt extracts all files or just the named files. In case a file is not present, then all the files are
accessed; else, only the specific files are accessed.
fThe argument following this option specifies a JAR file to work with.
vIt generates verbose output on stderr.
mIt includes manifest information from a specified manifest file.
0It indicates store only, without using ZIP compression.
MIt specifies that a manifest file should not be created for the entries.
uIt updates an existing JAR file by adding files or changing the manifest.
-CIt changes directories during execution of the jar command. For example, jar uf jarfile.jar -
C classes would add all files within the classes directory, but not the classes directory itself, to
jarfile.jar.

Use an argument beginning with the character @ to specify a file containing additional arguments, one argument per line. The
arguments are inserted into the command line at the position of @filename argument.

Heres a typical usage of the jar tool:

E:\Java8\chapter22>jar cf jarfile.jar *.class
Here, all the class files present in the current directory are stored in the file with the name jarfile.jar. A
default manifest file gets generated automatically by the jar tool and is always the first entry in the jar file. If you
have a manifest file that you want the jar tool to use for a new JAR archive, you can use the -m option and
specify it like this (well create manifest files later in this chapter):
E:\Java8\chapter22>jar cmf manifest.mft jarfile.jar *.class
You must note that if you mention the options cfm in place of cmf, then you must first mention the name of the
JAR archive, which will be further followed by the manifest files name:
E:\Java8\chapter22>jar cfm jarfile.jar manifest.mft *.class
Note also that JAR files are not just for class files; they can store any type of files. Heres how to pack all the files
in a directory into a JAR file:
E:\Java8\chapter22>jar cfm jarfile.jar manifest.mft *.*
If the file names you want to pack include any directories, those directories are searched recursively and the files
in them are stored. When the JAR file is unpacked, the directory structure will be re-created.

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Getting the Contents of a JAR File

Uh-oh, says the Novice Programmer, I have a JAR file and I have forgotten whats in it. I guess Ill have to
rebuild it. Not at all, you say. Just use the tf options. Hows that? the NP asks.
You can determine whats in a JAR file with the tf options as in this case, where the JAR file contains a default
manifest in the META-INF internal directory and a number of class files:
E:\Java8\chapter22>jar tf SampleJar.jar
The output of the command given above will be as follows:
META-INF/
META-INF/MANIFEST.MF
applet.class
jpanel.class
newButton.class
textPanel.class

Extracting Files from a JAR File

OK, says the Novice Programmer, I have been using JAR files to archive my files but how do I get those
files out of a JAR file? You say, With the xf options. Great! says the NP.
You can extract files from a JAR file by using the xf options. For example, heres how to extract all the files in
the file jarfile.jar, introduced in the previous solution:
E:\Java8\chapter22>jar xf jarfile.jar
Unpacking all the files in a JAR file this way will also re-create their directory structures. In this case, the jar tool
unpacks the class files, and also makes a directory named META-INF and places the default manifest file
MANIFEST.MF in it. You can also extract files by specifying their names. Heres an example in which we are
extracting applet.class:
E:\Java8\chapter22>jar xf jarfile.jar applet.class

Updating JAR Files

Heres how to update a JAR file with a new version of one of the files stored in it, class1.class, using the -uf
options:
E:\Java8\chapter22>jar -uf jarfile.jar class1.class

Reading from JAR Files in Code

Say, the Novice Programmer says, now that I have created JAR files, how can I unpack them at runtime from
my code? Is there any way? Yes, you say, you can use the JarFile class. Tell me more! says the NP.
The JarFile class can be used for reading the data stored in a JAR file from any file that can be opened using
the java.io.RandomAccessFile package. The java.util.zip.ZipFile class is extended by the
JarFile class with support to read an optional manifest entry. Heres the inheritance diagram for the ZipFile
class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.zip.ZipFile
Youll find the constructors for the ZipFile class in Table 22.4 and its methods in Table 22.5:
Table 22.4: Constructors of the ZipFile class
Constructor Does this
ZipFile(File file) It opens a ZIP file for reading from the indicated File object
ZipFile(File file, int mode) It opens a ZIP file for reading from the specified File object in the
specified mode
ZipFile(String name) It opens a ZIP file for reading

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 22.5: Methods of the ZipFile class

Method Does this
void close() It closes the ZIP file
Enumeration entries() It gets an enumeration of the ZIP file entries
protected void finalize() It ensures that the close() method of this ZIP file is called when there
are no more references to it
ZipEntry getEntry (String name) It gets the ZIP file entry for the indicated name (or null if not found)
InputStream getInputStream It gets an input stream for reading the contents of the indicated ZIP file
(ZipEntry entry) entry
String getName() It gets the pathname of the ZIP file
int size() It gets the number of entries in the ZIP file

The JarFile class is built on the ZipFile class. Heres the inheritance diagram for the JarFile class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.zip.ZipFile
|____java.util.jar.JarFile
Youll find the field of the JarFile class in Table 22.6, its constructors in Table 22.7, and its methods in
Table 22.8:
Table 22.6: The field of the JarFile class
Field Does this
static String MANIFEST_NAME It holds the name of the manifest

Table 22.7: Constructors of the JarFile class

Constructor Does this
JarFile(File file) Constructs new JAR file to read from indicated File object
JarFile(File file, boolean It constructs a new JAR file to read from the indicated File object and
verify) allows for verification
JarFile(File file, boolean It constructs a new JAR file to read from the indicated File object in the
verify, int mode) specified mode
JarFile(String name) Constructs a new JAR file to read from indicated file name
JarFile(String name, It constructs a new JAR file to read from the indicated file name and
boolean verify) allows for verification

Table 22.8: Methods of the JarFile class

Method Does this
Enumeration<JarEntry> entries() It gets an enumeration of the ZIP file entries
ZipEntry getEntry (String name) It gets the ZIP file entry for the indicated name (or null if not found)
InputStream getInputStream It gets an input stream for reading the contents of the indicated ZIP file
(ZipEntry ze) entry
JarEntry getJarEntry It gets the JarEntry object for the given entry name (or null if not found)
(String name)
Manifest getManifest() It gets the JAR file manifest (or null if none)

You actually handle the items in a JAR file as JarEntry objects, and the JarEntry class is derived from the
ZipEntry class. Heres the inheritance diagram for ZipEntry:
java.lang.Object
|____java.util.zip.ZipEntry

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Youll find the fields of the ZipEntry class in Table 22.9, its constructors in Table 22.10, and its methods in
Table 22.11:
Table 22.9: Fields of the ZipEntry class
Field Does this
static int DEFLATED Specifies the compression method for compressed entries
static int STORED Specifies compression method for uncompressed entries

Table 22.10: Constructors of the ZipEntry class

Constructor Does this
ZipEntry(String name) It constructs a new ZIP entry with the indicated name
ZipEntry(ZipEntry e) It constructs a new ZIP entry with fields taken from the indicated ZIP
entry

Table 22.11: Methods of the ZipEntry class

Method Does this
Object clone() It gets a copy of this entry
String getComment() It gets the comment string for the entry (or null if none)
long getCompressedSize() It gets the size of the compressed entry data (or -1 if not known)
long getCrc() It gets the CRC-32 checksum of the uncompressed entry data (or -1 if not
known)
byte[] getExtra() It gets the extra field data for the entry (or null if none)
int getMethod() It gets the compression method of the entry (or -1 if not indicated)
String getName() It gets the name of the entry
long getSize() It gets the uncompressed size of the entry data (or -1 if not known)
long getTime() It gets the modification time of the entry (or -1 if not indicated)
int hashCode() It gets the hashcode value for this entry
boolean isDirectory() It returns True if this is a directory entry
void setComment (String comment) It sets the optional comment string for the entry
void setCompressedSize (long csize) It sets the size of the compressed entry data
void setCrc(long crc) If sets the CRC-32 checksum of the uncompressed entry data
void setExtra(byte[] extra) It sets the optional extra field data for the entry
void setMethod(int method) It sets the compression method for the entry
void setSize(long size) It sets the uncompressed size of the entry data
void setTime(long time) It sets the modification time of the entry
String toString() It gets a string representation of the ZIP entry

Heres the inheritance diagram for the JarEntry class:

java.lang.Object
|____java.util.zip.ZipEntry
|____java.util.jar.JarEntry
Youll find the constructors for the JarEntry class in Table 22.12 and its methods in Table 22.13:
Table 22.12: Constructors of the JarEntry class
Constructor Does this
JarEntry(JarEntry je) Constructs new JarEntry object from given JarEntry object
JarEntry(String name) It constructs a new JarEntry object for the given JAR file entry name
JarEntry(ZipEntry ze) It constructs a new JarEntry object from the given ZipEntry object

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 Immediate Solutions

Table 22.13: Methods of the JarEntry class

Method Does this
Attributes getAttributes() It gets the manifest attributes for this entry (or null if none)
Certificate[] getCertificates() It gets the certificate objects for this entry (or null if none)
CodeSigner getCodeSigners() It gets the CodeSigner objects for this entry (or null if none)

Using javac to Get Classes from a JAR File

For convenience, you can use the Java compiler, javac, to unpack class files from JAR files as needed. Heres an
example in which we have a class named display with one method, displayText(), which displays a
message:
public class display
{
public void displayText() { System.out.println("Hello from Java!"); }
}
Heres how we make a JAR file from this class:
E:\Java8\chapter22>jar cf display.jar display.class
Next, we delete the display.class file, so all thats left is the JAR file, display.jar. Now we can make use
of the display class in an application, like this:
public class useDisplay
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
display display1 = new display();
display1.displayText();
}
}
To compile this application, include display.jar in your CLASSPATH so that javac will search the JAR file
for display.class and unpack that class. Because display.class is now unpacked, its available when
we run the application that uses it:
E:\Java8\chapter22>javac -cp E:/Java8/chapter22/display.jar useDisplay.java
E:\Java8\chapter22>java useDisplay
Hello from Java!

Letting Applets Get Classes from JAR Files

The NP is back and says, Now I have put my applet into a JAR file, as well as all the support files it needs. But
theres one problem. Whats that? you ask. The NP says, How in the world do I tell the browser about JAR
files?
You can tell Web browsers and the Oracle appletviewer that you are storing files in a JAR file with the archive
parameter in the <APPLET> tag. Heres an example. In this case, we are creating an applet that will be stored in
a JAR file named applett.jar. Heres the code for this applet, including the <APPLET> tag:
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
/*<APPLET
CODE=applett.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200><PARAM NAME=archive VALUE="applett.jar"></APPLET> */
public class applett extends Applet
{
public void paint(Graphics g) { g.drawString("Dreamtech Press", 30, 80); }
}
After compiling this applet to applett.class, we create the applett.jar file:
E:\Java8\chapter22>jar cf applett.jar applett.class

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Next, we delete applett.class and open applett.java by using the Oracle appletviewer:
E:\Java8\chapter22>appletviewer applett.java
The result appears as shown in Figure 22.4:

Figure 22.4: Opening an applet from a JAR file

As you can see, the appletviewer has opened the applet from the JAR file.

Marker Annotations
A marker annotation is a special kind of annotation that is used for marking a declaration, and it does not
contain any members. The AnnotedElement interface defines the isAnnotationPresent() method,
which denotes whether the marker annotation is present. Since a marker interface contains no members, simply
determining whether it is present or not is sufficient. The code to implement the marker annotations is as
follows:
import java.lang.annotation.*;
import java.lang.reflect.*;

@Retention(RetentionPolicy.RUNTIME)
@interface Mark {}
class Marker
{
@Mark
public static void Meth ()
{
Marker obj = new Marker();
try {
Method mt = obj.getClass () .getMethod ("Meth");
if (mt.isAnnotationPresent (Mark.class))
System.out.println ("Here is the marker of that application");
System.out.println ("Welcome to DreamTech Press");
}
catch (NoSuchMethodException exc) {
System.out.println ("Method Not Found.");
}
}
public static void main (String args[])
{
Meth();
}
}

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 Immediate Solutions

The output shown in Figure 22.5 confirms that @Mark is present:

Figure 22.5: Use of marker

Notice that you do not need to follow @Mark with parentheses when it is applied. @Mark is applied simply by
using its name, like this @Mark.

An empty set of parenthesis can also be supplied.

Single Member Annotations

A single member annotation comprises only one member and functions similar to a normal annotation. It
enables a shorthand form for mentioning the members value. In case only a single member is present, then you
do not require to mention the members name. In fact, you can simply specify the value for that member when
the annotation is applied.
See how we use a single-member annotation in the example:
import java.lang.annotation.*;
import java.lang.reflect.*;

@Retention(RetentionPolicy.RUNTIME)
@interface Sngle { int value(); }
class Single
{
@Sngle(100)
public static void Meth()
{
Single obj = new Single();
try { Method mt = obj.getClass().getMethod("Meth");
Sngle sng = mt.getAnnotation(Sngle.class);
System.out.println(sng.value()); }
catch (NoSuchMethodException exc)
{
System.out.println ("Method Not Found.");
}
}
public static void main(String args[]) { Meth(); }
}
As expected, the result of this program gets displayed as 100. In the program, @Sngle is used to annotate
Meth() as @Single(100). Notice the way a value is inserted. There is no need for value = .

In single-member annotation, the name of the member must be value.

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Summary
In this chapter, You have learned about the concept of packages, interfaces, and JAR files. Then, you have
learned core Java API package and the java.lang package. We explored how to create a package, a
subpackage; create and implement an interface; and use interfaces for callbacks. Lastly, we have discussed how
to perform operations on a JAR file and use annotations.
The next chapter discusses working with Java Beans.

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Working with Java Beans
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Understanding Java Beans 850
Designing Programs Using Java Beans 850
Creating Applets that Use Java Beans 853
Creating a Java Bean 853
Creating a Bean Manifest File 855
Creating a Bean JAR File 855
Creating a New Bean 855
Adding Controls to Beans 855
Giving a Bean Properties 856
Design Patterns for Properties 862
Using Simple Properties 862
Designing Patterns for Events 864
Learning Methods and Design Patterns 865
Creating Bound Properties 865
Giving a Bean Methods 866
Giving a Bean an Icon 867
Creating a BeanInfo Class 867
Setting Bound and Constrained Properties 868
Implementing Persistence 870
Using the Java Beans API 870
Learning the Basics of an Event 872
Using the Java Beans Conventions 873
Using the Remote Notification and Distributed Notification 873
Using Beans with JSP 873

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In Depth
Sun provides the JavaBeans Bridge for ActiveX components. Beans are reusable components written in Java that
you can use in a variety of programming environments, including third-party programming environments. In
fact, they work much like ActiveX controls, exposing properties, methods, and events to other code components.
Using beans, you can create your own new Java controls, such as buttons that turn colors when you click them
or stock tickers that download information from the Internet.
Java Beans is designed to be used in application builder tools, which are programming environments that let you
configure beans. One such tool, the BeanBox, comes with the Sun Bean Development Kit (BDK), which you can
download and install from http://www.ecst.csuchico.edu/~amk/foo/csci611/notes/beans/BDK/.
Well use the BDK in this chapter to construct and use beans. As reusable code components that you can create
applications from, beans represent a powerful new way of looking at programmingyou can create your own
applications on the fly from pre-written components by adding just what you needand nothing more.
Java Beans has a very important part for the Java users. This part is very important. The reason for their
importance is they allow you to build complex systems from software components. Usually, there are different
vendors who supply these components, and sometimes, these components are also made available by you. Java
Beans defines the structural design that shows how the different building units work together.
While using a component-based approach, the software components can be easily reused and interoperability
between the components can also be made possible. This approach allows the programs to be collected from
software building blocks provided by different vendors to use the benefits. It is necessary for a designer to select
a component, understand it, and also check for its availability. Then, it becomes easy to implement its operation
into the existing code. Such kind of architecture is provided by Java Beans.
Oracle supports Java Beans in the java.beans package. We will discuss about the interfaces and classes under
this package in the Immediate Solutions section.
In this chapter, well create a number of Java Beansfrom simple ones to ones that support properties and
methods and let users embed other controls inside them.

The way you create beans varies a little among operating systems because the BDK differs a little among operating systems.
We use the BDK for Windows in this chapter.

What is Java Bean?

A Java Bean refers to a software component that can be reused in different environments. It can perform
different types of function, i.e., simple as well as complex. Simple function examples include obtaining an
inventory value, and complex function examples include forecasting the performance of a stock portfolio. A
Bean may be visible to an end user. An example of this is using a radio within a car, which is also used at
homes; thus, it serves the purpose at various places.
A Bean may also be visible to a user. An example of this type of building block is software that encodes a stream
of data in real time. Finally, a Bean can work separately on a users computer or in association with a group of
distributed components. An example of a Bean that runs locally is the software that creates a bar chart from a set
of data points. However, it is necessary that a Bean which provides real-time price information from a stock or
commodities exchange would need to work in corporation with other distributed software to obtain its data.
The builder tools use a process for discovering the different features, such as methods, events, and properties, of
a Bean. This process is called introspection. The following are the features of Beans:
It provides support by adhering to specific rules, known as design patterns, at the time when naming Bean
features. The Introspector class monitors Beans for such design patterns to explore Bean features. This
class relies on the core reflection API. The Reflection API is an excellent place to learn about reflection.

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 In Depth

It provides support by explicitly providing property, method, and event information with a related Bean
information class. This Bean information class executes the BeanInfo interface. Also, the Bean
information class explicitly records the Bean features that are to be used for application builder tools.
Properties are the Beans look and its behavior, which can be modified at design time. Builder tools look
into a Bean to discover its properties and expose those properties for calculation.
The properties of Beans are customized at design time. Here, customization is achieved through two
methods, that is, by using property editors and by using more technical Bean customizers.
Beans use events in order to communicate with other Beans. Beans are of two types, namely, listener Bean
and source Bean. Listener Bean is a Bean that shows its interest in receiving events and registers its interest
with the source Bean. The source Bean is the Bean that fires the event. A Bean is monitored by Builder tools
to ascertain which events are sent and which events can be handled by the bean. Persistence enables Beans to
save and restore their state. Once we modify the properties of Beans, we can save the Beans state and
resume it later. Remember that property changes remain intact. Java Beans use Java Object Serialization to
support persistence. A Beans method can be invoked from other Beans or a scripting environment. The
methods are similar to Javas methods. Beans are created to be understood by builder tools and all key APIs,
including properties, events, and persistence, meant to be easily understandable by programmers. The
component technology is brought to the Java platform by the Java Beans. You can create reusable, platform-
independent components with the Java Beans API. All the components can be combined with the use of
Java Beans-compliant application builder tools into applets, applications, or composite components. Beans
are known as Java Bean components.

Advantages of Java Bean

The Java Bean technology plays a very important role. Some of the benefits that Java Bean technology provides
for a component developer are:
All the benefits of Javas write-once, run-anywhere paradigm are present in the Bean.
The properties, events, and methods of a Bean are viewed by another application, such as a builder tool,
which can be monitored.
To configure a Bean, virtual software can be used. This software is only required when the design-time
arguments for that component are being set. In the run-time environment, it does not need to be added.
In the persistent storage, the configuration settings of a Bean can be stored and resumed at a later time.
You can also use Bean to register the receive events from other objects and generate events that are sent to
other objects.

Introspection
Introspection is present at the core of Java Beans. It is defined as looking up or examining a Bean to determine its
functionalities. It allows another application, such as a design tool, to obtain information about a component;
therefore, it is an essential feature of the Java Bean API. The Java Bean technology cannot operate without
introspection.
There are two methods through which the developer can specify the properties, methods, and events needed to
be explored by an application builder tool. The first method uses the naming conventions that allow ways to
inspect the information about the Bean. In the second method, an additional class that extends the BeanInfo
interface is provided, which explicitly provides this information.

Design Patterns for Properties

Design patterns are used as solutions to specific problems and so they are not the final designs. They provide
developers a common language understandable at both ends. For example, if one developer understands about
builder, then the other developer knows exactly what it is. A design pattern can be reused in multiple areas,
and that is the main benefit of using it. It solves the problems that occur in various situations. A new code can be
created by using a design pattern. Object-oriented design patterns represent various relationships and

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interactions taking place between classes or objects without showing the final application classes or objects that
are added.
Each design pattern consists of the following parts:
1. Problem/RequirementTo create a design pattern, the first step is to determine the requirements of the
problem to solve and the mini analysis of design followed by coding to test. This is usually a common
problem that will arise in more than one application.
2. ForcesForces indicate the technical boundaries that direct toward the solution of a problem.
3. SolutionThis section tells how to write the code to solve a problem. This is the design part of the design
pattern. It may contain class diagrams, sequence diagrams, and others to indicate how to write the code for
the solution.
A property represents a subgroup of a Beans state. The properties of a component are assigned some values that
represent its behavior and appearance. Properties can be of three types: simple, Boolean, and indexed.

Simple Properties
A simple property contains a single value. The following design patterns are used to identify it:
public K getName();
public void setName(K arg);
where Name is the name of the property and K is its type.
A read/write property contains both the get() and set() methods to access the values. A read-only property
contains a get() method and a write-only property contains a set() method.

Boolean Properties
A Boolean property consists of only two values, either true or false. It can be identified by the following design
patterns:
public boolean isN();
public boolean getN();
public void setN(boolean value);
where N is the name of the property.

Indexed Properties
An indexed property can have multiple values. The following design patterns are used to identify an indexed
property:
public K getName(int index);
public void setName(int index, K value);
public void setName(K values[]);
where Name is the name of the property and K is its type.
We will discuss these properties in Immediate Solutions section in detail.

Design Patterns for Events

The delegation event model has been discussed earlier in this book and it is used by the Beans. The Beans can
perform various operations, such as they can fire events and transfer them to other objects. These can be
identified by the following design patterns, where T is the type of the event:
public void addTListner(TListener eventListener);
public void removeTListner(TListener eventListener);
To insert or delete a listener for the specified event, these methods are used. For example, assuming an event
interface type called TemperatureListener, a Bean that examines temperature might supply the following
mentioned methods:
public void addTemperatureListner(TemperatureListener tl) { . . . }
public void removeTemperatureListner(TemperatureListener tl) { . . . }

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Methods and Design Patterns

If a problem occurs repeatedly, a solution needs to be implemented. That solution is called a pattern. The design
patterns provide language-independent strategies to solve problems related to the object-oriented design. While
making a design, the names of some common solutions must be known beforehand. Design patterns make the
communication effective. Further, they are not used to name non-property methods. The introspection method
finds all of the public methods of a Bean protected, while the private methods are not viewed.

Using the BeanInfo Interface

We have discussed earlier that design patterns implicitly determine the information available to the user. The
role of the BeanInfo interface is to enable you to explicitly control what information is available. The
BeanInfo interface defines several methods. To discuss it further, lets introduce the following methods:
PropertyDescriptor[] getPropertyDescriptors()
EventSetDescriptor[] getEventSetDescriptors()
MethodDescriptor[] getMethodDescriptors()
The role of the return array of objects is to provide information about the properties, events, and methods of a
Bean. With respect to this, the classes getPropertyDescriptors(), getEventSetDescriptors(), and
getMethodDescriptors() methods are well defined within the java.beans package, and these methods
describe the indicated elements. By implementing these methods, a developer can designate exactly what is
shown to a user, by passing introspection based on design patterns.
We will discuss these methods in Immediate Solutions section in detail.

Persistence
Persistence means saving the current position, properties, and instance variables of a Bean. Basically, it means
restoring the current position of a Bean with the values of its properties and instance variables to nonvolatile
storage. One way to serialize a Bean is to implement the java.io.Serializable interface, which acts like a
marker interface. Implementing the java.io.Serializable interface makes serialization automatic.
We will discuss it in Immediate Solutions section in detail.

Customizers
The role of the customizer, which is provided by a Bean developer, is to help another developer configure
the Bean.
A customizer provides step-by-step information about the process to be followed to use a component in a
specific context.
To develop a customizer, a Bean developer has greater flexibility to differentiate his or her product in the
marketplace.

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Immediate Solutions
Understanding Java Beans
The Novice Programmer appears and says, Hmm!! The user of Java seems to be a little confused about Java
Bean and its relation to Java class. Moreover, they ask about the different processes related to it and how these
processes function and help them. Java has described and solved these queries quite simply. You need not
worry about this. Since, a Java Bean can be any other Java class, both of these can be manipulated in a visual
builder tool and composed into any application as per the requirement of the user. There are certain other
advantages with regard to it, you say.
A Java Bean is any Java class that has limited conventions related to property and event interface definitions. It
can be calculated in a visual builder tool and formed into applications.
Introspection is the method by which a builder tool examines how a Bean operates and also discriminates Beans
from the Java classes. Beans have their predefined patterns for their method parameters and class definitions;
tools that identify these patterns can view inside a Bean and specify its properties and behavior.
Moreover, introspection calculates Beans state at design time, that is, the time it is gathered as a part from a
larger application. The parameters supplied to a method within Beans must follow a specific pattern so as to
help the introspection tools in identifying how Beans can be manipulated at runtime and design time.

Designing Programs Using Java Beans

So how do I use Java Beans anyway? the NP wants to know. You use them in application builder tools, you
say, such as the BeanBox tool that comes with the Bean Development Kit. Show me, the NP says.
After you have downloaded and installed the Bean Development Kit (BDK), which is currently at
http://www.ecst.csuchico.edu/~amk/foo/csci611/notes/beans/BDK/, you can work with beans in
the BeanBox tool that comes with the BDK. Assuming that you have installed the BDK (the default path varies
by system), you can open the BeanBox; for example, in Windows, you use the run.bat file in the beanbox
directory. When you run this batch file, the BeanBox opens, as shown in Figure 23.1.
You can see the available beans in the toolbox on the left. When you add beans to an application, theyll appear
in the BeanBox window next to the toolbox. You can also use the Properties window to set the properties that
have been designed into a bean, and you can use the Method Tracer window to handle method execution.
Heres an example showing how to work with some beans.
Click the Juggler bean in the toolbox, which changes your cursor to a cross. Next, draw a Juggler bean in the
BeanBox by dragging the mouse (this bean displays the Java mascot image juggling coffee beans). Do the same
for the bean named OurButton. This results in the application under design (Figure 23.2.) You can connect the
beans in a BeanBox, thus creating a single application from several beans. For example, you can connect the
button to the Juggler bean, so when you click the button, the juggler will stop juggling.

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 Immediate Solutions

Figure 23.1: Using the BeanBox

Figure 23.2: Creating an application

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First, click the button bean in the BeanBox. The Properties window will display the properties you can set for
this bean, including its labelif you want to enter a new label for this button (such as Click Me), you can do it
in the Properties window (youll see how to set the properties of your own beans this way later). To make the
button do something when you click it, select the Edit | Events | action | actionPerformed menu item now.
When you do, a red line appears between the mouse location and the button. Stretch that line to the Juggler bean
now and click the Juggler bean, as shown in Figure 23.3. This connects the button and the Juggler bean.

Figure 23.3: Connecting one bean to another

When you click the Juggler bean, the EventTargetDialog box appears, as shown in Figure 23.4, displaying the
available methods you can call in the Juggler bean when the button is clicked:

Figure 23.4: The EventTargetDialog box

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 Immediate Solutions

For this example, choose the stopJuggling() method to make the juggler stop juggling; then, click the OK
button to close the EventTargetDialog box.
Now, when you click the button in the BeanBox, the juggler will stop juggling. Congratulations, you have
connected two beans, thus creating a new program.
How do you actually run this program outside the BeanBox? Take a look at the next solution.

Creating Applets that Use Java Beans

OK, says the NP. I have designed an applet with plenty of beans in it and I want to create a JAR file that I can
let people use. How do I do that? Simple, you say. Maybe, the NP says, but how?
After you have designed an applet using the BeanBox, you can use the MakeApplet item in the File menu to
create a JAR file containing your new applet and all the beans it uses. When you select this menu item, it opens
the Make an Applet dialog box, you see in Figure 23.5:

Figure 23.5: The Make an Applet dialog box

In this example, well use the applet we developed in the previous solution. Well stick to the default JAR file
name, myApplet.jar, and applet class, MyApplet. When we click OK, the myApplet.jar file is created.

If you want to use any of the beans that come with the BDK in an applet JAR file, youll have to compile them first and make
sure the java compiler can find their class files. Youll find those beans in the demo\sunw\demo directory. In addition, youll need
to compile the AppletSupport.java file in the beanbox\sunw\beanbox directory and make sure the java compiler can find the
resulting class files.

The myApplet.jar file can be used with Web browsers and the Oracle appletviewer. Heres the HTML page
that well use with the myApplet.jar file:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Beans applet example</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<APPLET>
CODE=MyApplet.class
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200>
<PARAM NAME=archive VALUE="myApplet.jar">
</APPLET>
</BODY>
</HTML>
After running the code, you can see the applet in the appletviewer.

Creating a Java Bean

The NP appears and says, I have used Java Beans nowbut how do I actually create my own beans? Well,
you say, its not too hard, but it does take a little work. Uh-oh, says the NP.
Well create a simple Java Bean in this solution to show how beans work, and well elaborate on this bean in the
rest of the chapter. This bean will just draw itself in red, and when you click it, itll display a count of the number
of times its been clicked.

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Well place this bean in the BDKs demo directory, so we create a directory named bean
demo\sunw\demo\beanand store the class files for this bean in that directory. Well start the code,
bean.java, by indicating that this bean is part of a package named sunw.demo.bean:
package sunw.demo.bean;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
. . .
As far as the actual bean class goes, we use the Canvas class to draw the bean itself (you can also use other
classes, such as the Panel class, which well cover in this chapter). The rest of the code is pretty ordinary; we
just add a mouse listener to the canvas to record mouse clicks and set the size of the canvas (thus setting the size
of the bean):
package sunw.demo.bean;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class bean extends Canvas
{
int count;
public bean()
{
addMouseListener(new MouseAdapter()
{
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent me) { clicked(); }
});
count = 0; setSize(200, 100);
}
. . .
}
Finally, we implement the method that handles mouse clicks, and we draw the bean, including the click count,
in the paint() method:
package sunw.demo.bean;

import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class bean extends Canvas

{
int count;
public bean()
{
addMouseListener(new MouseAdapter() {
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent me) { clicked(); }
});
count = 0; setSize(200, 100); }
public void clicked() { count++; repaint(); }
public void paint(Graphics g)
{
Dimension dimension = getSize();
int height = dimension.height;
int width = dimension.width;
g.setColor(new Color(255, 0, 0));
g.fillRect(0, 0, --width, --height);
g.setColor(new Color(0, 0, 0));
g.drawString("Click count = " + count, 50, 50);
}
}
As you can see, the code for a new Java Bean is pretty simpleessentially, you just draw a component.
However, its not a bean yetwe still have to put it into a JAR file and label it in that JAR file as a bean. To learn
more about how this works, see the next solution.

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Creating a Bean Manifest File

The NP appears and says, Well, I have written the code for my new Java Bean, but now what? You smile and
say, You have to pack the bean into a JAR file and indicate that its a bean in the JAR files manifest file. Tell
me more! says the NP.
To make a bean into a bean, you have to store the class file(s) to use in a JAR file, and you use a manifest to
indicate which classes are beans. To show you how this works, well use the bean we started developing in the
previous solution and create a manifest file, bean.mft, for it here. Well place this manifest file in the demo
directory to make creating the JAR file easier (see the next solution).
To indicate that a class in a JAR file is a Java Bean, you have to set its Java-Bean attribute to True. Heres how
that works with the bean introduced in the previous solutionbean.class. This class file is in the
sunw.demo.bean package, which means itll be stored in the JAR file as sunw/demo/bean/bean.class (like
Unix, JAR files use forward slashes as directory separators). To indicate that this class file is a bean, heres what
we put in the manifest file, bean.mft:
Name: sunw/demo/bean/bean.class
Java-Bean: True
Well put this manifest to work in the next solution when we create the JAR file for this bean.

Creating a Bean JAR File

The NP appears and says, OK, I have got the class files for my new bean, and I have got the manifest file I want
to use. Now what? Now, you say, you are ready to use the jar tool. You do it, the NP says. Ill watch.
In this solution, well create the JAR file for the bean we have been developing over the previous two solutions.
First, compile bean.java, which will create two class files: bean.class and bean$1.class. Copy these files
to the demo\sunw\demo\bean directory we have created. Next, place the manifest file developed in the
previous solution, bean.mft, into the demo directory. Now we are ready to go. Make sure you are in the demo
directory and use the jar tool, like this:
C:\...\demo>jar cfm ..\jars\bean.jar bean.mft .
This creates the new JAR file for this bean, bean.jar, and stores it in the demo\jars directory, which is where
the BeanBox will look for it. Thats how you install a beanby placing its JAR file in that directory. The new
bean is ready to go, and its put to work in the next solution.

Creating a New Bean

We have developed a new Java Bean over the previous few solutions and installed it in the demo\jars directory.
When you open the BeanBox, youll see this bean (which we have just called bean) listed in the toolbox. You
can draw a bean of this new type in the BeanBox.
This new bean is already active in the BeanBox, as you can see by clicking it, because it shows the number of
times its been clicked. This new Java Bean is a good start, but what about doing some more, such as adding
other Java controls to it? Take a look at the next solution.

Adding Controls to Beans

I dont want to have to reinvent the wheel, says the Novice Programmer. Which means what? you ask.
Well, it means that if I want a button in my new Java Bean, why do I have to draw and support it myselfwhy
cant I just use a standard Java button? Of course you can, you say. The NP asks, You can?
You can add Java controls such as buttons to your beansyou just have to make sure you base your bean on a
class thats a container, such as the Panel class. Heres an example in which we add a button to a bean and have
the bean display the number of times it has been clicked. We start by basing this bean, which well call button,
on the Panel class and adding it to the sunw.demo.button package (which means well store its class files in the
demo\sunw\button directory). Heres how we create the panel, size it, and add a button to it:
package sunw.demo.button;

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import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class button extends Panel implements ActionListener

{
int count;
Button button1;
public button()
{
count = 0;
setSize(200, 100);
button1 = new Button("Click me");
button1.addActionListener(this);
add(button1);
}
}
All thats left now is to make the button active by incrementing the click count the button, repainting the bean to
display the click count, and creating the paint() method:
package sunw.demo.button;

import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class button extends Panel implements ActionListener

{
int count; Button button1;
public button()
{
count = 0;
setSize(200, 100);
button1 = new Button("Click me");
button1.addActionListener(this);
add(button1);
}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e)
{
count++;
repaint();
}
public void paint(Graphics g)
{
Dimension dimension = getSize();
int h = dimension.height;
int w = dimension.width;
g.setColor(new Color(255, 0, 0));
g.fillRect(0, 0, w-1, h-1);
g.setColor(new Color(0, 0, 0));
g.drawString("Click count = " + count, 50, 50);
}
}
As you can see, its easy to add Java controls to a bean.

Giving a Bean Properties

I notice, the NP says, that you can set the properties of a bean in the BeanBox using the Properties window.
Why cant I do that with the beans I create? You certainly can, you say. The NP says, Wow!
The properties of a bean let you configure it; setting its caption, size, color, and any other aspect of the bean for
which properties are defined. Although any public data member of a bean class can be treated as a property,
theres a formal procedure you should follow to inform the Java framework about the properties of your beans:
implementing the BeanInfo interface. The fields of the BeanInfo interface appear in Table 23.1 and its
methods in Table 23.2:

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Table 23.1: Fields of the BeanInfo interface

Field Does this
static int It indicates a 16x16 color icon.
ICON_COLOR_16x16
static int It indicates a 32x32 color icon.
ICON_COLOR_32x32
static int It indicates a 16x16 monochrome icon.
ICON_MONO_16x16
static int It indicates a 32x32 monochrome icon.
ICON_MONO_32x32

Table 23.2: Methods of the BeanInfo interface

Method Does this
BeanInfo[] It allows a BeanInfo object to return an arbitrary collection of other
getAdditionalBeanInfo() BeanInfo objects.
BeanDescriptor It gets the beans bean descriptor.
getBeanDescriptor()
int getDefaultEventIndex() It gets the default event. A bean may have a default event (the event that
will mostly commonly be used).
int getDefaultPropertyIndex() It gets the default property index. A bean may have a default property
(the property that will mostly commonly be initially chosen for update).
EventSetDescriptor[] It gets the beans event set descriptors.
getEventSetDescriptors()
Image getIcon It gets an image object that can be used to represent the bean in toolboxes,
(int iconKind) toolbars, and so on.
MethodDescriptor[] It gets the beans method descriptors.
getMethodDescriptors()
PropertyDescriptor[] It gets the beans property descriptors.
getPropertyDescriptors()

In fact, most beans dont implement the BeanInfo interface directly. Instead, they extend the
SimpleBeanInfo class, which implements BeanInfo. Heres the inheritance diagram for SimpleBeanInfo:
java.lang.Object
|____java.beans.SimpleBeanInfo
Youll find the constructor of the SimpleBeanInfo class in Table 23.3 and its methods in Table 23.4:
Table 23.3: The constructor of the SimpleBeanInfo class
Constructor Does this
SimpleBeanInfo() It constructs a BeanInfo object.

Table 23.4: Methods of the SimpleBeanInfo class

Method Does this
BeanInfo[] It is implemented to indicate that there are no other relevant BeanInfo
getAdditionalBeanInfo() objects.
BeanDescriptor It is implemented to indicate the deny of knowledge about the class and
getBeanDescriptor() the customizer bean.
int getDefaultEventIndex() It is implemented to deny knowledge of a default event.
int getDefaultPropertyIndex() It is implemented to deny knowledge of a default property.
EventSetDescriptor[] It is implemented to deny knowledge of event sets.
getEventSetDescriptors()

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Table 23.4: Methods of the SimpleBeanInfo class

Method Does this
Image getIcon It is implemented to deny there are no icons available.
(int iconKind)
MethodDescriptor[] It is implemented to deny knowledge of methods.
getMethodDescriptors()
PropertyDescriptor[] It is implemented to deny knowledge of properties.
getPropertyDescriptors()
Image loadImage It is used to help in loading icon images.
(String resourceName)

To actually describe a property, you use the PropertyDescriptor class, which in turn is derived from the
FeatureDescriptor class. Heres the inheritance diagram for the FeatureDescriptor class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.beans.FeatureDescriptor
Youll find the constructor of the FeatureDescriptor class in Table 23.5 and its methods in Table 23.6:
Table 23.5: The constructor of the FeatureDescriptor class
Constructor Does this
FeatureDescriptor() It constructs a feature descriptor

Table 23.6: Methods of the FeatureDescriptor class

Method Does this
Enumeration<string> It gets an enumeration of the locale-independent names of this feature.
attributeNames()
String getDisplayName() It gets the localized display name of this feature.
String getName() It gets the programmatic name of this feature.
String getShortDescription() It gets the short description of this feature.
Object getValue It retrieves a named attribute with this feature.
(String attributeName)
boolean isExpert() It returns True for features that are intended for expert users.
boolean isHidden() It returns True for features that are intended only for tool use.
boolean isPreferred() It returns True for features that are particularly important for presenting
to people.
void setDisplayName It sets the localized display name of this feature.
(String displayName)
void setExpert It sets the expert flag for features that are intended for expert users.
(boolean expert)
void setHidden It sets the hidden flag for features intended only for tool use.
(boolean hidden)
void setName(String name) It sets the name of this feature.
void setPreferred It sets the preferred flag, used to identify features that are particularly
(boolean preferred) important for presenting to people.
void setShortDescription You can associate a short descriptive string with this feature.
(String text)
void setValue You can associate a named attribute with this feature.
(String attributeName,
Object value)

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Heres the inheritance diagram for the PropertyDescriptor class:

java.lang.Object
|____java.beans.FeatureDescriptor
|____java.beans.PropertyDescriptor
Youll find the constructors of the PropertyDescriptor class in Table 23.7 and its methods in Table 23.8:
Table 23.7: Constructors of the PropertyDescriptor class
Constructor Does this
PropertyDescriptor(String It constructs a PropertyDescriptor for a property that follows the
propertyName, Class<?> standard Java convention by having getFoo() and setFoo()
beanClass) accessor methods.
PropertyDescriptor(String It takes the name of a simple property as well as method names for
propertyName, Class<?> reading and writing the property.
beanClass, String
readMethodName, String
writeMethodName)
PropertyDescriptor(String It takes the name of a simple property as well as Method objects for
propertyName, Method reading and writing the property.
readMethod, Method writeMethod)

Table 23.8: Methods of the PropertyDescriptor class

Method Does this
PropertyEditor It creates an instance of a property editor using the current property
createPropertyEditor(Object bean) editor class.
boolean equals(Object obj) It compares this PropertyDescriptor against the specified object.
Class<?> getPropertyEditorClass() It gets any explicit PropertyEditor class that has been registered for
this property.
Class<?> getPropertyType() It gets the Class object for the property.
Method getReadMethod() It gets the method that should be used to read the property value.
Method getWriteMethod() It gets the method that should be used to write the property value.
int hashCode() It gets a hash code value for the object.
boolean isBound() It updates to bound properties and that will cause a PropertyChange
event to be fired when the property is changed.
boolean isConstrained() It attempts updates to constrained properties and that will cause a
VetoableChange event to be fired when the property is changed.
void setBound It updates to bound properties and that will cause a PropertyChange
(boolean bound) event to be fired when the property is changed.
void setConstrained It attempts updates to constrained properties and that will cause a
(boolean constrained) VetoableChange event to be fired when the property is changed.
void Normally, property editors will be found using the property editor
setPropertyEditorClass(Class<?> manager.
propertyEditorClass)
void setReadMethod It sets the method that should be used to read the property value.
(Method getter)
void setWriteMethod It sets the method that should be used to write the property value.
(Method setter)

Lets look at an example that implements a property in a Java Bean. In this case, well add a property named
filled to the click-counting operation developed in this chapter. This property is a Boolean property that,
when True, makes sure the bean will be filled in with color. Well call this new bean Bean2.

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To keep track of the new filled property, well add a private Boolean variable of that name to the Bean2 class:
package sunw.demo.bean2;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class Bean2 extends Canvas {
private boolean filled;
. . .
We initialize this property to False when the bean is created:
package sunw.demo.bean2;

import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class Bean2 extends Canvas

{
private boolean filled;
int count;
public Bean2()
{
addMouseListener(new MouseAdapter()
{
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent me) { clicked(); }
});
count = 0; filled = false;
setSize(200, 100);
}
. . .
}
When you implement a property, Java will look for two methods: getPropertyName() and
setPropertyName(), where PropertyName is the name of the property. The get() method returns the
current value of the property, which can be any supported type, and the set() method takes an argument of
that type, which you are supposed to set the property to. Heres how we implement the getfilled() and
setfilled() methods:
package sunw.demo.bean2;

import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class Bean2 extends Canvas

{
private boolean filled;
int count;
public Bean2()
{
addMouseListener(new MouseAdapter() {
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent me) { clicked(); }
});
count = 0;
filled = false;
setSize(200, 100);
}
public void clicked()
{
count++;
repaint();
}
public boolean getfilled() { return filled; }
public void setfilled(boolean flag)
{
this.filled = flag;
repaint();
}
. . .
}

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All thats left is to put the filled property to use. If its True, the bean should be filled in with color, so heres
the code we add to the paint() method:
public void paint(Graphics g)
{
Dimension dimension = getSize();
int height = dimension.height;
int width = dimension.width;
if(filled)
{
g.setColor(new Color(255, 0, 0));
g.fillRect(0, 0, --width, --height);
}
g.setColor(new Color(0, 0, 0));
g.drawString("Click count = " + count, 50, 50);
}
Now we have to create a new class, Bean2BeanInfo, which will return information about this new bean
property. This class will go into the same package as the bean itself, but its based on the SimpleBeanInfo
class:
package sunw.demo.bean2;
import java.beans.*;
public class Bean2BeanInfo extends SimpleBeanInfo { . . . }
To let Java know about properties, you implement the getPropertyDescriptors() method, which returns
an array of PropertyDescriptor objects. Each PropertyDescriptor object holds the name of a property
and points to the class that supports that property. Heres how we create a PropertyDescriptor object for
the filled property:
package sunw.demo.bean2;
import java.beans.*;
public class Bean2BeanInfo extends SimpleBeanInfo {
public PropertyDescriptor[] getPropertyDescriptors() {
try {
PropertyDescriptor filled = new
PropertyDescriptor("filled", Bean2BeanInfo.class);
. . . }
catch(Exception e) { }
return null; }
}
This is the only property in Bean2, so we add the new PropertyDescriptor object to an array and return it,
like this:
package sunw.demo.bean2;
import java.beans.*;
public class Bean2BeanInfo extends SimpleBeanInfo
{
public PropertyDescriptor[] getPropertyDescriptors()
{
try {
PropertyDescriptor filled = new
PropertyDescriptor("filled", Bean2BeanInfo.class);
PropertyDescriptor propertydescriptor[] = {filled};
return propertydescriptor;
}
catch(Exception e) {}
return null;
}
}

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After compiling this new class (Bean2BeanInfo.java), we place Bean2BeanInfo.class in the directory
demo\sunw\demo\bean2, along with the classes created when we compiled Bean2.java. Well need a new
manifest file that includes the Bean2BeanInfo class. Heres what bean2.mft looks like:
Name: sunw/demo/bean2/Bean2.class
Java-Bean: True
Name: sunw/demo/bean2/Bean2BeanInfo.class
Java-Bean: True
We place this new manifest file in the demo directory. Finally, heres how we create the new bean2.jar file
and install it:
C:\...\demo>jar cfm ..\jars\bean2.jar bean2.mft .
Now when we run the BeanBox and add a new bean2 bean to the BeanBox, the new filled property will
appear in the Properties window. Setting filled to True causes the bean to be filled with color, which is also
shown in the figure.

Design Patterns for Properties

The NP appears and says, Well, well, I have come to know about Java Bean and its uses. However, in Java, how
will you get properties? What are its design patterns? Can you enlighten me in this regard to make me doubly
sure? Yes Sir, you say. There are two different design patterns for properties in Java. You can even add color
properties to Java Bean, you reply to his queries.
The subset of a Beans state is a property. The behavior and appearance of that component is determined by the
values assigned to the properties. The setter() method sets a property and the getter() method retrieves
that property. There are three types of properties, namely, simple, Boolean, and indexed.

Using Simple Properties

The characteristic of the simple property is that it has a single value. It is specified by the following design
patterns, where N is the name of the property and T is its type:
public T getN();
public void setN(T arg);
To access its values, a read/write property has both of these methods. A read-only property has only a get()
method and a write-only property has only a set() method. The following are three read/write simple
properties along with their getter() and setter() methods:
private double depth, height, width;
public double getDepth() { return depth; }
public void setDepth(double dbl) { depth = dbl; }
public double getHeight() { return height; }
public void setHeight(double hdbl) { height = hdbl; }
public double getWidth() { return width; }
public void setWidth(double wdbl) { width = wdbl; }

Adding a Color Property to SimpleBean

To add a Color property, you have to make the following changes to SimpleBeanapp.java:
Create and initialize a private instance variable.
private Color color = Color.green;
Write a public getter method.
public Color getColor() { return color; }
Write a public setter method.
public void setColor(Color newclr) {
color = newclr;
repaint(); }
Override the paint() method inherited from Canvas.
public void paint(Graphics g) {

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g.setColor(color);
g.fillRect(20, 5, 20, 30);
}
Compile, load in the Toolbox, and create an instance of the Bean. The following results are discussed here:
SimpleBean is shown with a green-centered rectangle.
Consequently, the Properties window will include a new color property. Simultaneously, the introspection
process will also look for a color property editor. A color property editor is one of the default editors
supplied with the BeanBox class, and is defined as SimpleBean's color property editor. To execute
this editor, click on the color property in the Properties window.
In simple language, Figure 23.6 shows the new SimpleBean instance within the BeanBox; SimpleBean's
new color property within the Properties window and the color property editor loaded with the BeanBox.
By menu or by RGB value, you can change the color property. Therefore, you can try to change colors. The
following is the complete SimpleBeanapp source code that has been revised to add a color property:
import java.awt.*;
import java.io.Serializable;
public class SimpleBeanapp extends Canvas implements Serializable {
private Color clr = Color.green;
public Color getColor() { return clr; }
public void setColor(Color newclr) {
clr = newclr;
repaint(); }
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.setColor(clr);
g.fillRect(20, 5, 20, 30); }
public SimpleBeanapp() {
setSize(60,40);
setBackground(Color.red); }
}
The result is as shown in Figure 23.6:

Figure 23.6: Showing SimpleBean Instance within the BeanBox

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Using Indexed Properties

Indexed properties consist of multiple values. By the following design pattern, it can be identified. In this design
pattern, N is the name of the property and T is its type:
public T getN(int index);
public void setN(int index, T value);
public T[] getN();
public void setN(T values[]);
Here is an indexed property called data along with the getter() and setter() methods:
private double data[];
public double getData (int ind) { return data[ind]; }
public void setData(int ind, double dblvalues) { data[ind] = dblvalue; }
public double [] getData() { return data; }
public void setData(double[] dblvalue) {
data = new double[dblvalue.length];
System.arraycopy(dblvalues, 0, data, 0, 0, dblvalues.length);
}

Using Boolean Properties

A Boolean property consists of only two values, either true or false. It can be identified by the following design
patterns:
public boolean isN();
public boolean getN();
public void setN(boolean value);
where N is the name of the property.
To retrieve the values of a Boolean property, either the first or second pattern is used; if a class consists of both of
its methods, then it uses the first pattern. The following example shows a class that has one Boolean property:
public class polygon
{
private boolean square = false;
public boolean isSquare( )
{
return square;
}
public void setSquare(boolean square)
{
this.square = square;
}
}

Designing Patterns for Events

The delegation event model has been discussed earlier in this book and it is used by the Beans. The Beans
operate differently, such as they can generate events and provide to other objects. These can be identified by the
following design patterns, where T is the type of the event:
public void addTListner(TListener eventListener);
public void removeTListner(TListener eventListener);
The preceding methods help to add new events or deleting the already existing ones. For instance, consider an
event interface type known as TemperatureListener; a Bean that monitors temperature can supply the
following methods:
public void addTemperatureListner(TemperatureListener tl) { . . . }
public void removeTemperatureListner(TemperatureListener tl) { . . . }

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Learning Methods and Design Patterns

For naming non-property methods, design patterns are not used. Introspection searches all of the public
methods of a Bean protected, while the private methods are not available.

Using the BeanInfo Interface

As we discussed in the In Depth section, the BeanInfo interface defines several methods. To discuss it further,
lets introduce the following methods:
PropertyDescriptor[] getPropertyDescriptors()
EventSetDescriptor[] getEventSetDescriptors()
MethodDescriptor[] getMethodDescriptors()
Here, the role of the return array of objects is to provide information about the properties, events, and methods
of a Bean. In this regard, the classes PropertyDescriptor, EventSetDescriptor, and
MethodDescriptor are well defined within the java.beans package, and these methods describe the
marked elements. With the implementation of these methods, a developer can design the same what is presented
to the user, bypassing introspection based on design patterns.
At the time of creating a class that implements BeanInfo interface, you have to remember that you must call
that class bnameBeanInfo, where bname is the name of the Bean. For instance, assume that the name of the
Bean is ExampleBean. In this case, the name of the information class will be called ExampleBeanBeanInfo.
Now, the question is how to simplify the use of BeanInfo? In this package, to simplify the BeanInfo, Java
Beans supplies the SimpleBeanInfo class. It provides implementations of the BeanInfo interface by default,
taking the three methods into consideration. However, you are free to extend this class and override one or more
of the methods to explicitly control what aspects of a Bean are exposed. If you fail to override a method, then the
design-pattern introspection will be used to find Beans properties. For example, if you dont override
setPropertyDescriptors()method, then design patterns are used to find Beans properties.

Using Feature Descriptors

As discussed earlier, BeanInfo classes contain descriptors that accurately explain the target Beans features. The
BDK implements the following descriptor classes:
The first type of descriptor is FeatureDescriptor. It is the base class for the other descriptor classes. It
explains the features that are common to all descriptor types.
The second type of descriptor is BeanDescriptor. It explains the target Beans class type and name,
and describes the target Beans customizer class, if it exists.
The third type is PropertyDescriptor, and it provides details on the target Beans properties.
The fourth descriptor is IndexedPropertyDescriptor. It is a subclass of PropertyDescriptor and
discusses the target Beans indexed properties.
The fifth type of descriptor is EventSetDescriptor. The role of this type is to describe the events the
target Bean fires.
The sixth type is MethodDescriptor. It describes the target Beans methods.
The seventh type of feature descriptor is ParameterDescriptor. As the name indicates, it describes the
method parameters.
The BeanInfo interface declares methods that return arrays of the previous descriptors.

Creating Bound Properties

You can also create bound properties in Java Beans. Bound properties generate an event when their values
change. This event is of type PropertyChangeEvent and is sent to all registered event listeners of this type. To
make a property a bound property, use the setBound() method like this (note that we are adapting code from
the previous solution):
package sunw.demo.bean2;
import java.beans.*;

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public class Bean2BeanInfo extends SimpleBeanInfo

{
public PropertyDescriptor[] getPropertyDescriptors()
{
try {
PropertyDescriptor filled = new
PropertyDescriptor("filled", Bean2.class);
filled.setBound(true);

PropertyDescriptor propertydescriptor[] = {filled};

return propertydescriptor;
}
catch(Exception e) {}
return null;
}
}

Giving a Bean Methods

Can you give a Java Bean method that other beans can call? Sure can, you say. Pull up a chair and well go
through it. Ill get some coffee, the NP says while running off.
You can formally describe methods of Java Beans to the Java framework using the MethodDescriptor class.
Heres the inheritance diagram of this class:
java.lang.Object
|____java.beans.FeatureDescriptor
|____java.beans.MethodDescriptor
Youll find the constructors of the MethodDescriptor class in Table 23.9 and its methods in Table 23.10:
Table 23.9: Constructors of the MethodDescriptor class
Constructor Does this
MethodDescriptor It constructs a method descriptor.
(Method method)
MethodDescriptor It constructs a method descriptor from a method, providing descriptive
(Method method, information for each of the methods parameters.
ParameterDescriptor[]
parameterDescriptors)

Table 23.10: Methods of the MethodDescriptor class

Methods Does this
Method getMethod() It gets the method that this method descriptor encapsulates.
ParameterDescriptor[]getParamete It gets the parameter descriptor for each of the parameters of this method
rDescriptors() descriptors methods.

Many beans, however, dont bother to use MethodDescriptor objects, because any public bean method is
accessible from other beans. Heres an example in which we create a new bean based on the ones we have
developed in this chapter. This bean, Bean3, will count the number of times its been clicked and will also
support a method named increment() that, when invoked, will increment the click count.
Heres the code for Bean3, including the public increment() method:
package sunw.demo.bean3;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class Bean3 extends Canvas {
int count;
public Bean3() {
addMouseListener(new MouseAdapter() {

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public void mousePressed(MouseEvent me) { clicked(); }

});
count = 0;
setSize(200, 100); }
public void clicked() {
count++;
repaint(); }
public void increment() {
count++;
repaint(); }
public void paint(Graphics g) {
Dimension dimension = getSize();
int height = dimension.height;
int width = dimension.width;
g.setColor(new Color(255, 0, 0));
g.fillRect(0, 0, --width, --height);
g.setColor(new Color(0, 0, 0));
g.drawString("Click count = " + count, 50, 50); }
}
After creating Bean3 and adding it to the BeanBox, we can connect other beans to the increment() method.
We have connected a button to that method, and each time the button is clicked, the click count in the Bean3
bean is incremented and displayed.

Giving a Bean an Icon

You may have noticed that some beans have icons in the BeanBox. You can add your own icons to your beans
all you have to do is add a getIcon() method to the BeanInfo class. Heres how to implement this method
and handle all possibilities monochrome or color icons of either 1616 or 3232 pixels:
public java.awt.Image getIcon(int iconKind) {
if (iconKind == BeanInfo.ICON_MONO_16x16 ||
iconKind == BeanInfo.ICON_COLOR_16x16 ) {
java.awt.Image image = loadImage("Icon16.gif");
return image; }
if (iconKind == BeanInfo.ICON_MONO_32x32 ||
iconKind == BeanInfo.ICON_COLOR_32x32 ) {
java.awt.Image image = loadImage("Icon32.gif");
return image; }
return null;
}

Creating a BeanInfo Class

This part of the chapter uses the ExplicitButtonBeanInfo demo class to explain the creation of the
BeanInfo class. There are different steps for creating a BeanInfo class:
First name your BeanInfo class. As a naming convention, you must add BeanInfo to the target class name.
For example, if the target class name is CreateButton, then its bean information class name should be
CreateButtonBeanInfo. Then make a BeanInfo class by extending the SimpleBeanInfo class as follows:
public class ExplicitButtonBeanInfo extends SimpleBeanInfo {
By extending the SimpleBeanInfo class, you only have to override those methods you need, not all the
methods of the SimpleBeanInfo class. So, override those methods which return the properties, methods, or
events that you need. In the following code, the ExplicitButtonBeanInfo demo class overrides the
getPropertyDescriptors() method to return four properties:
public PropertyDescriptor[] getPropertyDescriptors()
{
try {
PropertyDescriptor background =
new PropertyDescriptor("background", beanClass);

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PropertyDescriptor foreground =
new PropertyDescriptor("foreground", beanClass);
PropertyDescriptor font =
new PropertyDescriptor("font", beanClass);
PropertyDescriptor label =
new PropertyDescriptor("label", beanClass);
background.setBound(true);
foreground.setBound(true);
font.setBound(true);
label.setBound(true);
PropertyDescriptor rv[] =
{background, foreground, font, label};
return rv; }
catch (IntrospectionException e) { throw new Error(e.toString()); }
}
If overriding is not done on the SimpleBeanInfo default method, which returns null, low-level reflection is
used for that characteristic. After overriding the appropriate method, associate an icon with the target Bean as
follows:
public java.awt.Image getIcon(int icontype)
{
if (icontype == BeanInfo.ICON_MONO_16x16 ||
icontype == BeanInfo.ICON_COLOR_16x16 ) {
java.awt.Image img = loadImage("tom.gif");
return img; }
if (icontype == BeanInfo.ICON_MONO_32x32 ||
icontype == BeanInfo.ICON_COLOR_32x32 ) {
java.awt.Image img = loadImage("ExplicitButtonIcon32.gif");
return img; }
return null;
}
The BeanBox then presents this icon next to the Bean name in the ToolBox. You can expect the builder tools to
do the same. Specify the target Bean class, and if the Bean has a customizer, specify it too as follows:
public BeanDescriptor getBeanDescriptor() {
return new BeanDescriptor(beanClass, customizerClass);
}
. . .
resulting,private final static Class beanClass = ExplicitButton.class;
private final static Class customizerClass = OurButtonCustomizer.class;
In the previous steps, locate the BeanInfo class in the same directory as its target class. Firstly, the BeanBox
searches for a target Beans BeanInfo class in the target Beans package path. If no BeanInfo is found, then
secondly the Bean information package searches path (maintained by the Introspector). The default Bean
information search path is sun.beans.infos. Again, if no BeanInfo class is found, then low-level reflection
is used to discover a Beans features.

Setting Bound and Constrained Properties

Hmm!! says the NP, Users have some complaints about Java Bean. They are fine with the design patterns for
properties. But what about the different variations on standard properties? Arent that a bit confusing? You say
with a big smile, Not at all, sir. It is not confusing but very simple. Java Bean supports two variations on
standard properties and they are very helpful to the user of Java Bean.
A Bean that contains a bound property generates an event when the property is changed. Here, the event is of
type PropertyChangeEvent. And, it is sent to objects that previously registered an interest in receiving such
notifications. A class that handles this event must implement the PropertyChangeListener interface.
The Java Beans model supports two variations on standard propertiesthe first one is called bound properties
and the second one is called constrained properties.

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The task of the bound properties is to provide the registration and notification of parties whenever there is
modification in the values. The constrained properties take this notification model to a step ahead by allowing
the notified party to perform a veto in order to prevent the property change. Different from event handling, Java
Beans handle the bound and constrained properties.
To whom are the Bound properties useful? Bound properties are useful for Beans that want to allow instances of
the same Bean class or some other Bean class to monitor a property value and subsequently change their values
accordingly (i.e. to match the trend setting Bean). Lets cite an example. Consider a GUI Bean that wants to
allow other GUI Beans to keep a check on change in background color to update their backgrounds accordingly.
However, note that implementation of a bound property is quite easy because of the user-friendly underlying
framework provided by the Java Beans architecture. Bean class supports a bound property. In order to provide
a bound property, the Bean class must instantiate an object in the Java Beans framework, which provides a lot
of this functionality, and implements registration and unregistration methods that simply invoke the
appropriate methods in the Java Beans framework:
private PropertyChangeSupport changes = new PropertyChangeSupport(this);
public void addPropertyChangeListener(PropertyChangeListener p) {
changes.addPropertyChangeListener(p);
}
public void removePropertyChangeListener(PropertyChangeListener p) {
changes.removePropertyChangeListener(p);
}
Each bound property must then invoke the firePropertyChange() method from its set() method:
public void setMood(int mood) {
int old = this.mood;
this.mood = mood;
repaint();
changes.firePropertyChange("mood",
new Integer(old), new Integer(mood));
}
At this level, the PropertyChangeSupport object handles the notification of all registered targets. You have to
keep in mind that the PropertyChangeSupport object provides a general-purpose functionality following a
prescribed protocol. Particularly, the method invocation for firePropertyChange() must provide the
property name as well as the old and new values, which are passed along to notified targets.
Moreover, the listener (i.e., target object) must provide a propertyChange() method to receive the property-
related notifications:
public void propertyChange(PropertyChangeEvent e) { } // . . .
Here, constrained properties add the functionality, which might be the notified listener that can object to the
property change and execute a veto. Additionally, the Bean class must instantiate the Java Beans object that
provides this service, namely, VetoableChangeSupport, and executes the corresponding registration-related
methods:
private VetoableChangeSupport veto = new VetoableChangeSupport(this);
public void addVetoableChangeListener(VetoableChangeListener vetolisten) {
veto.addVetoableChangeListener(vetolisten);
}
public void removeVetoableChangeListener(VetoableChangeListener vetolisten) {
veto.removeVetoableChangeListener(vetolisten);
}
Keep in mind that a Bean could provide one or more bound and one or more constrained properties. In this case,
it must instantiate both PropertyChangeSupport and VetoableChangeSupport and provide both sets of
registration-related methods. Also, constrained properties tend to be bound, but that is not an absolute
requirement. The set() method for bound-constrained properties is slightly more complicated:
public void setMood(int md)
throws PropertyVetoException {
vetoes.fireVetoableChange("mood",
new Integer(this.md), new Integer(md));

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int old = this.md;

this.md = md;
repaint();
changes.firePropertyChange("mood",
new Integer(old), new Integer(md));
}
In particular, the set() method must accommodate the exception PropertyVetoException. In this regard,
the sequence of operations is as follows:
Fire the vetoable change notification.
Update the appropriate state variables.
Fire the standard property change notification, if bound.
A veto-interested target object must implement the vetoableChange() method:
public void vetoableChange(PropertyChangeEvent e)
throws PropertyVetoException { . . . }
It exercises a veto by the following exceptions:
Including a throws clause for PropertyVetoException and
Raising the exception (throw new PropertyVetoException()), as appropriate.
Here, the Java Beans framework receives the propagated exception. In return, the Java Beans framework
transfers it to setMood() through the fireVetoableChange() invocation. Note that setMood() is
organized such that in the event of a veto: (1) it does not handle the exception (instead, returning and
transferring the exception) and (2) it does not complete the update to state variables or the property notification
for bound-property listeners.
Now, it is very much clear that the Java Beans framework supports a lot of property-related functionality and
requires minimal work from the Bean implementation.

Implementing Persistence
As we have discussed in the In Depth section persistence is the process of restoring the current state of a Bean
and its properties with its instance variables also being restored at later stage. What helps to provide persistence
to Beans? The object serialization capabilities provided by the Java class libraries provide persistence to Beans.
Among the different methods available, the easiest way to serialize a Bean is to have it implement the
java.io.Serializable interface, which is nothing but a marker interface. Implementing
java.io.Serializable makes serialization automatic. Your Bean need not take any other action in this
regard. Moreover, remember that automatic serialization can also be inherited. So, if any superclass of a Bean
executes java.io.Serializable, then automatic serialization is achieved. But, the only restriction is that any
class that implements java.io.Serializable must supply a parameter-less constructor.
When the user is using automatic serialization, they can optionally avoid a field from being saved by the use of
the transient keyword. As a result, data members of a Bean specified as transient will not be serialized.
If a Bean does not implement java.io.Serializable, then we must provide serialization ourselves. This can
be done by implementing java.io.Externalizable. Else, the configuration of your component cannot be
saved by containers.

Using the Java Beans API

The NP appears and says, Yes, I am now convinced that Java Bean is really interesting for the users. But, I still
have some confusion regarding its functionality. Can you give me a nice and elaborate answer to it? Why not,
sir! you say. The Java Bean program has many different and useful functionalities. To make it more user
friendly, it is provided with a set of classes and interfaces in the package.

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Table 23.11 lists the interfaces in java.beans and provides description of their functionality, whereas Table
23.12 lists the classes in java.beans:
Table 23.11: The interfaces of java.beans
Interface Description
AppletInitializer This interface is used to initialize the Applet with Java Bean.
BeanInfo Any class that implements the BeanInfo interface provides explicit
information about the methods, properties, events, etc. of their bean.
Customizer This interface is used to customize a target Java Bean.
DesignMode This interface is used to define the notation of design time as a mode in
which JavaBean instances should function.
ExceptionListener This exception is thrown during any problem in listening.
PropertyChangeListener This interface is used to change the property of listener.
PropertyEditor This interface provides the methods that is used to edit the property.
VetoableChangeListener This interface is used to notify the any changes made in constrained
property.
Visibility This interface determines that bean needs GUI or not and whether GUI is
available.

Table 23.12: The classes of java.beans

Class Description
BeanDescriptor It provides the complete information about the bean.
Beans Basic bean methods.
DefaultPersistenceDelegate It is a concrete implementation of the abstract PersistenceDelegate
class and is the delegate used by default for classes about which no
information is available.
Encoder Its methods are used to encode the Java Beans.
EventHandler The EventHandler class is used by developers to make connections
between user interface bean (source) and an application logic bean
(target).
EventSetDescriptor It describe a collection of events that delivered as method calls on an event
listener interface.
Expression It is the subclass of java.beans.Statement and returns the value when
expression is evaluated.
FeatureDescriptor It is the superclass of many descriptor classes like PropertyDescriptor,
EventSetDescriptor, and MethodDescriptor.
IndexedPropertyChangeEvent It gets delivered whenever a component of Java Beans changes a bound
indexed property.
IndexedPropertyDescriptor It describes a property that acts like an array having index read or write
method of the array.
Introspector It provides a standard way for tools to learn about the properties, events,
and methods supported by a target Java Bean.
MethodDescriptor It describes a particular method that a Java Bean supports for external
access from other components
ParameterDescriptor It allows bean implementers to provide additional information on each of
their parameters.
PersistenceDelegate It provides the information about the state of an instance of a given class
in terms of the methods in the classs public API

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Table 23.12: The classes of java.beans

Class Description
PropertyChangeEvent It delivered whenever a bean changes a bound or constrained
property.
PropertyChangeListenerProxy It extends the EventListenerProxy, specifically for adding a named
PropertyChangeListener.
PropertyChangeSupport It is a utility class that can be used by beans that support bound
properties.
PropertyDescriptor It describes one property that a Java Bean get through a pair of accessor
methods.
PropertyEditorManager It PropertyEditorManager used to get a property editor for any given
type name.
PropertyEditorSupport This is a support class which helps to build property editors
SimpleBeanInfo It is a support class to make it easier for people to provide the BeanInfo
classes.
Statement It represents a primitive statement in which a single method is applied to
a target and a set of arguments - as in a.setFoo(b).
VetoableChangeListenerProxy A class which extends the EventListenerProxy, specifically for
associating a VetoableChangeListener with a constrained property
VetoableChangeSupport It is a utility class that can be used by beans that support constrained
properties.
XMLDecoder It is used to read XML documents created using the XMLEncoder and is
used just like the ObjectInputStream.
XMLEncoder It is an alternative class, like ObjectOutputStream, which is used to
generate a textual representation of a Java Bean.

Learning the Basics of an Event

What is the use of Java event model in Java Bean? The Big Boss continues, I heard something about event
notification process in Java Bean with regard to its events. What is that? You say, I can explain it to you. Java
Beans uses Java event model to communicate. Its simple and gives different alternatives to the Java Bean user
for any type of communication.
Java event model is used by Java Beans to make communication happen. Here, events provide second option to
(synchronous) method invocations for any type of communication between components in which background
notifications are appropriate. That means, here, components provide one or more computational services which
can give feedback and handle other services on an event-driven, or asynchronous, or logical interrupt basis.
Lets cite an example: Consider a software component that principally provides telecommunications data
analysis. As far as this software component is concerned, you can design this to listen for incoming data
notifications, by adding new satellite data to its model on an asynchronous basis. In this case, the data
processing component is nothing but a target of some other software component that declares the availability of
data.
In an event-driven program, the source and target orientation is a matter of concern. A component can be a
source for one type of event and, at the same time, can be a target for another. While working with Java Beans,
some type of source functionality is required for some specific events such as temperature changes, progress-bar
state changes, and so on and so forth. In general, event-driven designs are ideal for the following tasks:
Handing user interface events:
Mouse actions
Keyboard events

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Managing/reporting inter-client connections:

JDBC Bean that connects to database server
Accepts database requests and notifies a client when the data is available
Other events:
Property changes in a Bean
Any general-purpose notification from one object to another
The event time occurrence is followed by some type of event notification (as defined by Java Beans Component).
The process for event notification delivers data related to event to each registered target object within an event
object. java.util.EventObject is the base class for event objects. Here, new subclasses of EventObject
specialize java.util.EventObject for Bean-specific event types.
Moreover, you have to note that event objects carry pertinent/timely data to registered targets; this data
is typically supplied as read-only. Therefore, the target object uses the event objects access methods to retrieve
data.

Using the Java Beans Conventions

The NP asks, If I am working with a Java Bean package and I want the properties to be created or events to be
distributed, can your Java Bean have facilities for it? Why not, its so easy. You just have to use the Java Bean
convention. Thats all, you say.
Java Beans follow a simple yet very powerful naming convention. Here are the two most important Java Beans
naming conventions:
Properties are created using the set* and get* methods.
Events are distributed using the add*Listener event and the Interface*Listener event, which is
the standard Java event delegation model.

Using the Remote Notification and Distributed Notification

One of the very important characteristics of Java Bean components is that they run in the same virtual machine
as the container or application that contains it. Java Beans can access remote machines/object/beans through:
Standard socket-based client/server
Java RMI We expect that the use of Java RMI will be a general way for writing Java Beans within its
networked systems.
JDBC It allows Java code, hence Java Beans, access SQL databases

Using Beans with JSP

Hmm! The NP appears and says, Can the user of a Java Bean package reuse Java Beans? Can I compose it
once again into my application? You say, Unlike other packages, Java Bean can be reused. Thats because Java
Bean components are Java classes that can easily be reused, you say.

Remember that any Java class can be a Java Beans component if it follows specific design conventions.

The role of JavaServer Pages technology is also to provide direct supports using Java Beans components with JSP
language elements. Here, you can easily build and initialize beans and get and set the values of their properties.

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Summary
In this chapter, you have learned about beans, using beans, adding control to beans, giving a bean properties,
simple properties, and design pattern for properties. Then, you have learned designing pattern and methods for
events. We also explained how to create bound properties, giving a bean methods, and give a bean an icon.
Then, we explored the BeanInfo class, set bound & constrained properties, and implement persistence. Toward
the end, we taught the basics of an event, Java Beans convention, use of remote notification and distributed
notification, and use of beans with JSP.
In the next chapter, we will introduce you with JDBC.

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Introducing JDBC
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Learning about the Driver Interface 892
Learning about the DriverManager Class 892
The Connection Interface 893
The Statement Interface 896
The PreparedStatement Interface 899
Using the PreparedStatement Interface 902
The ResultSet Interface 904
Using ResultSet 907
The ResultSetMetaData Interface 908
Using the ResultSetMetaData Interface 910
Implementing JDBC Processes with java.sql Package 911
Processing the ResultSet 914
Closing the Statement 923
Closing the Connection 923
Using a Loop to Set Values in PreparedStatement Object 924
Using the Interactive SQL Tool 926
Chapter 24: Introducing JDBC

In Depth
Enterprise applications that are created using the Java EE technology need to interact with databases to store
application-specific information. For example, search engines use databases to store information about the Web
pages and job portals use databases to store information about the candidates and employers who access the
Web sites to search and advertise jobs on the Internet. Interacting with database requires database connectivity,
which can be achieved by using the Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) driver. This driver is used with Java
Database Connectivity (JDBC) to interact with various types of databases, such as Oracle, MS Access, My SQL,
and SQL Server. JDBC is an Application Programming Interface (API), which is used in Java programming to
interact with databases. JDBC works with different database drivers to connect to different databases.
This chapter focuses on JDBC, which is used to provide database connectivity to enterprise applications. In this
chapter, you first learn about JDBC drivers as well as the features of JDBC. You then learn about the JDBC APIs
that provide various classes and interfaces to develop a JDBC application. Next, the use of java.sql and javax.sql
packages in JDBC implementation is described in detail. Toward the end, you learn to work with transactions in
the JDBC application.

What does JDBC Do?

JDBCTM is a specification from Oracle which provides a standard abstraction (API/protocol) for Java
applications to communicate with different databases. It is used to write programs required to access databases.
JDBC, along with the database driver, is capable of accessing databases and spreadsheets. JDBC can also be
defined as a platform-independent interface between a relational database and the Java programming language.
The enterprise data stored in a relational database can be accessed with the help of JDBC APIs. The JDBC API
allows Java programs to execute SQL statements and retrieve results. The classes and interfaces of JDBC allow a
Java application to send requests made by users to the specified Database Management System (DBMS). Instead
of allowing the drivers to target a specific database, the users can specify the name of the database used to
retrieve the data.

Components of JDBC
JDBC has four main components through which it can communicate with a database. These components are as
follows:
The JDBC APIProvides various methods and interfaces for easy and effective communication with the
databases. It also provides a standard to connect a database to a client application. The application-specific
user processes the SQL commands according to their need and retrieves the result in the ResultSet object.
The JDBC API provides two main packages, java.sql and javax.sql, to interact with databases.
These packages contain the Java SE and Java EE platforms, which conform to the Write Once Run
Anywhere (WORA) capabilities of Java.
The JDBC DriverManagerLoads database-specific drivers in an application to establish a connection with
the database. It is also used to select the most appropriate database-specific driver from the previously
loaded drivers when a new connection to the database is established. In addition, it is used to make
database-specific calls to the database to process the user requests.
The JDBC test suiteEvaluates the JDBC driver for its compatibility with Java EE. The JDBC test suite is
used to test the operations being performed by JDBC drivers.
The JDBC-ODBC bridgeConnects database drivers to the database. This bridge translates JDBC method
calls to ODBC function calls, and is used to implement JDBC for any database for which an ODBC driver is
available. The bridge for an application can be availed by importing the sun.jdbc.odbc package, which
contains a native library to access the ODBC features. The JDBC-ODBC bridge driver has been removed
from JDBC 4.2 API.

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JDBC Specification
With the emergence of JDBC 4.2, various changes, such as support for the REF_CURSOR data type and various
other features, have been introduced in JDBC API.
The specifications that are available in different versions of JDBC are as follows:
JDBC 1.0Provides basic functionality of JDBC.
JDBC 2.0Provides JDBC API in two sections: the JDBC 2.0 Core API and the JDBC 2.0 Optional Package
API.
JDBC 3.0Provides classes and interfaces in two Java packages: java.sql and javax.sql. JDBC 3.0 is a
combination of the JDBC 2.1 core API and the JDBC 2.0 Optional Package API. The JDBC 3.0 specification
provides performance optimization features and improves the features of connection pooling and
statement.
JDBC 4.0Provides the following advanced features:
Auto loading of the Driver interface
Connection management
ROWID data type support
Annotation in SQL queries
National Character Set Conversion Support
Enhancement to exception handling
Enhanced support for large objects
JDBC 4.1Introduces the following features:
It provides try-with-resources statement, which has the ability to close resources of type Connection,
ResultSet, and Statement automatically.
It has also introduced the RowSetFactory interface and the RowSetProvider class, which allow building
of all types of row sets that are supported by your JDBC driver.
JDBC 4.2Introduces the following features:
Provides support for REF_CURSOR data type that is supported by various databases
Includes the java.sql.DriverAction interface
Includes the java.sql.SQLType interface
Includes the java.sql.JDBCType enum
Includes support for large update count by returing a long value for it

JDBC Architecture
A JDBC driver is required to process the SQL requests and generate results. JDBC API provides classes and
interfaces to handle database-specific calls from users. Some of the important classes and interfaces defined in
JDBC API are as follows:
DriverManager
Driver
Connection
Statement
PreparedStatement
CallableStatement
ResultSet
DatabaseMetaData
ResultSetMetaData
SqlData

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Blob
Clob
DriverAction
SQLType
JDBCType enum
In the JDBC architecture, the DriverManager class plays a significant role and is present in the JDBC API. It
uses some database-specific drivers to effectively connect enterprise applications to databases.
Figure 24.1 demonstrates the simple JDBC architecture:

Figure 24.1: Displaying the architecture of JDBC

As shown in Figure 24.1, the Java application that needs to communicate with a database has to be programmed
using JDBC API. The JDBC driver (third-party vendor implementation) supporting data source, such as Oracle,
and SQL Server, has to be added in the Java application for JDBC support, which can be done dynamically at run
time. The dynamic plugging of the JDBC drivers ensures that the Java application is vendor independent. In
other words, if you want to communicate with any data source through JDBC, you need a JDBC driver that
intelligently communicates with the respective data source. Some of the available drivers are pure Java drivers
and are portable for all the environments; whereas, others are partial Java drivers and require some libraries to
communicate with the database. You need to understand the architectures of all the four types of drivers (shown
in Table 24.12) to decide which driver to use to communicate with the data source.

The JDBC Package

JDBC API is a part of the JDBC specification and provides a standard abstraction to use JDBC drivers. The JDBC
API provides classes and interfaces that are used by Java applications to communicate to databases. The JDBC
driver communicates with a relational database for any requests made by a Java application by using the JDBC
API. The JDBC driver not only processes the SQL commands but also sends back the result of processing of these
SQL commands. In addition, the JDBC API can be used to access the required data from all the database types,
such as SQL Server, Sybase, and Oracle. A programmer does not need to write different programs to access the
data from the database. The JDBC API satisfies the WORA behavior of Java. Therefore, JDBC is used largely to
access data from various data sources.
The JDBC API is based upon the X/open Call Level Interface (CLI) specification and SQL standard statements.
This is also the basic standard for ODBC.
The JDBC API specification is used to process and access data sources by using Java. The API includes drivers to
be installed to access the different data sources. The API is used with SQL statements to read and write data
from any data source in a tabular format. This facility to access data from the database is available through the
group of javax.sql.RowSet interfaces. JDBC API is mainly divided into the following two packages:

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 In Depth

java.sql
javax.sql
The JDBC API includes both the java.sql package, called the JDBC core API, and the javax.sql package, called the
JDBC Optional Package API. Lets discuss them in detail in the following subsections.

The java.sql Package

The java.sql package is also known as the JDBC core API. This package includes the interfaces and classes for
performing JDBC core operations, such as creating and executing SQL queries. The java.sql package consists
of the interfaces and classes that need to be implemented in an application to access a database. The developer
uses these operations to access the database in an application. The classes and interfaces in the java.sql
package can be classified into the following categories based on different operations:
Connection management
Database access
Data types
Database metadata
Exceptions and warnings
Lets discuss in brief about these categories.

Connection Management
The connection management category contains the classes and interfaces used to establish a connection with a
database.
Table 24.1 describes the classes and interfaces of the connection management category:
Table 24.1: Classes and interfaces of connection management
Class/Interface Description
java.sql.Connection Creates a connection with a specific database. You can use SQL statements to retrieve
interface the desired results within the context of a connection.
java.sql.Driver interface Creates and registers an instance of a driver with the DriverManager object.
java.sql.DriverManager Provides the functionality to manage database drivers.
class
java.sql.DriverPropertyInfo Retrieves the properties required to obtain a connection.
class
java.sql.SQLPermission Sets up logging stream with the DriverManager object.
class

Database Access
SQL queries are executed to access the application-specific data after a connection is established with a database.
The interfaces listed in Table 24.2 allow you to send SQL statements to the database for execution and read the
results from the respective database:
Table 24.2: Interfaces of the database access category
Interface Description
java.sql.CallableStatement Executes stored procedures.
java.sql.PreparedStatement Allows the programmer to create parameterized SQL statements.
java.sql.ResultSet Abstracts the results of executing the SELECT statements. This interface provides
methods to access the results row by row.
java.sql.Statement Executes SQL statements over the underlying connection and access the results.
java.sql.Savepoint Specifies a Savepoint in a transaction.

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The java.sql.PreparedStatement and java.sql.CallableStatement interfaces extend the

java.sql.Statement interface.

Data Types
In the JDBC API, various interfaces and classes are defined to hold specific types of data to be stored in a
database. For example, to store the BLOB type values, the Blob interface is declared in the java.sql package.
Table 24.3 describes the classes and interfaces of various data types in the java.sql package:
Table 24.3: Classes and interfaces for data types in the java.sql package
Class/Interface Description
java.sql.Array interface Provides mapping for ARRAY of a collection.
java.sql.Blob interface Provides mapping for the BLOB SQL type.
java.sql.Clob interface Provides mapping for the CLOB SQL type.
java.sql.Date class Provides mapping for the SQL type DATE. Although the java.util.Date class
provides a general-purpose representation of date, the java.sql.Date class is
preferable for representing dates in database-centric applications, as the type maps
directly to the SQL DATE type. Note that the java.sql.Date class extends the
java.util.Date class.
java.sql.NClob interface Provides mapping of the Java language and the National Character Large
Object types. The NClob interface allows you to store the values of the character
string up to the maximum length.
java.sql.Ref interface Provides mapping for SQL type REF.
java.sql.RowId interface Provides mapping for Java with the SQL ROWID value.
java.sql.Struct Provides mapping for the SQL structured types.
interface
java.sql.SQLXML Provides mapping for the SQL XML types available in the JDBC API.
interface
java.sql.Time class Provides mapping for the SQL type TIME and extends the java.util.Date class.
java.sql.Timestamp class Provides mapping for the SQL type TIMESTAMP and extends the java.util.Date
class.
java.sql.Types class Holds a set of constant integers, each corresponding to a SQL type.

The JDBC API provides certain User-Defined Data Types (UDT) available in JDBC API. The UDTs available in
the java.sql package are listed in Table 24.4:
Table 24.4: Interfaces for UDT in the java.sql package
Interface Description
java.sql.SQLData Provides a mapping between the SQL UDTs and a specific class in Java.
java.sql.SQLInput Provides methods to read the UDT attributes from a specific input stream. The input
stream contains a stream of values depicting the instance of the SQL structured or SQL
distinct type.
java.sql.SQLOutput Writes the attributes of the output stream back to the database.

JDBC API also provides some default data types that are associated with a database. The default types include
the DISTINCT and DATALINK types. The DISTINCT data type maps to the base type to which the base type
value is mapped. For instance, a DISTINCT value based on an SQL NUMERIC type can be mapped to a
java.math.BigDecimal type. A DATALINK type always represents a java.net.URL object of the URL class
defined in the java.net package.

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Database Metadata
The metadata interface is used to retrieve information about the database used in an application. JDBC API
provides certain interfaces to access the information about the database used in the application. These metadata
interfaces are described in Table 24.5:
Table 24.5: Interfaces of database metadata
Interface Description
java.sql.DatabaseMetaData This interface provides the comprehensive information about the database.
java.sql.ParameterMetaData The object of this interface is used to retrieve information about the types and
properties for each parameter provided in a PreparedStatement object .
java.sql.ResultSetMetaData The object of this interface is used to fetch the information about the types
and properties of the columns specified in a ResultSet object .

Exceptions and Warnings

JDBC API provides classes and interfaces to handle the unwanted exceptions raised in an application. The API
also provides classes to handle warnings related to an application.
Table 24.6 describes the classes for exception handling:
Table 24.6: Classes for exception handling
Classes Description
java.sql.BatchUpdateException Updates batches.
java.sql.DataTruncation Identifies data truncation errors. Note that data types do not always match
between Java and SQL.
java.sql.SQLException Represents all JDBC-related exception conditions. This exception also embeds
all driver and database-level exceptions and error codes.
java.sql.SQLWarning Represents database access warnings. Instead of catching the SQLWarning
exception, you can use the appropriate methods on the
java.sql.Connection, java.sql.Statement, and
java.sql.ResultSet objects to access the warnings.

Lets now briefly discuss the JDBC extension APIs (javax.sql) available in JDBC API.

The javax.sql Package

The javax.sql package is also called the JDBC extension API, and provides classes and interfaces to access
server-side data sources and process Java programs. The JDBC extension package supplements the java.sql
package and provides the following supports:
DataSource
Connection and statement pooling
Distributed transaction
Rowsets

DataSource
The javax.sql.DataSource interface represents the data sources related to the Java application.
Table 24.7 describes the interfaces of the DataSource provided by the javax.sql package:
Table 24.7: Interfaces for DataSource
Interface Description
javax.sql.DataSource Represents the DataSource interface used in an application.
javax.sql.CommonDataSource Provides the methods that are common between the DataSource,
XADataSource and ConnectionPoolDataSource interfaces.

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Connection and Statement Pooling

The connections made by using the DataSource objects are implemented on the middle-tier connection pool.
As a result, the functionality to create new database connections is improved. The classes and interfaces available
for connection pooling in the javax.sql package are listed in Table 24.8:
Table 24.8: Classes and interfaces for connection pooling
Class/Interface Description
javax.sql.ConnectionPoolDataS Provides a factory for the PooledConnection objects.
ource interface
javax.sql.PooledConnection Provides an object to manage connection pools.
interface
javax.sql.ConnectionEvent Provides an Event object, which offers information about the occurrence of an
class event.
javax.sql.ConnectionEventList Provides the objects used to register the events generated by the
ener inteface PooledConnection object.
javax.sql.StatementEvent Represents the StatementEvent interface associated with the events that
class occur in the PooledConnection interface. The StatementEvent interface
is then sent to the StatementEventListeners instance, which is registered
with the instance of the PooledConnection interface.
javax.sql.StatementEventListe Provides an object that registers the event with an instance of the
ner interface PooledConnection interface.

Distributed Transaction
The distributed transaction mechanism allows an application to use the data sources on multiple servers in a
single transaction. JDBC API provides certain classes and interfaces to handle distributed transactions over the
middle-tier architecture, as listed in Table 24.9:
Table 24.9: Interfaces for distributed transaction
Interface Description
javax.sql.XAConnection Provides the object that supports distributed transaction over middle-tier
architecture.

javax.sql.XADataSource Provides a factory for the XAConnection objects.

Rowsets Object
A RowSet object is used to retrieve data in a network. In addition, the RowSet object is able to transmit data
over a network. JDBC API provides the RowSet interface, with its numerous classes and interfaces, to work with
tabular data, as described in Table 24.10:
Table 24.10: Classes and interfaces for RowSet
Class/Interface Description
javax.sql.RowSetListener Receives notification from the RowSet object on the occurrence of an event.
interface

javax.sql.RowSetEvent class Provides the Event object, which is generated on the occurrence of an event on
the RowSet object.
javax.sql.RowSetMetaData Contains information about the columns specified in a RowSet object.
interface
javax.sql.RowSetReader Populates the disconnected RowSet object with rows of data.
interface

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Table 24.10: Classes and interfaces for RowSet

Class/Interface Description
javax.sql.RowSetWriter Implements the RowSetWriter object, which is also called RowSet
interface writer.

javax.sql.RowSet interface Adds support to the JDBC API for the JavaBeansTM component model.

JDBC versus ODBC and Other APIs

JDBC is a Java API that is used to connect and then execute a query to a database. Earlier, ODBC was used to
create and execute the query with the use of ODBC driver written in C language, which is an unsecured and
platform-dependent language. Therefore, Oracle defined its own API (JDBC API) that also uses its driver (JDBC
driver) written in Java language.
From a programming point of view, the JDBC API is a set of Java classes and interfaces that allow embedding of
database calls in server applications. In particular, the JDBC Specification is a set of interfaces that every JDBC
driver vendor must execute. A driver processes the JDBC statements in your application and directs the SQL
arguments they have to your database engines. Various JDBC drivers are supported by the Sun Java System
Application Server. These JDBC drivers support different types of Enterprise Information System (EIS)
databases. Figure 24.2 explains how application components use the JDBC API to interact with databases:

Figure 24.2: Application components using the JDBC API to interact with databases

Relation between JDBC and ODBC

Lets have another look at how JDBC is related to ODBC. The fundamental principle behind the designing of
JDBC was to make it practical for building JDBC drivers that are based on APIs of other database. All APIs are
based on the same standard, SQL X/Open CLI, fundamentally. So there exists a very close mapping between the
JDBC architecture and API and the ODBC counterparts; however, JDBC is easier to use. Table 24.11 details the
components for JDBC and ODBC:
Table 24.11: Showing the components for JDBC and ODBC with description
Component Description
DriverManager It loads database drivers and manages the connection between the application
and the driver.

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Table 24.11: Showing the components for JDBC and ODBC with description
Component Description
Driver It translates API calls into operation for a specific data source.
Connection It is a session between an application and a database.
Statement It is a SQL statement to perform a query or update operation.
MetaData It gives information about returned data, the database, and the driver.
ResultSet It is the logical set of columns and rows of data returned by executing a
statement.

Various Kinds of JDBC Drivers

The different types of drivers available in JDBC are listed in Table 24.12:
Table 24.12: Types of JDBC drivers
JDBC Driver Types Description
Type-1 Driver Refers to the Bridge Driver (JDBC-ODBC bridge). The JDBC-ODBC bridge
driver has been removed from JDBC 4.2 API.
Type-2 Driver Refers to a partly Java and partly native code driver (Native-API Partly Java
driver).
Type-3 Driver Refers to a pure Java driver that uses a middleware driver to connect to a
database (Pure Java Driver for Database Middleware).
Type-4 Driver Refers to a Pure Java driver (Pure), which is directly connected to a database.

Now lets discuss each of these drivers in detail.

Describing the Type-1 Driver

The Type-1 driver functions as a channel between the mechanism of JDBC and other database connectivity, such
as ODBC. An example of this type of driver is the Sun JDBC-ODBC bridge driver, which provides access to the
database through the ODBC drivers. This driver also helps the Java programmers to use JDBC and develop Java
applications to communicate with existing data sources. Java 2 SDK includes Type-1 driver within the
sun.jdbc.odbc package. This driver transforms JDBC calls into ODBC calls and navigates the request to the
ODBC driver. The architecture of the Type-1 driver is shown in Figure 24.3:

Figure 24.3: Displaying the architecture of the JDBC Type-1 driver

Figure 24.3 shows the architecture of the system that uses the JDBC-ODBC bridge driver to communicate with
the respective database. In Figure 24.3, SP API refers to the APIs used to make a Native DBMS specific call.

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Figure 24.3 shows the following steps that are involved in establishing connection between a Java application
and data source through the Type-1 driver:
1. The Java application makes the JDBC call to the JDBC-ODBC bridge driver to access a data source.
2. The JDBC-ODBC bridge driver resolves the JDBC call and makes an equivalent ODBC call to the ODBC
driver.
3. The ODBC driver completes the request and sends responses to the JDBC-ODBC bridge driver.
4. The JDBC-ODBC bridge driver converts the response into JDBC standards and displays the result to the
requesting Java application.
The Type-1 driver is generally used in the development and testing phases of Java applications.

Advantages of the Type-1 Driver

Some advantages of the Type-1 driver are as follows:
Represents single driver implementation to interact with different data stores
Allows us to communicate with all the databases supported by the ODBC driver
Represents a vendor independent driver

Disadvantages of the Type-1 Driver

Some disadvantages of the Type-1 driver are as follows:
Decreases the execution speed due to a large number of translations
Depends on the ODBC driver; and therefore, Java applications also become indirectly dependent on ODBC
drivers
Requires the ODBC binary code or ODBC client library that must be installed on every client
Uses Java Native Interface (JNI) to make ODBC calls
The preceding disadvantages make the Type-1 driver unsuitable for production environment and should be
used only in case when no other driver is available. The Type-1 driver is not recommended either when Java
applications are required with auto-installation applications, such as applets.

Describing the Type-2 Driver (Java to Native API)

Type-2 driver helps in converting the JDBC call into the database-vendor-specific native call. In other words, this
type of driver makes the Java Native Interface (JNI) calls on database-specific native client API. These database-
specific native client APIs are usually written in C and C++.
The Type-2 driver follows a 2-tier architecture model, as shown in Figure 24.4:

Figure 24.4: Displaying the architecture of the JDBC Type-2 driver

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As shown in Figure 24.4, the Java application that needs to communicate with the database is programmed using
JDBC API. In the client machine, the JDBC calls (programs created by using JDBC API) are then transformed into
database-specific native calls and the request is then sent to the database-specific native libraries. These libraries
present in the client are intelligent enough to send the request to the database server by using native protocol.
This type of driver is implemented for a specific database and usually delivered by a DBMS vendor. However, it
is not mandatory that Type-2 drivers have to be implemented by DBMS vendors only. An example of Type-2
driver is the Weblogic driver implemented by BEA Weblogic. Type-2 drivers can be used with server-side
applications. It is not recommended to use Type-2 drivers with client-side applications, since the database
specific native libraries should be installed on the client machines.

Advantages of the Type-2 Driver

Some advantages of the Type-2 driver are as follows:
Helps to access the data faster as compared to other types of drivers
Contains additional features provided by the specific database vendor, which are also supported by the
JDBC specification

Disadvantages of the Type-2 Driver

Some disadvantages of the Type-2 driver are as follows:
Requires native libraries to be installed on client machines, since the conversion from JDBC calls to database
specific native calls is done on client machines
Executes the database-specific native functions on the client JVM, implying that any bug in the Type-2
driver might crash the JVM
Increases the cost of the application in case it is run on different platforms

Examples of the Type-2 Driver

Some examples of the Type-2 driver are as follows:
OCI (Oracle Call Interface) DriverCommunicates with the Oracle database server. This driver converts
JDBC calls into Oracle native library calls.
Weblogic OCI Driver for OracleMakes JNI calls to Weblogic library functions. The Weblogic OCI driver
for Oracle is similar to the Oracle OCI driver.
Type-2 Driver for SybaseConverts JDBC calls into Sybase dblib or ctlib calls, which are native libraries to
connect to Sybase.

Describing the Type-3 Driver (Java to Network Protocol/All Java Driver)

The Type-3 driver is used for translating the JDBC calls into calls that are database server independent and
middleware server specific. The translated JDBC calls are then translated into database-server-specific calls with
the help of the middleware server.

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The Type-3 drivers follow the 3-tier architecture model, as shown in Figure 24.5:

Figure 24.5: Displaying the architecture of the JDBC Type-3 driver

As shown in Figure 24.5, a JDBC Type-3 driver listens for JDBC calls from the Java application and translates
them into middleware server specific calls. After that, the driver communicates with the middleware server over
a socket. The middleware server converts these calls into database specific calls. These types of drivers are also
called net-protocol fully Java technology-enabled or net-protocol drivers.
The middleware server can be added in an application with some additional functionality, such as pool
management, performance improvement, and connection availability. These functionalities make the Type-3
driver architecture more useful in enterprise applications. Since Type-3 driver is auto-downloadable, it is
recommended to be used with applets.

Advantages of the Type-3 Drivers

Some advantages of the Type-3 driver are as follows:
Serves as all Java driver and is auto-downloadable.
Does not require any native library to be installed on the client machine.
Ensures database independency because a single driver provides accessibility to different types of
databases.
Does not provide the database details, such as username, password, and database server location, to the
client. These details are automatically configured in the middleware server.
Provides the facility to switch over from one database to another without changing the client-side driver
classes. Switching of databases can be implemented by changing the configurations of the middleware
server.

Disadvantage of the Type-3 Driver

The main disadvantage of the Type-3 driver is that it performs the tasks slowly due to the increased number of
network calls as compared to Type2 drivers. In addition, the Type-3 driver is costlier as compared to other
drivers.

Examples of the Type-3 Drivers

Some examples of the Type-3 driver are as follows:
IDS DriverListens for JDBC calls and converts them into IDS Server specific network calls. The Type-3
driver communicates over a socket to IDS Server, which acts as a middleware server.
Weblogic RMI DriverListens for JDBC calls and sends the requests from the client to the middleware
server by using the RMI protocol. The middleware server uses a suitable JDBC driver to communicate with
a database.

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Describing the Type-4 Driver (Java to Database Protocol)

The Type-4 driver is a pure Java driver, which implements the database protocol to interact directly with a
database. This driver does not need any native database library for retrieving the records stored in the database.
In addition, the Type-4 driver translates JDBC calls into database specific network calls.
The Type-4 drivers follow the 2-tier architecture model, as shown in Figure 24.6:

Figure 24.6: Displaying the architecture of the JDBC Type-4 driver

As shown in Figure 24.6, the Type-4 driver prepares a DBMS-specific network message and then communicates
with database server over a socket. This type of driver is lightweight and generally known as a thin driver. The
Type-4 driver uses database-specific proprietary protocols for communication. Generally, this type of driver is
implemented by DBMS vendors since the protocols used are proprietary.
You can use the Type-4 driver when you want an auto-downloadable option for the client-side applications. In
addition, it can be used with server-side applications.

Advantages of the Type-4 Driver

Some advantages of the Type-4 driver are as follows:
Serves as a pure Java driver and is auto-downloadable
Does not require-any native library to be installed on the client machine
Uses database-server-specific protocol
Does not require a middleware server

Disadvantage of the Type-4 Driver

The main disadvantage of the Type-4 driver is that it uses database-specific proprietary protocol and is DBMS
vendor dependent.

Examples of the Type-4 Driver

Some examples of the Type-4 driver are:
Thin Driver for Oracle from Oracle Corporation
Weblogic and Mssqlserver4 for MS SQL Server from BEA systems

The JavaSoft Framework

Uh-Oh, the Novice Programmer says, I find it very peculiar to work with Java. What about the different
product components of JDK without which our users will face difficulties? I want to know more about it. Ok,
you say. Let me explain three such kinds of Java Development Kits.
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 In Depth

The three JDBC product components provided by JavaSoft as a part of the Java Development Kit (JDK) are as
follows:
The JDBC Driver Manager
The JDBC Driver Test Suite
The JDBC-ODBC Bridge
The JDBC driver manager is the backbone of the JDBC architecture. It is very small and simple. The basic
function of this is to connect Java applications to the correct JDBC driver and subsequently get out of the way.
The second one, i.e., JDBC driver test suite, enables the JDBC drivers to run your program. The designation
JDBC ComplaintTM should only be used by the drivers that have passed the JDBC driver test suite.
The third one, i.e., the JDBC-ODBC Bridge, allows ODBC drivers to be used as JDBC drivers. The javasoft
framework is shown in Figure 24.7:

Figure 24.7: Showing the Javasoft framework

Two-Tier and Three-Tier Models

JDBC API supports both two-tier and three-tier architectures to access data from the database.
In two-tier model, Java application communicates directly to the data source. This needs a JDBC driver that can
communicate with the intended data source being accessed. A user's commands are sent to the database or other
data source, and the output is sent back to the user. The data source may be located on another remote machine
to which the user is interacting in the network. It acts as client/server model in which the users machine acts as
the client and the remote machine that hosts the data source acts as the server. The network can be an intranet,
which, for example, connects students of different branches of same college. A type-2 driver following a two-tier
architecture is shown in Figure 24.8:

Figure 24.8: Two-tier architecture

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In the three-tier model, a middle tier exists, which acts as a bridge between the Java application and the data
source. Then, when responding back, the data source sends the result to the middle-tier, which then transmits it
to the user. Management Information System directories find the three-tier model useful because the middle tier
allows control over access. Another benefit is that it simplifies the deployment of applications. Also, three-tier
architecture has a better performance than two-tier architecture. Earlier, languages such as C and C++ are used
for creating the middle tier which provides fast performance in accessing data from database. Using optimizing
compilers for translating Java bytecode into machine-specific code and technologies such as Enterprise Java
Beans, the Java platform is used as the standard platform for middle-tier development. It provides Java with
robustness, multithreading, and security features. The three-tier architecture is shown in Figure 24.9:

Figure 24.9: Three-tier architecture

The Structured Query Language (SQL)

Java uses the concept of annotation while using SQL, which ultimately results in fewer lines of code. The
annotations are used along with the queries. The query results can be bound to the Java classes to speed up the
processing of the query output. The JDBC specification provides two main annotations:
The SELECT annotationRetrieves query-specific data from a database. You can use the SELECT
annotation in a SELECT query within a Java class. The attributes of the SELECT annotation are described in
Table 24.13:
Table 24.13: Attributes of the SELECT Annotation
Name Type Description
sql String Specifies a simple SQL SELECT query.
value String Represents the value specified for the SQL attribute.
tableName String Specifies the name of the table created in a database.
readOnly, connected, boolean Indicates whether DataSet is ReadOnly or Updatable. It also
scrollable indicates whether or not DataSet is connected to a back-end
database. In addition, it indicates whether or not it is
scrollable when the query is used in a connection.
allColumnsMapped boolean Indicates whether or not the column names used in the
annotations are mapped to the corresponding fields in
DataSet.

The UPDATE annotationUpdates the queries used in database tables. The UPDATE annotation must
include the SQL annotation type to update the fields of a table.

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There are certain enhancements in the SQLException class, which are as follows:
New exception subclassesProvide new classes as enhancement to SQLException. The new classes that
are added to the SQLException exception class include SQL non-transient exception and SQL transient
exception. The SQL non-transient exception class is called when an already performed JDBC operation fails
to run unless the cause of the SQLException exception is corrected. On the other hand, the SQL transient
exception class is called when a previously failed JDBC operation succeeds after retry.
Casual relationshipsSupport the mechanism of Java SE chained exception by the SQLException class
(also called Casual facility). It allows handling multiple SQL exceptions raised in the JDBC operation.
Support for the for-each loopImplements the chain of exceptions in a chain of groups by the
SQLException class. The for-each loop is used to iterate on these groups.
SQL XML supportIntroduces the concept of XML support in SQL DataStore. Some additional APIs have
been added to JDBC 4.0 to provide this support.

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Immediate Solutions
Learning about the Driver Interface
The Driver interface is used to create connection objects that provide an entry point for database connectivity.
Generally, all drivers provide the DriverManager class that implements the Driver interface and helps to
load the driver in a JDBC application. The drivers are loaded for any given connection request with the help of
the DriverManager class. After the driver class is loaded, its instance is created and registered with the
DriverManager class.
Table 24.14 describes all the methods provided in the Driver interface:
Table 24.14: Methods of the Driver interface
Method Description
boolean acceptsURL(String url) Checks whether or not the specified URL format is acceptable by the
driver.

Connection connect(String url, Establishes the connection with the database by using the given URL.
Properties info)
int getMajorVersion() Accesses the major version number of the driver.
int getMinorVersion() Retrieves the minor version number of the driver.
DriverPropertyInfo[] Retrieves the properties of the driver on the basis of the given URL.
getPropertyInfo(String url,
Properties info)
boolean jdbcCompliant() Reports whether the current driver is a genuine JDBC CompliantTM
driver.
Logger getParentLogger() Returns the parent Logger of all the Loggers used by this driver.

Learning about the DriverManager Class

DriverManager is a non-abstract class in JDBC API. It contains only one constructor, which is declared private
to imply that this class cannot be inherited or initialized directly. All the methods and properties of this class are
declared as static. The DriverManager class performs the following main responsibilities:
Maintains a list of DriverInfo objects, where each DriverInfo object holds one driver implementation
class object and its name
Prepares a connection using the driver implementation that accepts the given JDBC URL
Table 24.15 describes the methods of the DriverManager class:
Table 24.15: Methods of the DriverManager class
Method Description
static void deregisterDriver(Driver Drops a driver from the list of drivers maintained by the
driver) DriverManager class
static Connection Establishes a connection of a driver with a database. The
getConnection(String url) DriverManager class selects a driver from the list of drivers and
creates the connection
static Connection Establishes a connection of a driver with a database on the basis of
getConnection(String url, the URL and info passed as parameters. URL is used to load the
Properties info) selected driver for a database. The info parameter provides
information about the string/value tags used in the connection

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Table 24.15: Methods of the DriverManager class

Method Description
static Connection Establishes a connection of a driver with a database. The
getConnection(String url, DriverManager class selects a driver from the list of drivers and
String username, String password) creates the connection. Along with URL, it takes two more
parameters, that is, username and password. The username
parameter specifies the user for which the connection is being made,
and the password parameter represents the password of the user
static Driver getDriver(String url) Locates the requested driver in the DriverManager class. The url
parameter specifies the URL of the requested driver.
static Accesses a list of drivers present in a database.
Enumeration<Driver>getDrivers()
static int getLoginTimeout() Specifies the maximum time a driver needs to wait to log on to a
database.
static PrintStream getLogStream() Returns the logging or tracing PrintStream object.
static PrintWriter getLogWriter() Returns the log writer.
static void println(String message) Prints a message used in a log stream.
static void Registers a requested driver with the DriverManager class.
registerDriver(Driver driver)
static void Sets the maximum time that a driver needs to wait while attempting
setLoginTimeout(int seconds) to connect to a database.
static void Sets the logging or tracing PrintStream object.
setLogStream(PrintStream out)
static void Sets the logging or tracing PrintWriter object.
setLogWriter(PrintWriter out)

The Connection Interface

The Connection interface is used for defining an abstraction for accessing the connection established with a
database server. JDBC driver provider must implement the Connection interface. The Connection type of
object (an instance of the class that implements the Connection interface) represents the session established
with the data store. The Connection interface provides methods to handle the Connection object.
Table 24.16 describes the methods present in the Connection interface:
Table 24.16: Methods of the Connection interface
Method Description
void clearWarnings() Clears all the warnings for a Connection object. This method throws
the SQLException exception when an error occurs.
void close() Closes a connection and releases the connection object associated with
the connected database. It also releases the JDBC resources associated
with the connection.
void commit() Commits the changes made in the previous commit/rollback and
releases any database locks held by the current Connection object .
Statement createStatement() Creates the Statement object to send SQL statements to the
specified database. This method takes no argument; therefore, it can
be executed by using the Statement object.

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Table 24.16: Methods of the Connection interface

Method Description
Statement Creates a Statement object, which is used to load the SQL statements
createStatement(int resultSetType, to the specified database. The ResultSet object generated by this
int resultSetConcurrency) Statement object is of the mentioned type and concurrency.

Statement createStatement Creates an object with the mentioned type, concurrency, and
(int resultSetType, holdability.
int resultSetConcurrency,
int resultSetHoldability)

boolean getAutoCommit() Retrieves the auto-commit mode for the current Connection object.

String getCatalog() Gets the name of the current catalog used in the current Connection
object.

int getHoldability() Gets the current holdability of the ResultSet object created by using
a Connection object.

DatabaseMetaData getMetaData() Gets the DatabaseMetadata object containing the metadata

information. You should ensure that the database must be connected
with a connection object.

int getTransactionIsolation() Provides the transaction isolation level of the Connection object
related to a database.
Map getTypeMap() Gets a map object related to a Connection object.

SQLwarning getWarnings() Retrieves any warning associated with a Connection object.

boolean isClosed() Specifies whether or not a database Connection object is closed.

boolean isReadOnly() Specifies whether or not a Connection object is read only.

String nativeSQL(String sql) Allows you to convert the SQL statements passed to the Connection
object into the systems native SQL grammar.

CallableStatement Creates a CallableStatement object to call database-stored procedures.

prepareCall(String sql)
CallableStatement Creates a CallableStatement object that generates the ResultSet
prepareCall(String sql, object of the specified type and concurrency.
int resultSetType,
int resultSetConcurrency)
CallableStatement Creates a CallableStatement object that generates the ResultSet
prepareCall(String sql, object of the specified type, concurrency, and holdability.
int resultSetType,
int resultSetConcurrency,
int resultSetHoldability)
PreparedStatement Creates a PreparedStatement object to send the SQL statements
prepareStatement(String sql) over a connection.
PreparedStatement Creates a PreparedStatement object that retrieves auto-generated
prepareStatement(String sql, keys.
int autoGeneratedKeys)
PreparedStatement Creates a PreparedStatement object that retrieves auto-generated
prepareStatement(String sql, keys by using a given array.
int[] columnIndexes)

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Table 24.16: Methods of the Connection interface

Method Description
PreparedStatement Generates a PreparedStatement object that generates the
prepareStatement(String sql, ResultSet object with the given type and concurrency.
int resultSetType,
int resultSetConcurrency)
PreparedStatement Generates a PreparedStatement object that generates the
prepareStatement(String sql, ResultSet object with the given type, concurrency, and holdability.
int resultSetType,
int resultSetConcurrency,
int resultSetHoldability)
PreparedStatement Creates a PreparedStatement object that retrieves the auto-
prepareStatement(String sql, generated keys. The columnNames parameter of
String[] columnNames) PreparedStatement is an array containing the names of the
columns that contain the auto-generated keys in the target table.
void releaseSavepoint(Savepoint Releases the savepoint associated with the connection object of the
savepoint) current transaction.
void rollback () Rolls back all the transactions and releases any database locks that are
currently done by the connection object.
void rollback(Savepoint savepoint) Rollbacks all the changes made by the connection object after a
savepoint object is created.
void Sets the current transaction to the connections auto-commit mode.
setAutoCommit(boolean autoCommit)

void setCatalog(String catalog) Sets the given catalog name for the current Connection objects
database.
void setHoldability(int holdability) Changes the holdability of the current Connection object.
void setReadOnly(boolean readOnly) Sets the connection to the read-only mode to optimize the specified
database.
Savepoint setSavepoint() Creates an unnamed savepoint in the current transaction and returns
the savepoint associated with the previous transactions.
Savepoint setSavepoint(String name) Creates a savepoint with the name specified in the current transaction.
It returns the new savepoint object
void Checks the transaction isolation level of the specified Connection
setTransactionIsolation(int level) object.
void setTypeMap(Map<String, Installs the TypeMap object as the current type map for the current
Class<?>> map) connection.
Array createArrayOf(String typeName, Refers to a Factory method used to create Array objects.
Object[] elements)
Blob createBlob() Creates an object implementing the Blob interface.
Clob createClob() Creates an object implementing the Clob interface.
NClob createNClob() Creates an object implementing the NClob interface.
SQLXML createSQLXML() Creates an object implementing the SQLXML interface.
Struct createStruct(String typeName, Refers to the factory method that creates Struct objects.
Object[] attributes)

The Connection interface also provides certain fields that can be used to handle connection transactions.

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Table 24.17 describes the fields available in the Connection interface:

Table 24.17: Fields of the Connection interface
Field Description
static int TRANSACTION_NONE Refers to a constant representing that transactions are not supported.
static int Prevents a transaction from reading a row with uncommitted changes.
TRANSACTION_READ_COMMITTED It is only used to read non-repeatable rows in a table.
static final int Indicates that non-repeatable and phantom reads are allowed in a
TRANSACTION_READ_UNCOMMITTED transaction. It allows a row to be changed during a transaction. The
changed row can be read by other transactions before the changes in
the row are committed.
static int Prevents non-repeatable reads and simultaneous transactions in a
TRANSACTION_REPEATABLE_READ single row.
static int TRANSACTION_SERIALIZABLE Prevents reading non-repeatable rows in a table.

Lets now learn about the Statement interface.

The Statement Interface

The Statement interface is used for defining a standard abstraction to run the SQL statements, which are
requested by a user and provides the results with the help of the ResultSet object. The Statement object
contains a single ResultSet object at a time. It might be possible that the reading of data performed by using
one ResultSet object is incorporated with the reading done by the other. In such a case, each ResultSet
object must be generated by different Statement objects. The execute() method of all the statements
implicitly closes the current ResultSet object (if it is open) of a statement. The Statement interface provides
specific methods to execute and retrieve the results from a database. The methods provided by the
PreparedStatement interface are used for dealing with the IN parameters, whereas the methods provided by
the CallableStatement interface are used for dealing with the IN and OUT parameters.
The Statement interface also provides certain methods that are used with a database. These methods are
described in Table 24.18:
Table 24.18: Methods of the Statement interface
Method Description
void addBatch(String sql) Adds the SQL commands to the existing list of commands for the
Statement object. These commands are executed in a batch by calling
the executeBatch() method.
void abort(Executor executor) Terminates an open connection with the database.
void cancel() Cancels the statement if the data sources do not support the statement.
void clearBatch() Clears all the commands listed in the batch of the Statement object.
void clearWarnings() Clears the warnings that are generated on the Statement object. You
should note that after the execution of the clearWarnings() method,
the getWarnings() method returns null, provided a new warning is
not generated for this Statement object.
void close() Closes the Statement object. Therefore, it releases its control from the
database and connection.
boolean execute(String sql) Executes the SQL commands that may return multiple result sets
along with one or more update counts.
boolean execute(String sql, Executes the SQL commands that may return multiple result sets
int autoGeneratedKeys) along with one or more update counts. It also indicates whether a
driver or the auto-generated keys are available for the retrieval.

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Table 24.18: Methods of the Statement interface

Method Description
boolean execute(String sql, Executes the SQL commands that may return multiple result sets
int[] columnIndexes) along with one or more update counts. It also indicates the driver
about the availability of the auto-generated keys in an array. The array
contains the list of the indexes and the tables containing the auto-
generated keys.
boolean execute(String sql, Executes the SQL commands that may return multiple result sets
String[] columnNames) along with one or more update counts. It also indicates the driver
about the availability of the auto-generated keys in an array. The array
contains the name of the columns in the target table that contains the
auto-generated keys.
int[] executeBatch() Executes the SQL commands in a batch. The method returns the
update count as an integer greater or equal to 0 after the successful
execution of the batch statements. The integer array is used to
represent the array of the SQL commands listed in the batch.
ResultSet executeQuery(String sql) Executes a SQL command and returns a single ResultSet
int executeUpdate(String sql) Executes the SQL Data Definition Language (DDL) statements, such as
INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.
int executeUpdate(String sql, Executes the SQL statements and notifies the driver about the
int autoGeneratedKeys) availability of the auto-generated keys. The auto-generated keys are
helpful to retrieve data from the database
int executeUpdate(String sql, Executes the SQL statements on the basis of the SQL query and
int[] columnIndexes) column index passed as an argument. This method also notifies the
driver about the availability of the auto-generated keys. The auto-
generated keys are helpful to retrieve data from the database. The
array index of the auto-generated keys indicates the indexes and
tables that contain the auto-generated keys.
int executeUpdate(String sql, Executes the SQL statements and notifies the driver about the
String[] columnNames) availability of the auto-generated keys. These keys are responsible for
data retrieval from the database. The array index of the auto-
generated keys indicates the columns of the target table that contains
the auto-generated keys
Connection getConnection() Retrieves an object of Connection type, which is used to maintain the
connection of a Java application with a database.
int getFetchDirection() Retrieves the direction of the rows from the database tables that are
generated from the ResultSet object.
int getFetchSize() Gets the number of rows of default fetch size from the current
ResultSet object.
ResultSet getGeneratedKeys() Gets the auto-generated keys created by executing the Statement
object.
int getMaxFieldSize() Gets the maximum number of bytes that can be returned for the
column values.
int getMaxRows() Provides the maximum number of rows in a ResultSet object
produced by the Statement object.
boolean getMoreResults() Navigates to the next result in the ResultSet object. It is also used to
close the currently opened result set.
int getMoreResults(int current) Navigates to the next result in the object of the statement. It deals with
the ResultSet object by using the instructions specified in the given
flag.
int getQueryTimeout() Provides the number of seconds the driver has to wait to execute the
statements.

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Table 24.18: Methods of the Statement interface

Method Description
ResultSet getResultSet() Gets the current ResultSet object generated by the Statement object.
int getResultSetConcurrency() Gets the concurrency of the ResultSet object generated by the
Statement object.
int getResultSetHoldability() Gets the holdability of the ResultSet object generated by the Statement
object
int getResultSetType() Retrieves the result set type for the ResultSet object
int getUpdateCount() Retrieves the current result set as an update count. The value returned
by this method is either a positive or negative value, indicating the
number of records that have been updated in a result set.
SQLWarning getWarnings() Gets the warnings generated on the Statement object

void setCursorName(String name) Sets the cursor name to the given string. The cursor name is used by
the Statement objects to execute this method.
void setEscapeProcessing(boolean Sets the escape processing on or off.
enable)
void Sets the direction for the driver to process the rows in the ResultSet
setFetchDirection(int direction) object.
void setFetchSize(int rows) Sets the number of rows that should be fetched from the database.
void setMaxFieldSize(int max) Sets the maximum number of bytes for the ResultSet object to store
binary values.
void setMaxRows(int max) Sets the maximum number of rows that a ResultSet object can contain.
void setQueryTimeout(int seconds) Sets the number of seconds a driver needs to wait for executing the
Statement object.

The Statement interface also comprises few fields. Table 24.19 describes the fields available in the Statement
interface:
Table 24.19: Fields of the Statement interface
Field Description
static int CLOSE_ALL_RESULTS Closes all the open ResultSet objects. All the ResultSet objects
should be closed before calling the getMoreResults() method.
static int CLOSE_CURRENT_RESULT Indicates that the current ResultSet connected with the specified
database must be closed before calling the getMoreResults()
method.
static int EXECUTE_FAILED Indicates the occurrence of errors while executing a batch statement.

static int KEEP_CURRENT_RESULT Indicates that the current Resultset should not be closed before
calling the getMoreResults() method.
static int NO_GENERATED_KEYS Indicates that the generated keys should not be made available for
retrieval.
static int RETURN_GENERATED_KEYS Indicates that the generated keys should be made available for
retrieval.
static int SUCCESS_NO_INFO Indicates that a batch statement has been executed successfully.

Table 24.18 shows all the required fields in the Statement interface. These are used by a database to
communicate with an application.

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The Statement object is created after the connection to the specified database is made. You can create this
object with the help of the createStatement()method provided by the Connection interface, as shown in
the following code snippet:
Connection con = DriverManager.getConnection (url, "username", "password");
Statement stmt = con.createStatement();

The PreparedStatement Interface

The PreparedStatement interface is used for representing a precompiled query that you can run multiple
times. Lets now first understand the difference between the execution process of a Statement object and the
PreparedStatement object to execute a JDBC query.
Next, you learn about the setXXX() methods as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the
PreparedStatement interface. You also learn how to implement the PreparedStatement interface to
execute the SQL query.

Comparing the Execution Control of the Statement and PreparedStatement

When a Statement object is used to execute a query (that is, calling any one of the execute methods), the
query is processed as follows:
1. The executeXXX() method is invoked on the Statement object by passing the SQL statement as
parameter.
2. The Statement object submits the SQL statement to the database.
3. The database compiles the given SQL statement.
4. An execution plan is prepared by the database to execute the SQL statements.
5. The execution plan for the compiled SQL statement is then executed. Now, if the SQL statement is a data
retrieval statement, such as the SELECT statement, the database caches the results of the SQL statement in
the buffer.
6. The results are sent to the Statement object.
7. Finally, the response is sent to the Java application in the form of ResultSet.
Figure 24.10 displays the entire execution flow of the Statement object:

Figure 24.10: Displaying the process flow of the Statement object

In Figure 24.10, the st element represents the Statement object reference. Compilation of a query includes
syntax checking, name validation, and pseudocode generation. After a query is validated, the query optimizer
prepares for the execution of the query and then returns what it considers to be the best alternative. The SQL
statement needs to be executed each time it is requested.
It is not necessary to compile the SQL statement and prepare execution plan to execute a statement multiple
times. DBMSs are designed to store the execution plans and execute them multiple times, if required.
Consequently, the processing time of the DBMSs is optimized. These stored execution plans of the SQL

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statements are known as pre-compiled SQL statements. DBMS intelligently maintains the compiled queries and
provides a unique identity for the prepared execution plan, which the client uses to execute the same query next
time. JDBC specifications support the use of this feature provided by DBMS. The PreparedStatement
interface is designed specifically to support this feature.
The execution of pre-compiled PreparedStatement is much faster in comparison to the Statement objects
included in an application. The PreparedStatement interface inherits all the properties of the Statement
interface. The execute methods do not take any parameter while using the PreparedStatement object.
You should keep in mind the following points while using the PreparedStatement interface:
A PreparedStatement object must be associated with one connection
A PreparedStatement object specifies the running plan of a query, which is then passed as argument
during the creation of the PreparedStatement object
After the connection on which the PreparedStatement object was created is closed,
PreparedStatement is implicitly closed
When a PreparedStatement object is used to execute a query (that is, calling any one of the execute
methods), the query is processed as follows:
The prepareStatement() method of the connection object is used to get the object of the
PreparedStatement interface.
The connection object submits the given SQL statement to the database.
The database compiles the given SQL statement.
An execution plan is prepared by the database to execute the SQL statements.
The database stores the execution plan with a unique ID and returns the identity to the Connection
object.
The Connection object prepares a PreparedStatement object, initializes it with the execution plan
identity, and returns the reference of the PreparedStatement object to the Java application.
The setXXX() methods of the PreparedStatement object are used to set the parameters of the SQL
statement it is representing .
The executeXXX() method of the PreparedStatement object is invoked to execute the SQL statement
with the parameters set to the PreparedStatement object
The PreparedStatement object delegates the request sent by a client to the database.
The database locates and executes the execution plan with the given parameters.
Finally, the result of the SQL statements is sent to the Java application in the form of ResultSet.
Figure 24.11 explains the flow of execution when PreparedStatement is used to execute SQL statements:

Figure 24.11: Showing steps involved in using the PreparedStatement Object

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In Figure 24.11, the con and ps elements represent the references of the Connection and
PreparedStatement objects, respectively.

Describing the setXXX() Methods of the PreparedStatement Interface

You need to set the value of each placeholder (?) parameter that is used inside the query string before executing
a PreparedStatement object. The values for these placeholder parameters are provided at runtime to the SQL
queries used within the PreparedStatement object. The values of this parameter can be set by using the
setXXX() methods.
Table 24.20 describes the setXXX() methods of the PreparedStatement interface:
Table 24.20: Methods available in the PreparedStatement interface
Method Description
void setArray(int parameterIndex, Sets the values of parameters to the given array object.
Array x)
void Sets the values of the PreparedStatement parameter according to the
setAsciiStream(int parameterIndex, given input stream specified in the method.
InputStream x, int length)
void Sets the values of the parameter by using the values specified in the
setBigDecimal(int parameterIndex, java.math.BigDecimal value
BigDecimal x)
void Sets the binary values for the parameters used in the
setBinaryStream(int parameterIndex, PreparedStatement object.
InputStream x, int length)
void setBlob(int parameterIndex, Sets an integer value to the specified Blob object.
Blob x)
void setBoolean(int parameterIndex, Sets the boolean values for the parameters used in the
boolean x) PreparedStatement object.
void setByte(int parameterIndex, Sets the byte values for the parameters used in the
byte x) PreparedStatement object.
void setBytes(int parameterIndex, Sets the byte values in an array for the parameters used in the
byte[] x) PreparedStatement object.
void Sets the character values for the PreparedStatement parameters and
setCharacterStream(int parameterIndex also specifies the length of the characters.
, Reader reader, int length)
void setClob(int parameterIndex , Sets an integer value to the specified Clob object.
Clob x)

void setDate(int parameterIndex, Sets the PreparedStatement parameter with a java.sql.Date

Date x) value.
Sets the PreparedStatement parameter with a java.sql.Date
void setDate(int parameterIndex,
value and also uses the Calendar object to set the value of the
Date x, Calendar cal)
parameter.
void setDouble(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter to the Java double value.
double x)
void setFloat(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter to the Java float value.
float x)
void setInt(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter to the Java int value.
int x)
void setLong(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter to the Java long value.
long x)

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Table 24.20: Methods available in the PreparedStatement interface

Method Description
void setNull(int parameterIndex, Sets the NULL values for the parameters of the specified sqlType.
int sqlType)
void setNull(int parameterIndex, Sets the NULL values for the parameters of the specified sqlType
int sqlType, String typeName) and typeName.
void setObject(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter by using the given object value.
Object x)
void setObject(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter by using the given object value.
Object x, int targetSqlType)
void setObject(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter by using the given object value
Object x, int targetSqlType,
int scaleOrLength)
void setRef(int parameterIndex , Sets the values of the parameters to the REF (<structured-type>)
Ref x) value.
void setShort(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter to the Java short value.
short x)
void setString(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter to the Java String value.
String x)
void setTime(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter to the java.sql.Time value.
Time x)
void setTime(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter to the java.sql.Time value by
Time x, Calendar cal) using the Calendar object.
void setTimestamp(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter to the java.sql.TimeStamp value.
Timestamp x)
void setTimestamp(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter to the java.sql.Timestamp value
Timestamp x, Calendar cal) by using the calendar object.
void setURL(int parameterIndex, Sets the value of the parameter to the java.net.URL value.
URL x)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using a PreparedStatement Object

The advantages of using a PreparedStatement object are as follows:
Improves the performance of an application compared to the Statement object that executes the same
query multiple times. The PreparedStatement object performs the execution of queries faster by
avoiding the compilation of queries multiple times.
Provides a programmatic approach to set the values. In other words, the value of each parameter provided
in an SQL query is passed separately by using the PreparedStatement object, unlike the Statement
object.
The disadvantage of using the PreparedStatement object is that it represents only one SQL statement at a time,
i.e., you cannot execute more than one statement by a single PreparedStatement.

Using the PreparedStatement Interface

The following are some of the situations when you should use PreparedStatement in a JDBC application:
When a single query is being executed multiple times
When a query consists of various parameters and complex types (SQL 99 types)

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PreparedStatement is used to increase the efficiency and reduce the execution time of a query. An instance of
PreparedStatement must be created to execute a precompiled SQL statement. Follow these broad-level steps
to use the PreparedStatement interface:
1. Create a PreparedStatement object
2. Provide the values of the PreparedStatement parameters
3. Execute the SQL statements
Lets discuss each of these steps in detail.

Create a PreparedStatement Object

The prepareStatement(String) method of the Connection object is used to create the
PreparedStatement object. The Connection object is used to access the PreparedStatement object,
where the query supplied in the prepareStatement() method can contain zero or more question marks (?,
known as parameters). The values of question mark parameters can be set after the query is compiled.
The following code snippet shows how to create the PreparedStatement object in a connection:
Class.forName("oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver");
Connection con= DriverManager.getConnection (url, user, password);
String query="insert into mytable values (?,?,?)";
//Step1: Get PreparedStatement object
PreparedStatement ps=con.prepareStatement (query);
In the preceding code snippet, the con parameter is the Connection object. This object is used to call the
prepareStatement() method to obtain the PreparedStatement object. In the preceding code snippet, ps
is the PreparedStatement object created by using the con object.

Provide the Values of the PreparedStatement Parameters

You need to set the values of the question mark placeholders after creating the PreparedStatement object.
The values of the question marks can be set by using the setXXX() methods. For example, if the question mark
indicates the value of an integer data type, you can use the setInt() method for the particular parameter. If
you have a parameter of the Java string, you can call the setString() method to set the value of the
parameter. Note that these values should be set before prepared statements are executed.
In PreparedStatement, there is a setXXX() method for each data type declared in Java. The setXXX()
method takes two arguments. The first argument indicates the parameter index and the second argument
indicates the value of the parameter. Note that the parameter index starts from 1.
The following code snippet shows how to set the values of the question mark parameter:
//Step2: setting values for the parameters
ps.setString(1,"abc1");
ps.setInt(2,38);
ps.setDouble(3,158.75);

Execute the SQL Statements

You can execute the precompiled SQL statements by using the execute(), executeUpdate(), or
executeQuery() method of the PreparedStatement interface. The result of these methods is same as that of the
respective methods in the Statement interface.
The following code snippet shows how to execute the SQL statements:
//Step3: Executing the SQL statements
int n = ps.executeUpdate(); // n is the number of rows or tables
that are being updated
Let us now demonstrate the use of PreparedStatement in an application, where the PreparedStatement
object is used to execute the INSERT statement:
import java.sql.*;
public class PreparedStatementEx1 {
public static void main(String s[]) throws Exception {
Class.forName("oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver").newInstance();
Connection con= DriverManager.getConnection (

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"jdbc:oracle:thin:@localhost:1521:XE","scott","tiger");
String query="insert into mytable values (?,?,?)";
//Step1: Get PreparedStatement
PreparedStatement ps=con.prepareStatement (query);
//Step2: set parameters
ps.setString(1,"abc1");
ps.setInt(2,38);
ps.setDouble(3,158.75);
//Step3: execute the query
int i=ps.executeUpdate();
System.out.println("record inserted count:"+i);
//To execute the query once again
ps.setString(1,"abc2");
ps.setInt(2,39);
ps.setDouble(3,158.75);
i=ps.executeUpdate();
System.out.println("query executed for the second time count: "+i);
con.close();
}//main
}//class
The preceding code uses the PreparedStatement object along with the connection object. The setXXX()
methods are used to set the values of the arguments. The preceding example sets the values of the integer, string,
and double data types. The executeUpdate() method is used to retrieve the number of rows affected by
executing the SQL statement.
The output of the PreparedStatementEx1.java is shown in Figure 24.12:

Figure 24.12: Displaying the output of the PreparedStatementEx1.java file

The ResultSet Interface

A ResultSet interface is an interface provided in the java.sql package, and is used to represent data
retrieved from a database in a tabular format. It implies that a ResultSet object is a table of data returned by
executing an SQL query. A ResultSet object encapsulates the resultant tabular data obtained when a query is
executed. It holds zero or more objects, where each of the objects represents one row that may span over one or
more table columns. You can obtain a ResultSet object by using the executeQuery or getResultSet()
method of a Statement object. Some of the important points related to a ResultSet are as follows:
ResultSet follows the iterate pattern.
A ResultSet object is associated with a statement within a connection.
You can obtain any number of resultsets using one statement; however, only one ResultSet can be opened at
a time. When a ResultSet is tried to open by using a statement that is already linked that an opened
ResultSet, the existing ResultSet gets closed implicitly.
ResultSet is automatically closed when its associated statement is closed.

Describing the Methods of ResultSet

The java.sql.ResultSet interface provides certain methods to work with the ResultSet objects. The
methods available in the ResultSet interface are used to move the cursor throughout the ResultSet and read the
data.
Table 24.21 describes some of the most commonly used methods in the ResultSet interface:
Table 24.21: Methods of the java.sql.ResultSet Interface
Method Description
boolean absolute(int row) Moves the cursor to the specified row in the ResultSet object.
void afterLast() Places the cursor just after the last row in the ResultSet object.

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Table 24.21: Methods of the java.sql.ResultSet Interface

Method Description
void beforeFirst() Places the cursor before the first row in the ResultSet object.

void cancelRowUpdates() Cancels all the changes made to the rows in the ResultSet object.
void clearWarnings() Clears all warning messages on a ResultSet object.

void close() Closes the ResultSet object and releases all the JDBC resources connected
to it.
void deleteRow() Deletes the specified row from the ResultSet object and the database.
boolean first() Moves the cursor to the first row in the ResultSet object.

Array getArray(int columnIndex) Retrieves the value of the specified column from the ResultSet object.

InputStream getAsciiStream(int Retrieves a specified column in the current row as a stream of ASCII
columnIndex) characters.
Date getDate(int columnIndex) Retrieves the column values of the specified types from the current row.
The type can be any of the Java predefined data types, such as int, long,
byte, character, string, double, or large object types.
Date getDate(String columnLabel) Retrieves the specified column from the current row in the ResultSet
object. The object retrieved is of the java.sql.Date type in the Java
programming language.
Date getDate(String columnName, Retrieves the specified column from the current row in the ResultSet
Calendar cal) object. The object retrieved is of the java.sql.Date type.
int getFetchDirection() Specifies the direction (forward or reverse) in which the ResultSet object
retrieves the row from a database.
int getFetchSize() Retrieves the size of the associated ResultSet object.

ResultSetMetaData getMetaData() Retrieves the number, type, and properties of the ResultSet object.

Object getObject(int columnIndex) Retrieves a specified column in the current row as an object in the Java
programming language on the basis of the column index value passed as
a parameter.
Object getObject(int columnIndex, Retrieves a specified column as an object on the basis of the column
Map <String, Class<?>>map) number and Map instance passed as parameters.
Object Retrieves a specified column in the current row as an object on the basis of
getObject(String columnLabel) the column name passed as a parameter.
Object Retrieves a specified column in the current row as an object on the basis of
getObject(String columnLabel, the column name and Map instance passed as parameters.
Map<String,Class<?>> map)
int getRow() Retrieves the current row number associated with the ResultSet object.
Statement getStatement() Retrieves the Statement object associated with the ResultSet object.
Time getTime(int columnIndex) Retrieves the column values as a java.sql.Time object on the basis of
column index passed as an integer parameter.
Time getTime(int columnIndex, Retrieves the column values as a java.sql.Time object on the basis of
Calendar cal) column index as well as the cal object of the Calendar class passed as
parameters.
Time getTime(String columnName) Retrieves the column values as a java.sql.Time object on the basis of
column name passed as a String value.
Time getTime(String columnName, Retrieves the column values as a java.sql.Time object on the basis of
Calendar cal) String value of column name as well Calendar object cal as parameters.

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Table 24.21: Methods of the java.sql.ResultSet Interface

Method Description
Timestamp Retrieves the column values as a java.sql.Timestamp object on the
getTimestamp(int columnIndex) basis of the column index passed as a parameter.
Timestamp Retrieves the column values as a java.sql.Timestamp object on the
getTimestamp(int columnIndex, basis of the column index and the cal object of the Calendar class passed
Calendar cal) as parameters.
Timestamp Retrieves the column values as a java.sql.Timestamp object on the
getTimestamp(String columnName) basis of the column name passed as a parameter.
Timestamp Retrieves the column values as a java.sql.Timestamp object on the
getTimestamp(String columnName, basis of the column name and the cal object of the Calendar class passed
Calendar cal) as arguments.
int getType() Retrieves the type of the ResultSet object used in a connection.
SQLWarning getWarnings() Retrieves the warning reported on the ResultSet object.
void insertRow() Inserts the specified row and content into the ResultSet object and
database.
boolean isAfterLast() Specifies whether the cursor of the ResultSet object is at the end of the last
row.
boolean isBeforeFirst() Specifies whether the cursor is before the first row in the ResultSet object
or not.
boolean isFirst() Specifies whether the cursor is on the first row or not.
boolean isLast() Detects whether the cursor is on the last row of the ResultSet object or not.
boolean last() Moves the cursor to the last row in this ResultSet object.
void moveToCurrentRow() Moves the cursor to the current row in the ResultSet object.
void moveToInsertRow() Moves the cursor to the inserted row in the ResultSet object.
boolean next() Moves the cursor forward one row. The method returns true if the cursor
is positioned on a row and false if the cursor is positioned after the last
row.
boolean previous() Moves the cursor backward one row. The method returns true if the
cursor is positioned on a row and false if the cursor is positioned before
the first row.
void refreshRow() Refreshes the current row associated with the ResultSet object with the
recent updates.
boolean relative(int rows) Moves the cursor to a relative number of rows or columns specified in the
method.
boolean rowDeleted() Retrieves whether the row has already been deleted or not.
boolean rowInserted() Determines whether the current row has an insertion or not.
boolean rowUpdated() Retrieves whether the current row has been updated or not.
void setFetchDirection Sets the direction of the ResultSet object.
(int direction)
void setFetchSize(int rows) Sets the size of the ResultSet object.
void updateArray(int columnIndex, Updates the column in the ResultSet object with a java.sql.Array
Array x) value.
void updateXXX() Updates the column values of the current row of the specified type. The
type can be any of the Java predefined data types, such as int, long, byte,
character, string, double, and the large object types.
void updateRow() Updates the current row with new content.

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Table 24.21: Methods of the java.sql.ResultSet Interface

Method Description
boolean wasNull() Reports whether the last column has a SQL null value or not.
void Updates a specific column with a NULL value.
updateNull(String columnName)
void Updates the specific column with an Object value.
updateObject(int columnIndex,
Object x)
void updateTime(int columnIndex, Updates the time value with a java.sql.Time value.
Time x)
void Updates the time value with a java.sql.Timestamp value.
updateTimestamp(int columnIndex,
Timestamp x)
int getConcurrency() Retrieves the concurrency mode of the ResultSet object.
String getCursorName() Retrieves the SQL cursor name used by the ResultSet object.

Using ResultSet
After obtaining a ResultSet object, you can use a ResultSet to read the data (ResultSet content) encapsulated in it.
Figure 24.13 shows the process flow involved in getting ResultSet from the Statement object and reading the data
from the ResultSet object. The st and rs parameters represent the Statement and ResultSet object references,
respectively.
Figure 24.13 shows the ResultSet operations:

Figure 24.13: Explaining the ResultSet operations

Note that for every next() method invoked, the JDBC driver may not necessarily get the data row from the
database buffer. This means that after every step 8, shown in Figure 24.13, there may not always be a step 9.
Instead, the JDBC driver can get multiple rows of data at a time and buffer it on the client side. The buffering of
data on the client side depends on the fetch size set for the ResultSet object. The fetch size of a ResultSet can be
set by using the setFetchSize (int) method of ResultSet.
You can retrieve data from a ResultSet in two simple steps:
Move the cursor position to the required row.
Read the column data using the getXXX() methods.
Lets discuss these steps in detail.

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Moving the Cursor Position

While obtaining data from a ResultSet, the cursor is initially placed before the first row, i.e.,
beforeFirst(). You can use the next() method of ResultSet to move the cursor position to the next
record in the ResultSet. When the cursor is moved to the next record, it returns a Boolean value indicating
whether or not any record is available in the ResultSet. The next() method returns true if it successfully
positions the cursor on the next row; otherwise, it returns false.

JDBC 2.0 also introduces some other methods in ResultSet to move the cursor position, provided the ResultSet is of the
scrollable type. The ResultSet generated is forwarded by default; therefore, you can iterate through it only in the forward
direction from the first to the last row.

Reading the Column Values

After placing the cursor to the specific row, the getter methods of the ResultSet object is used for retrieving the
data from that row. Getter methods of the ResultSet object are overloaded, which means that there are two getter
methods for each of the JDBC type. One of these two methods takes column index of type int as an input,
where the column index starts with 1, and the other method takes column name of the String type. You should
note that the column names that are passed to the getter methods are not case sensitive. If the same column is
present more than once in a selected list, the first instance of the column is to be returned.
Note that the column index supplied to the getXXX() methods is the index that starts with 1, where the index
numbers are given based on the resulted tabular data and not on the source table that is queried.
For example, suppose a table of students contains two columns: stdId, and stdName. Now, if you obtain a
ResultSet object for the select stdName and stdId from the students queries, the column index 1 locates the
stdName, while index 2 locates stdId. The ResultSet interface has the getXXX() method for all the basic and
predefined complex types.
When the getter methods of the ResultSet interface are invoked, the JDBC driver attempts to convert the
requested column value into the respective Java type and return the Java value. However, if it fails to convert
the column value into its respective Java type, it throws the SQLException exception and describes it as a
conversion error.
Figure 24.14 shows the exceptions thrown for the Oracle Thin driver:

Figure 24.14: Showing an example of SQLException

Figure 24.14 shows the error message when the JDBC driver fails to convert the SQL type to the Java type. In
our case, we have created a Java source file in which the column value is of String type and we have used the
getInt() method to retrieve the column value.

The ResultSetMetaData Interface

JDBC API provides the feature of MetaData that contains descriptive information about the data available in a
database. JDBC MetaData provides information about tables, views, column names, column data types, stored
procedures, and databases. In short, we can say that MetaData offers information about the data available in a
database as well as all the query results in the database.

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JDBC API provides two interfaces, ResultSetMetaData and DatabaseMetaData, to provide the metadata
information of a database. The ResultSetMetaData interface offers information about the columns in a
ResultSet object, such as the column name, column data type, and length of the columns. The DatabaseMetaData
interface provides information about the database structure, table names, views, constraints used in the
database, and data types.

Describing the ResultSetMetaData Interface

The java.sql.ResultSetMetaData interface is used to describe a JDBC Driver object that encapsulates the
metadata of the cursor. The ResultSetMetaData object is used to retrieve information about the columns in a
ResultSet object. It can also be used to get the information, such as column names, column data types, and
column length, related to a particular result. This object does not provide any information about the database or
the number of rows present in the result. The ResultSetMetaData object is obtained by using the ResultSet
object, that is, by invoking the getMetaData() method on the ResultSet object. The ResultSetMetaData
object obtained by using a ResultSet object encapsulates the information about the types and properties of the
columns in that ResultSet.
Table 24.22 shows some of the most commonly used methods of the ResultSetMetaData interface:
Table 24.22: Methods of the ResultSetMetaData interface
Method Descriptions
getColumnCount () Returns an integer value and retrieves the number of columns in the
ResultSet object.
getColumnName (int index) Takes the column index and returns the column name.
getColumnTypeName (int index) Takes the column index and returns the database-specific type name.
getColumnType (int index) Takes the column index and returns the integer value that indicates the
columns SQL type. It also compares this value with the java.sql.Types
constants.
isAutoIncrement (int index) Returns the Boolean value indicating whether the column at the given
index is auto incremented or not.
isNullable (int index) Indicates whether the column at the given index accepts NULL value or
not.
getCatalogName (int index) Accesses the catalog name of the column of a table associated with the
ResultSet object.
getColumnClassName(int index) Retrieves the java class name associated with the ResultSet object.
getColumnDisplaySize(int index) Retrieves the width of the columns associated with the ResultSet object.
getColumnLabel(int index) Retrieves the title of the specified column in the ResultSet object.
getPrecision(int column) Retrieves the precision value (number of digits after the decimal point) of
the decimal digits of the particular column in the ResultSet object.
getScale(int column) Retrieves the number of decimal digits present to the right of the decimal
point for a designated column in the ResultSet object.
getSchemaName(int column) Retrieves the schema name of the specified column in the ResultSet object.
getTableName(int column) Retrieves the table name of the specified column in the ResultSet object.
isCaseSensitive(int column) Indicates whether the case of a column matters in context with the
associated ResultSet object or not.
isCurrency(int column) Indicates whether the specified column indicates a cash value or not.
isDefinitelyWritable(int column) Indicates that a column is writable.

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Table 24.22: Methods of the ResultSetMetaData interface

Method Descriptions
isReadOnly(int column) Indicates that the specified column is read only and write operations cannot
be performed in the column values.
isSearchable(int column) Indicates whether a column value can be used as a condition in the WHERE
clause or not.
isSigned(int column) Indicates whether the column values in a particular column are signed or
not.
isWritable(int column) Indicates whether a write operation is possible on a column value or not.

After having the theoretical knowledge about the ResultSetMetaData interface, lets create an application to
demonstrate the implementation of this interface.

Using the ResultSetMetaData Interface

We have learned earlier that the java.sql.ResultSetMetaData interface provides various methods to retrieve
the information about the ResultSet object. The information for the ResultSet object can be retrieved by using the
ResultSetMetaData object. The following code snippet shows how to create an object of
ResultSetMetaData:
Statement stmt = conn.createStatement(); // Creating a Statement object.
ResultSet rs = stmt.executeQuery(); // creating a ResultSet object.
ResultSetMetaData rsmd = rs.getMetaData(); // Creating a
ResultSetMetaData object.
The ResultSetMetaData object is used to access the metadata for a ResultSet. The following code shows the
implementation of the ResultSetMetaData interface:
import java.sql.*;
import java.util.*;

public class ResultSetMDEx {

public static void main(String s[]) throws Exception {

Driver d=(Driver)
Class.forName("oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver").newInstance();
Properties p= new Properties ();
p.put ("user", "scott");
p.put ("password", "tiger");
Connection con=d.connect ("jdbc:oracle:thin:@192.168.1.123:1521:XE ",p);
// Creating a Statement object
Statement st = con.createStatement ();

ResultSet rs=st.executeQuery ("select * from "+s [0]);

//Table name is taken as a command line argument

// Creating the ResultSetMetaData object

ResultSetMetaData rsmd=rs.getMetaData();

System.out.println("Table Name : "+s[0]);

int colcount=rsmd.getColumnCount();

for (int i=1; i<=colcount; i++) {

System.out.print (rsmd.getColumnName(i)+"\t");
System.out.println (rsmd.getColumnTypeName(i));
}//for
con.close();
}//main
}//class

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The preceding code is used to access the properties of the ResultSet object by using the object of
ResultSetMetaData. The ResultSet object invokes the getMetaData() method, which returns the
ResultSetMetaData object that is further used to retrieve the column name, types, and length for a specific
ResultSet. In ResultSetMDEx, the table for the ResultSet object is given as an argument in the command line. The
ResultSetMDEx.java application retrieves the columns of the designated table along with the column types and
displays it to the user. The user can then put any of the existing tables as a command line argument to retrieve
the MetaData information about that table. The output of ResultSetMDEx.java is shown in Figure 24.15(a),
24.15(b), and 24.15(c), which displays various tables, such as mytable, dept, and emp, respectively, used as
arguments:

Figure 24.15(a): Showing the fields of table mytable

Figure 24.15(b): Showing the fields of table dept

Figure 24.15(c): Showing the fields of table emp

Note that the tables for which the metadata is to be displayed must be present in the database to generate a
ResultSet object. The following exception, as shown in Figure 24.16, is raised if the table or view (for which the
user accesses the metadata) does not exist in the database:

Figure 24.16: Showing the exception while accessing table that is not available in a database
Figure 24.16 shows the output while accessing a table not present in the database.

Implementing JDBC Processes with java.sql Package

The java.sql package is used by a Java application to communicate with a database. The JDBC application-
specific code should be written within an application that has to communicate with the database. There are some
basic steps to use JDBC in a Java application. Lets now discuss basic steps involved in using JDBC in an
application.
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Understanding the Basic JDBC Steps

To establish a connection with a database and retrieve the desired results, you need to perform various steps. For
example, you need to register a driver with the DriverManager object, obtain a connection, and execute SQL
queries.
Figure 24.17 shows the basic steps involved in using JDBC to write a database program in Java:

Figure 24.17: Showing basic steps to use JDBC

Figure 24.17 shows the following broad steps that need to be performed to implement JDBC in Java application:
1. Obtaining a connection
2. Creating a JDBC statement object
3. Executing SQL statements
4. Closing the connection
Lets discuss each of them in detail.

Obtaining a Connection
To obtain an object of the Connection interface, you need to first register a driver with the DriverManager class
by invoking the registerDriver() method, setting the System property, or invoking the Class.forName()
method. Then the connection is obtained by using the java.sql.DriverManager class.
You need to perform the following steps to obtain a connection using the DriverManager class:
a. Register a Driver object with DriverManager.
b. Establish a connection using DriverManager.
Now, lets discuss each of these steps in detail.
Register a Driver object with DriverManager
Registering a driver with the DriverManager class makes the registered driver available to the DriverManager
class so that the DriverManager object can use it to establish a connection with the database. When a driver is
registered with the DriverManager class, it creates the DriverInfo object to maintain the driver details and
stores these details in a class variable of the java.util.Vector type.

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Establish a Connection Using the DriverManager Class

You can now establish connection with a database after registering the driver with the DriverManager class. To
create a connection, invoke any one of the following methods of the DriverManager class:
getConnection (String url)
getConnection (String url, String username, String password)
getConnection (String url, Properties info)
In the preceding methods, <url> is a JDBC URL, which represents a unique name used to identify the driver and
obtain the connection. The JDBC URL even contains additional information, such as username and password,
required to establish the connection. The syntax of the JDBC URL is as follows:
jdbc: <sub protocol> : <info>
In the preceding syntax:
jdbcRepresents the protocol in the JDBC URL
<sub protocol>Specifies the vendor-specific name of the driver used to create the connection
<info>Takes additional information required to establish the connection, such as the database name and
port number, which vary from one driver to another
The following code snippet shows some JDBC URLs:
For Type-1 driver, i.e. JDBC-ODBC Bridge Driver, the JDBC URL is:
jdbc: odbc: SuchitaDSN.
For Oracle Type-2 driver:
String dbName = "kogent";
String oracleURL = "jdbc:oracle:oci8:@" + dbName;

//oracleURL = jdbc:oracle:oci8:@kogent

For Oracle Type-4 driver:

String host = "localhost";
String dbName = "kogent";
int port = 1521;
String oracleURL = "jdbc:oracle:thin:@" + host + ":" + port + ":" + dbName;
//oracleURL = jdbc:oracle:thin:@192.168.1.123:1521:XE"
When the getConnection() method is invoked, it checks if any one of the drivers registered with the
DriverManager class recognizes the given JDBC URL. If a driver accepts the URL, that driver is used by the
DriverManager class to establish connection with the DBMS located by the given JDBC URL. Consequently, if
no driver accepts the URL, the DriverManager class throws the java.sql.SQLException exception to the
application.

Creating a JDBC Statement Object

You can execute the SQL statements only after creating the JDBC Statement object. The utility objects available to
execute SQL statements are Statement, PreparedStatement, and CallableStatement.
Invoke the createStatement() method on the current Connection object to create the Statement object.
The following code snippet shows how to create the Statement object using the createStatement() method:
Statement stmt = connection.createStatement();

Executing SQL Statements

After the Statement object is created, it can be used to execute the SQL statements by using the execute(),
executeUpdate(), or executeQuery() methods. The executeQuery() method is only used in the SELECT
statement. For other database operations, such as INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE, the executeUpdate()
method is used to execute statements. The following code snippet shows how to execute an SQL statement:
//Using executeQuery()
String query = "SELECT col1, col2, col3 FROM table_name";
ResultSet results = stmt.executeQuery(query);
//Using executeUpdate()
String query= INSERT into table_name values (value1, value2, , value n);
int count = stmt.executeUpdate(query);

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If the statement produces a ResultSet object after executing the SQL statements, the ResultSet instance is used to
retrieve the result. The next() method is invoked on the ResultSet object to navigate through a row at a time.
The following code snippet shows the use of the ResultSet object within a connection:
while(results.next())
{
System.out.println(results.getString(1) + " " +
results.getString(2) + " " +
results.getString(3));
}

Closing the Connection

You need to close the connection and release the session after executing all the required SQL statements and
obtaining the corresponding results. This can be done by calling the close() method of the Connection
interface. The following code snippet shows how to close a connection:
con.close();

Processing the ResultSet

We need to set the ResultSet type and concurrency to the Statement object that produces the ResultSet
object to work with the ResultSet object of the required type. This is done while creating a statement using the
createStatement(), prepareStatement(), and prepareCall() methods of the Connection object. The
following code snippet shows the setting to create Statement and PreparedStatement objects that can
produce a ResultSet of the scrollable and read-only type:
createStatement(ResultSet.TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE, ResultSet.CONCUR_READ_ONLY);

prepareStatement(query, ResultSet.TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE, ResultSet.CONCUR_READ_ONLY);

In the preceding code snippet, we have specified the ResultSet type and concurrency while creating the JDBC
Statement. Now that we have learned about the various types of ResultSet objects, lets look at some
examples that demonstrate the working of the types of ResultSet objects by putting the theoretical discussion
into action. The example given below demonstrates the working of various ResultSet navigation methods by
using scrollable ResultSet:
import java.sql.*;
import java.util.*;
import java.io.*;
public class ScrollableRSEx1 {
public static void main(String s[]) throws Exception {

Driver d= (Driver) (Class.forName(

oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver").newInstance());

Properties p=new Properties ();

p.put(user,scott);
p.put(password,tiger);

Connection con=d.connect(jdbc:oracle:thin:@localhost:1521:XE,p);
Statement st= con.createStatement (
ResultSet.TYPE_SCROLL_INSENSITIVE,
ResultSet.CONCUR_READ_ONLY);

String query="select * from emp where deptno=3";

ResultSet rs= st.executeQuery(query);
//Now the cursor of ResultSet will at beforeFirst & the result
set produced is scrollable

System.out.println("EmpNo\tName");

while (rs.next()) {

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System.out.print(rs.getInt(1)+"\t");
System.out.println(rs.getString(2));
}//while
//Now the cursor of ResultSet will at afterLast

System.out.println(
"Reading Data, moving the cursor in backward direction\n");

while (rs.previous()){
System.out.print(rs.getInt(1)+"\t");
System.out.println(rs.getString(2));
}//while
con.close();
}//main
}//class
In the preceding code, the Connection.createStatement(int, int) method is used to create a Statement
object that can produce scrollable ResultSet. Here we have used ResultSet.TYPE_SCROLL_INSENSITIVE
to specify the ResultSet type, which indicates that ResultSet is only scrollable and insensitive to any
changes made to the data in the associated database. In addition, we have used
ResultSet.CONCUR_READ_ONLY to specify the concurrency type, which describes that the ResultSet object
does not allow you to make changes. It also uses the cursor movement methods, such as ResultSet.next()
and ResultSet.previous(). The ResultSet.next() method is used to move the ResultSet cursor to
the next record in the forward direction, whereas the ResultSet.previous() method is used to move the
ResultSet cursor to the previous record in the backward direction from the current cursor position. The output
of ScrollableRSEx1 is shown in Figure 24.18:

Figure 24.18: Showing the output of ScrollableRSEx1.java by using ResultSet

The ScrollableRSEx1 shows how to create a Statement object that can produce the
TYPE_SCROLL_INSENSITIVE type of ResultSet object. We can also use the PreparedStatement object to
create the ResultSet objects. Let us look at the use of various cursor movement methods as well as
PreparedStatement to retrieve the scrollable type of the ResultSet object:
import java.util.*;
import java.io.*;
import java.sql.*;
public class ScrollableRSEx2 {

public static void main(String s[]) throws Exception {

Driver d= (Driver)(Class.forName(
"oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver").newInstance());

Properties p=new Properties ();

p.put("user","scott");
p.put("password","tiger");

Connection con=d.connect ("jdbc:oracle:thin:@192.168.1.123:1521:XE ",p);

PreparedStatement ps= con.prepareStatement ("select * from emp",

ResultSet.TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE,
ResultSet.CONCUR_READ_ONLY);
ResultSet rs=ps.executeQuery();

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System.out.println ("Index\tEmpNo\tName");
int i=1;
while (rs.next()){
System.out.print ((i++)+"\t");
System.out.print (rs.getInt(1)+"\t");
System.out.println (rs.getString(2));
}//while
System.out.println ();

//Now the cursor will be at afterLast

//From this point to move the cursor to 3rd record

rs.absolute(3);

System.out.println ("3rd record EmpNo : "+rs.getInt(1));

/*
To move the cursor to first record we can use
rs.first(); or with reference to the current row we can use
*/
rs.relative(-2);

System.out.println ("1st record EmpNo: "+rs.getInt(1));

/*
To move the cursor to last record use rs.last () or with reference to the
current row we can use
*/
rs.afterLast (); //this moves the cursor to afterLast
rs.previous ();
//moves the cursor backward by one row (which in this case moves the
cursor last row

System.out.println ("last record EmpNo: "+ rs.getInt (1));

con.close ();
}//main
}//class
In the above code, we used the PreparedStatement object to retrieve the ResultSet. We have used the
Connection.prepareStatement(String, int, int) method that specifies the query as select * from
emp, ResultSet type as ResultSet.TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE and ResultSet concurrency as
ResultSet.CONCUR_READ_ONLY. This example also shows the use of the next (), previous (),
afterLast (), and absolute () methods to move the cursor throughout the ResultSet. The ResultSet
object works according to these methods and retrieves the output according to the specified query. The output of
ScrollableRSEx2 is shown in Figure 24.19:

Figure 24.19: Showing the output of the ScrollableRSEx2.java file

In ScrollableRSEx2, we used the PreparedStatement object to get the ResultSet object of scrollable type.
The cursor movement methods are also used to navigate throughout the ResultSet object. The next ()
method is used to retrieve the ResultSet data in the forward direction, whose output is shown in Figure 24.19,
displaying the records with index 1 to 3. The third record of the ResultSet object was retrieved by using the

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ResultSet.absolute(3) method. The integer argument passed to the method specifies the record position to
which the cursor is to be moved. The ResultSet.relative(int n) method is used to jump to n rows
forward or backward within the ResultSet, depending on the sign of n. The negative values allow the cursor
to move backward from the current position; however, the positive values move the cursor forward from the
current position. If the new position is located before the first row or after the last row of data, false is returned;
otherwise, true is returned. In the ScrollableRSEx2, we use ResultSet.relative(-2), where the current
cursor position is at third row; therefore, the cursor has moved to the first row. We can use the
ResultSet.last() method to move the cursor to the last row. However, we used the
ResultSet.afterLast() method to move the cursor to a position after the last record and then move the
cursor one position backward, that is, to the last record using the ResultSet.previous() method.
So far we have discussed examples about how to work with different types of ResultSet created by using
different Statement objects and cursor movement methods. Lets now take an example that shows the
difference between using ResultSet types such as TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE and
TYPE_SCROLL_INSENSITIVE. We have learned earlier that the TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE type is scrollable
as well as sensitive to all the changes, whereas the TYPE_SCROLL_INSENSITIVE type is only scrollable. The
following code shows the difference in using both the scroll types:
import java.sql.*;
import java.util.*;
import java.io.*;
public class ScrollableRSEx3 {
public static void main(String s[]) throws Exception {
Driver d= (Driver) (
Class.forName("oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver").newInstance());

Properties p=new Properties ();

p.put("user","scott");
p.put("password","tiger");

Connection con1=d.connect("jdbc:oracle:thin:@localhost:1521:XE",p);
Connection con2=d.connect("jdbc:oracle:thin:@localhost:1521:XE",p);

Statement st1= con1.createStatement(

ResultSet.TYPE_SCROLL_INSENSITIVE,
ResultSet.CONCUR_READ_ONLY);
Statement st2= con2.createStatement();

String query="select * from emp where deptno=3";

ResultSet rs= st1.executeQuery(query);

System.out.println("EmpNo\tName");
System.out.println("----------------------------------");
while (rs.next()) {
System.out.print(rs.getInt(1)+"\t");
System.out.println(rs.getString(2));
}//while

st2.executeUpdate ("update emp set ename=\'kumar\'

where empno=1020");

System.out.println("\nData Modified: \nName of the employee

with empno - 1020 is modified from \'Nikhil\'
to \'kumar\'\n");

System.out.println("Now reading the data once again from

the same ResultSet\n");

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rs.beforeFirst();
while (rs.next()){
System.out.print(rs.getInt(1)+"\t");
System.out.println(rs.getString(2));
}//while
con1.close();
con2.close();
}//main
}//class
The preceding code uses the TYPE_SCROLL_INSENSITIVE type of ResultSet object, which indicates that the
changes made to the data in the database after obtaining ResultSet does not update the ResultSet object
(Figure 24.19). Figure 24.20 shows that modifying the name of the employee, having EmpNo 1020, from Nikhil to
kumar does not modify the records in ResultSet:

Figure 24.20: Showing the output of the ScrollableRSEx3.java file

Note that in Figure 24.20, even after the data is modified in the underlying data store, it is not reflected in
ResultSet because in the preceding example, we have configured the ResultSet type to
TYPE_SCROLL_INSENSITIVE.
Now, change the ResultSet type in the preceding example to TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE by replacing the
code snippet shown in boldface in ScrollableRSEx3 with the following code snippet:
Statement st1= con1.createStatement (
ResultSet.TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE,
ResultSet.CONCUR_READ_ONLY);
After applying the preceding code snippet, the ResultSet object is updated with any changes made to the
data store. The output of ScrollableRSEx3 now appears as shown in Figure 24.21:

Figure 24.21: Showing the output of ScrollableRSEx3.java using TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE

Figure 24.21 shows that the UPDATE statement changes the existing data in the data store and the changes are
reflected in ResultSet. The changes are reflected in the ResultSet object because the ResultSet type
TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE is used with the application.
Figure 24.20 and Figure 24.21 show that the only difference between the ResultSet of
TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE and TYPE_SCROLL_INSENSITIVE types is that while reading the values from a
ResultSet, if the selected data in the underlying data source is modified through some other session, the
TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE type ResultSet reflects the changes, whereas the TYPE_SCROLL_INSENSITIVE
type does not. Note that if we want the changes to be reflected at any instant with the
TYPE_SCROLL_INSENSITIVE type of ResultSet, we need to explicitly invoke the refreshRow() method of
ResultSet before reading the data in the current row.

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You can use the TYPE_SCROLL_INSENSITIVE type in the following situations:

If the data read in a transaction environment is locked until the transaction is ended
If the data being read is not shared
If we are reading the data that is not required with the latest modifications in an application
If we want to process the data that is available at the time of executing the query
You can use the TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE type in the following situation.
If you need the most recent updated data to execute an application, such as a stock ticker (a stock
ticker displays the stock market index of different companies listed in a stock exchange)

You should remember that selecting an improper ResultSet type may result into performance issues and in
some cases, the data may get corrupted.
Till now we have learned about the types of ResultSets based on the cursor movement and concurrency. The
following section explains the ability of ResultSets to manipulate the results.

Using the ResultSet Object to Update Data

As discussed earlier, the JDBC ResultSet object supports data manipulation, such as update, delete, and insert.
We need to get the ResultSet object with a concurrence type as ResultSet.CONCUR_UPDATABLE to perform
data manipulation. To get an updatable ResultSet object, you can create a JDBC Statement setting the
ResultSet.CONCUR_UPDATABLE as discussed earlier in the chapter while understanding scrollable
ResultSet. The following three steps are involved in using the ResultSet object to update the database:
i. Move the cursor to the row where you need to update the data. You can move the cursor by using the
ResultSet navigation method as applicable to the ResultSet object.
ii. Use the ResultSet.updateXXX() methods to change the data. There are two versions of update methods
declared in the ResultSet interface. Both these versions of updateXXX() methods take two arguments.
The first argument is int (specifies the column index - number) for one version and java.lang.String
(specifies the column name) for the other. The second argument for both the versions is their respective data
types that specify a new value, which replaces the old value at the specified column using number or name.
iii. Invoke the updateRow() method of the ResultSet object. After replacing the data in the row, we need to
invoke the ResultSet.updateRow() method to reflect the changes into the database.

You must note the following points while updating the data by using the ResultSet object:
The changes are not updated in the underlying data source until the ResultSet.updateRow() method is invoked.
In order to roll back the changes done to the row, the ResultSet.cancelRowUpdate() method can be invoked. In case the
ResultSet.updateRow() method has been invoked already or no updates were made to this row, then this method will
have no effect on the data.
The ResultSet.updateRow() method must be invoked without moving the cursor position from the current row.

While accessing data from ResultSet or iterating through it for multiple times, we may want to identify whether
the current row was updated using the ResultSet object. An application can use the
ResultSet.rowUpdated() method to find whether the current data is updated or not.
As we have understood how to use the ResultSet object to update the database, lets create an example that
can put this discussion into action. Lets understand how to update the data using the ResultSet object. To
understand this, lets display all the employee details and increase the salary of the employeesing who draw
more than Rs 2000 by 10%:
import java.sql.*;
import java.util.*;
public class IncrementSalary {

public static void main(String s[]) throws Exception {

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Driver d= (Driver) (Class.forName(

"oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver").newInstance());

Properties p=new Properties ();

p.put("user","scott");
p.put("password","tiger");

Connection con=d.connect("jdbc:oracle:thin:@localhost:1521:XE",p);

Statement st=con.createStatement(
ResultSet.TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE,
ResultSet.CONCUR_UPDATABLE);

ResultSet rs=st.executeQuery("select empno, ename, sal, deptno

from emp");

System.out.println("Empno\tName\tSalary\tDeptno");
System.out.println("------------------------------");

while (rs.next()) {
System.out.print(rs.getInt(1)+"\t");
System.out.print(rs.getString(2)+"\t");
System.out.print(rs.getDouble(3)+"\t");
System.out.print(rs.getInt(4)+"\t");

if (rs.getDouble(3)>10000) {
double amt=rs.getDouble(3)*1.1;
rs.updateDouble(3,amt);
rs.updateRow();
System.out.print("Salary Incremented");
}//if
System.out.println ();
}//while
con.close();
}//main
}//class
The preceding code shows how to update the emp table in the database by using the ResultSet object. The listing
uses the ResultSet.CONCUR_UPDATABLE concurrency to create a Statement object so that the queried data can
be updated by using the ResultSet object produced by the Statement object. Here, we have selected all the rows
of the emp table while iterating through the ResultSet; the application identifies whether the salary of the
employee is greater than 10000, if so, it uses the updateDouble() method. The updateRow() method is used
to commit the changes made to the database by using the ResultSet object. The output of Listing 24.8 is shown in
Figure 24.22:

Figure 24.22: Showing the output of the IncrementSalary.java file

In Figure 24.22, you can see that the changes made to the employees salary are indicated as Salary Incremented.
The user can view these changes by accessing the database.

Using the ResultSet Object to Delete a Row

You can also delete a row from a database by using the ResultSet object. The deletion of a row from the database
indicates that the requested row is completely removed from the database. The following steps must be followed
to delete a row by using the ResultSet object:
i. Move the cursor by using any of the cursor movement methods to the row that has to be deleted. Note that
the availability of the cursor movement methods depends on the type of ResultSet.
ii. Invoke the deleteRow() method on the ResultSet object after moving the cursor to the row that has to be
deleted.

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After the row is deleted in the underlying data source, the deletion may or may not be visible in the open
ResultSet object, depending on the driver implementation. An application can use the
ownDeletesAreVisible(int type) method of DatabaseMetaData to find whether the deletion is visible as
a change or not. The ownDeletesAreVisible() method returns true if the deleted row is removed or
replaced with an empty row in the ResultSet object of the given type. The ResultSet object returns false if it still
has the deleted row. In other words, the deletion of a row is not reflected as a change to the ResultSet object. An
application can use the rs.deleteRow() method to find whether the current row has been deleted or not. Note
that the rs.deleteRow()method of the ResultSet object returns true only if the current row was deleted;
otherwise, the method returns false.
Lets understand the code to delete a row by using the deleteRow() method of the ResultSet object:
import java.sql.*;
import java.util.*;
public class RemoveEmployee {

public static void main(String s[]) throws Exception {

Driver d= (Driver) ( Class.forName(

"oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver").newInstance());

Properties p=new Properties ();

p.put("user","scott");
p.put("password","tiger");

Connection con=d.connect("jdbc:oracle:thin:@localhost:1521:XE",p);

Statement st=con.createStatement(
ResultSet.TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE,
ResultSet.CONCUR_UPDATABLE);

ResultSet rs= st.executeQuery(

"select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp");
DatabaseMetaData dbmd=con.getMetaData();

if(dbmd.ownDeletesAreVisible (ResultSet.TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE))
System.out.println(
"Deletions are visible as a change for this
ResultSet object");
else
System.out.println(
"Deletions are not visible as a change for this ResultSet object");

System.out.println();
System.out.println("RowNo\tEmpno\tName\tSalary\tDeptno");
System.out.println("------------------------------");

while (rs.next()) {
System.out.print(rs.getRow()+"\t");
System.out.print(rs.getInt(1)+"\t");
System.out.print(rs.getString(2)+"\t");
System.out.print(rs.getDouble(3)+"\t");
System.out.print(rs.getInt(4)+"\t");

if (rs.getInt(1)==Integer.parseInt(s[0])) {
rs.deleteRow();
System.out.print("Employee Removed");
}//if
System.out.println();

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}//while
con.close();
}//main
}//class
The code given above removes a record from the database using the ResultSet object. It uses the
ResultSet.deleteRow() method to delete a specific row using the ResultSet object. Here, we have even used
the DatabaseMetaData object to find whether the deletions are visible to ResultSet or not. Figure 24.23 shows the
output of RemoveEmployee.java, which deletes a record from the database:

Figure 24.23: Deleting a row using a ResultSet

In Figure 24.23, we can observe a message, Employee Removed for the deleted row, invoking the
ResultSet.deleteRow() method of the ResultSet object. The
DatabaseMetaData.ownDeletesAreVisible() method specifies whether the row that is deleted using the
ResultSet object is visible or not. In this example, the DatabaseMetaData.ownDeletesAreVisible()
method has returned true, which means the deletions are visible for ResultSet. When we observe the number of
rows in Figure 24.23, it shows that the row number of both the empno 1015 and 1001 is 1. This is due to the
deletion of the row with empno 1015. After the row with empno 1001 is removed from ResultSet, the row
number of the next row is shifted by one number forward, as the row describing 1015 employee is removed from
ResultSet. Therefore, both the records shown in Figure 24.23 have the same row number.

Using a ResultSet Object to Insert a Row

Similar to updating and deleting a row, you can insert a row into the database by using a ResultSet object. The
following steps are performed to insert a new row by using the ResultSet object:
i. Move the cursor to the place where you want to insert a row. To do this, you need to invoke the
moveToInsertRow() method of the ResultSet object.
ii. Set the column value for the new row by using the updateXXX() method.
iii. Invoke the insertRow() method of the ResultSet object, which inserts a record into the database, after
setting all the values.
After inserting a row, you can use the moveToCurrentRow () method to navigate to the previous cursor
position.

A record is not inserted into the underlying data source until the ResultSet.insertRow() method is invoked.
The ResultSet.insertRow() method must be invoked without moving the cursor position from the current row.

As we have learned how to insert a row using a ResultSet object, lets create an example that can demonstrate
this. The code given below shows how to insert a new row into a database by using the ResultSet object:
import java.sql.*;
import java.util.*;

public class AddEmployee {

public static void main(String s[]) throws Exception {

Driver d= (Driver)(Class.forName(
"oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver").newInstance());

Properties p=new Properties ();

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p.put("user","scott");
p.put("password","tiger");

Connection con=d.connect("jdbc:oracle:thin:@localhost:1521:XE",p);

Statement st=con.createStatement(
ResultSet.TYPE_SCROLL_SENSITIVE,
ResultSet.CONCUR_UPDATABLE);

ResultSet rs=st.executeQuery("select empno, ename, sal,

deptno from emp");

rs.moveToInsertRow();
rs.updateInt(1,1002);
rs.updateString(2,"Hari");
rs.updateDouble(3,13000);
rs.updateInt(1,3);
rs.insertRow();
System.out.print("Employee Inserted");
con.close();
}//main
}//class
On execution of the preceding code, an employee record is inserted into the database by using the ResultSet
object. The moveToInsertRow() method is used to specify the cursor position to insert a new empty row. The
updateXXX() methods are used to insert the column values for the record to be inserted and then the
insertRow() method is called by using the ResultSet object to insert the row into the database. Figure 24.24
shows the output of AddEmployee.java:

Figure 24.24: Message Displayed after Inserting a Row

You can also note that the new record is inserted in the database table. The user can retrieve the database
explicitly to view the changes made by the ResultSet object.
Lets now learn how to close the connection made to a database.

Closing the Statement

The JDBC Statement object supports the close() method to close the statement. The Statement.close()
method is required to clean the resources of the session allocated for the statement. As described, the closing
connection would close the statements built on the Connection object; however, due to the following reasons,
you need to explicitly close the Statement:
You can create only a limited number of Statement on a Connection object; therefore, to create a new
Statement, you need to close the unused statements explicitly without closing the underlying connection.
You know that the statements are closed as soon as their underlying connection is closed. However, this is
not properly implemented by all the drivers. Therefore, for maximum portability, we want to explicitly
close the statement.

Closing the Connection

You know that the Connection object represents a session established with the server. When a connection is
established, some native and network data store resources are allocated for the connection. A user needs to close
the connection after completing the required operations to release the allocated resources. JDBC API supports
the Connection.close() method to close the session represented by the connection. The close() method of
the Connection object allows us to explicitly release the resources blocked by the connection so that they can be
assigned to some other clients, thereby increasing the availability of resources.

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The database automatically cleans unused sessions; however, it may take a long time to clear the session.
Therefore, using the Connection.close() method at proper location in our application is necessary to close
the unused session; otherwise, the session represented by the connection would be remained open (active) for a
long time without any use.
The database sessions that are identified as unused are automatically closed by the database. The database uses
the session timeout to identify the unused sessions. An unused session is the one which is not getting a request
for a long time (>session timeout period). Moreover, databases have their own strategies to decide when to find
for the unused sessions, such as at regular intervals, or when the numbers of active sessions limit reaches the
configured load factor. Therefore, it can be understood that leaving the responsibility of closing the database
session to DBMS would block the resources for a long time, which affects the availability of resources and
increases the cost of using the system.

Opening and closing the database session is a costlier job. Therefore, we need to look for a good design of our application that
can utilize the opened connection to the maximum.

The Connection.close() method closes the database session associated with a connection that even results
to close the Statement and ResultSet (CURSORs) built on this connection. However, with few drivers, the
Statement and ResultSet would remain open even after closing the connection. In such a situation, although
ResultSet would not be used to read the data, we need to explicitly close the statement and ResultSet. The
following section describes closing Statement and ResultSet.

Using a Loop to Set Values in PreparedStatement Object

By using a loop, you can make it easier for you to do coding. You can often make coding easier by using a for
loop or a while loop to set values for input parameters.
In this regard, the code fragment that follows demonstrates using a for loop to set values for parameters in the
PreparedStatement object updateSales. This code fragment demonstrates updating the SALES column for
all the coffees in the table COFFEES:
PreparedStatement updateSales;
String updateStr = "update COFFEES " +
"set SALES = ? where COF_NAME like ?";
updateSales = con.prepareStatement(updateStr);
int [] salesForWeek = {175, 150, 60, 155, 90};
String [] coffees = {"Colombian", "French_Roast", "Espresso",
"Colombian_Decaf", "French_Roast_Decaf"};
int len = coffees.length;
for(int i = 0; i < len; i++) {
updateSales.setInt(1, salesForWeek[i]);
updateSales.setString(2, coffees[i]);
updateSales.executeUpdate();
}
In the preceding code segment, the weekly sales amount is contained in the array salesForWeek. These sales
amounts correspond to the coffee names specified in the array coffees. The proprietor can easily update the sales
amounts for the next week and can use the same code for updating the amounts of coffees. There is no need to
change the coffees names.

Returning Values for the executeUpdate() Method

An integer value is returned by the executeUpdate() method which specifies the number of updated rows of
a table, whereas the executeQuery() method returns a ResultSet object which contains the results of the
query sent to the DBMS. For example, consider the following code snippet that displays the value returned by
the executeUpdate() method and then assigned to the n variable :
updateSales.setInt(1, 25);
updateSales.setString(2, "Espresso");
int n = updateSales.executeUpdate();

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The table COFFEES gets updated by having the value 25 replaced by the value present in the column SALES in
the row for Espresso. This update will affect one row in the table; therefore, the value of n will be equal to 1.
Again, at the time the method executeUpdate()is used to execute a DDL statement, such as in creating a table,
it returns the int 0. Consider the following code fragment:
int n = executeUpdate(createTableCoffees); // n = 0
The preceding code fragment executes the DDL statement which is used for creating the COFFEES table and n is
assigned a value of 0.
When the executeUpdate()method returns the 0 value , it can mean one of the following:
An update statement that affected zero rows was executed or
A DDL statement was executed.
After going through the program in snippets form, the complete functional program for better understanding is
as follows:
import java.sql.*;
public class DemoJDBC {
public static void main (String [] args) throws Exception {
int count = 0;
double payroll = 0.0;
ResultSet rslset1=null;
String names;
double salaries;
Driver d= (Driver)(Class.forName(
"oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver").newInstance());
Properties p=new Properties ();
p.put("user","scott");
p.put("password","tiger");
Connection con=d.connect(" jdbc:oracle:thin:@localhost:1521:XE",p);
System.out.println ("*** Connected to the database ***");
Statement smnt = conn.createStatement ();
rslset1 = smnt.executeQuery ("select e.Name, e.Salary" + " " +
"from Employee e" + " " +
"where e.Dept = 'Toys' ");
System.out.println ( );
System.out.println ("Name Salary");
System.out.println ("---- ------");
while(rslset1.next()) {
names = rslset1.getString (1);
salaries = rslset1.getInt (2);
System.out.println (names + " " + salaries);
count = count + 1;
payroll = payroll + salaries; }
System.out.println ( );
System.out.println ( );
System.out.println ("Number of employees in Toys
Department " + count);
System.out.println ("Total payroll for Toys
Department " + payroll);
smnt.close ();
PreparedStatement stmt2 = conn.prepareStatement
("update Employee" + " " + "set Dept=?, Salary=?" + " " +
"where Name = ? " );
stmt2.setString(1,"Debit");
stmt2.setDouble(2,65000.0);
stmt2.setString(3,"Hari");
stmt2.executeUpdate();
stmt2.setString(1,"Credit");
stmt2.setDouble(2,75000.0);
stmt2.setString(3,"Leu");
stmt2.executeUpdate();

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stmt2.close ();
conn.commit();
conn.close ();
}
}

Using the Interactive SQL Tool

The Novice Programmer appears and says, There is a need of entering and, at the same time, executing SQL
statements. How will people go about it? Is there any answer to the users in this regard? Oh well, dont worry
Sir, you say. The Interactive SQL Tool is the answer and will extend support in this regard.
The interactive SQL tool is a means of entering and executing SQL statements. It will be a simple front end to the
JDBC API. It will provide a means of entering and executing SQL statements, and at the same time, display areas
for viewing results. This tool is basic in terms of functionality, but is useful for experimenting with SQL
statements. When you get more familiar with JDBC, extensions can be added to this utility. Youll set the
requirement for the Interactive SQL tool class to be fairly simple as follows:
The first requirement is to enable the user to enter and execute an SQL command.
The second requirement is to display the ResultSet object from an SQL query.
In addition, the third requirement is to display the error information where ever appropriate.
Youll implement this as an application with a window based on the Swing class Jframe. A Swing component
will also be used by you. It is particularly useful for database application.

Summary
In this chapter, you have learned the basics of JDBC, its architecture, packages, and events. You have gained
knowledge on driver interface, the DriverManager class. You have also learned to create a basic JDBC
program. We have explained the use of PreparedStatement object, interactive SQL tool, and tables.
In the next chapter, you will learn about images and animation.

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Images and Animation
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Using the Image Class 930
Using the MediaTracker Class 937
Using the ImageIcon Class in an Applet 938
Using ImageObserver Interface 942
Creating a Game Using the java.awt.geom Package 943

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Chapter 25: Images and Animation

In Depth
In this chapter, we are going to cover some important topics related to images and animations in detail, along
with an understanding of the java.awt.geom package. It will also give you knowledge about using
ImageIcon in an Applet. Different stages of animations Will be an added attraction of this chapter.

Images
As its name suggests, the ImageIcon class helps to get as well as draw images in Java applets. There are
provisions in Java for handling images as Java provides extensive support for imaging. In Java, basic image
handling is easy because the Image class in the java.awt package provides abstract methods to represent
common image behavior. The special methods defined in Applet and Graphics classes give you everything
you need to load and display images in your applet as easily as drawing a rectangle.
An image can be referred to as a rectangular graphical object. Images play an important part in Web design. In
fact, the breakthrough is the inclusion of the <img> tag in the mosaic browser at the National Center for
Supercomputing Applications (NCSA). This is what caused to the Web explosive growth in the year 1993. This
tag was used to include an image inline with HTML. Java provides extensive support for imaging because it
expands upon this basic concept of allowing images to be managed under program control.

Different Formats of Images

There are different formats of images. The Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) image format was created by
CompuServe in the year 1987. Web images could only be in GIF format and could have only up to 256 colors
each. This limitation caused the major browser vendors to add support for Joint Photographic Experts Group
(JPEG) images. A group of photographic experts created the JPEG format that was used to store full-color-
spectrum (includes all wavelengths) and continuous tone images (images that have unlimited range of colors);
for example, television. When these images are properly created, they can be compressed more than a GIF of the
same source image.
In almost all cases, youll never care or notice which format is being used in your programs. However, the Java
images classes abstract the difference behind a clean interface.

The ImageIcon Class

A reference to an icon is generally stored in a variable of type javax.swing.Icon. Icon is an interface that
declares methods that returns the height and width of an icon in pixels. The Icon interface also declares
methods to paint the icon on a component by the component() method. The class that implements the Icon
interface is the javax.swing.ImageIcon, and this is the class that you use to create an icon object in your
program from a file that contains the data defining the icon image.
Several constructors in the ImageIcon class accept the icon files in different formats. If it accepts the icon file in
Portable Network Graphics format (PNG format), then it will have the .png extension, in the case of GIF format
(Graphics Interchange Format),gif files and; in the case of JPEG format (Joint Photographic Experts Group
format), jpg files.

The java.awt.geom Package

The java.awt.geom package plays a very important role in designing images and setting animation effects. It
offers Java 2D classes, which in turn define and perform operations on 2D objects. The AffineTransform
class and the PathIterator interface are some of the important classes and interfaces in this package, which is
implemented by all Shape objects.

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The classes that implement the Shape interface are CubicCurve2D, Ellipse2D, Line2D, Rectangle2D, and
QuadCurve2D. The mechanisms for operations such as add (union), subtract, intersect, and exclusiveOR that
are performed on other Shape objects are carried out with the help of the Area class.
Thats it for the overview of this chapter. Theres a lot coming up. So its time to turn to the Immediate
Solutions section.

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Immediate Solutions
Using the Image Class
The Novice Programmer appears and says, What about the different types of operations for images? What is the
source for loading images? You say, Image class provides all the answers.
While working with images, we come across three common operations, namely, creating an image, loading an
image, and displaying an image. The images are taken from the external sources according to the requirements.
Thus, Java provides not only ways for you to create a new object and load one but also a means by which an
image can be displayed. For example, with Java 1.4, you were able to load and draw image files encoded as
JPEG, GIF, and PNG. From Java 5.0 onward, you could also load bitmap formatsBMP and WBMP.

Creating an Image
There are two methods of creating an image. They are discussed as follows:
Image createImage (ImageProducer iePr)This method returns an image produced by iePr. An
ImageProducer object is present in each image. Its main function is to reconstruct the image whenever
needed. For example, reconstructing an image during the modification of its size.
Image createImage(int wid, int hgt)You can also create an image just to draw on it by using
the createImage() method from the Component class as in the following code:
Image image = createImage(width, height);
Graphics g = image.getGraphics();
paint(g);

Loading an Image
There are two methods to load an image, which are explained as follows:
Image getImage(URL url)Refers to the method used for returning an Image object that can then be
painted on the screen. When an applet draws the image, the data will be loaded on the screen. Then the
graphics primitives, which are used for drawing the image, will paint on the screen in an incremental order.
Image getImage(URL url, String imgNme)Refers to the version which returns an Image object
that encapsulates the image found at the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) and the name specified by
imgNme.

Image is an abstract class, so you are actually loading an instance of a concrete subclass of Image with the getImage()
methods above. However, you always treat the object as an instance of Image, i.e., you can only have access to its methods.

To load an image in an application, use:

Image im = Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().getImage(URL or file path);

Displaying an Image
An image can be displayed using drawImage(). This can be done using two forms:
drawImage(Image img, int x, int y, ImageObserver observer)It returns Fill with a given
image at a given location (upper left corner specified by x and y). Here, observer refers to the class that
implements the ImageObserver interface, which in turn receives the image information notifications as
the image is constructed. In other words, it monitors the image while the image is being loaded.
drawImage(BufferedImage image, BufferedImageOp op, int x, int y)It filters an image. The
filter is implemented by the BufferedImageOp parameter. The fields and methods of the abstract Image
class are given in Table 25.1 and Table 25.2 respectively.

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Table 25.1: Fields of the Image class

Field Does this
protected float Priority for accelerating this image
accelerationPriority
static int It uses the Area Averaging image-scaling algorithm
SCALE_AREA_AVERAGING
static int SCALE_DEFAULT It uses the default image-scaling algorithm
static int SCALE_FAST It chooses an image-scaling algorithm that gives higher priority
to scaling speed than smoothness of the scaled image
static int It uses the image-scaling algorithm embodied in the
SCALE_REPLICATE ReplicateScaleFilter class
static int SCALE_SMOOTH It chooses an image-scaling algorithm that gives higher
priority to image smoothness than scaling speed
static Object The UndefinedProperty object should be returned
UndefinedProperty whenever a property that was not defined for a particular
image is fetched

Table 25.2: Methods of the Image class

Method Does this
void flush() It flushes all reconstructable resources being used by this
Image object
float getAccelerationPriority() It returns the current value of the acceleration priority hint
ImageCapabilities getCapabilities It returns an ImageCapabilities object, which can be
(GraphicsConfiguration gc) inquired as to the capabilities of this Image on the specified
GraphicsConfiguration
abstract Graphics getGraphics() It creates a graphics context for drawing to an off-screen
image
abstract int It determines the height of the image
getHeight(ImageObserver observer)
abstract Object It gets a property of this image by name
getProperty(String name,
ImageObserver observer)
Image getScaledInstance It creates a scaled version of this image
(int width, int height, int hints)
abstract ImageProducer getSource() It gets the object that produces the pixels for the image
abstract int getWidth It determines the width of the image
(ImageObserver observer)
void setAccelerationPriority It sets a hint for this image about how important
(float priority) acceleration is

Drawing an Image Object

Hey, says the Novice Programmer, I was just taking a look at the Image object. Do I have to paint images
myself? Of course not, you say. You can use the java.awt.image package to make things a lot easier.
Tell me all about it, the NP insists.
Images are processed using the streaming framework. This streaming framework involves an image producer,
optional image filters, and an image consumer. This framework makes it possible to create an image
progressively while it is being taken and generated.
With the help of a framework, applications can discard the storage utilized by an image and regenerate it at any
time. The java.awt.image package provides a variety of image producers, consumers, and filters that are

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configurable to cater the needs of image processing. The interface and classes included in java.awt.image
package are enlisted in Table 25.3 and Table 25.4.
Table 25.3: The Interfaces of the java.awt.image package
Interface Does this
BufferedImageOp This interface describes single-input/single-output operations
performed on BufferedImage objects
ImageConsumer The interface for objects expressing interest in image data through the
ImageProducer interfaces
ImageObserver An asynchronous update interface for receiving notifications about
Image information as the Image is constructed
ImageProducer The interface for objects, which can produce the image data for
Images
RasterOp This interface describes single-input/single-output operations
performed on Raster objects
RenderedImage RenderedImage is a common interface for objects, which contain or
can produce image data in the form of Raster
TileObserver An interface for objects that wish to be informed when tiles of a
WritableRenderedImage become modifiable by some writer via a
call to getWritableTile() method, and when they become
unmodifiable via the last call to releaseWritableTile() method
WritableRenderedImage WriteableRenderedImage is a common interface for objects
which contain or can produce image data in the form of Rasters
and can be modified and/or written over

Table 25.4: The classes of the java.awt.image package

Class Does this
AffineTransformOp This class uses an affine transform to perform a linear mapping from
2D coordinates in the source image or Raster to 2D coordinates in
the destination image or Raster
AreaAveragingScaleFilter An ImageFilter class for scaling images by using a simple area-
averaging algorithm that produces smoother results than the nearest
neighbor algorithm
BandCombineOp This class performs an arbitrary linear combination of the bands in a
Raster, using a specified matrix
BandedSampleModel This class represents image data which is stored in a band-
interleaved fashion and for which each sample of a pixel occupies
one data element of the DataBuffer
BufferedImage The BufferedImage subclass describes an image with an accessible
buffer of image data
BufferedImageFilter The BufferedImageFilter class subclasses an ImageFilter to
provide a simple means of using a single-source/single-destination
image operator (BufferedImageOp) to filter a BufferedImage in
the Image Producer/Consumer/Observer paradigm
BufferStrategy The BufferStrategy class represents the mechanism with which
to organize complex memory on a particular Canvas or Window
ByteLookupTable This class defines a lookup table object
ColorConvertOp This class performs a pixel-by-pixel color conversion of the data in
the source image

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Table 25.4: The classes of the java.awt.image package

Class Does this
ColorModel The ColorModel abstract class encapsulates the methods for
translating a pixel value to color components (for example, red,
green, and blue) and an alpha component
ComponentColorModel A ColorModel class that works with pixel values that represent
color and alpha information as separate samples and that store each
sample in a separate data element
ComponentSampleModel This class represents image data, which is stored such that each
sample of a pixel occupies one data element of the DataBuffer
ConvolveOp This class implements a convolution from the source to the
destination
CropImageFilter An ImageFilter class for cropping images
DataBuffer This class exists to wrap one or more data arrays
DataBufferByte This class extends DataBuffer and stores data internally as bytes
DataBufferDouble This class extends DataBuffer and stores data internally in double
form
DataBufferFloat This class extends DataBuffer and stores data internally in float
form
DataBufferInt This class extends DataBuffer and stores data internally as integers
DataBufferShort This class extends DataBuffer and stores data internally as shorts
DataBufferUShort This class extends DataBuffer and stores data internally as shorts
DirectColorModel The DirectColorModel class is a ColorModel class that works
with pixel values that represent RGB color and alpha information as
separate samples and that pack all samples for a single pixel into a
single int, short, or byte quantity
FilteredImageSource This class is an implementation of the ImageProducer interface,
which takes an existing image and a filter object and uses them to
produce image data for a new filtered version of the original image
ImageFilter This class implements a filter for the set of interface methods that are
used to deliver data from an ImageProducer to an
ImageConsumer
IndexColorModel The IndexColorModel class is a ColorModel class that works
with pixel values consisting of a single sample that is an index into a
fixed color map in the default RGB color space
Kernel The Kernel class defines a matrix that describes how a specified
pixel and its surrounding pixels affect the value computed for the
pixels position in the output image of a filtering operation
LookupOp This class implements a lookup operation from the source to the
destination
LookupTable This abstract class defines a lookup table object
MemoryImageSource This class is an implementation of the ImageProducer interface,
which uses an array to produce pixel values for an Image

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Table 25.4: The classes of the java.awt.image package

Class Does this
MultiPixelPackedSampleModel The MultiPixelPackedSampleModel class represents one-banded
images and can pack multiple one-sample pixels into one data
element
PackedColorModel The PackedColorModel class is an abstract ColorModel class that
works with pixel values which represent color and alpha information
as separate samples and which pack all samples for a single pixel into
a single int, short, or byte quantity
PixelGrabber The PixelGrabber class implements an ImageConsumer that can
be attached to an Image or ImageProducer object to retrieve a
subset of the pixels in that image
PixelInterleavedSampleModel This class represents image data which is stored in a pixel-
interleaved fashion and for which each sample of a pixel occupies
one data element of the DataBuffer
Raster A class representing a rectangular array of pixels
ReplicateScaleFilter An ImageFilter class for scaling images by using the simplest
algorithm
RescaleOp This class performs a pixel-by-pixel rescaling of the data in the source
image by multiplying the sample values for each pixel by a scale
factor and then adding an offset
RGBImageFilter This class provides an easy way to create an ImageFilter, which
modifies the pixels of an image in the default RGB ColorModel
SampleModel This abstract class defines an interface for extracting samples of
pixels in an image
ShortLookupTable This class defines a lookup table object
SinglePixelPackedSampleModel This class represents pixel data packed such that the N samples,
which make up a single pixel, are stored in a single data array
element, and each data array element holds samples for only one
pixel
VolatileImage VolatileImage is an image, which can lose its contents at any time
due to circumstances beyond the control of the application (e.g.
situations caused by the operating system or by other applications)
WritableRaster This class extends Raster to provide pixel-writing capabilities

To draw an image, use the drawImage() method in the Graphics context:

g.drawImage(img, x, y, this);
Here, img is a reference to an instance of Image, x and y are the coordinates of the position of the top left corner
of the image. The third argument is an ImageObserver reference, which is used internally as a callback to
inform a program about the status of image loading. The Component class implements the ImageObserver
interface so that you can just put a this reference for the argument as default.
The java.awt.Image class is an abstract class. However, methods, such as getImage(URL) in the Applet
class, return an object of a concrete subclass which is provided by the JVM implementation. The
BufferedImage subclass of Image provides many features to the users accessing it. The Image class provides
only minimal access to information about the image. It contains the following methods that return the
dimensions of an image:
int getWidth(ImageObserver)
int getHeight(ImageObserver)

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You can draw on an image just as you would draw on a component by obtaining the graphics context object via
the Image class method:
Graphics getGraphics()
You then invoke the usual drawing methods in the Graphics object to draw on the image.

Loading an Image Object Using the ImageObserver Interface

Is loading an image object as easy as drawing an image object? asks NP. You say, Thats a tricky part.
The tricky part about images in Java is that they may not load instantly. The getImage() method returns the
result faster after it is being called so that the program does not hang due to heavy traffic on the Internet line
during the slow downloading of the image. In fact, the image loading does not begin until the program attempts
to access. For example, drawing of an image.
The problem usually does not arise when loading one or two small- or medium-sized images. It is when several
large images are loaded that the problem arises (as in the case of an animation over a slow link).
There are several techniques to monitor image loading and signal when it is fully ready. The fact is that an image
is not actually loaded when getImage() is invoked. It actually gets loaded when the image is accessed by
invoking methods such as drawImage() or getWidth(). The process of loading is not instantaneous. In fact, it
takes a longer time for a slow Internet line. The loading is controlled by an internal thread so that other processes
can also continue simultaneously.
The Novice Programmer is satisfied but not fully happy. He says, Okay, Java helped me to get and draw
images. But, what about its updates? I just cannot put an image forever without updating. With a smile, you
say, Dont worry, Sir.
When more pixels arrive, you can update the image later. You can create ImageObservers too. It overrides the
method imageUpdate() and examines the loading manually. If no other steps are taken, then the
drawImage() method returns immediately, while the image continues to get updated as more number of
pixels arrive. The last argument to be passed to drawImage() is a reference to an object that implements the
ImageObserver interface:
drawImage (Image img, int x, int y, ImageObserver iob)
The thread periodically calls imageUpdate() in the ImageObserver object to provide status reports on the
loading of the image:
public boolean imageUpdate (Image img, int info_flags, int x, int y, int w, int h)
This method gets the information through the argument info_flags and from the dimension values. When
multiple images are loaded, the reference value of the first argument signifies which image is getting updated.
When the image loading is not finished yet, the imageUpdate() returns true.
We can create an ImageObserver class for examining the image loading process, but we usually put the this
keyword in the last argument, as in g.drawImage (img, x, y, this), and rely on the default imageUpdate()
of the Applet class. The Applet class inherits the methods from the Component class and the Component
class implements this interface and provides a default imageUpdate() method.
We can also override imageUpdate() and monitor the loading ourselves. The following program ImageApp
shows one way to implement imageUpdate()method. The applets start() method initiates a thread (sub-
program) that will timely check a flagdoneloadingthat means whether the image has completed loading.
After the start() method is called, the run() method is invoked next, in which getWidth(ImageObserver)
initiates the loading process. The AWT provides an image loading machinery that periodically calls back to the
ImageObserver object that is passed as a parameter in getWidth(). It requests for the imageUpdate()
method and passes the image information.

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When info != ALLBITS, the method returns true. When info == ALLBITS, the flag doneloading is set to
true, which signifies that the loop in the run() method will terminate and the thread will die. The
imageUpdate() will then return false and will no longer be invoked. The code is as follows:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=ImageApp.class
WIDTH=500
HEIGHT=270 >
</APPLET> */
public class ImageApp extends JApplet implements Runnable {
DrawPanel drawPanel;
Image image;
int imagenum = 0;
String message ="Loading...";
boolean doneloading = false;
public void init () {
Container conpane = getContentPane ();
drawPanel = new DrawPanel (this);
conpane.add (drawPanel);
image = getImage (getCodeBase (), "logo.jpg" ); }
public void start () {
Thread thrd = new Thread (this);
thrd.start (); }
public void run () {
int width = image.getWidth (this);
if (width >= 0) {
doneloading = true;
repaint ();
return; }
while (!doneloading) {
try { Thread.sleep (500); }
catch (InterruptedException ie) { }
repaint (); }
}
public boolean imageUpdate (Image img, int info, int x,
int y, int w, int h) {
if (info != ALLBITS) { return true; }
else {
doneloading = true;
return false; }
}
}
class DrawPanel extends JPanel {
ImageApp imgparent = null;
DrawPanel (ImageApp parent) { imgparent = parent; }
public void paintComponent (Graphics g) {
super.paintComponent (g);
if (imgparent.doneloading) {
g.drawImage (imgparent.image,10,10,this);
}
else { g.drawString (imgparent.message, 10,10); }
}
}

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The result of having an ImageObserver interface for monitoring the image loading is shown in Figure 25.1:

Figure 25.1: Showing the use of the ImageObserver class

Using the MediaTracker Class

If Java can provide some tools to support image making, will it not be very helpful to all of us? asks the
Novice Programmer. You say, They already provide it. There are tools in Java which can control and monitor
loading of images.
The MediaTracker is useful for loading many images. MediaTracker class is used to monitor image loading
in a more powerful and elegant way. It provides a method int status (int ID, boolean load), which
returns a status indicator in an integer value that is an OR of four flags. These four flags are as follows:
ABORTED
COMPLETE
ERRORED
LOADING
The statusAll() method returns a similar value, except that it is an OR of the status of all the images currently
loaded.
Lets look at this code where an instance of the MediaTracker is created and an image is added to it. A thread
is initiated to load the image. The run()method waits for the tracker to signal that the image is loaded and then
the paint()method draws an image from drawing of a string message. The code is as follows:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=MediaApp.class
WIDTH=500
HEIGHT=270 >
</APPLET> */
public class MediaApp extends JApplet implements Runnable {
DrawPanel drawPanel;
MediaTracker Tracker;
Image image;
int imagenum = 0;
boolean show = false;
String message ="Loading...";
public void init () {
Container conpane = getContentPane ();
drawPanel = new DrawPanel (this);
conpane.add (drawPanel);
image = getImage (getCodeBase (), "logo.jpg" );

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Tracker = new MediaTracker (this);

Tracker.addImage (image, imagenum); }
public void start () {
if (!Tracker.checkID (imagenum) ) {
Thread thrd = new Thread (this);
thrd.start (); }
else { show = true; }
}
public void run () {
repaint ();
try { Tracker.waitForID (imagenum ); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
if (Tracker.isErrorID (imagenum )){ message= "Error"; }
else { show = true; }
repaint (); }
}
class DrawPanel extends JPanel {
MediaApp parent = null;
DrawPanel (MediaApp parent) { this.parent = parent; }
public void paintComponent (Graphics g) {
super.paintComponent (g);
if (parent.show) { g.drawImage (parent.image,10,10,this); }
else { g.drawString (parent.message, 10,10); }
}
}
The result for the code shows how MediaTracker monitors image loading (Figure 25.2):

Figure 25.2: Showing the use of the MediaTracker class

Using the ImageIcon Class in an Applet

Hey! says the Big Boss, I was just taking a look at the Icon interface. Do I have to paint image icons myself
in Swing? Of course not, sir, you say. You can use the ImageIcon class to make things a lot easier. Tell
me all about it, the Big Boss says.
The ImageIcon class came with J2SE 1.2 in the javax.swing package and its purpose was to obtain small icon
images on buttons and its importance is that it provides a shortcut technique for loading an image that saves
time of the user. ImageIcon uses a MediaTracker internally, so it provides a convenient way to load a single
image as illustrated by this snippet:
...
ImageIcon img = new ImageIcon (url);
Image image = img.getImage ();
...

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 Immediate Solutions

Basic image handling in Java is easy. The Image class in the java.awt package provides abstract methods to
indicate the common behavior among the images. Special methods defined in Applet and Graphics provide
us everything we need to load and display images in our applet as easily as drawing a triangle. In this section,
well understand how to get and draw images in our Java applets.

Getting Images
Firstly, we need to load an image in our Java program before it gets displayed. The images are stored as separate
files from our Java class files; therefore, we have to indicate Java where to find those files.
The getImage() method loads an image and automatically creates an instance of the Image class for us. To
use it, all we need to do is to import the java.awt.Image class into our Java program and then give URL of
the image to the getImage() method. This can be done in two ways:
The first one is the getImage() method with a single argument; getImage(an object of type URL)
retrieves the image at that URL.
The second one is the getImage() method with two arguments. The first argument is the base URL (also
a URL object), while the second is a String representing the path or the filename of the actual image
(relative to the base).
The first way may appear to be easier (just plug in the URL as a URL object), and the second way is more flexible.
However, as a matter of fact, if hard-coded URL of an image is included during the compilation of Java files and
then moved to a different location, then all the Java files must be recompiled. The latter form, therefore, is more
preferred to use.
The Applet class also provides two methods that will help with the base URL argument to getImage():
The first method is the getDocumentBase() method: Refers to the method that returns a URL object
representing the directory of the HTML file containing the applet. Therefore, if the address of the HTML file
is http://www.myserver.com/htmlfiles/javahtml/, then the getDocumentBase() method
returns a URL pointing to that path.
The second method is the getCodeBase() method: Refers to the method that returns a String
representing the directory containing the applet (regardless of the fact that it may or may not be the same
directory as the HTML file) and depending on whether the CODEBASE attribute in <APPLET> is set or not.
The use of either getDocumentBase() or getCodeBase() depends on whether your images are relative to
your HTML files or Java class files. You can use either of them depending upon the prevailing situation or one
that suits the situation better.

Either of these methods is more flexible to use than write a URL or pathname into the getImage() method.

The getDocumentBase() or getCodeBase() methods are used to move HTML files and applets while a
Java can still find your images. This assumes that you move the class files and images around together. If you
move the images and class files at different places, then youll have to edit and recompile your source.
The following form of the getImage() method shows that the image.gif file and the HTML files are in the
same directory that refers to this applet:
Image img = getImage(getDocumentBase(), "image.gif");
The following form shows that the file image.gif and the applet itself are in the same directory:
Image img = getImage(getCodeBase(), "image.gif");
If you have lots of image files, its common to put them into their own subdirectory. This type of getImage()
method resembles the file image.gif in the directory images which share the same directory as that of the
Java applet:
Image img = getImage(getCodeBase(), "images/image.gif");
When the getImage() method is unable to search the indicated file, it returns null. In case the drawImage()
is present on a null image, it will not draw anything. A probable error will be caused if a null image is used
in any other way.

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Drawing Images
The getImage() method retrieves an image and stuffs it into an instance of the Image class. When we are
provided with the methods that can load images, we have to display them so as to give an eye-catching content
with images as we would do while drawing a rectangle or writing some text. In order to do this, the Graphics
class has two methods, both of which are known as drawImage().
The drawImage()method takes four argumentsthe image to be displayed, the x and y positions of the top
left corner, and this:
public void paint() { g.drawImage(img, 20, 20, this); }
This first form draws the image in its original dimensions with the top-left corner at the given x and y positions.
Lets take a look at this code for a very simple applet that loads an image, called lilies.jpg, and displays it:
import java.awt.Graphics;
import java.awt.Image;
/*<APPLET
CODE=BugApp.class
WIDTH=500
HEIGHT=270 >
</APPLET> */
public class BugApp extends java.applet.Applet {
Image image;
public void init() { image = getImage(getCodeBase(), "lilies.jpg"); }
public void paint(Graphics g) { g.drawImage(image, 10, 10,this); }
}
The result of the code appears in Figure 25.3. In this example, the instance variable image holds the lilies image,
which is loaded in the init() method. The paint() method then draws that image on the screen. This
example is BugApp.java, and you can see its output in Figure 25.3:

Figure 25.3: Drawing an image

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 Immediate Solutions

The second form of drawImage() requires six numbers of arguments, namely, the image to be drawn, the x and
y coordinates of the top-left corner, the width and height of the image bounding box, and this. In case the
width and height arguments for the bounding box differ in the size from the actual image, then the image will be
automatically scaled to fit. Hence, by using those extra arguments, you can compress and expand images
according to the space provided for it.

Keep in mind, however, that there may be some image degradation or loss from scaling it smaller or larger than its original size.

One useful hint for scaling images is to find the actual size of the image loaded so that you can scale it to a
specific percentage and avoid distortion in either direction. The methods that are defined for the Image class are
getWidth() and getHeight(). Both these take a single argument, an instance of ImageObserver, which is
used to track the loading of the image. Youll read more about it later in the chapter. Most of the time, you can
use this as a parameter to either getWidth() or getHeight().
If you store the logo image in a variable called bugimg, for example, this line returns the width of that image, in
pixels:
theWidth = bugimg.getWidth(this);

If the image isn't loaded fully, you may get different results. Calling getWidth() or getHeight(), before the full loading of the
image, will result in the value of -1 for each one. Tracking image loading with ImageObserver can help you keep track when this
information appears.

Lets look at another program that uses the Image class to display an image in a panel:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.io.*;
public class PictureFrame extends JFrame implements ActionListener {
Image img;
JButton getPictureButton;
public static void main(String [] args) { new PictureFrame(); }
public PictureFrame() {
this.setSize(300, 300);
this.setTitle("Image Frame");
this.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
JPanel picPanel = new PicturePanel();
this.add(picPanel, BorderLayout.CENTER);
JPanel buttonPanel = new JPanel();
getPictureButton = new JButton("Open Image File");
getPictureButton.addActionListener(this);
buttonPanel.add(getPictureButton);
this.add(buttonPanel, BorderLayout.SOUTH);
this.setVisible(true); }
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
String file = getImageFile();
if (file != null) {
Toolkit kit = Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit();
img = kit.getImage(file);
img = img.getScaledInstance(300, -1, Image.SCALE_SMOOTH);
this.repaint(); }
}
private String getImageFile() {
JFileChooser fc = new JFileChooser();
fc.setFileFilter(new ImageFilter());
int result = fc.showOpenDialog(null);
File file = null;

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if (result == JFileChooser.APPROVE_OPTION) {
file = fc.getSelectedFile();
return file.getPath(); }
else { return null; }
}
private class PicturePanel extends JPanel {
public void paint(Graphics g) { g.drawImage(img, 0, 0, this); }
}
private class ImageFilter
extends javax.swing.filechooser.FileFilter {
public boolean accept(File f) {
if (f.isDirectory()) { return true; }
String name = f.getName();
if (name.matches(".*((.jpg)|(.gif)|(.png))"))
return true;
else { return false; }
}
public String getDescription() {
return "Image files (*.jpg, *.gif, *.png)"; }
}
}
This example uses JFileChooser dialog box that lets the user select an image and then display it, (Figure 25.4).
In addition to it, the file chooser includes a filter so that only .jpg, .gif and .png files are listed. This
example is PictureFrame.java and you can view its output in Figure 25.4:

Figure 25.4: The panel showing the chosen image

Using ImageObserver Interface

The last argument to drawImage(), that is, this, is usually not given much importance. This argument
also serves as an argument to getWidth() and getHeight(). This argument is mainly used to pass in an
object functioning as an ImageObserver (an object that implements the ImageObserver interface).
ImageObserver plays a very important role. They are used to watch the progress of how far along an image is
in the loading process and to make decisions when the image is only fully or partially loaded. Therefore, your
applet could pause until all the images are loaded and ready, or display a loading message or do something
else while it is waiting.
The Applet class, which your applet inherits from, contains a default behavior for image observation (which it
inherits from the Component superclass). Hence, the this argument to drawImage(), getWidth(), and
getHeight()is used. The only reason youll want to use an alternate argument in its place is when you want

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more control, say in cases where an image may only be partially loaded, or if a lot of image loading has to be
tracked asynchronously. Lets have a look at an example:
import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;
/* <APPLET
CODE=App.class
WIDTH=500
HEIGHT=200 >
</APPLET> */
public class App extends JApplet {
public void init () {
Container conpane = getContentPane();
Image image = getImage (getCodeBase(), "lilies.jpg");
DrawPanel drawPanel = new DrawPanel (image);
conpane.add (drawPanel); }
}
class DrawPanel extends JPanel {
Image imag = null;
DrawPanel (Image image) { imag = image; }
public void paintComponent (Graphics g) {
super.paintComponent (g);
int imgX = getSize().width/2 - imag.getWidth(this);
int imgY = getSize().height/2 - imag.getHeight(this);
g.drawImage(imag, imgX, imgY, this); }
}
The result of the code can be seen in Figure 25.5. This example is App.java and you can see its output as
Figure 25.5:

Figure 25.5: Showing the output using the ImageObserver interface

Creating a Game Using the java.awt.geom Package

Aniapp is a small animated game, wherein a small kitten runs after the mouse pointer, sleeps, and scratches. For
this, youll implement a small animation based on the kitty graphics. In this gaming application, the kitten
appears on the left side of the screen, takes a halt in the middle, yawns, scratches its ear, sleeps a little, and then
walks away to the right of the screen. Now, to create the animation, well go step by step to understand each and
every part of the animation.

Collecting the Images

This is the first step to construct an animation. Prior to developing the code for constructing an animation, you
must have all the images that form the animation itself ready. For this version of Aniapp, there are nine of them,
as shown in Figure 25.6:

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Figure 25.6: Showing the series of figures for animation

Organizing and Loading the Images in the Applet

Once you have constructed an animation, the second step is to organize and load the images in the applet. In this
step, an applet plays a role. The basic idea is to show a group of images, one at a time, in a motion depicting that
the images are moving. In Java, you can buffer the images in an array of, Image class and keep a track of the
current image in use with the help of a special variable. During the time of iteration over the slots, the value for
the current image can be altered.
In case of the Aniapp applet, you must create instance variables. One instance variable is an array that holds the
images and another instance variable is of the Image type to store the current image that is shown, as done in
the following code:
Image kittenpics[] = new Image[9];
Image currimg;
As the Aniapp applet has a total of nine images, the kittenpics Image array has nine slots. Therefore, in case
of a larger or smaller set of images, there will be different number of slots.

The java.util package contains a class (Hashtable) that implements a hash table. For larger numbers of images, a hash table is
a faster way to find and retrieve images. Since there are a few images here and arrays are better for fixed-length and repeating
animation, we'll use an array here.

In the Aniapp applet, the kitten images are displayed in different positions on the screen, so you must keep
track of the current positions of the x and y coordinates. This will help the different methods in the applet to be
aware of the position from where to start drawing. In this applet, the position for the y coordinate always
remains constant as the kitten runs from the left side of the screen to the right side at the same y position.
However, the position for x coordinate may vary. The following code shows two instance variables to track x
and y positions on the screen:
int xposition;
int yposition = 50;
While initializing an applet, all the images will be first read and stored in an array. All this initialization process
takes place in a method called init().
You can use the getImage() method to make an individual call to the nine images having different file names.
If you create an array of strings, kittensrc, to store the file names and use the for loop to iterate the item one
by one and load them, it will help in saving time. The following code uses the init() method for the
kittensrc array that loads all the images into the kittensrc array:
public void init()
{
String kittensrc[] = { "rt1.gif", "rt2.gif",
"stp.gif", "yn.gif", "sc1.gif",
"sc2.gif","slp1.gif", "slp2.gif",
"awk.gif" };
for (int i=0; i < kittenpics.length; i++)
{
kittenpics[i] = getImage(getCodeBase(),
"images/" + kittensrc[i]);
}
}

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In the preceding code, a call to the getImage() method is made. All the images stored in the image directory
are added as a part of the path.

Animating the Images

After loading, the next step is animating the images. You do this inside the applets threads run() method. In
this applet, the kitten does five main things that are as follows:
The kitten runs in from the left side of the screen .
It stops in the middle and yawns.
The kitten scratches four times.
The kitten sleeps.
The kitten wakes up and runs off to the right side of the screen .
You can easily provide animation effects to this applet by simply painting the right image on the screen at the
right time. However, it is advisable to code for this applet in such a way that different activities of the kitten are
shown in individual methods. In this manner, you can reuse some of the activities of the kitten, especially the
kitten running activity in case you wish the kitten to perform things in a different order.
Lets first make the kitten run by creating a generic method as you will be reusing it twice. For this, the method
used is kittenrun(), which takes two argumentsthe x position to start and the x position to end. In this
case, the kitten runs from the starting x position to the ending x position, y remaining constant.
void kittenrun(int startposition,int endposition)
{ . . . }
To make the kitten run, two images are used, and to bring that running effect, you must alternate between these
two images stored at positions 0 and 1 of the image array and move them from one position to another across
the screen. To move the kitten, use the for loop between the start and end arguments and assign the x position
with the current loop value. Images can be swapped to check which image is active during the turn of the loop
and assign the other image with the current image. Finally, to pause the animation effect at each new frame, you
can call the repaint() and sleep()methods.
While animating the images, several times you will have to pause them at different intervals for a specific
amount of time. This can be done by a utility method. The pause() method takes a single argument as
parameter, that is, number of milliseconds. The code for it is as follows:
void pause(int time) {
try { Thread.sleep(time); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
}
Now, lets go back to the kittenrun() method. The kittenrun() method iterates from the start position to
the last position. For each iteration of the loop, it assigns a value to the current x position, assigns currentimg
to the right animation frame, calls the repaint() method, and then pauses. The following is the code for the
kittenrun() method:
void kittenrun(int startposition, int endposition) {
for (int i = startposition; i < endposition; i+=10) {
xpos = i;
if (currentimg == kittenpics[0]) { currentimg = kittenpics[1]; }
else { currentimg = kittenpics[0]; }
repaint();
pause(150); }
}
In the preceding code, observe the second line of the kittenrun() method. The loop is incremented by 10
pixels. Now, you might think why 10 pixels and not 7 or 4? The value to be incremented is decided on the basis
of the trial and error method to see what looks right. For this animation, 10 pixel value is the best value to
increment. While creating your custom animation, you must do trial and error with both the distance and the
sleep time until you come across the desired animation.

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Lets now look at the paint() method, which is used to paint each frame. In this application, the paint()
method is quite simple. This method paints the current image at the current x and y coordinate positions. The
instance variables are used to store all such information.
However, before drawing the images, we must first ensure that they exist. To ensure that we are not trying to
draw an image that does not exist, it is advisable to first verify whether the currentimg variable exists or not
prior to calling the drawImage() method to paint the image. The code for the paint() method is as follows:
public void paint(Graphics g) {
if (currentimg != null) { g.drawImage(currentimg, xposition, yposition, this); }
}
Now, lets look at the run() method, where the animations main processing would take place. In the run()
method, the kittenrun() method is called using the appropriate values to make the kitten run from the left
side of the screen to the center, as shown in the given code:
kittenrun(0, size().width / 2);
Apart from running across the screen, the kitten also stops and yawns. A single frame is used for each of these
things (in positions 2 and 3 in the array); therefore, you do not really require a separate method to draw them.
Now, you must set the appropriate image by calling the repaint() method and pausing the animation for a
specific amount of time. In this case, the animation is paused for a second, every time, for stopping and
yawning-again by using the trial and error method. The following is the part of code for the same:
currentimg = kittenpics[2];
repaint();
pause(1000);
currentimg = kittenpics[3];
repaint();
pause(1000);
When the kitten scratches, that is, during the third part of the animation, there seems to be no horizontal
movement happening. To show the animation effect, you must alternate between the two scratching images
stored at positions 4 and 5 of the image array. As scratching is a separate action, lets create a different method
for it.
The kittenscratch() method takes a single argument as parameter, that is, the number of times the kitten is
made to scratch. This argument will help to iterate through the loop and then alternate between the two
scratching images and repaint each time. The following code defines the kittenscratch() method:
void kittenscratch(int numtimes) {
for (int i = numtimes; i > 0; i--) {
currentimg = kittenpics[4];
repaint(); pause(150);
currentimg = kittenpics[5];
repaint();
pause(150); }
}
Within the run() method, you can call the kittenscratch() method using an argument:
kittenscratch(4);
The kitten must sleep after scratching. To do so, you can find two images for sleeping in positions 6 and 7 of the
array. You can alter these images for a specific number of times. In this case, the kittensleep() method takes
a single number argument and animates for that many turns. The following code defines the kittensleep()
method:
void kittensleep(int numtimes) {
for (int i = numtimes; i > 0; i--) {
currentimg = kittenpics[6];
repaint();
pause(250);
currentimg = kittenpics[7];

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repaint();
pause(250); }
}
The kittensleep() method is called in the run() method as follows:
kittensleep(5);

Finishing Up
Finally, to complete the applet, the kitten wakes up from sleep and then runs off to the right side of the screen.
To wake up the kitten, reuse the kittenrun() method and use the waking up image, which is the last image in
the array at position 8:
currentimg = kittenpics[8];
repaint();
pause(500);
kittenrun(xposition, getSize().width + 10);
All the images for this application have white backgrounds, and when you draw these images on an applet, a
white box with a medium gray background appears around each image as an applet by default. To solve this
issue, simply set the background of the applet, as shown here to white, at the beginning of the run() method:
setBackground(Color.white);
A lot of code is used in this applet to show the animation effects. The main aim is to set up the frame and then
call the repaint()method to enable the screen to be redrawn.
One thing to be noted here is that there is nothing done to minimize the amount of flicker in this applet. It
appears that the images used in this applet are small and the drawing area is also very small. So, the flicker does
not look that bad for this applet.

It's always a good practice to develop code for your animation to perform the simplest thing first and then add behavior to make
it run smoothly.

The complete code for the applet is as follows:

import java.awt.Graphics;
import java.awt.Image;
import java.awt.Color;
/* <APPLET
CODE=Kitten.class
WIDTH=600
HEIGHT=100 >
</APPLET> */
public class Kitten extends java.applet.Applet implements Runnable {
Image kittenpics[] = new Image[9];
Image currentimg;
Thread runner;
int xposition;
int yposition = 50;
public void init() {
String kittensrc[] = { "rt1.gif", "rt2.gif", "stp.gif",
"yn.gif", "sc1.gif", "sc2.gif","slp1.gif",
"slp2.gif", "awk.gif" };
for (int i=0; i < kittenpics.length; i++) {
kittenpics[i] = getImage(getDocumentBase(),kittensrc[i]); }
}
public void start() {
if (runner == null) {
runner = new Thread(this);

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runner.start(); }
}
public void stop() {
if (runner != null) { runner = null; }
}
public void run() {
setBackground(Color.white);
kittenrun(0, getSize().width / 2);
currentimg = kittenpics[2];
repaint();
pause(1000);
currentimg = kittenpics[3];
repaint();
pause(1000);
kittenscratch(4);
kittensleep(5);
currentimg = kittenpics[8];
repaint();
pause(500);
kittenrun(xposition, getSize().width + 10); }
void kittenrun(int startposition, int endposition) {
for (int i = startposition; i < endposition; i += 10) {
xposition = i;
if (currentimg == kittenpics[0])
currentimg = kittenpics[1];
else currentimg = kittenpics[0];
repaint();
pause(150); }
}
void kittenscratch(int numtimes) {
for (int i = numtimes; i > 0; i--) {
currentimg = kittenpics[4];
repaint();
pause(150);
currentimg = kittenpics[5];
repaint();
pause(150); }
}
void kittensleep(int numtimes) {
for (int i = numtimes; i > 0; i--) {
currentimg = kittenpics[6];
repaint();
pause(250);
currentimg = kittenpics[7];
repaint();
pause(250); }
}
void pause(int time) {
try { Thread.sleep(time); }
catch (InterruptedException e) { }
}
public void paint(Graphics g) {
if (currentimg != null) {
g.drawImage(currentimg, xposition, yposition, this); }
}
}

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The result of the code appears in Figure 25.7(a), 25.7(b), 25.7(c), 25.7(d), 25.7(e), and 25.7(f), where the kitten runs,
stops, scratches, sleeps, yawns, and again runs, respectively. This example is Kitten.java and you can see its
output in Figure 25.7:

Figure 25.7(a): Kitten runs

Figure 25.7(b): Kitten stops

Figure 25.7(c): Kitten scratches

Figure 25.7(d): Kitten sleeps

Figure 25.7(e): Kitten yawns

Figure 25.7(f): Kitten again runs

Figure 25.7: Animating Kitten Images

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Chapter 25: Images and Animation

Summary
In this chapter, you have learned the ways to implement images and animations in your Java-based application.
You have come across different classes used for implementing the same.
In the next chapter, youll learn about Java DB.

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Java DB
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Configure Environment Variables 958
Java DB Directory Structure 959
Creating Database in Java DB Using ij-Tool 959
Connecting with a Database 963
Disconnecting from a Database 964
Adding Tables in an Existing Database 964
Deleting Tables from an Existing Database 964
Adding Data into a Table 965
Displaying Content of a Table 965
Java DB Database Encryption 966
Using Java DB with Java Application 966
Chapter 26: Java DB

In Depth
Java DB is the brand name of a database product of Sun Microsystem, which was released with Java 6. Java DB is
a lightweight relational database engine based on Java and Structured Query Language (SQL). This is an open-
source database technology having Java's write once and run anywhere property. It is a robust, but a cost-
effective technology that provides a small footprint. Java DB is easy to deploy and we can migrate an application
to other open-source databases using it. You can create applications using Java DB with NetBeans, Eclipse, and
Java Studio Creator. Moreover, Java DB has some tools like ij, which can be used with the command line
interface.
The standards followed by Java DB are similar to that of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) SQL
or Java Database Connectivity (JDBC). Thus, it has the same Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)
functionalities, such as transaction management, concurrency control, and triggers, as the other databases. The
syntax of the SQL Query of Java DB is based on SQL92, SQL99, and SQL2003. Java DB provides two
environments, namely, multiple databases per system and multiple systems per read-only databases, which
make database development simple for developers. Moreover, it provides security using various security
mechanisms like database encryption, authentication, and authorization.
Java DB provides the following features:
Open sourceJava DB is an open-source technology.
Implemented by JavaJava DB is purely implemented through Java. Thus, it has all the advantages of Java
like write once run anywhere and Java Virtual Machine (JVM).
Easy to useJava DB is an easy to use technology that does not require maintenance. It is a Compact,
robust, and mature database technology.
Small footprintThe size of the base package of Java DB is just 2 MB.
Standards basedJava DB follows same standard as JDBC and SQL92, 99, and 2003.
SecureJava DB provides security against threats through on-disk database encryption, built-in,
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP), Network Information Service (NIS)+, and pluggable
authentication, network client authentication, Derby network client driver, Java Security Manager, and
Secure Sockets Layer/ Transport Layer Security (SSL/TLS).
Java DB has a long list of features along with some limitations. Some limitations of the Java DB are as follows:
Java DB does not support updatable queries with subqueries
Java DB does have the LIMIT clause
It has not any built-in clustering solution

Evolution of Java DB
In 1996, Cloudscape Inc., California, founded and started developing a database technology based on Java. Then,
in 1997, it released a Java-based RDBMS known as JBMS. The company renamed JBMS as Cloudscape in 1998
and released its new versions in every six months. Informix Software Inc. acquired Cloudscape Inc. in 1999.
Now, Cloudscape became the product of Informix Software Inc. In 2001, IBM acquired all databases assets of
Informix, including Cloudscape. Cloudscape database engine is now re-branded as IBM Cloudscape. In August
2004, IBM decided to give Cloudscape to the Apache Software Foundation. Apache renamed the Cloudscape
project as Apache Derby. Sun joined the Derby project so that it could use Derby as a component of its own
products Java. In December 2006, Sun Microsystem released Java 6, which packages Derby with its new name
Java DB.
Java DB is not a new database engine; it is exactly the same product as Derby. Eventually, this embedded
database engine has three names, that is, Cloudscape, Derby, or Java DB. In this chapter, we proclaim this
database software as Java DB.

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Table 26.1 presents the history of Java DB:

Table 26.1: History of Java DB
Year Description
1996 Cloudscape Inc. founded
1997 JBMS released by Cloudscape Inc.
1998 Cloudscape Inc. renamed JBMS as Cloudscape
1999 Cloudscape Inc. acquired by Informix software Inc.
2001 IBM acquired all database-related part of Informix Software Inc.
2004 IBM decided to give Cloudscape to Apache Software Foundation and Apache renamed the Cloudscape project
as Apache Derby
2005 Sun announces Java DB
2006 Sun released Java 6, which packages Derby with its new name Java DB.

Now that you have learned about the evolution of Java DB, you can differentiate between Java DB and Apache Derby easily;
however, still there is a need of separate discussion related to the differences between Derby and Java DB. It is important to
note that there is hardly any difference between Java DB and Apache Derby. Derby is a product of Apache, while Java DB is a
product of Sun Microsystem. Java DB is exactly the same as Derby. Also, there is no difference between Java DB
documentation and Derby documentation. The Java DB 10.6 documentation is similar to Derby 10.6 documentation. Finally,
Java DB can be understood as the synonym for Derby and vice versa.

Comparisons between Java DB and MySQL

This section discusses the difference between Java DB and MySQL. This overview can help you in determining
when to use Java DB and when to use MySQL. Some of the difference between Java DB and MySQL are as
follows:
1. Operating system supportedMySQL supports Windows, Linux, UNIX, and Mac OSX. On the other hand,
any operating system that can run Java supports Java DB.
2. LicenseMySQL comes with General Public License (GPL), while Java DB comes with Apache License v2
that is totally free.
3. Maximum database sizeBoth of them provide unlimited size of database.
4. Maximum number of tablesIn both of them you can make unlimited number of table into your database.
5. Maximum table sizeIn MySQL, maximum table size can be 64 TB, but there is no limitation on the size of
table with Java DB.
6. Maximum row and column per tableIn any of them, you can make unlimited number of rows in a table.
However, you can make maximum 1000 columns in MySQL and 1012 columns in Java DB.
7. InterfacesMySQL supports many interfaces like Open Database Connectivity (ODBC), JDBC, C, etc., but
Java DB only supports JDBC.
8. Trigger, bind variables, stored procedures, and row-level lockingBoth MySQL and Java DB supports
trigger, bind variables, stored procedures, and row-level locking.
9. Date and TimeBoth are having a broad range of date and time formats.
10. Online backupMySQL supports online backup through InnoDB Hot Backup, Mysqldump, and MySQL
Clusters committed log. Java DB, on the other hand, supports online backup through its online backup
utility.

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Chapter 26: Java DB

Architecture of Java DB
The architecture of Java DB is a simple and solid state-of-the art technology and based on the modular
architecture Aries.
Aries stands for Algorithms for Recovery and Isolation Exploiting Semantics. This is actually based on the
following three principles:
1. Write ahead logWhen any change is made on any object, it is first recorded into a log file and then stored
in the log file within the stable storage. After saving the log, actual update can be applied on the object.
2. Log changes during UndoOn undoing transaction, the log must be updated to prevent the repetition of
action with the database.
3. Repeating history during RedoWhen any crash occurs and the database restarts, Aries checks the history
of the database to retrace the actions done before the crash. This activity helps in restoring the system back
to its exact state as it was before the crash.
Java DB operates on the following two types of architectures:
1. Embedded architecture
2. Client/server architecture

Embedded Architecture
Java DB documentation refers embedded architecture as embedded mode and it can be used with the embedded
Java applications. With this option, Java DB runs in the same JVM as the application.
Figure 26.1 shows the embedded architecture of Java DB:

Figure 26.1: Java DB Embedded Architecture

In Figure 26.1, you can see that the Java DB is totally unseen to the end user because Java DB does not require
administration of the user and automatically starts and stops by the application. Java DB embedded architecture
also provides database reporting and debugging capabilities to applications.

Client/Server Architecture
In the client/server architecture (also known as network-server configuration or client/server mode), several
applications can use single database simultaneously. This architecture requires some drivers to use Java DB
database. These drivers provide scripts to start and stop the network server. Therefore, client/server architecture
requires a little administration.

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 In Depth

Figure 26.2 shows the client/server architecture of Java DB:

Figure 26.2: Java DB Client/Server Architecture

In Figure 26.2, you can see that Java DB runs in the JVM as embedded as it was in the embedded architecture.
JVM hosts to the network server. The clients applications can connect to the network server from different JVMs
to access the database. The Java DB network server is a part of the Java DB software distribution. Java DB has the
flexibility to support embedded as well as client/server architecture that allows Java DB to be used in a variety
of applications.

Compilation of SQL into Java Bytecode

In Figure 26.3, you can see that any SQL query first is compiled into the bytecode through the Query parser and
compiler, and then, it can be run on standard JVM. Complying SQL query into bytecode makes the execution of
query faster using hotspot compiler. However, it is a burden on the Virtual Machine (VM) because a single VM
acts as a database engine for every compilation.
Figure 26.3 shows the process of compilation of the SQL into Java bytecode:

Figure 26.3: Compilation of SQL into Java Bytecode

Drivers of Java DB
A Java DB driver is a program that defines an interface to interact with the Java DB database in a particular
mode. Drivers for the Java DB come within the package of Java 6 or the latest version.
It is known that Java DB supports two types of architectures and thus provides the following two types of
drivers:
1. The org.apache.derby.jdbc.EmbeddedDriver driverThis driver is used in embedded application
when Java DB is running in the same JVM where application is running.
2. The org.apache.derby.jdbc.ClientDriver driverThis driver is used for the network server
environment.

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Chapter 26: Java DB

Java DB URLs
You need to have Derby JDBC driver to connect with Java DB. Derby JDBC driver is produced by Apache and
included in the Java DB distribution package.
Some important features of Derby JDBC driver are as follows:
It is a Type 4 JDBC driver. Type 4 drivers can use Java networking libraries for communicating with the
database server.
It supports JDBC 4.0 specifications.
The org.apache.derby.jdbc.EmbeddedDriver class of Derby JDBC driver can be loaded automatically to
DriverManager.
It is available free of cost.

Some commercial JDBC-ODBC drivers are also available. For example, Easysoft JDBC-ODBC Bridge.

To connect with an existing Java DB database using the embedded driver, the following syntax is used:
jdbc:derby:<Database_Name>;<URLAttrib>
where Database_Name is an identifier that shows the name of your database to which the embedded driver
will connect and URLAttrib specifies some attributes of Uniform Resource Locator (URL), such as create and
upgrade, to be used during connection.
To connect to an existing Java DB database using the network client driver, the following syntax is used:
jdbc:derby://<Host>:<Port>/<Database_Name>;
where Host is an identifier that shows the name computer in which Java DB is running. If Java DB is running on
your local system, then use localhost or 127.0.0.1 as a Host. Port refers to a port number that can accept
incoming requests. Database_Name is an identifier that shows the name of the database to which the client
wants to connect.

Java DB Product Documentation

Product documentation describes a product to its users. It includes technical manuals, online document, and
help manual for the product. The product documentation of Java DB refers to the following manuals:
Getting started with Java DBThis documentation consists of a detail description about the installation
and configuration of Java DB. The self-study tutorial included in the documentation is meant for new users
and the quick-start guide is meant for experienced users.
Java DB developer's GuideThis documentation consists of a detail description about the features and
functionality of Java DB common to all deployments. The documentation includes JDBC specifications,
working with properties, deploying Java DB applications, security, etc.
Java DB reference manualThis documentation consists of a detail description about the implementation
of SQL language in Java DB. Documentation includes JDBC and Java Transaction API (JTA)
implementations, system tables, keywords, and SQLExceptions in Java DB.
Tuning Java DBThis documentation provides performance tips and description of Java DB optimizer.
Java DB tools and utilities guideThis documentation consists of a detail description about the Java DB
tools such as ij, sysinfo, and dblook.
Java DB server and administration guide This document has two parts, the first part consists of the detail
description of server configuration, making client applications, and administrating database. The second
part contains description about importing and exporting data, administrative tasks such as backing up and
restoring databases, storing Java code, and debugging deadlocks.
Java DB API reference This documentation contains an API reference that is automatically generated for
all public Java DB classes.

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 In Depth

Derby Tools and Utilities

The Derby tools and utilities are a set of tools and routines available in JavaDB/Derby packaging, which are
typically used to manipulate JavaDB/Derby database. The following tools and utilities make the use and
development of applications with Java DB easier:
The ij scripting toolIt is an interactive JDBC scripting tool used to run scripts against Java DB database.
Through ij commands, you can run your ad hoc queries and access various JDBC features.
The import and export utilitiesThe import and export utilities are the server-side utilities that allow
importing data from files into tables and vice versa.
The jar file utilitiesThrough the jar file utilities, you can store jar files in a database.
The sysinfo utilityThis utility provides you the information of Java DB and its environment.

Installing and Configuring Java DB on Windows

To install Java DB, you must install Java 6 (or any latest version) on your system. Java DB is installed
automatically as part of the Java SE Development Kit (JDK). You can download the latest version of JDK from
the following link:
http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/javase/downloads/index.html
The installation of Java DB is done in the JDK installations db directory, wherein scripts and libraries are
contained. The subdirectories contained in the installation are as follows:
Scripts for the execution of utilities and setting up of environment comprise the bin subdirectory
Java DB jar files comprise the lib subdirectory

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Immediate Solutions
Configure Environment Variables
Before the implementation of any Java DB database, you need to configure some environment variables
depending on the methods used for running the Java DB tools and startup utilities. The environment variables
that you need to set before starting the Java DB server are discussed in the following subsections.

DERBY_HOME
You need to set the DERBY_HOME environment variable to the location of Java DB bin directory. For example,
after the installation of Java DB with the JDK 1.8 (Java 8) in Windows, the bin directory of Java DB is created at
the location C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.8.0_31\db. Thus, the DERBY_HOME environment variable is set
through the following command:
set DERBY_HOME=C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.8.0_31\db

PATH
The DERBY_HOME\bin directory is added to the PATH environment variable; the Java DB/Derby scripts can be
run from any directory through this setting. The PATH environment variable should be set with the help of the
following command:
set PATH=C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.8.0_31\db\bin;%PATH%

Once you are through with the setting of the DERBY_HOME environment variable, you can use the following shortened
commands:
set PATH=%DERBY_HOME%\bin;%PATH%
to add the underlying /bin directory in the PATH environment variable.
It is important to note that the setting of DERBY_HOME and PATH environment variables is valid only on the
current command window; whenever you open a new command window, you must set the DERBY_HOME and
PATH environment variables.

JAVA_HOME
For locating the JVM and Java applications, the scripts used the JAVA_HOME environment variable, as shown
in the following command
set JAVA_HOME= C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.8.0_31
To verify that the environment variables are set correctly, the sysinfo command is used. The information
concerning the JVM and the version of Java DB/Derby that you have installed is shown through the sysinfo
command if there is correct configuration of the environment variables, as shown in Figure 26.4:

Figure 26.4: Output of the sysinfo Command

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 Immediate Solutions

Java DB Directory Structure

The term directory structure refers to the structured list of files and folders that store the document and files into
your computer.
The installation of Java DB creates db directory into JAVA_HOME and also the following subdirectories in the
db directory:
1. libThis subdirectory contains the Java DB JAR files. Java DB JAR files help you to start, stop, and access
Java DB.
2. binThis subdirectory contains the .exe files for the Java DB.

Creating Database in Java DB Using ij-Tool

It has been discussed earlier that Java DB can run in embedded mode as well as in client/server mode (or
Network mode). The creation process of a new database for embedded mode and network mode is different. In
the following two subsections, you will learn the creation of database in embedded mode and network mode
using ij-tool.

Creating a New Database in Embedded Mode

Java DB package comes with a utility called ij which is used to interact with the Java DB server. Through this
tool, you can create, delete, and modify your database. This section describes the creation of a new Java DB
database using ij tool.
To create a database with the ij-tool in embedded mode, the following steps are performed:
1. Press the Window + R key from the keyboard.
The Run dialog box appears (Figure 26.5).
2. Type cmd in the Open combo box and then click the OK button to open the command prompt, as shown in
Figure 26.5:

Figure 26.5: Run Dialog Box

The Command Prompt appears as shown in Figure 26.6:

Figure 26.6: Command Prompt

3. Go to the location where you want to create your database. In our case, we have used the D:\MyJavaDB
location to store and manipulate database, as shown in Figure 26.7:

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Figure 26.7: Go to the MyJavaDB Folder

4. Type ij and press the Enter key to start the ij-tool, as shown in Figure 26.8:

Figure 26.8: Starting the ij-Tool

When the ij-tool started, you will get an output ij version 10.10 in the Command Prompt.
5. Use the connect command to create a new database. The syntax of the connect command for the
embedded mode is as follows:
connect 'jdbc:derby:<Database_Name>;create=true;';
where Database_Name is the name of the database. For example, to create a database EmpDB of employee
type, use the connect 'jdbc:derby:EmpDB;create=true;'; command, as shown in Figure 26.9:

Figure 26.9: Creating the Database EmpDB

This command creates a database EmpDB (for Employee Database). If you want to protect your database with
user name and password, then add user name and password as shown in the following line:
connect 'jdbc:derby:EmpDB;create=true;user=scott;password=tiger';
This command creates a database into the current directory, i.e., MyJavaDB. Now, you can see a folder in the
location where you have created your database, as shown in the Figure 26.10:

Figure 26.10: Database EmpDB in the Current Directory

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Creating a New Database in Network Mode

It has been discussed in the earlier sections that while creating a new database embedded mode, the embed Java
DB can run in the same JVM where the Java application resides. An application running in network mode can
access the Java DB database using the client/server method. In this mode, a framework (known as Java DB
server or just a server) embeds Java DB database and also handles database requests from other applications
(known as Java DB client or just a client). No client can directly interact with the Java DB database. In this
section, you will learn to create a Java DB database in network mode using ij-tool.

Starting Network Server

Before the creation of a database, you need to start Java DB server in network mode. Make sure that the
environment variables are configured successfully before starting the network server. To start the network
server, just type the startNetworkServer.bat command into the command prompt and press the Enter key,
as shown in Figure 26.11:

Figure 26.11: Starting Network Server Using the startNetworkServer.bat Command

In Figure 26.11, you can see that a message Apache Derby Network Server 10.10.1.3 (1557168) started and
ready to accept connections on the port 1527 appears. This message means that the network is successfully
started on the port 1527. It is also important to note that the command prompt (like D:\MyJavaDB>) is not
present. This is because the window is ready to take the network server processes connection requests, not the
DOS command.

In Figure 26.10, the current directory is D:\MyJavaDB and the Java DB is started from this directory. So, whenever any
database is created on the Java DB server, it will be located in the MyJavaDB directory.

Creating Database
To create a new database in network mode with the ij-tool, use the connect command.
The syntax of the connect command for the network mode is as follows:
connect jdbc:derby://<Host>:<Port>/<Database_Name>;create=true;';
For example, if you are creating a new database Network_EmpDB (for Employee Database) on your local
system, then use localhost or 127.0.0.0 as a host and 1527 (default) as the port number. Thus, the
connection statement can be written as:
connect 'jdbc:derby://localhost:1527/Network_EmpDB;create=true;';
or
connect 'jdbc:derby://127.0.0.0:1527/Network_EmpDB;create=true;';

Java DB connection URL for Network Server mode is very simple and looks like the embedded mode, that is, just
add //localhost:1527/ before the database name.

Do you know about the physical location of newly created database? You have studied that there are two types of Java DB
drivers, namely, embedded driver (i.e., jdbc:derby:<Database_Name>;<URLAttrib>;) and network client driver
(i.e., jdbc:derby://<Host>:<Port>/<Database_Name>;<URLAttrib;).
If you are using the embedded driver during the creation of the database, then the new database will be stored in the same
directory in which ij was started up. On the other hand, when you are using the network client driver, then the new database will
be stored in the directory where the network server was started up (i.e., DERBY_INSTALL/bin).

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Perform the following steps to create a new database:

1. Now start the network server and minimize the window shown in Figure 26.11. In other words, keep the
server running.
2. Open a new instance (window) of the Command Prompt and go to the location where you want to create
the database (like MyJavaDB directory in our case).
3. Type ij to start the ij-tool in the selected location.
4. Type the following command to create a database Network_EmpDB, as shown in Figure 26.12:
connect 'jdbc:derby://127.0.0.0:1527/Network_EmpDB;create=true;';

Figure 26.12: Creation of a New Database Network_EmpDB in Network Mode Using ij-Tool
Now, a database Network_EmpDB is created into the directory D:\MyJavaDB, as shown in Figure 26.13:

Figure 26.13: Newly Created Database Network_EmpDB in the Directory MyJavaDB

If you want to protect you database with user name and password, then you can add user name and password
within the connect statement, as shown in the following line:
connect 'jdbc:derby:Network_EmpDB;create=true;user=scott;password=tiger';
The preceding command creates a database with specified username and password.
Java DB helps you in specifying the actual location of the database. For example, the following connection URL
specifies a full path of a database:
connect 'jdbc:derby://localhost:1527//home/MyDB/employee/EmpDB;create=true';

Shutting-Down the Network Server

The shutdown process cleans up all engaged database resources and terminates the connection safely. To shut
down the network server, perform the following steps:
1. Disconnect from the existing database using the disconnect; command. The disconnect; command
simply disconnects the current database connection (Figure 26.14).
2. Close the ij-tool using the quit; command. The quit; command lets you out of the ij-tool (Figure 26.14).
3. Stop the network server by using stopNetworkServer.bat command. This command stops the network
server that is currently running.
The syntax of the stopNetworkServer.bat command is as follows:
stopNetworkServer.bat [-h <hostname>] [-p <portnumber>] [-user <username>] [-password
<password>]
where parameters shown in the square brackets are optional.
As a result of the stopNetworkServer.bat command, a message appears, as shown in Figure 26.14:

Figure 26.14: Shutdown the Network Server using the stopNetworkServer.bat Command

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Maximize the window where you have started the network server. In this window, you will also see an
echo message about the shutting down process, as shown in Figure 26.15:

Figure 26.15: Echo Massage after Shutting Down the Network Server

Connecting with a Database

Before doing anything with your database, you need to connect with the required database. To connect with an
existing database, you have to use the connect command.

Connecting with a Database in Embedded Mode

The syntax for making connection with a database running in embedded mode is as follows:
connect 'jdbc:derby:<database_name>;';
For example, to connect with EmpDB in embedded mode, use the following command:
connect 'jdbc:derby:EmpDB;';
You can find the name of current connection. To display the current connection name, type show
connections; into the Command Prompt and press Enter.
Figure 26.16 shows the making of connection as well as displaying the name of current connection:

Figure 26.16: Making Connection in Embedded Mode and Displaying the Name of Current Connection

Connecting with a Database in Network Mode

The syntax for making connection with a database running in network mode is as follows:
connect jdbc:derby://<Host>:<Port>/<Database_Name>;';
For example, to connect with Network_EmpDB in network mode, use the following command:
connect 'jdbc:derby://localhost:1527/Network_EmpDB;';
You can also find the name of current connection. To display the current connection name, type show
connections; into the Command Prompt and press Enter.
Figure 26.17 shows the making of connection as well as displaying the name of current connection of database
running in the network mode:

Figure 26.17: Making Connection in Network Mode and Displaying the Name of Current Connection
Note that during creation as well as connection, you need to run the connect command; the difference is that
the create=true; property is used during the creation of a new database, while the create=true;
property is not used during connection. When you want to create a new database, you have to add the
create=true; property into the connect statement, which shows that you are giving permission to create a
new database. The absence of the create=true; property in the connect statement denotes the connection
with the existing database.
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If you had applied user name and password during the creation of database, then you must pass user name and password in
the connect command as:
connect 'jdbc:derby:EmpDB;user=scott;password=tiger';

Disconnecting from a Database

After the completion of manipulation of Java DB database running in either embedded or network mode, you
need to properly disconnect your database. To disconnect from the current database running in either modes,
type disconnect; in the Command Prompt and press Enter.
Figure 26.18 shows disconnection from the current database running in embedded mode and network mode,
respectively.

(a) Embedded Mode (b) Network Mode

Figure 26.18: Disconnect from the Current Database in Various Modes

Adding Tables in an Existing Database

You can create a new table into an existing database running in either embedded mode or network mode by
using the create table statement.
The syntax for the create table statement is as follows:
Create table <table_name> ( <colm_name1> <datatype>,
<colm_name2> <datatype>,
...
<colm_nameN> <datatype>
);
where table_name is the name of your table, colm_name1, colm_name2, , colm_nameN are the name
of the columns, and datatype is the data type of column.
For example, to create a table (EmpRecord in our case) for storing employees record, type the following
statement and make sure that the connection with the database (EmpDB in our case) has been stabilized:
create table EmpRecord (empid int not null,
empname varchar(30),
empdesig varchar(30),
empdepart varchar(30),
empsalary int);
When the table is created successfully, the following message echoed out on the screen:
> > > > 0 rows inserted/updated/deleted

Deleting Tables from an Existing Database

You can delete any table from the database running either in embedded mode or in network mode. The drop
table statement is used to delete a table. The syntax of the drop table statement is:
Drop table <Table_Name>;
For example, if you want to delete the EmpRecord table, then type the following statement and press Enter:
Drop table EmpRecord;
After successful deletion, you will get the following message:
> > > > 0 rows inserted/updated/deleted

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Adding Data into a Table

The insert into statement is used to insert a record in a table of a database running in either embedded mode
of network mode. There are two forms of the insert into statement.
In the first form, you need not specify the column names where the values will be inserted:
Insert into <table_name> values (<value1>, <value2>, , <valueN>);
However, in the second form, you must specify both the column names and their values:
Insert into <table_name> (<column1>, <column2>, , <columnN>) values (<value1>, <value2>,
, <valueN>);
Lets insert some records (or rows) into the EmpRecord table of a database EmpDB running in embedded mode.
To insert record, type the following statements one by one and press Enter:
insert into EmpRecord values (1,'JOHNSON',MANAGER,'ADMIN',48000);
insert into EmpRecord values (2,'HARDING','SALES MANAGER',ADMIN,45000);
insert into EmpRecord values (3,'TAFT','SALES EXEC','SALES',25000);
insert into EmpRecord values (4,'HOOVER','SALES EXEC','SALES',27000);
insert into EmpRecord values (5,'LINCOLN','SALES EXEC','SALES',22000);
Figure 26.19 shows the insertion of five rows into the EmpRecord table of the EmpDB database:

Figure 26.19: Entering Five Rows into the EmpRecord Table

In the preceding figure, you can see the message 1 row inserted/updated/deleted echo out on the
screen after every successful insertion of the row.

Displaying Content of a Table

The Select statement is used to display the content of the table of a database running either in the embedded
mode or network mode. The resultant table is known as result-set. The syntax of the Select statement is:
Select <colm_name1>, <colm_name2>, ,<colm_nameN> from <table_name>;
This statement selects the result-set having specified set of columns like <colm_name1>, <colm_name2>, ,
<colm_nameN>. Another form of the select statement is as follows:
Select * from <table_name>;
This statement is used to select all the columns of the table. Here, * is used for everything.
For example, when we pass the select * from EmpRecord; query, it will select and display all the content
of the EmpRecord table, as shown in Figure 26.20:

Figure 26.20: Result of the select * from EmpRecord; Query

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Java DB Database Encryption

A Java DB is just a directory consisting of transaction logs, data files, and a service.properties file. Anyone
can copy Java DB directory and boot it using another Java DB instance and get the content of the database.
To prevent unauthorized access, you can encrypt your database during creation using a password. The
encrypted data can be accessed only through the decryption of the database using the same password as it was
used during encryption.
The syntax of encryption of a database running in the embedded mode is as follows:
connect 'jdbc:derby: <database_name; create=true;
dataEncryption=true; bootPassword=<your_password>;
encryptionAlgorithm=Blowfish/CBC/NoPadding;
user=<user_name>';
Here, user_name is the database owner. It is not compulsory to specify a user name.
The syntax of encryption of a database running in a network mode is as follows:
connect 'jdbc:derby://<Host>:<Port>/<Database_Name>;create=true;
dataEncryption=true; bootPassword=<your_password>;
encryptionAlgorithm=Blowfish/CBC/NoPadding;
user=<user_name>';
The preceding statements have the following three attributes inside the connection string:
dataEncryptionThis attribute tells the Java DB to create an encrypted database.
bootPasswordThrough the given password, Java DB encrypts the database files. The password length
must be more than or equal to 16 characters because Blowfish is a 128-bit encryption algorithm.
encryptionAlgorithmThis is the algorithm used to encrypt the database.
For example, the following connect statement creates an encrypted database TestDB in embedded mode:
connect 'jdbc:derby:TestDB; create=true;
dataEncryption=true; bootPassword=mypassword;
encryptionAlgorithm=Blowfish/CBC/NoPadding;
user=scott';
The preceding command creates an encrypted database TestDB with the password mypassword, where the
encryption algorithm is Blowfish and the owner of this database is scott. Now, we have an encrypted
database and we need to connect to this database from our Java application. A part of code that helps you to
connect your java application with the encrypted database is as follows:
...
class.forName("org.apache.derby.jdbc.ClientDriver").newInstance();
Connection connection = DriverManager.getConnection
("jdbc:derby:<database_name>;bootPassword=<your_password>");
...
You just need to add your bootPassword in the connection string. If you try to connect to the database without
or with the wrong bootPassword, then you will get an error message.

Using Java DB with Java Application

In the preceding sections, you have studied about working with the Java DB database with ij tool. In this section,
you will learn about working with the Java DB database with your Java application.
To create a Java DB database with a Java program, you need to call a connection object. The syntax of creating
database in Java is as follows:
DriverManager.getConnection("jdbc:derby:<database_name>;create=true");
This statement causes the Java DB to create the database database_name in the current directory.
You can use the following code to create a new database (Emp_DB in our case):
import java.sql.Connection;
import java.sql.DriverManager;
import java.sql.SQLException;
public class DBConnect {
public static void main(String[] args) {

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try {
//String driver = "org.apache.derby.jdbc.EmbeddedDriver";
Connection con = DriverManager.getConnection("jdbc:derby:Emp_DB;create=true;");
System.out.println("Emp_DB created!");
}
catch (Exception err) {
System.out.println(err.getMessage());
}
}
}
You need to close the connection of database explicitly. To shutdown Java DB, you must use the connection
object to initiate the shutdown sequence:
DriverManager.getConnection("jdbc:derby:<database_name>;shutdown=true");

Once the db is running, don't stop it until the application is shut down.

The following Java program shows a complete example of Java DB database:

import java.sql.Connection;
import java.sql.DriverManager;
import java.sql.ResultSet;
import java.sql.SQLException;
import java.sql.Statement;
import java.sql.ResultSetMetaData;
public class DBConnect{
private static String dbURL =
"jdbc:derby://localhost:1527/Student_DB;user=scott;password=tiger;";
private static String tableName = "students";
private static Connection conn = null;
private static Statement stmt = null;
public static void main(String[] args){
createConnection();
insertStudents(1, "Suchita", "Jain");
selectStudents();
shutdown();
}
//Establishing Connection
private static void createConnection(){
try {
Class.forName("org.apache.derby.jdbc.ClientDriver").newInstance();
//Get a connection
conn = DriverManager.getConnection(dbURL);
}
catch (Exception except){
except.printStackTrace();
}
}
//Inserting Records in a Table
private static void insertStudents(int id, String studFName, String studLName){
try{
stmt = conn.createStatement();
stmt.execute("insert into " + tableName + " values (" +
id + ",'" + studFName + "','" + studLName +"')");
stmt.close();
}
catch (SQLException sqlExcept){
sqlExcept.printStackTrace();
}
}
//Displaying the values of the Table
private static void selectStudents() {
try {
stmt = conn.createStatement();
ResultSet results = stmt.executeQuery("select * from " + tableName);

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ResultSetMetaData rsmd = results.getMetaData();

int numberCols = rsmd.getColumnCount();
for (int i=1; i<=numberCols; i++){
//print Column Names
System.out.print(rsmd.getColumnLabel(i)+"\t\t");
}
System.out.println("\n----------------------------------------");
while(results.next()){
int id = results.getInt(1);
String studFName = results.getString(2);
String studLName = results.getString(3);
System.out.println(id + "\t\t" + studFName + "\t\t" + studLName);
}
results.close();
stmt.close();
}
catch (SQLException sqlExcept){
sqlExcept.printStackTrace();
}
}
//Closing the Connection
private static void shutdown(){
try{
if (stmt != null){
stmt.close();
}
if (conn != null){
DriverManager.getConnection(dbURL + ";shutdown=true");
conn.close();
}
}
catch (SQLException sqlExcept){}
}
}
In the preceding example, four methods are called into the main() method: The createConnection()
method installs a Derby client driver and then creates a database Student_DB, where scott and tiger are the
username and password of this database, respectively. The insertStudents() method takes three arguments,
namely, id, studFName, and studLName, and inserts these arguments into the table students.The
selectStudents() method is used to display the content of the table. The last method of the program, that is,
shutdown(), closes all statements and shutdown connection properly.
You should create the Student_DB database and students table in Derby before running the given program.

Summary
In this chapter, you have learned about the Java DB, including features, history, architecture, and drivers of Java
DB. Then the chapter has provided a comparison between Java DB and MySQL. It has also provided various
Java DB product documentation, Derby tools, and utilities. You have learned the installation and configuration
of Java DB on Windows operating system. Further, you have learned about the creation, deletion, and
connection of Java DB database in embedded mode as well as network mode. In the section Java DB database
encryption, you have learned how to encrypt/decrypt your database using a password. Finally, you have
learned about using Java DB with Java application.
In the next chapter, you will learn about Java FX.

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Java FX
If you need an immediate solution to: See page:
Creating Simple JavaFX Application 981
Creating JavaFX Application on NetBeans IDE 981
Using the UI Controls 989
Using Visual Effects 989
Using Canvas API 990
Chapter 27: Java FX

In Depth
JavaFX is a collection of various advance features to strengthen the Java programming language. The inclusion
of Scene Builder, Modena themes, FXML, 3DViewer graphics, etc., in JavaFX facilitates Java language in
designing and developing rich interfaces with high-performance experiences for users. Generally, JavaFX is used
in the form of an Application Programming Interface (API) that can directly be imported into an application. In
todays age of the Internet, we find that the role of attractive user interfaces has increased. Any purchase, sale, or
demonstration depends on how creative and well-designed interface has been provided to it. JavaFX can be used
extensively to add to the attractiveness quotient of user interfaces. You can use the Scene Builder software
package of JavaFX to create powerful designs without any requirements to write the code and script for it.
Moreover, JavaFX applications are created using the standard Java language; hence, you need not worry about
the consistency and availability. The most important part of developing JavaFX applications is the use of themes,
Three-Dimensional (3D) viewers, Scene Graph APIs, graphics software and hardware, thread, pulse, media and
images, etc. JavaFX provides Web component and User Interface (UI) controls in the layout to include some
visual effects that are responsible for attracting the eyes of users.
In this chapter, you will learn about the general concept of JavaFX. Further, you will come to know about JavaFX
features. You will learn about the availability of JavaFX for various platforms. In addition, you will get to know
the scope of developing different kinds of applications using JavaFX APIs. Also, you will learn about JavaFX
architecture and various components of it. Toward the end, you will come to know about the downloading and
running of sample JavaFX applications and the use of Scene Builder in JavaFX.

Working with JavaFX

JavaFX is developed as an API in Java to help application developers in providing rich client applications. These
applications can be designed, created, tested, debugged, and deployed by using JavaFX, which involves different
types of graphics and media APIs. A JavaFX application delivers consistency in its performance across various
platforms.

JavaFX Applications
The JavaFX library is included in the Java language in the form of an API. Therefore, application code for JavaFX
has the capability of accessing any Java library API. As an instance, you can use Java libraries to access Java
language APIs that support native system capabilities. Also, Java APIs can be used to connect to middleware
applications that are based on the server.
With the help of Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), the look and feel of JavaFX can be customized so that you can
differentiate style and appearance from your implementation. The designers can take care of all the required
customizations in the appearance and style of JavaFX applications, and the developers are allowed to focus on
the coding section only. People who are aware of the Web design practices or those who want the back-end logic
and UI to be separated can use FXML scripting language for developing the UI presentation aspects and Java
code for developing the application logic. Moreover, with the help of JavaFX Scene Builder, UIs can be
developed without the need of writing the code. You can directly create the markup for your UI design by using
Scene Builder. You can import the FXML markup into an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) in order to
make it easy for the developer to add the business logic.

JavaFX Availability
JavaFX APIs are an integral feature of the Java Runtime Environment (JRE) and the Java Development Kit (JDK).
These APIs are supported by applications that are compiled to JDK 7 or later on any of the leading Operating
Systems (OSs), including Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, etc., because JDK is supported on all of these OSs. These
APIs started supporting the Advanced RISC Machine (ARM) platform also with JavaFX 8. JDK for ARM
platform involves a number of components, which include JavaFX base, graphics, and control components.

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JavaFX applications are compatible across various OSs. Therefore, developers and users find a consistent
runtime experience from these applications. Additionally, Oracle brings all its updates and new releases
synchronously for all platforms. Also, companies in which mission-critical applications are being implemented
to get the benefit of Oracles support offered in the form of extensive support program. Therefore, you would
never face compatibility or availability-related issues in creating JavaFX applications.
You can check the JDK download page to download sample applications of JavaFX in the form of a zip file that
contains code and snippets for several JavaFX programs demonstrating the use of JavaFX to develop
applications.

Key Features of JavaFX

JavaFX APIs are loaded with various features. Most of the features were introduced in JavaFX 8 and are its
subsequent releases. Some of the primary features introduced in JavaFX 8 are as follows:
Java APIsJavaFX classes and interfaces are written in Java language code and provided in the Java library
in the form of APIs. Some Java Virtual Machine (JVM) languages, such as JRuby and Scala, can be
interchanged by these APIs.
FXML and Scene BuilderFXML is an XML-based declarative markup language used to construct UI of a
JavaFX application. An interactive Graphical User Interface (GUI) can be designed by a designer either
through coding in FXML or through JavaFX Scene Builder. FXML markup generated in Scene Builder will
be further ported to an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for adding the business logic by the
developer.
WebViewIt is a Web component that runs JavaScript code to enable embedding of Web pages within
JavaFX applications through a technology called WebKitHTML. Java APIs can be accessed using the
WebView JavaScript that can be called by Java APIs. JavaFX 8 involves support for various features of
HTML5, which includes Web Sockets, Web Workers, Web Fonts, printing capabilities, etc.
Swing interoperabilityJavaFX provides features that can help you in updating your existing Swing
applications. Some of the highly important features include rich graphics, media playback, and embedded
Web content. JavaFX 8 involves an additional class named SwingNode, which you can use in your JavaFX
applications to embed Swing content.
Built-in UI controls and Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)JavaFX has built-in features for controlling the UI
and adjusting the CSS. These features help you in designing better, more attractive, and full-featured
application UIs. You can develop the interface of various components in your application using CSS.
Moreover, JavaFX 8 release involves DatePicker and TreeTableView UI controls that you can use in your
application to provide more attractiveness and interactivity to the UI. Another update in JavaFX 8 release is
the availability of CSS Styleable* classes in the form of public API to allow the styling of objects
through CSS.
Modena themeJavaFX 8 has replaced the Caspian theme with the Modena theme as its default theme for
developing JavaFX applications. However, you can still get and use the Caspian theme for JavaFX by
adding the setUserAgentStylesheet(STYLESHEET_CASPIAN) line in the start() method of your
application.
3D graphics featuresJava provides new API classes for LightBase (AmbientLight and PointLight
subclasses), Shape3D (Box, Cylinder, MeshView, and Sphere subclasses), SceneAntialiasing, Material,
SubScene, PickResult, etc., to the 3D graphics library in JavaFX 8. Also, this release provides an updated
CameraAPI class.
Canvas APIYou can use the Canvas API to directly create drawing within an area of the JavaFX scene that
comprises one graphical element (node).
Printing APIJavaFX 8 includes an additional package, javafx.print, in the Java SE 8 release which enables
public classes to access the JavaFX Printing API.
Rich-text supportThe JavaFX 8 release involves complex and extensive support for text scripts. It supports
bi-directional text and complex scripts, including Thai and Hindi, in controls. Also, text nodes involve
multiline, multi-style text to help developers create more attractive applications.

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Multitouch supportJavaFX can be used to design applications in which multitouch operations are
performed. The multitouch support in JavaFX is based on the capabilities of the platform on which the
application is developed.
Hi-DPI supportThe eighth release of JavaFX incorporates Hi-DPI display support in applications.
Hardware-accelerated graphics pipelineJavaFX package involves a pipeline (Prism) to render graphics-
based application interfaces. Prism quickly provides smooth JavaFX graphics with the help of a supported
graphics card or Graphics Processing Unit (GPU). Prism can also use software-rendering stack to provide
smooth graphical experiences on encountering a GPU that is not supported by JavaFX.
High-performance media engineYou can run multimedia content on the Web in the playback through
JavaFX media pipeline support. The GStreamer multimedia framework offers a stable environment to
JavaFX 8 with low latency.
Self-contained application deployment modelJavaFX 8 includes self-contained application packages with
which all of the application resources are provided. Additionally, a private copy of the Java and JavaFX
runtimes are also available with these packages. The distribution of these packages can be installed as
native applications, offering the same experience of installation and launching as native applications on that
platform.

Application Development Scope of JavaFX

You can use JavaFX to build various types of applications that typically include cross-platform, network-aware
applications. These applications offer GUI-based access to information by using high-performance modern
interfaces that contain audio, video, graphics, animation, etc. JavaFX 8 includes several types of applications. The
following list explores some of these applications:
JavaFX Ensemble8
Modena
3DViewer
JavaFX Architecture
Scene Graph in JavaFX
Java Public APIs for JavaFX Features
Graphics System
Glass Windowing Toolkit
Threads
Pulse
Media and Images
Web Component
CSS
UI Controls
Layout
2-D and 3-D Transformations
Visual Effects

JavaFX Ensemble8
JavaFX provides a gallery of sample applications in the form of Ensemble8 to illustrate a large set of JavaFX
features, such as animation, charts, and controls. These samples, which also involve their descriptions, can be
run on all operating systems. We can view and interact with these samples, and also copy their source code on
our desktop platform where the properties of various samples can be altered and adjusted as per the users
requirements and vision. Moreover, if the Internet facility is available, we can access API documentation, as
relevant for us, through Ensemble8, which is designed to run on the ARM processor using JavaFX.

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Modena
The look and feel of the UI components of JavaFX applications is demonstrated through Modena, which is a
sample application that contains attractive themes. Moreover, you can compare the Modena theme with the
traditional Caspian themes to explore and utilize various facets of both the themes.
Figure 27.1 shows an application screenshot developed in Modena theme:

Figure 27.1: Modena Theme on Desktop

3DViewer
You can use the 3DViewer sample application for navigation and examination of three-dimensional scenes by
using a computer mouse or trackpad. Also, you can import a subset of Maya and Object (OBJ) files in JavaFX
applications by using the 3DViewer importers. Moreover, animation files created in Maya can be imported
through 3DViewer.

While saving Maya files, you need to delete the construction history on all the objects to enable importing of the files.

Additionally, you can export your contents, too, in the form of Java files or FXML files by using 3DViewer.
Figure 27.2 shows a screenshot of 3DViewer:

Figure 27.2: 3DViewer Application

The sample JavaFX applications can be downloaded from the official website of Oracle and run on your desktop
system. However, you need to understand the JavaFX architecture so that you can develop JavaFX applications
on your own.

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JavaFX Architecture
JavaFX applications follow a specific architecture pattern in which various parts are interconnected. Figure 27.3
shows the different components of JavaFX Architecture:

Figure 27.3: JavaFX Architecture Components

It can be seen in Figure 27.3 that the Quantum Toolkit in the JavaFX architecture lies beneath the JavaFX Public
APIs and Scene Graph. Quantum Toolkit is used as an engine to run the JavaFX code. The subcomponents of this
engine include JavaFX graphics processing engine (Prism), a small windowing system (Glass Window Toolkit)
to provide efficient processing, a media engine, and a Web engine. All these components cannot be accessed
publicly, but you need to know about these components to understand how applications created in JavaFX
are run.
Let us learn about the different components of JavaFX architecture.

Scene Graph in JavaFX

The construction of JavaFX applications starts with scene graph, which is depicted as a part of the top layer in
Figure 27.3. JavaFX scene graph involves a number of nodes in a hierarchical tree structure, wherein the visual
elements in the UI of the application are reflected by each of the nodes. You can use JavaFX scene graph for
input-handling purposes.
Node is the term given to a single element of a scene graph. You need to specify node ID, style class, and
bounding volume to each node in JavaFX. Moreover, except for the root node of scene graph, all nodes have a
parent and children (which may be zero or more); the root node has no parent. Additionally, nodes may be
associated with the following aspects:
Effects involving blurs and shadows
Opacity
Transforms
Event handlers (including mouse, key, and input method)
An application-specific state
Graphics primitives, which are not part of Java Swing and Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT), are provided with
JavaFX scene graph. These elements are rectangles, text, controls, layout containers, images and media, etc.
Usually, scene graph is used for simplifying your work when dealing with UIs. Scene graph is particularly
useful while working with rich UIs. For example, javafx.animation APIs and declarative methods, such as
XML doc, enable you to quickly animate a number of graphics in the scene graph. You can create different types
of content by using javafx.scene API. For instance, you can use the API to create the following elements:
NodesNodes can be shapes (2-D and 3-D), images, media, embedded Web browser, text, UI controls,
charts, groups, containers, etc.
StateState means transforms (positioning and orientation of nodes), visual effects, other visual state of the
content, etc.
EffectsEffects are simple objects that modify the appearance of scene graph nodes, such as blurs, shadows,
and color adjustment.

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Java Public APIs for JavaFX Features

JavaFX Public APIs are also part of the top layer itself in the JavaFX architecture, (Figure 27.3). This layer offers
you to use a complete set of Java public APIs that can help you in developing rich client applications using
JavaFX. All the freedom and flexibility required for the creation of rich client applications can be availed of
through these APIs. The best capabilities of Java platform, such as comprehensive, immersive media
functionality, are incorporated into the JavaFX platform that has been developed as an intuitive and
comprehensive one-stop development environment. The features of Java APIs are as follows:
The robust features of Java, such as multithreading, generics, annotations, and Lamda expressions, can be
used.
Java Web developers are allowed to use dynamic languages running on JVM, such as Groovy and
JavaScript.
Complex JavaFX applications are allowed to be developed by developers who can do so by using other
system languages such as Groovy to write lengthy code
Binding that supports high-performance lazy binding, binding expressions, bound sequence expressions,
and partial bind reevaluation is permitted to be used. Moreover, you can use the binding library with
alternative languages also for introducing the binding syntax. The binding syntax for alternate languages
such as Groovy is similar to that of JavaFX Script.
Observable lists and maps can be included by extending Java collections. Wiring UIs to data models,
detecting alterations in these data models, and upgrading the corresponding UI control accordingly are
allowed in your applications with the help of these maps and lists.
All the APIs and JavaFX programs are developed on the same model that is a continuation of the model
introduced in the JavaFX products of version 1.x. Most of the JavaFX APIs are directly incorporated into Java.
However, in the latest JavaFX release, some APIs that include Layout and Media in association with several
other details have been improved and simplified on the basis of user feedbacks received for the JavaFX 1.x
release. Generally, JavaFX is based on the Web standards. For example, the styling controls are defined on the
basis of CSS standards and accessibility is specified on the basis of Accessible Rich Internet Applications (ARIA)
standards.

Graphics System
Below the top layer in the architecture (Figure 27.3) is the JavaFX graphics system, which is a detail of the
implementation below the JavaFX scene graph layer. Graphics system provides support for both 2D and 3D
scene graphs. Moreover, you can render graphics through the graphics software system if in case hardware-
accelerated rendering is inadequate for supporting by the graphics hardware on your system.
JavaFX platform uses the following two graphics-accelerated pipelines:
PrismThese processes are used for rendering jobs. You can use them on both hardware and software
renderers, which also include 3D graphics. Moreover, prism processes are responsible for rasterizing and
rendering JavaFX scenes. The device being used by you determines the following multiple render paths:
DirectX 9 on Windows XP and Windows Vista
DirectX 11 on Windows 7
OpenGL on Mac, Linux, Embedded
Software rendering when hardware acceleration is not possible
Moreover, whenever possible, you can use paths that are fully accelerated by hardware. However, in case
this possibility does not exist, we use the software render path to exploit the already distributed software
render path in the Java Runtime Environments (JREs). This is especially significant in handling 3D scenes,
but the performance of hardware rendering paths is better in comparison with that of the software
rendering paths.

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Quantum ToolkitQuantum Toolkit is the other pipeline used in JavaFX platform through which Prism
and Glass Windowing Toolkit associate together to make them selver available to the JavaFX layer. In
addition, the management of threading rules associated with rendering versus events handling is done by
the threading rules and the Quantum Toolkit.

Glass Windowing Toolkit

In Figure 27.3, you can see that in the JavaFX graphics stack, the Glass Windowing Toolkit is at the lowest level.
The main responsibility of the Glass Windowing Toolkit is to provide native operating services, which includes
managing the windows, timers, and surfaces. It acts as the platform-dependent layer used for connecting the
JavaFX platform with the native operating system.
Moreover, the Glass Windowing Toolkit also manages the event queue. It schedules the usage of thread by using
the native operating system's event queue functionality. The Glass Windowing Toolkit executes on the same
thread on which the JavaFX application executes.

Threads
JavaFX involves different kinds of threads to support proper running of applications. A system can run two or
more of the following threads at any instant:
JavaFX application threadRefers to the primary thread used by the developers of JavaFX application. A
live scene, which is a scene that is part of a window, can be accessed through this thread. In a background
thread, manipulation and construction of a scene graph can be done. However, accessing of a scene graph
from the JavaFX application thread must be permitted if the scene graphs root node is bound to the live
object of any scene. Therefore, developers can build complex scene graphs on a background thread by
keeping smooth and fast animations on 'live' scenes. You must be careful while embedding JavaFX code
into Swing applications because the JavaFX application thread is not similar to thread from the Swing and
AWT Event Dispatch Thread (EDT).
Prism render threadRefers to the thread that can handle rendering independently from the event
dispatcher. It enables rendering of frame N while frame N+1 is in processing. Therefore, the concurrent
processing ability provided by this thread is a big advantage for modern systems having multiple
processors. The Prism render thread handles off-load work in rendering with the help of multiple
rasterization threads.
Media threadThis thread can execute in the background for synchronizing the latest frames through the
scene graph with the help of JavaFX application thread.

Pulse
A pulse can be referred to as an event that directs the JavaFX scene graph about the time of synchronizing the
state of the elements on the scene graph with Prism. A pulse can be regulated at maximum of 60 frames per
second (fps) and is fired whenever animations are being executed on the scene graph. A pulse can be scheduled
even when an animation is not running and something is modified in the scene graph. For instance, a pulse can
be scheduled when the position of a label control is changed.
Application developers can use a pulse for handling events asynchronously, enabling the system for batch
execution of events on the pulse.
Layout and CSS are also attached to pulse events. When numerous changes are done in the scene graph, it might
lead to multiple updates to layout or CSS, which might degrade the pulse performance to a great extent. The
degradation in performance of the system is managed automatically by it. The system performs a CSS and layout
pass once per pulse for avoiding performance degradation. The passes can be triggered manually by application
developers as required for taking measurements prior to a pulse.
The pulse events are executed by the Glass Windowing Toolkit, which utilizes the high-resolution native timers
for the execution.

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Media and Images

The javafx.scene.media APIs provide the JavaFX media functionality which is provided as three separate
components: the Media object represents a media file, the MediaPlayer plays the media file, and a MediaView is
a node that displays the media. Both visual and audio media are supported by JavaFX. The MP3, Audio
Interchange File Format (AIFF), and Waveform Audio File (WAV) format of audio files, and Flash Video (FLV)
format of video files are supported. The Media Engine component is created for providing performance and
stability and enabling steady behavior across platforms.

Web Component
The Web component is a JavaFX UI control based on Webkit, which is an open-source Web browser engine in
which HTML5, CSS, JavaScript, Document Object Model (DOM), and Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) are
supported. This component uses its API for providing a Web viewer and full browsing functionality. The Web
component allows developers for implementing the following features in their Java applications:
Rendering to HTML content from local or remote URL
Support to history, and Back and Forward navigation
Reloading the content
Applying effects to the Web component
Editing of the HTML content
Execution of the JavaScript commands
Handling of events
This embedded browser component comprises the following classes:
WebEngineIt provides the capability of browsing the Web page.
WebViewIt encapsulates a WebEngine object that embeds HTML content into an application's scene.
It provides fields and methods for applying effects and transformations. This class is an extension of the
Node class.

CSS
JavaFX CSS allows customized styling to the JavaFX applications UI without modifying the source code of
application. You can apply CSS to any JavaFX scene graphs nodes asynchronously. JavaFX CSS styles can be
applied to the scene at runtime, thus allowing dynamic change to the appearance of an application.
Figure 27.4 displays the implementation of two different CSS styles to the same set of UI controls:

Figure 27.4: CSS Style Sheet Sample

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UI Controls
JavaFX API provides the JavaFX UI controls that are created by using nodes in the scene graph. These controls
utilize full benefit of the visually rich features of the JavaFX platform and provide portability across various
platforms. The theme and skins of the UI controls can be set using the JavaFX CSS. JavaFX UI control
components involve the following elements:
Label
Button
Radio Button
Toggle Button
Checkbox
Choice Box
Text Field
Password Field
Scroll Bar
Scroll Pane
List View
Table View
Tree View
Tree Table View
Combo Box
Separator
Slider
Progress Bar and Progress Indicator
Hyperlink
Tooltip
HTML Editor
Titled Pane and Accordion
Menu
Color Picker
Date Picker
Pagination Control
File Chooser
Customization of UI Controls
UI Controls on Embedded Platforms

Layout
Within a scene graph of a JavaFX application, the arrangements of the UI controls can be made flexible and
dynamic with the help of layout containers or panes. The JavaFX Layout API provides the following container
classes that allow automation of common layout models:
The BorderPane class structures its content nodes in the top, bottom, right, left, or center region
The HBox class structures its content nodes horizontally in a single row.
The VBox class structures its content nodes vertically in a single column.
The StackPane class keeps its content nodes in a back-to-front single stack.
The GridPane class allows the creation of a flexible grid of rows and columns.

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 In Depth

The FlowPane class structures its content nodes in either a horizontal or vertical flow.
The TilePane class structures its content nodes in evenly sized layout cells or tiles.
The AnchorPane class allows developers to build anchor nodes to the top, bottom, left side, or center of the
layout
Different containers can be nested within a JavaFX application in order to attain a desired layout structure.

2-D and 3-D Transformations

You can transform each node in the JavaFX scene graph to the x-y coordinate by using the following
javafx.scene.tranform classes:
translateAllows transferring of a node from one location to another along the x, y, and z planes relative to
its initial position.
scaleAllows resizing of a node to seem either larger or smaller on the x, y, and z planes on the basis of the
scaling factor.
shearAllows rotation of one axis so that the x-axis and y-axis do not remain perpendicular. The nodes
coordinates are then shifted by the mentioned multipliers.
rotateAllows rotation of a node about a specific pivot point of the scene.
affinePerforms a linear mapping from 2-D/3-D coordinates with other 2-D/3-D coordinates while
preserving the 'straight' and 'parallel' properties of the lines. You must note that this class should be used
with Translate, Scale, Rotate, or Shear transform classes instead of being used directly.

Visual Effects
Visual Effects are used for the creation of rich client interfaces in the JavaFX scene graph for enhancing the
appearance of JavaFX applications in real time. These JavaFX Effects are primarily image-pixel-based; and,
therefore, they use the group of nodes present in the scene graph, render it as an image, and then apply the
specific effects to it. The following effects are available in Visual Effects in JavaFX:
Blend Effect
Bloom Effect
Blur Effects
Drop Shadow Effect
Inner Shadow Effect
Reflection
Lighting Effect
Perspective Effect
Visual Effects in JavaFX use the following classes:
Drop ShadowRenders a shadow of a provided content behind the content
ReflectionRenders a reflected version of the content below the actual content
LightingSimulates a light source shining on a given content and provides a realistic three-dimensional
appearance to a flat object

Introducing Scene Builder in JavaFX

A visual layout environment is provided by JavaFX Scene Builder which allows quick designing of UI for JavaFX
applications without the need of writing code. It enables simple drag-and-drop positioning of GUI components
onto a JavaFX scene. After building the layout for your UI, the FXML code for the layout gets generated
automatically. JavaFX Scene Builder provides simple yet spontaneous interface that can even help non-
programmers to swiftly prototype interactive applications that connect GUI components to the application logic.

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Intended Audience
JavaFX applications are of interest for Web designers and developers who can apply their creativity and learning
toward improving the experience of end users. Hence, the target audience for JavaFX Scene Builder is as follows:
Java developersRefer to persons who can rapidly prototype the client application's GUI layout and create
the application logic independently.
DesignersRefer to persons who can rapidly prototype the client application's GUI layout without the need
of any application code to be written first. Moreover, they can design and preview the GUI layout and
define its appearance using style sheets.

Key Features of JavaFX Scene Builder

JavaFX Scene Builder provides several features that can help you to design attractive user interfaces so that the user
experience could be improved. Some of the interesting features of JavaFX Scene Builder include the following:
A drag-and-drop WYSIWYG interface enables you to rapidly develop a GUI layout without the need of
writing source code. You can use the library of GUI controls and the content panel for adding, combining,
and editing JavaFX GUI controls in your layout.
Tight integration with the NetBeans IDE enables optimum development workflow.
Easy integration with any Java IDE because it is a standalone development tool.
Automatic FXML code generation takes place when you create and alter the layout of your GUI. The FXML
code gets stored in a separate file from the source of application logic and style sheet files.
Live editing and preview features allow you to rapidly visualize the GUI layout modifications that you
have done without any need of compilation. These features help in minimizing the development time for
your application. You can also apply CSS to your GUI layout and preview the created look and feel.
Accessibility to the full JavaFX GUI controls library is provided. To see the full list of supported JavaFX 8
GUI components, type FX8 in the Library panel's Search text field. The list includes
the TreeTableView, DatePicker, and SwingNode components.
Ability to add custom GUI components to the Library is now provided. The Library of available GUI
components can be extended by importing customized GUI components from third-party JAR files, FXML
files, or adding them from the Hierarchy or Content panels.
3D support is provided. FXML documents containing 3D objects can now be loaded and saved in the Scene
Builder 2.0 tool. You can view and edit properties of the 3D objects using the Inspector panel (Material and
Mesh complex properties are not yet supported). You cannot, however, create new 3D objects using the
Scene Builder tool.
Support for rich text has been added. A new container TextFlow is now available in the Library of GUI
components. You can drag multiple text nodes and other types of nodes into the TextFlow container. You
can also directly manipulate the text nodes to re-arrange them in the container. Inline and property editing
features are also available for each text node.
JavaFX Scene Builder Kit is provided with Scene Builder 2.0. It is an API that enables the incorporation of
Scene Builder panels and functionalities into the GUI of a larger application or a Java IDE, such as
NetBeans, IntelliJ, and Eclipse.
CSS support allows flexible management of the appearance of your application's UI.
Cross-platform support is provided for Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X operating systems.
Now that we have overviewed whats in this chapter, it is time to turn to the Immediate Solutions section.

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Immediate Solutions
Creating Simple JavaFX Application
Notepad or any Integrated Development Environment (IDE) supporting the Java language (such as NetBeans,
Eclipse, or IntelliJ IDEA) can be used for generating JavaFX applications, which are developed using the Java
language.
Here, we are creating a simple JavaFX application using the Notepad editor:
import javafx.application.Application;
import javafx.scene.Scene;
import javafx.scene.control.Label;
import javafx.stage.Stage;

public class HelloJavaFX extends Application {

public static void main(String[] args) {
launch(args);
}
@Override
public void start(Stage s) {
Label lbl= new Label();
lbl.setText("Hello JavaFX 8");
Scene scn =new Scene(lbl);
s.setTitle("Hello JavaFX");
s.setScene(scn);
s.setHeight(300);
s.setWidth(300);
s.show();
}
}
Save the preceding code with the name HelloJavaFX.java. We can compile and run the JavaFX programs in the
same way as we compile and run simple Java programs. To compile and run the preceding program, use the
following commands on the command prompt:
C:\>javac HelloJavaFX.java //To compile the program
C:\>java HelloJavaFX // To execute the compiled program
Here is the output of the preceding program, as shown in Figure 27.5:

Figure 27.5: Output of the HelloJavaFX.java Program

Creating JavaFX Application on NetBeans IDE

Before creating JavaFX applications on IDE, you must first install the following software on your computer:
JDK 1.8
NetBeans 7.5 or later
JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0

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After the successful installation of JDK 1.8 and NetBeans IDE, you need to install the JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0 by
performing the following steps:
1. Download the JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0 setup from the http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/
java/javafxscenebuilder-1x-archive-2199384.html link. Save the downloaded setup at an appropriate
location in your computer.
2. After downloading, double-click the setup file to start the installation. The JavaFX Scene Builder
- 2.0 Setup dialog box appears (Figure 27.6).
3. Click the Next button, as shown in Figure 27.6:

Figure 27.6: The JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0 - Setup Dialog Box
The JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0 Destination Folder dialog box appears (Figure 27.7).
4. Click the Install button, as shown in Figure 27.7:

Figure 27.7: The JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0 Destination Folder Dialog Box

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The JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0 Progress dialog box appears, as shown in Figure 27.8:

Figure 27.8: The JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0 Progress Dialog Box
After completing the installation of JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0, the JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0
Progress dialog box disappears. Now, the JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0 Complete dialog box
appears, as shown in Figure 27.9:

Figure 27.9: The JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0 Complete Dialog Box
After successful installation of JavaFX Scene Builder 2.0, now perform the following steps to create a simple
application in NetBeans 8 IDE:
1. Open the NetBeans IDE.

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2. Click the FileNew Project option in the File menu. The New Project dialog box appears
(Figure 27.10).
3. Select the JavaFX folder in the Categories pane and then select the JavaFX FXML Application
template in the Projects pane (Figure 27.10).
5. Click the Next button, as shown in Figure 27.10:

Figure 27.10: The New Project Dialog Box

The New JavaFX Application dialog box appears (Figure 27.11).
6. Enter the project name in the Project Name text box. In our case, we have entered
JavaFXApplicationDemo (Figure 27.11).

You can also set the location of the project according to your requirement.

7. Click the Finish button, as shown in Figure 27.11:

Figure 27.11: The JavaFX Application Dialog Box

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 Immediate Solutions

8. The JavaFXApplicationDemo application is created and the JavaFXApplicationDemo.java file opens in

NetBeans IDE, as shown in Figure 27.12:

Figure 27.12: The JavaFXApplicationDemo Application

9. Right-click the FXMLDocument.fxml file in the Projects pane and select the Open option from the
context menu, as shown in Figure 27.13:

Figure 27.13: The JavaFXApplicationDemo Application

The FXMLDocument.fxml file opens in the JavaFX Scene Builder (Figure 27.14). Now, drag and drop some
controls from the Controls section in the Library panel on the AnchorPane window. In our case, we have
designed a Login window using four controls: such as Label, TextField, PasswordField, and Button. We
have also set the Text property of the Label and Button controls in the Inspector panel, as shown in
Figure 27.14:

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Figure 27.14: The FXMLDocument.fxml Window

10. Click the File menu and then select the Save option from the context menu to save the file (Figure 27.14).
Now, open the FXMLDocument.fxml file in NetBeans IDE and you can see that the following code is
generated automatically by the NetBeans IDE:
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<?import javafx.scene.text.*?>
<?import java.lang.*?>
<?import java.util.*?>
<?import javafx.scene.*?>
<?import javafx.scene.control.*?>
<?import javafx.scene.layout.*?>
<AnchorPane id="AnchorPane" prefHeight="238.0" prefWidth="322.0"
xmlns="http://javafx.com/javafx/8" xmlns:fx="http://javafx.com/fxml/1"
fx:controller="javafxapplicationdemo.FXMLDocumentController">
<children>
<Button fx:id="button1" layoutX="144.0" layoutY="161.0" onAction="#handle"
text="Submit" />
<TextField fx:id="txtBox1" layoutX="144.0" layoutY="88.0" />
<Label layoutX="14.0" layoutY="92.0" text="Enter Your Name:" />
<Label fx:id="label2" layoutX="14.0" layoutY="195.0" prefHeight="25.0"
prefWidth="286.0" />
<Label layoutX="14.0" layoutY="126.0" text="Enter Your Password:" />
<PasswordField fx:id="txtPass" layoutX="144.0" layoutY="122.0" />
<Label layoutX="111.0" layoutY="24.0" text="Login Here">
<font>
<Font size="25.0" />
</font>
</Label>
</children>
</AnchorPane>
11. Right-click the FXMLDocument.fxml file in the Projects pane and select the Make Controller
option from the context menu, as shown in Figure 27.15:

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 Immediate Solutions

Figure 27.15: Using the Make Controller Option

After selecting the Make Controller option, the FXMLDocumentController.java file gets updated and the
highlighted code is generated automatically in it, as shown in the following code:
package javafxapplicationdemo;
import java.net.URL;
import java.util.ResourceBundle;
import javafx.event.ActionEvent;
import javafx.fxml.FXML;
import javafx.fxml.Initializable;
import javafx.scene.control.*;

public class FXMLDocumentController implements Initializable {

@FXML
private Label label2;
@FXML
private Button button1;
@FXML
private TextField txtBox1;
@FXML
private PasswordField txtPass;
@Override
public void initialize(URL url, ResourceBundle rb) {
}
@FXML
private void handle(ActionEvent event) {

}
}
12. Import the following package in the FXMLDocumentController.java file:
import javafx.scene.paint.Color;
13. Add the following code in the handle event of the Button control:
if(txtBox1.getText().equals("deepak") && txtPass.getText().equals("dreamtech")){
label2.setTextFill(Color.BLACK);
label2.setText("Welcome "+txtBox1.getText());
}
else{
label2.setText("Invalid username or password!");
label2.setTextFill(Color.rgb(210, 39, 30));
}

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14. Press the F6 key to run the JavaFXApplicationDemo application. The output appears, as shown in
Figure 27.16:

Figure 27.16: Output of the JavaFXApplicationDemo Application

15. Enter username and password. In our case, we have set the username as deepak and password as
dreamtech. If you enter the correct username and password, then the message Welcome deepak gets
displayed, as shown in Figure 27.17:

Figure 27.17: Output of the JavaFXApplicationDemo Application

Now, if you have entered incorrect username or password, then the message Invalid username or
password! appears, as shown in Figure 27.18:

Figure 27.18: Output of the JavaFXApplicationDemo Application on Invalid Input

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 Immediate Solutions

Using the UI Controls

There are various types of controls in the JavaFX API about which you have learned earlier. UI controls are
usually used for creating visually rich and highly interactive application. Lets now learn how to use some of the
useful UI controls in an application. In this application, we are using the ImageView class to add an image in the
JavaFX application by using the following code:
import javafx.scene.image.*;
import javafx.stage.Stage;

public class AddingImage extends Application {

@Override
public void start(Stage s) {
ImageView iV = new ImageView();
iV.setImage(new Image("JavaFX.png"));
StackPane sPane=new StackPane();
sPane.getChildren().add(iV);
Scene scene = new Scene(sPane);
s.setTitle("Displaying Image");
s.setHeight(400);
s.setWidth(400);
s.setScene(scene);
s.show();
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
launch(args);
}
}
Save the preceding code with the name AddingImage.java. Use the following commands on the command
prompt to compile and run the application:
C:\>javac AddingImage.java
C:\>java AddingImage

In the preceding code, we have used an image with the name JavaFX.png. This image should be present at the location
where you have saved the .java file.

Here is the output of the preceding code, as shown in Figure 27.19:

Figure 27.19: Output of the AddingImage Application

Using Visual Effects

There are various kinds of visual effects in JavaFX which you have learned earlier. Now, we are creating a
simple application in which we are applying 3D visual effect in a Scene by using the PerspectiveCamera class
in the following code:
import javafx.application.Application;

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import javafx.scene.*;
import javafx.scene.paint.*;
import javafx.scene.shape.*;
import javafx.scene.transform.*;
import javafx.stage.Stage;

public class Creating3DShapes extends Application {

public static void main(String[] args) {
launch(args);
}
@Override
public void start(Stage stage) throws Exception {
stage.setResizable(false);
Scene scene = new Scene(content());
stage.setScene(scene);
stage.show();
}
public Parent content() throws Exception {
Box box = new Box(8, 8, 8);
PhongMaterial pMat=new PhongMaterial(Color.GOLDENROD);
box.setMaterial(pMat);
box.setDrawMode(DrawMode.FILL);
PerspectiveCamera pCam = new PerspectiveCamera(true);
pCam.getTransforms().addAll (
new Rotate(-30, Rotate.X_AXIS),
new Rotate(-30, Rotate.Y_AXIS),
new Translate(0, 1, -20));
Group g = new Group();
g.getChildren().add(pCam);
g.getChildren().add(box);
SubScene scene = new SubScene(g, 600,550);
scene.setFill(Color.BLUE);
scene.setCamera(pCam);
Group g1 = new Group();
g1.getChildren().add(scene);
return g1;
}
}
Save the preceding code with the name Creating3Dshapes.java. Use the following commands on the command
prompt to compile and run the application:
C:\>javac Creating3DShapes.java
C:\>java Creating3DShapes
Here is the output of the preceding code, as shown in Figure 27.20:

Figure 27.20: Output of the Creating3DShapes Application

Using Canvas API

You have learned earlier that we can use the Canvas API to directly create drawing within an area of the JavaFX
scene that consists of one graphical element (node). Lets now create an application by using the Canvas API as
follows:
import javafx.application.*;

990
 Immediate Solutions

import javafx.scene.*;
import javafx.scene.canvas.*;
import javafx.stage.Stage;

public class CanvasDemo extends Application {

public static void main(String[] args) {

launch(args);
}

@Override
public void start(Stage s) {
Canvas cnvs = new Canvas();
cnvs.setHeight(400);
cnvs.setWidth(400);
Group g = new Group();
GraphicsContext gContext = cnvs.getGraphicsContext2D();
drawShapes(gContext);
g.getChildren().add(cnvs);
Scene scn=new Scene(g);
s.setTitle("Canvas Demo");
s.setScene(scn);
s.show();
}

private void drawShapes(GraphicsContext gContext) {

gContext.setLineWidth(8);
gContext.fillOval(10, 40, 20, 10);
gContext.strokeOval(40, 50, 20, 20);
gContext.fillRoundRect(100, 50, 20, 20, 5, 5);
gContext.strokeRoundRect(140, 50, 20, 20, 5, 5);

gContext.strokeLine(50, 20, 20, 50);

}
}
Save the preceding code with the name CanvasDemo.java. Use the following commands on the command
prompt to compile and run the application:
C:\>javac CanvasDemo.java
C:\>java CanvasDemo
Here is the output of the preceding code, as shown in Figure 27.21:

Figure 27.21: Output of the CanvasDemo Application

991
Chapter 27: Java FX

Summary
In this chapter, you have learned about the basic concept of JavaFX and its features. Next, you have learned
about the availability of JavaFX for different platforms. In addition, you have studied the JavaFX architecture
along with its different components. The chapter has also explained the development scope of various
applications using JavaFX APIs. Furthermore, you have studied the process of downloading and running sample
JavaFX applications. Finally, you have learned the use of JavaFX Scenen Builder software package.

992
 Glossary
ABORT Command
It indicates that an image that was being tracked is Command consists of a list of strings which make
aborted before its production was completed. the external program file to be invoked and its
arguments, if any, significant.
ALLBITS
It indicates that a static image that was previously Data members
drawn is now complete and can be redrawn in its These are variables that are part of a class. You use
final form. them to store the data the object uses. Objects
support both instance variables, whose values are
Applet specific to the object, and class variables, whose
An applet is a program written in the Java values are shared among the objects of that class.
programming language that can be included in an
HTML page in the same way as an image is Deployers
included in a page. The Deployers are responsible for deploying EJB
applications and Web applications into the server
Appletviewer environment.
Facilitates to run Java applets.
Deque
Block It extends Queue to handle a double-ended queue.
A block indicates that a thread is waiting for the lock
or permit to access the resource. Distributed
Java is a distributed language as it can be used to
Buffers create applications to communicate over the network.
The Buffer class defines the core functionality
current position, limit, and capacity. Dynamic
During runtime of a Java program, the relevant
Charsets information that is used to verify and resolve access to
A charset defines the way the bytes are mapped to objects is required. This concept of providing runtime
characters. information is referred to as dynamically linking the
Class code.
This is a template from which you can create objects. Environment
The definition of a class includes the formal A mapping, which is system-dependent varying
specifications for the class and any data and from variables to values. The copy of the
methods in it. environment of current process is the initial value.
Collection ERROR
It is the top of the collection hierarchy. It supports It indicates that an image that was being tracked has
basic grouping of elements. encountered an error.
Glossary

FRAMEBITS javacdoc
It indicates that another complete frame of a Creates HyperText Markup Language (HTML)
multiframe image (which was previously drawn) is documentation for Java source code files.
now available to be redrawn.
javah
HEIGHT Serves as the C header and stub generator, which is
It indicates that the height of the base image is now used to write native methods.
available (and can be read from the height argument
javap
of the imageUpdate method).
Serves as a Java disassemble used to convert
Inheritance bytecode files into a Java program description.
This is the process of deriving one class, called the
JButton
derived class, from another, called the base class,
It is a push or command button.
and being able to make use of the members of the
base class in the derived class. JCheckBox
JApplet It is a checkbox that can be selected or deselected,
displaying its state visually.
It is an extended version of java.applet.Applet that
adds support for root panes and other panes. JCheckBoxMenuItem
jar It is a menu item that can be selected or deselected
and displays its state visually.
Serves as archive used to package related class
libraries into a single executable JAR file and also JColorChooser
helps to manage the JAR files. It is a pane of controls to allow a user to select a
java.applet color.
Provides classes that are necessary for creating an JComboBox
applet and those which are used to communicate It is a combo box, which is a combination of a text
with its applet context. field and dropdown list.
java.awt JComponent
Provides classes for creating user interface and It is the base class for Swing components.
painting graphics and images.
jdb
java.io
Serves as a Java debugger used to find errors in Java
Provides classes for system input and output through programs.
data streams, serialization, and the file system.
JDesktopPane
java.lang
It is a container used to create a multiple-document
Provides classes that are fundamental to the design interface or a desktop.
of the Java programming language.
JDialog
java.net
It is the base class for creating a dialog window.
Provides classes that are used for implementing
networking in Java programs. JEditorPane
It is a text component that allows the user to edit
java.util
various kinds of content.
Provides legacy collection classes, event model,
collection framework, date and time capabilities, JFileChooser
internationalization, and other utility classes, such as It lets the user choose a file.
string tokenizer.
JFrame
Java It is an extended version of java.awt.Frame that adds
Serves as a Java interpreter used to run Java applets and support root panes and other panes.
applications by reading and interpreting bytecode files.
JInternalFrame.JDesktopIcon
javac
It represents an iconified version of a JInternalFrame
Serves as a Java compiler used to translate Java component.
source code to bytecode files.

994
 Glossary

JInternalFrame JRun
It is a lightweight object that provides many of the JRun is an Application server from Macromedia that
features of a heavyweight frame. is based on Oracles Java Enterprise Edition.

JLabel JScrollBar
It is a display area for a short text string or an image It is an implementation of a scrollbar.
(or both).
JScrollPane
JLayeredPane It is a container that manages a viewport, optional
It adds layers to a Swing container, allowing vertical and horizontal scrollbars, as well as optional
components to overlap each other. row and column heading viewports.

JList JSeparator
It is a component that allows the user to select one or It is a menu separator.
more objects from a list.
JSlider
JMenu It is a component that lets the user select a value by
It is a pop-up menu containing JMenuItem objects sliding a knob within an interval.
thats displayed when the user selects it in the
JMenuBar component. JSplitPane
It divides two components.
JMenuBar
It is an implementation of a menu bar. JTabbedPane
It lets the user switch between a groups of
JMenuItem components by clicking tabs.
It is an implementation of a menu item.
JTable
JOptionPane It presents data in a two-dimensional table format.
It makes it easy to pop up a standard dialog box.
JTextArea
JPanel It is a multiline area that displays plain text.
It is a generic lightweight container.
JTextField
JPasswordField It allows the editing of a single line of text.
It allows editing of a single line of text where the
view does not show the original characters. JTextPane
It is a text component that can be marked up with
JPopupMenu.Separator attributes.
It is a pop-up menu-specific separator.
JToggleButton.ToggleButtonModel
JPopupMenu It is the toggle button model.
It is a pop-up menu.
JToggleButton
JProgressBar It is a two-state button.
It is a component that displays an integer value
within an interval. JToolBar.Separator
It is a toolbar-specific separator.
JRadioButton
It is a radio button that can be selected or deselected, JToolBar
displaying its state visually. It is a toolbar, useful for displaying commonly used
controls.
JRadioButtonMenuItem
It is a radio button menu item. JToolTip
It displays a tooltip for a component.
JRootPane
It is the fundamental component in the container JTree.DynamicUtilTreeNode
hierarchy. It can wrap vectors/hashtables/arrays/strings and
create appropriate children tree nodes.

995
Glossary

JTree.EmptySelectionModel Platform Independent

It is a tree selection model that does not allow It is one of the most important features of Java as it
anything to be selected. is the first programming language that is not bound
to any specific operating system.
JTree
It displays a set of hierarchical data as an outline. PROPERTIES
It indicates that the properties of the image are now
JViewport
available.
It is the viewport through which you see the
information. Queue
JWindow It extends Collection to handle special type of lists.
It is a window that can be displayed anywhere on Selectors
the desktop. Selectors enable you to perform I/O through
List multiple channels.
It extends Collection to implement lists of objects. Set
Lock It extends Collection to implement sets, in which all
A lock is created so as to control the access of multiple elements must beunique.
threads over the same resource. It provides exclusive It indicates that more pixels for drawing the scaled
access to a shared resource, which means that it version of image are available.
allows only one thread to access an object at a time. SortedMap
Map It extends the Map to implement a sorted map.
It cannot contain duplicate keys; each key can map
SortedSet
to at most one value. This interface maps keys to
It extends Set to implement a sorted set.
values.
Method Synchronization
Thread synchronization, also known as serialization,
This is a function built into a class or an object. You
can have instance methods and class methods. You is a mechanism to ensure that no two concurrently
use instance methods with objects, but you can use a executing threads possess the same parts of a
program at the same time.
class method just by referring to the class by name
no object is required. Tomcat
Multicast The Tomcat server is a Java-based Web application
Unlike unicast, multicast is an identifier for a set of container that was created to run Servlets and Java
interfaces (typically belonging to different nodes). Server Pages in Web applications.

Multithreading Unicast
This feature helps you write interactive programs, As the name indicates, it is an identifier for a single
wherein multiple tasks can be performed interface.
simultaneously, thus making it a robust
programming language.
WebLogic
The WebLogic Platform delivers application
Object infrastructure technology in a single, unified, easy-
This is an instance of a class, much as a variable is an to-use platform for application development,
instance of a data type. You can think of a class as deployment, and management.
the type of an object, and you can think of the object
as an instance of a class. Objects encapsulate WIDTH
methods and instance variables. It indicates that the width of the base image is now
available (and can be read from the width argument
Permit of the imageUpdate method).
A permit is like a token to a lock that allows the
thread to access a resource. A thread must have a Working directory
permit from the semaphore before obtaining a The current working directory of the current process
resource. When the thread stops, it returns the is the default value; usually the system property,
permit to the semaphore, allowing another thread to user.dir, imparts name to this directory.
access next.

996
 Index
addSeparator, 333, 337-338, 340-343, 553, 557-559,
A 567-568, 570-571, 574-575, 577
AdjustmentEvent, 194, 266-270, 463-464
@Deprecated, 828, 830
AdjustmentEvent class, 266-267
@Documented, 828
AdjustmentListener, 194, 265-267, 269-270, 463-464
@Inherited, 828-829
adjustmentValueChanged, 266, 268-270, 464
@Overdrive, 828
ALIGN, 188, 228-229, 244, 405-406, 550
@Retention, 828-829, 842-843
ALLBITS, 305, 544, 936
@SuppressWarnings, 792, 828, 830
Annotations, 12, 770, 822-824, 826-831, 834, 836, 838,
@Target, 828-830
840, 842-844, 890, 975
AbstractCollection, 768-769, 779-782, 784, 786, 789-
anonymous inner classes, 145, 168, 202
790, 811, 813
AbstractCollection class, 779-780 append, 15, 26, 29, 38, 61-62, 65, 96, 131, 164, 248-249,
260, 329, 407-409, 412, 639, 641, 648-649, 653, 658,
AbstractList, 768, 780-782, 786, 811, 813 664, 670, 731
AbstractList class, 780-781 Appendable Interface, 164
AbstractMap, 767, 769, 795-796, 799 appletviewer, 6, 173, 187, 189-190, 192, 707, 841-842,
AbstractMap class, 767, 795-796 853
AbstractQueue, 768 Application Servers, 2, 9
AbstractSequentialList, 768-769, 781-782, 786 Application servers, 2, 9
AbstractSequentialList class, 781-782 ArithmeticException, 71, 109, 132, 135-138
AbstractSet, 769, 789-790 ArrayDeque, 769, 784-785
AbstractTableModel, 477 ArrayDeque class, 784-785
Accelerators, 549-550, 565-566, 574 ArrayList, 73, 100-102, 165-167, 703, 720, 733, 768-769,
access specifier, 18-19, 114-117, 120, 148, 150-151 775-777, 780, 782-784, 788, 794-795, 819-820
ActiveX, 174, 846 ArrayList class, 782-783
Adapter Classes, 147, 171, 200-202, 206, 214, 277, 320 Arrays, 13, 30-36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46-50, 52, 54, 56-58,
60, 62, 64, 66, 68-70, 72-74, 97, 100-101, 105-106, 113,
adapter classes, 147, 171, 200-202, 206, 214, 277, 320
118, 124, 126-127, 129, 144, 184, 214, 294, 313, 354,
addElement, 471-472, 482, 495, 500, 811, 813 615-616, 651, 653, 672, 767, 769, 772, 775, 779-780,
addition assignment, 78, 88-89 782, 801-804, 818, 821, 826-827, 830, 865, 933, 944
addLayoutComponent, 229, 231, 234, 236, 239, 244, Arrays class, 767, 801-804
547 Atomic variables, 718-719
Index

BorderFactory class, 379-382

B Box class, 346, 521-522, 543-546, 548, 580
BartC, 733 boxing, 67
BartQ, 733 BoxLayout class, 541-542
BartS, 733 branching statements, 78
BEA Weblogic, 886 breakpoints, 110, 141-142
BeanBox, 846, 850-853, 855-856, 862-863, 867-868 Brightening, 275-276, 311-312
BeanDescriptor, 857, 865, 868, 871 bubble, 246, 265, 445
BeanInfo Interface, 847, 849, 856-857, 865, 871 Buffer class, 617-618, 654
BeanInfo interface, 847, 849, 856-857, 865, 871 BufferedWriter, 164, 623, 656
Beans, 10, 386, 824, 826, 837, 844-850, 852-862, 864- BufferReader, 164, 620
874, 890
business logic, 9, 970-971
bidirectional linked list, 794
ButtonGroup, 389, 432, 437-438, 563
binary semaphores, 699
byte, 17, 33-34, 37, 42, 45-47, 53-54, 66, 94, 164, 176,
bitwise And assignment, 77, 89 191, 207, 284, 287, 293, 309-310, 401, 616, 618, 620,
bitwise Or assignment, 77, 89 623-624, 630-639, 643, 650-651, 654, 662-664, 737,
bitwise unary Not, 77, 83 740-741, 743, 746, 757-758, 801-803, 840, 901, 905-
906, 933-934
bitwise Xor assignment, 77, 89
Bytecodes, 3-4, 6, 19-20, 45
Blackboard Assignment Retrieval Transaction, 732
Blob, 878, 880, 895, 901
C
Blocked, 12, 213, 675-676, 717, 923
BlockingQueue, 715-717, 719-720 Caching, 445, 478, 725, 728-729, 736, 752, 766
CallableStatement, 877, 879-880, 894, 896, 913
Boolean, 17-18, 31, 34, 37, 39, 43-44, 46, 53-56, 61-62,
66-69, 83, 86, 133-134, 161, 167, 175-176, 178-180, Canvas, 172, 276, 303-304, 354, 709, 854, 860, 862-863,
182-187, 196, 200, 203, 210, 212, 218, 224-225, 229, 866, 932, 969, 971, 990-991
253-255, 266-267, 273, 277-278, 282, 284, 286, 288, canvas, 172, 276, 303-304, 354, 709, 854, 860, 862-863,
290-291, 293-296, 300-301, 305-310, 324-326, 332-334, 866, 932, 969, 971, 990-991
339-340, 345-346, 349, 359-366, 368, 370, 373, 375-
Canvas class, 303-304, 854
376, 380-382, 387-388, 391, 400, 404, 407-410, 419-
422, 430, 433, 437, 447-448, 452, 456-461, 463-464, Card Layouts, 215, 236, 243
466-468, 472, 475, 477, 480, 483, 485, 492, 494, 500- Cascading, 564, 970-971
502, 510-511, 514-516, 519, 529, 535-537, 552-554, Catalog, 101, 166, 894-895, 909
556, 561-563, 571-572, 574-575, 581-582, 585, 588,
catch block, 109-110, 133-136, 138-140, 716
590, 592-595, 600-601, 610-611, 617, 620-624, 627,
629-630, 632, 635-636, 639-640, 642, 644-648, 650- ChangeListener interface, 458
652, 655, 657-658, 660, 662-664, 685, 691, 696-698, Channels, 616, 618-620, 734, 825
705-706, 708, 710-713, 718, 722, 737-738, 740-742,
Character, 9, 31, 34, 37, 39-40, 42-43, 52-55, 57-59, 62-
748, 750, 752-754, 764-765, 770-771, 774, 776-797,
63, 66-69, 110, 113, 126, 131, 163-164, 191, 218-219,
800, 802, 808, 810-812, 814-816, 836, 839-840, 848,
249, 280-282, 284-285, 287, 293, 397, 400, 406-407,
858-860, 862, 864, 890, 892, 894-898, 901, 904-909,
409, 414-415, 419, 427, 494, 515, 529, 615-616, 631-
935-937, 942
633, 635-636, 640-644, 647-648, 650-660, 665, 670,
Boolean Properties, 176, 359, 848, 864 672, 730, 732, 743, 754, 803, 825, 837, 877, 880, 901,
bootclasspath, 22, 25 905-906
Border interface, 381-382 CharArrayWriter, 164, 651, 653-654
Border Layouts, 215, 234, 243, 245, 269, 356, 370, 372 CharBuffer, 163-164, 617

998
 Index

CharBuffer class, 163 Connection.close, 923-924

Charsets, 620, 799 Constrained Properties, 845, 859, 868-869, 872, 874
CheckboxGroup class, 227 Container class, 166, 183-186, 244, 354-356, 358, 371,
CheckboxMenuItem, 336-341 373
Choice, 2, 15, 97, 101, 172, 195, 205, 245-246, 260-265, ContainerEvent, 185, 194
274, 393, 406, 434, 511, 603, 696, 978 ContainerListener, 184-185, 194
Choice class, 261 cookie, 3, 108, 734
class variables, 105, 107-108, 111, 114-115 CountdownLatch, 696, 701-703, 720
ClassLoader, 410, 628, 677, 685, 763 CountDownLatch Class, 701-702
ClassNotFoundException, 109, 134 counting semaphores, 699
clipRect, 293, 710-712 createTitledBorder, 381-382, 435, 438-439, 545-546,
Clob, 878, 880, 895, 901 548

Collection, 5-6, 8, 25, 36, 66-67, 70, 96, 99-102, 105, currentThread, 678, 682, 684, 686-687, 689-690, 692,
123-125, 130, 142, 144, 148, 161, 166, 294, 306, 354, 694-695, 705
412, 522, 616, 626-627, 697, 715, 719, 723, 727, 731, Custom Class Loader, 677
736, 763, 767-769, 772-784, 786, 788-791, 793, 796- Custom List Cell Renderer, 443, 472, 488
797, 801, 811-812, 814-816, 820, 822, 825, 857, 871,
Customizers, 847, 849
880, 970
CyclicBarrier, 696, 699-701, 721
Collection interface, 100, 767-768, 776-777, 779, 822
CyclicBarrier Class, 699-700
Color class, 190, 300-301
Combo Box Model, 489, 492, 500
Combo Boxes, 172, 488-492, 494, 496-500, 502, 504,
D
506, 508, 510, 512, 514, 516, 518, 520, 549-550, 576, Data Types, 31, 34, 36-37, 40, 42, 45-46, 52, 66, 74, 112,
578 129, 478, 745, 775, 782, 879-881, 904-906, 908-909,
ComboBox, 172, 475-476, 493, 495-499, 534 919
ComboBoxEditor interface, 498 Database Access, 879, 881
Comparator, 52, 767, 778-779, 783, 790-792, 799-801, Database Metadata, 446, 879, 881
804, 821 DatabaseMetaData, 877, 881, 894, 909, 921-922
compareTo, 53, 91, 620, 644, 793, 808-809, 820-821 DatabaseMetaData.ownDeletesAreVisible, 922
ComponentEvent, 181, 194, 277, 280, 509, 587 Datagram, 726, 729, 732, 734-735, 756-758, 766
ComponentListener, 175, 177, 181, 194, 508-509 DatagramPacket, 726, 756-758
ComponentListener interface, 508-509 DatagramPacket class, 756-757
ComponentResized, 509, 587 DatagramSocket, 618, 726, 740, 756-759
componentResized, 509, 587 DataSource, 881-882
Concatenating Strings, 32, 58 debugging, 22, 106, 110, 141, 143-144, 355, 360, 954,
Concurrency Utilities, 673, 718-719, 723 956
Concurrent collections, 719 DEFAULT_LAYER, 369, 526
conditionals, 11, 75-78, 80, 82, 84, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 96, DefaultComboBoxModel, 495, 500
98, 100, 102, 104 DefaultComboBoxModel class, 495, 500
Connected Device Configuration (CDC), 8 DefaultMutableTreeNode, 475, 484-487
Connected Limited Device Configuration (CLDC), 8 defaultsProperty, 385
Connection interface, 875, 893-896, 899, 912, 914 Delegated Classes, 197
Connection management, 877, 879 deleteCharAt, 62, 65

999
Index

Deployers, 2, 10 DriverManager class, 14, 875, 878, 892-893, 912-913,

Deque, 720-721, 768-769, 784-786 926
Design Patterns, 845-849, 862, 864-865, 868 DropMode class, 474

Desktop Panes, 578-580, 582, 584, 586, 588, 590-592, dual state, 216
594, 596, 598, 600, 602, 604, 606, 608, 610, 612, 614 Dynamic Link Libraries (DLLs), 3
destroy, 171, 186, 190, 214 dynamic method dispatch, 145, 157
Dialog class, 316-317, 344-346
Dialog Modality, 209, 213 E
Dictionary class, 814-815 Editable Combo Boxes, 489, 497
Disabled icon, 419-420, 426, 528-529 EditorKit, 409-411
Disabled Images, 396, 426 elevator, 246
DISPOSE_ON_CLOSE, 377, 517-518, 589 Embossing, 275, 313-314
Distributed Notification, 845, 873-874 Empty String, 32, 56, 60, 248, 346, 407, 732
Distributed Transaction, 881-882 encoding, 21, 53, 110, 642-643, 651, 735, 752, 798-799,
Divider Size, 521, 540-541 986
division assignment, 77, 89 Enum, 14, 17, 99, 177, 359, 473-474, 773, 805-809, 819,
division operators, 83 830, 877-878

do-while, 17, 75, 96-97 Enum Constant, 473-474, 808-809

DO_NOTHING_ON_CLOSE, 377, 429 Enumerations, 166, 767, 804-805, 808-809, 826

Domain Name System (DNS), 743 equalsIgnoreCase, 54, 91, 320, 328, 330, 336, 738, 760

Double Buffering, 276, 673, 713-715, 724 ERROR, 21, 27, 38, 45-47, 51, 71, 73, 87, 109-110, 115,
130, 132-133, 135-136, 138, 151, 159-160, 163-164,
double buffering, 276, 673, 713-715, 724
207, 305-307, 367, 406, 423, 429, 513, 516, 544, 599,
Double Clicks, 256, 443, 472-473, 488 605, 627-628, 640, 657-659, 726, 749, 761, 805, 809-
DRAG_LAYER, 369, 526 810, 829-830, 868, 881, 893, 908, 926, 938-939, 945-
946, 966
drawArc, 191, 293, 299
Events, 142, 147-148, 171, 174-176, 181, 184-185, 194,
drawBytes, 191, 293
197-200, 204, 206, 209, 216, 218-219, 222, 225, 246,
drawChars, 191, 293 253-255, 261-262, 265-267, 269, 273, 278-279, 315,
drawImage, 191, 205, 270, 290-293, 305, 308, 311-313, 318, 320-325, 329, 334-335, 340, 350, 356, 362, 375,
708, 711-712, 714, 930, 934-936, 938-943, 946, 948 377, 397, 404, 419, 421, 426-427, 441, 444, 472, 486,
drawLine, 191, 205, 293, 297, 299, 668 489-490, 494, 496-497, 504-505, 508, 553-554, 593,
611, 621, 626, 722, 824, 835-836, 845-849, 852, 864-
drawOval, 191, 294, 297-298 865, 867, 871-874, 882, 926, 976-977
drawPolygon, 191, 294, 299 EventSetDescriptor, 849, 857, 865, 871
drawPolyLine, 191, 294, 299 exception handling, 109-110, 144, 877, 881
drawRect, 191, 294, 297-298, 327-328, 668, 714 exception subclasses, 891
drawRoundRect, 191, 294, 297, 299 Exchanger, 696, 702-703, 721
drawString, 146, 173-174, 187-188, 190-192, 201-203, Exchanger Utility, 702
206-207, 212, 264, 269, 289, 294, 374, 376, 378, 382,
589, 714, 841, 854, 856, 861, 867, 936, 938 executeUpdate, 897, 903-904, 913, 917, 924-925

Driver interface, 875, 877, 879, 892, 926 EXIT_ON_CLOSE, 212, 374, 377-379, 384, 406, 423,
435, 438, 475, 478, 480, 531, 584-586, 588, 941
DriverManager, 14, 875-879, 883, 892-893, 899, 903,
912-913, 926, 956, 966-968 Extension classes, 22, 28, 677

1000
 Index

Font class, 283-286

F FontMetrics class, 286-288
faultyGenericMethod, 73-74 for-each, 70, 72, 76, 99-101, 148, 164, 166-167, 774, 798,
FeatureDescriptor, 858-859, 865-866, 871 807, 891
FeatureDescriptor class, 858 Formatter, 164, 615, 666, 668-672
File Chooser Filters, 489, 518 Formatting Numbers, 32, 60
File Dialog Boxes, 315-316, 348-349 Foundation Classes, 211, 352, 394
file servers, 729 Frame class, 146, 174, 202-203, 316, 318, 330, 332, 355,
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), 726 374

FileChannel, 618-619, 639, 649 FRAMEBITS, 305, 544

FileDialog, 316-317, 348-349
FileDialog class, 316-317, 348-349
G
FileFilter class, 518-519 garbage collection, 5, 25, 105, 123-125, 142, 144, 161,
FileInputStream, 136, 138-139, 618-619, 637-638, 665 294, 306, 825

FileOutputStream, 207, 618-619, 634, 638-640, 665 Generic Class, 784, 788

FileReader, 164, 647-648, 655, 661 getAdjustable, 267-271

Files Class, 620, 622-624 getAllByName, 737-739

FileStore Class, 628-629 getBorderInsets, 381-382

FileSystem Class, 626-627 getByName, 737, 739, 760

FileSystems Class, 627-628 getChannel, 618-619, 639, 649, 741, 748

FileSystems.getDefault, 620, 626 getChildCount, 475, 483-486

FileWriter, 164, 648-649, 654 getClickCount, 473

Filtering, 444, 478, 480-482, 773, 933 getColumnLabel, 482-483, 909, 968

FilterWriter, 164 getData, 120-121, 126, 128, 158-159, 757-758, 864

finalize, 105, 124-125, 144, 161, 294, 637, 639, 808, 839 getDividerSize, 536, 540-541
getFileName, 620-621
Finally, 13, 15, 17, 20, 27, 29, 86, 100, 106, 123, 133-134,
137, 186, 204, 244, 258, 330, 356, 406, 473, 484, 486, getFileStores, 626-628
522, 664, 698, 718, 768, 807, 834, 846, 854, 862, 899- getHeight, 177, 205, 287-288, 290, 309, 360, 379, 585,
900, 945, 947, 953, 968, 992 587, 862, 931, 934, 941-943
fireTableChanged, 482-483 getHorizontalAlignment, 399, 404-405, 419
Flicker, 673, 710-711, 714-715, 947 getKeyCode, 280-281
Floating-Point Literals, 31, 38 getLayoutAlignmentX, 234, 236, 239, 244, 542, 547
Floating-point numbers, 17-18, 33-34, 37-38 getLayoutAlignmentY, 234, 236, 239, 244, 542, 547
flow layout manager, 202, 216, 228-229, 231, 318 getListCellRendererComponent, 472, 500
FlowLayout class, 228-229 getModifiers, 222, 278, 280, 343, 573
FocusEvent, 179-181, 194, 196-198 getName, 13, 178, 285, 390, 515-516, 621, 645-647, 678-
focusGained, 196-198 679, 682, 685-687, 689-690, 692, 694-695, 705, 764,
FocusListener, 175, 181, 194, 196, 198 820-821, 839-840, 848, 858, 942

focusLost, 196-198 getOpacity, 324, 586

font, 177, 179, 182, 186, 276, 283-288, 294-295, 360, 363, getParent, 178, 343, 483, 486, 620-621, 645-647
381, 384-385, 387, 391-392, 398, 404, 408-409, 414- getPath, 475, 516-519, 620, 626-627, 645-646, 750, 942
416, 422-423, 457, 466, 569, 576, 824, 868, 986 getPathMatcher, 626-627

1001
Index

getPreferredSize, 178, 180, 185, 205, 218-219, 249, 254, HSPACE, 188
360, 404, 408, 410, 508-509 HyperlinkListener, 398, 410
getPreferredSize(), 178, 180, 185, 205, 218-219, 249, Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), 726
254, 360, 404, 408, 410, 508-509
getQuote, 733, 760
I
getRoot, 620-621
IDS Driver, 887
getRootDirectory, 626
if-else Ladders, 75, 93
getSelectedCheckbox, 227
IllegalArgumentException, 109
getSelectedIndices, 466, 468, 470
Image class, 276, 289-290, 927-928, 930-931, 934-935,
getSelectionEnd, 251
939-941, 944
getSelectionStart, 251
ImageIcon, 385-386, 391, 397, 401-403, 413, 424-425,
getSize, 178, 183, 212, 269, 271, 285, 288, 327-328, 360, 427, 431-432, 440, 449-450, 455, 472, 500, 530, 532-
415, 495, 509, 714, 840, 854, 856, 861, 867, 943, 947- 533, 559, 573, 575, 577, 927-928, 938
948
imageIcon, 385-386, 391, 397, 401-403, 413, 424-425,
getState, 203, 224, 226-227, 337, 340-341, 562 427, 431-432, 440, 449-450, 455, 472, 500, 530, 532-
getUserPrincipalLookupService, 626-627 533, 559, 573, 575, 577, 927-928, 938
getViewPosition, 448, 450 ImageIcon class, 397, 401-402, 424, 927-928, 938
Gif Writer, 209, 213 ImageObserver, 176, 180, 275, 290-291, 293, 305-306,
Global addresses, 736 314, 402, 483, 927, 930-932, 934-935, 937, 941-943

Glue, 522, 543-546 imagePainter, 385

goto, 17, 103 imageUpdate, 179, 305, 400, 420, 935-936

Graphics class, 187, 190, 276, 290-295, 298-299, 710, Improved maintainability, 719
940 Increased performance, 719
Grayscale, 275-276, 312-314 Increased productivity, 719
Grid Bag Layouts, 215, 238, 243 Increased reliability, 719
Grid Layouts, 215, 231, 243 Indexed Properties, 848, 864-865
GridBagConstraints class, 240-241 IndexedPropertyDescriptor, 865, 871
GridBagConstraints.BOTH, 242 indexOf, 54, 59, 62, 252, 778, 781-782, 787, 812
InetAddress class, 736-737, 739-740
H inner class, 147, 168, 202, 323, 377, 769
has-a relationship, 160 Inner Frames, 579-580, 582, 584, 586, 588, 590, 592,
594, 596, 598, 600, 602, 604, 606, 608, 610, 612, 614
HashMap, 767-769, 774, 796-798
InputEvent, 195, 277-278, 280, 566, 573
HashMap class, 767, 796-797
InputEvent.ALT_DOWN_MASK, 566
HashSet, 100, 198, 768-769, 774, 778, 789-792, 821
InputEvent.ALT_GRAPH_DOWN_MASK, 566
HashSet class, 769, 789-791
InputEvent.CTRL_DOWN_MASK, 566
Hashtable class, 774, 814-817
InputEvent.META_DOWN_MASK, 566
HIDE_ON_CLOSE, 377
InputEvent.SHIFT_DOWN_MASK, 566
HORIZONTAL_SCROLLBAR_ALWAYS, 408, 453,
455 inputMap, 360, 363, 385, 391
HORIZONTAL_SCROLLBAR_AS_NEEDED, 453 InputMismatchException, 109, 135, 137
HORIZONTAL_SCROLLBAR_NEVER, 453 InputStreamReader, 109-110, 164, 615, 641-642, 647,
660, 672, 742-743, 749
Host Name Resolution, 736

1002
 Index

INSERT_ ROWS, 474 JarEntry class, 839-841

INSERT_COLS, 474 JarFile class, 838-839
insertString, 412-413 Java API, 6, 8, 16, 66, 671, 824-826, 844, 883
Insets, 184-185, 215, 241, 243, 351, 360, 379, 381-382, Java applets, 4-7, 173, 928, 939
387, 394, 419, 421, 448, 551-552, 571, 574-575 Java Consoles, 171, 191
installBorder, 391-392 Java Database Connectivity (JDBC), 7, 876, 952
installColorsAndFont, 391-392 Java Development Kit, 6, 15, 889, 970
instance variables, 105, 107-108, 111, 114, 116, 144, Java exception classes, 134
807, 849, 870, 944, 946
Java Micro Edition (Java ME), 7
Integers, 34, 37, 42, 83, 129, 310, 525, 825, 880, 933
Java Native Interface (JNI), 26, 810, 885
Internet Addressing, 730
Java Platforms, 6-7
Interpreter, 5-6, 8-9
Java syntax, 2, 11, 33, 79, 107, 172
introspection, 846-847, 849-850, 863, 865
Java Virtual Machine (JVM), 3, 665, 952, 971
intValue, 66-68, 525-526, 703
java.lang.annotation, 824, 826, 828, 830, 842-843
invalidateLayout, 234, 236, 239, 244, 542, 547
java.lang.instrument, 824, 826
IOException, 109-110, 130, 134, 138-140, 214, 411, 413,
java.lang.invoke, 824, 826-827
475, 619, 630-634, 636, 639-642, 648, 652, 654, 744-
747, 751, 761 java.lang.management, 825-826
IP Port, 728 java.lang.Math class, 89-90, 109
ipadx, 241, 243 java.lang.ref, 825-827
ipady, 241, 243 java.lang.reflect, 12, 825-827, 842-843
is-a relationship, 160 java.net, 8, 597, 725-727, 734-735, 737-739, 742-744,
746, 749, 751, 754-756, 758-760, 825, 880, 902, 987
isAlive, 685, 689-690
java.net package, 725-726, 734-735, 737, 744, 756, 880
isfocuable, 197
java.security package, 725, 761-764, 766
isLeaf, 483, 485
java.security.Permission, 764
isPasswordCorrect, 406-407
java.security.Policy class, 765
isReachable, 737
java.sql package, 875, 879-881, 904, 911
Item Event, 263
java.sql.ResultSet Interface, 904-907
ItemEvent class, 225, 262-263, 497
java.util.concurrent.atomic, 13, 673, 719, 722-723
ItemListener, 194, 205, 224-227, 249, 253-255, 258-259,
261-264, 266, 336, 340, 418-420, 433-434, 437, 440- java.util.concurrent.locks, 13, 673, 719, 721-722
441, 493-494, 496-497, 563, 576 javac, 6, 9, 12, 20-23, 25, 38, 46, 73, 99, 115, 136, 141,
itemStateChanged, 205, 225-227, 249, 259, 262-264, 159-160, 163, 188, 841, 981, 989-991
337, 340, 434, 437, 440-441, 497, 563, 577 javacdoc, 6
Iterator, 72, 101-102, 164-167, 294, 621, 767, 773, 776, javah, 6
778-787, 790-795, 797, 811
javap, 6
Iterator object, 72, 166
JavaSoft Framework, 888-889
JButton, 353, 366, 368, 383, 389, 393, 413, 417, 421-425,
J 427-429, 434-435, 438-439, 449, 461, 481, 504-506,
JApplet class, 355, 364-366, 374, 710 511, 516, 518, 531-534, 538-540, 569-570, 574-577,
582, 584-586, 588, 596-597, 604-605, 607-609, 612-
jar, 6, 14, 22-25, 28-29, 211, 620, 627, 671, 735, 799, 822- 613, 941
826, 828, 830, 834, 836-842, 844-845, 853-855, 862,
957, 959, 980 JCheckBox, 353, 393, 433-436, 438-441, 534

1003
Index

JCheckBoxMenuItem, 353, 560-562 JLayeredPane.PALETTE_LAYER, 525-526

JCheckBoxMenuItem class, 560-562 JList, 353, 393, 445, 450, 465-474, 484, 500
JColorChooser, 353, 510-511 JList class, 445, 465-468
JColorChooser class, 510-511 JMenu, 353, 550-554, 557-559, 561, 563-564, 566-570
JComboBox, 353, 475-476, 492-496, 498-499, 534, 577 JMenu class, 552-554, 557, 569
JComboBox class, 492-495 JMenuBar, 353-354, 356, 365, 367-368, 375-376, 550-
JComponent, 353-355, 358-364, 366, 368-370, 373, 388, 552, 557-561, 563-570, 593, 595, 611
390-391, 397, 399, 403, 417, 421-422, 430, 433, 436, JMenuBar class, 551-552, 557-558
447, 451, 456, 462, 464-465, 473, 492, 501, 506-507, JMenuItem, 353, 552-560, 562-563, 566-571, 573
510-512, 514-515, 527-528, 535, 543, 551-552, 555,
JMenuItem class, 555-557
560, 562, 570, 574, 590-591, 599, 709
Join, 12, 58, 681, 685, 688-690, 692-694, 696, 701, 705,
JComponent class, 354-355, 358-364, 397
707
jdb, 6, 110, 141, 143
Joining Threads, 673, 688
JDBC API, 876-883, 886, 889, 892, 908-909, 923, 926
JOptionPane, 210, 353, 406, 423-424, 429, 435, 439,
JDBC Architecture, 877-878, 883, 889 579-580, 598-609, 836
JDBC Driver Manager, 889 JOptionPane class, 580, 598-603, 605-606, 608
JDBC Driver Test Suite, 889 JPanel, 353-354, 371-374, 376, 378, 382-383, 389, 393,
JDBC DriverManager, 876 423, 429, 435, 438-439, 449-450, 453-454, 464, 475,
JDBC test suite, 876 481, 511, 522, 530-532, 534, 538-540, 542, 545-546,
548, 585, 589, 595-597, 838, 936, 938, 941-943
JDBC-ODBC Bridge, 14, 876, 884-885, 889, 913, 956
JPanel class, 354, 373, 530
JDBC-ODBC bridge, 14, 876, 884-885, 889, 913, 956
JPasswordField, 353, 397, 406-407
JDesktopPane, 353, 580, 590-591, 593, 596-598, 600,
609 JPopupMenu, 353, 360, 363, 553, 570-573
JDesktopPane class, 580, 590 JPopupMenu.Separator, 353
JDialog, 353, 355, 370, 510, 579-580, 583, 600, 609-614 JProgressBar, 353, 500-505
JDialog class, 580, 609-611, 613 JProgressBar class, 500-502
JEditorPane, 353, 397-398, 409-412 JRadioButton, 353, 389, 393, 436-439, 534
JFileChooser, 353, 512-518, 941-942 JRadioButtonMenuItem, 353, 562-563
JFileChooser class, 512-516 JRootPane, 353-354, 356, 360, 364-368, 375-376, 391,
581-582, 592-593, 595, 610-611
JFrame, 212, 351, 353-356, 366, 370-372, 374-379, 383-
384, 394, 406, 412, 415, 423, 428-429, 434-435, 438, JRootPane class, 356, 364, 366-368
475, 478, 480, 485-486, 491, 516-518, 522, 531, 580- JRun, 9-10
581, 583-589, 926, 941 JScrollBar, 353, 393, 445, 451-452, 462-464
JGoodies, 356 JScrollBar class, 445, 462-464
JInternalFrame, 353, 370, 580, 590-598, 600 JScrollPane, 353, 397, 407-409, 411, 413, 450-455, 468,
JInternalFrame class, 580, 591-595 470-471, 473, 475, 479, 481, 483-485, 487, 499
JInternalFrame.JDesktopIcon, 353, 592-594 JSeparator, 353, 507-509
JLabel, 353, 383-384, 392-393, 397, 399-400, 402-403, JSeparator class, 507
422-423, 449-450, 455, 464, 472, 475, 481, 500, 523- JSlider, 353, 445, 456-461
526, 530, 612-613
JSlider class, 445, 456-460
JLayeredPane, 353-354, 356, 365-370, 375-376, 525-526,
JSplitPane, 354, 535-541
580-582, 590, 593-595, 611

1004
 Index

JSplitPane class, 535-537 LayoutPath class, 286

JSplitPane.HORIZONTAL_SPLIT, 539-541 Layouts, 214-218, 220, 222, 224, 226, 228, 230-232, 234,
JSplitPane.VERTICAL_SPLIT, 537-540 236, 238, 240, 242-245, 269, 356, 370, 372, 520-522,
524, 526, 528, 530, 532, 534, 536, 538, 540-546, 548
JTabbedPane, 354, 527-534
Life Cycle, 675-676
JTabbedPane class, 527-530
Link-local addresses, 736
JTable, 354, 445, 473-474, 476-479, 481, 483
LinkedList, 715, 768-769, 777, 781, 784, 786-788, 793-
JTextArea, 354, 397, 407-409, 415-416, 595-596, 598
794
JTextField, 354, 391-393, 397, 403-407, 423-426, 428,
LinkedList class, 786-788
453-454, 474-475, 481, 486-487, 506, 508-509, 516,
518, 537-540, 542, 545-546, 548, 573, 589, 613 List Interface, 767-768, 776-778
JTextPane, 354, 397-398, 409, 412-416 ListIterator, 165, 767, 778, 781-782, 787, 793-795
JToggleButton, 354, 398, 430-433, 436 ListModel, 465-467, 478
JToggleButton.ToggleButtonModel, 354 ListSelectionListener, 465, 468, 470, 472
JToolBar, 354, 550, 574-577 Literals, 31, 37-43, 57, 72, 74, 112, 118
JToolBar.Separator, 354 locationToIndex, 467, 473
JToolTip, 354, 359, 506 Locks, 13, 673, 699, 718-719, 721-723, 893, 895
JToolTip class, 506 logical And, 75, 77, 85, 87
JTree, 354, 446, 473-476, 483-487 logical Or, 77, 87
JTree class, 446, 483 logical unary Not, 77, 83
JTree.DynamicUtilTreeNode, 354 logical Xor, 77
JTree.EmptySelectionModel, 354 loops, 11, 17, 70, 75-80, 82, 84, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 96-
100, 102-104, 148, 703
Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler, 4
JViewport, 354, 404, 445, 447-452
M
JWindow, 354-355, 370, 580-583, 604
Map Interfaces, 769
K Map.Entry, 769, 796-798, 800-801
Marker, 27, 761-762, 765, 823, 828-829, 842-843, 849,
key set, 620
870
KeyEvent, 179-181, 195, 198, 279-282, 289, 362, 494,
Matcher.find, 481
552, 554, 556, 566, 572
Math Class, 51-52, 75, 78, 89-90, 92, 104, 109
KeyListener, 175, 178, 181, 194, 279, 282, 288
MAX_PRIORITY, 684, 690-691
KeyListener interface, 279
MediaTracker Class, 275, 305-307, 314, 927, 937-938
keyPressed, 279-280, 282, 289
Memory Management, 4-5, 7, 25, 105, 123-124, 144
keyReleased, 279-280, 282, 289
MemoryImageSource, 275, 308-313, 933
KeyStroke class, 565
Menu class, 316, 330, 332-333
keyTyped, 279-280, 282, 289
Menu Separators, 315, 336, 338, 350, 557

L MenuBar, 203, 315-316, 330-333, 335-341, 347, 349,

365, 367, 376
Labels, 33, 172, 213, 215, 220-221, 238, 274, 395, 397, MenuItem, 210, 315-316, 330, 332-343, 347, 349
399, 401-403, 424, 442-443, 454, 457-458, 460-461,
MessageFormat class, 70
488, 490, 523-526, 530-531
Metal look and feel, 388, 390
Layered Panes, 368, 521-522, 524-526, 528, 530, 532,
534, 536, 538, 540, 542, 544, 546, 548 MethodDescriptor, 849, 857-858, 865-866, 871

1005
Index

Microsoft Foundation Class (MFC), 3

MIN_PRIORITY, 684, 690-691
N
mnemonic, 71, 399-400, 418-419, 421, 427-428, 513- Nanosecond-granularity timing, 719
515, 529, 555, 566 Napkin, 356
MODAL_LAYER, 369, 526 narrowing conversion, 46
Model View Controller, 356 NavigableMap, 720, 769, 800
modulus, 75, 77, 83, 89, 96 Network Information Service (NIS), 736, 952
Motif look and feel, 388, 390 network servers, 729
MOUSE_OVER, 385 Networking, 8, 724-730, 732, 734, 736, 738, 740, 742,
MouseAdapter class, 201-202 744, 746, 748, 750, 752, 754, 756, 758, 760, 762, 764,
766, 773, 825, 956
mouseClicked, 201-202, 209, 238, 277-278, 292, 297,
303-304, 344, 473, 573 New, 2-3, 5, 11-15, 17-21, 23, 26-29, 34-36, 40-41, 43-
50, 53-61, 63-68, 70, 72-73, 84, 90, 96, 99-102, 108-
MouseEvent, 180-181, 195, 201-202, 238, 277-279, 292,
117, 119-141, 144, 146-170, 173-174, 182-183, 187-
296-297, 299, 303-304, 343-344, 360, 362, 473, 529,
188, 191-193, 195-214, 216-221, 223-230, 232-237,
552, 556, 572-573, 715, 854, 860, 867
242-243, 246, 248-253, 255-258, 260-265, 267-274,
MouseEvent class, 277-278 279, 282-284, 286, 288, 290-293, 295-297, 299-304,
mouseless operation, 355 307-308, 310-313, 316, 318-324, 326-343, 346-347,
MouseListener, 147, 163, 175, 178, 181, 194, 201, 237- 349, 354-355, 362, 369-371, 373-379, 381-386, 389,
238, 277-279, 291, 296, 302, 304, 343, 362, 472, 556, 392-393, 397, 399-400, 402-403, 405-409, 411-418,
573 421-432, 434-435, 437-441, 445, 449-456, 458-461,
464, 468-475, 477-482, 484-487, 490, 495-500, 502-
MouseMotionListener, 147, 163, 175, 178, 181, 194, 512, 516-518, 522-526, 530-542, 545-546, 548, 550-
277-279, 296, 714 554, 557-561, 563-564, 566-577, 580, 582-591, 595-
MouseWheelEvent, 195, 197, 273 598, 600, 604-605, 607-609, 612-613, 616, 619-620,
MouseWheelListener, 175, 178, 181, 194, 196 622-623, 625, 627-629, 632-634, 636-642, 644, 646-
649, 651-657, 659-661, 664-668, 670-671, 674-677,
moveToBack, 369-370, 525, 594
680-684, 686-696, 698-720, 723, 727-728, 733, 738,
moveToFront, 369-370, 525, 594 742-749, 751, 754-755, 758-760, 770, 773-776, 778-
Multi-Dimensional Arrays, 31, 47-50 779, 781, 783-785, 788-790, 792-797, 799, 804-805,
Multicast, 734-737 807, 813-816, 818-821, 826, 828, 831, 833-834, 836-
843, 845-847, 852-856, 859-864, 866-870, 872-873,
MulticastSocket, 726, 735 876, 882, 891, 895-896, 906, 910, 914-915, 917, 919-
Multilevel Inheritance, 145, 153, 170 923, 925, 930, 933, 936-938, 941, 943-945, 947
Multiple List Selections, 443, 469 newByteChannel, 623
Multiple Threads, 130-131, 672-674, 676-678, 680, 682, newWatchService, 626-627
684, 686, 688, 690, 692-694, 696, 698, 700-702, 704, Nimbus, 351, 392-394
706, 708, 710, 712, 714, 716, 718, 720, 722, 724
NORM_PRIORITY, 684, 691
MULTIPLE_INTERVAL_SELECTION, 469-470
Normal icon, 426
multiplication assignment, 77, 88-89
not equal to, 77, 85, 400, 420
multiplication operator, 44, 83-84
notify, 161, 310, 704-706, 711-712, 717-719, 722, 871
multitasking, 674
notifyAll, 161, 704, 722
Multithreading, 4-5, 276, 674, 676, 718, 890, 975
multithreading, 4-5, 276, 674, 676, 718, 890, 975
O
MutableTreeNode, 483-484
Object-Oriented Programming, 2-3, 105-110, 112, 114,
mutexes, 699, 719
116, 118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 128, 130, 132, 134, 136,
138, 140, 142, 144, 146, 784, 788
1006
 Index

objectCollArray, 73 Pluggable look and feel, 350-352, 354-356, 358, 360,

OCI (Oracle Call Interface), 886 362, 364, 366, 368, 370, 372, 374, 376, 378, 380, 382,
384, 386, 388, 390, 392, 394
ON_OR_INSERT_COLS, 474
Policy Class, 763-765
ON_OR_INSERT_ROWS, 474
Policy Tool, 207-208
One-Dimensional Arrays, 31, 47-50, 313
polymorphism, 145, 157-158, 170
One-Touch Expandable, 521, 535, 538-540, 548
Pop-Up Menus, 209, 315, 342, 350, 522, 549, 570, 572-
opaque, 179, 300, 325, 361, 381, 384-385, 524, 584, 586-
573
588, 623, 732, 762
POPUP_LAYER, 369, 526
Open Database Connectivity (ODBC), 7, 876, 953
PopupMenu, 172, 175, 210, 342-343, 553-554, 571-572
operand, 47, 78, 82, 84-87, 89, 771
postfix operators, 82
operators, 36, 74-78, 80-92, 94, 96, 98, 100, 102, 107
prefix operators, 82
OutputStreamWriter, 164, 615, 643, 648, 672
PreparedStatement, 875, 877, 879-881, 894-896, 899-
Overlay Layout Manager, 521-523, 547-548
904, 913-916, 924-926
OverlayLayout class, 547
PreparedStatement Interface, 875, 896, 899-903
ownDeletesAreVisible, 921-922
Pressed icon, 419, 421, 426
print servers, 729
P ProcessBuilder Class, 130
Padding, 215, 241, 243-244, 669, 802 Progress Bars, 488-490, 492, 494, 496, 498, 500, 502-
paint method, 190, 361 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514, 516, 518, 520
paintComponent, 361, 372-373, 376, 378, 382, 464, 545, PROPERTIES, 15, 29, 100, 176, 266, 285, 301, 305, 359,
585, 589, 594, 936, 938, 943 383, 385, 391, 399-400, 404, 418-421, 430, 433, 436,
painter, 159, 385-386 457-458, 463-464, 467, 493, 544, 552, 555, 560, 562,
643, 647, 728, 736, 753, 755, 763, 768, 798, 810, 817-
PALETTE_LAYER, 369, 525-526 818, 845-850, 852, 856, 858-859, 861-865, 867-874,
Panels, 215-216, 232-234, 238, 271, 507, 510-511, 530, 879, 881, 892, 900, 905, 909-911, 913-915, 917, 920-
542, 545, 980 922, 925, 956, 966, 972, 979-980
PARAM NAME, 188, 191, 841, 853 Properties class, 817
PARAM VALUE, 188 PropertyChangeEvent, 359, 865, 868-870, 872
ParameterDescriptor, 865-866, 871 PropertyChangeListener, 175, 178, 182, 184, 210, 358,
passing a reference, 118 386, 388, 404, 419, 493, 553, 571, 574, 868-869, 871-
872
passing by value, 118, 126
PropertyDescriptor class, 858-859
Path Interface, 620-621
protocols, 6-7, 726-727, 731, 734, 752, 756, 888
Paths Class, 624-625
Proxy Servers, 729
pccrrn, 730
putClientProperty, 362, 459-461
Persistence, 386, 845, 847, 849, 870, 874
PixelGrabber, 275, 308-313, 934
platform-independent, 3-5, 7, 356, 643, 876
Q
Pluggable Look and Feel, 350-352, 354-356, 358, 360, Queue, 673, 696, 715-717, 719-721, 747, 767-769, 777,
362, 364, 366, 368, 370, 372, 374, 376, 378, 380, 382, 784-785, 976
384, 386, 388, 390, 392, 394 Queue Interface, 673, 715, 767-768, 777

1007
Index

R S
RadioButton, 172 Scanner, 109, 132, 135, 137, 164, 615, 671-672, 738, 760
Readable Interface, 163-164 scope, 19, 98, 105, 115, 122-123, 129, 144, 151, 213, 736-
ReadAllBytes, 624 737, 970, 972, 992
readAllLines, 624 Scroll bars, 245-250, 252, 254, 256, 258, 260, 262, 264-
274, 407
Readers, 21, 352, 616, 651
scroll box, 246, 445
readLock, 721-722
Scroll Pane Headers, 443, 454
ReadWriteLock, 721-722
Scroll Panes, 244-248, 250, 252, 254, 256, 258, 260, 262,
reboxing, 68
264, 266, 268, 270-272, 274, 443, 445, 450, 454-455,
Reduced programming effort, 719 538, 591
registerAsParallelCapable, 677 Scrollable, 172, 265, 408, 410, 445, 450, 483, 890, 908,
Remote Notification, 845, 873-874 914-917, 919
removeLayoutComponent, 229, 231, 235, 237, 240, ScrollBar, 172, 194, 265-270, 353, 445, 451-452, 458,
244, 547 462-465, 468
replaceRange, 249, 251, 408 ScrollPane, 172, 247, 272-274, 329, 447, 453-455, 468-
470, 475, 479, 481
Replacing Strings, 32, 59
ScrollPane class, 247, 272-273
ResultSet, 477-478, 482-483, 875-877, 879, 881, 884,
894-900, 904-911, 913-926, 967 Security Policies, 171, 207, 214
ResultSetMetaData, 477, 482-483, 875, 877, 881, 905, SELECT Annotation, 890
908-911, 967-968 Selected icon, 419-421, 426
ResultSetMetaData interface, 875, 908-910 selected-key set, 620
resume, 141, 680-681, 685, 705-706, 711-713, 847 Selection Modes, 469
RGBImageFilter, 312, 934 Selectors, 620
Rich Text Format (RTF), 397 Semaphore, 696-699, 721, 723
Rigid areas, 522, 543, 545 ServerSocket, 618, 726, 735, 743-748, 759
Rollover, 396, 418-419, 421, 426-427, 440, 574-576 Set Interface, 767, 769, 778-779
Rollover icon, 419, 421, 426 setActionCommand, 222-223, 334, 336, 404, 406, 420,
Rollover selected icon, 419, 421, 426 425, 494, 557-560, 569
RowSetFactory interface, 877 setBackground, 182, 190-191, 193, 203, 243, 256, 268,
279, 302, 326, 344, 363, 371-373, 376, 378, 472, 500,
RowSetProvider class, 877
512, 548, 584-585, 589, 714, 863, 947-948
Rowsets Object, 882
setBlockIncrement, 266, 268, 463
RowSorter, 478-480
setBounds, 182, 228, 326, 363, 376-377, 379, 517-518,
rs.deleteRow, 921 523, 525-526, 582-583, 589, 612-613
RTFEditorKit, 411-412 setCaretPosition, 409
Runnable, 211-212, 383, 425, 474, 478, 480, 533, 584- setCellRenderer, 467, 471
586, 588, 673-676, 680-681, 683-685, 687, 691, 695,
setData, 120, 757, 864
699-703, 705-706, 708, 710, 712-713, 720, 724, 759,
936-937, 947 setDefaultButton, 368, 427-429

1008
 Index

setDefaultCloseOperation, 212, 375, 377-379, 384, 406, setResultSet, 478, 482

423, 429, 435, 438, 475, 478, 480, 517-518, 531, 584- setRolloverEnabled, 421, 426-427
586, 588-589, 594, 611, 941
setRolloverIcon, 421, 426-427
setDisabledIcon, 400, 420, 426
setRolloverSelectedIcon, 421, 426
setDisabledSelectedIcon, 420, 426
setRowHeaderView, 452, 454-455
setDividerSize, 537, 540-541
setRowSorter, 478-479, 481
setEchoChar, 219, 397, 406
setSelectedCheckbox, 227
setEndSelection, 412-413
setSelectedIcon, 421, 426, 440
setFocusable, 182, 196-197
setSelectionMode, 468-470
setFont, 182, 186, 288, 295, 363, 404, 408-409, 414-415,
setState, 203, 224-227, 340, 441, 561
422, 457
setTabPlacement, 530-533
setForeground, 183, 191, 302-303, 363, 405, 413-416,
472, 500, 503, 505 setText, 147, 163, 193, 196-200, 206, 219-220, 223-226,
228, 230, 232, 235, 250, 259-260, 263, 282, 320-321,
setHgap, 229, 231, 235, 237, 243
330-331, 336-337, 339, 341-342, 347, 350, 400, 405,
setHorizontalAlignment, 384, 400, 402, 404-406, 420, 411, 420-422, 424, 426, 428-429, 472, 487, 500, 506,
424 517-518, 567, 597, 981, 987
setLabel, 222-223, 225, 334, 420, 572 setUnitIncrement, 266, 268, 463
setLayer, 369-370, 525-526, 595 setVerticalAlignment, 400, 402, 421, 424
setLineWrap, 408-409 setVerticalTextPosition, 400, 402-403, 421, 424
setLocation, 180, 183, 205, 217, 235, 304, 326-327, 464, setVgap, 229, 231, 235, 237, 243
527, 572, 596-597
setViewportBorder, 452, 454-455
setMajorTickSpacing, 457, 460-461
setViewPosition, 449-450
setMenuBar(), 316, 332
setWrapStyleWord, 408-409
setMinorTickSpacing, 457, 460-461
setXORMode, 295, 300
setModal, 345-346
shift left, 78, 89
setName, 183, 678, 682, 685, 848, 858
shift left assignment, 78, 89
setOneTouchExpandable, 537-541
shift right, 78, 89
setOpacity, 203, 326, 346, 583-584, 586-588
shift right assignment, 78, 89
setOpaque, 364, 472, 500, 523-525
shift right with zero fill, 78
setOrientation, 266, 458, 463, 502-503, 507, 537, 539-
shift right zero fill assignment, 78, 89
541, 575
short-circuit And, 77
setPage, 398, 410-413
short-circuit Or, 77
setPaintLabels, 458, 460-461
showConfirmDialog, 599-604
setPaintMode, 212, 295, 300
showInputDialog, 602-603, 606-608
setPaintTicks, 458, 460-461
showInternalConfirmDialog, 602, 609
setPolicy, 764-765
showInternalInputDialog, 602-604, 609
setPosition, 369-370, 525
showInternalMessageDialog, 603-604, 609
setPreferredSize, 183, 206-207, 279, 364, 409, 411, 508-
509, 548 showInternalOptionDialog, 603, 609
setPressedIcon, 421, 426-427 showMessageDialog, 210, 406, 423, 429, 435, 439, 603,
605-606, 836
setResizeable, 346

1009
Index

showOptionDialog, 603 StringWriter, 164

Simple Properties, 845, 848, 862, 874 Struts, 522, 543, 545-546
SimpleBeanInfo class, 857-858, 861, 865, 867 StyleConstants, 412-413, 415-416
Single Member Annotations, 823, 843 Submenus, 315-316, 336, 341, 350, 367, 549-550, 564-
SINGLE_INTERVAL_SELECTION, 469 565
SINGLE_SELECTION, 469 subpath, 620-621
Site-local addresses, 736 Substance, 356
SocketChannel, 618-619, 741 suspend, 141, 680, 684-685, 705-706, 711-713
SOMEBITS, 305, 544 switch statements, 17, 79, 95
SortedMap, 768-769, 799-801 Synchronization, 131, 676-677, 692-696, 699, 701-702,
718-724
SortedSet, 767-768, 779, 790-791
Synchronizers, 696, 719, 722
SortedSet Interface, 767, 779, 791
Synchronizing, 673, 692-694, 696, 976
Splash Screen, 209, 211-213
SynthLookAndFeel, 383-384
Split Pane Orientation, 521, 539-540, 548
System Tray, 209-211
Split Panes, 352, 521-522, 524, 526, 528, 530, 532, 534-
536, 538-540, 542, 544, 546, 548, 591
SqlData, 877, 880
T
Stack, 96, 110, 122-123, 133-136, 141-142, 684-685, 727, Tab Placement, 521, 528, 530, 532
768-769, 785-789, 810, 813-814, 972, 976, 978 Tabbed Panes, 507, 521-522, 524, 526-528, 530-532,
Stack class, 813-814 534, 536, 538, 540, 542, 544, 546, 548
Statement interface, 875, 880, 896-898, 900, 903 Table Sorting, 444, 478
Statement Pooling, 881-882 TableModel, 476-479, 481-482
Static Members, 32, 51-52 TableModel Class, 477
Stopping Threads, 673, 690, 705 TableModel interface, 476-478, 482
Streams, 8, 13, 130, 164, 614-616, 618, 620, 622, 624, TableModelEvent, 483
626, 628, 630-636, 638, 640, 642-644, 646, 648, 650- TableRowSorter, 478-481
652, 654-656, 658, 660, 662, 664, 666, 668, 670, 672,
Task scheduling framework, 719
702, 745, 747, 769-770, 772-774, 826
Telnet, 726, 740
StrictMath class, 37, 90, 104
Terminated, 675-676
String Class, 32, 36, 52-61, 91, 107-108, 112-113, 120,
126, 252, 663, 669 ternary if-then-else, 77
String class constructor, 53, 56 Text Antialiasing, 209, 214
String class field, 52 Text Fields, 171-174, 188, 192-193, 214-216, 218, 220,
222, 224, 226, 228, 230-232, 234, 236, 238, 240, 242,
String class methods, 53-56
244, 246, 250, 259, 276, 282, 344, 394-398, 400, 402-
String Length, 32, 52, 57, 64 404, 406, 408, 410, 412, 414, 416, 418, 420, 422, 424,
StringBuffer class, 32, 52, 61-65, 131 426, 428, 430, 432, 434, 436, 438, 440, 442, 453-454,
StringBuffer class constructors, 61, 63 490, 492, 507-509, 537-538, 542, 547-548

StringBuffer class methods, 61-63 TextArea, 172, 248-252, 260, 271, 273, 328, 409, 414-
416, 595, 597
StringBuilder Class, 131-132
TextEvent, 195
stringWidth, 288

1010
 Index

TextListener, 194 URLClassLoader, 735

TextPane, 173 URLConnection, 725-726, 734-735, 750-756
Thread class, 673-674, 678-679, 681-685, 688, 705, 707- User Datagram Protocol (UDP), 726, 729
708
Thread Priority, 673, 690, 705 V
three-tier application, 9
valueChanged, 260, 469-470, 472, 486-487
Three-Tier Models, 889
valueOf, 56-57, 88, 96, 113, 230, 232, 474, 486, 806-807,
Throwable class, 132-133 809
thumb, 246, 265, 267-268, 445, 456-458 Varargs methods, 32, 69, 71-72, 74
Tick Marks, 443, 456-458, 460-461, 488 Vector, 35, 393, 465, 467, 477, 482-483, 492, 768-769,
Timed_Waiting, 675-676 810-813, 912, 977
Toggle, 316, 339-340, 354, 394-398, 400, 402, 404, 406, VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR, 453
408, 410, 412, 414, 416, 418, 420, 422, 424, 426, 428, VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR_ALWAYS, 408-409, 411,
430-432, 434, 436, 438, 440, 442, 978 453-454
Tomcat, 9 VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR_AS_NEEDED, 453
Translucent, 579, 583-588 VERTICAL_SCROLLBAR_NEVER, 453
Translucent Windows, 579, 583-586, 588 viewport, 353-354, 408, 410, 445, 447-452, 466
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), 726 Viewports, 353, 442-448, 450, 452, 454, 456, 458, 460,
tree.getLastSelectedPathComponent, 486-487 462, 464, 466, 468, 470, 472, 474, 476, 478, 480, 482,
TreeMap, 767-769, 799-801 484, 486, 488

TreeMap class, 767, 799-801 virtual key code, 280

TreeNode interface, 483-484 VSPACE, 188

TreeSelectionListener, 486
TreeSet, 768-769, 778, 790-792
W
TreeSet class, 769, 790-791 Waiting, 161, 276, 330, 352, 631, 638, 675-676, 681, 688,
695-698, 700-702, 704, 707, 716, 718, 721, 942
try block, 109-110, 134, 136, 140
Warnings, 34, 830, 879, 881, 893, 896, 898
Two-Tier, 889-890
WeakHashMap, 769, 774
U Web-based Enterprise, 7
WebLogic, 9-10, 886-888
UIManager, 383, 386-389, 393, 511, 530, 537, 590, 595,
603 Weblogic OCI Driver, 886

uk, 730 Weblogic RMI Driver, 887

unboxing, 32, 67-69, 74 WebSphere, 9

Unicast, 736 while loop, 17-18, 75, 83, 95-97, 99, 135, 483, 924

Uniform Resource Locator (URL), 726, 930, 956 Whois, 725, 746, 766

Uniform Resource Names (URNs), 731 widening conversion, 46

Uniform Translucency Window, 586 windowActivated, 321, 328-329

UPDATE annotation, 890 windowClosing, 146, 148, 174, 206-207, 321-323, 328-
329, 347, 349, 414-416, 429, 517, 519, 589
URI Instance, 732
windowDeactivated, 321, 328-329
URL class, 290, 411, 726, 731, 735, 749-752, 880

1011
Index

WindowEvent, 146, 148, 174, 195, 206-207, 321-323, Wrapper Class, 32, 66-67
325, 328-329, 347, 349, 375, 377, 414-416, 429, 517, writeLock, 721-722
519, 589, 611
Writers, 616, 651, 721
windowFocusListener, 323, 325, 328-329
WindowListener, 194, 206, 320-323, 325, 328-329
Z
windowOpened, 321-322, 328-329
Z-order, 184-185, 521-524
Windows look and feel, 388, 390
ZipEntry class, 839-840
word-wrapping, 246
ZipFile class, 838-839

1012
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 A WIDE RANGE OF BOOKS

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