AUTOMATIC PROCESS

CONTROL
PRINCIPLES, FUNDAMENTALS and ADVANCED
CONCEPTS
Automatic Process Control Manual

COURSE CONTENTS

OVERVIEW OF AUTOMATION PROCESS CONTROL

PAGE 3

SECTION 1 BASIC ON / OFF CONTROLLERS

PAGE 4

SECTION 2 PROPORTIONAL CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS

PAGE 7

SECTION 3 INTEGRAL CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS

PAGE 13

SECTION 4 DERIVATIVE CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS PAGE 17

SECTION 5 RATIO CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS PAGE 20

SECTION 6 CASCADE CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS

PAGE 26

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OVERVIEW OF AUTOMATIC PROCESS CONTROL

This programme has been created in order to assist you in understanding the basic principles and
fundamentals of typical automatic controllers and to introduce you to some of the advanced control
philosopohies.

WHY?

Whether you are a Process Controller, Operator, Supervisor or an aspirant Instrument Technician you must be
able to apply first principles whenever a system requires maintenance, adjustments or repairs. Knowing and
understanding how a system is supposed to operate, will assist you greatly whenever you are faced with a
problem.
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS PROGRAMME

Principles of on / off control action

Principles of proportional control action
Principles of integral control action.
Principles of derivative control action.
Principles of ratio control
Principles of cascade control
Principles of feed-forward control
Principles of adaptive control

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SECTION 1: BASIC ON/OFF CONTROLLERS

PURPOSE OF A CONTROL SYSTEM

The purpose of virtually all control systems is to regulate and maintain one or more variables in a production
process in order that the final output, or finished product, meets the required specifications.
A variable may be an input to the process; for example, quantity of raw material, temperature of a heating
element, time required to blend a mixture, pressure necessary to create a form, and so on.
Before any variable can be controlled we need some method (or device) by which we can measure its value.
Once measured, we then require a device capable of detecting an deviation from the specific or norm, and
which can then send a message to trigger another device which will alter the variable and rectify the error(I.e.
the deviation).

SENSORS

A sensor is a device used to measure the value of a variable. A very common sensor is a thermostat as used
in a domestic stove. A thermostat senses any change in the temperature and then triggers the oven control to
switch the stoves heating element on or off. Sensors can be electrically, pneumatically, hydraulically or
speed operated, depending on the requirements.

EXAMPLE OF A BASIC BATCH PROCESS SYSTEM

In our example we describe a process system used by a small company which produces a liquid detergent.
The system used is called a batch process, because the product is made in batches using a large vat. In
principle, the system works like this:

Raw materials are fed into the vat where an agitator / mixer amalgamates the raw products (ie. It
mixes them all up)
Steam is fed into a jacket which surrounds the vat. The steam provides the heat which is required to
blend the materials
After completion of the blending process.. the final product is tapped out of the vat into bottles for
distribution to the companies customers.
The most important input variable in this simple system is the temperature of the product in the
blending process, and it is this that we are concerned with from a control point of view.

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Figure 1: General View of the Production System

As the important processing variable is temperature a temperature sensor is placed into the
(blending) product. The sensor is essentially a thermostat which is connected electrically to a
temperature indicator in the control panel.
Now in our example / model the blending process must be controlled in such a way that the
temperature remains constant at 80C. An allowable variance of plus or minus 5C is specified.
Should the temperature exceed 85C then some of the ingredients will over react (I.e spoil) and
conversely, if the batch temperature falls below 75C the product will be off specification (I.e. the
quality standard will not be acceptable)
Included in our control panel is a temperature recorder which plots temperature against time, for visual
record purposes. In other words, it is the temperature record. A simplified example of a temperature
record is shown below.

Figure 2: A Simplified temperature record showing in-spec temperatures (between 85 75C)

We want to control the temperature as close to 80C as possible any deviation from 80C is
called an error. The temperature sensor is continuously monitoring the batch temperature and
sends error signals to the controller.

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The purpose of a controller is to compare the value of the error signal to that of the desired
values(set point). As soon as the controller receives an error signal, mechanisms are set up to
effectively adjust the final control element. In our example this would be an automatic steam -
control valve
Part of the control mechanism, on our on / off controller, is a set-point controller, basically a
device that allows the operator to fix the desired temperature at a set position. Working in
conjunction with the temperature indicator, the set-point indicator will trigger a circuit to the
automatic control valve, to:
a) open the valve if the temperature indicator is below set-point, or
b) close the valve if the temperature indicator is above set-point

Figure 3 : On/Off Control Valve with temperature read out

This briefly describes the functioning process of the simple on / off controller. We are not, in this
programme, concerned with the electronics involved in the control elements, we simply need to
know the principles involved
Our on / off system has been extensively simplified for purposes of explanation. However, this
principle is commonly used for batch production control and works well enough to maintain the correct
temperature range.

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SECTION 2: PROPORTIONAL ACTION CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS

In the previous section we learned that a basic on / off controller was sufficient to regulate the blending
temperature in a batch system.
However, owing to an increase in demand for the product, the company has decided to increase its production.
To do this they have opted to install a continuous process line. Further, they have installed 2 bottling lines,
either of which can be run independently as the need arises. In this section we shall first describe what is
meant by continuous process, and then well see how the company overcame their first problem.

A CONTINUOUS PROCESS
In the batch process, product was made somewhat like a cake. The ingredients were placed in a
bowl, all mixed up, then poured out of the bowl into a baking tray for heating in an oven.
A continuous process is more like a meat grinder where chunks of meat are pushed into the machine
and, as long as you turn the handle, minced meat emerges out the spout.
In a more practical example our chemical plant mixes its ingredients (raw materials) in a pre-
blending unit (mixer) which then feeds into the heading element, known as a heat exchanger
Product flows through the heating element at a regulated flow rate.
Heating is created, in our example, using steam that is fed through tubular piping, or coils that are in
contact with the product.
An outlet control (eg. Valve) then controls the output (blended product) to a bottling process.
Output can be regulated to feed either a single or dual bottling line.
In practice, regulating the output will automatically change the rate of input and flow through the
heating element (heat exchanger).
So then, a continuous process can be described as being a flow of production through a system,
starting with the raw materials and ending with packaged products. (see fig 4).
Figure 4: A Continuous Process

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Now lets see hw the change from batch production to continuous process affected our chemical company.
PROBLEM No.: 1

The controller used for the temperature control was an on / off unit (i.e the same as for the batch
process).the only modification made to the temperature control side of the process was to install a
larger automatic steam valve.
The process was started, and sure enough the steam valve opened up and the sensor, now installed
in the heat exchanger, was soon registering 80C.
The controller in turn reacted by closing the steam valve when the temperature rose above the set
point. But for some reason.the final product was not meeting specifications. A look at the
temperature record revealed a big problem!
Figure 5: Dark shaded areas revealing out of specified temperatures

The temperature was cycling in and out of spec and the product was being ruined.

WHY WAS THIS OCCURRING?

Lets consider a person bathing in a nice warm bath tub. The bather decides to warm the water a little by
opening the hot tap for a while. Hot water then enters the relatively large volume of bath water and after a
while the bather is happy with the comfortable increase in temperature and shuts off the hot tap.

This comfortable and slow change in bath water temperature can be likened to our batch system. Here the
large volume of product had to absorb a high volume of steam heat .. but it reacted slowly.

The continuous process however reacts more like a shower. Here, opening up the hot tap results in fast
reaction to the bather(we could call him the product) and he/she immediately feels the discomfort. Likewise,
opening up the cold tap results in an almost instant drop in the product temperature.

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The same situation exists in a continuous process. Opened fully, the steam valve rapidly heats the product;
and closing it rapidly cools the product, resulting in extremes.

What is needed is a system that will gradually alter the position of the valve between its open and its
closed positions. In other words, we need some control over the position of the valve opening
anywhere between open and closed.
To achieve this, the process control unit must contain a control mechanism which we call a
proportional action unit. Such a unit is designed to respond to a measured input signal or value and
cause a proportional response to an out put signal.
In our model this simply means that the controller will alter the position of the valve, in proportion to
the error value (temperature difference off set-point). To assist the operator a valve position
indicator would be added to the controller.
Figure 6: Valve Positioner Indicator

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PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL CONTROL ACTION DEVICES

We use the analogy of a balanced beam to illustrate this principle.

In the above situation (Figure 8) a temperature rise results in an equally proportional amount of valve
opening, as the fulcrum or pivot is centred on the beam.

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In the above situation (Figure.9) the pivot has been shifted to the right. Now you can see how a relatively
small temperature variation results in a large valve position variation. This situation is known as high gain.

In this situation (fig.10) the pivot has been shifted to the left resulting in a small valve position variation after
a large temperature variation. This situation is called low gain.
This gain principle is built into the design of proportional control units, appearing on the control panel as a
gain control adjustment.

We now have a proportional action controller. As the temperature measurement begins to rise it approaches
the set-point which we have set to 80C.

The difference between the set-point temperature and the temperature indicator is detected by a circuit
controller call a comparitor (also known as an error detector).

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Whilst the sensed temperature is below the set-point the comparator generates a negative error signal.
Likewise, a positive error signal is generated when the sensed temperature rises above the set-point.

The value of the signal, either positive or negative, is then sent to the proportional unit. Here the signal is
modified and an output signal is sent to the automatic positioner of the steam valve.

The modification of the output signal will be affected by the gain setting / adjustment.
Our controller has been converted from a simple on / off unit to a proportional control action unit. The volume
of steam flowing into the heat exchanger can be regulated in accordance to the temperature requirements.
This of course has to be set largely by trial and error of the gain adjustment. Too high a gain would result in a
situation almost as if the controller were acting like an on / off unitand low a gain would result in too slow a
warm up, with the result that a lot of product would be wasted.
However, in our example, once an optimum gain setting was discovered- the system operated very well
until one of the bottling lines was shut down for maintenance. In the next section well look at what happened
and how the problem was overcome.

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SECTION 3: INTEGRAL ACTION CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS

In the previous section we saw how the continuous process was improved with the substitution of the on / off
controller for a proportional action controller. Valve movement is now able to be positioned according to the
temperature requirements.

However, a problem arose every time a bottling line was shut down or started up.

On observing the temperature record it could be seen that a large temperature variance occurred.

For example, every time the second bottling line was put on line (e.g. after repair or a maintenance
operation) the temperature record showed a low reading (see fig.12)

Figure 12: Schematic of a Bottling Plant

Legend:

A = One plant operating a bottling line

B = Second plant switched on
C = Continuous record of two plants running (note steady low reading)

From the temperature record it could be seen that the temperature was steady but below spec (ie.
80C + 5C) and the product was worthless!

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Whilst only one bottling line (plant) was operating we can assume that an operator or engineer
tweaked the system to obtain an optimum via the gain control.
When the second bottling line opened up, the product-flow through the heat exchanger doubled!
But the steam valve position had been set to satisfy the conditions for only one plant: the resulta
drop in product blending temperature.
The proportional unit sensed the drop and began to gradually open the valve the valve opened until
the temperature stabilised but even then the temperature did not reach set-point.
A phenomenon called offset had occurred. Lets explain this.

To explain offset, well have to use an illustration of a water tank.

Figure 13: A Schematic of a Water tank

Water is pumped into the tank and a float-controlled valve is used to maintain the flow of inflow. An
outlet valve(outflow) is fitted to the outlet pipe.
With the outflow valve partially openthe inflow keeps pace with the outflow and the water level
remains constant .
If the outflow valve is gradually opened more(I.e. outflow increases) the float drops and the inflow
valve opens further to increase the inflow. A small drop in the level will occur until the outflow valve
is reset to its normal flow position.

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Suppose the outflow valve were to be suddenly opened up fully. This would result in a rapid drop of
water level.
The inflow would increase owing to the float drop (which opens the inflow valve wider) and a situation
would exist where the inflow volume equalled the outflow volume. In other words, the system has
stabilised.
Note however that although stabilisedthe water level is below the normal level. The difference
between normal and stabilised level is known as off-set.
This phenomenon always occurs whenever a large and sustained load increase is made, and this is
what happened in our process.

Figure 14: Off set control

As it is obvious that the proportional device alone is not sufficient to return the temperature back to set-point
we therefore require something that will open the steam valve beyond that of proportional action whenever a
load change occurs.

The feature we require is called Integral action control also called a re-set action control.

In essence this is a device which responds to the duration of an error (note that a proportional action
unit only responds to the size of the error)

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An integral action control device works in conjunction with a proportional action control device and
effectively reset the proportional control (gain) when an offset error occurs.
Integral action control devices are designed to monitor or check he performance of the proportional
action unit at pre-determined frequency rates. Frequency is set / adjusted in terms of repeats per
minute or minutes per repeat depending on the application.
When our second plant opened (came on-line) and increased load was incurred (I.e. more product
had to flow through the heat exchanger). This extra flow caused a drop in temperature.
The proportional action unit signalled the valves positioner to open in proportion to the change of
temperature.
The integral action control unit, simultaneously responded to the low temp error signal.
Controller output (I.e. signal to the valve controller / positioner) increased and the steam valve
continued to gradually openall the while the error signal was being detected by the integral action
unit.
The valve continued opening beyond the position set initially by the proportional action control
allowing extra (heat) steam to flow through the heat exchanger until such time as the temperature
reached set-point.
At this time a zero error signal was present and the integral unit stopped (I.e. ceased to re-set the
proportional action unit).
Now the steam valve was in the correct position to maintain the blending temperature at set-point.

In effect, during an off-set situation, an integral control unit overrides the proportional action control
for the duration it takes to bring the input variable (temperature in our example) back to set-point.
Conversely, when a product line (plant) is shut down, the load change will result in the integral action
control, once again, over riding the proportional action control until the temperature drops to set-
point.
Initial settings of both proportional and integral controls are made by the process engineers. Their
responsibility is to optimise these settings to ensure that the product maintains the desired specs.
We have improved our continuous process control system by the use of 2 unit controllers (I.e. A proportional
and integral control). But the system still isnt perfect as well see in the next section.

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SECTION 4: DERIVATIVE ACTION CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS

As we ended off the last sequence we mentioned that even though our new 2 unit controller was a major
improvement over the on off type, however the system was still not perfect.

Again, it was the temperature record that provided evidence. This time it was noticed that each time a
bottling line was started or stropped (I.e. whenever the load change occurred) the temperature rose or fell out
of spec for a short duration or as we say, the system over peaked. A result of over peaking is a short
batch of off-spec product, in other words, waste. Again the problem was to do with the steam valve control,
and more specifically it was a speed of control problem.

What the controller lacked was some device that could detect the rate, or speed, of the temperature change
and cause additional valve movement whenever the rate was too rapid. Such a device is available and it is
called a Derivative action control unit. Another name used is a rate action unit because it functions
according to the rate of change in error signal.
The question has almost been answered but lets look deeper. In simplicity a derivative action unit senses
the speed at which temperature changes and acts before the temperature rises or falls out of set-point limits.
You could say it anticipates an over peaking problem.

To use an illustration, imagine that a speedometer was attached to the temperature indicator.

Now assume that the faster the temperature indicator moved (up or down) the higher the speedo reading.
Well, the derivative control works basically on this principlewhen the temperature movement is rapid the unit
reacts by sending a high (speedo) value signal to the proportional action unitwhich in turn responds by
causing extra valve movement..
Figure 15: A Schematic of a Speedometer

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When the temperature indicator movement stops the derivative action unit stops signalling the proportional
action unitand the valve is caused to return to its original position (ie. that dictated by Proportional and
Integral action).

Again we must mention that a derivative action unit, like all the other units, has to be optimised by a plant
engineer, after which no further attempt to tweak the system must be made by an operator. Over correction
of these controllers will result in all the problems experienced with the simple on / off controller

What began as a simple system has now evolved into a somewhat complex control system and yet
the only variable we have controlled is the steam (heating) flow.
We now have what is know as a 3 mode controller (or if you wish a 3 unit controller) to control the
heating process.
Such a controller is often referred to as a PID unit, so called because it is
P for Proportional

I for Integral

D for Deriative

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A 3 mode controller includes:

a Proportional action unit which reacts to the size of a variable ( error system)
an Integral action unit which reacts to the duration of a variable, and
a Derivative action unit which reacts to the rate or speed of a variable.

It must be noted that controllers are varied in design, type, shapes and sizes according to the application in, or
on which they operate. Typically, our demo system would use electronic components for sensory and
signalling devices, as well as for the transmitting units.

Other PIDs are created to respond to pneumatic signals, whilst other are hydraulically operated.

PIDs can be used to control not only a steam valve, as in our model, but also other variables such as liquid
flow, pressure, levels and even the positioning of robotic tools.

Three mode controllers are examples of feedback systems, simply because they react to signals being
supplier by sensors.

Once the signal has been analysed by the relevant control unit, an output signal is generated to the final
control element, the steam valves automatic positioner in our case.

We call this situation a feedback loop.

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Every successful manufacturing plant requires:

Safety in the workplace

Quality products
Good productivity

The ability to measure and control the many variables that directly affect plant safety, product quality, and
operating efficiency is the purpose of automatic process control systems.

In this section, you will be introduced to more advanced methods of process control. These include:

Ratio control
Cascade control
Feed forward control and
Adaptive control

OVERVIEW OF A TYPICAL MANUFACTURING PLANT

In our previous modules, we described a process system used by a small company which produces a
liquid detergent.
The system used was a continuous process whereby the flow of production through the system began
with raw materials and ended with packaged product.
The chemical plant missed its raw materials in a pre-blending unit, then the mixture was fed into a
heating element or heat exchanger.
The critical condition was the temperature of the mixture, which had to be maintained at 80C +/-5C
to ensure proper blending before being released to the bottling lines.
With this in mind, we studied the characteristics and performance of basic automatic process control
systems and saw how a combined proportional, integral and derivative control system was able to
maintain the temperature of the mixture within the specified limits.

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The Companys product is now established and sales are soaring, but competitors are beginning to
challenge.
To maintain its market share without lowering quality standards, the company had to look for ways to
reduce costs.
Raw materials represented a major part of production costs, so it was here that they focussed their
attention.

INTRODUCTION TO RATIO CONTROL

The product is made by blending two components A and B. Component A consists of a mixture of two
ingredients, which we will call X and Y. (See fig. 17 and 18)

Figure 17 Figure 18

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The recipe for component A is simple consisting of two ingredients blended in a 2:1 ration, i.e. two parts of
ingredient x to one part of ingredient y.

PRINCIPLES OF RATIO CONTROL

Ratio control is accomplished by either:

1. Controlling the flow of ingredient in both streams, or

2. Controlling only one of the streams, whilst the other runs uncontrolled ( wild).

This results in the controlled stream always matching the uncontrolled stream in the desired ratio.

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EXAMPLE

Lets look at a practical example.

We require warm water at a gentle flow to take a shower, we

Open the hot water supply (uncontrolled stream) and adjust the flow.
Add cold water (the controlled stream) in the desired ratio until the water feels warm.

Now the mixture remains warm as long as the flow rates do not vary. Should either flow rate vary owing to a
pressure change in the system, (someone decides to take a bath), the ratio of the mixture will change, and the
water will no longer feel warm.

We must soon take corrective action by re-adjusting the flow of cold water (controlled stream) to maintain a
supply of warm water.

By adjusting the cold water flow, we are in effect attempting to maintain the desired ratio of cold to hot water
even as the flow rates vary just the job for a ratio controller!

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THE RATIO CONTROL SYSTEM

How does the RATIO control system operate?

Both streams are fitted with a flow rate sensor.

Each sensor outputs a signal in proportion to the rate of flow of the ingredient.
These signals are compared to the set point signal which represents the desired ratio signal required
by the process.
The controller outputs an error signal which positions the control valve.
The valve regulates the flow of ingredient in the controlled stream so as to maintain the desired ratio
for the mixture.
The desired ratio is pre-set by adjusting the set point control on the controller.
A high ratio = large difference in flow rates and conversely
A low ratio = small difference in flow rates.

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Having understood the basic principles of ratio control themselves, the plant engineers installed this typical
system to ensure that the correct ratio of ingredients always flowed into the pre-blender.

The flow in the uncontrolled (wild) stream is continuous but variable depending on the demands made
by the bottling lines.
The flow in the controlled stream is carefully controlled so that its flow always matches the
uncontrolled stream in the desired ratio.
For the ratio to be controlled, the absolute rate does not matter only that the 2:1 ratio is maintained.

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SECTION 6: CASCADE CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS

INTRODUCTION

Having successfully reduced its raw material costs, the Company began analysing its energy consumption.
The amount of steam necessary to operate the heat exchange was their first concern.

LOWERING THE SET POINT

To ensure proper blending of the components, the temperature of the mixture had to be maintained at 80C
+/-5C (see typical chart recorder diagram below).

If the set point could be lowered by 3C to from 80C to 77C and the temperature deviations contained
within the limits of +/-2C , less steam would be required for the blending process. This would save fuel and
money.

Product quality would not be affected since the upper and lower temperature limits would not be exceeded but
would remain within the specified minimum and maximum temperature band (79C temp 75C)

Pressure and temperature measuring instruments were fitted to the stream supply line to monitor the
characteristic of the incoming steam supply to the heat exchanger.

In addition, the heat exchanger shell was also fitted with a pressure monitor.

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The engineers found that the demand for the steam in other areas of the plant caused the pressure in
the steam supply line and the pressure in the heat exchanger shell to vary.

The pressure disturbances caused corresponding temperature variations in the supply line and
consequently in the heat exchanger shell.

They realised that the existing PID control system was unable to compensate for the sudden changes in
steam pressure owing to the heat transfer characteristics of the mixture and heat exchanger combined.

When the heat transfer rate from the steam to product is slow, the response time of the control system will be
slow, since the controller is totally dependant on the temperature of the mixture (its feedback signal) to
determine the position of the steam valve.

This factor made it possible to control the product temperature variations more accurately.

THE SOLUTION

The engineers plan was to monitor the steam pressure in the heat exchanger shell and then use this
information to control the steam supply to the heater.

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REVIEW OF THE EXISTING TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM

The primary variable is product temperature.

A temperature dependent feedback control system positions the steam to maintain the product temperature at
the set point.

INTRODUCING THE CASCADE CONTROL SYSTEM

The cascade control system functions with two control loops, an outer or primary loop and an inner or
secondary loop.
The secondary loop controls the secondary variable steam pressure whilst the primary loop controls
the primary variable product temperature.
Variations in the steam pressure cause similar variations in steam temperature are passed on to the
product.
The secondary loop responds to pressure disturbance by adjusting the steam supply to the heat
exchange minimising the temperature variations in the heat exchanger thus maintaining the product
temperature closer to the set point.
Load changes in the product are addressed by the primary control loop, but instead of positioning the
steam valve, the output of the primary controller is used to adjust the set point of the secondary
controller (the controllers are cascaded together).

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CASCADE CONTROL CONFIGURATION

TO SUMMARISE

The secondary feedback loop is always active positioning the steam valve to maintain a steady
temperature in the heat exchanger shell, whilst the primary loop responds to any load change in
the product e.g. when a bottling line is opened up or closed down.
Whenever a load change occurs in the product, the set point of the secondary controller is
automatically adjusted by the primary controller to keep the temperature closer to the set-point.

CONCLUSION

Once the engineers had tuned (optimised) each controller's response to the disturbance variables,
the product temperature varied by only 2C about the set point which they were now able to fix at
77C.
With a reduced energy bill, the company once again enjoyed the benefits offered by the advanced
control system.

This brings to an end our discussion on cascade control.

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