Equations and facts to Know:

a * will denote sections that are probably less important to know.

\\Part 1 - Integration Techniques

a. integraion by parts - integral of u dv = uv - integral of v du

three types -
(1) polynomial times something like e^x, cos(x), or sin(x)
(2) integration by parts a few times results in the original problem
(3) problems like integral of ln(x) or arctan(x), set u to be equal the function
and dv = 1

b. partial fraction decomposition - for linear terms in the denominator like 1/x or
1/(x-1) these become A/x or A/(x-1)
for quadratic terms like 1/(x^2+3) these become (Bx+C)/(x^2+3)
When dealing with multiplicity like 1/(x-1)^2 or 1/(x^2+3)^2 include multiple terms
in the following way:
1/(x-1)^2 becomes A[1]/(x-1) + A[2]/(x-1)^2 and 1/(x^2+3)^2 becomes (B[1]x+C[1])/
(x^2+3) + (B[2]x+C[2])/(x^2+3)^2

c. for trigonometric integrals use the following identities along with

trigonometric substitution:
1 = sin^2(x)+cos^2(x)
sec^2(x) = 1+tan^2(x)
csc^2(x) = 1+cot^2(x)
sin^2(x) = (1/2)(1-cos(2x))
cos^2(x) = (1/2)(1+cos(2x))
sin(2x) = 2sin(x)cos(x)

d. for integrals involving roots like integral of (x+2)/(x-3)^(1/3), let u=(x-

3)^(1/3), then solve for x, i.e. x = u^3+3. This leads to dx = 3u^2 du

then substitute this back into the integral. Doing this, we have:

integral of (((u^3+3)+2)/u) 3u^2 du

= integral of (u^3+5)3u du
= integral of 3u^4+15u
=(3/5)u^5+(15/2)u^2

now substitute back

e. for trigonometric substitution, we have the following substitutions

if sqrt(a^2-x^2) shows up use x = a sin(theta) then sqrt(a^2-x^2) = a cos(theta)

if sqrt(a^2+x^2) shows up use x = a tan(theta) then sqrt(a^2+x^2) = a sec(theta)

if sqrt(x^2-a^2) shows up use x = a sec(theta) then sqrt(x^2-a^2) = a tan(theta)

DON'T FORGET TO INCLUDE dx WHEN CHANGING THE INTEGRAL

f. Improper integrals - Two types

Type 1 - integral with infinite limits. ex - integral from 1 to infty 1/x^2

Type 2 - integral with infinite discontinuity. ex - integral from 1 to 3 of 1/(x-2)

evalutate by writing out limits

g. Diverget/Convergent integrals - Comparision test. The comparision test for
integral can determine if an indefinite integral is convergent or divergent. You
need to know that the functions used in the test are continuous, positive, and
decreasing. Once you know this, you can use the comparision test in a similar way
to how you would apply the comparision test for series.

h. Approximation of integral - Left/Right/Midpoint/Trapezoid rules

setup:
n = number of steps
h = step size = (b-a)/n
a = x[0]
x[i] = x[0]+i*h

Left endpoint rule = h*(f(x[0])+f(x[1])+...+f(x[n-1]))

Right endpoint rule = h*(f(x[1])+f(x[2])+...+f(x[n]))

let x'[i] = (x[i]-x[i-1])/2 i.e the midpoint between x[i] and x[i-1]
Midpoint rule = h*(f(x'[1])+f(x'[2])+...f(x'[n]))
Trapezoid rule = (h/2)*(f(x[0])+2f(x[1])+2f(x[2])+...+2f(x[n-1])+f(x[n]))

\\Part 2 - Applications of integrals

a. Arclength - For cartesian coordinates we have integral from a to b of

sqrt(1+f'(x))dx

b. Surface area - For cartesian coordinates we have the integral from a to b of

2[pi]*r(x)*sqrt(1+f'(x))dx

*c. Center of mass - for the center of mass between two curves f(x) and g(x)
between a and b, we define the following

A = area between f(x) and g(x)

average x = x| = (1/A)*integral from a to b of x(f(x)-g(x))dx
average y = y| = (1/A)*integral from a to b of (1/2)(f^2(x)-g^2(x))

center of mass = (x|,y|)

d. Hydrostatic force - here are two major principles that allow us to do problems
in hydrostatics.

(1) Pascal's principle - The pressure exherted by a fluid on the cross section of
an object at depth "d" is transmitted equally in all directions.

(2) The pressure on an object at a depth "d" is given by the following equation: P
= F/A = [rho] g d

alternatively, we can write this as PA = F = ([rho] g d)A

With this in mind, have the following way to calculate the hydrostatic force on a
vertical plate submerged in a liquid. The calculation is as follows:
Let h(y) be an expression in terms of 'y' that gives the distance from the surface
of the liquid to the y-cross section of the object. This will depend on the
coordinate system that you choose for the problem. When you set the surface of the
liquid to coincide with y=0, you will have h(y) = -y. This is not always the best
coordinate system, and you might have to try a few options before your integral
becomes easy to solve.
Next we will let L(y) be equal to the horizontal distance between the edges of your
object along the y-cross section. For an object like a square, this value is
constant. For objects of like a circle, triangle, or trapezoid, you will have to
find an expression for the edge of the object in terms of y.
Once you have completed these tasks, the problem is reduced to evaluating the
following integral:

integral from a to b of [rho] g h(y) L(y) dy

\\Part 3 - Differential Equations

There were two main types of differential equations that were to be solved in this
section. They are
(1) separable differential equations and
(2) linear differential equations

Separable differential equations could be solved by letting y' = dy/dx, then moving
all x and y terms to opposing sides, and finally by integrating each side.

Linear differential equations were equations of the form

y' + p(x)*y = q(x)

For these, we first set I(x) = e^integral of p(x) dx. Then we have d/dx(I(x)*y) =
I(x)*q(x). Integrating both sides, we have I(x)*y = integral of I(x)*q(x).

If in addition to a differential equation, we are given an initial condition, we

may solve to find a particular solution. When this information is given, the
problem is called an intial value problem.

\\Part 4 - Polar/Parametric equations

(1) Parametric:
x = f(t)
y = g(t)

a. derivatives: dy/dx = (dy/dt)/(dx/dt) = g'(t)/f'(t)

b. area - two ways, either

i) Suppose that x = f(t) and a = f(c), b = f(d). Also assume that y = F(x), then:
integral from a to b F(x) dx = integral from c to d g(t)f'(t) dt

ii) If instead we have y = g(t) and a = g(c), b = g(d). Also assuming that x =
G(y), then:
integral from a to b G(x) dx = integral from c to d f(t)g'(t) dt

c. Arc length - integral from a to b sqrt(f'(t)^2+g'(t)^2) dt

d. Surfac area - integral from a to b 2[pi]*r(t)*sqrt(f'(t)^2+g'(t)^2) dt

(2) Polar:
r = f([theta])

a. derivative: dy/dx = (dy/d[theta])/(dx/d[theta]) = (sin[theta]*dr/d[theta]

+r*cos[theta])/(cos[theta]*dr/d[theta]-r*sin[theta])

b. area = integral from a to b of (1/2)r^2 d[theta]

c. Arc length = integral from a to b sqrt(r^2+(r')^2) d[theta]

d. Surface area = integral from a to b 2*[pi]*h([theta])*sqrt(r^2+(r')^2) d[theta]

\\Part 5 - Sequences and series

a. limits of sequences

b. special series - harmonic, p-series, geometric, and telescoping.

c. series tests:

i) test for divergence

ii) integral test
iii) comparision test
iv) comparison limit test
v) alternating series test (and the error estimation |error|<b[n+1]
vi) absolute convergence implies convergence
vii) ratio test
viii) root test

d. Power series -
general example: sum from n=0 to infty c[n](x-a)^n for |x-a|<R
specific example:1/(1-x) = sum from n=0 to infty of x^n for |x|<1
R = radius of convergence
use various test to determine if the endpoints are in the interval of convergence

e. Taylor series - Taylor's theorem says that you can approximate any function f(x)
around a point x=a using a power series with coefficients given by c[n] = (f^[n]
(a))/n!
This says that f(x) is equal to the infinite sum f(a) + (f'(a)/1!)*(x-a) +
(f''(a)/2!)(x-a)^2 + (f'''(a)/3!)(x-a)^3 + ..., as long as x is in the radius of
convergence

Important MacLaurin series to know:

e^x = 1 + x + x^2/2! + x^3/3! + x^4/4! + ...
sin(x) = x - x^3/3! + x^5/5! - x^7/7! + ...
cos(x) = 1 - x^2/2! + x^4/4! - x^6/6! + ...

f. You can perform term-by-term integration and differentiation of power

series/Taylor series/MacLaurin series

\\Part 6 - Equations of lines and planes and misc.

a. Dot Product/Cross product

Asside from the definition of each, you should know that <a>.<b> = |a|*|b|
*cos[theta], where [theta] is the angle between <a> and <b>.

Also |<a>*<b>| = |a|*|b|*sin[theta]

Finally, the area of a parallelepided determined by <a>,<b>,<c> is the determinant

of the matrix whose rows are the components of the vectors.

b. Parameterizing intersection of surfaces. If one of the surfaces is given as a

relationship between only two of the variables, let one of those variables be equal
to t and then determine how to parameterize the other variables with the remaining
relationships.
If this is not the case, but you have a cylinder i.e. x^2+y^2 = 4 then set x =
2cos(t) and y = 2sin(t). Then use the other relationship to solve for z in terms
of t.
c. There are three typical ways to represent an equation for a line in three
dimensions, they are:

(1) vector equation - r(t) = <p>+<v>*t = <x0,y0,z0>+<a,b,c>*t

(2) parametric equation - x=x0+a*t, y=y0+b*t, z=z0+c*t
(3) symmetric equation - (x-x0)/a = (y-y0)/b = (z-z0)/c

where we think of <p> as being a vector representation of the point p = (x0,y0,z0)

and <v> being the vector <a,b,c> which is parallel to the line.

d. There are two typical ways of representing the equation of a plane in three
dimensions

(1) vector equation - <n>.(<r>-<r0>) = 0 or <n>.<r> = <n>.<r0>, where <n> = <a,b,c>

is a normal vector to the plane, <r0> = <x0,y0,z0> is a vector that represents a
point (x0,y0,z0) in the plane, and <r> is a vector correspoding to an arbitrary
point (x,y,z) in the plane.
(2) scalar equation - a(x-x0)+b(y-y0)+c(z-z0) = 0

e. Vector projections: if we have two vectors <a> and <b>, we may project <b> onto
the vector <a> to get either a scalar or vector that represents this projection.
These quantities are given as:

scalar projection = comp[a](b) = (<a>.<b>)/|<a>| Note that this is a scalar

quantity.
vector projection = proj[a](b) = ((<a>.<b>)/(|<a>|^2)) <a> Note that this is a
scalar quantity times vector <a> so it is a vector.