IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.

com

Course Code : MCS-021

Course Title : Data and File Structures
Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17
Last Dates for Submission : 15th October, 2017 (For July 2017 Session)

15th April, 2018 (For January 2018 Session)

This assignment has twenty questions in all and carries 80 marks. The rest of the 20 marks are
for viva-voice. Answer all the questions. All questions carry equal marks (i.e. 4 marks each).
Please go through the guidelines regarding assignments given in the Programme Guide for the
format of presentation.

Disclaimer: This Assignment is prepared by our students. The Institution and publisher are not
responsible for any omission and errors.

Q.1. Write an algorithm for the Implementation of a

Tree?
Ans1:-

Tree represents the nodes connected by edges.Binary Tree is a special data

structure used for data storage purposes. A binary tree has a special condition
that each node can have a maximum of two children. A binary tree has the benefits
of both an ordered array and a linked list as search is as quick as in a sorted array
and insertion or deletion operation are as fast as in linked list.

Important Terms
Following are the important terms with respect to tree.

Path Path refers to the sequence of nodes along the edges of a tree.

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

Root The node at the top of the tree is called root. There is only one root per tree
and one path from the root node to any node.

Parent Any node except the root node has one edge upward to a node called parent.

Child The node below a given node connected by its edge downward is called its
child node.

Leaf The node which does not have any child node is called the leaf node.

Sub-tree Sub-tree represents the descendants of a node.

Visiting Visiting refers to checking the value of a node when control is on the node.

Traversing Traversing means passing through nodes in a specific order.

Levels Level of a node represents the generation of a node. If the root node is at
level 0, then its next child node is at level 1, its grandchild is at level 2, and so on.

keys Key represents a value of a node based on which a search operation is to be

carried out for a node.

Binary Search Tree Representation

Binary Search tree exhibits a special behavior. A node's left child must have a
value less than its parent's value and the node's right child must have a value
greater than its parent value.

We're going to implement tree using node object and connecting them through
references.

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

Tree Node
The code to write a tree node would be similar to what is given below. It has a
data part and references to its left and right child nodes.
struct node {

int data;

struct node *leftChild;

struct node *rightChild;

};

In a tree, all nodes share common construct.

BST Basic Operations

The basic operations that can be performed on a binary search tree data structure,
are the following

Insert Inserts an element in a tree/create a tree.

Search Searches an element in a tree.

Preorder Traversal Traverses a tree in a pre-order manner.

Inorder Traversal Traverses a tree in an in-order manner.

Postorder Traversal Traverses a tree in a post-order manner.

We shall learn creating (inserting into) a tree structure and searching a data item
in a tree in this chapter. We shall learn about tree traversing methods in the
coming chapter.

Insert Operation
The very first insertion creates the tree. Afterwards, whenever an element is to
be inserted, first locate its proper location. Start searching from the root node,
then if the data is less than the key value, search for the empty location in the left
subtree and insert the data. Otherwise, search for the empty location in the right
subtree and insert the data.

Algorithm
If root is NULL

then create root node

return

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

If root exists then

compare the data with node.data

while until insertion position is located

If data is greater than node.data

goto right subtree

else

goto left subtree

endwhile

insert data

end If

Implementation
The implementation of insert function should look like this
void insert(int data) {

struct node *tempNode = (struct node*) malloc(sizeof(struct node));

struct node *current;

struct node *parent;

tempNode->data = data;

tempNode->leftChild = NULL;

tempNode->rightChild = NULL;

//if tree is empty, create root node

if(root == NULL) {

root = tempNode;
} else {

current = root;

parent = NULL;

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

while(1) {

parent = current;

//go to left of the tree

if(data < parent->data) {

current = current->leftChild;

//insert to the left

if(current == NULL) {

parent->leftChild = tempNode;

return;
}

//go to right of the tree

else {

current = current->rightChild;

//insert to the right

if(current == NULL) {

parent->rightChild = tempNode;

return;

}
}

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

Q.2. Implement multiple stacks in a Single

Dimensional Array.Write algorithms for various stack
operations for them?
Ans2. Stacks and Various Operations

A stack is an Abstract Data Type (ADT), commonly used in most

programming languages. It is named stack as it behaves like a real-world
stack, for example a deck of cards or a pile of plates, etc.

A real-world stack allows operations at one end only. For example, we can place
or remove a card or plate from the top of the stack only. Likewise, Stack ADT
allows all data operations at one end only. At any given time, we can only access
the top element of a stack.

This feature makes it LIFO data structure. LIFO stands for Last-in-first-out. Here,
the element which is placed (inserted or added) last, is accessed first. In stack
terminology, insertion operation is called PUSH operation and removal operation
is called POP operation.

Stack Representation
The following diagram depicts a stack and its operations

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

A stack can be implemented by means of Array, Structure, Pointer, and Linked

List. Stack can either be a fixed size one or it may have a sense of dynamic
resizing. Here, we are going to implement stack using arrays, which makes it a
fixed size stack implementation.

Basic Operations
Stack operations may involve initializing the stack, using it and then de-initializing
it. Apart from these basic stuffs, a stack is used for the following two primary
operations

push() Pushing (storing) an element on the stack.

pop() Removing (accessing) an element from the stack.

When data is PUSHed onto stack.

To use a stack efficiently, we need to check the status of stack as well. For the
same purpose, the following functionality is added to stacks

peek() get the top data element of the stack, without removing it.

isFull() check if stack is full.

isEmpty() check if stack is empty.

Implementation multiple stacks in a Single Dimensional Array:-

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #define SIZE 10
3.

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

4.
5. int ar[SIZE];
6. int top1 = -1;
7. int top2 = SIZE;
8.
9. //Functions to push data
10. void push_stack1 (int data)
11. {
12. if (top1 < top2 - 1)
13. {
14. ar[++top1] = data;
15. }
16. else
17. {
18. printf ("Stack Full! Cannot Push\n");
19. }
20. }
21. void push_stack2 (int data)
22. {
23. if (top1 < top2 - 1)
24. {
25. ar[--top2] = data;
26. }
27. else
28. {
29. printf ("Stack Full! Cannot Push\n");
30. }
31. }
32.
33. //Functions to pop data
34. void pop_stack1 ()
35. {
36. if (top1 >= 0)
37. {
38. int popped_value = ar[top1--];
39. printf ("%d is being popped from Stack 1\n", popped_value);
40. }
41. else
42. {
43. printf ("Stack Empty! Cannot Pop\n");
44. }
45. }
46. void pop_stack2 ()
47. {
48. if (top2 < SIZE)
49. {

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

50. int popped_value = ar[top2++];

51. printf ("%d is being popped from Stack 2\n", popped_value);
52. }
53. else
54. {
55. printf ("Stack Empty! Cannot Pop\n");
56. }
57. }
58.
59. //Functions to Print Stack 1 and Stack 2
60. void print_stack1 ()
61. {
62. int i;
63. for (i = top1; i >= 0; --i)
64. {
65. printf ("%d ", ar[i]);
66. }
67. printf ("\n");
68. }
69. void print_stack2 ()
70. {
71. int i;
72. for (i = top2; i < SIZE; ++i)
73. {
74. printf ("%d ", ar[i]);
75. }
76. printf ("\n");
77. }
78.
79. int main()
80. {
81. int ar[SIZE];
82. int i;
83. int num_of_ele;
84.
85. printf ("We can push a total of 10 values\n");
86.
87. //Number of elements pushed in stack 1 is 6
88. //Number of elements pushed in stack 2 is 4
89.
90. for (i = 1; i <= 6; ++i)
91. {
92. push_stack1 (i);
93. printf ("Value Pushed in Stack 1 is %d\n", i);
94. }
95. for (i = 1; i <= 4; ++i)

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

96. {
97. push_stack2 (i);
98. printf ("Value Pushed in Stack 2 is %d\n", i);
99. }
100.
101. //Print Both Stacks
102. print_stack1 ();
103. print_stack2 ();
104.
105. //Pushing on Stack Full
106. printf ("Pushing Value in Stack 1 is %d\n", 11);
107. push_stack1 (11);
108.
109. //Popping All Elements From Stack 1
110. num_of_ele = top1 + 1;
111. while (num_of_ele)
112. {
113. pop_stack1 ();
114. --num_of_ele;
115. }
116.
117. //Trying to Pop From Empty Stack
118. pop_stack1 ();
119.
120. return 0;
121. }
Output :
gcc TwoStacksSingleArray.c
./a.out
We can push a total of 10 values
Value Pushed in Stack 1 is 1
Value Pushed in Stack 1 is 2
Value Pushed in Stack 1 is 3
Value Pushed in Stack 1 is 4
Value Pushed in Stack 1 is 5
Value Pushed in Stack 1 is 6
Value Pushed in Stack 2 is 1
Value Pushed in Stack 2 is 2
Value Pushed in Stack 2 is 3
Value Pushed in Stack 2 is 4
6 5 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1
Pushing Value in Stack 1 is 11
Stack Full! Cannot Push
6 is being popped from Stack 1
5 is being popped from Stack 1
4 is being popped from Stack 1
3 is being popped from Stack 1
2 is being popped from Stack 1
1 is being popped from Stack 1
Stack Empty! Cannot Pop
Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures
Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

Q.3.Write a note of not more than 5 pages summarizi

ng the latest research in the area of "Searching T
echniques".Refer to Various journals and other onli
ne resources.
Ans3. Searching Techniques :-
Searching is the process of looking for something:Finding one piece of data that h
as been stored withiin a whole group of data.
It is often the most time consuming part of many computer programs.
Searching is very common task in day-to-day life, where we are involved some or ot
her time,in searching either for some needful at home or office or market, or sear
ching a word in Dictionary.
"So, basically a search algorithm is an algorithm which accepts an argument 'a' an
d tries to find the corresponding data where the match of 'a' occurs in a file or
in a table.

There are basically two types of Searching Techniques :-

1) Linear Search----
inear search is a very simple search algorithm. In this type of search, a sequential search
is made over all items one by one. Every item is checked and if a match is found then tha
t particular item is returned, otherwise the search continues till the end of the data collec
tion.

Algorithm
Linear Search ( Array A, Value x)

Step 1: Set i to 1
Step 2: if i > n then go to step 7
Step 3: if A[i] = x then go to step 6
Step 4: Set i to i + 1
Step 5: Go to Step 2
Step 6: Print Element x Found at index i and go to step 8
Step 7: Print element not found
Step 8: Exit

Pseudocode
procedure linear_search (list, value)

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

for each item in the list

if match item == value

return the item's location

end if

end for

end procedure

2) Binary Search----

Binary search is a fast search algorithm with run-time complexity of (log n). This search
algorithm works on the principle of divide and conquer. For this algorithm to work proper
ly, the data collection should be in the sorted form.

Binary search looks for a particular item by comparing the middle most item of the collec
tion. If a match occurs, then the index of item is returned. If the middle item is greater t
han the item, then the item is searched in the sub-array to the left of the middle item. Ot
herwise, the item is searched for in the sub-array to the right of the middle item. This pr
ocess continues on the sub-array as well until the size of the subarray reduces to zero.

How Binary Search Works?

For a binary search to work, it is mandatory for the target array to be sorted. We shall le
arn the process of binary search with a pictorial example. The following is our sorted arra
y and let us assume that we need to search the location of value 31 using binary search.

First, we shall determine half of the array by using this formula

mid = low + (high - low) / 2

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

Here it is, 0 + (9 - 0 ) / 2 = 4 (integer value of 4.5). So, 4 is the mid of the array.

Now we compare the value stored at location 4, with the value being searched, i.e. 31. W
e find that the value at location 4 is 27, which is not a match. As the value is greater tha
n 27 and we have a sorted array, so we also know that the target value must be in the u
pper portion of the array.

We change our low to mid + 1 and find the new mid value again.

low = mid + 1
mid = low + (high - low) / 2

Our new mid is 7 now. We compare the value stored at location 7 with our target value 3
1.

The value stored at location 7 is not a match, rather it is less than what we are looking fo
r. So, the value must be in the lower part from this location.

Hence, we calculate the mid again. This time it is 5.

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

We compare the value stored at location 5 with our target value. We find that it is a matc
h.

We conclude that the target value 31 is stored at location 5.

Binary search halves the searchable items and thus reduces the count of comparisons to
be made to very less numbers.

Pseudocode

The pseudocode of binary search algorithms should look like this

Procedure binary_search
A sorted array
n size of array
x value to be searched

Set lowerBound = 1
Set upperBound = n

while x not found

if upperBound < lowerBound
EXIT: x does not exists.

set midPoint = lowerBound + ( upperBound - lowerBound ) / 2

if A[midPoint] < x
set lowerBound = midPoint + 1

if A[midPoint] > x
set upperBound = midPoint - 1

if A[midPoint] = x
EXIT: x found at location midPoint

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

end while

end procedure

Journals and Online Resources (Do your Self)

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

Q.4. What is a B- Tree ? Write a short note on its a

pplications.

Ans4. B-Tree---

Introduction
Tree structures support various basic dynamic set operations including Search, Pre
decessor, Successor, Minimum, Maximum, Insert, and Delete in time proportional t
o the height of the tree. Ideally, a tree will be balanced and the height will be log n w
here n is the number of nodes in the tree. To ensure that the height of the tree is as s
mall as possible and therefore provide the best running time, a balanced tree structu
re like a red-black tree, AVL tree, or b-tree must be used.

When working with large sets of data, it is often not possible or desirable to mainta
in the entire structure in primary storage (RAM). Instead, a relatively small portion
of the data structure is maintained in primary storage, and additional data is read fro
m secondary storage as needed. Unfortunately, a magnetic disk, the most common f
orm of secondary storage, is significantly slower than random access memory (RA
M). In fact, the system often spends more time retrieving data than actually process
ing data.

B-trees are balanced trees that are optimized for situations when part or all of the tr
ee must be maintained in secondary storage such as a magnetic disk. Since disk acc
esses are expensive (time consuming) operations, a b-tree tries to minimize the num
ber of disk accesses. For example, a b-tree with a height of 2 and a branching factor
of 1001 can store over one billion keys but requires at most two disk accesses to se
arch for any node (Cormen 384).

The Structure of B-Trees

Unlike a binary-tree, each node of a b-tree may have a variable number of keys and
children. The keys are stored in non-decreasing order. Each key has an associated c
hild that is the root of a subtree containing all nodes with keys less than or equal to
the key but greater than the preceeding key. A node also has an additional rightmos
t child that is the root for a subtree containing all keys greater than any keys in the n
ode.

A b-tree has a minumum number of allowable children for each node known as th
e minimization factor. If t is this minimization factor, every node must have at leas
Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures
Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

t t - 1 keys. Under certain circumstances, the root node is allowed to violate this pro
perty by having fewer than t - 1 keys. Every node may have at most 2t - 1 keys or, e
quivalently, 2t children.

Since each node tends to have a large branching factor (a large number of children)
, it is typically neccessary to traverse relatively few nodes before locating the desire
d key. If access to each node requires a disk access, then a b-tree will minimize the
number of disk accesses required. The minimzation factor is usually chosen so that
the total size of each node corresponds to a multiple of the block size of the underly
ing storage device. This choice simplifies and optimizes disk access. Consequently,
a b-tree is an ideal data structure for situations where all data cannot reside in prima
ry storage and accesses to secondary storage are comparatively expensive (or time c
onsuming).
Height of B-Trees

For n greater than or equal to one, the height of an n-key b-tree T of height h with a
minimum degree t greater than or equal to 2,

For a proof of the above inequality, refer to Cormen, Leiserson, and Rivest pages 383-384.

The worst case height is O(log n). Since the "branchiness" of a b-tree can be large c
ompared to many other balanced tree structures, the base of the logarithm tends to b
e large; therefore, the number of nodes visited during a search tends to be smaller t
han required by other tree structures. Although this does not affect the asymptotic w
orst case height, b-trees tend to have smaller heights than other trees with the same
asymptotic height.

Operations on B-Trees
The algorithms for the search, create, and insert operations are shown below. Note
that these algorithms are single pass; in other words, they do not traverse back up th
e tree. Since b-trees strive to minimize disk accesses and the nodes are usually store
d on disk, this single-pass approach will reduce the number of node visits and thus t
he number of disk accesses. Simpler double-pass approaches that move back up the
tree to fix violations are possible.

Since all nodes are assumed to be stored in secondary storage (disk) rather than pri
mary storage (memory), all references to a given node be be preceeded by a read op
eration denoted by Disk-Read. Similarly, once a node is modified and it is no longe

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

r needed, it must be written out to secondary storage with a write operation denoted
by Disk-Write. The algorithms below assume that all nodes referenced in parameter
s have already had a corresponding Disk-Read operation. New nodes are created an
d assigned storage with the Allocate-Node call. The implementation details of the D
isk-Read, Disk-Write, and Allocate-Node functions are operating system and imple
mentation dependent.

B-Tree-Search(x, k)

i <- 1
while i <= n[x] and k > keyi[x]
do i <- i + 1
if i <= n[x] and k = keyi[x]
then return (x, i)
if leaf[x]
then return NIL
else Disk-Read(ci[x])
return B-Tree-Search(ci[x], k)

The search operation on a b-tree is analogous to a search on a binary tree. Instead o

f choosing between a left and a right child as in a binary tree, a b-tree search must m
ake an n-way choice. The correct child is chosen by performing a linear search of t
he values in the node. After finding the value greater than or equal to the desired va
lue, the child pointer to the immediate left of that value is followed. If all values are
less than the desired value, the rightmost child pointer is followed. Of course, the se
arch can be terminated as soon as the desired node is found. Since the running time
of the search operation depends upon the height of the tree, B-Tree-Search is O(log
t n).

B-Tree-Create(T)

x <- Allocate-Node()
leaf[x] <- TRUE
n[x] <- 0
Disk-Write(x)
root[T] <- x

The B-Tree-Create operation creates an empty b-tree by allocating a new root node
that has no keys and is a leaf node. Only the root node is permitted to have these pr
operties; all other nodes must meet the criteria outlined previously. The B-Tree-Cre
ate operation runs in time O(1).

B-Tree-Split-Child(x, i, y)

z <- Allocate-Node()
leaf[z] <- leaf[y]

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

n[z] <- t - 1
for j <- 1 to t - 1
do keyj[z] <- keyj+t[y]
if not leaf[y]
then for j <- 1 to t
do cj[z] <- cj+t[y]
n[y] <- t - 1
for j <- n[x] + 1 downto i + 1
do cj+1[x] <- cj[x]
ci+1 <- z
for j <- n[x] downto i
do keyj+1[x] <- keyj[x]
keyi[x] <- keyt[y]
n[x] <- n[x] + 1
Disk-Write(y)
Disk-Write(z)
Disk-Write(x)

If is node becomes "too full," it is necessary to perform a split operation. The split o
peration moves the median key of node x into its parent y where x is the ith child of y
. A new node, z, is allocated, and all keys in x right of the median key are moved t
o z. The keys left of the median key remain in the original node x. The new node, z,
becomes the child immediately to the right of the median key that was moved to the
parent y, and the original node, x, becomes the child immediately to the left of the m
edian key that was moved into the parent y.

The split operation transforms a full node with 2t - 1 keys into two nodes with t - 1 k
eys each. Note that one key is moved into the parent node. The B-Tree-Split-Child a
lgorithm will run in time O(t) where t is constant.
B-Tree-Insert(T, k)

r <- root[T]
if n[r] = 2t - 1
then s <- Allocate-Node()
root[T] <- s
leaf[s] <- FALSE
n[s] <- 0
c1 <- r
B-Tree-Split-Child(s, 1, r)
B-Tree-Insert-Nonfull(s, k)
else B-Tree-Insert-Nonfull(r, k)

B-Tree-Insert-Nonfull(x, k)

i <- n[x]
if leaf[x]
then while i >= 1 and k < keyi[x]
do keyi+1[x] <- keyi[x]
i <- i - 1
keyi+1[x] <- k

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

n[x] <- n[x] + 1

Disk-Write(x)
else while i >= and k < keyi[x]
do i <- i - 1
i <- i + 1
Disk-Read(ci[x])
if n[ci[x]] = 2t - 1
then B-Tree-Split-Child(x, i, ci[x])
if k > keyi[x]
then i <- i + 1
B-Tree-Insert-Nonfull(ci[x], k)

B-Tree-Delete

Deletion of a key from a b-tree is possible; however, special care must be taken to ensure that
the properties of a b-tree are maintained. Several cases must be considered. If the deletion red
uces the number of keys in a node below the minimum degree of the tree, this violation must b
e corrected by combining several nodes and possibly reducing the height of the tree. If the key
has children, the children must be rearranged.

Examples
Sample B-Tree

Searching a B-Tree for Key 21

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

Inserting Key 33 into a B-Tree (w/ Split)

Applications
Databases

A database is a collection of data organized in a fashion that facilitates updating, retrieving, a

nd managing the data. The data can consist of anything, including, but not limited to names, a
ddresses, pictures, and numbers. Databases are commonplace and are used everyday. For exa
mple, an airline reservation system might maintain a database of available flights, customers,
and tickets issued. A teacher might maintain a database of student names and grades.

t is not uncommon for a database to contain millions of records requiring many gig
abytes of storage. For examples, TELSTRA, an Australian telecommunications co
mpany, maintains a customer billing database with 51 billion rows (yes, billion) an
d 4.2 terabytes of data. In order for a database to be useful and usable, it must supp
ort the desired operations, such as retrieval and storage, quickly. Because databases
cannot typically be maintained entirely in memory, b-trees are often used to index t
he data and to provide fast access. For example, searching an unindexed and unsort
ed database containing n key values will have a worst case running time of O(n); if
the same data is indexed with a b-tree, the same search operation will run in O(log n
). To perform a search for a single key on a set of one million keys (1,000,000), a li
near search will require at most 1,000,000 comparisons. If the same data is indexed
with a b-tree of minimum degree 10, 114 comparisons will be required in the worst
case. Clearly, indexing large amounts of data can significantly improve search perf
ormance. Although other balanced tree structures can be used, a b-tree also optimiz
es costly disk accesses that are of concern when dealing with large data sets.
Concurrent Access to B-Trees

Databases typically run in multiuser environments where many users can concurrently perfor
m operations on the database. Unfortunately, this common scenario introduces complications.
For example, imagine a database storing bank account balances. Now assume that someone at

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com
 IGNOU Solved Assignments By http://ignousolvedassignments.com

tempts to withdraw $40 from an account containing $60. First, the current balance is checked
to ensure sufficent funds. After funds are disbursed, the balance of the account is reduced. Thi
s approach works flawlessly until concurrent transactions are considered. Suppose that anothe
r person simultaneously attempts to withdraw $30 from the same account. At the same time th
e account balance is checked by the first person, the account balance is also retrieved for the s
econd person. Since neither person is requesting more funds than are currently available, both
requests are satisfied for a total of $70. After the first person's transaction, $20 should remain
($60 - $40), so the new balance is recorded as $20. Next, the account balance after the second
person's transaction, $30 ($60 - $30), is recorded overwriting the $20 balance. Unfortunately,
$70 have been disbursed, but the account balance has only been decreased by $30. Clearly, th
is behavior is undesirable, and special precautions must be taken.

Course Code : MCS-021 Course Title : Data and File Structures

Assignment Number : MCA(2)/021/Assignment/16-17 http://ignousolvedassignments.com