C Programming

About The Tutorial
C is a general-purpose, procedural, imperative computer programming language

developed in 1972 by Dennis M. Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories to
develop the UNIX operating system.
C is the most widely used computer language. It keeps fluctuating at number
one scale of popularity along with Java programming language, which is also
equally popular and most widely used among modern software programmers.
Audience
This tutorial is designed for software programmers with a need to understand
the C programming language starting from scratch. This tutorial will give you
enough understanding on C programming language from where you can take
yourself to higher level of expertise.
Prerequisites
Before proceeding with this tutorial, you should have a basic understanding of
Computer Programming terminologies. A basic understanding of any of the
programming languages will help you in understanding the C programming
concepts and move fast on the learning track.
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i
Keywords .................................................................................................................................................. 9
Table of Contents
Whitespace in C ...................................................................................................................................... 10
About The Tutorial ..................................................................................................................................... i
Audience .................................................................................................................................................... i 5. DATA TYPES........................................................................................................................... 11
Prerequisites .............................................................................................................................................. i Integer Types .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Copyright & Disclaimer .............................................................................................................................. i Floating-Point Types ............................................................................................................................... 13
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................................... ii The void Type.......................................................................................................................................... 14
1. OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................. 1 6. VARIABLES............................................................................................................................. 15
Facts about C ............................................................................................................................................ 1 Variable Definition in C ........................................................................................................................... 15
Why Use C? ............................................................................................................................................... 1 Variable Declaration in C......................................................................................................................... 16
C Programs................................................................................................................................................ 2 Lvalues and Rvalues in C ......................................................................................................................... 18
2. ENVIORNMENT SETUP ............................................................................................................ 3 7. CONSTANTS AND LITERALS ................................................................................................... 19
Try it Option Online .................................................................................................................................. 3 Integer Literals ........................................................................................................................................ 19
Local Environment Setup .......................................................................................................................... 3 Floating-point Literals ............................................................................................................................. 20

Text Editor ................................................................................................................................................ 3
Character Constants ................................................................................................................................ 20
The C Compiler ......................................................................................................................................... 4
String Literals .......................................................................................................................................... 21
Installation on UNIX/Linux ........................................................................................................................ 4
Defining Constants .................................................................................................................................. 22
Installation on Mac OS .............................................................................................................................. 5
The #define Preprocessor ...................................................................................................................... 22
Installation on Windows ........................................................................................................................... 5 The const Keyword ................................................................................................................................. 23
3. PROGRAM STRUCTURE ........................................................................................................... 6 8. STORAGE CLASSES................................................................................................................. 24
Hello World Example ................................................................................................................................ 6 The auto Storage Class ............................................................................................................................ 24
Compile and Execute C Program ............................................................................................................... 7 The register Storage Class ....................................................................................................................... 24
The static Storage Class ........................................................................................................................... 25

4. BASIC SYNTAX ......................................................................................................................... 8
The extern Storage Class ......................................................................................................................... 26
Tokens in C................................................................................................................................................ 8
Semicolons................................................................................................................................................ 8 9. OPERATORS........................................................................................................................... 28
Comments ................................................................................................................................................ 8 Arithmetic Operators .............................................................................................................................. 28
Identifiers ................................................................................................................................................. 9 Relational Operators ............................................................................................................................... 30
ii iii
Logical Operators .................................................................................................................................... 32 Calling a Function .................................................................................................................................... 78
Bitwise Operators ................................................................................................................................... 34 Function Arguments................................................................................................................................ 79
Assignment Operators ............................................................................................................................ 37 Call by Value ........................................................................................................................................... 80
Misc Operators sizeof & ternary ......................................................................................................... 40 Call by Reference .................................................................................................................................... 81
Operators Precedence in C ...................................................................................................................... 41

13. SCOPE RULES....................................................................................................................... 84
10. DECISION MAKING .............................................................................................................. 45 Local Variables ........................................................................................................................................ 84
if Statement ............................................................................................................................................ 46 Global Variables ...................................................................................................................................... 85
ifelse Statement ................................................................................................................................... 48 Formal Parameters ................................................................................................................................. 86
if...else if...else Statement ...................................................................................................................... 49 Initializing Local and Global Variables ..................................................................................................... 87
Nested if Statements .............................................................................................................................. 51

14. ARRAYS ............................................................................................................................... 89
switch Statement .................................................................................................................................... 53
Declaring Arrays ...................................................................................................................................... 89
Nested switch Statements ...................................................................................................................... 55
Initializing Arrays .................................................................................................................................... 89
The ? : Operator: ..................................................................................................................................... 57
Accessing Array Elements ....................................................................................................................... 90
11. LOOPS ................................................................................................................................. 58 Arrays in Detail ....................................................................................................................................... 91

Multidimensional Arrays ........................................................................................................................ 92
while Loop .............................................................................................................................................. 59
Two-dimensional Arrays ......................................................................................................................... 92
for Loop .................................................................................................................................................. 61
Initializing Two-Dimensional Arrays ....................................................................................................... 93
dowhile Loop ....................................................................................................................................... 63 Accessing Two-Dimensional Array Elements .......................................................................................... 93
Nested Loops .......................................................................................................................................... 65 Passing Arrays to Functions .................................................................................................................... 94

Return Array from a Function ................................................................................................................ 96
Loop Control Statements ........................................................................................................................ 67
Pointer to an Array ................................................................................................................................. 99
break Statement ..................................................................................................................................... 68
15. POINTERS .......................................................................................................................... 101
continue Statement ................................................................................................................................ 70
What are Pointers? ............................................................................................................................... 101
goto Statement ....................................................................................................................................... 72
How to Use Pointers?............................................................................................................................ 102
The Infinite Loop ..................................................................................................................................... 74
NULL Pointers ...................................................................................................................................... 103
12. FUNCTIONS ......................................................................................................................... 76
Pointers in Detail .................................................................................................................................. 104
Defining a Function ................................................................................................................................. 76 Pointer Arithmetic ................................................................................................................................ 104
Function Declarations ............................................................................................................................. 77 Incrementing a Pointer ......................................................................................................................... 105
iv v
Decrementing a Pointer ....................................................................................................................... 106 Opening Files ........................................................................................................................................ 143
Pointer Comparisons ............................................................................................................................ 107
Closing a File ......................................................................................................................................... 144
Array of Pointers .................................................................................................................................. 108
Writing a File......................................................................................................................................... 144
Pointer to Pointer ................................................................................................................................. 110
Passing Pointers to Functions .............................................................................................................. 112 Reading a File ........................................................................................................................................ 145
Return Pointer from Functions ............................................................................................................ 114 Binary I/O Functions ............................................................................................................................. 146
16. STRINGS ............................................................................................................................ 117 23. PREPROCESSORS ............................................................................................................... 147
17. STRUCTURES ..................................................................................................................... 120 Preprocessors Examples........................................................................................................................ 148
Defining a Structure .............................................................................................................................. 120 Predefined Macros................................................................................................................................ 148
Accessing Structure Members ............................................................................................................... 121 Preprocessor Operators ........................................................................................................................ 150

The Macro Continuation (\) Operator .................................................................................................. 150
Structures as Function Arguments ........................................................................................................ 122
The Stringize (#) Operator .................................................................................................................... 150
Pointers to Structures ........................................................................................................................... 124 The Token Pasting (##) Operator ......................................................................................................... 150
Bit Fields ............................................................................................................................................... 126 The Defined() Operator ........................................................................................................................ 151
Parameterized Macros .......................................................................................................................... 152

18. UNIONS ............................................................................................................................. 128
Defining a Union ................................................................................................................................... 128 24. HEADER FILES .................................................................................................................... 153
Accessing Union Members .................................................................................................................... 129 Include Syntax....................................................................................................................................... 153
Include Operation ................................................................................................................................. 153

19. BIT FIELDS ......................................................................................................................... 132
Once-Only Headers ............................................................................................................................... 154
Bit Field Declaration .............................................................................................................................. 133
Computed Includes ............................................................................................................................... 155
20. TYPEDEF ............................................................................................................................ 136
25. TYPE CASTING ................................................................................................................... 156
typedef vs #define ................................................................................................................................ 137
Integer Promotion ................................................................................................................................ 157
21. INPUT AND OUTPUT.......................................................................................................... 139
Usual Arithmetic Conversion................................................................................................................. 157
The Standard Files ................................................................................................................................. 139

26. ERROR HANDLING ............................................................................................................. 160
The getchar() and putchar() Functions .................................................................................................. 139
errno, perror(), and strerror() ............................................................................................................... 160
The gets() and puts() Functions ............................................................................................................. 140
Divide by Zero Errors............................................................................................................................. 161
The scanf() and printf() Functions ......................................................................................................... 141
Program Exit Status............................................................................................................................... 162
22. FILE I/O.............................................................................................................................. 143
vi vii
C Programming
1. OVERVIEW
27. RECURSION ....................................................................................................................... 164
Number Factorial .................................................................................................................................. 164
Fibonacci Series .................................................................................................................................... 165
28. VARIABLE ARGUMENTS ..................................................................................................... 167 C is a general-purpose, high-level language that was originally developed by
Dennis M. Ritchie to develop the UNIX operating system at Bell Labs. C was
29. MEMORY MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................. 170 originally first implemented on the DEC PDP-11 computer in 1972.
In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie produced the first publicly available
Allocating Memory Dynamically ........................................................................................................... 170
description of C, now known as the K&R standard.
Resizing and Releasing Memory ............................................................................................................ 172 The UNIX operating system, the C compiler, and essentially all UNIX application
programs have been written in C. C has now become a widely used professional
30. COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS .......................................................................................... 174 language for various reasons:
Easy to learn
Structured language
It produces efficient programs
It can handle low-level activities
It can be compiled on a variety of computer platforms
Facts about C
C was invented to write an operating system called UNIX.
C is a successor of B language which was introduced around the early
1970s.
The language was formalized in 1988 by the American National Standard
Institute (ANSI).
The UNIX OS was totally written in C.
Today C is the most widely used and popular System Programming
Language.
Most of the state-of-the-art software have been implemented using C.
Today's most popular Linux OS and RDBMS MySQL have been written in
C.
Why Use C?
C was initially used for system development work, particularly the programs that
make-up the operating system. C was adopted as a system development
language because it produces code that runs nearly as fast as the code written
in assembly language. Some examples of the use of C might be:
Operating Systems
viii
1
C Programming C Programming
2. ENVIORNMENT SETUP
Language Compilers
Assemblers
Text Editors
Print Spoolers
Network Drivers
Modern Programs Try it Option Online
Databases You really do not need to set up your own environment to start learning C
Language Interpreters programming language. Reason is very simple, we already have set up C
Programming environment online, so that you can compile and execute all the
Utilities
available examples online at the same time when you are doing your theory
work. This gives you confidence in what you are reading and to check the result
C Programs with different options. Feel free to modify any example and execute it online.
A C program can vary from 3 lines to millions of lines and it should be written Try following example using our online compiler option available at
into one or more text files with extension ".c"; for example, hello.c. You can http://www.compileonline.com/.
use "vi", "vim" or any other text editor to write your C program into a file.
#include <stdio.h>
This tutorial assumes that you know how to edit a text file and how to write
source code inside a program file.
int main()
{
/* my first program in C */
printf("Hello, World! \n");
return 0;
}
For most of the examples given in this tutorial, you will find the Try it option in
our website code sections at the top right corner that will take you to the online
compiler. So just make use of it and enjoy your learning.
Local Environment Setup

If you want to set up your environment for C programming language, you need
the following two software tools available on your computer, (a) Text Editor and
(b) The C Compiler.
Text Editor
This will be used to type your program. Examples of a few editors include
Windows Notepad, OS Edit command, Brief, Epsilon, EMACS, and vim or vi.
2 3
The name and version of text editors can vary on different operating systems.
For example, Notepad will be used on Windows, and vim or vi can be used on
Installation on Mac OS
Windows as well as on Linux or UNIX. If you use Mac OS X, the easiest way to obtain GCC is to download the Xcode
development environment from Apple's web site and follow the simple
The files you create with your editor are called the source files and they contain
installation instructions. Once you have Xcode setup, you will be able to use GNU
the program source codes. The source files for C programs are typically named
compiler for C/C++.
with the extension ".c".
Xcode is currently available at developer.apple.com/technologies/tools/.
Before starting your programming, make sure you have one text editor in place
and you have enough experience to write a computer program, save it in a file,
compile it and finally execute it. Installation on Windows
To install GCC on Windows, you need to install MinGW. To install MinGW, go to
The C Compiler the MinGW homepage, www.mingw.org, and follow the link to the MinGW
The source code written in source file is the human readable source for your download page. Download the latest version of the MinGW installation program,
program. It needs to be "compiled" into machine language so that your CPU can which should be named MinGW-<version>.exe.
actually execute the program as per the instructions given. While installing MinGW, at a minimum, you must install gcc-core, gcc-g++,
The compiler compiles the source codes into final executable programs. The binutils, and the MinGW runtime, but you may wish to install more.
most frequently used and free available compiler is the GNU C/C++ compiler, Add the bin subdirectory of your MinGW installation to your PATH environment
otherwise you can have compilers either from HP or Solaris if you have the variable, so that you can specify these tools on the command line by their simple
respective operating systems. names.
The following section explains how to install GNU C/C++ compiler on various OS. After the installation is complete, you will be able to run gcc, g++, ar, ranlib,
m We keep mentioning C/C++ together because GNU gcc compiler works for dlltool, and several other GNU tools from the Windows command line.
both C and C++ programming languages.
Installation on UNIX/Linux
If you are using Linux or UNIX, then check whether GCC is installed on your
system by entering the following command from the command line:
$ gcc -v
If you have GNU compiler installed on your machine, then it should print a
message as follows:
Using built-in specs.

Target: i386-redhat-linux
Configured with: ../configure --prefix=/usr .......
Thread model: posix
gcc version 4.1.2 20080704 (Red Hat 4.1.2-46)
If GCC is not installed, then you will have to install it yourself using the detailed
instructions available at http://gcc.gnu.org/install/.
This tutorial has been written based on Linux and all the given examples have
been compiled on the Cent OS flavor of the Linux system.
4 5
3. PROGRAM STRUCTURE
4. The next line printf(...) is another function available in C which causes the
message "Hello, World!" to be displayed on the screen.
5. The next line return 0; terminates the main() function and returns the
value 0.
Before we study the basic building blocks of the C programming language, let us Compile and Execute C Program
look at a bare minimum C program structure so that we can take it as a Let us see how to save the source code in a file, and how to compile and run it.
reference in the upcoming chapters. Following are the simple steps:
1. Open a text editor and add the above-mentioned code.
Hello World Example 2. Save the file as hello.c
A C program basically consists of the following parts: 3. Open a command prompt and go to the directory where you have saved
Preprocessor Commands the file.
Functions 4. Type gcc hello.c and press enter to compile your code.
Variables 5. If there are no errors in your code, the command prompt will take you to
the next line and would generate a.out executable file.
Statements & Expressions
6. Now, type a.out to execute your program.
Comments
7. You will see the output "Hello World" printed on the screen.
Let us look at a simple code that would print the words "Hello World":
$ gcc hello.c
#include <stdio.h>
$ ./a.out
Hello, World!
int main()
{ Make sure the gcc compiler is in your path and that you are running it in the
directory containing the source file hello.c.
return 0;
}
Let us take a look at the various parts of the above program:

1. The first line of the program #include <stdio.h> is a preprocessor
command, which tells a C compiler to include stdio.h file before going to
actual compilation.
2. The next line int main() is the main function where the program execution
begins.
3. The next line /*...*/ will be ignored by the compiler and it has been put to
add additional comments in the program. So such lines are called
comments in the program.
6 7
4. BASIC SYNTAX
You cannot have comments within comments and they do not occur within a
string or character literals.
Identifiers
A C identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, or any other user-
You have seen the basic structure of a C program, so it will be easy to defined item. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z, a to z, or an underscore _
understand other basic building blocks of the C programming language. followed by zero or more letters, underscores, and digits (0 to 9).
C does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $, and % within identifiers.
Tokens in C C is a case-sensitive programming language. Thus, Manpower and manpower
are two different identifiers in C. Here are some examples of acceptable
A C program consists of various tokens and a token is either a keyword, an
identifiers:
identifier, a constant, a string literal, or a symbol. For example, the following C
statement consists of five tokens: mohd zara abc move_name a_123
printf("Hello, World! \n"); myname50 _temp j a23b9 retVal
The individual tokens are:

Keywords
printf
The following list shows the reserved words in C. These reserved words may not
(
be used as constants or variables or any other identifier names.
"Hello, World! \n"
) auto else long switch
;
break enum register typedef
Semicolons
case extern return union
In a C program, the semicolon is a statement terminator. That is, each individual
statement must be ended with a semicolon. It indicates the end of one logical
entity. char float short unsigned
Given below are two different statements:
const for signed void
return 0;
continue goto sizeof volatile
Comments default if static while

Comments are like helping text in your C program and they are ignored by the
compiler. They start with /* and terminate with the characters */ as shown
below: do int struct _Packed
double
8 9
5. DATA TYPES
Whitespace in C
A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known as a blank
line, and a C compiler totally ignores it.
Whitespace is the term used in C to describe blanks, tabs, newline characters
and comments. Whitespace separates one part of a statement from another and
enables the compiler to identify where one element in a statement, such as int, Data types in C refer to an extensive system used for declaring variables or
ends and the next element begins. Therefore, in the following statement: functions of different types. The type of a variable determines how much space
it occupies in storage and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted.
int age; The types in C can be classified as follows:
there must be at least one whitespace character (usually a space) between int
and age for the compiler to be able to distinguish them. On the other hand, in S.N. Types and Description
the following statement:
1 Basic Types:
fruit = apples + oranges; // get the total fruit
They are arithmetic types and are further classified into: (a) integer
no whitespace characters are necessary between fruit and =, or between = and types and (b) floating-point types.
apples, although you are free to include some if you wish to increase readability.
2 Enumerated types:
They are again arithmetic types and they are used to define variables
that can only assign certain discrete integer values throughout the
program.
3 The type void:

The type specifier void indicates that no value is available.
4 Derived types:
They include (a) Pointer types, (b) Array types, (c) Structure types, (d)
Union types, and (e) Function types.
The array types and structure types are referred collectively as the aggregate
types. The type of a function specifies the type of the function's return value. We
will see the basic types in the following section, whereas other types will be
covered in the upcoming chapters.
Integer Types
The following table provides the details of standard integer types with their
storage sizes and value ranges:
10 11
return 0;
Type Storage Value range
size }
When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following
char 1 byte -128 to 127 or 0 to 255 result on Linux:
Storage size for int : 4

unsigned 1 byte 0 to 255
char
Floating-Point Types
signed char 1 byte -128 to 127 The following table provides the details of standard floating-point types with
storage sizes and value ranges and their precision:
int 2 or 4 bytes -32,768 to 32,767 or -2,147,483,648 to

2,147,483,647 Type Storage size Value range Precision
unsigned int 2 or 4 bytes 0 to 65,535 or 0 to 4,294,967,295 float 4 byte 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 6 decimal places
short 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767 double 8 byte 2.3E-308 to 1.7E+308 15 decimal places
unsigned 2 bytes 0 to 65,535 long double 10 byte 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 19 decimal places
short
long 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 The header file float.h defines macros that allow you to use these values and
other details about the binary representation of real numbers in your programs.
The following example prints the storage space taken by a float type and its
unsigned 4 bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295 range values:
long
#include <stdio.h>
#include <float.h>
To get the exact size of a type or a variable on a particular platform, you can
use the sizeof operator. The expressions sizeof(type) yields the storage size of int main()
the object or type in bytes. Given below is an example to get the size of int type
{
on any machine:
printf("Storage size for float : %d \n", sizeof(float));
#include <stdio.h>
printf("Minimum float positive value: %E\n", FLT_MIN );
#include <limits.h>
printf("Maximum float positive value: %E\n", FLT_MAX );
printf("Precision value: %d\n", FLT_DIG );
int main()
{
return 0;
printf("Storage size for int : %d \n", sizeof(int));
12 13
6. VARIABLES
}
result on Linux:
Storage size for float : 4

A variable is nothing but a name given to a storage area that our programs can
Minimum float positive value: 1.175494E-38
manipulate. Each variable in C has a specific type, which determines the size
Maximum float positive value: 3.402823E+38 and layout of the variable's memory; the range of values that can be stored
Precision value: 6 within that memory; and the set of operations that can be applied to the
variable.
The name of a variable can be composed of letters, digits, and the underscore
The void Type character. It must begin with either a letter or an underscore. Upper and
lowercase letters are distinct because C is case-sensitive. Based on the basic
The void type specifies that no value is available. It is used in three kinds of
types explained in the previous chapter, there will be the following basic variable
situations:
types:
S.N. Types and Description

Type Description
1 Function returns as void

char Typically a single octet (one byte). This is an integer type.
There are various functions in C which do not return any value or you
can say they return void. A function with no return value has the return
type as void. For example, void exit (int status); int The most natural size of integer for the machine.
2 Function arguments as void float A single-precision floating point value.
There are various functions in C which do not accept any parameter. A

function with no parameter can accept a void. For example, int double A double-precision floating point value.
rand(void);
void Represents the absence of type.

3 Pointers to void
A pointer of type void * represents the address of an object, but not its
type. For example, a memory allocation function void *malloc(size_t
C programming language also allows to define various other types of variables,
size); returns a pointer to void which can be casted to any data type.
which we will cover in subsequent chapters like Enumeration, Pointer, Array,
Structure, Union, etc. For this chapter, let us study only basic variable types.
Variable Definition in C
A variable definition tells the compiler where and how much storage to create for
the variable. A variable definition specifies a data type and contains a list of one
or more variables of that type as follows:
type variable_list;
14 15
Here, type must be a valid C data type including char, w_char, int, float, double,
bool, or any user-defined object; and variable_list may consist of one or more
identifier names separated by commas. Some valid declarations are shown here: #include <stdio.h>
int i, j, k;
// Variable declaration:
char c, ch;
extern int a, b;
float f, salary;
extern int c;
double d;
extern float f;
The line int i, j, k; declares and defines the variables i, j and k; which instruct
the compiler to create variables named i, j, and k of type int.
int main ()
Variables can be initialized (assigned an initial value) in their declaration. The
{
initializer consists of an equal sign followed by a constant expression as follows:
/* variable definition: */
type variable_name = value;
int a, b;
Some examples are: int c;
float f;
extern int d = 3, f = 5; // declaration of d and f.
int d = 3, f = 5; // definition and initializing d and f.
/* actual initialization */
byte z = 22; // definition and initializes z.
a = 10;
char x = 'x'; // the variable x has the value 'x'.
b = 20;
For definition without an initializer: variables with static storage duration are
implicitly initialized with NULL (all bytes have the value 0); the initial value of all
other variables are undefined. c = a + b;
printf("value of c : %d \n", c);
Variable Declaration in C
A variable declaration provides assurance to the compiler that there exists a f = 70.0/3.0;
variable with the given type and name so that the compiler can proceed for printf("value of f : %f \n", f);
further compilation without requiring the complete detail about the variable. A
variable declaration has its meaning at the time of compilation only, the
compiler needs actual variable declaration at the time of linking the program. return 0;
A variable declaration is useful when you are using multiple files and you define }
your variable in one of the files which will be available at the time of linking the
program. You will use the keyword extern to declare a variable at any place. When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
Though you can declare a variable multiple times in your C program, it can be
value of c : 30
defined only once in a file, a function, or a block of code.
value of f : 23.333334
Example
The same concept applies on function declaration where you provide a function
Try the following example, where variables have been declared at the top, but name at the time of its declaration and its actual definition can be given
they have been defined and initialized inside the main function: anywhere else. For example:
16 17
7. CONSTANTS AND LITERALS
// function declaration
int func();
int main()
{ Constants refer to fixed values that the program may not alter during its
// function call execution. These fixed values are also called literals.
int i = func(); Constants can be of any of the basic data types like an integer constant, a
floating constant, a character constant, or a string literal. There are enumeration
} constants as well.
Constants are treated just like regular variables except that their values cannot
// function definition be modified after their definition.
int func()
{ Integer Literals
return 0; An integer literal can be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant. A prefix
} specifies the base or radix: 0x or 0X for hexadecimal, 0 for octal, and nothing for
decimal.
An integer literal can also have a suffix that is a combination of U and L, for
Lvalues and Rvalues in C unsigned and long, respectively. The suffix can be uppercase or lowercase and
can be in any order.
There are two kinds of expressions in C:
Here are some examples of integer literals:
lvalue : Expressions that refer to a memory location are called "lvalue"
expressions. An lvalue may appear as either the left-hand or right-hand 212 /* Legal */
side of an assignment.
215u /* Legal */
rvalue : The term rvalue refers to a data value that is stored at some
0xFeeL /* Legal */
address in memory. An rvalue is an expression that cannot have a value
assigned to it which means an rvalue may appear on the right-hand side 078 /* Illegal: 8 is not an octal digit */
but not on the left-hand side of an assignment. 032UU /* Illegal: cannot repeat a suffix */
Variables are lvalues and so they may appear on the left-hand side of an
assignment. Numeric literals are rvalues and so they may not be assigned and Following are other examples of various types of integer literals:
cannot appear on the left-hand side. Take a look at the following valid and
invalid statements: 85 /* decimal */
0213 /* octal */
int g = 20; // valid statement
0x4b /* hexadecimal */
10 = 20; // invalid statement; would generate compile-time error
30 /* int */
30u /* unsigned int */
30l /* long */
30ul /* unsigned long */
18 19
Floating-point Literals \b Backspace

A floating-point literal has an integer part, a decimal point, a fractional part, and
an exponent part. You can represent floating point literals either in decimal form
or exponential form. \f Form feed
While representing decimal form, you must include the decimal point, the
exponent, or both; and while representing exponential form, you must include \n Newline
the integer part, the fractional part, or both. The signed exponent is introduced
by e or E.
\r Carriage return
Here are some examples of floating-point literals:
3.14159 /* Legal */ \t Horizontal tab

314159E-5L /* Legal */
510E /* Illegal: incomplete exponent */ \v Vertical tab
210f /* Illegal: no decimal or exponent */
.e55 /* Illegal: missing integer or fraction */ \ooo Octal number of one to three digits
Character Constants \xhh . . . Hexadecimal number of one or more digits
Character literals are enclosed in single quotes, e.g., 'x' can be stored in a
simple variable of char type.
Following is the example to show a few escape sequence characters:
A character literal can be a plain character (e.g., 'x'), an escape sequence (e.g.,
'\t'), or a universal character (e.g., '\u02C0'). #include <stdio.h>
There are certain characters in C that represent special meaning when preceded
by a backslash, for example, newline (\n) or tab (\t). Here, you have a list of
int main()
such escape sequence codes:
{
Escape Meaning printf("Hello\tWorld\n\n");
sequence
return 0;
\\ \ character
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
\' ' character
Hello World
\" " character
String Literals
\? ? character
String literals or constants are enclosed in double quotes "". A string contains
characters that are similar to character literals: plain characters, escape
\a Alert or bell sequences, and universal characters.
20 21
You can break a long line into multiple lines using string literals and separating
printf("value of area : %d", area);
them using whitespaces.
printf("%c", NEWLINE);
Here are some examples of string literals. All the three forms are identical
strings.
return 0;
"hello, dear"
}
"hello, \ When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
value of area : 50
dear"
The const Keyword

"hello, " "d" "ear"
You can use const prefix to declare constants with a specific type as follows:
const type variable = value;

Defining Constants
The following example explains it in detail:
There are two simple ways in C to define constants:
Using #define preprocessor #include <stdio.h>
Using const keyword
int main()
The #define Preprocessor {
Given below is the form to use #define preprocessor to define a constant: const int LENGTH = 10;
#define identifier value const int WIDTH = 5;

const char NEWLINE = '\n';
The following example explains it in detail:
int area;
#include <stdio.h>
area = LENGTH * WIDTH;
#define LENGTH 10 printf("value of area : %d", area);
#define WIDTH 5 printf("%c", NEWLINE);
#define NEWLINE '\n'
return 0;
int main() }
{
int area; value of area : 50
Note that it is a good programming practice to define constants in CAPITALS.

area = LENGTH * WIDTH;
22 23
8. STORAGE CLASSES
The static Storage Class
The static storage class instructs the compiler to keep a local variable in
existence during the life-time of the program instead of creating and destroying
it each time it comes into and goes out of scope. Therefore, making local
variables static allows them to maintain their values between function calls.
A storage class defines the scope (visibility) and life-time of variables and/or The static modifier may also be applied to global variables. When this is done, it
functions within a C Program. They precede the type that they modify. We have causes that variable's scope to be restricted to the file in which it is declared.
four different storage classes in a C program:
In C programming, when static is used on a class data member, it causes only
auto one copy of that member to be shared by all the objects of its class.
register
#include <stdio.h>
static
extern
/* function declaration */
void func(void);
The auto Storage Class
The auto storage class is the default storage class for all local variables.
static int count = 5; /* global variable */
{
int mount; main()
auto int month; {
} while(count--)
The example above defines two variables within the same storage class. auto {
can only be used within functions, i.e., local variables. func();
}
The register Storage Class return 0;
The register storage class is used to define local variables that should be stored }
in a register instead of RAM. This means that the variable has a maximum size
/* function definition */
equal to the register size (usually one word) and can't have the unary '&'
operator applied to it (as it does not have a memory location). void func( void )
{
{
static int i = 5; /* local static variable */
register int miles;
i++;
}
printf("i is %d and count is %d\n", i, count);
The register should only be used for variables that require quick access such as }
counters. It should also be noted that defining 'register' does not mean that the
variable will be stored in a register. It means that it MIGHT be stored in a When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
register depending on hardware and implementation restrictions.
i is 6 and count is 4
24 25
i is 8 and count is 2 printf("count is %d\n", count);

i is 9 and count is 1 }
Here, extern is being used to declare count in the second file, whereas it has its
definition in the first file, main.c. Now, compile these two files as follows:
The extern Storage Class $gcc main.c support.c

The extern storage class is used to give a reference of a global variable that is
It will produce the executable program a.out. When this program is executed, it
visible to ALL the program files. When you use 'extern', the variable cannot be
produces the following result:
initialized, however, it points the variable name at a storage location that has
been previously defined. 5
When you have multiple files and you define a global variable or function, which
will also be used in other files, then extern will be used in another file to provide
the reference of defined variable or function. Just for understanding, extern is
used to declare a global variable or function in another file.
The extern modifier is most commonly used when there are two or more files
sharing the same global variables or functions as explained below.
First File: main.c

#include <stdio.h>
int count;
extern void write_extern();
main()
{
count = 5;
write_extern();
}
Second File: support.c

#include <stdio.h>
extern int count;
void write_extern(void)
{
26 27
9. OPERATORS
-- Decrement operator decreases the integer A-- = 9
value by one.
Example
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical Try the following example to understand all the arithmetic operators available in
or logical functions. C language is rich in built-in operators and provides the C:
following types of operators:
Arithmetic Operators #include <stdio.h>
Relational Operators
main()
Logical Operators
{
Bitwise Operators
int a = 21;
Assignment Operators
int b = 10;
Misc Operators
int c ;
We will, in this chapter, look into the way each operator works.
c = a + b;
Arithmetic Operators
printf("Line 1 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
The following table shows all the arithmetic operators supported by the C
language. Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then: c = a - b;
Operator Description Example c = a * b;
+ Adds two operands. A + B = 30 c = a / b;
- Subtracts second operand from the first. A - B = -10 c = a % b;
* Multiplies both operands. A * B = 200 c = a++;
/ Divides numerator by de-numerator. B/A=2
c = a--;
% Modulus Operator and remainder of after an B%A=0
integer division.
}
++ Increment operator increases the integer value A++ = 11 When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following
by one. result:
Line 1 - Value of c is 31
28 29
Line 2 - Value of c is 11 Example

Line 3 - Value of c is 210 Try the following example to understand all the relational operators available in
C:
Line 6 - Value of c is 21 #include <stdio.h>
main()
Relational Operators {
int a = 21;
The following table shows all the relational operators supported by C. Assume
variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then: int b = 10;
int c ;
Operator Description Example
if( a == b )
== Checks if the values of two operands are equal (A == B) is not {
or not. If yes, then the condition becomes true.
true. printf("Line 1 - a is equal to b\n" );
}
!= Checks if the values of two operands are equal (A != B) is true. else

or not. If the values are not equal, then the {
condition becomes true.
printf("Line 1 - a is not equal to b\n" );
}
> Checks if the value of left operand is greater (A > B) is not
if ( a < b )
than the value of right operand. If yes, then true.
the condition becomes true. {
printf("Line 2 - a is less than b\n" );
< Checks if the value of left operand is less than (A < B) is true. }
the value of right operand. If yes, then the else
condition becomes true.
{
printf("Line 2 - a is not less than b\n" );
>= Checks if the value of left operand is greater (A >= B) is not
than or equal to the value of right operand. If true. }
yes, then the condition becomes true. if ( a > b )
{
<= Checks if the value of left operand is less than (A <= B) is true. printf("Line 3 - a is greater than b\n" );
or equal to the value of right operand. If yes,
}
then the condition becomes true.
else
{
30 31
printf("Line 3 - a is not greater than b\n" ); becomes true.

}
/* Lets change value of a and b */ ! Called Logical NOT Operator. It is used to !(A && B) is
a = 5; reverse the logical state of its operand. If a true.
condition is true, then Logical NOT operator will
b = 20; make it false.
if ( a <= b )
{
printf("Line 4 - a is either less than or equal to b\n" );
Example
}
Try the following example to understand all the logical operators available in C:
if ( b >= a )
#include <stdio.h>
{
printf("Line 5 - b is either greater than or equal to b\n" );
main()
}
{
}
int a = 5;
int b = 20;
result:
int c ;
Line 1 - a is not equal to b
Line 2 - a is not less than b
if ( a && b )
Line 3 - a is greater than b
{
Line 4 - a is either less than or equal to b
printf("Line 1 - Condition is true\n" );
Line 5 - b is either greater than or equal to b
}
if ( a || b )
Logical Operators {
Following table shows all the logical operators supported by C language. Assume printf("Line 2 - Condition is true\n" );
variable A holds 1 and variable B holds 0, then: }
/* lets change the value of a and b */
Operator Description Example
a = 0;
b = 10;
&& Called Logical AND operator. If both the (A && B) is
operands are non-zero, then the condition false. if ( a && b )
becomes true. {
|| Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two (A || B) is true. }
operands is non-zero, then the condition
else
32 33
A&B = 0000 1100

{
printf("Line 3 - Condition is not true\n" ); A|B = 0011 1101
} A^B = 0011 0001
if ( !(a && b) ) ~A = 1100 0011
{ The following table lists the bitwise operators supported by C. Assume variable
A holds 60 and variable B holds 13, then:
} Operator Description Example
}
When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following & Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result (A & B) = 12, i.e.,
result: if it exists in both operands. 0000 1100
Line 1 - Condition is true

| Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it exists in (A | B) = 61, i.e.,
Line 2 - Condition is true either operand. 0011 1101
Line 3 - Condition is not true
Line 4 - Condition is true ^ Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it is set (A ^ B) = 49, i.e.,
in one operand but not both. 0011 0001
Bitwise Operators
~ Binary Ones Complement Operator is unary (~A ) = -61, i.e.,
Bitwise operators work on bits and perform bit-by-bit operation. The truth table and has the effect of 'flipping' bits. 1100 0011 in 2's
for &, |, and ^ is as follows: complement form.
p q p&q p|q p^q

<< Binary Left Shift Operator. The left operands A << 2 = 240,
value is moved left by the number of bits i.e., 1111 0000
0 0 0 0 0 specified by the right operand.
0 1 0 1 1 >> Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operands A >> 2 = 15, i.e.,
value is moved right by the number of bits 0000 1111
specified by the right operand.
1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
Example
Try the following example to understand all the bitwise operators available in C:
Assume A = 60 and B = 13; in binary format, they will be as follows:
#include <stdio.h>
A = 0011 1100
B = 0000 1101 main()
----------------- {
34 35
Assignment Operators
unsigned int a = 60; /* 60 = 0011 1100 */ The following tables lists the assignment operators supported by the C language:
unsigned int b = 13; /* 13 = 0000 1101 */
int c = 0; Operator Description Example
c = a & b; /* 12 = 0000 1100 */ = Simple assignment operator. Assigns C = A + B will assign

values from right side operands to left the value of A + B to
printf("Line 1 - Value of c is %d\n", c ); side operand. C
c = a | b; /* 61 = 0011 1101 */ += Add AND assignment operator. It adds the C += A is equivalent

printf("Line 2 - Value of c is %d\n", c ); right operand to the left operand and to C = C + A
assigns the result to the left operand.
c = a ^ b; /* 49 = 0011 0001 */
-= Subtract AND assignment operator. It C -= A is equivalent
subtracts the right operand from the left to C = C - A
operand and assigns the result to the left
c = ~a; /*-61 = 1100 0011 */ operand.

*= Multiply AND assignment operator. It C *= A is equivalent
multiplies the right operand with the left to C = C * A
c = a << 2; /* 240 = 1111 0000 */ operand and assigns the result to the left
printf("Line 5 - Value of c is %d\n", c ); operand.
c = a >> 2; /* 15 = 0000 1111 */ /= Divide AND assignment operator. It C /= A is equivalent

divides the left operand with the right to C = C / A
operand and assigns the result to the left
} operand.
result: %= Modulus AND assignment operator. It C %= A is equivalent
takes modulus using two operands and to C = C % A
Line 1 - Value of c is 12 assigns the result to the left operand.
Line 3 - Value of c is 49 <<= Left shift AND assignment operator. C <<= 2 is same as C
Line 4 - Value of c is -61 = C << 2

Line 6 - Value of c is 15 >>= Right shift AND assignment operator. C >>= 2 is same as C
= C >> 2
&= Bitwise AND assignment operator. C &= 2 is same as C
36 37
=C&2 c /= a;
printf("Line 5 - /= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
^= Bitwise exclusive OR and assignment C ^= 2 is same as C
operator. =C^2 c = 200;
c %= a;
|= Bitwise inclusive OR and assignment C |= 2 is same as C =
printf("Line 6 - %= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
operator. C|2
c <<= 2;
printf("Line 7 - <<= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
c >>= 2;
printf("Line 8 - >>= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
Example
Try the following example to understand all the assignment operators available
c &= 2;
in C:
printf("Line 9 - &= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
#include <stdio.h>
c ^= 2;
main()
printf("Line 10 - ^= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
{
int a = 21;
c |= 2;
int c ;
printf("Line 11 - |= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
c = a;
}
printf("Line 1 - = Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
result:
c += a;
Line 1 - = Operator Example, Value of c = 21
printf("Line 2 - += Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
Line 2 - += Operator Example, Value of c = 42
Line 3 - -= Operator Example, Value of c = 21
c -= a;
Line 4 - *= Operator Example, Value of c = 441
printf("Line 3 - -= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
Line 5 - /= Operator Example, Value of c = 21
Line 6 - %= Operator Example, Value of c = 11
c *= a;
Line 7 - <<= Operator Example, Value of c = 44
printf("Line 4 - *= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );
Line 8 - >>= Operator Example, Value of c = 11
38 39
Line 9 - &= Operator Example, Value of c = 2 /* example of sizeof operator */

Line 10 - ^= Operator Example, Value of c = 0 printf("Line 1 - Size of variable a = %d\n", sizeof(a) );
Line 11 - |= Operator Example, Value of c = 2 printf("Line 2 - Size of variable b = %d\n", sizeof(b) );
printf("Line 3 - Size of variable c= %d\n", sizeof(c) );
Misc Operators sizeof & ternary

/* example of & and * operators */
Besides the operators discussed above, there are a few other important
operators including sizeof and ? : supported by the C Language. ptr = &a; /* 'ptr' now contains the address of 'a'*/
printf("value of a is %d\n", a);
Operator Description Example printf("*ptr is %d.\n", *ptr);
sizeof() Returns the size of a variable. sizeof(a), where a is /* example of ternary operator */
integer, will return 4.
a = 10;
b = (a == 1) ? 20: 30;
& Returns the address of a variable. &a; returns the actual
address of the printf( "Value of b is %d\n", b );
variable.
b = (a == 10) ? 20: 30;
* Pointer to a variable. *a; printf( "Value of b is %d\n", b );
}
?: Conditional Expression. If Condition is true ?
then value X : When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following
otherwise value Y result:
value of a is 4
Example *ptr is 4.
Try following example to understand all the miscellaneous operators available in Value of b is 30
C: Value of b is 20
#include <stdio.h>
Operators Precedence in C
main() Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression and
{ decides how an expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher
int a = 4; precedence than others; for example, the multiplication operator has a higher
precedence than the addition operator.
short b;
For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator *
double c; has a higher precedence than +, so it first gets multiplied with 3*2 and then
int* ptr; adds into 7.
40 41
Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table,
those with the lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher
precedence operators will be evaluated first. Example
Try the following example to understand operator precedence in C:
Category Operator Associativity
#include <stdio.h>
Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right

main()
Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left {

int a = 20;
Multiplicative */% Left to right int b = 10;

int c = 15;
Additive +- Left to right int d = 5;

int e;
Shift << >> Left to right

e = (a + b) * c / d; // ( 30 * 15 ) / 5
Relational < <= > >= Left to right printf("Value of (a + b) * c / d is : %d\n", e );
Equality == != Left to right e = ((a + b) * c) / d; // (30 * 15 ) / 5

printf("Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is : %d\n" , e );
Bitwise AND & Left to right
e = (a + b) * (c / d); // (30) * (15/5)
Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right printf("Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is : %d\n", e );
Bitwise OR | Left to right e = a + (b * c) / d; // 20 + (150/5)

printf("Value of a + (b * c) / d is : %d\n" , e );
Logical AND && Left to right
return 0;
Logical OR || Left to right }
Conditional ?: Right to left result:
Value of (a + b) * c / d is : 90
Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left
Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is : 90
Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is : 90
Comma , Left to right
Value of a + (b * c) / d is : 50
42 43
10. DECISION MAKING
Decision-making structures require that the programmer specifies one or more

conditions to be evaluated or tested by the program, along with a statement or
statements to be executed if the condition is determined to be true, and
optionally, other statements to be executed if the condition is determined to be
false.
Shown below is the general form of a typical decision-making structure found in
most of the programming languages:
C programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as true,

and if it is either zero or null, then it is assumed as false value.
C programming language provides the following types of decision-making
statements.
Statement Description
if statement An if statement consists of a boolean expression

followed by one or more statements.
if...else statement An if statement can be followed by an

optional else statement, which executes when
44 45
the Boolean expression is false.
nested if statements You can use one if or else if statement inside

another if or else if statement(s).
switch statement A switch statement allows a variable to be tested

for equality against a list of values.
nested switch statements You can use one switch statement inside another
switch statement(s).
if Statement
An if statement consists of a Boolean expression followed by one or more
statements. Example
Syntax #include <stdio.h>
The syntax of an if statement in C programming language is:

int main ()
if(boolean_expression)
{
{
/* local variable definition */
/* statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is true */
int a = 10;
}
If the Boolean expression evaluates to true, then the block of code inside the if /* check the boolean condition using if statement */
statement will be executed. If the Boolean expression evaluates to false, then
the first set of code after the end of the if statement (after the closing curly if( a < 20 )
brace) will be executed. {
C programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values /* if condition is true then print the following */
as true and if it is either zero or null, then it is assumed as false value.
printf("a is less than 20\n" );
Flow Diagram }
printf("value of a is : %d\n", a);
return 0;
}
a is less than 20;
46 47
value of a is : 10 Example
#include <stdio.h>
ifelse Statement
An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which executes int main ()
when the Boolean expression is false. {
Syntax
int a = 100;
The syntax of an if...else statement in C programming language is:
if(boolean_expression) /* check the boolean condition */

{ if( a < 20 )
/* statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is true */ {
} /* if condition is true then print the following */
else printf("a is less than 20\n" );
{ }
/* statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is false */ else
} {
If the Boolean expression evaluates to true, then the if block will be executed, /* if condition is false then print the following */
otherwise, the else block will be executed. printf("a is not less than 20\n" );
C programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as true, }
and if it is either zero or null, then it is assumed as false value.
printf("value of a is : %d\n", a);
Flow Diagram
return 0;
}
a is not less than 20;

value of a is : 100
if...else if...else Statement

An if statement can be followed by an optional else if...else statement, which is
very useful to test various conditions using single if...else if statement.
When using ifelse ifelse statements, there are few points to keep in mind:
An if can have zero or one else's and it must come after any else if's.
An if can have zero to many else if's and they must come before the else.
48 49
Once an else if succeeds, none of the remaining else if's or else's will be
printf("Value of a is 10\n" );
tested.
}
Syntax else if( a == 20 )
The syntax of an if...else if...else statement in C programming language is: {
/* if else if condition is true */
if(boolean_expression 1)
{
}
/* Executes when the boolean expression 1 is true */
else if( a == 30 )
}
{
else if( boolean_expression 2)
/* if else if condition is true */
{
}
}
else
else if( boolean_expression 3)
{
{
/* if none of the conditions is true */
printf("None of the values is matching\n" );
}
}
else
printf("Exact value of a is: %d\n", a );
{
/* executes when the none of the above condition is true */
return 0;
}
}
Example When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
#include <stdio.h> None of the values is matching
Exact value of a is: 100
int main ()
{
Nested if Statements
It is always legal in C programming to nest if-else statements, which means you
int a = 100;
can use one if or else if statement inside another if or else if statement(s).
/* check the boolean condition */ Syntax

if( a == 10 ) The syntax for a nested if statement is as follows:
{ if( boolean_expression 1)
/* if condition is true then print the following */ {
50 51
/* Executes when the boolean expression 1 is true */ Value of a is 100 and b is 200
if(boolean_expression 2) Exact value of a is : 100
{ Exact value of b is : 200
} switch Statement
}
A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of
You can nest else if...else in the similar way as you have nested if statements. values. Each value is called a case, and the variable being switched on is
checked for each switch case.
Example
Syntax
#include <stdio.h> The syntax for a switch statement in C programming language is as follows:
switch(expression){
int main ()
case constant-expression :
{
statement(s);
break; /* optional */
int a = 100;
case constant-expression :
int b = 200;
statement(s);
break; /* optional */
/* check the boolean condition */
if( a == 100 )
/* you can have any number of case statements */
{
default : /* Optional */
/* if condition is true then check the following */
statement(s);
if( b == 200 )
}
{
/* if condition is true then print the following */ The following rules apply to a switch statement:
printf("Value of a is 100 and b is 200\n" ); The expression used in a switch statement must have an integral or
enumerated type, or be of a class type in which the class has a single
}
conversion function to an integral or enumerated type.
}
You can have any number of case statements within a switch. Each case is
printf("Exact value of a is : %d\n", a ); followed by the value to be compared to and a colon.
printf("Exact value of b is : %d\n", b ); The constant-expression for a case must be the same data type as the
variable in the switch, and it must be a constant or a literal.
return 0; When the variable being switched on is equal to a case, the statements
following that case will execute until a break statement is reached.
}
When a break statement is reached, the switch terminates, and the flow
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: of control jumps to the next line following the switch statement.
52 53
Not every case needs to contain a break. If no break appears, the flow of
printf("Excellent!\n" );
control will fall through to subsequent cases until a break is reached.
break;
A switch statement can have an optional default case, which must
appear at the end of the switch. The default case can be used for case 'B' :
performing a task when none of the cases is true. No break is needed in case 'C' :
the default case.
printf("Well done\n" );
Flow Diagram break;

case 'D' :
printf("You passed\n" );
break;
case 'F' :
printf("Better try again\n" );
break;
default :
printf("Invalid grade\n" );
}
printf("Your grade is %c\n", grade );
return 0;
}
Well done
Your grade is B
Example
#include <stdio.h>
Nested switch Statements
It is possible to have a switch as a part of the statement sequence of an outer
int main () switch. Even if the case constants of the inner and outer switch contain common
{ values, no conflicts will arise.
Syntax
char grade = 'B';
The syntax for a nested switch statement is as follows:
switch(grade) switch(ch1) {
{ case 'A':
case 'A' : printf("This A is part of outer switch" );
54 55
switch(ch2) { This is part of outer switch

case 'A': This is part of inner switch
printf("This A is part of inner switch" ); Exact value of a is : 100
break; Exact value of b is : 200
case 'B': /* case code */
} The ? : Operator:
break;
We have covered conditional operator ? : in the previous chapter which can be
case 'B': /* case code */ used to replace if...else statements. It has the following general form:
}
Exp1 ? Exp2 : Exp3;
Example Where Exp1, Exp2, and Exp3 are expressions. Notice the use and placement of
the colon.
#include <stdio.h>
The value of a ? expression is determined like this:
1. Exp1 is evaluated. If it is true, then Exp2 is evaluated and becomes the
int main () value of the entire ? expression.
{ 2. If Exp1 is false, then Exp3 is evaluated and its value becomes the value of
/* local variable definition */ the expression.
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
switch(a) {
case 100:
printf("This is part of outer switch\n", a );
switch(b) {
case 200:
printf("This is part of inner switch\n", a );
}
}
printf("Exact value of a is : %d\n", a );
printf("Exact value of b is : %d\n", b );
return 0;
}
56 57
11. LOOPS
do...while loop It is more like a while statement, except that it tests
the condition at the end of the loop body.
nested loops You can use one or more loops inside any other while,
for, or do..while loop.
You may encounter situations when a block of code needs to be executed
several number of times. In general, statements are executed sequentially: The
first statement in a function is executed first, followed by the second, and so on.
Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more while Loop
complicated execution paths. A while loop in C programming repeatedly executes a target statement as long
A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements as a given condition is true.
multiple times. Given below is the general form of a loop statement in most of
the programming languages: Syntax
The syntax of a while loop in C programming language is:
while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}
Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements.

The condition may be any expression, and true is any nonzero value. The loop
iterates while the condition is true.
When the condition becomes false, the program control passes to the line
immediately following the loop.
Flow Diagram
C programming language provides the following types of loops to handle looping

requirements.
Loop Type Description
while loop Repeats a statement or group of statements while a

given condition is true. It tests the condition before
executing the loop body.
for loop Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and

abbreviates the code that manages the loop variable.
58 59
return 0;
}
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19
Here, the key point to note is that a while loop might not execute at all. When
for Loop
the condition is tested and the result is false, the loop body will be skipped and A for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a
the first statement after the while loop will be executed. loop that needs to execute a specific number of times.
Example Syntax
#include <stdio.h> The syntax of a for loop in C programming language is:
for ( init; condition; increment )

int main () {
{ statement(s);
/* local variable definition */ }
int a = 10;
Here is the flow of control in a for loop:
1. The init step is executed first, and only once. This step allows you to
/* while loop execution */ declare and initialize any loop control variables. You are not required to
while( a < 20 ) put a statement here, as long as a semicolon appears.
{ 2. Next, the condition is evaluated. If it is true, the body of the loop is
executed. If it is false, the body of the loop does not execute and the flow
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
of control jumps to the next statement just after the for loop.
a++;
3. After the body of the for loop executes, the flow of control jumps back up
} to the increment statement. This statement allows you to update any
loop control variables. This statement can be left blank, as long as a
semicolon appears after the condition.
60 61
4. The condition is now evaluated again. If it is true, the loop executes and
}
the process repeats itself (body of loop, then increment step, and then
again condition). After the condition becomes false, the for loop
terminates. return 0;
}
Flow Diagram
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19
dowhile Loop
Unlike for and while loops, which test the loop condition at the top of the loop,
the do...while loop in C programming checks its condition at the bottom of the
loop.
A do...while loop is similar to a while loop, except the fact that it is guaranteed
to execute at least one time.
Syntax
The syntax of a do...while loop in C programming language is:
Example
do
#include <stdio.h>
{
statement(s);
int main ()
{
}while( condition );
/* for loop execution */
for( int a = 10; a < 20; a = a + 1 ) Notice that the conditional expression appears at the end of the loop, so the
statement(s) in the loop executes once before the condition is tested.
{
62 63
If the condition is true, the flow of control jumps back up to do, and the
}
statement(s) in the loop executes again. This process repeats until the given
condition becomes false. When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
Flow Diagram value of a: 10

value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19
Nested Loops
C programming allows to use one loop inside another loop. The following section
shows a few examples to illustrate the concept.
Example Syntax
#include <stdio.h> The syntax for a nested for loop statement in C is as follows:

int main ()
{
{
{
int a = 10;
statement(s);
}
/* do loop execution */
statement(s);
do
}
{
The syntax for a nested while loop statement in C programming language is as
follows:
a = a + 1;
while(condition)
}while( a < 20 );
{
return 0; while(condition)
{
64 65
statement(s); return 0;
} }
statement(s);
}
2 is prime
The syntax for a nested do...while loop statement in C programming language
3 is prime
is as follows:
5 is prime
do 7 is prime
{ 11 is prime
statement(s); 13 is prime
do 17 is prime
{ 19 is prime
statement(s); 23 is prime
}while( condition );
29 is prime
31 is prime
}while( condition ); 37 is prime
A final note on loop nesting is that you can put any type of loop inside any other 41 is prime
type of loop. For example, a for loop can be inside a while loop or vice versa. 43 is prime
47 is prime
Example
53 is prime
The following program uses a nested for loop to find the prime numbers from 2
to 100: 59 is prime
61 is prime
#include <stdio.h>
67 is prime
71 is prime
int main ()
73 is prime
{
79 is prime
83 is prime
int i, j;
89 is prime
97 is prime
for(i=2; i<100; i++) {
for(j=2; j <= (i/j); j++)
if(!(i%j)) break; // if factor found, not prime Loop Control Statements
if(j > (i/j)) printf("%d is prime\n", i); Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence. When
} execution leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope
are destroyed.
C supports the following control statements.
66 67
Control Statement Description
break statement Terminates the loop or switch statement and

transfers execution to the statement immediately
following the loop or switch.
continue statement Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and
immediately retest its condition prior to reiterating.
goto statement Transfers control to the labeled statement.
break Statement
The break statement in C programming has the following two usages:
When a break statement is encountered inside a loop, the loop is Example
immediately terminated and the program control resumes at the next
statement following the loop. #include <stdio.h>
It can be used to terminate a case in the switch statement (covered in

the next chapter). int main ()
If you are using nested loops, the break statement will stop the execution of the {
innermost loop and start executing the next line of code after the block. /* local variable definition */
int a = 10;
Syntax
The syntax for a break statement in C is as follows:
/* while loop execution */
break;
while( a < 20 )
{
Flow Diagram
a++;
if( a > 15)
{
/* terminate the loop using break statement */
break;
}
}
68 69
return 0;
}
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
continue Statement
The continue statement in C programming works somewhat like the break
statement. Instead of forcing termination, it forces the next iteration of the loop Example
to take place, skipping any code in between.
#include <stdio.h>
For the for loop, continue statement causes the conditional test and increment
portions of the loop to execute. For the while and do...while loops, continue
statement causes the program control to pass to the conditional tests. int main ()
{
Syntax
The syntax for a continue statement in C is as follows:
int a = 10;
continue;
Flow Diagram do
{
if( a == 15)
{
/* skip the iteration */
a = a + 1;
continue;
}
a++;
}while( a < 20 );
70 71
return 0;
}
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
Example
value of a: 19
#include <stdio.h>
goto Statement
int main ()
A goto statement in C programming provides an unconditional jump from the
{
goto to a labeled statement in the same function.
NOTE: Use of goto statement is highly discouraged in any programming
language because it makes difficult to trace the control flow of a program, int a = 10;
making the program hard to understand and hard to modify. Any program that
uses a goto can be rewritten to avoid them.
Syntax LOOP:do
The syntax for a goto statement in C is as follows: {
if( a == 15)
goto label;
{
..
/* skip the iteration */
.
a = a + 1;
label: statement;
goto LOOP;
Here label can be any plain text except C keyword and it can be set anywhere in }
the C program above or below to goto statement.
a++;
}while( a < 20 );
Flow Diagram
72 73
return 0;
}
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19
The Infinite Loop

A loop becomes an infinite loop if a condition never becomes false. The for loop
is traditionally used for this purpose. Since none of the three expressions that
form the for loop are required, you can make an endless loop by leaving the
conditional expression empty.
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
for( ; ; )
{
printf("This loop will run forever.\n");
}
return 0;
}
When the conditional expression is absent, it is assumed to be true. You may

have an initialization and increment expression, but C programmers more
commonly use the for(;;) construct to signify an infinite loop.
NOTE: You can terminate an infinite loop by pressing Ctrl + C keys.
74 75
12. FUNCTIONS
Function Body: The function body contains a collection of statements
that define what the function does.
Example
Given below is the source code for a function called max(). This function takes
two parameters num1 and num2 and returns the maximum value between the
A function is a group of statements that together perform a task. Every C
two:
program has at least one function, which is main(), and all the most trivial
programs can define additional functions. /* function returning the max between two numbers */
You can divide up your code into separate functions. How you divide up your int max(int num1, int num2)
code among different functions is up to you, but logically the division is such
that each function performs a specific task. {
A function declaration tells the compiler about a function's name, return type, /* local variable declaration */
and parameters. A function definition provides the actual body of the function. int result;
The C standard library provides numerous built-in functions that your program
can call. For example, strcat() to concatenate two strings, memcpy() to copy if (num1 > num2)
one memory location to another location, and many more functions.
result = num1;
A function can also be referred as a method or a sub-routine or a procedure, etc.
else
result = num2;
Defining a Function
The general form of a function definition in C programming language is as
return result;
follows:
}
return_type function_name( parameter list )
{
body of the function
Function Declarations
} A function declaration tells the compiler about a function name and how to call
the function. The actual body of the function can be defined separately.
A function definition in C programming consists of a function header and a A function declaration has the following parts:
function body. Here are all the parts of a function:
Return Type: A function may return a value. The return_type is the return_type function_name( parameter list );
data type of the value the function returns. Some functions perform the
For the above defined function max(),the function declaration is as follows:
desired operations without returning a value. In this case, the return_type
is the keyword void. int max(int num1, int num2);
Function Name: This is the actual name of the function. The function
name and the parameter list together constitute the function signature. Parameter names are not important in function declaration, only their type is
required, so the following is also a valid declaration:
Parameters: A parameter is like a placeholder. When a function is
invoked, you pass a value to the parameter. This value is referred to as int max(int, int);
actual parameter or argument. The parameter list refers to the type,
order, and number of the parameters of a function. Parameters are Function declaration is required when you define a function in one source file
optional; that is, a function may contain no parameters. and you call that function in another file. In such case, you should declare the
function at the top of the file calling the function.
76 77
Calling a Function
While creating a C function, you give a definition of what the function has to do. if (num1 > num2)
To use a function, you will have to call that function to perform the defined task. result = num1;
When a program calls a function, the program control is transferred to the called else
function. A called function performs a defined task and when its return
result = num2;
statement is executed or when its function-ending closing brace is reached, it
returns the program control back to the main program.
To call a function, you simply need to pass the required parameters along with return result;
the function name, and if the function returns a value, then you can store the }
returned value. For example:
We have kept max()along with main() and compiled the source code. While
#include <stdio.h> running the final executable, it would produce the following result:
Max value is : 200

int max(int num1, int num2);
Function Arguments
int main () If a function is to use arguments, it must declare variables that accept the
values of the arguments. These variables are called the formal parameters of
{
the function.
Formal parameters behave like other local variables inside the function and are
int a = 100; created upon entry into the function and destroyed upon exit.
int b = 200; While calling a function, there are two ways in which arguments can be passed
int ret; to a function:
Call Type Description

/* calling a function to get max value */
ret = max(a, b);
Call by value This method copies the actual value of an argument
into the formal parameter of the function. In this case,
printf( "Max value is : %d\n", ret ); changes made to the parameter inside the function
have no effect on the argument.
return 0;
Call by reference This method copies the address of an argument into
}
the formal parameter. Inside the function, the address
is used to access the actual argument used in the call.
/* function returning the max between two numbers */ This means that changes made to the parameter affect
the argument.
int max(int num1, int num2)
{
/* local variable declaration */
int result;
78 79
Call by Value /* calling a function to swap the values */
The call by value method of passing arguments to a function copies the actual swap(a, b);
value of an argument into the formal parameter of the function. In this case,
changes made to the parameter inside the function have no effect on the
printf("After swap, value of a : %d\n", a );
argument.
printf("After swap, value of b : %d\n", b );
By default, C programming uses call by value to pass arguments. In general, it
means the code within a function cannot alter the arguments used to call the
function. Consider the function swap() definition as follows. return 0;
/* function definition to swap the values */ }
void swap(int x, int y) Let us put the above code in a single C file, compile and execute it, it will
{ produce the following result:
int temp;
Before swap, value of a :100
Before swap, value of b :200
temp = x; /* save the value of x */
After swap, value of a :100
x = y; /* put y into x */
After swap, value of b :200
y = temp; /* put temp into y */
It shows that there are no changes in the values, though they had been changed
inside the function.
return;
}
Call by Reference
Now, let us call the function swap() by passing actual values as in the following The call by reference method of passing arguments to a function copies the
example: address of an argument into the formal parameter. Inside the function, the
address is used to access the actual argument used in the call. It means the
#include <stdio.h> changes made to the parameter affect the passed argument.
To pass a value by reference, argument pointers are passed to the functions just
/* function declaration */ like any other value. So accordingly, you need to declare the function
parameters as pointer types as in the following function swap(), which
void swap(int x, int y);
exchanges the values of the two integer variables pointed to, by their
arguments.
int main ()
/* function definition to swap the values */
{
void swap(int *x, int *y)
{
int a = 100;
int temp;
int b = 200;
temp = *x; /* save the value at address x */
*x = *y; /* put y into x */
printf("Before swap, value of a : %d\n", a );
*y = temp; /* put temp into y */
printf("Before swap, value of b : %d\n", b );
80 81
return; After swap, value of a :200

} After swap, value of b :100
Let us now call the function swap() by passing values by reference as in the It shows that the change has reflected outside the function as well, unlike call
following example: by value where the changes do not reflect outside the function.
By default, C uses call by value to pass arguments. In general, it means the
#include <stdio.h>
code within a function cannot alter the arguments used to call the function.
void swap(int *x, int *y);
int main ()
{
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
printf("Before swap, value of a : %d\n", a );

printf("Before swap, value of b : %d\n", b );
/* calling a function to swap the values.

* &a indicates pointer to a i.e. address of variable a and
* &b indicates pointer to b i.e. address of variable b.
*/
swap(&a, &b);
printf("After swap, value of a : %d\n", a );

printf("After swap, value of b : %d\n", b );
return 0;
}
Let us put the above code in a single C file, compile and execute it, to produce
the following result:
Before swap, value of a :100

Before swap, value of b :200
82 83
13. SCOPE RULES
}
Global Variables
Global variables are defined outside a function, usually on top of the program.
A scope in any programming is a region of the program where a defined variable Global variables hold their values throughout the lifetime of your program and
can have its existence and beyond that variable it cannot be accessed. There are they can be accessed inside any of the functions defined for the program.
three places where variables can be declared in C programming language:
A global variable can be accessed by any function. That is, a global variable is
Inside a function or a block which is called local variables, available for use throughout your entire program after its declaration. The
Outside of all functions which is called global variables. following program shows how global variables are used in a program.
In the definition of function parameters which are called formal #include <stdio.h>
parameters.
Let us understand what are local and global variables, and formal parameters.
/* global variable declaration */
int g;
Local Variables
Variables that are declared inside a function or block are called local variables. int main ()
They can be used only by statements that are inside that function or block of
code. Local variables are not known to functions outside their own. The following {
example shows how local variables are used. Here all the variables a, b, and c /* local variable declaration */
are local to main() function.
int a, b;
#include <stdio.h>
/* actual initialization */
int main () a = 10;
{ b = 20;
/* local variable declaration */ g = a + b;
int a, b;
int c; printf ("value of a = %d, b = %d and g = %d\n", a, b, g);
/* actual initialization */ return 0;

a = 10; }
b = 20;
A program can have same name for local and global variables but the value of
c = a + b; local variable inside a function will take preference. Here is an example:
#include <stdio.h>
printf ("value of a = %d, b = %d and c = %d\n", a, b, c);

return 0;
int g = 20;
84 85
}
int main ()
{ /* function to add two integers */
/* local variable declaration */ int sum(int a, int b)
int g = 10; {
printf ("value of a in sum() = %d\n", a);
printf ("value of g = %d\n", g); printf ("value of b in sum() = %d\n", b);
return 0; return a + b;
} }
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
value of g = 10 value of a in main() = 10

value of a in sum() = 10
Formal Parameters value of b in sum() = 20

value of c in main() = 30
Formal parameters are treated as local variables with-in a function and they take
precedence over global variables. Following is an example:
#include <stdio.h> Initializing Local and Global Variables

When a local variable is defined, it is not initialized by the system, you must
initialize it yourself. Global variables are initialized automatically by the system
when you define them, as follows:
int a = 20;
Data Type Initial Default Value
int main ()
{ int 0
/* local variable declaration in main function */
int a = 10; char '\0'
int b = 20;
int c = 0; float 0
printf ("value of a in main() = %d\n", a); double 0

c = sum( a, b);
printf ("value of c in main() = %d\n", c); pointer NULL
return 0;
86 87
14. ARRAYS
It is a good programming practice to initialize variables properly, otherwise your
program may produce unexpected results, because uninitialized variables will
take some garbage value already available at their memory location.
Arrays a kind of data structure that can store a fixed-size sequential collection of
elements of the same type. An array is used to store a collection of data, but it
is often more useful to think of an array as a collection of variables of the same
type.
Instead of declaring individual variables, such as number0, number1, ..., and
number99, you declare one array variable such as numbers and use
numbers[0], numbers[1], and ..., numbers[99] to represent individual variables.
A specific element in an array is accessed by an index.
All arrays consist of contiguous memory locations. The lowest address
corresponds to the first element and the highest address to the last element.
Declaring Arrays
To declare an array in C, a programmer specifies the type of the elements and
the number of elements required by an array as follows:
type arrayName [ arraySize ];
This is called a single-dimensional array. The arraySize must be an integer

constant greater than zero and type can be any valid C data type. For example,
to declare a 10-element array called balance of type double, use this statement:
double balance[10];
Here, balance is a variable array which is sufficient to hold up to 10 double

numbers.
Initializing Arrays
You can initialize an array in C either one by one or using a single statement as
follows:
double balance[5] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 7.0, 50.0};
88 89
The number of values between braces { } cannot be larger than the number of
}
elements that we declare for the array between square brackets [ ].
If you omit the size of the array, an array just big enough to hold the
initialization is created. Therefore, if you write: /* output each array element's value */
for (j = 0; j < 10; j++ )
double balance[] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 7.0, 50.0};
{
You will create exactly the same array as you did in the previous example. printf("Element[%d] = %d\n", j, n[j] );
Following is an example to assign a single element of the array:
}
balance[4] = 50.0;
The above statement assigns the 5th element in the array with a value of 50.0. return 0;
All arrays have 0 as the index of their first element which is also called the base }
index and the last index of an array will be total size of the array minus 1.
Shown below is the pictorial representation of the array we discussed above: When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
Element[0] = 100
Element[1] = 101
Element[2] = 102
Element[3] = 103
Accessing Array Elements Element[4] = 104
An element is accessed by indexing the array name. This is done by placing the
Element[5] = 105
index of the element within square brackets after the name of the array. For
example: Element[6] = 106
Element[7] = 107
double salary = balance[9];
Element[8] = 108
The above statement will take the 10th element from the array and assign the Element[9] = 109
value to salary variable. The following example shows how to use all the three
above-mentioned concepts viz. declaration, assignment, and accessing arrays:
#include <stdio.h>
Arrays in Detail
Arrays are important to C and should need a lot more attention. The following
important concepts related to array should be clear to a C programmer:
int main ()
{ Concept Description
int n[ 10 ]; /* n is an array of 10 integers */
int i,j; Multidimensional arrays C supports multidimensional arrays. The
simplest form of the multidimensional array is
the two-dimensional array.
/* initialize elements of array n to 0 */
for ( i = 0; i < 10; i++ )
Passing arrays to functions You can pass to the function a pointer to an
{
array by specifying the array's name without an
n[ i ] = i + 100; /* set element at location i to i + 100 */
90 91
index. Initializing Two-Dimensional Arrays

Multidimensional arrays may be initialized by specifying bracketed values for
each row. Following is an array with 3 rows and each row has 4 columns.
Return array from a function C allows a function to return an array.
int a[3][4] = {
Pointer to an array You can generate a pointer to the first element {0, 1, 2, 3} , /* initializers for row indexed by 0 */
of an array by simply specifying the array {4, 5, 6, 7} , /* initializers for row indexed by 1 */
name, without any index.
{8, 9, 10, 11} /* initializers for row indexed by 2 */
};
Multidimensional Arrays
The nested braces, which indicate the intended row, are optional. The following
C programming language allows multidimensional arrays. Here is the general initialization is equivalent to the previous example:
form of a multidimensional array declaration:
int a[3][4] = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11};
type name[size1][size2]...[sizeN];
For example, the following declaration creates a three-dimensional integer Accessing Two-Dimensional Array Elements
array:
An element in a two-dimensional array is accessed by using the subscripts, i.e.,
int threedim[5][10][4]; row index and column index of the array. For example:
int val = a[2][3];

Two-dimensional Arrays
The above statement will take the 4th element from the 3rd row of the array.
The simplest form of multidimensional array is the two-dimensional array. A You can verify it in the above figure. Let us check the following program where
two-dimensional array is, in essence, a list of one-dimensional arrays. To declare we have used a nested loop to handle a two-dimensional array:
a two-dimensional integer array of size [x][y], you would write something as
follows: #include <stdio.h>
type arrayName [ x ][ y ];
int main ()
Where type can be any valid C data type and arrayName will be a valid C
{
identifier. A two-dimensional array can be considered as a table which will have
x number of rows and y number of columns. A two-dimensional array a, which /* an array with 5 rows and 2 columns*/
contains three rows and four columns can be shown as follows: int a[5][2] = { {0,0}, {1,2}, {2,4}, {3,6},{4,8}};
int i, j;
/* output each array element's value */

for ( i = 0; i < 5; i++ )
{
Thus, every element in the array a is identified by an element name of the for ( j = 0; j < 2; j++ )
form a[ i ][ j ], where a is the name of the array, and i' and j are the
{
subscripts that uniquely identify each element in a.
printf("a[%d][%d] = %d\n", i,j, a[i][j] );
92 93
} Way-2
} Formal parameters as a sized array:
return 0; void myFunction(int param[10])
} {
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: .
.
a[0][0]: 0
.
a[0][1]: 0
}
a[1][0]: 1
a[1][1]: 2
Way-3
a[2][0]: 2
Formal parameters as an unsized array:
a[2][1]: 4
a[3][0]: 3 void myFunction(int param[])
a[3][1]: 6 {
a[4][0]: 4 .
a[4][1]: 8 .
.
As explained above, you can have arrays with any number of dimensions,
}
although it is likely that most of the arrays you create will be of one or two
dimensions.
Example
Passing Arrays to Functions Now, consider the following function, which takes an array as an argument along
with another argument and based on the passed arguments, it returns the
If you want to pass a single-dimension array as an argument in a function, you
average of the numbers passed through the array as follows:
would have to declare a formal parameter in one of following three ways and all
three declaration methods produce similar results because each tells the double getAverage(int arr[], int size)
compiler that an integer pointer is going to be received. Similarly, you can pass
multi-dimensional arrays as formal parameters. {
int i;
Way-1 double avg;
Formal parameters as a pointer: double sum;
void myFunction(int *param)
{ for (i = 0; i < size; ++i)
. {
. sum += arr[i];
. }
}
avg = sum / size;
94 95
If you want to return a single-dimension array from a function, you would have
to declare a function returning a pointer as in the following example:
return avg;
} int * myFunction()
{
Now, let us call the above function as follows:
.
#include <stdio.h> .
.
/* function declaration */ }
double getAverage(int arr[], int size);
Second point to remember is that C does not advocate to return the address of a
local variable to outside of the function, so you would have to define the local
int main () variable as static variable.
{ Now, consider the following function which will generate 10 random numbers
and return them using an array and call this function as follows:
/* an int array with 5 elements */
int balance[5] = {1000, 2, 3, 17, 50}; #include <stdio.h>
double avg;
/* function to generate and return random numbers */
/* pass pointer to the array as an argument */ int * getRandom( )
avg = getAverage( balance, 5 ) ; {
static int r[10];
/* output the returned value */ int i;
printf( "Average value is: %f ", avg );
/* set the seed */
return 0; srand( (unsigned)time( NULL ) );
} for ( i = 0; i < 10; ++i)
{
When the above code is compiled together and executed, it produces the
following result: r[i] = rand();
printf( "r[%d] = %d\n", i, r[i]);
Average value is: 214.400000
As you can see, the length of the array doesn't matter as far as the function is }
concerned because C performs no bounds checking for formal parameters.
return r;
Return Array from a Function
}
C programming does not allow to return an entire array as an argument to a
function. However, you can return a pointer to an array by specifying the array's
name without an index. /* main function to call above defined function */
96 97
int main () *(p + 8) : 1901409888

{ *(p + 9) : 1990469526
/* a pointer to an int */
int *p; Pointer to an Array
int i; It is most likely that you would not understand this section until you are through
with the chapter Pointers.
p = getRandom(); Assuming you have some understanding of pointers in C, let us start: An array
name is a constant pointer to the first element of the array. Therefore, in the
for ( i = 0; i < 10; i++ )
declaration:
{
double balance[50];
printf( "*(p + %d) : %d\n", i, *(p + i));
} balance is a pointer to &balance[0], which is the address of the first element of
the array balance. Thus, the following program fragment assigns p as the
address of the first element of balance:
return 0;
} double *p;
double balance[10];
following result:
p = balance;
r[0] = 313959809
r[1] = 1759055877 It is legal to use array names as constant pointers, and vice versa. Therefore,
*(balance + 4) is a legitimate way of accessing the data at balance[4].
r[2] = 1113101911
Once you store the address of the first element in p, you can access the array
r[3] = 2133832223
elements using *p, *(p+1), *(p+2), and so on. Given below is the example to
r[4] = 2073354073 show all the concepts discussed above:
r[5] = 167288147
#include <stdio.h>
r[6] = 1827471542
r[7] = 834791014
int main ()
r[8] = 1901409888
{
r[9] = 1990469526
/* an array with 5 elements */
*(p + 0) : 313959809
double balance[5] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 17.0, 50.0};
*(p + 1) : 1759055877
double *p;
*(p + 2) : 1113101911
int i;
*(p + 3) : 2133832223
*(p + 4) : 2073354073
p = balance;
*(p + 5) : 167288147
*(p + 6) : 1827471542
/* output each array element's value */
*(p + 7) : 834791014
98 99
15. POINTERS
printf( "Array values using pointer\n");
for ( i = 0; i < 5; i++ )
{
printf("*(p + %d) : %f\n", i, *(p + i) );
} Pointers in C are easy and fun to learn. Some C programming tasks are
performed more easily with pointers, and other tasks, such as dynamic memory
allocation, cannot be performed without using pointers. So it becomes necessary
printf( "Array values using balance as address\n"); to learn pointers to become a perfect C programmer. Let's start learning them in
for ( i = 0; i < 5; i++ ) simple and easy steps.
{ As you know, every variable is a memory location and every memory location
has its address defined which can be accessed using ampersand (&) operator,
printf("*(balance + %d) : %f\n", i, *(balance + i) );
which denotes an address in memory. Consider the following example, which
} prints the address of the variables defined:
#include <stdio.h>
return 0;
}
int main ()
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: {
Array values using pointer int var1;
*(p + 0) : 1000.000000 char var2[10];
*(p + 1) : 2.000000
*(p + 2) : 3.400000 printf("Address of var1 variable: %x\n", &var1 );
*(p + 3) : 17.000000 printf("Address of var2 variable: %x\n", &var2 );
*(p + 4) : 50.000000
Array values using balance as address return 0;
*(balance + 0) : 1000.000000 }
*(balance + 1) : 2.000000 When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
*(balance + 2) : 3.400000
Address of var1 variable: bff5a400
*(balance + 3) : 17.000000
Address of var2 variable: bff5a3f6
*(balance + 4) : 50.000000
In the above example, p is a pointer to double, which means it can store the
address of a variable of double type. Once we have the address in p, *p will give
us the value available at the address stored in p, as we have shown in the above What are Pointers?
example.
A pointer is a variable whose value is the address of another variable, i.e.,
direct address of the memory location. Like any variable or constant, you must
declare a pointer before using it to store any variable address. The general form
of a pointer variable declaration is:
100 101
type *var-name; /* access the value using the pointer */

printf("Value of *ip variable: %d\n", *ip );
Here, type is the pointer's base type; it must be a valid C data type and var-
name is the name of the pointer variable. The asterisk * used to declare a
pointer is the same asterisk used for multiplication. However, in this statement, return 0;
the asterisk is being used to designate a variable as a pointer. Take a look at
some of the valid pointer declarations: }
int *ip; /* pointer to an integer */ When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
double *dp; /* pointer to a double */ Address of var variable: bffd8b3c

float *fp; /* pointer to a float */ Address stored in ip variable: bffd8b3c
char *ch /* pointer to a character */ Value of *ip variable: 20
The actual data type of the value of all pointers, whether integer, float,
character, or otherwise, is the same, a long hexadecimal number that represents NULL Pointers
a memory address. The only difference between pointers of different data types
is the data type of the variable or constant that the pointer points to. It is always a good practice to assign a NULL value to a pointer variable in case
you do not have an exact address to be assigned. This is done at the time of
variable declaration. A pointer that is assigned NULL is called a null pointer.
How to Use Pointers?
The NULL pointer is a constant with a value of zero defined in several standard
There are a few important operations, which we will do with the help of pointers libraries. Consider the following program:
very frequently. (a) We define a pointer variable, (b) assign the address of a
variable to a pointer, and (c) finally access the value at the address available in #include <stdio.h>
the pointer variable. This is done by using unary operator * that returns the
value of the variable located at the address specified by its operand. The
following example makes use of these operations: int main ()
{
#include <stdio.h>
int *ptr = NULL;
int main ()
printf("The value of ptr is : %x\n", ptr );
{
int var = 20; /* actual variable declaration */
return 0;
int *ip; /* pointer variable declaration */
}
ip = &var; /* store address of var in pointer variable*/ When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
The value of ptr is 0

printf("Address of var variable: %x\n", &var );
In most of the operating systems, programs are not permitted to access
memory at address 0 because that memory is reserved by the operating system.
/* address stored in pointer variable */ However, the memory address 0 has special significance; it signals that the
pointer is not intended to point to an accessible memory location. But by
printf("Address stored in ip variable: %x\n", ip );
convention, if a pointer contains the null (zero) value, it is assumed to point to
nothing.
102 103
To check for a null pointer, you can use an if statement as follows:

ptr++
if(ptr) /* succeeds if p is not null */
After the above operation, the ptr will point to the location 1004 because each
if(!ptr) /* succeeds if p is null */ time ptr is incremented, it will point to the next integer location which is 4 bytes
next to the current location. This operation will move the pointer to the next
memory location without impacting the actual value at the memory location.
Pointers in Detail If ptr points to a character whose address is 1000, then the above operation will
point to the location 1001 because the next character will be available at 1001.
Pointers have many but easy concepts and they are very important to C
programming. The following important pointer concepts should be clear to any C
programmer: Incrementing a Pointer
We prefer using a pointer in our program instead of an array because the
Concept Description variable pointer can be incremented, unlike the array name which cannot be
incremented because it is a constant pointer. The following program increments
the variable pointer to access each succeeding element of the array:
Pointer arithmetic There are four arithmetic operators that
can be used in pointers: ++, --, +, - #include <stdio.h>
Array of pointers You can define arrays to hold a number of const int MAX = 3;
pointers.
int main ()
Pointer to pointer C allows you to have pointer on a pointer
and so on. {
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
Passing pointers to functions in C Passing an argument by reference or by int i, *ptr;

address enable the passed argument to be
changed in the calling function by the
/* let us have array address in pointer */
called function.
ptr = var;
for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
Return pointer from functions in C C allows a function to return a pointer to
the local variable, static variable, and {
dynamically allocated memory as well.
printf("Address of var[%d] = %x\n", i, ptr );

printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, *ptr );
Pointer Arithmetic
A pointer in C is an address, which is a numeric value. Therefore, you can
perform arithmetic operations on a pointer just as you can on a numeric value. /* move to the next location */
There are four arithmetic operators that can be used on pointers: ++, --, +, and ptr++;
-
}
To understand pointer arithmetic, let us consider that ptr is an integer pointer
which points to the address 1000. Assuming 32-bit integers, let us perform the return 0;
following arithmetic operation on the pointer: }
104 105
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
Address of var[0] = bf882b30 Address of var[3] = bfedbcd8

Value of var[0] = 10 Value of var[3] = 200
Decrementing a Pointer Pointer Comparisons

The same considerations apply to decrementing a pointer, which decreases its Pointers may be compared by using relational operators, such as ==, <, and >.
value by the number of bytes of its data type as shown below: If p1 and p2 point to variables that are related to each other, such as elements
of the same array, then p1 and p2 can be meaningfully compared.
#include <stdio.h>
The following program modifies the previous example - one by incrementing the
variable pointer so long as the address to which it points is either less than or
const int MAX = 3; equal to the address of the last element of the array, which is &var[MAX - 1]:
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{ const int MAX = 3;
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i, *ptr; int main ()
{
/* let us have array address in pointer */ int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
ptr = &var[MAX-1]; int i, *ptr;
for ( i = MAX; i > 0; i--)
{ /* let us have address of the first element in pointer */
ptr = var;
printf("Address of var[%d] = %x\n", i, ptr ); i = 0;
printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, *ptr ); while ( ptr <= &var[MAX - 1] )
{
/* move to the previous location */
ptr--; printf("Address of var[%d] = %x\n", i, ptr );
} printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, *ptr );
return 0;
} /* point to the previous location */
ptr++;
106 107
i++; Value of var[1] = 100

} Value of var[2] = 200
return 0;
There may be a situation when we want to maintain an array, which can store
} pointers to an int or char or any other data type available. Following is the
declaration of an array of pointers to an integer:
int *ptr[MAX];
Address of var[0] = bfdbcb20
Value of var[0] = 10 It declares ptr as an array of MAX integer pointers. Thus, each element in ptr
holds a pointer to an int value. The following example uses three integers, which
Address of var[1] = bfdbcb24 are stored in an array of pointers, as follows:
Value of var[1] = 100
#include <stdio.h>
Address of var[2] = bfdbcb28
const int MAX = 3;
Array of Pointers
int main ()
Before we understand the concept of arrays of pointers, let us consider the
{
following example, which uses an array of 3 integers:
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
#include <stdio.h>
int i, *ptr[MAX];
const int MAX = 3;

for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
{
int main ()
ptr[i] = &var[i]; /* assign the address of integer. */
{
}
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
int i;
{
printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, *ptr[i] );
for (i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
}
{
return 0;
printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, var[i] );
}
}
return 0;
} Value of var[0] = 10
108 109
You can also use an array of pointers to character to store a list of strings as
follows:
#include <stdio.h>
A variable that is a pointer to a pointer must be declared as such. This is done
by placing an additional asterisk in front of its name. For example, the following
const int MAX = 4; declaration declares a pointer to a pointer of type int:
int **var;
int main ()
{ When a target value is indirectly pointed to by a pointer to a pointer, accessing
that value requires that the asterisk operator be applied twice, as is shown
char *names[] = {
below in the example:
"Zara Ali",
#include <stdio.h>
"Hina Ali",
"Nuha Ali",
int main ()
"Sara Ali",
{
};
int var;
int i = 0;
int *ptr;
int **pptr;
for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
{
var = 3000;
printf("Value of names[%d] = %s\n", i, names[i] );
}
/* take the address of var */
return 0;
ptr = &var;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: /* take the address of ptr using address of operator & */
Value of names[0] = Zara Ali pptr = &ptr;
Value of names[1] = Hina Ali
Value of names[2] = Nuha Ali /* take the value using pptr */
Value of names[3] = Sara Ali printf("Value of var = %d\n", var );
printf("Value available at *ptr = %d\n", *ptr );
Pointer to Pointer printf("Value available at **pptr = %d\n", **pptr);
A pointer to a pointer is a form of multiple indirection, or a chain of pointers.

Normally, a pointer contains the address of a variable. When we define a pointer return 0;
to a pointer, the first pointer contains the address of the second pointer, which
}
points to the location that contains the actual value as shown below.
110 111
Value of var = 3000
Value available at *ptr = 3000 Number of seconds :1294450468
Value available at **pptr = 3000
The function, which can accept a pointer, can also accept an array as shown in
the following example:
Passing Pointers to Functions #include <stdio.h>
C programming allows passing a pointer to a function. To do so, simply declare
the function parameter as a pointer type.
Following is a simple example where we pass an unsigned long pointer to a
function and change the value inside the function which reflects back in the double getAverage(int *arr, int size);
calling function:
int main ()
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h> {
/* an int array with 5 elements */
void getSeconds(unsigned long *par); int balance[5] = {1000, 2, 3, 17, 50};

double avg;
int main ()
{ /* pass pointer to the array as an argument */
avg = getAverage( balance, 5 ) ;
unsigned long sec;
/* output the returned value */

printf("Average value is: %f\n", avg );
getSeconds( &sec );
/* print the actual value */ return 0;
printf("Number of seconds: %ld\n", sec ); }
return 0; double getAverage(int *arr, int size)

{
}
int i, sum = 0;
void getSeconds(unsigned long *par) double avg;
{
/* get the current number of seconds */ for (i = 0; i < size; ++i)
*par = time( NULL ); {

sum += arr[i];
return;
}
}
112 113
avg = (double)sum / size; /* set the seed */

srand( (unsigned)time( NULL ) );
return avg; for ( i = 0; i < 10; ++i)
} {
r[i] = rand();
following result: printf("%d\n", r[i] );
}
Average value is: 214.40000
return r;
Return Pointer from Functions
}
We have seen in the last chapter how C programming allows to return an array
from a function. Similarly, C also allows to return a pointer from a function. To
do so, you would have to declare a function returning a pointer as in the /* main function to call above defined function */
following example: int main ()
int * myFunction() {
{ /* a pointer to an int */
. int *p;
. int i;
.
} p = getRandom();
for ( i = 0; i < 10; i++ )
Second point to remember is that, it is not a good idea to return the address of
a local variable outside the function, so you would have to define the local {
variable as static variable. printf("*(p + [%d]) : %d\n", i, *(p + i) );
Now, consider the following function which will generate 10 random numbers }
and return them using an array name which represents a pointer, i.e., address
of first array element.
return 0;
#include <stdio.h>
}
#include <time.h>
following result:
/* function to generate and retrun random numbers. */
1523198053
int * getRandom( )
1187214107
{
1108300978
static int r[10];
430494959
int i;
1421301276
930971084
114 115
16. STRINGS
123250484
106932140
1604461820
149169022
*(p + [0]) : 1523198053 Strings are actually one-dimensional array of characters terminated by
*(p + [1]) : 1187214107 a null character '\0'. Thus a null-terminated string contains the characters that
comprise the string followed by a null.
*(p + [2]) : 1108300978
The following declaration and initialization create a string consisting of the word
*(p + [3]) : 430494959 "Hello". To hold the null character at the end of the array, the size of the
*(p + [4]) : 1421301276 character array containing the string is one more than the number of characters
in the word "Hello."
*(p + [5]) : 930971084
*(p + [6]) : 123250484 char greeting[6] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0'};
*(p + [7]) : 106932140
If you follow the rule of array initialization, then you can write the above
*(p + [8]) : 1604461820 statement as follows:
*(p + [9]) : 149169022
char greeting[] = "Hello";
Following is the memory presentation of the above defined string in C/C++:
Actually, you do not place the null character at the end of a string constant. The
C compiler automatically places the '\0' at the end of the string when it initializes
the array. Let us try to print the above mentioned string:
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
char greeting[6] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0'};
printf("Greeting message: %s\n", greeting );
116 117
return 0; {
} char str1[12] = "Hello";
char str2[12] = "World";
char str3[12];
Greeting message: Hello
int len ;
C supports a wide range of functions that manipulate null-terminated strings: /* copy str1 into str3 */
strcpy(str3, str1);
S.N. Function & Purpose printf("strcpy( str3, str1) : %s\n", str3 );
1 strcpy(s1, s2);
/* concatenates str1 and str2 */
Copies string s2 into string s1. strcat( str1, str2);
printf("strcat( str1, str2): %s\n", str1 );
2 strcat(s1, s2);
Concatenates string s2 onto the end of string s1. /* total lenghth of str1 after concatenation */
len = strlen(str1);
3 strlen(s1);
printf("strlen(str1) : %d\n", len );
Returns the length of string s1.
return 0;
4 strcmp(s1, s2);
}
Returns 0 if s1 and s2 are the same; less than 0 if s1<s2; greater than
0 if s1>s2. When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
strcpy( str3, str1) : Hello

5 strchr(s1, ch); strcat( str1, str2): HelloWorld
Returns a pointer to the first occurrence of character ch in string s1. strlen(str1) : 10
6 strstr(s1, s2);
Returns a pointer to the first occurrence of string s2 in string s1.
The following example uses some of the above-mentioned functions:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main ()
118 119
17. STRUCTURES
int book_id;
} book;
Accessing Structure Members

Arrays allow to define type of variables that can hold several data items of the
To access any member of a structure, we use the member access operator
same kind. Similarly, structure is another user-defined data type available in C
(.). The member access operator is coded as a period between the structure
that allows to combine data items of different kinds.
variable name and the structure member that we wish to access. You would
Structures are used to represent a record. Suppose you want to keep track of use the keyword struct to define variables of structure type. The following
your books in a library. You might want to track the following attributes about example shows how to use a structure in a program:
each book:
#include <stdio.h>
Title
#include <string.h>
Author
Subject
struct Books
Book ID
{
char title[50];
Defining a Structure
char author[50];
To define a structure, you must use the struct statement. The struct statement
defines a new data type, with more than one member. The format of the struct char subject[100];
statement is as follows: int book_id;
};
struct [structure tag]
{
int main( )
member definition;
{
member definition;
struct Books Book1; /* Declare Book1 of type Book */
...
member definition;
} [one or more structure variables];
/* book 1 specification */
The structure tag is optional and each member definition is a normal variable
strcpy( Book1.title, "C Programming");
definition, such as int i; or float f; or any other valid variable definition. At the
end of the structure's definition, before the final semicolon, you can specify one strcpy( Book1.author, "Nuha Ali");
or more structure variables but it is optional. Here is the way you would declare strcpy( Book1.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");
the Book structure:
Book1.book_id = 6495407;
struct Books
{ /* book 2 specification */
char title[50]; strcpy( Book2.title, "Telecom Billing");
char author[50]; strcpy( Book2.author, "Zara Ali");
char subject[100];
120 121
strcpy( Book2.subject, "Telecom Billing Tutorial");

Book2.book_id = 6495700; struct Books
{
/* print Book1 info */ char title[50];
printf( "Book 1 title : %s\n", Book1.title); char author[50];
printf( "Book 1 author : %s\n", Book1.author); char subject[100];
printf( "Book 1 subject : %s\n", Book1.subject); int book_id;
printf( "Book 1 book_id : %d\n", Book1.book_id); };
/* print Book2 info */ /* function declaration */

printf( "Book 2 title : %s\n", Book2.title); void printBook( struct Books book );
printf( "Book 2 author : %s\n", Book2.author); int main( )
printf( "Book 2 subject : %s\n", Book2.subject); {
printf( "Book 2 book_id : %d\n", Book2.book_id); struct Books Book1; /* Declare Book1 of type Book */
return 0;
} /* book 1 specification */
strcpy( Book1.author, "Nuha Ali");
Book 1 title : C Programming
strcpy( Book1.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");
Book 1 author : Nuha Ali
Book 1 subject : C Programming Tutorial
Book 1 book_id : 6495407
Book 2 title : Telecom Billing
strcpy( Book2.title, "Telecom Billing");
Book 2 author : Zara Ali
strcpy( Book2.author, "Zara Ali");
Book 2 subject : Telecom Billing Tutorial
strcpy( Book2.subject, "Telecom Billing Tutorial");
Book 2 book_id : 6495700
Structures as Function Arguments /* print Book1 info */

You can pass a structure as a function argument in the same way as you pass printBook( Book1 );
any other variable or pointer.
/* Print Book2 info */
#include <stdio.h> printBook( Book2 );
#include <string.h>
122 123
return 0; #include <string.h>

}
void printBook( struct Books book ) struct Books
{ {
printf( "Book title : %s\n", book.title); char title[50];
printf( "Book author : %s\n", book.author); char author[50];
printf( "Book subject : %s\n", book.subject); char subject[100];
printf( "Book book_id : %d\n", book.book_id); int book_id;
} };
Book title : C Programming
void printBook( struct Books *book );
Book author : Nuha Ali
int main( )
Book subject : C Programming Tutorial
{
Book book_id : 6495407
Book title : Telecom Billing
Book author : Zara Ali
Book subject : Telecom Billing Tutorial
strcpy( Book1.author, "Nuha Ali");
Pointers to Structures strcpy( Book1.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");
You can define pointers to structures in the same way as you define pointer to Book1.book_id = 6495407;
any other variable:
struct Books *struct_pointer; /* book 2 specification */

strcpy( Book2.title, "Telecom Billing");
Now, you can store the address of a structure variable in the above-defined
pointer variable. To find the address of a structure variable, place the & strcpy( Book2.author, "Zara Ali");
operator before the structure's name as follows: strcpy( Book2.subject, "Telecom Billing Tutorial");
struct_pointer = &Book1; Book2.book_id = 6495700;
To access the members of a structure using a pointer to that structure, you must
/* print Book1 info by passing address of Book1 */
use the -> operator as follows:
printBook( &Book1 );
struct_pointer->title;
Let us rewrite the above example using structure pointer. /* print Book2 info by passing address of Book2 */
printBook( &Book2 );
#include <stdio.h>
124 125
unsigned int type:4;

return 0; unsigned int my_int:9;
} } pack;
void printBook( struct Books *book )
Here, the packed_struct contains 6 members: Four 1 bit flags f1..f3, a 4-bit
{ type, and a 9-bit my_int.
printf( "Book title : %s\n", book->title); C automatically packs the above bit fields as compactly as possible, provided
printf( "Book author : %s\n", book->author); that the maximum length of the field is less than or equal to the integer word
length of the computer. If this is not the case, then some compilers may allow
printf( "Book subject : %s\n", book->subject);
memory overlap for the fields, while others would store the next field in the next
printf( "Book book_id : %d\n", book->book_id); word.
}

Book title : Telecom Billing
Book author : Zara Ali
Book subject : Telecom Billing Tutorial
Bit Fields
Bit Fields allow the packing of data in a structure. This is especially useful when
memory or data storage is at a premium. Typical examples include:
Packing several objects into a machine word, e.g. 1 bit flags can be
compacted.
Reading external file formats -- non-standard file formats could be read
in, e.g., 9-bit integers.
C allows us to do this in a structure definition by putting :bit length after the
variable. For example:
struct packed_struct {
unsigned int f1:1;
unsigned int f2:1;
unsigned int f3:1;
unsigned int f4:1;
126 127
18. UNIONS
be used to store multiple types of data. You can use any built-in or user-defined
data types inside a union based on your requirement.
The memory occupied by a union will be large enough to hold the largest
member of the union. For example, in the above example, Data type will occupy
20 bytes of memory space because this is the maximum space which can be
occupied by a character string. The following example displays the total memory
A union is a special data type available in C that allows to store different data
size occupied by the above union:
types in the same memory location. You can define a union with many
members, but only one member can contain a value at any given time. Unions #include <stdio.h>
provide an efficient way of using the same memory location for multiple
purpose. #include <string.h>
Defining a Union union Data

{
To define a union, you must use the union statement in the same way as you
did while defining a structure. The union statement defines a new data type with int i;
more than one member for your program. The format of the union statement is float f;
as follows:
char str[20];
union [union tag] };
{
member definition; int main( )
member definition; {
... union Data data;
member definition;
} [one or more union variables]; printf( "Memory size occupied by data : %d\n", sizeof(data));
The union tag is optional and each member definition is a normal variable
definition, such as int i; or float f; or any other valid variable definition. At the return 0;
end of the union's definition, before the final semicolon, you can specify one or
}
more union variables, but it is optional. Here is the way you would define a
union type named Data having three members i, f, and str:
union Data
Memory size occupied by data : 20
{
int i;
Accessing Union Members
float f;
To access any member of a union, we use the member access operator (.).
char str[20];
The member access operator is coded as a period between the union variable
} data; name and the union member that we wish to access. You would use the keyword
union to define variables of union type. The following example shows how to
Now, a variable of Data type can store an integer, a floating-point number, or a use unions in a program:
string of characters. It means a single variable, i.e., same memory location, can
#include <stdio.h>
128 129
#include <string.h> #include <string.h>
union Data union Data

{ {
int i; int i;
float f; float f;
char str[20]; char str[20];
}; };
int main( ) int main( )

{ {
union Data data; union Data data;
data.i = 10; data.i = 10;

data.f = 220.5; printf( "data.i : %d\n", data.i);
strcpy( data.str, "C Programming");
data.f = 220.5;
printf( "data.i : %d\n", data.i); printf( "data.f : %f\n", data.f);
printf( "data.f : %f\n", data.f);
printf( "data.str : %s\n", data.str); strcpy( data.str, "C Programming");
printf( "data.str : %s\n", data.str);
return 0;
} return 0;
}
data.i : 1917853763
data.f : 4122360580327794860452759994368.000000 data.i : 10
data.str : C Programming data.f : 220.500000
data.str : C Programming
Here, we can see that the values of i and f members of union got corrupted
because the final value assigned to the variable has occupied the memory Here, all the members are getting printed very well because one member is
location and this is the reason that the value of str member is getting printed being used at a time.
very well.
Now let's look into the same example once again where we will use one variable
at a time which is the main purpose of having unions:
#include <stdio.h>
130 131
19. BIT FIELDS
unsigned int heightValidated;
} status1;
/* define a structure with bit fields */

Suppose your C program contains a number of TRUE/FALSE variables grouped in struct
a structure called status, as follows: {
struct unsigned int widthValidated : 1;
{ unsigned int heightValidated : 1;
unsigned int widthValidated; } status2;
unsigned int heightValidated;
} status; int main( )
{
This structure requires 8 bytes of memory space but in actual, we are going to
store either 0 or 1 in each of the variables. The C programming language offers printf( "Memory size occupied by status1 : %d\n", sizeof(status1));
a better way to utilize the memory space in such situations. printf( "Memory size occupied by status2 : %d\n", sizeof(status2));
If you are using such variables inside a structure, then you can define the width
of a variable which tells the C compiler that you are going to use only those
return 0;
number of bytes. For example, the above structure can be rewritten as follows:
}
struct
{
unsigned int widthValidated : 1; Memory size occupied by status1 : 8
unsigned int heightValidated : 1; Memory size occupied by status2 : 4
} status;
The above structure requires 4 bytes of memory space for status variable, but Bit Field Declaration
only 2 bits will be used to store the values. The declaration of a bit-field has the following form inside a structure:
If you will use up to 32 variables, each one with a width of 1 bit, then also the
status structure will use 4 bytes. However, as soon as you have 33 variables, it struct
will allocate the next slot of the memory and it will start using 8 bytes. Let us {
check the following example to understand the concept:
type [member_name] : width ;
#include <stdio.h> };
#include <string.h>
The following table describes the variable elements of a bit field:
/* define simple structure */ Elements Description

struct
{ type An integer type that determines how a bit-field's value is
unsigned int widthValidated;
132 133
interpreted. The type may be int, signed int, or unsigned int. printf( "Age.age : %d\n", Age.age );
member_name The name of the bit-field. return 0;

}
width The number of bits in the bit-field. The width must be less
When the above code is compiled, it will compile with a warning and when
than or equal to the bit width of the specified type.
executed, it produces the following result:
The variables defined with a predefined width are called bit fields. A bit field can Sizeof( Age ) : 4
hold more than a single bit; for example, if you need a variable to store a value
Age.age : 4
from 0 to 7, then you can define a bit-field with a width of 3 bits as follows:
Age.age : 7
struct Age.age : 0
{
unsigned int age : 3;
} Age;
The above structure definition instructs the C compiler that the age variable is
going to use only 3 bits to store the value. If you try to use more than 3 bits,
then it will not allow you to do so. Let us try the following example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
struct
{
unsigned int age : 3;
} Age;
int main( )
{
Age.age = 4;
printf( "Sizeof( Age ) : %d\n", sizeof(Age) );
printf( "Age.age : %d\n", Age.age );
Age.age = 7;
printf( "Age.age : %d\n", Age.age );
Age.age = 8;
134 135
20. TYPEDEF
strcpy( book.author, "Nuha Ali");
strcpy( book.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");
book.book_id = 6495407;
The C programming language provides a keyword called typedef, which you can printf( "Book title : %s\n", book.title);
use to give a type, a new name. Following is an example to define a printf( "Book author : %s\n", book.author);
term BYTE for one-byte numbers:
printf( "Book subject : %s\n", book.subject);
typedef unsigned char BYTE; printf( "Book book_id : %d\n", book.book_id);
After this type definition, the identifier BYTE can be used as an abbreviation for
the type unsigned char, for example: return 0;
BYTE b1, b2; }
By convention, uppercase letters are used for these definitions to remind the When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
user that the type name is really a symbolic abbreviation, but you can use
lowercase, as follows:
typedef unsigned char byte;
You can use typedef to give a name to your user-defined data types as well. For Book book_id : 6495407
example, you can use typedef with structure to define a new data type and then
use that data type to define structure variables directly as follows:
typedef vs #define
#include <stdio.h>
#define is a C-directive which is also used to define the aliases for various data
#include <string.h>
types similar to typedef but with the following differences:
typedef is limited to giving symbolic names to types only,
typedef struct Books whereas #define can be used to define alias for values as well, e.g., you
{ can define 1 as ONE, etc.
char title[50]; typedef interpretation is performed by the compiler whereas #define

statements are processed by the preprocessor.
char author[50];
The following example shows how to use #define in a program:
char subject[100];
int book_id; #include <stdio.h>
} Book;
#define TRUE 1
int main( ) #define FALSE 0
{
Book book; int main( )
{
strcpy( book.title, "C Programming"); printf( "Value of TRUE : %d\n", TRUE);
136 137
21. INPUT AND OUTPUT
printf( "Value of FALSE : %d\n", FALSE);
return 0;
}
When we say Input, it means to feed some data into a program. An input can be
given in the form of a file or from the command line. C programming provides a
Value of TRUE : 1 set of built-in functions to read the given input and feed it to the program as per
requirement.
Value of FALSE : 0
When we say Output, it means to display some data on screen, printer, or in
any file. C programming provides a set of built-in functions to output the data on
the computer screen as well as to save it in text or binary files.
The Standard Files

C programming treats all the devices as files. So devices such as the display are
addressed in the same way as files and the following three files are
automatically opened when a program executes to provide access to the
keyboard and screen.
Standard File File Pointer Device
Standard input stdin Keyboard
Standard output stdout Screen
Standard error stderr Your screen
The file pointers are the means to access the file for reading and writing
purpose. This section explains how to read values from the screen and how to
print the result on the screen.
The getchar() and putchar() Functions

The int getchar(void) function reads the next available character from the
screen and returns it as an integer. This function reads only single character at a
time. You can use this method in the loop in case you want to read more than
one character from the screen.
The int putchar(int c) function puts the passed character on the screen and
returns the same character. This function puts only single character at a time.
You can use this method in the loop in case you want to display more than one
character on the screen. Check the following example:
138 139
#include <stdio.h> puts( str );

int main( )
{ return 0;
int c; }
When the above code is compiled and executed, it waits for you to input some
printf( "Enter a value :"); text. When you enter a text and press enter, then the program proceeds and
c = getchar( ); reads the complete line till end, and displays it as follows:
$./a.out
printf( "\nYou entered: "); Enter a value : this is test
putchar( c ); You entered: This is test
return 0;
The scanf() and printf() Functions
}
The int scanf(const char *format, ...) function reads the input from the
When the above code is compiled and executed, it waits for you to input some standard input stream stdin and scans that input according to the
text. When you enter a text and press enter, then the program proceeds and format provided.
reads only a single character and displays it as follows: The int printf(const char *format, ...) function writes the output to the
standard output stream stdout and produces the output according to the format
$./a.out
provided.
Enter a value : this is test
The format can be a simple constant string, but you can specify %s, %d, %c,
You entered: t %f, etc., to print or read strings, integer, character, or float, respectively. There
are many other formatting options available which can be used based on
requirements. Let us now proceed with a simple example to understand the
The gets() and puts() Functions concepts better:
The char *gets(char *s) function reads a line from stdin into the buffer #include <stdio.h>
pointed to by s until either a terminating newline or EOF (End of File).
int main( )
The int puts(const char *s) function writes the string s and a trailing
{
newline to stdout.
char str[100];
#include <stdio.h>
int i;
int main( )
{
printf( "Enter a value :");
char str[100];
scanf("%s %d", str, &i);
printf( "Enter a value :");

printf( "\nYou entered: %s %d ", str, i);
gets( str );
return 0;
printf( "\nYou entered: ");
140 141
22. FILE I/O
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it waits for you to input some
text. When you enter a text and press enter, then program proceeds and reads
the input and displays it as follows:
$./a.out The last chapter explained the standard input and output devices handled by C
programming language. This chapter covers how C programmers can create,
Enter a value : seven 7
open, close text or binary files for their data storage.
You entered: seven 7
A file represents a sequence of bytes, regardless of it being a text file or a binary
Here, it should be noted that scanf() expects input in the same format as you file. C programming language provides access on high-level functions as well as
provided %s and %d, which means you have to provide valid inputs like "string low-level (OS level) calls to handle file on your storage devices. This chapter will
integer". If you provide "string string" or "integer integer", then it will be take you through the important calls for file management.
assumed as wrong input. Secondly, while reading a string, scanf() stops reading
as soon as it encounters a space, so "this is test" are three strings for scanf(). Opening Files
You can use the fopen( ) function to create a new file or to open an existing file.
This call will initialize an object of the type FILE, which contains all the
information necessary to control the stream. The prototype of this function call is
as follows:
FILE *fopen( const char * filename, const char * mode );
Here, filename is a string literal, which you will use to name your file, and
access mode can have one of the following values:
Mode Description
r Opens an existing text file for reading purpose.
w Opens a text file for writing. If it does not exist, then a new file is
created. Here your program will start writing content from the
beginning of the file.
a Opens a text file for writing in appending mode. If it does not exist,
then a new file is created. Here your program will start appending
content in the existing file content.
r+ Opens a text file for both reading and writing.
w+ Opens a text file for both reading and writing. It first truncates the file
to zero length if it exists, otherwise creates a file if it does not exist.
142 143
a+ Opens a text file for both reading and writing. It creates the file if it
does not exist. The reading will start from the beginning but writing main()
can only be appended. {
FILE *fp;
If you are going to handle binary files, then you will use the following access
modes instead of the above-mentioned ones:
fp = fopen("/tmp/test.txt", "w+");
"rb", "wb", "ab", "rb+", "r+b", "wb+", "w+b", "ab+", "a+b"
fprintf(fp, "This is testing for fprintf...\n");
fputs("This is testing for fputs...\n", fp);
Closing a File fclose(fp);
To close a file, use the fclose( ) function. The prototype of this function is: }
int fclose( FILE *fp ); When the above code is compiled and executed, it creates a new file test.txt in
/tmp directory and writes two lines using two different functions. Let us read this
The fclose() function returns zero on success, or EOF if there is an error in file in the next section.
closing the file. This function actually flushes any data still pending in the buffer
to the file, closes the file, and releases any memory used for the file. The EOF is
a constant defined in the header file stdio.h. Reading a File
There are various functions provided by C standard library to read and write a Given below is the simplest function to read a single character from a file:
file, character by character, or in the form of a fixed length string.
int fgetc( FILE * fp );
Writing a File The fgetc() function reads a character from the input file referenced by fp. The
Following is the simplest function to write individual characters to a stream: return value is the character read, or in case of any error, it returns EOF. The
following function allows to read a string from a stream:
int fputc( int c, FILE *fp );
char *fgets( char *buf, int n, FILE *fp );
The function fputc() writes the character value of the argument c to the output
stream referenced by fp. It returns the written character written on success The functions fgets() reads up to n - 1 characters from the input stream
otherwise EOF if there is an error. You can use the following functions to write a referenced by fp. It copies the read string into the buffer buf, appending
a null character to terminate the string.
null-terminated string to a stream:
If this function encounters a newline character '\n' or the end of the file EOF
int fputs( const char *s, FILE *fp ); before they have read the maximum number of characters, then it returns only
the characters read up to that point including the new line character. You can
The function fputs() writes the string s to the output stream referenced by fp. It also use int fscanf(FILE *fp, const char *format, ...) function to read strings
returns a non-negative value on success, otherwise EOF is returned in case of from a file, but it stops reading after encountering the first space character.
any error. You can use int fprintf(FILE *fp,const char *format, ...) function
as well to write a string into a file. Try the following example. #include <stdio.h>
Make sure you have /tmp directory available. If it is not, then before
proceeding, you must create this directory on your machine.
main()
{
FILE *fp;
#include <stdio.h> char buff[255];
144 145
23. PREPROCESSORS
fp = fopen("/tmp/test.txt", "r");
fscanf(fp, "%s", buff);
printf("1 : %s\n", buff );
The C Preprocessor is not a part of the compiler, but is a separate step in the
fgets(buff, 255, (FILE*)fp); compilation process. In simple terms, a C Preprocessor is just a text substitution
tool and it instructs the compiler to do required preprocessing before the actual
printf("2: %s\n", buff ); compilation. We'll refer to the C Preprocessor as CPP.
All preprocessor commands begin with a hash symbol (#). It must be the first
fgets(buff, 255, (FILE*)fp); nonblank character, and for readability, a preprocessor directive should begin in
the first column. The following section lists down all the important preprocessor
printf("3: %s\n", buff );
directives:
fclose(fp);
Directive Description
}
#define Substitutes a preprocessor macro.
When the above code is compiled and executed, it reads the file created in the
previous section and produces the following result:
#include Inserts a particular header from another file.
1 : This
2: is testing for fprintf...
#undef Undefines a preprocessor macro.
3: This is testing for fputs...

#ifdef Returns true if this macro is defined.
Let's see a little more in detail about what happened here. First, fscanf() reads
just This because after that, it encountered a space, second call is
#ifndef Returns true if this macro is not defined.
for fgets() which reads the remaining line till it encountered end of line. Finally,
the last call fgets() reads the second line completely.
#if Tests if a compile time condition is true.
Binary I/O Functions
There are two functions that can be used for binary input and output: #else The alternative for #if.
size_t fread(void *ptr, size_t size_of_elements,

#elif #else and #if in one statement.
size_t number_of_elements, FILE *a_file);
#endif Ends preprocessor conditional.

size_t fwrite(const void *ptr, size_t size_of_elements,
size_t number_of_elements, FILE *a_file);
#error Prints error message on stderr.
Both of these functions should be used to read or write blocks of memories -
usually arrays or structures.
#pragma Issues special commands to the compiler, using a standardized
146 147
method.
Macro Description
__DATE__ The current date as a character literal in "MMM DD YYYY"

Preprocessors Examples format.
Analyze the following examples to understand various directives.
#define MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH 20 __TIME__ The current time as a character literal in "HH:MM:SS" format.
This directive tells the CPP to replace instances of MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH with 20.
Use #define for constants to increase readability. __FILE__ This contains the current filename as a string literal.
#include <stdio.h>
__LINE__ This contains the current line number as a decimal constant.
#include "myheader.h"
These directives tell the CPP to get stdio.h from System Libraries and add the __STDC__ Defined as 1 when the compiler complies with the ANSI
text to the current source file. The next line tells CPP to get myheader.h from standard.
the local directory and add the content to the current source file.
#undef FILE_SIZE
#define FILE_SIZE 42 Let's try the following example:
#include <stdio.h>
It tells the CPP to undefine existing FILE_SIZE and define it as 42.
#ifndef MESSAGE
main()
#define MESSAGE "You wish!"
{
#endif
printf("File :%s\n", __FILE__ );
It tells the CPP to define MESSAGE only if MESSAGE isn't already defined. printf("Date :%s\n", __DATE__ );
printf("Time :%s\n", __TIME__ );
#ifdef DEBUG
printf("Line :%d\n", __LINE__ );
/* Your debugging statements here */
printf("ANSI :%d\n", __STDC__ );
#endif
It tells the CPP to process the statements enclosed if DEBUG is defined. This is
}
useful if you pass the -DDEBUG flag to the gcc compiler at the time of
compilation. This will define DEBUG, so you can turn debugging on and off on- When the above code in a file test.c is compiled and executed, it produces the
the-fly during compilation. following result:
File :test.c
Predefined Macros
Date :Jun 2 2012
ANSI C defines a number of macros. Although each one is available for use in
programming, the predefined macros should not be directly modified. Time :03:36:24
Line :8
ANSI :1
148 149
#define tokenpaster(n) printf ("token" #n " = %d", token##n)
Preprocessor Operators int main(void)

The C preprocessor offers the following operators to help create macros: {
int token34 = 40;
The Macro Continuation (\) Operator
A macro is normally confined to a single line. The macro continuation operator
tokenpaster(34);
(\) is used to continue a macro that is too long for a single line. For example:
return 0;
#define message_for(a, b) \
}
printf(#a " and " #b ": We love you!\n")
The Stringize (#) Operator token34 = 40
The stringize or number-sign operator (#), when used within a macro definition, It happened so because this example results in the following actual output from
converts a macro parameter into a string constant. This operator may be used the preprocessor:
only in a macro having a specified argument or parameter list. For example:
printf ("token34 = %d", token34);
#include <stdio.h>
This example shows the concatenation of token##n into token34 and here we
have used both stringize and token-pasting.
#define message_for(a, b) \
printf(#a " and " #b ": We love you!\n")
The Defined() Operator
The preprocessor defined operator is used in constant expressions to determine
int main(void) if an identifier is defined using #define. If the specified identifier is defined, the
{ value is true (non-zero). If the symbol is not defined, the value is false (zero).
The defined operator is specified as follows:
message_for(Carole, Debra);
return 0; #include <stdio.h>
}
#if !defined (MESSAGE)
#define MESSAGE "You wish!"
Carole and Debra: We love you! #endif
The Token Pasting (##) Operator int main(void)

The token-pasting operator (##) within a macro definition combines two {
arguments. It permits two separate tokens in the macro definition to be joined
printf("Here is the message: %s\n", MESSAGE);
into a single token. For example:
return 0;
#include <stdio.h> }
150 151
24. HEADER FILES
Here is the message: You wish!
Parameterized Macros
A header file is a file with extension .h which contains C function declarations
One of the powerful functions of the CPP is the ability to simulate functions using
and macro definitions to be shared between several source files. There are two
parameterized macros. For example, we might have some code to square a
types of header files: the files that the programmer writes and the files that
number as follows:
comes with your compiler.
int square(int x) { You request to use a header file in your program by including it with the C
return x * x; preprocessing directive #include, like you have seen inclusion of stdio.h header
file, which comes along with your compiler.
}
Including a header file is equal to copying the content of the header file but we
We can rewrite the above code using a macro as follows: do not do it because it will be error-prone and it is not a good idea to copy the
content of a header file in the source files, especially if we have multiple source
#define square(x) ((x) * (x)) files in a program.
A simple practice in C or C++ programs is that we keep all the constants,
Macros with arguments must be defined using the #define directive before they
macros, system wide global variables, and function prototypes in the header files
can be used. The argument list is enclosed in parentheses and must immediately
and include that header file wherever it is required.
follow the macro name. Spaces are not allowed between the macro name and
open parenthesis. For example:
#include <stdio.h>
Include Syntax
Both the user and the system header files are included using the preprocessing
directive #include. It has the following two forms:
#define MAX(x,y) ((x) > (y) ? (x) : (y))
#include <file>
int main(void) This form is used for system header files. It searches for a file named file in a
{ standard list of system directories. You can prepend directories to this list with
the -I option while compiling your source code.
printf("Max between 20 and 10 is %d\n", MAX(10, 20));
return 0; #include "file"
} This form is used for header files of your own program. It searches for a file
named file in the directory containing the current file. You can prepend
directories to this list with the -I option while compiling your source code.
Max between 20 and 10 is 20
Include Operation
The #include directive works by directing the C preprocessor to scan the
specified file as input before continuing with the rest of the current source file.
The output from the preprocessor contains the output already generated,
followed by the output resulting from the included file, followed by the output
that comes from the text after the #include directive. For example, if you have
a header file header.h as follows:
152 153
char *test (void); Computed Includes

and a main program called program.c that uses the header file, like this: Sometimes it is necessary to select one of the several different header files to be
included into your program. For instance, they might specify configuration
int x; parameters to be used on different sorts of operating systems. You could do this
with a series of conditionals as follows:
#include "header.h"
#if SYSTEM_1
int main (void) # include "system_1.h"
{ #elif SYSTEM_2
puts (test ()); # include "system_2.h"
} #elif SYSTEM_3
...
the compiler will see the same token stream as it would if program.c read.
#endif
int x;
But as it grows, it becomes tedious, instead the preprocessor offers the ability to
char *test (void);
use a macro for the header name. This is called a computed include. Instead
of writing a header name as the direct argument of #include, you simply put a
int main (void) macro name there:
{ #define SYSTEM_H "system_1.h"

puts (test ()); ...
} #include SYSTEM_H
SYSTEM_H will be expanded, and the preprocessor will look for system_1.h as if
Once-Only Headers the #include had been written that way originally. SYSTEM_H could be defined
by your Makefile with a -D option.
If a header file happens to be included twice, the compiler will process its
contents twice and it will result in an error. The standard way to prevent this is
to enclose the entire real contents of the file in a conditional, like this:
#ifndef HEADER_FILE
#define HEADER_FILE
the entire header file file
#endif
This construct is commonly known as a wrapper #ifndef. When the header is

included again, the conditional will be false, because HEADER_FILE is defined.
The preprocessor will skip over the entire contents of the file, and the compiler
will not see it twice.
154 155
25. TYPE CASTING
Integer Promotion
Integer promotion is the process by which values of integer type "smaller"
than int or unsigned int are converted either to int or unsigned int. Consider
an example of adding a character with an integer:
Type casting is a way to convert a variable from one data type to another data #include <stdio.h>
type. For example, if you want to store a long value into a simple integer, then
you can type cast long to int. You can convert the values from one type to
main()
another explicitly using the cast operator as follows:
{
(type_name) expression
int i = 17;
Consider the following example where the cast operator causes the division of char c = 'c'; /* ascii value is 99 */
one integer variable by another to be performed as a floating-point operation: int sum;
#include <stdio.h>
sum = i + c;
main() printf("Value of sum : %d\n", sum );
{
int sum = 17, count = 5; }
double mean;
Value of sum : 116

mean = (double) sum / count;
printf("Value of mean : %f\n", mean ); Here, the value of sum is 116 because the compiler is doing integer promotion
and converting the value of 'c' to ASCII before performing the actual addition
operation.
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: Usual Arithmetic Conversion
Value of mean : 3.400000 The usual arithmetic conversions are implicitly performed to cast their values
to a common type. The compiler first performs integer promotion; if the
It should be noted here that the cast operator has precedence over division, so operands still have different types, then they are converted to the type that
the value of sum is first converted to type double and finally it gets divided by appears highest in the following hierarchy:
count yielding a double value.
Type conversions can be implicit which is performed by the compiler
automatically, or it can be specified explicitly through the use of the cast
operator. It is considered good programming practice to use the cast operator
whenever type conversions are necessary.
156 157
Value of sum : 116.000000
Here, it is simple to understand that first c gets converted to integer, but as the
final value is double, usual arithmetic conversion applies and the compiler
converts i and c into float and adds them yielding a float result.
The usual arithmetic conversions are not performed for the assignment
operators, nor for the logical operators && and ||. Let us take the following
example to understand the concept:
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int i = 17;
char c = 'c'; /* ascii value is 99 */
float sum;
sum = i + c;
printf("Value of sum : %f\n", sum );
158 159
26. ERROR HANDLING
if (pf == NULL)
{
errnum = errno;
fprintf(stderr, "Value of errno: %d\n", errno);
As such, C programming does not provide direct support for error handling but perror("Error printed by perror");
being a sytem programming language, it provides you access at lower level in fprintf(stderr, "Error opening file: %s\n", strerror( errnum ));
the form of return values. Most of the C or even Unix function calls return -1 or
NULL in case of any error and set an error code errno. It is set as a global }
variable and indicates an error occurred during any function call. You can find else
various error codes defined in <error.h> header file.
{
So a C programmer can check the returned values and can take appropriate
fclose (pf);
action depending on the return value. It is a good practice to set errno to 0 at
the time of initializing a program. A value of 0 indicates that there is no error in }
the program. return 0;
}
errno, perror(), and strerror()
The C programming language provides perror() and strerror() functions which
can be used to display the text message associated with errno. Value of errno: 2
The perror() function displays the string you pass to it, followed by a Error printed by perror: No such file or directory
colon, a space, and then the textual representation of the current errno Error opening file: No such file or directory
value.
The strerror() function, which returns a pointer to the textual
representation of the current errno value. Divide by Zero Errors
Let's try to simulate an error condition and try to open a file which does not It is a common problem that at the time of dividing any number, programmers
exist. Here I'm using both the functions to show the usage, but you can use one do not check if a divisor is zero and finally it creates a runtime error.
or more ways of printing your errors. Second important point to note is that you
should use stderr file stream to output all the errors. The code below fixes this by checking if the divisor is zero before dividing:
#include <stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>
#include <errno.h> #include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
extern int errno ; {

int dividend = 20;
int main () int divisor = 0;
{ int quotient;
FILE * pf;
int errnum; if( divisor == 0){
pf = fopen ("unexist.txt", "rb"); fprintf(stderr, "Division by zero! Exiting...\n");
160 161
exit(-1); }
}
quotient = dividend / divisor;
Value of quotient : 4
fprintf(stderr, "Value of quotient : %d\n", quotient );
exit(0);
}
Division by zero! Exiting...
Program Exit Status

It is a common practice to exit with a value of EXIT_SUCCESS in case of
program coming out after a successful operation. Here, EXIT_SUCCESS is a
macro and it is defined as 0.
If you have an error condition in your program and you are coming out then you
should exit with a status EXIT_FAILURE which is defined as -1. So let's write
above program as follows:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
main()
{
int dividend = 20;
int divisor = 5;
int quotient;
if( divisor == 0){

fprintf(stderr, "Division by zero! Exiting...\n");
exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
}
quotient = dividend / divisor;
fprintf(stderr, "Value of quotient : %d\n", quotient );
exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
162 163
27. RECURSION
int main()
{
int i = 15;
printf("Factorial of %d is %d\n", i, factorial(i));
Recursion is the process of repeating items in a self-similar way. In return 0;
programming languages, if a program allows you to call a function inside the }
same function, then it is called a recursive call of the function.
void recursion()
{ Factorial of 15 is 2004310016
recursion(); /* function calls itself */

} Fibonacci Series
The following example generates the Fibonacci series for a given number using a
int main() recursive function:
{
#include <stdio.h>
recursion();
}
int fibonaci(int i)
The C programming language supports recursion, i.e., a function to call itself. {
But while using recursion, programmers need to be careful to define an exit if(i == 0)
condition from the function, otherwise it will go into an infinite loop.
{
Recursive functions are very useful to solve many mathematical problems, such
return 0;
as calculating the factorial of a number, generating Fibonacci series, etc.
}
Number Factorial if(i == 1)

{
The following example calculates the factorial of a given number using a
recursive function: return 1;
}
#include <stdio.h>
return fibonaci(i-1) + fibonaci(i-2);
}
int factorial(unsigned int i)
{
int main()
if(i <= 1)
{
{
int i;
return 1;
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
}
{
return i * factorial(i - 1);
printf("%d\t%n", fibonaci(i));
}
164 165
28. VARIABLE ARGUMENTS
}
return 0;
}
Sometimes, you may come across a situation, when you want to have a
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 function, which can take variable number of arguments, i.e., parameters,
instead of predefined number of parameters. The C programming language
provides a solution for this situation and you are allowed to define a function
which can accept variable number of parameters based on your requirement.
The following example shows the definition of such a function.
int func(int, ... )

{
.
.
.
}
int main()
{
func(1, 2, 3);
func(1, 2, 3, 4);
}
It should be noted that the function func() has its last argument as ellipses,
i.e., three dotes (...) and the one just before the ellipses is always an int which
will represent the total number variable arguments passed. To use such
functionality, you need to make use of stdarg.h header file which provides the
functions and macros to implement the functionality of variable arguments and
follow the given steps:
1. Define a function with its last parameter as ellipses and the one just
before the ellipses is always an int which will represent the number of
arguments.
2. Create a va_list type variable in the function definition. This type is
defined in stdarg.h header file.
3. Use int parameter and va_start macro to initialize the va_list variable to
an argument list. The macro va_start is defined in stdarg.h header file.
4. Use va_arg macro and va_list variable to access each item in argument
list.
166 167
5. Use a macro va_end to clean up the memory assigned When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result.
to va_list variable. It should be noted that the function average() has been called twice and each
time the first argument represents the total number of variable arguments being
Now let us follow the above steps and write down a simple function which can
passed. Only ellipses will be used to pass variable number of arguments.
take the variable number of parameters and return their average:
Average of 2, 3, 4, 5 = 3.500000
#include <stdio.h>
Average of 5, 10, 15 = 10.000000
#include <stdarg.h>
double average(int num,...)

{
va_list valist;
double sum = 0.0;
int i;
/* initialize valist for num number of arguments */

va_start(valist, num);
/* access all the arguments assigned to valist */

for (i = 0; i < num; i++)
{
sum += va_arg(valist, int);
}
/* clean memory reserved for valist */
va_end(valist);
return sum/num;
}
int main()
{
printf("Average of 2, 3, 4, 5 = %f\n", average(4, 2,3,4,5));
printf("Average of 5, 10, 15 = %f\n", average(3, 5,10,15));
}
168 169
29. MEMORY MANAGEMENT
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
This chapter explains dynamic memory management in C. The C programming {
language provides several functions for memory allocation and management. char name[100];
These functions can be found in the <stdlib.h> header file.
char *description;
S.N. Function and Description strcpy(name, "Zara Ali");
1 void *calloc(int num, int size); /* allocate memory dynamically */
This function allocates an array of num elements each of which size in description = malloc( 200 * sizeof(char) );
bytes will be size. if( description == NULL )
{
2 void free(void *address); fprintf(stderr, "Error - unable to allocate required memory\n");
This function releases a block of memory block specified by address. }
else
3 void *malloc(int num); {
This function allocates an array of num bytes and leave them initialized. strcpy( description, "Zara ali a DPS student in class 10th");
}
4 void *realloc(void *address, int newsize); printf("Name = %s\n", name );
This function re-allocates memory extending it upto newsize. printf("Description: %s\n", description );
}
Allocating Memory Dynamically When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result.
While programming, if you are aware of the size of an array, then it is easy and Name = Zara Ali
you can define it as an array. For example, to store a name of any person, it can
Description: Zara ali a DPS student in class 10th
go up to a maximum of 100 characters, so you can define something as follows:
Same program can be written using calloc(); only thing is you need to replace
char name[100];
malloc with calloc as follows:
But now let us consider a situation where you have no idea about the length of
calloc(200, sizeof(char));
the text you need to store, for example, you want to store a detailed description
about a topic. Here we need to define a pointer to character without defining So you have complete control and you can pass any size value while allocating
how much memory is required and later, based on requirement, we can allocate memory, unlike arrays where once the size is defined, you cannot change it.
memory as shown in the below example:
#include <stdio.h>
170 171
Resizing and Releasing Memory else
When your program comes out, operating system automatically release all the {
memory allocated by your program but as a good practice when you are not in strcat( description, "She is in class 10th");
need of memory anymore then you should release that memory by calling the
}
function free().
Alternatively, you can increase or decrease the size of an allocated memory
block by calling the function realloc(). Let us check the above program once printf("Name = %s\n", name );
again and make use of realloc() and free() functions: printf("Description: %s\n", description );
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h> /* release memory using free() function */
#include <string.h> free(description);
}
int main() When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result.
{
Name = Zara Ali
char name[100];
Description: Zara ali a DPS student.She is in class 10th
char *description;
You can try the above example without re-allocating extra memory, and strcat()
function will give an error due to lack of available memory in description.
strcpy(name, "Zara Ali");
/* allocate memory dynamically */

description = malloc( 30 * sizeof(char) );
if( description == NULL )
{
fprintf(stderr, "Error - unable to allocate required memory\n");
}
else
{
strcpy( description, "Zara ali a DPS student.");
}
/* suppose you want to store bigger description */
description = realloc( description, 100 * sizeof(char) );
if( description == NULL )
{
fprintf(stderr, "Error - unable to allocate required memory\n");
}
172 173
30. COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS
When the above code is compiled and executed with two arguments, it produces
the following result.
$./a.out testing1 testing2

Too many arguments supplied.
It is possible to pass some values from the command line to your C programs When the above code is compiled and executed without passing any argument,
when they are executed. These values are called command line it produces the following result.
arguments and many times they are important for your program especially
when you want to control your program from outside instead of hard coding $./a.out
those values inside the code. One argument expected
The command line arguments are handled using main() function arguments
where argc refers to the number of arguments passed, and argv[] is a pointer It should be noted that argv[0] holds the name of the program itself
array which points to each argument passed to the program. Following is a and argv[1] is a pointer to the first command line argument supplied, and
simple example which checks if there is any argument supplied from the *argv[n] is the last argument. If no arguments are supplied, argc will be one,
command line and take action accordingly: and if you pass one argument, then argc is set at 2.
You pass all the command line arguments separated by a space, but if argument
#include <stdio.h> itself has a space then you can pass such arguments by putting them inside
double quotes "" or single quotes ''. Let us re-write above example once again
where we will print program name and we also pass a command line argument
int main( int argc, char *argv[] )
by putting inside double quotes:
{
if( argc == 2 ) #include <stdio.h>
{
printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]); int main( int argc, char *argv[] )
} {
else if( argc > 2 ) printf("Program name %s\n", argv[0]);
{
printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n"); if( argc == 2 )
} {
else printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]);
{ }
printf("One argument expected.\n"); else if( argc > 2 )
} {
} printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n");

}
When the above code is compiled and executed with a single argument, it
else
produces the following result.
{
$./a.out testing
printf("One argument expected.\n");
The argument supplied is testing
}
174 175
C Programming
When the above code is compiled and executed with a single argument
separated by space but inside double quotes, it produces the following result.
$./a.out "testing1 testing2"
Progranm name ./a.out

The argument supplied is testing1 testing2
176

C Programming

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About The Tutorial

C is a general-purpose, procedural, imperative computer programming language

Copyright & Disclaimer

Audience .................................................................................................................................................... i 5. DATA TYPES........................................................................................................................... 11

1. OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................. 1 6. VARIABLES............................................................................................................................. 15

2. ENVIORNMENT SETUP ............................................................................................................ 3 7. CONSTANTS AND LITERALS ................................................................................................... 19

3. PROGRAM STRUCTURE ........................................................................................................... 6 8. STORAGE CLASSES................................................................................................................. 24

The static Storage Class ........................................................................................................................... 25

Misc Operators sizeof & ternary ......................................................................................................... 40 Call by Reference .................................................................................................................................... 81

Operators Precedence in C ...................................................................................................................... 41

10. DECISION MAKING .............................................................................................................. 45 Local Variables ........................................................................................................................................ 84

Nested if Statements .............................................................................................................................. 51

11. LOOPS ................................................................................................................................. 58 Arrays in Detail ....................................................................................................................................... 91

Function Declarations ............................................................................................................................. 77 Incrementing a Pointer ......................................................................................................................... 105

16. STRINGS ............................................................................................................................ 117 23. PREPROCESSORS ............................................................................................................... 147

17. STRUCTURES ..................................................................................................................... 120 Preprocessors Examples........................................................................................................................ 148

Accessing Structure Members ............................................................................................................... 121 Preprocessor Operators ........................................................................................................................ 150

Parameterized Macros .......................................................................................................................... 152

Defining a Union ................................................................................................................................... 128 24. HEADER FILES .................................................................................................................... 153

Accessing Union Members .................................................................................................................... 129 Include Syntax....................................................................................................................................... 153

Include Operation ................................................................................................................................. 153

The Standard Files ................................................................................................................................. 139

Number Factorial .................................................................................................................................. 164

Fibonacci Series .................................................................................................................................... 165

Local Environment Setup

Using built-in specs.

Let us take a look at the various parts of the above program:

printf("Hello, World! \n"); myname50 _temp j a23b9 retVal

The individual tokens are:

Comments default if static while

3 The type void:

Storage size for int : 4

int 2 or 4 bytes -32,768 to 32,767 or -2,147,483,648 to

Storage size for float : 4

S.N. Types and Description

1 Function returns as void

2 Function arguments as void float A single-precision floating point value.

There are various functions in C which do not accept any parameter. A

void Represents the absence of type.

Floating-point Literals \b Backspace

3.14159 /* Legal */ \t Horizontal tab

Character Constants \xhh . . . Hexadecimal number of one or more digits

The const Keyword

const type variable = value;

#define identifier value const int WIDTH = 5;

int area; value of area : 50

Note that it is a good programming practice to define constants in CAPITALS.

i is 8 and count is 2 printf("count is %d\n", count);

The extern Storage Class $gcc main.c support.c

First File: main.c

Second File: support.c

extern int count;

Line 2 - Value of c is 11 Example

!= Checks if the values of two operands are equal (A != B) is true. else

printf("Line 3 - a is not greater than b\n" ); becomes true.

A&B = 0000 1100

} A^B = 0011 0001

if ( !(a && b) ) ~A = 1100 0011

Line 1 - Condition is true

p q p&q p|q p^q

c = a & b; /* 12 = 0000 1100 */ = Simple assignment operator. Assigns C = A + B will assign

c = a | b; /* 61 = 0011 1101 */ += Add AND assignment operator. It adds the C += A is equivalent

printf("Line 4 - Value of c is %d\n", c );

c = a >> 2; /* 15 = 0000 1111 */ /= Divide AND assignment operator. It C /= A is equivalent

Line 5 - Value of c is 240

&= Bitwise AND assignment operator. C &= 2 is same as C

Line 9 - &= Operator Example, Value of c = 2 /* example of sizeof operator */

Misc Operators sizeof & ternary

Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right

Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left {

Multiplicative */% Left to right int b = 10;

Additive +- Left to right int d = 5;

Shift << >> Left to right

Equality == != Left to right e = ((a + b) * c) / d; // (30 * 15 ) / 5

Bitwise OR | Left to right e = a + (b * c) / d; // 20 + (150/5)

Decision-making structures require that the programmer specifies one or more