2.

20 - Marine Hydrodynamics, Spring 2005

Lecture 4

2.20 - Marine Hydrodynamics

Lecture 4

Introduction
Governing Equations so far:

Knowns Equations # Unknowns #

density (x, t) Continuity 1 velocities vi (x, t) 3

(conservation of mass)


body force Fi Euler 3 stresses ij (x, t) 6

(conservation of momentum)

4 9


3 of the 9 unknowns of the stress tensor are eliminated by symmetry

The number of unknowns (9) is > than the number of equations (4), i.e. we dont have
closure. We need constitutive laws to relate the kinematics vi to the dynamics ij .

1.9 Newtonian Fluids

1. Consider a uid at rest (vi 0). Then according to Pascals Law:

ij = ps ij (Pascals Law)

ps 0 0
= 0 ps 0
0 0 ps

where ps is the hydrostatic pressure and ij is the Kroenecker delta function, equal
 j.
to 1 if i = j and 0 if i =

2. Consider a uid in motion. The uid stress is dened as:

ij pij + ij
  
isotropic components all non-isotropic components
on diagonal both on/o diagonal
where p is the thermodynamic pressure and ij are the dynamic stresses. It should
be emphasized that pij includes all the isotropic components of the stress tensor
on the diagonal, while ij represents all the non-isotropic components, which may or
may not be on the diagonal (shear and normal stresses). The dynamic stresses ij is
related to the velocity gradients by empirical relations.
Experiments with a wide class of Newtonian uids showed that the dynamic stresses
are proportional to the rate of strain.

ij
Newtonian Fluid

Fluid

u k
x m

 ij linear function of the ( rate of strain velocity gradient)


 
  
X X uk
=
t x x t xm
 
u

uk
i.e. ij ijkm i, j, k, m = 1, 2, 3
  xm
34 =81
empirical coecients
(constants for Newtonian uids)

For isotropic uids, this reduces to:



ui uj ul
ij = + + ,
xj xi xl
 
v

The uid properties in the previous relation are:

- (coecient of) dynamic viscosity.

- bulk elasticity, second coecient of viscosity

ui

For incompressible ow, we have shown that v = = 0.

xi
Therefore, for an incompressible, isotropic, Newtonian uid the dynamic or viscous
stresses ij are expressed as:


ui uj
ij = +
xj xi

1.9.1 Discussion on viscous stresses ij

1. Verify that for v = 0 we recover Pascals law.

ui

Proof: v = 0 = 0 ij = 0 ij = pij + 0 hydrostatic conditions

xj

2. Verify that ij = ji .


ui uj
Proof: ij = + = ji symmetry of stress tensor
xj xi

3. When ij , i = j the viscous stress is a normal stress and is given by:

ui
ii = 2
xi

The normal viscous stresses ii are the diagonal terms of the viscous stress tensor.
The ii in general are not isotropic.

 j the viscous stress is a shear stress and is given by:

4. When ij , i =


ui uj
ij = +
xj xi

The shear viscous stresses ij , i = j are the o diagonal terms of the viscous stress
tensor.

u u v
2 x +
y x
5. A 2D viscous tensor has the form:

u v

v
+ 2
y x y

6. Notation 1: The viscous stresses ij are often referred to (somewhat confusingly) as

shear stresses, despite the fact that when i = j the viscous stress is a normal stress.

 
uj
7. Notation 2: Often ij ij and ij is used to denote ui
xj
+ xi
.

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1.10 Navier-Stokes equations(for Incompressible, Newtonian Fluid)

Equations # Unknowns #
Continuity 1 velocities vi (x, t) 3
Euler 3 stresses ij (x, t) 6
Newtonian 6 pressure p(x, t) 1
uid symmetry
10 10
 
closure
To form the Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible, Newtonian uids, we rst substi
tute the equation for the stress tensor for a Newtonian uid, i.e.


ui uj
ij = pij + ij = pij + +
xj xi
Newtonian Fluid
into Eulers equation:

Dui ij
= Fi +
Dt xj


p ui uj
= Fi + +
xi xj xj xi

2


p ui uj
= Fi + +
xi x2j xi xj
 
Continuity = 0

Therefore the Navier-Stokes equations for an incompressible, Newtonian uid in cartesian

coordinates are given as:

Dui ui ui 1 p 2 ui 1
= + uj = + 2 + Fi Tensor form
Dt t xj xi xj

Dv v 1 1

= + v v = p + 2v + F Vector form

Dt t
where

denoted as the kinematic viscosity [ L2 /T ].

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 Unknowns and governing equations for incompressible, Newtonian uids

Equations # Unknowns #

Continuity 1 pressure p(x, t) 1

Navier-Stokes 3 velocities vi (x, t) 3

4 4

Values of constants (density, dynamic and kinematic viscosity) used in 13.021

water air units

density 103 1 [kg/m3 ]

dynamic viscosity 103 102 [kg/ms]

kinematic viscosity 106 105 [m2 /s]

Notation 1: The Continuity and the Navier-Stokes equations form the Governing
Equations for incompressible, Newtonian uids.

Continuity + Navier-Stokes = Governing Equations

Notation 2: Alternatively, we refer to each equation Dv

Dt
i
= 1 x
p
i
+ 2 vi + 1 Fi
as the ith Momentum Equation. In this case, the Continuity and the Momentum
equations form the Navier-Stokes System of Equations.

Continuity + Momentum Equations = Navier-Stokes System of Equations

Both notations are equivalent, and in this text it will be made clear from the context
when the term Navier-Stokes refers to the Momentum Equations or to the System of
Governing Equations.

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1.11 Boundary Conditions
In the previous paragraphs we formulated the governing equations that describe the ow
of an incompressible, Newtonian uid. The governing equations (N-S) are a system of
partial dierential equations (PDEs). This 4 4 system of equations describes all the
incompressible ows, from rain droplets to surface waves.

One of the reasons this system of equations provides such dierent solutions lies on the
variety of the imposed boundary conditions. To complete the description of this problem
it is imperative that we specify appropriate boundary conditions. For the N-S equations
we need to specify Kinematic Boundary Conditions and Dynamic Boundary Conditions.

1. Kinematic Boundary Conditions specify the boundary kinematics (position, ve

locity, . . . ). On an impermeable solid boundary, velocity of the uid = velocity of the
body. i.e. velocity continuity.

v = u no-slip + no-ux boundary condition

where v is the uid velocity at the body and u is the body surface velocity

v n
= u n no ux continuous ow
v t = u t no slip nite shear stress

v
v

v
u

 2. Dynamic Boundary Conditions specify the boundary dynamics ( pressure, sheer

stress, . . . ).

Stress continuity: p = p + p interface

ij = ij + ij , interface

The most common example of interfacial stress is surface tension.

p interface, ij interface
ij '
p'
ij
p

1.12 Surface Tension

Notation: [Tension force / Length] [Surface energy / Area].

Surface tension is due to the intermolecular attraction forces in the uid.

At the interface of two uids, surface tension implies in a pressure jump across the
interface. gives rise to p across an interface.

For a water/air interface: = 0.07 N/m. This is a function of temperature, impurities

etc. . .

2D Example:
d d
cos p Rd = 2sin 2 d
2
  2  2

1 d
2

p = R
Higher curvature implies in higher pressure jump at the interface.

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 p

p=p+p d/2

3D Example: Compound curvature


1 1
p = +
R1 R2

where R1 and R2 are the principle radii of curvature.

1.13 Body Forces Gravity

Conservative forces

F = for some ,

where is the force potential.

  2  2
F dx = 0 or F dx = dx = (x1 ) (x2 )
1 1

 A special case of a conservative force is gravity F = gk.

In this case the gravitational potential is given by g = gz. Therefore:

F = (g ) = (gz) = ps
 
hydrostatic pressure ps

Substitute in Navier-Stokes equation

Dv
= p + F
 +2v
Dt
body force

= p + (gz) + 2v

Dene: total pressure hydrostatic pressure + hydrodynamic pressure

p = ps + pd
p = gz + pd =

pd = p + gz

Re-write Navier-Stokes:

Dv  
= p + gz + 2v
Dt  
p d = p + gz
Dv
= pd + 2v
Dt
Therefore:
Presence of gravity body force is equivalent to replacing the total pressure by a
dynamic pressure (pd = p ps = p + gz) in the Navier-Stokes(N-S) equation.
Solve the N-S equation with pd . To calculate the total pressure p simply add
back the hydrostatic component p = pd + ps = pd gz.

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