Archil Avaliani

International University

December 1, 2002

Quantum Computers

Picture From USA Today

On April 18, 1998 Neil Gershenfeld (MIT) and Isaac Chuang (IBM Almaden

Research Center) announced about the construction of the first quantum

computer. Regardless to its small size it could successfully demonstrate a

quantum search algorithm.

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Abstract

This research paper gives an overview of quantum computers – description of their

operation, differences between quantum and silicon computers, major construction
problems of a quantum computer and many other basic aspects. No special scientific
knowledge is necessary for the reader.

Introduction to Quantum Computers

Around 2030 computers might not have any transistors and chips. Think of a
computer that is much faster than a common classical silicon computer. This might be
a quantum computer. Theoretically it can run without energy consumption and billion
times faster than today’s PIII computers. Scientists already think about a quantum
computer, as a next generation of classical computers.

Gershenfeld says that if making transistors smaller and smaller is continued with the
same rate as in the past years, then by the year of 2020, the width of a wire in a
computer chip will be no more than a size of a single atom. These are sizes for which
rules of classical physics no longer apply. Computers designed on today's chip
technology will not continue to get cheaper and better. Because of its great power,
quantum computer is an attractive next step in computer technology. (Manay, 1998,
p. 5).

A technology of quantum computers is also very different. For operation, quantum

computer uses quantum bits (qubits). Qubit has a quaternary nature. Quantum
mechanic’s laws are completely different from the laws of a classical physics. A
qubit can exist not only in the states corresponding to the logical values 0 or 1 as in
the case of a classical bit, but also in a superposition state.

A qubit is a bit of information that can be both zero and one simultaneously
(Superposition state). Thus, a computer working on a qubit rather than a standard bit
can make calculations using both values simultaneously. A qubyte, is made up of
eight qubits and can have all values from zero to 255 simultaneously. “Multi-qubyte
systems have a power beyond anything possible with classical computers.”
(Quantum Computers & Moore's Law, p.1)

Forty qubits could have the same power as modern supercomputers. According to
Chuang a supercomputer needs about a month to find a phone number from the
database consisting of world's phone books, where a quantum computer is able to
solve this task in 27 minutes.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Oxford University, IBM and Los Alamos

National Laboratory are the most successful in development of quantum computer.
(West, 2000, &7)

History of Quantum Computers

In 1982 R.Feynman presented an interesting idea how the quantum system can be
used for computation reasons. He also gave an explanation how effects of quantum
physics could be simulated by such quantum computer. This was very interesting idea
which can be used for future research of quantum effects. Every experiment
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investigating the effects and laws of quantum physics is complicated and expensive.
Quantum computer would be a system performing such experiments permanently.
Later in 1985, it was proved that a quantum computer would be much more powerful
than a classical one. (West, 2000, p. 3)

The Major Difference between Quantum and Classical Computers

The memory of a classical computer is a string of 0s and 1s, and it can perform
calculations on only one set of numbers simultaneously. The memory of a quantum
computer is a quantum state that can be a superposition of different numbers. A
quantum computer can do an arbitrary reversible classical computation on all the
numbers simultaneously. Performing a computation on many different numbers at the
same time and then interfering all the results to get a single answer, makes a quantum
computer much powerful than a classical one. (West, 2000)

The Potential and Power of Quantum Computing

Quantum computer with 500 qubits gives 2500 superposition states. Each state would
be classically equivalent to a single list of 500 1's and 0's. Such computer could
operate on 2500 states simultaneously. Eventually, observing the system would cause it
to collapse into a single quantum state corresponding to a single answer, a single list
of 500 1's and 0's, as dictated by the measurement axiom of quantum mechanics. This
kind of computer is equivalent to a classical computer with approximately 10150
processors. (West, 2000, p. 3)

Moore's Law for Quantum Computers

According to Moore's Law, the number of transistors of a microprocessor continues to

double in every 18 months. According to such evolution if there is a classical
computer in year 2020, it will run at 40 GHz CPU speed with 160 Gb RAM. If we use
an analogue of Moor’s law for quantum computers, the number of quantum bits
would be double in every 18 months. But adding just one qubit is already enough to
double a speed. So, the speed of quantum computer will increase more than just
doubling it. (Quantum Computers & Moore's Law, §1)

Some Problems in Production of Quantum Computers

Any kind of measurement of quantum state parameters considers interaction process

with environment (with other particles - particle of light for example), which causes a
change of some parameters of this quantum state. Measurement of superposition
quantum state will collapse it into a classical state. This is called decoherence. This is
the major obstacle in a process of producing of a quantum computer. If decoherence
problem cannot be solved, a quantum computer will be no better than a silicon one.
(Daniel, 1999)

In order to make quantum computers powerful, many operations must be performed

before quantum coherence is lost. It can be impossible to construct a quantum
computer that will make calculations before decohering. But if one makes a quantum
computer, where the number of errors is low enough, than it is possible to use an
error-correcting code for preventing data looses even when qubits in the computer
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decohere. There are a lot of error-correcting codes. One of the simplest classical error-
correcting codes is called repetition code. 0 is encoded as 000 and 1 as 111. Then if
only one bit is flipped, one gets a state for example 011 that can be corrected to its
original state 111. The signs of states in a quantum superposition are also important,
but sign errors can also be corrected. There exists even a theory about quantum error-
correcting codes. (Daniel, 1999, p. 1)

Another problem is hardware for quantum computers. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

(NMR) technology is the most popular today, because of some successful
experiments. MIT and Los Alamos National Laboratory have constructed a simple
quantum computer using NMR technology. Some other designs are based on ion trap
and quantum electrodynamics (QED). All of these methods have significant
limitations. Nobody knows what the architecture of future quantum computers
hardware will be. (West, 2000, p. 6)

Future Benefits of Quantum Computers

1. Cryptography and Peter Shor’s Algorithm

In 1994 Peter Shor (Bell Laboratories) found out the first quantum algorithm that, in
principle, can perform an efficient factorization. This became a complex application
that only a quantum computer could do. Factoring is one of the most important
problems in cryptography. For instance, the security of RSA (electronic banking
security system) - public key cryptography - depends on factoring and it is a big
problem. Because of many useful features of quantum computer, scientists put more
efforts to build it. However, breaking any kind of current encryption that takes almost
centuries on existing computers, may just take a few years on quantum computer.
(Maney, 1998)

2. Artificial Intelligence

It has been mentioned that quantum computers will be much faster and consequently
will perform a large amount of operations in a very short period of time. On the other
side, increasing the speed of operation will help computers to learn faster even using
the one of the simplest methods - mistake bound model for learning.

3. Other Benefits

High performance will allow us in development of complex compression algorithms,

voice and image recognition, molecular simulations, true randomness and quantum
communication. Randomness is important in simulations. Molecular simulations are
important for developing simulation applications for chemistry and biology. With the
help of quantum communication both receiver and sender are alerted when an
eavesdropper tries to catch the signal. Quantum bits also allow more information to be
communicated per bit. Quantum computers make communication more secure.

Strange Thing about Quantum Computers

“On the theory side, quantum mechanics delves deep into areas that are nearly
unthinkable. For instance, it's possible that a quantum computer holds an infinite
number of right answers for an infinite number of parallel universes. It just happens to
give you the right answer for the universe you happen to be in at the time. "It takes a
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great deal of courage to accept these things," says Charles Bennett of IBM, one of the
best known quantum computing scientists. "If you do, you have to believe in a lot of
other strange things." " (Manay, 1998)

Dancing Chloroform Atoms

A few years ago, Gershenfeld and Chuang made the first quantum computer. It was
based on nuclear magnetic resonance technology. The program was performing a
simple search using Grover’s algorithm. In comparison to classical computers it took
one item out of four in just one step, instead of making two or three steps as classical
computes. The price for making the first 2-qubit computer was approximately $1
million.

Entanglement of Quantum Systems

According to quantum mechanics an outside force acting on two particles of the

quantum system can cause them to become entangled. The quantum state of this
system can contain all positions of spins (internal magnetic moments) of each particle.
The total spin of the system can only be equal to certain discrete values with different
probabilities. Measurements of total spin of certain quantum systems showed that
positions of spins of some particle are not independent from others. For such systems,
when an orientation of a spin of one particle changed by some reason, an orientation
of a spin of another particle changes automatically and instantly. The laws that that
have been developed so far about the speed of light are disobeyed in this case,
because the change in an orientation of a spin happens immediately. At least there is
hypothesize to use this phenomena for quantum computing.

It is well known that a speed of communication is limited by a speed of light as

nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. The question is how particles of the
quantum system communicate when they change their spin orientation and
consequently their vector states. Famous scientists spent a lot of time discussing this
issue. Einstein’s idea that some unknown “hidden parameters” of quantum system
were contributing to this effect has been rejected theoretically and experimentally.

This is one of the example showing the difference between classical and quantum
realities. This effect of the quantum system explains a lot of aspects of the nature (f.e.
chemical characteristics of atoms and molecules) and is proved by the experiments.

“In fact, theories about entanglement have led scientists to believe there could be a
way to speed up computing. Even today's computers are nearing a point at which their
speed is being limited by how fast an electron can move through a wire - the speed of
light. Whether in a quantum or traditional computer, entanglement could blow past
that limit.” (Manay, 1998)

Conclusion

It is important that making a practical quantum computing is still far in the future.
Programming style for a quantum computer will also be quite different. Development
of quantum computer needs a lot of money. Even the best scientists can’t answer a lot
of questions about quantum physics. Quantum computer is based on theoretical
physics and some experiments are already made. Building a practical quantum
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computer is just a matter of time. Quantum computers easily solve applications that
can’t be done with help of today’s computers. This will be one of the biggest steps in
science and will undoubtedly revolutionize the practical computing world.

References:
Daniel, G. (1999). Quantum Error-Correcting Codes. Retrieved on November 31st,
2002 from: http://qso.lanl.gov/~gottesma/QECC.html

Manay, K. (1998). Quantum computers could be a billion times faster than Pentium
III. USA Today. Retrieved on December 1st, 2002 from:
http://www.amd1.com/quantum_computers.html

Quantum Computers. Retrieved on December 1st, 2002 from:

http://www.ewh.ieee.org/r10/bombay/news4/Quantum_Computers.htm

Quantum Computers & Moore's Law. Retrieved on December 1st, 2002 from:
http://www.qubyte.com

Quantum Computers: What are They and What Do They Mean to Us? Retrieved on
December 1st, 2002 from:
http://www.carolla.com/quantum/QuantumComputers.htm

West, J (2000). Quantum Computers. Retrieved December 1, 2002 from California

Institute of Technology, educational website:
http://www.cs.caltech.edu/~westside/quantum-intro.html#qc