Unit-II

Individual Behavior: Self Concept; Ability; Learning theories and

reinforcement schedules; Values and Attitudes; Personality determinants
and traits; Emotions; Perception Process and errors.

Interpersonal Behavior: Johari Window; Transactional Analysis ego

states, types of transactions, life positions, applications of T.A.

Self and Self-Concept

*A person has a variety of enduring images of themselves

* A person is likely to act quite differently with different people and in

different situations.

The Make-up of the Self-image

* Each individual has an image of himself or herself as a certain kind of

person, with certain traits, skills, habits, possessions, relationships and way
of behaving.
* Individuals develop their self-images through interactions with other
people

Self Image

Actual Self Image Ideal Self Image Social Self Image Ideal
Social Image

How people see themselves

How people would like to see themselves

How people feel others see them

How people would like others to see them

Expected self image: How people expect to see themselves at some specified
future time (Between actual and ideal)

Ought to self image: Consists of traits or characteristics that an individual

believes it is his or her duty or obligation to possess

Learning

Learning is the process by which new behaviors are acquired. It is generally

agreed that learning involves changes in behaviors, practicing new
behaviors, and establishing permanency in the change.

Nature of Learning

Learning involves change in behavior (+ve or ve)

Change must be relatively permanent
Change must be based on some form of practice or experience.
Practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning to
occur.

Theories of Learning

Theories explain the process through which new behavior is acquired

by a person.
Expert do not agree on the same process and so the theories are
classified into three categories:
Conditioning Theory
Cognitive Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory

1) Conditioning Theory

Conditioning is the process in which an ineffective object or situation

becomes so much effective that it makes the hidden response
apparent.
This is based on premise that learning is establishing association
between response and stimulus.
Conditioning has two main theories:
Classical Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
(i) Classical Conditioning

Behavior is learned by repetitive association between a stimulus and a

response.
Four elements are always present in classical conditioning:
Unconditioned Stimulus (like food which invariably causes to
react in a certain way i.e. salivation)
Unconditioned Response (takes place whenever the US is
presented i.e. whenever the organism (dog in original
experiment) is given food (US), it salivates.
Conditioned Stimulus (the object that does not initially bring
about the desired response like the sound of the bell)
Conditioned ResponseBefore(a particular behavior that the organism
Conditioning
learns to produce to the CS, i.e. salivation)

Meat (US) Salivation (UR)

Bell (Neutral No Response
Stimulus)
During Conditioning

Meat (US)+Bell (CS) Salivation (UR)

After Conditioning

Salivation (CR)
I am Ok

I am not Ok
You are
Ok
I am You
Ok are Ok
I am

I am Ok

I am not
Ok
You are not
Ok
You are not Ok
Implications of Classical Conditioning

Higher order conditioning can explain how learning can be transferred

to stimuli other than those used in the original conditioning.
But in organizations behavior of people is voluntary rather than
reflective.
Behavior affects or operates on the environment.
This type of behavior is learned through operant conditioning.

(ii) Operant Conditioning

It implies that behavior is voluntary and it is determined, maintained

and controlled by its consequences.
Human beings learn what behaviors will be rewarding and they
engage in those behaviors.
Basic principle of learning new behavior involves the relationship
between three elements:
Stimulus situation (important events in the situation)
Behavioral response to the situation
Consequence of the response to the person
E.g. Application of brake by a vehicle driver to avoid accident.

Implications of Operant Conditioning

Management can use the operant conditioning successfully to control

and influence the behavior of employees by designing the suitable
reward system.
Operant conditioning is the basis for modern behaviorism and consists
of following:
A series of assumptions about behavior and environment
A set of definitions which can be used in an objective, scientific
description of behavior & its environment
A group of techniques & procedures for experimental study of
behavior in the lab
A large body of facts and principles which have been
demonstrated by experiment
2) Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognition refers to an individuals ideas, thoughts, knowledge,

interpretations and understanding about himself and environment.
Concept of cognition in learning implies that organism learns the
meaning of various objects and events and learned responses depend
on the meaning assigned to stimuli.
E.g. Tolman trained a rat to turn right in a T maze in order to obtain
food. Then he started the rat from the opposite part of the maze, acc.
to operant conditioning theory, the rat should have turned right
because of past conditioning. But the rat, instead, turned towards
where the food had been placed. This because rat formed a cognitive
map to figure out how to get the food.

3) Social Learning Theory

This integrates both behavioristic and cognitive concepts.

According to this learning occurs in two steps:
The person observes how others act and then acquires a mental
picture of the act and its consequences (reward and punishment)
The person acts out the acquired image and if the consequences
are positive, he will tend to do it again. If consequences are
negative, the person will not do it again.

Reinforcement

It can be defined as anything that increases the strength of response

and tends to induce repetitions of the behavior that preceded the
reinforcement.
Behavioral response is conditioned by reinforcement.

Types of Reinforcement

Positive and Negative

Extrinsic and Intrinsic
Primary and Secondary
Administering Reinforcement

As it has been established that reinforcement is necessary for learning, a

manager must administer it in such a way that it has its maximum effects.

Nature of Reinforcement

Some type of reinforcement (reward or knowledge of successful

performance) is necessary to produce change.
Some types of rewards are more effective for use in the organization
than others.
The speed with which learning takes place and also how lasting its
effects will be is determined by the timing of reinforcement.

Administration

Selection of Reinforcement: Select reinforcers that are sufficiently

powerful to maintain responsiveness. Reinforcer depend upon
individuals, what is rewarding to one person may not be rewarding to
another.
Contingent Designing of Reinforcement: Reinforcement should be
designed in such a way that reinforcing events are made contingent
upon the desired behavior. Greater performance, greater rewards.
Reinforcement Scheduling: A reliable procedure for eliciting or
including the desired response pattern is established. For positive and
negative reinforcement separate principles are followed.

Administering Positive Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: Every positive behavior is

followed by a reinforcer. This type of reinforcement increases positive
behavior very rapidly but when the reinforcer is withdrawn,
performance decreases rapidly.
Partial Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcement does not occur after
every correct behavior. It leads to slower learning but it is more
lasting. It can be classified into four types.
Partial Reinforcement Schedule

Fixed Ratio Schedule: A reinforcer is administered only after certain

number of responses. The person soon determines that reinforcement
is based on the number of responses and so performs the responses as
quickly as possible in order to receive reward.
Fixed Interval Schedule: A reinforcement is given only when the
desired responses occurs after the passage of a specific time since the
previous reinforcement. E.g. payment of wages according to time.

Partial Reinforcement Schedule

Variable Ratio Schedule: A reward is given only after a number of

desired responses, with the number of responses changing from the
occurrence of one reinforcer to the next.
Variable Interval Schedule: The reward is given after a randomly
distributed length of time rather than after a number of responses.
Ideal method for administering praise, promotion, recognition, and
supervisory visits.

Administering Punishment

Punishment is a method for reducing the frequency of undesired

behavior.
It is effective in modifying behavior if it forces the person to select a
desirable alternative behavior that is then reinforced.
If the above does not occur then the behavior will be only temporarily
suppressed and will reappear when the punishment is removed.
It is effective if applied at the time when the undesirable behavior is
actually performed than at a later time.
It must be administered with extreme care so that it does not become
reward for undesirable behavior.

Values

Values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct is

personally or socially preferable to an opposite mode of conduct.
Characteristics

Part of culture
Learned responses
Inculcated
Social phenomenon
Gratifying responses
Adaptive process

Values and Behavior

Values influence an individuals perception about the problems he

faces and so the decisions he makes.
Values influence the way in which an individual looks at other
individuals and groups.
Individuals judge organizational success on the basis of their value
system.
Individual set limit for the determination of what is ethical or
unethical behavior for themselves as well as for others.
Values determine the extent to which individuals accept organizational
pressures and goals.

Factors in Value Formation

Value forming Institutions

Organizational Values
Peers and Colleagues
Work and Career
Professional Codes

Attitude

Attitude is the persistent tendency to feel and behave in a favorable and

unfavorable way towards some object, person, or idea.

Features of attitude
 Attitude affect behavior of an individual by putting him ready to
respond favorably or unfavorably to things in his environment.
Attitudes are acquired through learning over the period of time.
Attitudes are invisible as they constitute a psychological phenomenon
which cannot be observed directly.
Attitudes are pervasive and every individual has some kind of
attitudes towards the objects in his environment.

Attitudes and Behavior

Object, person or
idea
Attitude towards
object, person or
idea
Behavior towards
object, person or
idea
Influenced by:
Home Environment
Family Members
Social Groups

Attitude and Behavior

Other factors influencing behavior along with attitude are personality,

perception, motivation.
Attitudes are also affected by the individual dimensions as well as the
object, persons and ideas.
Attitudes have been thought as serving four functions and thereby
influencing the behavior. These are:
Instrumental: Attitude serve as a means to reach a desired goal
or to avoid an undesired one.
 Ego defensive: Attitude may be acquired and maintained to
protect the person from facing threats in the external world or
from becoming aware of his own unacceptable impulses.
Value Orientation: Attitude may be held because they express a
persons values or enhance his self-identity.
Knowledge: Attitudes that provide a standard against which a
person evaluates aspects of his world serve the knowledge
function

Theories of Attitude Formation

Cognitive Consistency Theories (Attitude do not exist in isolation,

indeed, a complex structure results which appears to have at its heart a
consistent tendency to maintain balance and resist change from
influences of various types)
Balance Theory
Congruity Theory
Affective Cognitive Consistency Theory
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Functional Theory
Social Judgment Theory

Factors in Attitude Formation

Group Factors
Family
Reference Groups
Social Classes
Personality Factors

Attitudes Relevant for Organizational Behavior

Job Satisfaction
Job involvement
Organizational commitment

Effects of Employee Attitudes

Employee Performance
Employee Turnover
 Absence and Tardiness
Violence
Other Effects
Spontaneity
Voluntary nature
Constructive impact on results
Unexpected helpfulness to others

Attitude Change

Characteristics of attitudes
Extremeness of the attitude
Multiplicity
Consistency
Interconnectedness
Number and strength of needs which are served by the attitude
Acc. To these characteristics, there may be two types of attitude
change: Congruent (Increase in the strength of an existing attitude) and
Incongruent (Direction of change in opposite)
The personality of attitude holder
Group affiliation of the attitude holder

Methods of Attitude Change

Communication of additional information

Approval and disapproval of a particular attitude
Group influence
Inducing engagement in discrepant behavior
Manipulating reward system
Clearly defining employees role
Setting challenging targets
Providing immediate feedback
Providing opportunities for employees to participate in decision
making process
Exhibiting caring and considerate orientation
Refraining from attacking the employees attitudes
Developing Positive Attitudes by Individuals

Identification of attitudes
Looking for positive
Building positive self-esteem
Setting challenging targets
Avoiding procrastination
Continuous learning

Personality

Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those

psychological systems that determine his unique adjustment to his
environment

Definitions of Personality

Omnibus: View personality as the sum total, aggregate, or

constellation of properties or qualities.
Integrative & Configurational: Under this organization of personal
attributes is stressed
Hierarchical: Specify various levels of integration or organization of
personality.
Adjustment: Emphasizes the adjustment (adaptation, survival and
evolution) of the person to the environment.
Distinctiveness: Stress uniqueness of each personality.

Meaning of Personality

Derived from Latin word Persona which means to speak through.

This denotes the masks which the actors used to wear in ancient
Greece and Rome.
According to Ruch, personality should include:
External appearance and behavior
Inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force
The particular pattern or organization of measurable traits, both
inner and outer.
Determinants of Personality

Biological factors
Heredity
Brain
Physical features
Family and social factors
Influenced by:
Socialization
1. Home Environment
Identification process
2. Family Members
Cultural factors
3. Social Groups
Situational factors

Personality Traits

Big five personality traits

Agreeableness: Ability to get along with others
Conscientiousness: Number of goals on which a person focuses
his attention
Negative emotionality: Refers to more excitable, insecure,
reactive and subject to extreme mood swings
Extroversion: Degree of extroversion reflects a persons
comfort level with relationships
Openness: Persons rigidity of beliefs and range of interests.

Personality Traits

Other personality traits

Self-concept and Self-esteem
Machiavellianism: Manipulation of others as a primary way of
achieving ones goals.
Locus of Control: Whether people believe that they are in
control of events (external locus), or they control events
(internal locus)
Tolerance for ambiguity
Type A and B: Type A always feel a sense of time urgency, are
highly achievement oriented, exhibit competitive drive and are
impatient when their work is slowed down for any reason.
Work-ethic Orientation: Refers to involvement in the job.
Risk propensity
 What are Emotions?

Three related terms:

Affect
A broad range of feelings that people experience.
Emotions
Intense feelings that are directed at someone or
something.
Moods
Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions

Emotion Continuum

Happiness Surprise Fear Sadness Anger Disgust

Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour

When an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions

during interpersonal interactions.
Employees can experience a conflict between what they feel, and
whats expected of them.

Emotional Intelligence

Noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a

person's ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and
pressures
Five dimensions
Self-awareness
Self-management
Self-motivation
Empathy
Social skills

Negative Workplace Emotions

 Negative emotions can lead to a number of deviant workplace
behaviours. They fall in categories such as:
Production (leaving early, intentionally working slowly)
Property (stealing, sabotage)
Political (gossiping, blaming co-workers)
Personal aggression (sexual harassment, verbal abuse)

Perception

Concept

Perception is the process of selecting, organizing and interpreting or

attaching meaning to events happening in environment.

Features of Perception

1. Perception is the intellectual process through which a person selects

the data from the environment, organizes it, and obtains meaning from
it.Physical process of obtaining data from environment sensation.

2. Perception is basic cognitive or psychological process. Peoples

actions, emotions, thoughts, or feeling are triggered by the perception
of their surroundings.

3. It is a subjective process and different people may perceive the same

environment event differently based on what particular aspects of the
situation they choose to absorb, how they organize the information
and the manner in which they interprets is to obtain the grasp of the
situation.

Perceptual Process

Perception is a process consisting of several sub-processes. We can take an

input-throughput-output approach to understand the dynamics of the
perceptual process.

Perceptual inputs: The stimuli in the environment subjects, events or

people.
Throughputs: The actual transformation of these inputs through the
perceptual mechanisms of selection, organization and interpretation.

Perceptual outputs: Resultant opinions, feelings, attitudes, etc., which

ultimately influence our behavior.

1. Stimuli (Confrontation): The first process in the perception is the

presence of stimuli situations, which confront the human beings.
These may be in the form of people, objects, events, information,
conversation, etc.

2. Receiving stimuli (registration): The actual perception process starts

with the receipt of stimuli or data from various sources. Most data is
received through the five organs. One sees things, hears them, smells,
tastes, or touches them and learns other aspects of the things.

3. Selection of stimuli: After receiving stimuli, some are selected for

further processing while others are screened out, as it is not possible
for a person to select all stimuli for processing. Factors affecting the
selection of stimuli:
External factors related to stimuli
Internal factors or factors related to the perceiver.

4. Organization of stimuli: After the data have been selected, these are
organized in some form to make sense out of them. Such organization
may take the form of:

a. Figure Ground: This involves that in perceiving stimuli, the

tendency is to keep certain phenomena in focus and other
phenomena are in background. More attention is paid to
phenomena, which have been kept as figure, and less attention
to phenomena kept in background. Perception may change if
certain stimuli are changed from figure to ground.

b. Grouping: The perceiver groups the various stimuli on the

basis of their similarity or proximity. Thus, all such stimuli,
which have been grouped together, are likely to be perceived as
having same characteristics. For example, all the workers may
 be perceived to have some opinions about the management
because of grouping or the basic of similarity.

c. Simplification: Whenever people are overloaded with

information, they try to simplify it to make it more meaningful
and understandable. In the process of simplification, the
perceiver subtracts less salient information and concentrates on
important one.

d. Closure: When faced with incomplete information people fill

up the gaps themselves to make the information meaningful.
This may be done on the basic of past experience, past data, or
hunches.

5. Interpretation: The perceptual inputs that have been organized will

have to be interpreted by the perceiver so that he can sense and extract
some meaning of what is going on in the situation. People interpret
the meaning in terms of their own assumption of people things and
situations. Interpretation of stimuli is affected by characteristics of
stimuli, situation under which perception takes place, and
characteristics of the perceiver. Similarly, the physical, social, and
organizational setting in which an object is perceived also affect
interpretation.

6. Action (Behavior): The last phase of perceptual process is that of

acting on relation to what has been perceived. The action may be:

Convert: May be in the form of change in attitudes, opinions, feelings,

values, and impression formation resulting from the perceptual inputs
and throughputs.

Overt: May be in the form of behavior easily visible.

Stimulus or situation Person

External
Environment
Sensual Stimulation

Physical
Environment Registration Interpretati Feedback
Office Of stimulus on For
Factory Floor (E.g. Sensory Of stimulus Clarification
Research Lab & neural (E.g.
Store Mechanisms) Motivation,
Climate etc. Learning&
Personality) Behavior
Socio culture (E.g. Overt
Environment: Such as
Management Style Rushing off
Values or covert
Discrimination etc. such as an
attitude)

Consequence
(E.g.
reinforcement,
punishment or
some
organizational
outcome)

Sub Process of perception

Perceptual Selectivity

As people can only limited amount of information in the environment, they

are characteristically selective. By selection, certain aspects of stimuli are
screened out and others are admitted. The factors, which affect selectivity,
are:
I Internal Factors

1) Self-concept: The way a person views the world

depends a great deal on the concept or image he has about
himself. They select only that aspects, which they find, match
with their characteristics.

2) Beliefs: A fact is conceived not on what it is but what a

person believes it to be.
An individual self censors his intake of
communications so as to shield his beliefs and practices
form attack.
An individual seeks out communications, which
support his beliefs and practices.

3) Expectations: Expectations are related with the state of

anticipation of a particular behavior from a person. We perceive
what we expect.

4) Inner Needs: Need is a feeling of tension or discomfort

when one think he is missing something. People with different
needs select different items to remember or respond to. When
people are not able to satisfy their needs, they are engaged in
wishful thinking, which is a way to satisfy the need not in real
world but in imaginary world. So, people will perceive only
those items, which are in consistence with their wishful
thinking.

5) Response Disposition: Means persons tendency to

perceive familiar stimuli rather than unfamiliar ones.

6) Response salience: It is set of persons own cognitive

predisposition. So a particular problem in an organization may
be viewed a marketing problem by marketing manager, a
financial problem by accounting people, and human relation
problem by personal people. The reason for this process lies in
the background of the people for which they are trained.
 7) Perceptual Defence: Refers to the screening of those
elements, which create conflict and threatening situation in
people. They may even perceive other factors to be present that
are not a part of the stimulus situation.

8) Learning: Learning affects set by creating an

expectancy to perceive in a certain manner.

TURN
OFF THE
THE ENGINE

9) Motivation: E.g. Worker who has a strong need for

affiliation, walks into the lunchroom, the table where several
coworkers are sitting tends to be perceived and the empty table
or the one where a single person is sitting tends to get no
attention.

10) Personality: E.g. Young managers complain above the

old guard resisting change and using rules and paperwork as
ends in themselves.

II External Factors

1) Intensity: More intense the external stimulus, the more

likely it is to be perceived. A loud noise, strong odor, or bright
light will be noticed more than a soft sound, weak odor, or dim
light.

2) Size: Larger the object, the more likely it will be perceived.

E.g. in advertising, a full page spread is more attention getting
than a few lines in the classified section.
 3) Contrast: External stimuli which stand out against the
background or which are not what people are expecting will
receive their attention.

4) Repetition: Repeated external stimulus is more attention

getting than a single one. This principle partially explains why
supervisors have to give directions over and over again for even
the simplest of tasks.

5) Motion: People will pay more attention to moving objects in

their field of vision than they will to stationary objects.
Advertisers capitalize on this principle by creating signs that
incorporate moving parts.

6) Novelty and Familiarity: New objects or events in a

familiar setting or familiar objects or events in a new setting
will draw the attention of the perceiver. Job rotation is an
example of this principle.

Distortion in Person Perception

In person perception, there are many more factors, which affect the
correctness of perception, thus perceptual distortion occurs. Perceptual
distortion is a position where the person does not perceive the thing,
particularly person, as it may be. This is affected because of several factors.
These are factors associated with:
1. Person Perceiving

1) Personality: People tend to perceive others more accurately

when they are more like the ones that they are perceiving than
if they are different from those who are being perceived. This
will influence the resultant behavior of the person concerned.

2) Mental Set: It is the tendency one has to react in a certain way

to a given situation. E.g. A runner take off at once when he hear
GO command after preparatory command of Get Ready, Get
Set, because he is already set and ready to this command. In
organizational setting, people have tendency to perceive about
others on the basic of this mental set, which causes
misperception.

3) Attribution: It refers to how a person tries to understand the

behavior or events by interpreting them as caused by certain
factors. E.g. if the failure of subordinate is perceived to be
caused by external factors on which the subordinate does not
have any control, the manager may meet him as capable and
true worthy as against the reason of failure is attributed to the
subordinate. In the latter case the subordinate may be treated as
ineffective and irresponsible.

4) First impression: People evaluate others on the basic of first

impression. The evaluation based on first impression may be
correct if it is based on adequate and significant evidence.
Otherwise it may not be true reflection of people being
perceived. People continue to evaluate on the basic of first
impression, though incorrect.

5) Halo Effect: The person is perceived on the basic of one trait or

event. A general impression, which is favorable or unfavorable,
is used by judges to evaluate several specific traits. The halo in
such a case serves as a screen, keeping the perceiver away from
actually seeing traits he is judging.

6) Stereotype: It refers to the tendency to perceive another person

as belonging to a single class or category. Common stereotyped
 groups include managers, supervisors, minorities, women etc.
There is a consensus about the traits possessed by the members
of these categories. But in reality there is often a discrepancy
between the agreed up on traits of each category and the actual
traits of the members.

2. Person Perceived

1) Status: A person having high status may be perceived to have

many desirable qualities.

2) Visibility of traits: These are many traits, which are not visible
on surface, such as, honesty; loyalty etc. in such cases,
evaluation is to be made on the basic of ones own experience,
which may not be correct.

3) Closeness: Closeness among people provides opportunities to

perceive the traits correctly.

3. Situational Factors

There may be structural characteristics of the place indicating the

characteristics of person occupying it. Thus a person is likely to be
perceived by a place. E.g. a person is perceived differently he meets
with others in a five star hotel as compared to an ordinary place. It
many cases, these may not reflect the true value but May only distort
peoples perception that might be dealing with them.
 Interpersonal Behavior

Interpersonal co-operative Behavior

Both persons are engaged in complementary transactions.

Both persons get satisfied over the objectives of mutual interactions.

Conditions necessary for co-operative interpersonal behavior are

mutual trust and respect, concern for each other needs.

Such behaviors are functional and lead to the achievement of

organizational objectives providing satisfaction to the individual at the
same time.

Interpersonal Conflicting Behavior

Because of personality differences, different value systems, interest

conflict, role ambiguity, interpersonal conflict may arise in the
organization.

This type of behavior may not be functional for organization.

Transactional Analysis

It refers to a method of analyzing and understanding interpersonal

behavior.

Transactional analysis offers a model of personality and the dynamics

of self and its relationship to other that makes possible a clear and
meaningful discussior of behavior.
 When people interact, there is social transaction in which one person
responds to another. The study of these transactions between people is
called transactional analysis.

Developed by: Eric Berne in 1950.

Application to ordinary interactions was popularized by: Berne, Harris and

Jongeward.

Levels of self-awareness

The person knows about The person does not know

the other about the other

The person
knows about him
I am Ok I am not Ok
or herself
You are Ok You are Ok

The person does

not know about
I am Ok I am not Ok
him or herself
You are not Ok You are not Ok

Johri Window

1. Open Self: There would be openness and compatibility. It would tend

to lead to little, if any, interpersonal conflict.

2. Hidden Self: Person remains hidden from the other because of the
fear of how the other might react. The person may keep his or her
feelings secret. There is potential interpersonal conflict.

3. Blind Self: The person may be unintentionally irritating to the other.

The other could tell the person but may be fearful of hurting the
persons feelings. So there is potential interpersonal conflict.

4. Undiscovered Self: Most explosive situation. There is much

misunderstanding and interpersonal conflict.
Change in Awareness

As awareness change, quadrant to which the psychological state is assigned

also changes. Principles of such change:

1. Change in any one quadrant will affect all other quadrants.

2. A threat tends to decrease awareness; mutual trust tends to increase

awareness.

3. Forced awareness is undesirable and usually ineffective.

4. Interpersonal learning means a change has taken place. The quadrant 1

is has become larger, and one more of other quadrants has grown
smaller.

5. By increased awareness more of the resources and skills of the

persons involved can be applied to the task at hand.

6. The smaller the first quadrant, the Poorer the communication.

7. There is universal curiosity about the unknown area, but this is held in
check by custom, social training and diverse fears.

8. Learning about processes, as they are being experienced helps to

increase awareness for the group as a whole as well as for individual
members.

9. The value system of a group and its members may be observed in the
way the group deals with unknowns in the life of the group itself.

10.It takes energy to hide, deny or be blind to behavior, which is involved

in interaction.

Ego States

People interact with each other in term of three psychological positions or

behavior patterns, known as ego states:

1) Parent Ego
 The parent ego state incorporates the attitudes and behavior of an
emotionally significant people who serve as parent figure when an
individual was a child.

Characteristics of people having this ego include being overprotective,

distant and upright.

Physical and verbal clues include raising figure to show authority.

Parent Ego

Nurturing Critical
(Evaluating)

2) Adult Ego

It is based upon reasoning, seeking and providing information.

Person interacting with adult ego views people as equal, worthy,

and responsible human beings. (Rational)

Adult is characterized by verbal and physical signs, which include

thoughtful concentration and factual discussion.

Formation of this stage goes through ones own experience.

3) Child Ego

Characteristics of child ego include creativity, conformity,

depression, anxiety, dependence, fear and hate.

Physical and verbal clues that person is acting in the child ego are
silent compliance, attention seeking and giggling.
 Non logical and immediate actions, which result in immediate
satisfaction.

Child Ego

Natural Adaptive Rebellious

Natural: Affectionate, impulsive, sensuous and does what come naturally,

he is fearful, self indulgent, self centered and aggressive.

Adaptive: Trained one and he is likely to do what parents insist on, and
sometimes learn to feel non O.K.

Rebellion: Anger, fear and frustration.

Life script

In TA, a persons life is compared to a play and the script is the text of
that play.

A persons psychological script is a life plan; a drama that he writes

and then feels compelled to live out.

Script analysis is an examination of transactions and interactions to

determine the nature of ones life script.

i. Berne

To him, script is a complete plan of living, offering both structures,

structure of injunctions, prescriptions, and permissions and structure
which makes one winner or loser in life.

Winning Programming: Adaptive because the person exercise more

autonomy as he has more permissions.

Loser Programming: Strong injunctions and inner demon.

 ii. Jongeward

To him, life script resembles the script of drama characters,

dialogues, actions and scenes, themes and plays, culminating towards
a climax and ends in final curtain.

There are two stages of a person for action public and private stage.

iii. McClelland

He studies that there is a relationship between stories heard and read

by children and their motives in living.

Achievers scripts are based on the success stories while the scripts of
power-oriented person are based on stories of risk.

So, mans behavior becomes programmed by the script, which emerges out
of his life experience.

This life script of person affects his interaction with others.

Life Positions

This individuals behavior towards others is largely based on specific

assumptions that are made early in life.

A person develops from experience a dominant philosophy: such

philosophy is tied into their identity, sense of worth and perceptions of
other people.

This tend to remain with the person for lifetime unless major experiences
occur to change it.

Such positions are called life positions or psychological positions, and

fall into four categories:

You are O.K.

 I am Ok I am not
Ok
You are Ok You are
I am O.K. Ok I am not O.K.

I am Ok I am not
Ok
You are not O.K.

i) I am O.K. You are O.K.

It is made after the individual has a large number of O.K. experiences

with others.
These people can solve their problems constructively.
This is based on adult ego.
They accept the significance of other people and feel that life is worth
living.

ii) I am O.K. You are not O.K.

These people blame others for their miseries.

They feel whatever they do is right.
It results when a person was too much ignored when he was a child.
These are the people with rebellion child ego.
Such mangers give critical and oppressive remarks.
They lack trust or confidence in the intelligence, skills and talents of
others.

iii) I am not O.K. You are O.K.

Who feel powerless in comparison to others.

Managers operating from this position tend to give and receive bad
feelings.
These are often unpredictable and erratic.

iv) I am not O.K. You are not O.K.

 This is a desperate life position.
People who lose interest in living and can even commit suicide.
Individuals who are neglected seriously by their parents and are
brought by servants.
Such managers do not make decisions in time and make stupid
mistakes.
One of these positions dominates each persons life. The desirable position is
I an O.K. You are O.K..

Transactions

When a stimulus from a person is being responded by another person,

a transaction is said to occur.
Depending upon the ego states of persons involved in transactions,
there may be three types of transactions:
Complementary
Crossed
Ulterior

1. Complementary Transactions

When the stimulus and response patterns from one ego state to another are
parallel.
The transaction is complementary because both are acting in the perceived
and expected ego states.
In this, both persons are satisfied and communication is complete.

i. Adult-Adult Transactions

P P

A A

C C

Manger in adult ego state tries to reason out issues, clarifies and
inform employees or issues, and has concern for facts and figures and
human needs.
 Complementary transactions in these ego states are very effective
because both persons are acting in a rational manner.
Data is processed, decisions are made, and both parties working for
the solutions.
Disadvantage is that, elimination of the child ego can make the
transaction dull due to the lack of stimulation that child can provide.
Some times decisions are delayed because of rational data processing
procedure.

ii. Adult-parent Transactions

P P

A A

C C

Managers with adult ego and Employee with parent ego.

Employee tries to control and dominate the manager.
These types of transactions are effective in case of new manager. By
this managers can understand the rules and guidance under which the
employee operates. But it is temporary.
Employee can create hostile feelings against managers.

iii. Adult-child Transactions

P P

A A

C C

It is effective when manager is aware of ego state of employee.

In this case manager can allow the employee in the child ego to be
creative.
But there may be problem in this interaction when the employee acts
irrationally because of his child ego.
iv. Parent-Parent Transactions

P P

A A

C C

Manager in parent ego uses I am O.K. You are not O.K..

This is beneficial in cases whose employee join forces with the
manager and supports him.
Disadvantage is that it may lead to unnecessary competition between
the manager and employee.

v. Parent-Adult Transaction

P P

A A

C C

Managers may be frustrated because the employee will not perform as

directed.
Employee may also feel frustration because of the managers failure
to act as adult.
Such relationship may not last long.

vi. Parent-child Transactions

P P

A A

C C
 Ideal situation as employee finds this transaction advantageous in that
it eliminates much responsibility and pressure.
Child prevents much conflict and provides for ease operation.
But is disadvantageous in long run because of feeling that employees
are not capable of doing anything.
Employee may feel frustration because he feels his personality is not
developed.

vii. Child-Parent Transactions

P P

A A

C C

Manager may contribute very little to the effectiveness of

management because role of manager is beyond creativity.
Employee controls the manager in child ego.
Employee may hold threats of punishment to the manager in the form
of loss of popularity or even in demotion.

viii. Child-Adult Transactions

P P

A A

C C

Adult employee will control child manager.

Employee may become discouraged when the manager makes
decisions on the basis of Whims, fancies and emotion, which pose
problems to employee who want to interact on the basic of rationality.
Disadvantage is that the organization may lose many good employees.
ix. Child-Child Transactions

P P

A A

C C

Manager interaction in child-child ego is not ca

2. Crossed Transactions

P P

A A

C C

3. Ulterior Transactions

It is the most complex because the communication has double

meaning.
When an ulterior message is sent, on the surface level, it has a clear
adult message, whereas it carries a hidden message on the
psychological level.
These are undesirable.

Stroking

Stroking means the act of implying recognition of anothers presence.

People seek recognition in interaction with others.
Jongeward and seyer observes that people need strokes for their sense
of survival and well being on the job.
As a general guide:
 i. Quantity and quality of strokes serves as negative motivation for
employees.
ii. A good share of satisfaction we get from work depends on the strokes
available from other people.
iii. We can get strokes from the activities of work itself-specially if what
we are doing really fits and we can take responsibility for it.

Strokes

Positive Negative

Positive: Words of recognition, affection, pat on the back.

Negative: Criticism, hating and scolding.

Psychological Games

A Psychological game is a set of transactions with three characteristics:

i. The transactions tend to be repeated.

ii. They make sense on superficial or social level.
iii. One or more of the transactions is ulterior.

People usually learn their game patterns right since their childhood.
They learn to believe certain things about themselves and about other
and act accordingly.
As grown-ups they play games for a variety of reasons:

i. To get strokes: People want positive strokes on their jobs. But when
they are not able to get these from other they are try to set a situation
where they satisfy their needs for strokes.

ii. To strengthen psychological positions: Of people hold non-OK

positions, they try to emphasize it through the games. For such people
kick me games provide a powerful way to reconfirm negative
expectations.
iii. To avoid or control intimacy: People, who fear openness,
accountability and responsibility in relationships, play games as
avoidance. This is because games can be used to control or block
intimacy, keeping people away from open and honest encounters.

The set of transactions ends with a predictable payoff- a negative

feeling.

Psychological games can be a powerful force in preventing people and

organizations from becoming winners.

Games players usually assume one of three basic roles:

a) Victims: People who provoke others to put down, use them, and to
hurt them; and they forget conveniently and act confused.

b) Persecutor: People, who make unrealistic rules, enforce rules in

cruel ways and pick on little guys rather than of their own size.

c) Rescuer: People, who offer helpfulness to keep others dependent

on them, do not really help others and may actually dislike helping.

Players of psychological games often switch back and forth in their roles.

Benefits and uses of transactional analysis

1. Developing Positive Thinking

TA is applied to bring positive actions from people because TA

brings positive approach towards life and hence positive actions.
Thus its application can enhance the trust and creditability felt
towards the organization, which are essential for good employee
relations.
Specific areas for developing positive thinking through TA are
stroking, positive reinforcement, inner dialogue as related to
decision-making, active listening, and time structuring.

2. Interpersonal Effectiveness
 TA improves interpersonal relationship by providing understanding or
ego states of persons involved in interaction.
It emphasizes complementary transactions, which ensure complete
communication and problem-solving approach.
Effective managers may be able to analyze transactions with
employees in the organization.
Managers may be able to identify the ego states from which both
parties are interacting.
Better understanding of themselves and of other persons will make
them more comfortable, confident and effective.
Improved interpersonal relations will bring effectiveness to the
organization.

3. Motivation

TA can be applied in motivation where it helps in satisfying human

needs through complementary transactions and positive strokes.
Managers can enrich jobs for people by helping them to engage in
kind of activities that give them more positive strokes.
TA helps in changing the managerial styles more suitable to the
emergent situation.
Adult-adult interaction and life position I an O.K. You are O.K.
motivate employee and beneficial to the organization.

4. Organizational Development

Organization development applies a humanistic value system to work

behavior and a reorientation of mans thinking and behavior towards
his work organization.
Jongeward has identified the role of TA in six areas of organization
development:

i. To maximize adult-adult transactions

ii. To give an OK to the natural child
iii. To identify and untangle quickly crossed transactions.
iv. To maximize destructive game playing
v. To maximize encounters
vi. To develop supportive system, policies and work environment.

5. Other Factor
TA is a practical and useful interrelationship model for organizations
because:

i. It is easy to learn.
ii. It gives a positive communication tool that is practical and almost
immediately usable.
iii. It helps to increase a persons on the job effectiveness because of
better self-understanding and greater insight into personalities and
transactions.
iv. It may help solve personal and family problems.
v. It gives a common language for people working together to attempt to
solve their own communication problem.
vi. It is a non-threatening approach to self-evaluation.
vii. It offers a method for analyzing not only people but also
organizational script.