Arduino Microcontroller

Processing for Everyone!

Part I
 Synthesis Lectures on Digital
Circuits and Systems
Editor
Mitchell A. Thornton, Southern Methodist University
The Synthesis Lectures on Digital Circuits and Systems series is comprised of 50- to 100-page
books targeted for audience members with a wide-ranging background. The Lectures include topics
that are of interest to students, professionals, and researchers in the area of design and analysis of
digital circuits and systems. Each Lecture is self-contained and focuses on the background
information required to understand the subject matter and practical case studies that illustrate
applications. The format of a Lecture is structured such that each will be devoted to a specific topic
in digital circuits and systems rather than a larger overview of several topics such as that found in a
comprehensive handbook. The Lectures cover both well-established areas as well as newly
developed or emerging material in digital circuits and systems design and analysis.

Arduino Microcontroller: Processing for Everyone! Part I

Steven F. Barrett
2010

Digital System Verification: A Combined Formal Methods and Simulation Framework

Lun Li and Mitchell A. Thornton
2010

Progress in Applications of Boolean Functions

Tsutomu Sasao and Jon T. Butler
2009

Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller: Part II

Steven F. Barrett
2009

Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller: Part I

Steven F. Barrett
2009

Embedded Systems Interfacing for Engineers using the Freescale HCS08 Microcontroller
II: Digital and Analog Hardware Interfacing
Douglas H. Summerville
2009
iv

Designing Asynchronous Circuits using NULL Convention Logic (NCL)

Scott C. Smith and Jia Di
2009

Embedded Systems Interfacing for Engineers using the Freescale HCS08 Microcontroller
I: Assembly Language Programming
Douglas H.Summerville
2009

Developing Embedded Software using DaVinci & OMAP Technology

B.I. (Raj) Pawate
2009

Mismatch and Noise in Modern IC Processes

Andrew Marshall
2009

Asynchronous Sequential Machine Design and Analysis: A Comprehensive Development

of the Design and Analysis of Clock-Independent State Machines and Systems
Richard F. Tinder
2009

An Introduction to Logic Circuit Testing

Parag K. Lala
2008

Pragmatic Power
William J. Eccles
2008

Multiple Valued Logic: Concepts and Representations

D. Michael Miller and Mitchell A. Thornton
2007

Finite State Machine Datapath Design, Optimization, and Implementation

Justin Davis and Robert Reese
2007

Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer: Programming and Interfacing

Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack
2007

Pragmatic Logic
William J. Eccles
2007
 v
PSpice for Filters and Transmission Lines
Paul Tobin
2007

PSpice for Digital Signal Processing

Paul Tobin
2007

PSpice for Analog Communications Engineering

Paul Tobin
2007

PSpice for Digital Communications Engineering

Paul Tobin
2007

PSpice for Circuit Theory and Electronic Devices

Paul Tobin
2007

Pragmatic Circuits: DC and Time Domain

William J. Eccles
2006

Pragmatic Circuits: Frequency Domain

William J. Eccles
2006

Pragmatic Circuits: Signals and Filters

William J. Eccles
2006

High-Speed Digital System Design

Justin Davis
2006

Introduction to Logic Synthesis using Verilog HDL

Robert B.Reese and Mitchell A.Thornton
2006

Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists

Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack
2006
Copyright © 2010 by Morgan & Claypool

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other except for brief quotations in
printed reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Arduino Microcontroller: Processing for Everyone! Part I

Steven F. Barrett
www.morganclaypool.com

ISBN: 9781608454372 paperback

ISBN: 9781608454389 ebook

DOI 10.2200/S00280ED1V01Y201005DCS028

A Publication in the Morgan & Claypool Publishers series

SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON DIGITAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS

Lecture #28
Series Editor: Mitchell A. Thornton, Southern Methodist University
Series ISSN
Synthesis Lectures on Digital Circuits and Systems
Print 1932-3166 Electronic 1932-3174
Arduino Microcontroller
Processing for Everyone!
Part I

Steven F. Barrett
University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY

SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON DIGITAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS #28

M
&C Morgan & cLaypool publishers
ABSTRACT
This book is about the Arduino microcontroller and the Arduino concept. The visionary Arduino
team of Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles,Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino, and David Mellis launched
a new innovation in microcontroller hardware in 2005, the concept of open source hardware. Their
approach was to openly share details of microcontroller-based hardware design platforms to stimulate
the sharing of ideas and promote innovation. This concept has been popular in the software world
for many years. This book is intended for a wide variety of audiences including students of the fine
arts, middle and senior high school students, engineering design students, and practicing scientists
and engineers. To meet this wide audience, the book has been divided into sections to satisfy the
need of each reader. The book contains many software and hardware examples to assist the reader in
developing a wide variety of systems. For the examples, the Arduino Duemilanove and the Atmel
ATmega328 is employed as the target processor.

KEYWORDS
Arduino microcontroller, Arduino Duemilanove, Atmel microcontroller, Atmel AVR,
ATmega328, microcontroller interfacing, embedded systems design
 ix

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

1 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1.3 Arduino Duemilanove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Arduino host processor — the ATmega328 3
1.4 Example: Autonomous Maze Navigating Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.1 Structure chart 6
1.4.2 UML activity diagrams 8
1.4.3 Arduino Duemilanove Systems 9
1.5 Arduino open source schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Other Arduino-based platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Extending the hardware features of the Arduino platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
1.8 Arduino Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.9 Arduino Duemilanove/ATmega328 hardware features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.9.1 Memory 13
1.9.2 Port System 15
1.9.3 Internal Systems 16
1.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.12 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2 Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 The Big Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
x
2.3 Anatomy of a Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.1 Comments 24
2.3.2 Include files 25
2.3.3 Functions 25
2.3.4 Program constants 28
2.3.5 Interrupt handler definitions 29
2.3.6 Variables 29
2.3.7 Main program 30
2.4 Fundamental programming concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.1 Operators 30
2.4.2 Programming constructs 34
2.4.3 Decision processing 36
2.5 Arduino Development Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5.1 Background 39
2.5.2 Arduino Development Environment overview 40
2.5.3 Sketchbook concept 41
2.5.4 Arduino software, libraries, and language references 41
2.6 Application 1: Robot IR sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.7 Application 2: Art piece illumination system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.10 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3 Embedded Systems Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.1 What is an embedded system? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2 Embedded system design process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.1 Project Description 52
3.2.2 Background Research 52
3.2.3 Pre-Design 54
3.2.4 Design 54
3.2.5 Implement Prototype 56
 CONTENTS xi
3.2.6 Preliminary Testing 56
3.2.7 Complete and Accurate Documentation 57
3.3 Example: Blinky 602A autonomous maze navigating robot system design . . . . . . . 57
3.4 Application: Control algorithm for the Blinky 602A Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.7 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4 Serial Communication Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2 Serial Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3 Serial Communication Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.4 Serial USART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.4.1 System Overview 76
4.5 System Operation and Programming using Arduino Development
Environment features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.6 System Operation and Programming in C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.6.1 Serial Peripheral Interface—SPI 85
4.7 SPI Programming in the Arduino Development Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.8 SPI Programming in C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.9 Two-wire Serial Interface—TWI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.10 Application 1: SD/MMC card module extension via the USART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.11 Application 2: Programming the Arduino Duemilanove ATmega328 via the
ISP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.11.1 Programming Procedure 93
4.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.14 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Author’s Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
 Preface
This book is about the Arduino microcontroller and the Arduino concept. The visionary
Arduino team of Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino, and David Mellis
launched a new innovation in microcontroller hardware in 2005, the concept of open source hardware.
There approach was to openly share details of microcontroller-based hardware design platforms to
stimulate the sharing of ideas and innovation. This concept has been popular in the software world
for many years.
This book is written for a number of audiences. First, in keeping with the Arduino concept,
the book is written for practitioners of the arts (design students, artists, photographers, etc.) who may
need processing power in a project but do not have an in depth engineering background. Second, the
book is written for middle school and senior high school students who may need processing power
for a school or science fair project. Third, we write for engineering students who require processing
power for their senior design project but do not have the background in microcontroller-based appli-
cations commonly taught in electrical and computer engineering curricula. Finally, the book provides
practicing scientists and engineers an advanced treatment of the Atmel AVR microcontroller.

APPROACH OF THE BOOK

To encompass such a wide range of readers, we have divided the book into several portions to address
the different readership. Chapters 1 through 2 are intended for novice microcontroller users. Chapter
1 provides a review of the Arduino concept, a description of the Arduino Duemilanove development
board, and a brief review of the features of the Duemilanove’s host processor, the Atmel ATmega 328
microcontroller. Chapter 2 provides an introduction to programming for the novice programmer.
Chapter 2 also introduces the Arduino Development Environment and how to program sketches.
It also serves as a good review for the seasoned developer.
Chapter 3 provides an introduction to embedded system design processes. It provides a sys-
tematic, step-by-step approach on how to design complex systems in a stress free manner.
Chapters 4 through 8 provide detailed engineering information on the ATmega328 microcon-
troller and advanced interfacing techniques. These chapters are intended for engineering students
and practicing engineers. However, novice microcontroller users will find the information readable
and well supported with numerous examples.
The final chapter provides a variety of example applications for a wide variety of skill levels.
xiv PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A number of people have made this book possible. I would like to thank Massimo Banzi of the
Arduino design team for his support and encouragement in writing the book. I would also like to
thank Joel Claypool of Morgan & Claypool Publishers who has supported a number of writing
projects of Daniel Pack and I over the last several years. He also provided permission to include
portions of background information on the Atmel line of AVR microcontrollers in this book from
several of our previous projects. I would also like to thank Sparkfun Electronics of Boulder, Colorado;
Atmel Incorporated; the Arduino team; and ImageCraft of Palo Alto, California for use of pictures
and figures used within the book.
I would like to dedicate this book to my close friend and writing partner Dr. Daniel Pack,
Ph.D., P.E. Daniel elected to “sit this one out” because of a thriving research program in unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs). Much of the writing is his from earlier Morgan & Claypool projects. In 2000,
Daniel suggested that we might write a book together on microcontrollers. I had always wanted to
write a book but I thought that’s what other people did. With Daniel’s encouragement we wrote
that first book (and six more since then). Daniel is a good father, good son, good husband, brilliant
engineer, a work ethic second to none, and a good friend. To you good friend I dedicate this book. I
know that we will do many more together.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife and best friend of many years, Cindy.

Laramie, Wyoming, May 2010

Steve Barrett
 1

CHAPTER 1

Getting Started
Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to the following:

• Describe the Arduino concept of open source hardware.

• Diagram the layout of the Arduino Duemilanove processor board.

• Name and describe the different features aboard the Arduino Duemilanove processor board.

• Discuss the features and functions of the ATmega328.

• List alternate Arduino processing boards.

• Describe how to extend the hardware features of the Arduino processor.

• Download, configure, and successfully execute a test program using the Arduino software.

1.1 OVERVIEW
Welcome to the world of Arduino! The Arduino concept of open source hardware was developed
by the visionary Arduino team of Massimo Banzi, David Cuartilles, Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino,
and David Mellis in Ivrea, Italy. The team’s goal was to develop a line of easy-to-use microcontroller
hardware and software such that processing power would be readily available to everyone.
In keeping with the Arduino concept, this book is intended for a wide variety of readers. For
those wanting a quick exposure to an Arduino microcontroller board and its easy-to-use software,
Chapters 1 and 2 are for you. If you need to tap into some of the other features of the processing
power of the ATmega328 host microcontroller, Chapters 3 through 8 are for you.
In keeping with the Arduino open source spirit, you will find a plethora of hardware and
software examples throughout the book. I hope you enjoy reading the book, and I also hope you will
find it a useful resource in developing Arduino-based projects.

1.2 GETTING STARTED

This chapter is devoted to getting you quickly up and operating with an Arduino-based hardware
platform. To get started using an Arduino-based processor, you will need the following hardware
and software.

• an Arduino-based hardware processing platform,

2 1. GETTING STARTED
• an Arduino compatible power supply, and
• the Arduno software.
Arduino hardware. Throughout the book, we will be using the Arduino Duemilanove board.
A starter’s kit for this platform is available from SparkFun Electronics of Boulder, CO for approx-
imately US$60. The starter kit is illustrated in Figure 1.1. The kit is equipped with the processing
board, a USB cable to program the board from a host PC, a small breadboard to prototype external
hardware, jumper wires, and several external components. Later in the chapter, we will discuss other
Arduino-based processor kits.

Figure 1.1: Arduino Duemilanove starter kit. (Used with permission from SparkFun Electronics.)

Power supply. The Arduino processing board may be powered from the USB port during
project development. However, it is highly recommended that an external power supply be employed.
 1.3. ARDUINO DUEMILANOVE 3
This will allow developing projects beyond the limited current capability of the USB port. SparkFun
Electronics recommends a power supply from 7-12 VDC with a 2.1 mm center positive plug. A
power supply of this type is readily available from a number of electronic parts supply companies.
For example, the Jameco #133891 power supply is a 9 VDC model rated at 300 mA and equipped
with a 2.1 mm center positive plug. It is available for under US$10.
Arduino software. You will also need the Arduino software called the Arduino Development
Environment. It is available as a free download from the Arduino homepage (www.arduino.cc). In
the Application section at the end of this chapter, we describe how to load the software and drivers
and get a sample program operating on the Arduino Duemilanove board.
In the next several sections, we provide information on the layout and capabilities of the
Arduino Duemilanove board and its host the Atmel ATmega328 processor. We also discuss other
Arduino-based processing boards and how to extend the features of the Arduino Duemilanove board
using the shield concept.

1.3 ARDUINO DUEMILANOVE

The Arduino Duemilanove processing board is illustrated in Figure 1.2. Working clockwise from
the left, the board is equipped with a USB connector to allow programming the processor from
a host PC. The board may also be programmed using In System Programming (ISP) techniques
discussed later in the book. A 6-pin ISP programming connector is on the opposite side of the board
from the USB connector.
The board is equipped with a USB-to-serial converter to allow compatibility between the host
PC and the serial communications systems aboard the ATmega328 processor. The Duemilanove is
also equipped with several small surface mount LEDs to indicate serial transmission (TX) and
reception (RX) and an extra LED for project use. The header strip at the top of the board provides
access for an analog reference signal, pulse width modulation (PWM) signals, digital input/output
(I/O), and serial communications. The header strip at the bottom of the board provides analog
inputs for the analog-to-digital (ADC) system and power supply terminals. Finally, the external
power supply connector is provided at the bottom left corner of the board. The top and bottom
header strips conveniently mate with an Arduino shield (to be discussed shortly) to extend the
features of the host processor.

1.3.1 ARDUINO HOST PROCESSOR — THE ATMEGA328

The host processor for the Arduino Duemilanove is the Atmel Atmega328. The “328” is a 28 pin,
8-bit microcontroller. The architecture is based on the Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
concept which allows the processor to complete 20 million instructions per second (MIPS) when
operating at 20 MHz!
The “328” is equipped with a wide variety of features as shown in Figure 1.3. The features
may be conveniently categorized into the following systems:
4 1. GETTING STARTED
digital I/O

e
USB-to-serial LED

nc
re

m
converter

fe
TX LED

om
re
timebase

lc
og
RX LED

ria
al

PW

PW
an

se
LED power
indicator
switch
USB
connector
(to PC)
ISP programming
connector

power supply
connector
(7-12 VDC)
power supply analog inputs
terminals

Figure 1.2: Arduino Duemilanove layout. (Figure adapted and used with permission of Arduino Team
(www.arduino.cc).)

• Memory system,
• Port system,
• Timer system,
• Analog-to-digital converter (ADC),
• Interrupt system,
• and the Serial communications.

1.4 EXAMPLE: AUTONOMOUS MAZE NAVIGATING ROBOT

Before taking a more in depth look at the Arduino Duemilanove systems, let’s see how these systems
would be used in an application. Graymark (www.graymarkint.com) manufacturers many low-cost,
excellent robot platforms. In this example, we will modify the Blinky 602A robot to be controlled
by the Arduino Duemilanove.
The Blinky 602A kit contains the hardware and mechanical parts to construct a line following
robot. The processing electronics for the robot consists of analog circuitry. The robot is controlled
by two 3 VDC motors which independently drive a left and right wheel. A third non-powered drag
wheel provides tripod stability for the robot.
5
1.4. EXAMPLE: AUTONOMOUS MAZE NAVIGATING ROBOT

Arduino Duemilanove
hosted on the
ATmega328
Memory System Timer System Analog-to-digital converter Serial Communications
- 32K byte, ISP - Two 8-bit timer/counter - 6 channel 10-bit ADC - Serial USART
programmable flash - One 16-bit timer/counter (PDIP) - Serial peripheral interface
- 1K byte, byte - Six PWM channels - Two wire interface (TWI)
addressable EEPROM
- 2K byte RAM
Port System Interrupt System
- 14 digital I/O pins - 26 total interrupts
-- 6 provide PWM - 2 external pin interrupts
- 6 analog input pins
Figure 1.3: Arduino Duemilanove systems.
6 1. GETTING STARTED
In this example, we will equip the Blinky 602A robot platform with three Sharp GP12D IR
sensors as shown in Figure 1.4. The robot will be placed in a maze with white reflective walls. The
goal is for the robot to detect wall placement and navigate through the maze. (Figure 1.5.) The robot
will not be provided any information about the maze. The control algorithm for the robot will be
hosted on the Arduino Duemilanove.

Sharp GP2D12
Center IR sensor
IR sensor

Left Right
IR sensor IR sensor

Arduino
Duemilanove
powered powered
wheel wheel

prototype
area

turn signals

tripod drag wheel

for stability

Figure 1.4: Blinky robot layout.

1.4.1 STRUCTURE CHART

A structure chart is a visual tool used to partition a large project into “doable” smaller parts. It
also helps to visualize what systems will be used to control different features of the robot. The
arrows within the structure chart indicate the data flow between different portions of the program
 1.4. EXAMPLE: AUTONOMOUS MAZE NAVIGATING ROBOT 7

Figure 1.5: Blinky robot navigating maze.

controlling the robot. The structure chart for the robot project is provided in Figure 1.6. As you
can see, the robot has three main systems: the motor control system, the sensor system, and the
digital input/output system. These three systems interact with the main control algorithm to allow
the robot to autonomously (by itself ) navigate through the maze by sensing and avoiding walls.

determine_robot
_action

robot sensor
action data

digital
motor_control ADC
input/output

desired
motor ch for conv
action conv data
left running right
PWM_left ADC
PWM_right ReadADC turn turn
Initialize lights
signal signal

left right left middle right

motor motor IR sensor IR sensor IR sensor

Figure 1.6: Blinky robot structure diagram.

8 1. GETTING STARTED
1.4.2 UML ACTIVITY DIAGRAMS
A Unified Modeling Language (UML) activity diagram, or flow chart, is a tool to help visualize the
different steps required for a control algorithm. The UML activity diagram for the robot is provided
in Figure 1.7. As you can see, after robot systems are initialized, the robot control system enters a
continuous loop to gather data and issue outputs to steer the robot through the maze.

include files
global variables
function prototypes

initialize ports
initialize ADC
initialize PWM

while(1)

read sensor outputs

(left, middle, right)

determine robot
action

issue motor
control signals

Figure 1.7: Robot UML activity diagram.

 1.5. ARDUINO OPEN SOURCE SCHEMATIC 9
1.4.3 ARDUINO DUEMILANOVE SYSTEMS
The three IR sensors (left, middle, and right) are mounted on the leading edge of the robot to detect
maze walls.The output from the sensors is fed to three ADC channels.The robot motors will each be
driven by a pulse width modulation (PWM) channel. The Arduino Duemilanove is interfaced to the
motors via a transistor with enough drive capability to handle the maximum current requirements of
the motor. The robot will be powered by a 9 VDC battery which is fed to a 5 VDC voltage regulator.
We discuss the details of the interface electronics in a later chapter.
From this example, you can see how different systems aboard the Arduino Duemilanove may
be used to control different features aboard the Blinky robot. In the next several sections, we present
information on the Arduino Duemilanove processor board and software.

1.5 ARDUINO OPEN SOURCE SCHEMATIC

The entire line of Arduino products is based on the visionary concept of open source hardware and
software. That is, hardware and software developments are openly shared among users to stimulate
new ideas and advance the Arduino concept. In keeping with the Arduino concept, the Arduino
team openly shares the schematic of the Arduino Duemilanove processing board. Reference Figure
1.8.

1.6 OTHER ARDUINO-BASED PLATFORMS

There is a wide variety of Arduino-based platforms.The platforms may be purchased from SparkFun
Electronics, Boulder, CO (www.sparkfun.com). Figure 1.9 provides a representative sample. Shown
on the left is the Arduino Lily Pad equipped with ATmega168 processor. A version of the Lily Pad
equipped with the ATmega328 will be released soon. This processing board can actually be worn
and is washable. It was designed to be sewn onto fabric.
In the bottom center figure is the Arduino Mega equipped with ATmega1280 processor. This
processing board is equipped with 54 digital input/output pins, 14 pulse width modulation pins, 16
analog inputs, and four channels of serial communication capability. In the upper right is the Arduio
Stamp. This small, but powerful processing board is equipped with ATmega168 processor.

1.7 EXTENDING THE HARDWARE FEATURES OF THE

ARDUINO PLATFORM
Additional features and external hardware may be added to selected Arduino platforms by using a
daughter card concept. The daughter card is called an Arduino Shield as shown in Figure 1.10. The
shield mates with the header pins on the Arduino board. The shield provides a small fabrication
area, a processor reset button, and a general use pushbutton and two light emitting diodes (LEDs).
This concludes the review of the Arduino Duemilanove and related Arduino-based processing
boards. In the next section, we discuss how to download and obtain the latest Arduino software.
10 1. GETTING STARTED

O
R
T
B
P

O
R

D
T
P
O
R

C
T
P

ATmega328
USB-to-USART
converter

Figure 1.8: Arduino Duemilanove open source schematic. (Figure adapted and used with permission of
the Arduino Team (www.arduino.cc).)
 1.7. EXTENDING THE HARDWARE FEATURES OF THE ARDUINO PLATFORM 11

Figure 1.9: Arduino variants. (Used with permission from SparkFun Electronics.)
12 1. GETTING STARTED

Figure 1.10: Arduino shield. (Used with permission from SparkFun Electronics.)

1.8 ARDUINO SOFTWARE

In the next chapter, we will discuss how to program the Arduino Duemilanove processing board
using the Arduino Development Environment. It is essential that you download and get the software
operating correctly before proceeding to the next chapter.
 1.9. ARDUINO DUEMILANOVE/ATMEGA328 HARDWARE FEATURES 13
The Arduino homepage (www.arduino.cc) contains detailed instructions on how to down-
load the software, load the USB drivers, and get a sample program operating on the Arduino
Duemilanove processing board. Due to limited space, these instructions will not be duplicated here.
The reader is encouraged to visit the Arduino webpage and get the software up and operating at this
time.
This completes a brief overview of the Arduino hardware and software. In the next section,
we provide a more detailed overview of the hardware features of the Arduino processor, the Atmel
ATmega328.

1.9 ARDUINO DUEMILANOVE/ATMEGA328 HARDWARE

FEATURES
As previously mentioned, the Arduino Duemilanove’s processing power is provided by the AT-
mega328. The pin out diagram and block diagram for this processor are provided in Figures 1.11
and 1.12. In this section, we provide additional detail on the systems aboard the processor.

Figure 1.11: ATmega328 pin out. (Figure used with permission of Atmel, Incorporated.)

1.9.1 MEMORY
The ATmega328 is equipped with three main memory sections: flash electrically erasable pro-
grammable read only memory (EEPROM), static random access memory (SRAM), and byte-
addressable EEPROM for data storage. We discuss each memory component in turn.
14 1. GETTING STARTED

Figure 1.12: ATmega328 block diagram. (Figure used with permission of Atmel, Incorporated.)

1.9.1.1 In-System Programmable Flash EEPROM

Bulk programmable flash EEPROM is used to store programs. It can be erased and programmed
as a single unit. Also, should a program require a large table of constants, it may be included as a
global variable within a program and programmed into flash EEPROM with the rest of the program.
Flash EEPROM is nonvolatile meaning memory contents are retained when microcontroller power
 1.9. ARDUINO DUEMILANOVE/ATMEGA328 HARDWARE FEATURES 15
is lost. The ATmega328 is equipped with 32K bytes of onboard reprogrammable flash memory. This
memory component is organized into 16K locations with 16 bits at each location.

1.9.1.2 Byte-Addressable EEPROM

Byte-addressable memory is used to permanently store and recall variables during program execution.
It too is nonvolatile. It is especially useful for logging system malfunctions and fault data during
program execution. It is also useful for storing data that must be retained during a power failure but
might need to be changed periodically. Examples where this type of memory is used are found in
applications to store system parameters, electronic lock combinations, and automatic garage door
electronic unlock sequences. The ATmega328 is equipped with 1024 bytes of EEPROM.

1.9.1.3 Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)

Static RAM memory is volatile. That is, if the microcontroller loses power, the contents of SRAM
memory are lost. It can be written to and read from during program execution. The ATmega328
is equipped with 2K bytes of SRAM. A small portion of the SRAM is set aside for the general
purpose registers used by the processor and also for the input/output and peripheral subsystems
aboard the microcontroller. A complete ATmega328 register listing and accompanying header file
is provided in Appendices A and B, respectively. During program execution, RAM is used to store
global variables, support dynamic memory allocation of variables, and to provide a location for the
stack (to be discussed later).

1.9.2 PORT SYSTEM

The Atmel ATmega328 is equipped with four, 8-bit general purpose, digital input/output (I/O)
ports designated PORTA, PORTB, PORTC, and PORTD. All of these ports also have alternate
functions which will be described later. In this section, we concentrate on the basic digital I/O port
features.
As shown in Figure 1.13, each port has three registers associated with it
• Data Register PORTx —- used to write output data to the port.
• Data Direction Register DDRx —- used to set a specific port pin to either output (1) or input
(0).
• Input Pin Address PINx —- used to read input data from the port.
Figure 1.13(b) describes the settings required to configure a specific port pin to either input
or output. If selected for input, the pin may be selected for either an input pin or to operate in the
high impedance (Hi-Z) mode. In Hi-Z mode, the input appears as high impedance to a particular
pin. If selected for output, the pin may be further configured for either logic low or logic high.
Port pins are usually configured at the beginning of a program for either input or output and
their initial values are then set. Usually all eight pins for a given port are configured simultaneously.
We discuss how to configure port pins and how to read/write to them in the next chapter.
16 1. GETTING STARTED

Port x Data Register - PORTx

7 0
Port x Data Direction Register - DDRx

7 0
Port x Input Pins Address - PINx

7 0
a) port associated registers

DDxn PORTxn I/O Comment Pullup

0 0 input Tri-state (Hi-Z) No

0 1 input source current if externally pulled low Yes

1 0 output Output Low (Sink) No

1 1 output Output High (Source) No

x: port designator (A, B, C, D)

n: pin designator (0 - 7)
b) port pin configuration

Figure 1.13: ATmega328 port configuration registers.

1.9.3 INTERNAL SYSTEMS

In this section, we provide a brief overview of the internal features of the ATmega328. It should be
emphasized that these features are the internal systems contained within the confines of the micro-
controller chip. These built-in features allow complex and sophisticated tasks to be accomplished by
the microcontroller.

1.9.3.1 Time Base

The microcontroller is a complex synchronous state machine. It responds to program steps in a
sequential manner as dictated by a user-written program. The microcontroller sequences through
 1.9. ARDUINO DUEMILANOVE/ATMEGA328 HARDWARE FEATURES 17
a predictable fetch-decode-execute sequence. Each unique assembly language program instruction
issues a series of signals to control the microcontroller hardware to accomplish instruction related
operations.
The speed at which a microcontroller sequences through these actions is controlled by a precise
time base called the clock. The clock source is routed throughout the microcontroller to provide a
time base for all peripheral subsystems. The ATmega328 may be clocked internally using a user-
selectable resistor capacitor (RC) time base or it may be clocked externally. The RC internal time
base is selected using programmable fuse bits. We will discuss how to do this in the application
section of this chapter. You may choose an internal fixed clock operating frequency of 1, 2, 4 or 8
MHz.
To provide for a wider range of frequency selections an external time source may be used. The
external time sources, in order of increasing accuracy and stability, are an external RC network, a
ceramic resonator, or a crystal oscillator. The system designer chooses the time base frequency and
clock source device appropriate for the application at hand.

1.9.3.2 Timing Subsystem

The ATmega328 is equipped with a complement of timers which allows the user to generate a
precision output signal, measure the characteristics (period, duty cycle, frequency) of an incoming
digital signal, or count external events. Specifically, the ATmega328 is equipped with two 8-bit
timer/counters and one 16-bit counter. We discuss the operation, programming, and application of
the timing system later in the book.

1.9.3.3 Pulse Width Modulation Channels

A pulse width modulated or PWM signal is characterized by a fixed frequency and a varying duty
cycle. Duty cycle is the percentage of time a repetitive signal is logic high during the signal period.
It may be formally expressed as:

duty cycle[%] = (on time/period) × (100%)

The ATmega328 is equipped with four pulse width modulation (PWM) channels. The PWM
channels coupled with the flexibility of dividing the time base down to different PWM subsystem
clock source frequencies allows the user to generate a wide variety of PWM signals: from relatively
high frequency low duty cycle signals to relatively low frequency high duty cycle signals.
PWM signals are used in a wide variety of applications including controlling the position of
a servo motor and controlling the speed of a DC motor. We discuss the operation, programming,
and application of the PWM system later in the book.

1.9.3.4 Serial Communications

The ATmega328 is equipped with a host of different serial communication subsystems including
the Universal Synchronous and Asynchronous Serial Receiver and Transmitter (USART), the serial
18 1. GETTING STARTED
peripheral interface (SPI), and the Two-wire Serial Interface. What all of these systems have in
common is the serial transmission of data. In a serial communications transmission, scheme data is
sent a single bit at a time from transmitter to receiver.

Serial USART The serial USART is used for full duplex (two way) communication between
a receiver and transmitter. This is accomplished by equipping the ATmega328 with independent
hardware for the transmitter and receiver. The USART is typically used for asynchronous commu-
nication. That is, there is not a common clock between the transmitter and receiver to keep them
synchronized with one another. To maintain synchronization between the transmitter and receiver,
framing start and stop bits are used at the beginning and end of each data byte in a transmission
sequence.
The ATmega328 USART is quite flexible. It has the capability to be set to a variety of data
transmission rates known as the Baud (bits per second) rate. The USART may also be set for data
bit widths of 5 to 9 bits with one or two stop bits. Furthermore, the ATmega328 is equipped with
a hardware generated parity bit (even or odd) and parity check hardware at the receiver. A single
parity bit allows for the detection of a single bit error within a byte of data. The USART may
also be configured to operate in a synchronous mode. We discuss the operation, programming, and
application of the USART later in the book.

Serial Peripheral Interface—SPI The ATmega328 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) can also be
used for two-way serial communication between a transmitter and a receiver. In the SPI system,
the transmitter and receiver share a common clock source. This requires an additional clock line
between the transmitter and receiver but allows for higher data transmission rates as compared to
the USART.
The SPI may be viewed as a synchronous 16-bit shift register with an 8-bit half residing in
the transmitter and the other 8-bit half residing in the receiver. The transmitter is designated the
master since it is providing the synchronizing clock source between the transmitter and the receiver.
The receiver is designated as the slave. We discuss the operation, programming, and application of
the SPI later in the book.

Two-wire Serial Interface—TWI The TWI subsystem allows the system designer to network a
number of related devices (microcontrollers, transducers, displays, memory storage, etc.) together
into a system using a two wire interconnecting scheme. The TWI allows a maximum of 128 devices
to be connected together. Each device has its own unique address and may both transmit and receive
over the two wire bus at frequencies up to 400 kHz. This allows the device to freely exchange
information with other devices in the network within a small area. We discuss the TWI system later
in the book.

1.9.3.5 Analog to Digital Converter—ADC

The ATmega328 is equipped with an eight channel analog to digital converter (ADC) subsystem.
The ADC converts an analog signal from the outside world into a binary representation suitable for
 1.10. SUMMARY 19
use by the microcontroller. The ATmega328 ADC has 10 bit resolution. This means that an analog
voltage between 0 and 5 V will be encoded into one of 1024 binary representations between (000)16
and (3F F )16 . This provides the ATmega328 with a voltage resolution of approximately 4.88 mV.
We discuss the operation, programming, and application of the ADC later in the book.

1.9.3.6 Interrupts
The normal execution of a program step follows a designated sequence of instructions. However,
sometimes this normal sequence of events must be interrupted to respond to high priority faults
and status both inside and outside the microcontroller. When these higher priority events occur, the
microcontroller must temporarily suspend normal operation and execute event specific actions called
an interrupt service routine. Once the higher priority event has been serviced, the microcontroller
returns and continues processing the normal program.
The ATmega328 is equipped with a complement of 26 interrupt sources.Two of the interrupts
are provided for external interrupt sources while the remaining interrupts support the efficient oper-
ation of peripheral subsystems aboard the microcontroller. We discuss the operation, programming,
and application of the interrupt system later in the book.

1.10 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have provided an overview of the Arduino concept of open source hardware.
This was followed by a description of the Arduino Duemilanove processor board powered by the
ATmega328. An overview of ATmega328 systems followed. We then investigated various processing
boards in the Arduino line and concluded with brief guidelines on how to download and run the
Arduino software environment.

1.11 REFERENCES
• SparkFun Electronics, 6175 Longbow Drive, Suite 200, Boulder, CO 80301
(www.sparkfun.com)

• Arduino homepage (www.arduino.cc)

• Atmel 8-bit AVR Microcontroller with 4/8/16/32K Bytes In-System Programmable Flash, AT-
mega48PA, 88PA, 168PA, 328P data sheet: 8161D-AVR-10/09, Atmel Corporation, 2325
Orchard Parkway, San Jose, CA 95131.

1.12 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

1. Describe in your own words the Arduino open source concept.

2. Sketch a block diagram of the ATmega328 and its associated systems. Describe the function
of each system.
20 1. GETTING STARTED
3. What is the purpose of a structure chart?

4. What is the purpose of a UML activity diagram?

5. Describe the different types of memory components within the ATmega328. Describe appli-
cations for each memory type.

6. Describe the three different register types associated with each port.

7. How may the features of the Arduino Demilanove be extended?

 21

CHAPTER 2

Programming
Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to do the following:

• Describe the key components of a program.

• Specify the size of different variables within the C programming language.

• Define the purpose of the main program.

• Explain the importance of using functions within a program.

• Write functions that pass parameters and return variables.

• Describe the function of a header file.

• Discuss different programming constructs used for program control and decision processing.

• Describe the key features of the Arduino Development Environment.

• Describe what features of the Arduino Development Environment ease the program devel-
opment process.

• List the programming support information available at the Arduino home page.

• Write programs for use on the Arduino Duemilanove processing board.

2.1 OVERVIEW
To the novice, programming a microcontroller may appear mysterious, complicated, overwhelming,
and difficult. When faced with a new task, one often does not know where to start. The goal of
this chapter is to provide a tutorial on how to begin programming. We will use a top-down design
approach. We begin with the “big picture” of the chapter followed by an overview of the major
pieces of a program. We then discuss the basics of the C programming language. Only the most
fundamental concepts will be covered. We then discuss the Ardunio Development Environment and
how it may be used to develop a program for the Arduino Duemilanove processor board.Throughout
the chapter, we provide examples and also provide references to a number of excellent references.
22 2. PROGRAMMING

2.2 THE BIG PICTURE

We begin with the big picture of how to program the Arduino Duemilanove as shown in Figure
2.1. This will help provide an overview of how chapter concepts fit together. It also introduces terms
used in writing, editing, compiling, loading and executing a program.
Most microcontrollers are programmed with some variant of the C programming language.
The C programming language provides a nice balance between the programmer’s control of the
microcontroller hardware and time efficiency in programming writing.
As you can see in Figure 2.1, the compiler software is hosted on a computer separate from
the Arduino Duemilanove. The job of the compiler is to transform the program provided by the
program writer (filename.c and filename.h) into machine code (filename.hex) suitable for loading
into the processor.
Once the source files (filename.c and filename.h) are provided to the compiler, the compiler
executes two steps to render the machine code. The first step is the compilation process. Here the
program source files are transformed into assembly code (filename.asm). If the program source files
contains syntax errors, the compiler reports these to the user. An assembly language program is not
generated until the syntax errors have been corrected.
The assembly language source file (filename.asm) is then passed to the assembler. The assem-
bler transforms the assembly language source file (filename.asm) to machine code (filename.asm)
suitable for loading to the Arduino Duemilanove.
The Arduino Development Environment provides a user friendly interface to aid in program
development, transformation to machine code, and loading into the Arduino Duemilanove. The
Arduino Duemilanove may also be programmed using the In System Programming (ISP) features
of the Atmel AVR STK500 Starter Kit and Development System. We discuss these procedures in
a later chapter.
In the next section, we will discuss the components of a C program. In a later section, we
discuss the user friendly features of the Arduino Development Environment.

2.3 ANATOMY OF A PROGRAM

Programs written for a microcontroller have a fairly repeatable format. Slight variations exist but
many follow the format provided.

//Comments containing program information

// - file name:
// - author:
// - revision history:
// - compiler setting information:
// - hardware connection description to microcontroller pins
// - program description
 2.3. ANATOMY OF A PROGRAM 23

Arduino Development Environment

C compiler

filename.c compiler
filename.h

filename.asm

assembler

filename.hex
filename.eep

computer
Arduino
Duemilanove
Arduino Development
Environment USB
ISP
or

C compiler
filename.hex
filename.eep

ISP

Atmel AVR STK500

Starter Kit and
Development System

Figure 2.1: Programming the Arduino Duemilanove. (Used with permission from SparkFun Electronics,
and Atmel, Incorporated.)
24 2. PROGRAMMING
//include files
#include<file_name.h>

//function prototypes
A list of functions and their format used within the program

//program constants
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0
#define ON 1
#define OFF 0

//interrupt handler definitions

Used to link the software to hardware interrupt features

//global variables
Listing of variables used throughout the program

//main program

void main(void)
{

body of the main program

//function definitions
A detailed function body and definition
for each function used within the program

Let’s take a closer look at each piece.

2.3.1 COMMENTS
Comments are used throughout the program to document what and how things were accomplished
within a program. The comments help you reconstruct your work at a later time. Imagine that you
wrote a program a year ago for a project. You now want to modify that program for a new project.
The comments will help you remember the key details of the program.
Comments are not compiled into machine code for loading into the microcontroller.Therefore,
the comments will not fill up the memory of your microcontroller. Comments are indicated using
 2.3. ANATOMY OF A PROGRAM 25
double slashes (//). Anything from the double slashes to the end of a line is then considered a
comment. A multi-line comment can be constructed using a /∗ at the beginning of the comment
and a ∗/ at the end of the comment.
At the beginning of the program, comments may be extensive. Comments may include some
of the following information:

• file name

• program author

• revision history or a listing of the key changes made to the program

• compiler setting information

• hardware connection description to microcontroller pins

• program description

2.3.2 INCLUDE FILES

Often you need to add extra files to your project besides the main program. For example, most
compilers require a “personality file” on the specific microcontroller that you are using. This file is
provided with the compiler and provides the name of each register used within the microcontroller.
It also provides the link between a specific register’s name within software and the actual register
location within hardware. These files are typically called header files and their name ends with a “.h”.
Within the C compiler there will also be other header files to include in your program such as the
“math.h” file when programming with advanced math functions.
To include header files within a program, the following syntax is used:

//include files
#include<file_name1.h>
#include<file_name2.h>

In an upcoming section, we see how the Arduino Development Environment makes it quite
easy to include a header file within a program.

2.3.3 FUNCTIONS
In the next chapter, we discuss in detail the top down design, bottom up implementation approach to
designing microcontroller based systems. In this approach, a microcontroller based project including
both hardware and software is partitioned into systems, subsystems, etc.The idea is to take a complex
project and break it into doable pieces with a defined action.
26 2. PROGRAMMING
We use the same approach when writing computer programs. At the highest level is the main
program which calls functions that have a defined action. When a function is called, program control
is released from the main program to the function. Once the function is complete, program control
reverts back to the main program.
Functions may in turn call other functions as shown in Figure 2.2. This approach results in a
collection of functions that may be reused over and over again in various projects. Most importantly,
the program is now subdivided into doable pieces, each with a defined action. This makes writing
the program easier but also makes it much easier to modify the program since every action is in a
known location.

void main(void)
{

function1( ); void function1(void)

{
:
:
}
function2( ); void function2(void)
{
:
:
}
}

Figure 2.2: Function calling.

There are three different pieces of code required to properly configure and call the function:

• the function prototype,

• the function call, and

• the function body.

Function prototypes are provided early in the program as previously shown in the program
template. The function prototype provides the name of the function and any variables required by
the function and any variable returned by the function.
The function prototype follows this format:

return_variable function_name(required_variable1, required_variable2);

 2.3. ANATOMY OF A PROGRAM 27
If the function does not require variables or sends back a variable the word “void” is placed in
the variable’s position.
The function call is the code statement used within a program to execute the function. The
function call consists of the function name and the actual arguments required by the function. If the
function does not require arguments to be delivered to it for processing, the parenthesis containing
the variable list is left empty.
The function call follows this format:
function_name(required_variable1, required_variable2);
A function that requires no variables follows this format:
function_name( );
When the function call is executed by the program, program control is transferred to the
function, the function is executed, and program control is then returned to the portion of the
program that called it.
The function body is a self-contained “mini-program.” The first line of the function body
contains the same information as the function prototype: the name of the function, any variables
required by the function, and any variable returned by the function. The last line of the function
contains a “return” statement. Here a variable may be sent back to the portion of the program that
called the function. The processing action of the function is contained within the open ({) and
close brackets (}). If the function requires any variables within the confines of the function, they are
declared next. These variable are referred to as local variables. The actions required by the function
follow.
The function prototype follows this format:
return_variable function_name(required_variable1, required_variable2)
{
//local variables required by the function
unsigned int variable1;
unsigned char variable2;

//program statements required by the function

//return variable
return return_variable;
}
Example: In this example, we describe how to configure the ports of the microcontroller to act
as input or output ports. Briefly, associated with each port is a register called the data direction register
(DDR). Each bit in the DDR corresponds to a bit in the associated PORT. For example, PORTB
28 2. PROGRAMMING
has an associated data direction register DDRB. If DDRB[7] is set to a logic 1, the corresponding
port pin PORTB[7] is configured as an output pin. Similarly, if DDRB[7] is set to logic 0, the
corresponding port pin is configured as an input pin.
During some of the early steps of a program, a function is called to initialize the ports as input,
output, or some combination of both. This is illustrated in Figure 2.3.

//function prototypes
void initialize_ports(void);

//main function
void main(void)
{

initialize_ports( ); //function body

void initialize_ports(void)
: {
DDRB = 0x00; //initialize PORTB as input
} PORTB = 0x00;

DDRC = 0xFF; //initialize PORTC as output

PORTC = 0x00; //set pins to logic 0

DDRD = 0xFF; //initialize PORTD as output

PORTD = 0x00; //set pins to logic 0
}

Figure 2.3: Configuring ports.

2.3.4 PROGRAM CONSTANTS

The #define statement is used to associate a constant name with a numerical value in a program. It
can be used to define common constants such as pi. It may also be used to give terms used within a
program a numerical value. This makes the code easier to read. For example, the following constants
may be defined within a program:

//program constants
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0
#define ON 1
#define OFF 0
 2.3. ANATOMY OF A PROGRAM 29
2.3.5 INTERRUPT HANDLER DEFINITIONS
Interrupts are functions that are written by the programmer but usually called by some hardware
event during system operation. We discuss interrupts and how to properly configure them in an
upcoming chapter.

2.3.6 VARIABLES
There are two types of variables used within a program: global variables and local variables. A global
variable is available and accessible to all portions of the program. Whereas, a local variable is only
known and accessible within the function where it is declared.
When declaring a variable in C, the number of bits used to store the operator is also specified.
In Figure 2.4, we provide a list of common C variable sizes used with the ImageCraft ICC AVR
compiler. The size of other variables such as pointers, shorts, longs, etc. are contained in the compiler
documentation [ImageCraft].

Type Size Range

unsigned char 1 0..255

signed char 1 -128..127

unsigned int 2 0..65535

signed int 2 -32768..32767

float 4 +/-1.175e-38.. +/-3.40e+38

double 4 +/-1.175e-38.. +/-3.40e+38

Figure 2.4: C variable sizes used with the ImageCraft ICC AVR compiler [ImageCraft].

When programming microcontrollers, it is important to know the number of bits used to

store the variable and also where the variable will be assigned. For example, assigning the contents
of an unsigned char variable, which is stored in 8-bits, to an 8-bit output port will have a predictable
result. However, assigning an unsigned int variable, which is stored in 16-bits, to an 8-bit output
port does not provide predictable results. It is wise to insure your assignment statements are balanced
30 2. PROGRAMMING
for accurate and predictable results. The modifier “unsigned” indicates all bits will be used to specify
the magnitude of the argument. Signed variables will use the left most bit to indicate the polarity
(±) of the argument.
A global variable is declared using the following format provided below. The type of the
variable is specified, followed by its name, and an initial value if desired.

//global variables
unsigned int loop_iterations = 6;

2.3.7 MAIN PROGRAM

The main program is the hub of activity for the entire program. The main program typically consists
of program steps and function calls to initialize the processor followed by program steps to collect
data from the environment external to the microcontroller, process the data and make decisions, and
provide external control signals back to the environment based on the data collected.

2.4 FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS

In the previous section, we covered many fundamental concepts. In this section we discuss operators,
programming constructs, and decision processing constructs to complete our fundamental overview
of programming concepts.

2.4.1 OPERATORS
There are a wide variety of operators provided in the C language. An abbreviated list of common
operators are provided in Figures 2.5 and 2.6. The operators have been grouped by general category.
The symbol, precedence, and brief description of each operator are provided.The precedence column
indicates the priority of the operator in a program statement containing multiple operators. Only
the fundamental operators are provided. For more information on this topic, see Barrett and Pack
in the Reference section at the end of the chapter.

2.4.1.1 General operations

Within the general operations category are brackets, parenthesis, and the assignment operator. We
have seen in an earlier example how bracket pairs are used to indicate the beginning and end of the
main program or a function. They are also used to group statements in programming constructs and
decision processing constructs. This is discussed in the next several sections.
The parenthesis is used to boost the priority of an operator. For example, in the mathematical
expression 7 x 3 + 10, the multiplication operation is performed before the addition since it has
a higher precedence. Parenthesis may be used to boost the precedence of the addition operation. If
we contain the addition operation within parenthesis 7 x (3 + 10), the addition will be performed
before the multiplication operation and yield a different result from the earlier expression.
 2.4. FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS 31

General
Symbol Precedence Description
{} 1 Brackets, used to group program statements
() 1 Parenthesis, used to establish precedence
= 12 Assignment

Arithmetic Operations
Symbol Precedence Description
* 3 Multiplication
/ 3 Division
+ 4 Addition
- 4 Subtraction

Logical Operations
Symbol Precedence Description
< 6 Less than
<= 6 Less than or equal to
> 6 Greater
>= 6 Greater than or equal to
== 7 Equal to
!= 7 Not equal to
&& 9 Logical AND
|| 10 Logical OR

Figure 2.5: C operators. (Adapted from [Barrett and Pack]).

32 2. PROGRAMMING

Bit Manipulation Operations

Symbol Precedence Description
<< 5 Shift left
>> 5 Shift right
& 8 Bitwise AND
^ 8 Bitwise exclusive OR
| 8 Bitwise OR

Unary Operations
Symbol Precedence Description
! 2 Unary negative
~ 2 One’s complement (bit-by-bit inversion)
++ 2 Increment
-- 2 Decrement
type(argument) 2 Casting operator (data type conversion)

Figure 2.6: C operators (continued). (Adapted from [Barrett and Pack]).

The assignment operator (=) is used to assign the argument(s) on the right-hand side of an
equation to the left-hand side variable. It is important to insure that the left and the right-hand side
of the equation have the same type of arguments. If not, unpredictable results may occur.

2.4.1.2 Arithmetic operations

The arithmetic operations provide for basic math operations using the various variables described
in the previous section. As described in the previous section, the assignment operator (=) is used to
assign the argument(s) on the right-hand side of an equation to the left-hand side variable.
Example: In this example, a function returns the sum of two unsigned int variables passed to
the function.
unsigned int sum_two(unsigned int variable1, unsigned int variable2)
{
unsigned int sum;

sum = variable1 + variable2;

return sum;
 2.4. FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS 33
}

2.4.1.3 Logical operations

The logical operators provide Boolean logic operations.They can be viewed as comparison operators.
One argument is compared against another using the logical operator provided.The result is returned
as a logic value of one (1, true, high) or zero (0 false, low). The logical operators are used extensively
in program constructs and decision processing operations to be discussed in the next several sections.

2.4.1.4 Bit manipulation operations

There are two general types of operations in the bit manipulation category: shifting operations and
bitwise operations. Let’s examine several examples:
Example: Given the following code segment, what will the value of variable2 be after execu-
tion?

unsigned char variable1 = 0x73;

unsigned char variable2;

variable2 = variable1 << 2;

Answer: Variable “variable1” is declared as an eight bit unsigned char and assigned the hex-
adecimal value of (73)16 . In binary this is (0111_0011)2 . The << 2 operator provides a left shift of
the argument by two places. After two left shifts of (73)16 , the result is (cc)16 and will be assigned
to the variable “variable2.”
Note that the left and right shift operation is equivalent to multiplying and dividing the
variable by a power of two.
The bitwise operators perform the desired operation on a bit-by-bit basis. That is, the least
significant bit of the first argument is bit-wise operated with the least significant bit of the second
argument and so on.
Example: Given the following code segment, what will the value of variable3 be after execu-
tion?

unsigned char variable1 = 0x73;

unsigned char variable2 = 0xfa;
unsigned char variable3;

variable3 = variable1 & variable2;

Answer: Variable “variable1” is declared as an eight bit unsigned char and assigned the hex-
adecimal value of (73)16 . In binary, this is (0111_0011)2 . Variable “variable2” is declared as an eight
bit unsigned char and assigned the hexadecimal value of (f a)16 . In binary, this is (1111_1010)2 .
34 2. PROGRAMMING
The bitwise AND operator is specified. After execution variable “variable3,” declared as an eight bit
unsigned char, contains the hexadecimal value of (72)16 .

2.4.1.5 Unary operations

The unary operators, as their name implies, require only a single argument.
For example, in the following code segment, the value of the variable “i” is incremented. This
is a shorthand method of executing the operation “i = i + 1; ”
unsigned int i;

i++;
Example: It is not uncommon in embedded system design projects to have every pin on a
microcontroller employed. Furthermore, it is not uncommon to have multiple inputs and outputs
assigned to the same port but on different port input/output pins. Some compilers support specific
pin reference. Another technique that is not compiler specific is bit twiddling. Figure 2.7 provides
bit twiddling examples on how individual bits may be manipulated without affecting other bits using
bitwise and unary operators.The information provided here was extracted from the ImageCraft ICC
AVR compiler documentation [ImageCraft].

Syntax Description Example

a|b bitwise or PORTA |= 0x80; // turn on bit 7 (msb)

a&b bitwise and if ((PINA & 0x81) == 0) // check bit 7 and bit 0

a^b bitwise exclusive or PORTA ^= 0x80; // flip bit 7

~a bitwise complement PORTA &= ~0x80; // turn off bit 7

Figure 2.7: Bit twiddling [ImageCraft].

2.4.2 PROGRAMMING CONSTRUCTS

In this section, we discuss several methods of looping through a piece of code. We will examine the
“for” and the “while” looping constructs.
The for loop provides a mechanism for looping through the same portion of code a fixed
number of times. The for loop consists of three main parts:
 2.4. FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS 35
• loop initiation,

• loop termination testing, and

• the loop increment.

In the following code fragment the for loop is executed ten times.

unsigned int loop_ctr;

for(loop_ctr = 0; loop_ctr < 10; loop_ctr++)

{
//loop body

The for loop begins with the variable “loop_ctr” equal to 0. During the first pass through the
loop, the variable retains this value. During the next pass through the loop, the variable “loop_ctr”
is incremented by one. This action continues until the “loop_ctr” variable reaches the value of ten.
Since the argument to continue the loop is no longer true, program execution continues after the
close bracket for the for loop.
In the previous example, the for loop counter was incremented at the beginning of each loop
pass. The “loop_ctr” variable can be updated by any amount. For example, in the following code
fragment the “loop_ctr” variable is increased by three for every pass of the loop.

unsigned int loop_ctr;

for(loop_ctr = 0; loop_ctr < 10; loop_ctr=loop_ctr+3)

{
//loop body

The “loop_ctr” variable may also be initialized at a high value and then decremented at the
beginning of each pass of the loop.

unsigned int loop_ctr;

for(loop_ctr = 10; loop_ctr > 0; loop_ctr--)

{
//loop body

}
36 2. PROGRAMMING
As before, the “loop_ctr” variable may be decreased by any numerical value as appropriate for
the application at hand.
The while loop is another programming construct that allows multiple passes through a
portion of code. The while loop will continue to execute the statements within the open and close
brackets while the condition at the beginning of the loop remains logically true. The code snapshot
below will implement a ten iteration loop. Note how the “loop_ctr” variable is initialized outside of
the loop and incremented within the body of the loop. As before, the variable may be initialized to
a greater value and then decremented within the loop body.

unsigned int loop_ctr;

loop_ctr = 0;
while(loop_ctr < 10)
{
//loop body
loop_ctr++;
}

Frequently, within a microcontroller application, the program begins with system initialization
actions. Once initialization activities are complete, the processor enters a continuous loop. This may
be accomplished using the following code fragment.

while(1)
{

2.4.3 DECISION PROCESSING

There are a variety of constructs that allow decision making. These include the following:

• the if statement,

• the if–else construct,

• the if–else if–else construct, and the

• switch statement.

The if statement will execute the code between an open and close bracket set should the
condition within the if statement be logically true.
Example: To help develop the algorithm for steering the Blinky 602A robot through a maze,
a light emitting diode (LED) is connected to PORTB pin 1 on the ATmega328. The robot’s center
 2.4. FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS 37
IR sensor is connected to an analog-to-digital converter at PORTC, pin 1. The IR sensor provides
a voltage output that is inversely proportional to distance of the sensor from the maze wall. It is
desired to illuminate the LED if the robot is within 10 cm of the maze wall. The sensor provides an
output voltage of 2.5 VDC at the 10 cm range. The following if statement construct will implement
this LED indicator. We provide the actual code to do this later in the chapter.

if (PORTC[1] > 2.5) //Center

IR sensor voltage greater than 2.5 VDC
{
PORTB = 0x02; //illuminate LED on PORTB[1]
}

In the example provided, there is no method to turn off the LED once it is turned on. This
will require the else portion of the construct as shown in the next code fragment.

if (PORTC[1] > 2.5) //Center

IR sensor voltage greater than 2.5 VDC
{
PORTB = 0x02; //illuminate LED on PORTB[1]
}
else
{
PORTB = 0x00; //extinguish the LED on PORTB[1]
}

The if–else if—else construct may be used to implement a three LED system. In this exam-
ple, the left, center, and right IR sensors are connected to analog-to-digital converter channels on
PORTC pins 2, 1, and 0, respectively. The LED indicators are connected to PORTB pins 2, 1, and
0. The following code fragment implements this LED system.

if (PORTC[2] > 2.5) //Left IR

sensor voltage greater than 2.5 VDC
{
PORTB = 0x04; //illuminate LED on PORTB[2]
}
else if (PORTC[1] > 2.5) //Center
IR sensor voltage greater than 2.5 VDC
{
PORTB = 0x02; //illuminate the LED on PORTB[1]
}
else if (PORTC[0] > 2.5) //Right
IR sensor voltage greater than 2.5 VDC
38 2. PROGRAMMING
{
PORTB = 0x01; //illuminate the LED on PORTB[0]
}
else //no walls sensed within 10 cm
{
PORTB = 0x00; //extinguish LEDs
}
The switch statement is used when multiple if-else conditions exist. Each possible condition is
specified by a case statement. When a match is found between the switch variable and a specific case
entry, the statements associated with the case are executed until a break statement is encountered.
Example: Suppose eight pushbutton switches are connected to PORTD. Each switch will
implement a different action. A switch statement may be used to process the multiple possible
decisions as shown in the following code fragment.
void read_new_input(void)
{
new_PORTD = PIND;

if(new_PORTD != old_PORTD) //check for status change PORTD

switch(new_PORTD)
{ //process change in PORTD input
case 0x01: //PD0
//PD0 related actions
break;

case 0x02: //PD1

//PD1 related actions
break;

case 0x04: //PD2

//PD2 related actions
break;

case 0x08: //PD3

//PD3 related actions
break;

case 0x10: //PD4

//PD4 related actions
 2.5. ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT 39
break;

case 0x20: //PD5

//PD5 related actions
break;

case 0x40: //PD6

//PD6 related actions
break;

case 0x80: //PD7

//PD7 related actions
break;

default:; //all other cases

} //end switch(new_PORTD)
} //end if new_PORTD
old_PORTD=new_PORTD; //update PORTD
}

That completes our brief overview of the C programming language. In the next section, we provide
an overview of the Arduino Development Environment. You will see how this development tool pro-
vides a user-friendly method of quickly developing code applications for the Arduino Duemilanove
processing board.

2.5 ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT

In this section, we provide an overview of the Arduino Development Environment (ADE). We
begin with some background information about the ADE and then review its user friendly features.
We then introduce the sketchbook concept and provide a brief overview of the built-in software
features within the ADE. Our goal is to provide a brief introduction to the features. All Arduino
related features are well-documented on the Arduino homepage (www.arduino.cc). We will not
duplicate this excellent source of material but merely provide pointers to it. In later chapters, we
review the different systems aboard the Arduino Duemilanove processing board and show how that
system may be controlled using the ADE built-in features.

2.5.1 BACKGROUND
The first version of the Arduino Development Environment was released in August 2005. It was
developed at the Interaction Design Institute in Ivrea, Italy to allow students the ability to quickly put
40 2. PROGRAMMING
processing power to use in a wide variety of projects. Since that time, newer versions incorporating
new features, have been released on a regular basis [www.arduino.cc].
At its most fundamental level, the Arduino Development Environment is a user friendly
interface to allow one to quickly write, load, and execute code on a microcontroller. A barebones
program need only consist of a setup() and loop() function.The Arduino Development Environment
adds the other required pieces such as header files and the main program construct. The ADE is
written in Java and has its origins in the Processor programming language and the Wiring Project
[www.arduino.cc].
In the next several sections, we introduce the user interface and its large collection of user
friendly tools. We also provide an overview of the host of built-in C and C++ software functions
that allows the project developer to quickly put the features of the Arduino Duemilanove processing
board to work for them.

2.5.2 ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT OVERVIEW

The Arduino Development Environment is illustrated in Figure 2.8.The ADE contains a text editor,
a message area for displaying status, a text console, a tool bar of common functions, and an extensive
menuing system. The ADE also provides a user friendly interface to the Arduino Duemilanove
which allows for a quick upload of code. This is possible because the Arduino Duemilanove is
equipped with a bootloader program.

sketch_feb15a | Arduino 0017

File Edit Sketch Tools Help

sketch_feb15a

Figure 2.8: Arduino Development Environment [www.arduino.cc].

 2.5. ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT 41
A close up of the Arduino toolbar is provided in Figure 2.9. The toolbar provides single button
access to the more commonly used menu features. Most of the features are self explanatory. The
“Upload to I/O Board” button compiles your code and uploads it to the Arduino Duemilanove. The
“Serial Monitor” button opens the serial monitor feature. The serial monitor feature allows text data
to be sent to and received from the Arduino Duemilanove. The serial monitor feature is halted with
the “Stop” button.

Open
Verify/Compile

Save
Stop

Upload to I/O board

New

Serial monitor

Figure 2.9: Arduino Development Environment buttons.

2.5.3 SKETCHBOOK CONCEPT

In keeping with a hardware and software platform for students of the arts, the Arduino environment
employs the concept of a sketchbook. An artist maintains their works in progress in a sketchbook.
Similarly, we maintain our programs within a sketchbook in the Arduino environment. Furthermore,
we refer to individual programs as sketches. An individual sketch within the sketchbook may be
accessed via the Sketchbook entry under the file tab.

2.5.4 ARDUINO SOFTWARE, LIBRARIES, AND LANGUAGE REFERENCES

The Arduino Development Environment has a number of built in features. Some of the features
may be directly accessed via the Arduino Development Environment drop down toolbar illustrated
in Figure 2.8. Provided in Figure 2.10 is a handy reference to show all of the available features.
The toolbar provides a wide variety of features to compose, compile, load and execute a sketch. We
illustrate how to use these features in the Application section later in the chapter.
Aside from the toolbar accessible features, the Arduino Development Environment contains
a number of built-in functions that allow the user to quickly construct a sketch. These built-in
functions are summarized in Figure 2.11. Complete documentation for these built-in features is
available at the Arduino homepage [www.arduino.cc]. This documentation is easily accessible via
the Help tab on the Arduino Development Environment toolbar. This documentation will not be
42 2. PROGRAMMING

Menu

File Edit Sketch Tools Help

- New - Undo - Verify/Compile - Auto Format - Getting Started
- Open - Redo - Step - Archive Sketch - Environment
- Sketchbook - Cut - Import Library - Fix Encoding & - Troubleshooting
- Examples - Copy - Show Sketch Folder Reload - Reference
- Close - Copy for Forum - Add File - Board - Find in Reference
- Save - Copy as HTML - Serial Port - Frequently Asked
- Save As - Paste - Burn Bootloader Questions
- Upload to I/O Board - Select All - Visit Arduino.cc
- Page Setup - Comment/ - About Arduino
- Print Uncomment
- Preferences - Increase Indent
- Quit - Decrease Indent
- Find
- Find Next

Figure 2.10: Arduino Development Environment menu [www.arduino.cc].

repeated here. Instead, we refer to these features at appropriate places throughout the remainder of
the book as we discuss related hardware systems.
Keep in mind the Arduino open source concept. Users throughout the world are constantly
adding new built-in features. As new features are added, they will be released in future Arduino
Development Environment versions. As an Arduino user, you too may add to this collection of
useful tools. In the next section, we illustrate how to use the Arduino Duemilanova board in several
applications.

2.6 APPLICATION 1: ROBOT IR SENSOR

To demonstrate how to construct a sketch in the Arduino Development Environment, we revisit
the robot IR sensor application provided earlier in the chapter. We also investigate the sketches’s
interaction with the Arduino Duemilanove processing board and external sensors and indicators.
We will use the robot project as an ongoing example throughout the remainder of the book.
Recall from Chapter 1, the Blinky 602A kit contains the hardware and mechanical parts to
construct a line following robot. In this example, we modify the robot platform by equipping it with
three Sharp GP12D IR sensors as shown in Figure 2.12. The sensors are available from SparkFun
Electronics (www.sparkfun.com). The sensors are mounted to a bracket constructed from thin
aluminum. Dimensions for the bracket are provided in the figure. Alternatively, the IR sensors may
be mounted to the robot platform using “L” brackets available from a local hardware store. In later
Application sections, we equip the robot with all three IR sensors. In this example, we equip the
robot with a single sensor and test its function as a proof of concept.
 Arduino Environment
Built-in Programs

Digital Input/Output Analog Input/Output Control Structures Sensors Communication

- Blink - Analog Input - If statement - ADX3xx accelerometer - ASCII Table
- Blink without delay - Calibration - For loop - Knock detector - Dimmer
- Button - Fading - Array - Memsic2125 two-axis - Graph
- Button state change - Smoothing - While loop accelerometer - Physical pixel
- Debounce - Switch case - Ping ultrasonic range - Virtual color mixer
- Melody - Switch case 2 finder - Serial call response
- Serial call response
ASCII
- Serial input
- MIDI

Display EEPROM Library Liquid Crystal Display Servo Library Stepper Library
- LED bar graph - EEPROM clear Library - Knob - Motor knob
- Row column scanning - EEPROM read - Hello World - Sweep
- EEPROM write - Blink
- Cursor
- Display
- Text Direction
- Scroll
- Serial Input
- SetCursor

Figure 2.11: Arduino Development Environment built in features [www.arduino.cc].

- Autoscroll
2.6. APPLICATION 1: ROBOT IR SENSOR
43
44 2. PROGRAMMING

6“

1-7/16“

all holes 1/8“ 1/2“

1/2“
2“
1/2“

Figure 2.12: Blinky robot platform modified with three IR sensors.

 2.6. APPLICATION 1: ROBOT IR SENSOR 45
The IR sensor provides a voltage output that is inversely proportional to the sensor distance
from the maze wall. It is desired to illuminate the LED if the robot is within 10 cm of the maze
wall. The sensor provides an output voltage of 2.5 VDC at the 10 cm range. The interface between
the IR sensor and the Arduino Duemilanove board is provided in Figure 2.13.

5 VDC

220

10K
2N2222

3 21 0 9 8 76 5 4 32 1 0
1 1 1 1 DIGITAL
Ground
Arduino
Duemilanove

ANALOG IN
5VGnd 0 123 4 5

R Y B

IR sensor

Figure 2.13: IR sensor interface.

The IR sensor’s power (red wire) and ground (black wire) connections are connected to the 5V
and Gnd pins on the Arduino Duemilanove board, respectively. The IR sensor’s output connection
(yellow wire) is connected to the ANALOG IN 5 pin on the Arduino Duemilanove board. The
LED circuit shown in the top right corner of the diagram is connected to the DIGITAL 0 pin on
the Arduino Duemilanove board. We discuss the operation of this circuit in the Interfacing chapter
later in the book.
46 2. PROGRAMMING
Earlier in the chapter, we provided a framework for writing the if-else statement to turn the
LED on and off. Here is the actual sketch to accomplish this.

//*************************************************************************
#define LED_PIN 0 //digital pin - LED connection
#define IR_sensor_pin 5 //analog pin - IR sensor

int IR_sensor_value; //declare variable for IR sensor value

void setup()
{
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); //configure pin 0 for digital output
}

void loop()
{
//read analog output from IR sensor
IR_sensor_value = analogRead(IR_sensor_pin);

if(IR_sensor_value > 512) //0 to 1023 maps to 0 to 5 VDC

{
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); //turn LED on
}
else
{
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); //turn LED off
}
}
//************************************************************************

The sketch begins by providing names for the two Arduino Duemilanove board pins that will
be used in the sketch. This is not required but it makes the code easier to read. We define the pin
for the LED as “LED_PIN.” Any descriptive name may be used here. Whenever the name is used
within the sketch, the number “0” will be substituted for the name by the compiler.
After providing the names for pins, the next step is to declare any variables required by the
sketch. In this example, the output from the IR sensor will be converted from an analog to a digital
value using the built-in Arduino “analogRead” function. A detailed description of the function may
be accessed via the Help menu. It is essential to carefully review the support documentation for a
built-in Arduino function the first time it is used. The documentation provides details on variables
required by the function, variables returned by the function, and an explanation on function operation.
 2.7. APPLICATION 2: ART PIECE ILLUMINATION SYSTEM 47
The “analogRead” function requires the pin for analog conversion variable passed to it and
returns the analog signal read as an integer value (int) from 0 to 1023. So, for this example, we
need to declare an integer value to receive the returned value. We have called this integer variable
“IR_sensor_value.”
Following the declaration of required variables are the two required functions for an Arduino
Duemilanove program: setup and loop. The setup function calls an Arduino built-in function, pin-
Mode, to set the “LED_PIN” as an output pin. The loop function calls several functions to read the
current analog value on pin 5 (the IR sensor output) and then determine if the reading is above 512
(2.5 VDC). If the reading is above 2.5 VDC, the LED on DIGITAL pin 0 is illuminated, else it is
turned off.
After completing writing the sketch with the Arduino Development Environment, it must be
compiled and then uploaded to the Arduino Duemilanove board. These two steps are accomplished
using the “Sketch – Verify/Compile” and the “File – Upload to I/O Board” pull down menu selections.
In the next example, we adapt the IR sensor project to provide custom lighting for an art
piece.

2.7 APPLICATION 2: ART PIECE ILLUMINATION SYSTEM

My oldest son Jonny Barrett is a gifted artist based in Park City, Utah (www.
closertothesunfineartndesign.com). Although I own several of his pieces, my favorite one
is a painting he did during his early student days. The assignment was to paint your favorite place.
Jonny painted Lac Laronge, Saskatchewan as viewed through the window of a pontoon plane. Jonny,
his younger brother Graham, and I have gone on several fishing trips with friends to this very special
location. An image of the painting is provided in Figure 2.14.
The circuit and sketch provided in the earlier example may be slightly modified to provide
custom lighting for an art piece. The IR sensor could be used to detect the presence and position
of those viewing the piece. Custom lighting could then be activated by the Arduino Duemilanove
board via the DIGITAL output pins. In the Lac Laronge piece, lighting could be provided from
behind the painting using high intensity white LEDs. The intensity of the LEDs could be adjusted
by changing the value of the resistor is series with the LED. The lighting intensity could also be
varied based on the distance the viewer is from the painting. We cover the specifics in an upcoming
chapter.

2.8 SUMMARY
The goal of this chapter was to provide a tutorial on how to begin programming. We used a top-
down design approach. We began with the “big picture” of the chapter followed by an overview
of the major pieces of a program. We then discussed the basics of the C programming language.
Only the most fundamental concepts were covered. We then discussed the Arduino Development
Environment and how it may be used to develop a program for the Arduino Duemilanove processor
48 2. PROGRAMMING

Figure 2.14: Lac Laronge, Saskatchewan. Image used with permission, Jonny Barrett, Closer to the Sun
Fine Art and Design, Park City, Utah. [www.closertothesunfineartndesign.com]

board. Throughout the chapter, we provided examples and also provided references to a number of
excellent references.

2.9 REFERENCES
• ImageCraft Embedded Systems C Development Tools, 706 Colorado Avenue, #10-88, Palo
Alto, CA, 94303, www.imagecraft.com

• S. F. Barrett and D.J. Pack, Embedded Systems Design and Applications with the 68HC12
and HCS12, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005.

• Arduino homepage, www.arduino.cc

• Jonny Barrett, Closer to the Sun Fine Art and Design, Park City, UT,
www.closertothesunfineartndesign.com
 2.10. CHAPTER PROBLEMS 49
• Barrett S, Pack D (2006) Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00025ED1V01Y200605DCS001

• Barrett S and Pack D (2008) Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer Programming and Inter-
facing. Morgan and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00100ED1V01Y200712DCS015

• Barrett S (2010) Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00225ED1V01Y200910DCS025

2.10 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

1. Describe the steps in writing a sketch and executing it on an Arduino Duemilanove processing
board.

2. Describe the key portions of a C program.

3. Describe two different methods to program an Arduino Duemilanove processing board.

4. What is an include file?

5. What are the three pieces of code required for a program function?

6. Describe how to define a program constant.

7. Provide the C program statement to set PORTB pins 1 and 7 to logic one. Use bit-twiddling
techniques.

8. Provide the C program statement to reset PORTB pins 1 and 7 to logic zero. Use bit-twiddling
techniques.

9. What is the difference between a for and while loop?

10. When should a switch statement be used versus the if-then statement construct?

11. What is the serial monitor feature used for in the Arduino Development Environment?

12. Describe what variables are required and returned and the basic function of the following
built-in Arduino functions: Blink, Analog Input.
 51

CHAPTER 3

Embedded Systems Design

Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to do the following:
• Define an embedded system.
• List all aspects related to the design of an embedded system.
• Provide a step-by-step approach to embedded system design.
• Discuss design tools and practices related to embedded systems design.
• Apply embedded system design practices in the design of an Arduino-based microcontroller
system employing several interacting subsystems.
• Provide a detailed design for an autonomous maze navigating robot controlled by the Arduino
Duemilanove including hardware layout and interface, structure and UML activity diagrams,
and coded algorithm.
In Chapters 1 and 2, we provided an overview of the Arduino Duemilanove hardware and the
Arduino Development Environment to get you quickly up and operating with this user friendly pro-
cessor. In the remainder of the book, we will take a second and detailed pass through this information.
This chapter provides a step-by-step methodical approach to designing advanced embedded system.
Chapters 4 through 7 take an advanced look at the serial communications systems, the analog-to-
digital converter system, the interrupt system, and the timing system. Chapter 8 provides detailed
information on how to interface a wide variety of peripheral devices to the Arduino Duemilanove
processor. Throughout these chapters, we show how the built-in features of the Arduino Develop-
ment Environment may be employed in different applications.
In this chapter, we begin with a definition of just what is an embedded system. We then explore
the process of how to successfully (and with low stress) develop an embedded system prototype that
meets established requirements. We conclude the chapter with an extended example. The example
illustrates the embedded system design process in the development and prototype of the autonomous
maze navigating robot based on the Blinky 602A (www.graymarkint.com) controlled by the Arduino
Duemilanove processing board.

3.1 WHAT IS AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

An embedded system contains a microcontroller to accomplish its job of processing system inputs
and generating system outputs. The link between system inputs and outputs is provided by a coded
52 3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN
algorithm stored within the processor’s resident memory. What makes embedded systems design so
interesting and challenging is the design must also take into account the proper electrical interface
for the input and output devices, limited on-chip resources, human interface concepts, the operating
environment of the system, cost analysis, related standards, and manufacturing aspects [Anderson].
Through careful application of this material you will be able to design and prototype embedded
systems based on the Arduino microcontroller.

3.2 EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS

In this section, we provide a step-by-step approach to develop the first prototype of an embedded
system that will meet established requirements. There are many formal design processes that we
could study. We concentrate on the steps that are common to most. We purposefully avoid formal
terminology of a specific approach and instead concentrate on the activities that are accomplished as
a system prototype is developed. The design process we describe is illustrated in Figure 3.1 using a
Unified Modeling Language (UML) activity diagram. We discuss the UML activity diagrams later
in the chapter.

3.2.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

The goal of the project description step is to determine what the system is ultimately supposed to do.
To achieve this step you must thoroughly investigate what the system is supposed to do. Questions
to raise and answer during this step include but are not limited to the following:

• What is the system supposed to do?

• Where will it be operating and under what conditions?

• Are there any restrictions placed on the system design?

To answer these questions, the designer interacts with the client to ensure clear agreement
on what is to be done. If you are completing this project for yourself, you must still carefully and
thoughtfully complete this step. The establishment of clear, definable system requirements may
require considerable interaction between the designer and the client. It is essential that both parties
agree on system requirements before proceeding further in the design process. The final result of
this step is a detailed listing of system requirements and related specifications.

3.2.2 BACKGROUND RESEARCH

Once a detailed list of requirements has been established, the next step is to perform background
research related to the design. In this step, the designer will ensure they understand all requirements
and features required by the project. This will again involve interaction between the designer and the
client.The designer will also investigate applicable codes, guidelines, protocols, and standards related
to the project.This is also a good time to start thinking about the interface between different portions
 3.2. EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS 53

Project Description
- What is the system supposed to do?
- Operating conditions and environment
- Formal requirements

Background Research
- Thoroughly understand desired requirements and features
- Determine applicable codes, guidelines, and protocols
- Determine interface requirements

Pre-Design
- Brainstorm possible solutions
- Thoroughly investigate alternatives
- Choose best possible solution
- Identify specific target microcontroller
- Choose a design approach

Employ Design Tools

- Structure chart
- UML activity diagram
- Circuit diagram
- Supplemental information

Implement Prototype
- Top down versus bottom up
- Develop low risk hardware test platform
- Software implementation

Preliminary Testing
- Develop test plan to insure requirements
have been met
- Test under anticipated conditions
- Test under abusive conditions
- Redo testing if errors found
- Test in low cost, low risk environment
- Full up test

yes System design

need correction?

no
Complete and Accurate Documentation
- System description
- Requirements
- Structure chart
- UML activity diagram
- Circuit diagram
- Well-documented code
- Test plan

Deliver Prototype

Figure 3.1: Embedded system design process.

54 3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN
of the project particularly the input and output devices peripherally connected to the microcontroller.
The ultimate objective of this step is to have a thorough understanding of the project requirements,
related project aspects, and any interface challenges within the project.

3.2.3 PRE-DESIGN
The goal of the pre-design step is to convert a thorough understanding of the project into possible
design alternatives. Brainstorming is an effective tool in this step. Here, a list of alternatives is devel-
oped. Since an embedded system typically involves both hardware and/or software, the designer can
investigate whether requirements could be met with a hardware only solution or some combination
of hardware and software. Generally, speaking a hardware only solution executes faster; however, the
design is fixed once fielded. On the other hand, a software implementation provides flexibility and
a typically slower execution speed. Most embedded design solutions will use a combination of both
hardware and software to capitalize on the inherent advantages of each.
Once a design alternative has been selected, the general partition between hardware and
software can be determined. It is also an appropriate time to select a specific hardware device to
implement the prototype design. If a microcontroller technology has been chosen, it is now time to
select a specific controller. This is accomplished by answering the following questions:

• What microcontroller systems or features i.e., ADC, PWM, timer, etc.) are required by the
design?

• How many input and output pins are required by the design?

• What is the maximum anticipated operating speed of the microcontroller expected to be?

Recall from Chapter 1 there are a wide variety of Arduino-based microcontrollers available
to the designer.

3.2.4 DESIGN
With a clear view of system requirements and features, a general partition determined between
hardware and software, and a specific microcontroller chosen, it is now time to tackle the actual
design. It is important to follow a systematic and disciplined approach to design. This will allow
for low stress development of a documented design solution that meets requirements. In the design
step, several tools are employed to ease the design process. They include the following:

• Employing a top-down design, bottom up implementation approach,

• Using a structure chart to assist in partitioning the system,

• Using a Unified Modeling Language (UML) activity diagram to work out program flow, and

• Developing a detailed circuit diagram of the entire system.

 3.2. EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS 55
Let’s take a closer look at each of these. The information provided here is an abbreviated
version of the one provided in “Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists.” The
interested reader is referred there for additional details and an indepth example [Barrett and Pack].
Top down design, bottom up implementation. An effective tool to start partitioning the
design is based on the techniques of top-down design, bottom-up implementation. In this approach,
you start with the overall system and begin to partition it into subsystems. At this point of the design,
you are not concerned with how the design will be accomplished but how the different pieces of
the project will fit together. A handy tool to use at this design stage is the structure chart. The
structure chart shows the hierarchy of how system hardware and software components will interact
and interface with one another. You should continue partitioning system activity until each subsystem
in the structure chart has a single definable function.
UML Activity Diagram. Once the system has been partitioned into pieces, the next step
in the design process is to start working out the details of the operation of each subsystem we
previously identified. Rather than beginning to code each subsystem as a function, we will work out
the information and control flow of each subsystem using another design tool: the Unified Modeling
Language (UML) activity diagram. The activity diagram is simply a UML compliant flow chart.
UML is a standardized method of documenting systems. The activity diagram is one of the many
tools available from UML to document system design and operation. The basic symbols used in a
UML activity diagram for a microcontroller based system are provided in Figure 3.2[Fowler].

Starting Transfer Final State

Activity of Control

Branch Action State

Figure 3.2: UML activity diagram symbols. Adapted from [source].

56 3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN
To develop the UML activity diagram for the system, we can use a top-down, bottom-up, or a
hybrid approach. In the top-down approach, we begin by modeling the overall flow of the algorithm
from a high level. If we choose to use the bottom-up approach, we would begin at the bottom of
the structure chart and choose a subsystem for flow modeling. The specific course of action chosen
depends on project specifics. Often, a combination of both techniques, a hybrid approach, is used.
You should work out all algorithm details at the UML activity diagram level prior to coding any
software. If you can not explain system operation at this higher level, first, you have no business
being down in the detail of developing the code. Therefore, the UML activity diagram should be of
sufficient detail so you can code the algorithm directly from it [Dale].
In the design step, a detailed circuit diagram of the entire system is developed. It will serve
as a roadmap to implement the system. It is also a good idea at this point to investigate available
design information relative to the project. This would include hardware design examples, software
code examples, and application notes available from manufacturers.
At the completion of this step, the prototype design is ready for implementation and testing.

3.2.5 IMPLEMENT PROTOTYPE

To successfully implement a prototype, an incremental approach should be followed. Again, the top-
down design, bottom-up implementation provides a solid guide for system implementation. In an
embedded system design involving both hardware and software, the hardware system including the
microcontroller should be assembled first. This provides the software the required signals to interact
with. As the hardware prototype is assembled on a prototype board, each component is tested for
proper operation as it is brought online. This allows the designer to pinpoint malfunctions as they
occur.
Once the hardware prototype is assembled, coding may commence. As before, software should
be incrementally brought online. You may use a top down, bottom up, or hybrid approach depending
on the nature of the software. The important point is to bring the software online incrementally
such that issues can be identified and corrected early on.
It is highly recommended that low cost stand-in components be used when testing the software
with the hardware components. For example, push buttons, potentiometers, and LEDs may be used
as low cost stand-in component simulators for expensive input instrumentation devices and expensive
output devices such as motors. This allows you to insure the software is properly operating before
using it to control the actual components.

3.2.6 PRELIMINARY TESTING

To test the system, a detailed test plan must be developed. Tests should be developed to verify that
the system meets all of its requirements and also intended system performance in an operational
environment.The test plan should also include scenarios in which the system is used in an unintended
manner. As before a top-down, bottom-up, or hybrid approach can be used to test the system.
3.3. EXAMPLE: BLINKY 602A AUTONOMOUS MAZE NAVIGATING ROBOT SYSTEM DESIGN 57
Once the test plan is completed, actual testing may commence. The results of each test should
be carefully documented. As you go through the test plan, you will probably uncover a number of
run time errors in your algorithm. After you correct a run time error, the entire test plan must be
performed again. This ensures that the new fix does not have an unintended affect on another part
of the system. Also, as you process through the test plan, you will probably think of other tests that
were not included in the original test document. These tests should be added to the test plan. As
you go through testing, realize your final system is only as good as the test plan that supports it!
Once testing is complete, you might try another level of testing where you intentionally try
to “jam up” the system. In another words, try to get your system to fail by trying combinations of
inputs that were not part of the original design. A robust system should continue to operate correctly
in this type of an abusive environment. It is imperative that you design robustness into your system.
When testing on a low cost simulator is complete, the entire test plan should be performed again
with the actual system hardware. Once this is completed you should have a system that meets its
requirements!

3.2.7 COMPLETE AND ACCURATE DOCUMENTATION

With testing complete, the system design should be thoroughly documented. Much of the docu-
mentation will have already been accomplished during system development. Documentation will
include the system description, system requirements, the structure chart, the UML activity diagrams
documenting program flow, the test plan, results of the test plan, system schematics, and properly
documented code. To properly document code, you should carefully comment all functions describ-
ing their operation, inputs, and outputs. Also, comments should be included within the body of
the function describing key portions of the code. Enough detail should be provided such that code
operation is obvious. It is also extremely helpful to provide variables and functions within your code
names that describe their intended use.
You might think that a comprehensive system documentation is not worth the time or effort
to complete it. Complete documentation pays rich dividends when it is time to modify, repair, or
update an existing system. Also, well-documented code may be often reused in other projects: a
method for efficient and timely development of new systems.

3.3 EXAMPLE: BLINKY 602A AUTONOMOUS MAZE

NAVIGATING ROBOT SYSTEM DESIGN
To illustrate the design process, we provide an in depth example using the Blinky 602A robot
manufactured by Graymark (www.graymarkint.com). In the upcoming paragraphs, we progress
through the design process a step at a time.
Problem description and background research. Graymark manufacturers many low-cost,
excellent robot platforms. In this project, we will modify the Blinky 602A robot to be controlled
by an Arduino Duemilanove processing board. The Blinky 602A kit contains the hardware and
58 3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN
mechanical parts to construct a line following robot. The processing electronics for the robot consists
of analog circuitry. The robot is controlled by two 3 VDC motors, which independently drive a left
and right wheel. A third non-powered drag wheel provides tripod stability for the robot.
In this project, we replace the analog control circuitry with the Arduino Duemilanove as the
processing element. We also modify the robot’s mission from being a line follower to autonomous
maze navigator. To detect maze walls, we equip the Blinky 602A robot platform with three Sharp
GP12D IR sensors as shown in Figure 3.3. The robot will be placed in a maze with reflective white
walls. The goal of the project is for the robot to detect maze walls and navigate through the maze
without touching the walls. The robot will not be provided any information about the maze. It must
gather maze information on its own as it progresses through the maze. The control algorithm for
the robot will be hosted on the Arduino Duemilanove processing board.
Requirements: The requirements for this project are straight forward; the robot will au-
tonomously (on its own) navigate through the maze without touching maze walls. It is important
to note that a map of the maze will not be programmed into the robot. The robot will sense the
presence of the maze walls using the Sharp IR sensors and then make decisions to avoid the walls
and process through the maze. From this description, the following requirements result. The robot
will be:

• Equipped with three Sharp IR sensors to sense maze walls.

• Propelled through the maze using the two powered wheels provided in the Blinky 602A kit
and a third drag wheel for stability.

• Controlled by the Arduino Duemilanove processing board.

• Equipped with turn signals (LEDs) to indicate a turn.

• Equipped with LEDs, one for each IR sensor, to indicate a wall has been detected by a specific
sensor.

Pre-design. With requirements clearly understood, the next step is normally to brainstorm
possible solutions. In this example, we have already decided to use the Arduino Duemilanove pro-
cessing board. Other alternatives include using analog or digital hardware to determine robot action
or another microcontroller.
Circuit diagram. The circuit diagram for the robot is provided in Figure 3.4. The three IR
sensors (left, middle, and right) will be mounted on the leading edge of the robot to detect maze
walls. The output from the sensors is fed to three Arduino Duemilanove ADC channels (ANALOG
IN 0-2). The robot motors will be driven by PWM channels (PWM: DIGITAL 11 and PWM:
DIGITAL 10). The Arduino Duemilanove is interfaced to the motors via a transistor (2N2222)
with enough drive capability to handle the maximum current requirements of the motor. Since the
microcontroller is powered at 5 VDC and the motors are rated at 3 VDC, two 1N4001 diodes are
placed in series with the motor. This reduces the supply voltage to the motor to be approximately 3
3.3. EXAMPLE: BLINKY 602A AUTONOMOUS MAZE NAVIGATING ROBOT SYSTEM DESIGN 59

Sharp GP2D12
IR sensor

ANALOG IN
0 123 4 5
3 21 0 9 8 76 5 4 32 1 0

Duemilanove
Arduino
1 1 1 1 DIGITAL

5VGnd

prototype
wall detected LEDs area

turn signals

Figure 3.3: Robot layout with the Arduino Duemilanove processing board.
60 3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN
VDC. The robot will be powered by a 9 VDC battery which is fed to a 5 VDC voltage regulator.
The details of the interface electronics are provided in a later chapter. To save on battery expense, it
is recommended to use a 9 VDC, 2A rated inexpensive, wall-mount power supply to provide power
to the 5 VDC voltage regulator. A power umbilical of braided wire may be used to provide power
to the robot while navigating about the maze.
Structure chart: The structure chart for the robot project is provided in Figure 3.5.
UML activity diagrams: The UML activity diagram for the robot is provided in Figure 3.6.
Arduino Duemilanove Program: We will develop the entire control algorithm for the Ar-
duino Duemilanove board in the Application sections in the remainder of the book. We get started
on the control algorithm in the next section.

3.4 APPLICATION: CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR THE

BLINKY 602A ROBOT
In this section, we provide the basic framework for the robot control algorithm.The control algorithm
will read the IR sensors attached to the Arduino Duemilanove ANALOG IN (pins 0 – 2). In
response to the wall placement detected, it will render signals to turn the robot to avoid the maze
walls. Provided in Figure 3.7 is a truth table that shows all possibilities of maze placement that the
robot might encounter. A detected wall is represented with a logic one. An asserted motor action is
also represented with a logic one.
The robot motors may only be moved in the forward direction. We review techniques to
provide bi-directional motor control in an upcoming chapter. To render a left turn, the left motor is
stopped and the right motor is asserted until the robot completes the turn. To render a right turn,
the opposite action is required.
The task in writing the control algorithm is to take the UML activity diagram provided in
Figure 3.6 and the actions specified in the robot action truth table (Figure 3.7 and transform both
into an Arduino sketch. This may seem formidable but we take it a step at a time. The sketch written
in the Applications section of the previous chapter will serve as our starting point.
The control algorithm begins with Arduino Duemilanove pin definitions. Variables are then
declared for the readings from the three IR sensors. The two required Arduino functions follow:
setup() and loop(). In the setup() function, Arduino Duemilanove pins are declared as output. The
loop() begins by reading the current value of the three IR sensors. Recall from the Application section
in the previous chapter, the 512 value corresponds to a particular IR sensor range. This value may
be adjusted to change the range at which the maze wall is detected. The read of the IR sensors is
followed by an eight part if-else if statement. The statement contains a part for each row of the truth
table provided in Figure 3.7. For a given configuration of sensed walls, the appropriate wall detection
LEDs are illuminated followed by commands to activate the motors (analogWrite) and illuminate
the appropriate turn signals. The analogWrite command issues a signal from 0 to 5 VDC by sending
a constant from 0 to 255 using pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques. PWM techniques will
be discussed in an upcoming chapter. The turn signal commands provide to actions: the appropriate
 IR sensor IR sensor IR sensor Sensor connection:
left middle right - Red: 5 VDC
- Yellow: Signal output
5 VDC 5 VDC 5 VDC - Black: Ground
male
header
A0 pins
A1 A2
5 VDC 5 VDC

1N4001 voltage 1N4001

dropping

Figure 3.4: Robot circuit diagram.

diodes

ANALOG IN
0 123 4 5
1N4001 1N4001

1N4001 + + 1N4001

Arduino
5VGnd
3 VDC 3 VDC protection

Duemilanove
M M diode
at 100 mA at 100 mA
-

3 21 0 9 8 76 5 4 32 1 0
1 1 1 1 DIGITAL
-

240 240
D10 2N2222 motor
2N2222 D11
current
right motor/wheel
left motor/wheel interface
interface

5 VDC 5 VDC 5 VDC 5 VDC 5 VDC

220 220 220 220 220

left turn wall wall right turn
wall
signal left center signal
right
10K 10K 10K 10K 10K
2N2222 2N2222 2N2222 2N2222 2N2222
D2 D3 D4 D5 D6
3.4. APPLICATION: CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR THE BLINKY 602A ROBOT
61
62 3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN

determine_robot
_action

robot sensor
action data

digital
motor_control ADC
input/output

desired
motor ch for conv
action conv data
left wall right
PWM_left ADC
PWM_right ReadADC turn detect turn
Initialize
signal LEDS signal

left right left middle right

motor motor IR sensor IR sensor IR sensor

Figure 3.5: Robot structure diagram.

turns signals are flashed and a 1.5 s total delay is provided. This provides the robot 1.5 s to render a
turn. This delay may need to be adjusted during the testing phase.

//*************************************************************************
//analog input pins
#define left_IR_sensor 0 //analog pin - left IR sensor

#define center_IR_sensor 1 //analog pin - center IR sensor

#define right_IR_sensor 2 //analog pin - right IR sensor

//digital output pins

//LED indicators - wall detectors
#define wall_left 3 //digital pin - wall_left
#define wall_center 4 //digital pin - wall_center
#define wall_right 5 //digital pin - wall_right

//LED indicators - turn signals

 3.4. APPLICATION: CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR THE BLINKY 602A ROBOT 63

include files
global variables
function prototypes

initialize ports
initialize ADC
initialize PWM
setup()
- configure pins for output
define global variables
while(1)

loop()
read sensor outputs
(left, middle, right)

read sensor outputs

determine robot (left, middle, right)
action

determine robot
illuminate LEDs action
- wall detected

illuminate LEDs
issue motor - wall detected
control signals

issue motor
illuminate LEDs control signals
- turn signals

illuminate LEDs
- turn signals
delay - delay

a) UML for C programming b) UML for Arduino programming

Figure 3.6: Robot UML activity diagram.

64 3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN

Left Middle Right Wall Wall Wall Left Right Left Right
Sensor Sensor Sensor Left Middle Right Motor Motor Signal Signal Comments
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 Forward
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 Forward
2 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 Right
3 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 Left
4 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Forward
5 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 Forward
6 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 Right
7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 Right

Figure 3.7: Truth table for robot action.

#define left_turn_signal 2 //digital pin - left_turn_signal

#define right_turn_signal 6 //digital pin - right_turn_signal

//motor outputs
#define left_motor 11 //digital pin - left_motor
#define right_motor 10 //digital pin - right_motor

int left_IR_sensor_value; //declare

variable for left IR sensor
int center_IR_sensor_value; //declare
variable for center IR sensor
int right_IR_sensor_value; //declare
variable for right IR sensor

void setup()
{
//LED indicators - wall detectors
pinMode(wall_left, OUTPUT); //configure pin 1 for digital output
pinMode(wall_center, OUTPUT); //configure pin 2 for digital output
pinMode(wall_right, OUTPUT); //configure pin 3 for digital output

//LED indicators - turn signals

pinMode(left_turn_signal,OUTPUT); //configure pin 0 for digital output
pinMode(right_turn_signal,OUTPUT); //configure pin 4 for digital output

//motor outputs - PWM

 3.4. APPLICATION: CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR THE BLINKY 602A ROBOT 65
pinMode(left_motor, OUTPUT); //configure pin 11 for digital output
pinMode(right_motor, OUTPUT); //configure pin 10 for digital output
}

void loop()
{
//read analog output from IR sensors
left_IR_sensor_value = analogRead(left_IR_sensor);
center_IR_sensor_value = analogRead(center_IR_sensor);
right_IR_sensor_value = analogRead(right_IR_sensor);

//robot action table row 0

if((left_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value < 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_center, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_right, LOW); //turn LED off
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}
66 3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN

//robot action table row 1

else if((left_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value > 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_center, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_right, HIGH); //turn LED on
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}

//robot action table row 2

else if((left_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value < 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_center, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_right, LOW); //turn LED off
//motor control
 3.4. APPLICATION: CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR THE BLINKY 602A ROBOT 67
analogWrite(left_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 0);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}

//robot action table row 3

else if((left_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value > 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_center, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_right, HIGH); //turn LED on
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 0);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
68 3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}

//robot action table row 4

else if((left_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value < 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_center, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_right, LOW); //turn LED off
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}
 3.4. APPLICATION: CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR THE BLINKY 602A ROBOT 69
//robot action table row 5
else if((left_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value > 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_center, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_right, HIGH); //turn LED on
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}

//robot action table row 6

else if((left_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value < 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_center, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_right, LOW); //turn LED off
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128);
70 3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 0);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED OFF
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED OFF
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}

//robot action table row 7

else if((left_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value > 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_center, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_right, HIGH); //turn LED on
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 0);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
 3.5. SUMMARY 71
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}
}
//*************************************************************************

Testing the control algorithm: It is recommended that the algorithm be first tested without
the entire robot platform. This may be accomplished by connecting the three IR sensors and LEDS
to the appropriate pins on the Arduino Duemilanove as specified in Figure 3.4. In place of the two
motors and their interface circuits, two LEDs with the required interface circuitry may be used. The
LEDs will illuminate to indicate the motors would be on during different test scenarios. Once this
algorithm is fully tested in this fashion, the Arduino Duemilanove may be mounted to the robot
platform and connected to the motors. Full up testing in the maze may commence. Enjoy!

3.5 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we discussed the design process, related tools, and applied the process to a real world
design. As previously mentioned, this design example will be periodically revisited throughout the
text. It is essential to follow a systematic, disciplined approach to embedded systems design to
successfully develop a prototype that meets established requirements.

3.6 REFERENCES
• M. Anderson, Help Wanted: Embedded Engineers Why the United States is losing its edge
in embedded systems, IEEE-USA Today’s Engineer, Feb 2008.

• Barrett S, Pack D (2006) Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00025ED1V01Y200605DCS001

• Barrett S and Pack D (2008) Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer Programming and Inter-
facing. Morgan and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00100ED1V01Y200712DCS015

• Barrett S (2010) Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00225ED1V01Y200910DCS025

• M. Fowler with K. Scott “UML Distilled - A Brief Guide to the Standradr Object Modeling
Language,” 2nd edition. Boston:Addison-Wesley, 2000.
72 3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN
• N. Dale and S.C. Lilly “Pascal Plus Data Structures,” 4th edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Jones
and Bartlett, 1995.

3.7 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

1. What is an embedded system?

2. What aspects must be considered in the design of an embedded system?

3. What is the purpose of the structure chart, UML activity diagram, and circuit diagram?

4. Why is a system design only as good as the test plan that supports it?

5. During the testing process, when an error is found and corrected, what should now be accom-
plished?

6. Discuss the top-down design, bottom-up implementation concept.

7. Describe the value of accurate documentation.

8. What is required to fully document an embedded systems design?

9. Update the robot action truth table if the robot was equipped with four IR sensors.
 73

CHAPTER 4

Serial Communication
Subsystem
Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to
• Describe the differences between serial and parallel communication.
• Provide definitions for key serial communications terminology.
• Describe the operation of the Universal Synchronous and Asynchronous Serial Receiver and
Transmitter (USART).
• Program the USART for basic transmission and reception using the built-in features of the
Arduino Development Environment.
• Program the USART for basic transmission and reception using C.
• Describe the operation of the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI).
• Program the SPI system using the built-in features of the Arduino Development Environment.
• Program the SPI system using C.
• Describe the purpose of the Two Wire Interface (TWI).
• Program the Arduino Duemilanove processing board using ISP programming techniques.

4.1 OVERVIEW
Serial communication techniques provide a vital link between the Arduino Duemilanove processing
board an certain input devices, output devices, and other microcontrollers. In this chapter, we inves-
tigate the serial communication features beginning with a review of serial communication concepts
and terminology. We then investigate in turn the following serial communication systems available
on the Arduino Duemilanove processing board: the Universal Synchronous and Asynchronous Se-
rial Receiver and Transmitter (USART), the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) and the Two Wire
Interface (TWI). We provide guidance on how to program the USART and SPI using built-in
Arduino Development Environment features and the C programming language. We conclude the
chapter with examples on how to connect an SD card to the Arduino Duemilanove and also how
to program using In System Programming (ISP) techniques.
74 4. SERIAL COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM

4.2 SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS

Microcontrollers must often exchange data with other microcontrollers or peripheral devices. Data
may be exchanged by using parallel or serial techniques. With parallel techniques, an entire byte of
data is typically sent simultaneously from the transmitting device to the receiver device. While this
is efficient from a time point of view, it requires eight separate lines for the data transfer.
In serial transmission, a byte of data is sent a single bit at a time. Once eight bits have been
received at the receiver, the data byte is reconstructed. While this is inefficient from a time point of
view, it only requires a line (or two) to transmit the data.
The ATmega328 is equipped with a host of different serial communication subsystems in-
cluding the serial USART, the serial peripheral interface or SPI, and the Two-wire Serial Interface
(TWI). What all of these systems have in common is the serial transmission of data. Before discussing
the different serial communication features aboard the ATmega328, we review serial communication
terminology.

4.3 SERIAL COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGY

In this section, we review common terminology associated with serial communication.
Asynchronous versus Synchronous Serial Transmission: In serial communications, the
transmitting and receiving device must be synchronized to one another and use a common data
rate and protocol. Synchronization allows both the transmitter and receiver to be expecting data
transmission/reception at the same time.There are two basic methods of maintaining “sync” between
the transmitter and receiver: asynchronous and synchronous.
In an asynchronous serial communication system, such as the USART aboard the ATmega328,
framing bits are used at the beginning and end of a data byte. These framing bits alert the receiver
that an incoming data byte has arrived and also signals the completion of the data byte reception.The
data rate for an asynchronous serial system is typically much slower than the synchronous system,
but it only requires a single wire between the transmitter and receiver.
A synchronous serial communication system maintains “sync” between the transmitter and
receiver by employing a common clock between the two devices. Data bits are sent and received on
the edge of the clock. This allows data transfer rates higher than with asynchronous techniques but
requires two lines, data and clock, to connect the receiver and transmitter.
Baud rate: Data transmission rates are typically specified as a Baud or bits per second rate.
For example, 9600 Baud indicates the data is being transferred at 9600 bits per second.
Full Duplex: Often serial communication systems must both transmit and receive data. To
do both transmission and reception, simultaneously, requires separate hardware for transmission and
reception. A single duplex system has a single complement of hardware that must be switched from
transmission to reception configuration. A full duplex serial communication system has separate
hardware for transmission and reception.
 4.4. SERIAL USART 75
Non-return to Zero (NRZ) Coding Format: There are many different coding standards
used within serial communications. The important point is the transmitter and receiver must use
a common coding standard so data may be interpreted correctly at the receiving end. The Atmel
ATmega328 uses a non-return to zero (NRZ) coding standard. In NRZ coding a logic one is signaled
by a logic high during the entire time slot allocated for a single bit; whereas, a logic zero is signaled
by a logic low during the entire time slot allocated for a single bit.
The RS-232 Communication Protocol: When serial transmission occurs over a long distance
additional techniques may be used to insure data integrity. Over long distances logic levels degrade
and may be corrupted by noise. At the receiving end, it is difficult to discern a logic high from a logic
low. The RS-232 standard has been around for some time. With the RS-232 standard (EIA-232),
a logic one is represented with a -12 VDC level while a logic zero is represented by a +12 VDC
level. Chips are commonly available (e.g., MAX232) that convert the 5 and 0 V output levels from a
transmitter to RS-232 compatible levels and convert back to 5V and 0 V levels at the receiver. The
RS-232 standard also specifies other features for this communication protocol.
Parity: To further enhance data integrity during transmission, parity techniques may be used.
Parity is an additional bit (or bits) that may be transmitted with the data byte. The ATmega328 uses
a single parity bit. With a single parity bit, a single bit error may be detected. Parity may be even or
odd. In even parity, the parity bit is set to one or zero such that the number of ones in the data byte
including the parity bit is even. In odd parity, the parity bit is set to one or zero such that the number
of ones in the data byte including the parity bit is odd. At the receiver, the number of bits within a
data byte including the parity bit are counted to insure that parity has not changed, indicating an
error, during transmission.
ASCII: The American Standard Code for Information Interchange or ASCII is a standard-
ized, seven bit method of encoding alphanumeric data. It has been in use for many decades, so
some of the characters and actions listed in the ASCII table are not in common use today. How-
ever, ASCII is still the most common method of encoding alphanumeric data. The ASCII code is
provided in Figure 4.1. For example, the capital letter “G” is encoded in ASCII as 0x47. The “0x”
symbol indicates the hexadecimal number representation. Unicode is the international counterpart
of ASCII. It provides standardized 16-bit encoding format for the written languages of the world.
ASCII is a subset of Unicode. The interested reader is referred to the Unicode home page website,
www.unicode.org, for additional information on this standardized encoding format.

4.4 SERIAL USART

The serial USART (or Universal Synchronous and Asynchronous Serial Receiver and Transmitter)
provide for full duplex (two way) communication between a receiver and transmitter. This is accom-
plished by equipping the ATmega328 with independent hardware for the transmitter and receiver.
The USART is typically used for asynchronous communication. That is, there is not a common
clock between the transmitter and receiver to keep them synchronized with one another. To main-
tain synchronization between the transmitter and receiver, framing start and stop bits are used at
76 4. SERIAL COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM

Most significant digit

0x0_ 0x1_ 0x2_ 0x3_ 0x4_ 0x5_ 0x6_ 0x7_

0x_0 NUL DLE SP 0 @ P ` p

0x_1 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0x_2 STX DC2 “ 2 B R b r
0x_3 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0x_4 EOT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
Least significant digit

0x_5 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u

0x_6 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0x_7 BEL ETB ‘ 7 G W g w
0x_8 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
0x_9 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
0x_A LF SUB * : J Z j z
0x_B VT ESC + ; K [ k {
0x_C FF FS ‘ < L \ l |
0x_D CR GS - = M ] m }
0x_E SO RS . > N ^ n ~
0x_F SI US / ? O _ o DEL

Figure 4.1: ASCII Code.The ASCII code is used to encode alphanumeric characters.The “0x” indicates
hexadecimal notation in the C programming language.

the beginning and end of each data byte in a transmission sequence. The Atmel USART also has
synchronous features. Space does not permit a discussion of these USART enhancements.
The ATmega328 USART is quite flexible. It has the capability to be set to a variety of data
transmission or Baud (bits per second) rates. The USART may also be set for data bit widths of
5 to 9 bits with one or two stop bits. Furthermore, the ATmega328 is equipped with a hardware
generated parity bit (even or odd) and parity check hardware at the receiver. A single parity bit allows
for the detection of a single bit error within a byte of data. The USART may also be configured to
operate in a synchronous mode. We now discuss the operation, programming, and application of
the USART. Due to space limitations, we cover only the most basic capability of this flexible and
powerful serial communication system.

4.4.1 SYSTEM OVERVIEW

The block diagram for the USART is provided in Figure 4.2. The block diagram may appear a
bit overwhelming but realize there are four basic pieces to the diagram: the clock generator, the
transmission hardware, the receiver hardware, and three control registers (UCSRA, UCSBR, and
UCSRC). We discuss each in turn.
 4.4. SERIAL USART 77

Figure 4.2: Atmel AVR ATmega328 USART block diagram. (Figure used with permission of Atmel,
Incorporated.)
78 4. SERIAL COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM
4.4.1.1 USART Clock Generator
The USART Clock Generator provides the clock source for the USART system and sets the
Baud rate for the USART. The Baud Rate is derived from the overall microcontroller clock source.
The overall system clock is divided by the USART Baud rate Registers UBRR[H:L] and several
additional dividers to set the Baud rate. For the asynchronous normal mode (U2X bit = 0), the Baud
Rate is determined using the following expression:

Baud rate = (system clock f requency)/(16(U BRR + 1))

where UBRR is the contents of the UBRRH and UBRRL registers (0 to 4095). Solving for
UBRR yields:

U BRR = ((system clock generator)/(16 × Baud rate)) − 1

4.4.1.2 USART Transmitter

The USART transmitter consists of a Transmit Shift Register. The data to be transmitted is loaded
into the Transmit Shift Register via the USART I/O Data Register (UDR). The start and stop
framing bits are automatically appended to the data within the Transmit Shift Register. The parity
is automatically calculated and appended to the Transmit Shift Register. Data is then shifted out of
the Transmit Shift Register via the TxD pin a single bit at a time at the established Baud rate. The
USART transmitter is equipped with two status flags: the UDRE and the TXC. The USART Data
Register Empty (UDRE) flag sets when the transmit buffer is empty indicating it is ready to receive
new data. This bit should be written to a zero when writing the USART Control and Status Register
A (UCSRA). The UDRE bit is cleared by writing to the USART I/O Data Register (UDR). The
Transmit Complete (TXC) Flag bit is set to logic one when the entire frame in the Transmit Shift
Register has been shifted out and there are no new data currently present in the transmit buffer. The
TXC bit may be reset by writing a logic one to it.

4.4.1.3 USART Receiver

The USART Receiver is virtually identical to the USART Transmitter except for the direction of
the data flow is reversed. Data is received a single bit at a time via the RxD pin at the established
Baud Rate. The USART Receiver is equipped with the Receive Complete (RXC) Flag. The RXC
flag is logic one when unread data exists in the receive buffer.

4.4.1.4 USART Registers

In this section, we discuss the register settings for controlling the USART system. We have already
discussed the function of the USART I/O Data Register (UDR) and the USART Baud Rate
Registers (UBRRH and UBRRL). Note: The USART Control and Status Register C (UCSRC)
and the USART Baud Rate Register High (UBRRH) are assigned to the same I/O location in the
memory map. The URSEL bit (bit 7 of both registers) determine which register is being accessed.
 4.4. SERIAL USART 79
The URSEL bit must be one when writing to the UCSRC register and zero when writing to the
UBRRH register.

USART Control and Status Register A (UCSRA)

RXC TXC UDRE FE DOR PE U2X MPCM
7 0
USART Control and Status Register B (UCSRB)
RXCIE TXCIE UDRIE RXEN TXEN UCSZ2 RXB8 TXB8
7 0
USART Control and Status Register C (UCSRC)
URSEL=1 UMSEL UPM1 UPM0 USBS UCSZ1 UCSZ0 UCPOL
7 0
USART Data Register - UDR
UDR(Read)
RXB7 RXB6 RXB5 RXB4 RXB3 RXB2 RXB1 RXB0
UDR(Write)
TXB7 TXB6 TXB5 TXB4 TXB3 TXB2 TXB1 TXB0
7 0

USART Baud Rate Registers - UBRRH and UBRRL

UBRRH
URSEL=0 --- --- --- UBRR11 UBRR10 UBRR9 UBRR8

UBRRL
UBRR7 UBRR6 UBRR5 UBRR4 UBRR3 UBRR2 UBRR1 UBRR0
7 0

Figure 4.3: USART Registers.

USART Control and Status Register A (UCSRA) The UCSRA register contains the RXC, TXC,
and the UDRE bits. The function of these bits have already been discussed.

USART Control and Status Register B (UCSRB) The UCSRB register contains the Receiver
Enable (RXEN) bit and the Transmitter Enable (TXEN) bit. These bits are the “on/off ” switch
for the receiver and transmitter, respectively. The UCSRB register also contains the UCSZ2 bit.
80 4. SERIAL COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM
The UCSZ2 bit in the UCSRB register and the UCSZ[1:0] bits contained in the UCSRC register
together set the data character size.

USART Control and Status Register C (UCSRC) The UCSRC register allows the user to customize
the data features to the application at hand. It should be emphasized that both the transmitter and
receiver be configured with the same data features for proper data transmission.The UCSRC contains
the following bits:

• USART Mode Select (UMSEL) – 0: asynchronous operation, 1: synchronous operation

• USART Parity Mode (UPM[1:0])- 00: no parity, 10: even parity, 11: odd parity

• USART Stop Bit Select (USBS) – 0: 1 stop bit, 1: 2 stop bits

• USART Character Size (data width) (UCSZ[2:0]) – 000: 5-bit, 001: 6-bit, 010: 7-bit, 011:
8-bit, 111: 9-bit

4.5 SYSTEM OPERATION AND PROGRAMMING USING

ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT FEATURES
The Arduino Development Environment is equipped with built-in USART communications fea-
tures. These allow USART transmission (TX) and reception (RX) via Arduino Duemilanove DIG-
ITAL pins 1 (TX) and 0 (RX) to an external USART compatible input device, output device, or
microcontroller. The Arduino Duemilanove may also communicate with the host personal computer
(PC) via the USB cable.
The Arduino Duemilanove pins are configured for TTL compatible inputs and outputs. That
is, logic highs and lows are represented with 5 VDC and 0 VDC signals, respectively. The TX and
RX pins are not compatible with RS-232 signals. A level shifter such as the MAX232 is required
between the Arduino Duemilanove and the RS-232 device for communications of this type. When
connected to a PC via the USB cable, appropriate level shifting is accomplished via the USB support
chip onboard the Arduino Duemilanove.
The Arduino Development Environment commands to provide USART communications
is provided in Figure 4.4. A brief description of each command is provided. As before, we will
not duplicate the excellent source material and examples provided at the Arduino homepage
(www.Arduino.cc).
Example: To illustrate the use of the Arduino Development Environment built-in serial
functions using the USART, we will add code to the robot sketch to provide status updates to
the host PC. These status updates are a helpful aid during algorithm development. Due to limited
space, we will not provide the entire algorithm here (it is five pages long). Instead, we provide a code
snapshot that may be used to modify the remaining code.
In the code snapshot, we have included the “Serial.begin(9600)” command in the setup func-
tion to set the USART Baud rate at 9600. We have also inserted a “ Serial.println” command in the
 4.5. SYSTEM OPERATION AND PROGRAMMING 81

Arduino Development Environment built-in USART commands [www.Arduino.cc]

Command Description

Serial.begin() Sets Baud rate

Serial.end() Disables serial communication. Allows Digital 1(TX) and Digital (0) RX
to be used for digital input and output.

Serial.available() Determines how many bytes have already been received and stored in the
128 byte buffer.

Serial.read() Reads incoming serial data.

Serial.flush() Flushes the serial receive buffer of data.

Serial.print() Prints data to the serial port as ASCII text. An optional second parameter
specifies the format for printing (BYTE, BIN, OCT, DEC, HEX).

Serial.println() Prints data to the serial port as ASCII text followed by a carriage return.

Serial.write() Writes binary data to the serial port. A single byte, a series of bytes, or an
array of bytes may be sent.

Figure 4.4: Arduino Development Environment USART commands.

algorithm to provide a status update. These status updates are handy during sketch development.
These status updates would not be available while the robot is progressing through the maze since
the robot would no longer be connected to the host PC via the USB cable.

//*************************************************************************
//analog input pins
#define left_IR_sensor 0 //analog pin - left IR sensor

#define center_IR_sensor 1 //analog pin - center IR sensor

#define right_IR_sensor 2 //analog pin - right IR sensor

//digital output pins

//LED indicators - wall detectors
#define wall_left 3 //digital pin - wall_left
#define wall_center 4 //digital pin - wall_center
#define wall_right 5 //digital pin - wall_right
82 4. SERIAL COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM

//LED indicators - turn signals

#define left_turn_signal 2 //digital pin - left_turn_signal
#define right_turn_signal 6 //digital pin - right_turn_signal

//motor outputs
#define left_motor 11 //digital pin - left_motor
#define right_motor 10 //digital pin - right_motor

int left_IR_sensor_value; //declare var. for left IR sensor

int center_IR_sensor_value; //declare var. for center IR sensor
int right_IR_sensor_value; //declare var. for right IR sensor

void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600); //set USART Baud rate to 9600
//LED indicators - wall detectors
pinMode(wall_left, OUTPUT); //configure pin 1 for digital output
pinMode(wall_center, OUTPUT); //configure pin 2 for digital output
pinMode(wall_right, OUTPUT); //configure pin 3 for digital output

//LED indicators - turn signals

pinMode(left_turn_signal,OUTPUT); //configure pin 0 for digital output
pinMode(right_turn_signal,OUTPUT); //configure pin 4 for digital output

//motor outputs - PWM

pinMode(left_motor, OUTPUT); //configure pin 11 for digital output
pinMode(right_motor, OUTPUT); //configure pin 10 for digital output
}

void loop()
{
//read analog output from IR sensors
left_IR_sensor_value = analogRead(left_IR_sensor);
center_IR_sensor_value = analogRead(center_IR_sensor);
right_IR_sensor_value = analogRead(right_IR_sensor);

//robot action table row 0

 4.6. SYSTEM OPERATION AND PROGRAMMING IN C 83
if((left_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value < 512))
{
Serial.println(‘‘No walls detected’’); //print status
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_center, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_right, LOW); //turn LED off
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 128);
//0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}

4.6 SYSTEM OPERATION AND PROGRAMMING IN C

The basic activities of the USART system consist of initialization, transmission, and reception.These
activities are summarized in Figure 4.5. Both the transmitter and receiver must be initialized with
the same communication parameters for proper data transmission. The transmission and reception
activities are similar except for the direction of data flow. In transmission, we monitor for the UDRE
flag to set indicating the data register is empty. We then load the data for transmission into the
84 4. SERIAL COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM
UDR register. For reception, we monitor for the RXC bit to set indicating there is unread data in
the UDR register. We then retrieve the data from the UDR register.

Set USART
no Has UDRE communication parameters no Has RXC
flag set? (data bits, stop bit, parity) flag set?
yes yes
Load UDR register with Turn on transmitter Retrieve received data
data byte for transmission and/or receiver from UDR register

Set USART for

a) USART transmission asynchronous mode
c) USART reception
Set Baud Rate

b) USART initialization

Figure 4.5: USART Activities.

To program the USART, we implement the flow diagrams provided in Figure 4.5. In the
sample code provided, we assume the ATmega328 is operating at 10 MHz, and we desire a Baud
Rate of 9600, asynchronous operation, no parity, one stop bit, and eight data bits.
To achieve 9600 Baud with an operating frequency of 10 MHz requires that we set the UBRR
registers to 64 which is 0x40.
//*************************************************************************
//USART_init: initializes the USART system
//*************************************************************************

void USART_init(void)
{
UCSRA = 0x00; //control register initialization
UCSRB = 0x08; //enable transmitter
UCSRC = 0x86; //async, no parity, 1 stop bit, 8 data bits
//Baud Rate initialization
UBRRH = 0x00;
UBRRL = 0x40;
 4.6. SYSTEM OPERATION AND PROGRAMMING IN C 85
}

//*************************************************************************
//USART_transmit: transmits single byte of data
//*************************************************************************

void USART_transmit(unsigned char data)

{
while((UCSRA & 0x20)==0x00) //wait for UDRE flag
{
;
}
UDR = data; //load data to UDR for transmission
}

//*************************************************************************
//USART_receive: receives single byte of data
//*************************************************************************

unsigned char USART_receive(void)

{
while((UCSRA & 0x80)==0x00) //wait for RXC flag
{
;
}
data = UDR; //retrieve data from UDR
return data;
}

//*************************************************************************

4.6.1 SERIAL PERIPHERAL INTERFACE—SPI

The ATmega328 Serial Peripheral Interface or SPI also provides for two-way serial communication
between a transmitter and a receiver. In the SPI system, the transmitter and receiver share a common
clock source. This requires an additional clock line between the transmitter and receiver but allows
for higher data transmission rates as compared to the USART. The SPI system allows for fast
and efficient data exchange between microcontrollers or peripheral devices. There are many SPI
compatible external systems available to extend the features of the microcontroller. For example, a
86 4. SERIAL COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM
liquid crystal display or a digital-to-analog converter could be added to the microcontroller using
the SPI system.

4.6.1.1 SPI Operation

The SPI may be viewed as a synchronous 16-bit shift register with an 8-bit half residing in the
transmitter and the other 8-bit half residing in the receiver as shown in Figure 4.6. The transmitter
is designated the master since it is providing the synchronizing clock source between the transmitter
and the receiver. The receiver is designated as the slave. A slave is chosen for reception by taking its
Slave Select (SS) line low. When the SS line is taken low, the slave’s shifting capability is enabled.
SPI transmission is initiated by loading a data byte into the master configured SPI Data
Register (SPDR). At that time, the SPI clock generator provides clock pulses to the master and also
to the slave via the SCK pin. A single bit is shifted out of the master designated shift register on
the Master Out Slave In (MOSI) microcontroller pin on every SCK pulse. The data is received at
the MOSI pin of the slave designated device. At the same time, a single bit is shifted out of the
Master In Slave Out (MISO) pin of the slave device and into the MISO pin of the master device.
After eight master SCK clock pulses, a byte of data has been exchanged between the master and
slave designated SPI devices. Completion of data transmission in the master and data reception in
the slave is signaled by the SPI Interrupt Flag (SPIF) in both devices. The SPIF flag is located in
the SPI Status Register (SPSR) of each device. At that time, another data byte may be transmitted.

Master Device Slave Device

MISO MISO
SPI Data Register (SDR) (PB6) (PB6) SPI Data Register (SDR)
MSB LSB MSB LSB

MOSI MOSI
(PB5) (PB5)
SCK SCK shift
system enable
clock SPI Clock Generator SCK SCK
(PB7) (PB7)
SPI Status Register (SPSR)

SPI Control Register (SPCR) SS SS

(PB4) (PB4)

Figure 4.6: SPI Overview.

 4.6. SYSTEM OPERATION AND PROGRAMMING IN C 87
4.6.1.2 Registers
The registers for the SPI system are provided in Figure 4.7. We will discuss each one in turn.

SPI Control Register - SPCR

SPIE SPE DORD MSTR CPOL CPHA SPR1 SPR0
7 0
SPI Status Register - SPSR
SPIF WCOL --- --- --- --- --- SPI2X
7 0
SPI Data Register - SPDR
MSB LSB
7 0

Figure 4.7: SPI Registers

SPI Control Register (SPCR) The SPI Control Register (SPCR) contains the “on/off ” switch for
the SPI system. It also provides the flexibility for the SPI to be connected to a wide variety of devices
with different data formats. It is important that both the SPI master and slave devices be configured
for compatible data formats for proper data transmission. The SPCR contains the following bits:

• SPI Enable (SPE) is the “on/off ” switch for the SPI system. A logic one turns the system on
and logic zero turns it off.

• Data Order (DORD) allows the direction of shift from master to slave to be controlled. When
the DORD bit is set to one, the least significant bit (LSB) of the SPI Data Register (SPDR)
is transmitted first. When the DORD bit is set to zero the Most Significant Bit (MSB) of the
SPDR is transmitted first.

• The Master/Slave Select (MSTR) bit determines if the SPI system will serve as a master (logic
one) or slave (logic zero).

• The Clock Polarity (CPOL) bit allows determines the idle condition of the SCK pin. When
CPOL is one, SCK will idle logic high; whereas, when CPOL is zero, SCK will idle logic
zero.

• The Clock Phase (CPHA) determines if the data bit will be sampled on the leading (0) or
trailing (1) edge of the SCK.
88 4. SERIAL COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM
• The SPI SCK is derived from the microcontroller’s system clock source. The system clock
is divided down to form the SPI SCK. The SPI Clock Rate Select bits SPR[1:0] and the
Double SPI Speed Bit (SPI2X) are used to set the division factor. The following divisions may
be selected using SPI2X, SPR1, SPR0:

– 000: SCK = system clock/4

– 001: SCK = system clock/16
– 010: SCK = system clock/64
– 011: SCK = system clock/1284
– 100: SCK = system clock/2
– 101: SCK = system clock/8
– 110: SCK = system clock/32
– 111: SCK = system clock/64

SPI Status Register (SPSR) The SPSR contains the SPI Interrupt Flag (SPIF). The flag sets when
eight data bits have been transferred from the master to the slave. The SPIF bit is cleared by first
reading the SPSR after the SPIF flag has been set and then reading the SPI Data Register (SPDR).
The SPSR also contains the SPI2X bit used to set the SCK frequency.

SPI Data Register (SPDR) As previously mentioned, writing a data byte to the SPDR initiates
SPI transmission.

4.7 SPI PROGRAMMING IN THE ARDUINO

DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT
The Arduino Development Environment provides the “shiftOut” command to provide ISP style
serial communications [www.Arduino.cc]. The shiftOut command requires four parameters when
called:

• dataPin: the Arduino Duemilanove DIGITAL pin to be used for serial output.

• clockPin: the Arduino Duemilanove DIGITAL pin to be used for the clock.

• bitOrder: indicates whether the data byte will be sent most significant bit first (MSBFIRST)
or least significant bit first (LSBFIRST).

• value: the data byte that will be shifted out.

To use the shiftOut command, the appropriate pins are declared as output using the pinMode
command in the setup() function. The shiftOut command is then called at the appropriate place
within the loop() function using the following syntax:
 4.8. SPI PROGRAMMING IN C 89
shiftOut(dataPin, clockPin, LSBFIRST, value);

As a result of the this command, the value specified will be serially shifted out of the data pin
specified, least significant bit first, at the clock rate provided at the clock pin.

4.8 SPI PROGRAMMING IN C

To program the SPI system in C, the system must first be initialized with the desired data format.
Data transmission may then commence. Functions for initialization, transmission and reception are
provided below. In this specific example, we divide the clock oscillator frequency by 128 to set the
SCK clock frequency.

//*************************************************************************
//spi_init: initializes spi system
//*************************************************************************

void spi_init(unsigned char control)

{
DDRB = 0xA0; //Set SCK (PB7), MOSI (PB5) for output,
//others to input
SPCR = 0x53; //Configure SPI Control Register (SPCR)
//SPIE:0,SPE:1,DORD:0,MSTR:1,CPOL:0,CPHA:0,SPR:1,SPR0:1
}

//*************************************************************************
//spi_write: Used by SPI master to transmit a data byte
//*************************************************************************

void spi_write(unsigned char byte)

{
SPDR = byte;
while (!(SPSR & 0x80));
}

//*************************************************************************
//spi_read: Used by SPI slave to receive data byte
//*************************************************************************

unsigned char spi_read(void)

{
90 4. SERIAL COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM
while (!(SPSR & 0x80));

return SPDR;
}

//*************************************************************************

4.9 TWO-WIRE SERIAL INTERFACE—TWI

The TWI subsystem allows the system designer to network a number of related devices (micro-
controllers, transducers, displays, memory storage, etc.) together into a system using a two wire
interconnecting scheme. The TWI allows a maximum of 128 devices to be connected together.
Each device has its own unique address and may both transmit and receive over the two wire bus at
frequencies up to 400 kHz. This allows the device to freely exchange information with other devices
in the network within a small area. Space does not permit a detailed discussion of this advanced
serial communication system.

4.10 APPLICATION 1: SD/MMC CARD MODULE EXTENSION

VIA THE USART
The Secure Digital/Multi Media Card (SD/MMC) provides a “hard drive” capability to the Arduino
Duemilanove. That is, it provides a large capacity storage media to log and retrieve data. SD/MMC
cards have become a common method of storing data in commercial industry. The card is formatted
using the File Allocation Table (FAT) 16 standard. This standard has been around for some time.
In this example, we show how to connect a Comfile Technology SD/MMC SD-COM5 card
to the Arduino Microcontroller and the associated Arduino Development Environment commands
required to interact with the card [www.comfiletech.com]. The commands will be passed to the
SD/MMC card via the serial USART functions of the Arduino Development Environment. We
also provide the commands for communicating with the SD/MMC via the C programming language.
The interface circuit between the Arduino Duemilanove and the SD/MMC card is provided
in Figure 4.8. The TX and RX pins (DIGITAL 1 and 0) of the Arduino Duemilanove are connected
to the RXD and TXD pins (19 and 20) of the SD/MMC card breakout board. Power and ground
are also provided to the SD/MMC card as shown in the figure. Also, the reset pin of the SD/MMC
breakout board (pin 15) is pulled up to the 5 VDC supply via a 10K resistor.
Figure 4.9 provides a summary of commands to communicate with the SD/MMC card. The
command format is shown at the top of the figure. The commands are issued from the Arduino
Duemilanove using the built-in “serial.print” command of the Arduino Development Environment.
For example, to send the phrase “Hello World” to the SD/MMC the fputs command is used. The
format of the command includes the file onboard the SD/MMC where the command should be
 4.10. APPLICATION 1: SD/MMC CARD MODULE EXTENSION VIA THE USART 91
COMFILE SD-COM5 SD/MMC card module

1 20 5 VDC
SOUT TXD
SIN RXD
GND GND
DNLD SDIN 10K
VCC
RST

10 11

SD Card

3 21 0 9 8 76 5 4 32 1 0
1 1 1 1 DIGITAL

RX
TX
Arduino
Duemilanove

ANALOG IN
5VGnd 0 123 4 5

Figure 4.8: Arduino Duemilanove and SD/MMC card interface circuit [Comfile Technology].

stored and the file option. In this example we have used the “w” option to indicate a write to the file.
The phrase for storage is then provided followed by a carriage return (\r) and a line feed (\n).
Before data can be written to the file, some preparatory steps are required:
• Set the Baud rate for communication.
• Set the SD/MMC for MCU (microcontroller) mode.This mode provides simplified responses
back to the Arduino Duemilanove.
• Initialize the SD/MMC card.
• Create a file.
Commands are provided for each of these actions in Figure 4.9. We will provide a complete
sketch to communicate with the SD/MMC in the Applications section of the next chapter.
Once data has been written to an SD/MMC card, it may be removed from the card socket
in the breakout board and read via a PC using a universal card reader. Universal card readers are
92 4. SERIAL COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM

Command format:
Command [Filename] [Option] [Data] [CR] [LF]

In C: In Arduino Development Environment:

printf(“fputs test.txt /w Hello World \r\n”); serial.print(“fputs test.txt /w Hello World \r\n”);

Command Brief Description

mode[Option][CR][LF] Select mode of operation: /t terminal or /m MCU mode
init [CR][LF] Initializes SD/MMC card
cd [Change Directory][CR][LF] Change director
dir [CR][LF] List directory
fsize [Filename][CR][LF] Display file size
dsize[CR][LF] Display SD/MMC disk space
ftime [Filename][CR][LF] File creation and last modified time
md[Directory][CR][LF] Make directory
rd[Directory][CR][LF] Remove directory
del[Filename][CR][LF] Delete file
fcreate[Filename][CR][LF] Create a new file
rename[Source Filename][Destination Filename][CR][LF] Rename the file
fopen[Filename][/Option][CR][LF] Open the file: /r Read or /w Write or /a Append
fclose[CR][LF] Close file
fputc[Filename][/Option][1 Byte Data][CR][LF] Write a byte to file
fputs[Filename][/Option][String][CR][LF] Write a string to file (limited 256 characters)
fwrite[/# of bytes to write][CR][LF] Write up to 512 bytes to file
fgetc[/# of bytes to read][CR][LF] Read up to 256 bytes from file
fgets[CR][LF] Read one line of string
fread[Filename][CR][LF] Read all data in file
reset[CR][LF] Reset card
baud[Baud rate][CR][LF] Set Baud rate
card[CR][LF] Card status

Figure 4.9: SD/MMC commands.

4.11. APPLICATION 2: PROGRAMMINGTHE ARDUINO DUEMILANOVE ATMEGA328 VIA ISP 93
readily available for under $20. This would make the SD/MMC useful for a remote data logging
application. Once the data has been collected, the card may be accessed via the PC, the data pulled
into a spreadsheet application such as MS Office Excel and analyzed.

4.11 APPLICATION 2: PROGRAMMING THE ARDUINO

DUEMILANOVE ATMEGA328 VIA THE ISP
An alternate method of programming the Arduino Duemilanove processing board is via In-System
Programming (ISP) techniques. We highly recommend that you use the Arduino Development
Environment for programming the Arduino Duemilanove. The ISP programming techniques are
used to program features of the ATmega328P hosted onboard the Arduino Duemilanove that are
not currently supported within the Arduino Development Environment.
Programming the ATmega328 requires several hardware and software tools. We briefly men-
tion required components here. Please refer to the manufacturer’s documentation for additional
details at www.atmel.com.
Software Tools: Throughout the text, we use the ImageCraft ICC AVR compiler. This is a
broadly used, user-friendly compiler. There are other excellent compilers available. The compiler is
used to translate the source file (filename.c) into machine language for loading into the ATmega328
hosted onboard the Arduino Duemilanove. We use Atmel’s AVR Studio to load the machine code
into the ATmega328.
Hardware Tools: We use Atmel’s STK500 AVR Flash MCU Starter Kit (STK500) for
programming the ATmega328. The STK500 provides the interface hardware between the host PC
and the ATmega328 for machine code loading. The STK500 is equipped with a complement of
DIP sockets which allows for programming all of the microcontrollers in the Atmel AVR line. The
STK500 also allows for In-System Programming (ISP) [Atmel]. In this example, we use the ISP
programming features of the STK500.

4.11.1 PROGRAMMING PROCEDURE

In this section, we provide a step-by-step procedure to program the ATmega328 hosted onboard
the Arduino Duemilanove using the STK500 AVR Flash MCU Starter Kit. Please refer to Figure
4.10.

1. Load AVR Studio (free download from www.atmel.com).

2. Ensure that the STK500 is powered down.

3. Connect the STK500 as shown in Figure 4.10. Note: For ISP programming, the 6-wire ribbon
cable is connected from the ISP6PIN header pin on the STK500 to the 6-pin header pin on
the Arduino Duemilanove, not the position of the red guide wire in the diagram.

4. Power up the STK500.

94 4. SERIAL COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM

indicates jumper block installed at this location

ATMEL to power
red
AVR supply
wire
VTARGET

PORTA Use this red socket

AREF
SWITCHES

RESET
PORTB RS232
cable
XTAL1 to host PC
ribbon
cables
OSCSEL
PORTC RS232
CTRL
red
wire BSEL2

PORTD
SPROG3 PJUMP

RS232
LEDS
SPARE
Note: red wire ISP6PIN
PORTE ISP10PIN

ribbon cable
3 21 0 9 8 76 5 4 32 1 0 connecting
1 11 1 STK500 ISP6PIN
to Arduino Duemilanove
6-pin header

Note: red wire

Figure 4.10: Programming the ATmega328 onboard the Arduino Duemilanove with the STK500.
 4.12. SUMMARY 95
5. Start up AVR Studio on your PC.

6. Pop up window “Welcome to AVR Studio” should appear. Close this window by clicking on
the “Cancel button.”

7. Click on the “AVR icon.” It looks like the silhouette of an integrated circuit. It is on the second
line of the toolbar about half way across the screen.

8. This should bring up a STK500 pop up window with eight tabs (Main, Program, Fuses, Lock-
bits, Advanced, HW Settings, HW Info). At the bottom of the Main tab window, verify that
the STK500 was autodetected. Troubleshoot as necessary to ensure STK500 was autodetected
by AVR Studio.

9. Set all tab settings:

• Main:
– Device and Signature Bytes: ATmega328P
– Programming Mode and Target Setting: ISP Mode
– Depress “Read Signature” to insure the STK500 is communicating with the Arduino
Duemilanove
• Program:
– Flash: Input HEX file, Browse and find machine code file: <yourfilename.hex>
– EEPROM: Input HEX file, Browse and find machine code file:
<yourfilename.EEP>

10. Programming step:

• Program Tab: click program

11. Power down the STK500. Disconnect the STK500 from the Arduino Duemilanove processing
board.

4.12 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have discussed the differences between parallel and serial communications and
key serial communication related terminology. We then in turn discussed the operation of USART,
SPI and TWI serial communication systems. We also provided basic code examples to communicate
with the USART and SPI systems.
96 4. SERIAL COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM

4.13 REFERENCES
• Atmel 8-bit AVR Microcontroller with 4/8/16/32K Bytes In-System Programmable Flash, AT-
mega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P data sheet: 8161D-AVR-10/09, Atmel Corporation, 2325 Or-
chard Parkway, San Jose, CA 95131.

• Barrett S, Pack D (2006) Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00025ED1V01Y200605DCS001

• Barrett S and Pack D (2008) Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer Programming and Inter-
facing. Morgan and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00100ED1V01Y200712DCS015

• Barrett S (2010) Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00225ED1V01Y200910DCS025

• Serial SD/MMC Card Module User Manual, Comfile Technology, Inc.,

www.comfiletech.com.

4.14 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

1. Summarize the differences between parallel and serial conversion.

2. Summarize the differences between the USART, SPI, and TWI methods of serial communi-
cation.

3. Draw a block diagram of the USART system, label all key registers, and all keys USART flags.

4. Draw a block diagram of the SPI system, label all key registers, and all keys USART flags.

5. If an ATmega328 microcontroller is operating at 12 MHz what is the maximum transmission

rate for the USART and the SPI?

6. What is the ASCII encoded value for “Arduino”?

7. Draw the schematic of a system consisting of two ATmega328s that will exchange data via
the SPI system.

8. Write the code to implement the system described in the question above.
 97

Author’s Biography

STEVEN F. BARRETT
Steven F. Barrett, Ph.D., P.E., received the BS Electronic Engineering Technology from the
University of Nebraska at Omaha in 1979, the M.E.E.E. from the University of Idaho at Moscow
in 1986, and the Ph.D. from The University of Texas at Austin in 1993. He was formally an active
duty faculty member at the United States Air Force Academy, Colorado and is now the Associate
Dean of Academic Programs at the University of Wyoming. He is a member of IEEE (senior)
and Tau Beta Pi (chief faculty advisor). His research interests include digital and analog image
processing, computer-assisted laser surgery, and embedded controller systems. He is a registered
Professional Engineer in Wyoming and Colorado. He co-wrote with Dr. Daniel Pack six textbooks
on microcontrollers and embedded systems. In 2004, Barrett was named “Wyoming Professor of the
Year” by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and in 2008 was the recipient of
the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) Professional Engineers in Higher Education,
Engineering Education Excellence Award.
 99

Index

Arduino concept, 1 function body, 27

Arduino Development Environment, 21, 39 function call, 27
Arduino Duemilanove, 2 function prototypes, 26
Arduino schematic, 8 functions, 25
Arduino shield, 12
Arduino software, 3 if-else, 29, 37
Arduino team, 1 include files, 25
Arduino-based platforms, 8 interrupt handler, 29
arithmetic operations, 32
Jonny Barrettt, 47
ASCII, 75
Atmel ATmega328, 3 Lac Laronge, Saskatchewan, 47
logical operations, 33
background research, 52 loop, 35
Baud rate, 74
bit twiddling, 34 main program, 30
Blinky 602A robot, 6, 42 MAX232, 75
bottom up approach, 56 memory, ATmega328, 12
byte-addressable EEPROM, 14
NRZ format, 75
Closer to the Sun, 47
code re-use, 57 operator size, 29
Comfile Technology, 90 operators, 30
comments, 24 parity, 75
port system, 15
design, 54
power supply, 3
design process, 52
pre-design, 54
documentation, 57
preliminary testing, 56
embedded system, 52 program constants, 28
program constructs, 34
Flash EEPROM, 12 project description, 52
full duplex, 74 prototyping, 56
100 INDEX
RAM, 14 top-down design, bottom-up implementation,
RS-232, 75 55
TWI, 90
serial communications, 74
Sharp GP12D IR sensor, 6 UML, 55
sketch, 41 UML activity diagram, 7, 55
sketchbook, 41 Unified Modeling Language (UML), 54
SPI, 85 USART, 75
STK500, 93 USB-to-serial converter, 3
switch, 38
variables, 29
test plan, 56 volatile, 14
time base, 17
top down approach, 56 while, 36
Arduino Microcontroller
Processing for Everyone!
Part II
 Synthesis Lectures on Digital
Circuits and Systems
Editor
Mitchell A. Thornton, Southern Methodist University
The Synthesis Lectures on Digital Circuits and Systems series is comprised of 50- to 100-page
books targeted for audience members with a wide-ranging background. The Lectures include topics
that are of interest to students, professionals, and researchers in the area of design and analysis of
digital circuits and systems. Each Lecture is self-contained and focuses on the background
information required to understand the subject matter and practical case studies that illustrate
applications. The format of a Lecture is structured such that each will be devoted to a specific topic
in digital circuits and systems rather than a larger overview of several topics such as that found in a
comprehensive handbook. The Lectures cover both well-established areas as well as newly
developed or emerging material in digital circuits and systems design and analysis.

Arduino Microcontroller: Processing for Everyone! Part II

Steven F. Barrett
2010

Arduino Microcontroller: Processing for Everyone! Part I

Steven F. Barrett
2010

Digital System Verification: A Combined Formal Methods and Simulation Framework

Lun Li and Mitchell A. Thornton
2010

Progress in Applications of Boolean Functions

Tsutomu Sasao and Jon T. Butler
2009

Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller: Part II

Steven F. Barrett
2009

Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller: Part I

Steven F. Barrett
2009
iv

Embedded Systems Interfacing for Engineers using the Freescale HCS08 Microcontroller
II: Digital and Analog Hardware Interfacing
Douglas H. Summerville
2009

Designing Asynchronous Circuits using NULL Convention Logic (NCL)

Scott C. Smith and Jia Di
2009

Embedded Systems Interfacing for Engineers using the Freescale HCS08 Microcontroller
I: Assembly Language Programming
Douglas H.Summerville
2009

Developing Embedded Software using DaVinci & OMAP Technology

B.I. (Raj) Pawate
2009

Mismatch and Noise in Modern IC Processes

Andrew Marshall
2009

Asynchronous Sequential Machine Design and Analysis: A Comprehensive Development

of the Design and Analysis of Clock-Independent State Machines and Systems
Richard F. Tinder
2009

An Introduction to Logic Circuit Testing

Parag K. Lala
2008

Pragmatic Power
William J. Eccles
2008

Multiple Valued Logic: Concepts and Representations

D. Michael Miller and Mitchell A. Thornton
2007

Finite State Machine Datapath Design, Optimization, and Implementation

Justin Davis and Robert Reese
2007

Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer: Programming and Interfacing

Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack
2007
 v
Pragmatic Logic
William J. Eccles
2007
PSpice for Filters and Transmission Lines
Paul Tobin
2007

PSpice for Digital Signal Processing

Paul Tobin
2007

PSpice for Analog Communications Engineering

Paul Tobin
2007

PSpice for Digital Communications Engineering

Paul Tobin
2007

PSpice for Circuit Theory and Electronic Devices

Paul Tobin
2007

Pragmatic Circuits: DC and Time Domain

William J. Eccles
2006

Pragmatic Circuits: Frequency Domain

William J. Eccles
2006

Pragmatic Circuits: Signals and Filters

William J. Eccles
2006

High-Speed Digital System Design

Justin Davis
2006

Introduction to Logic Synthesis using Verilog HDL

Robert B.Reese and Mitchell A.Thornton
2006

Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists

Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack
2006
Copyright © 2010 by Morgan & Claypool

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other except for brief quotations in
printed reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Arduino Microcontroller: Processing for Everyone! Part II

Steven F. Barrett
www.morganclaypool.com

ISBN: 9781608454372 paperback

ISBN: 9781608454884 ebook

DOI 10.2200/S00283ED1V01Y201005DCS029

A Publication in the Morgan & Claypool Publishers series

SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON DIGITAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS

Lecture #29
Series Editor: Mitchell A. Thornton, Southern Methodist University
Series ISSN
Synthesis Lectures on Digital Circuits and Systems
Print 1932-3166 Electronic 1932-3174
Arduino Microcontroller
Processing for Everyone!
Part II

Steven F. Barrett
University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY

SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON DIGITAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS #29

M
&C Morgan & cLaypool publishers
ABSTRACT
This book is about the Arduino microcontroller and the Arduino concept. The visionary Arduino
team of Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles,Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino, and David Mellis launched
a new innovation in microcontroller hardware in 2005, the concept of open source hardware. Their
approach was to openly share details of microcontroller-based hardware design platforms to stimulate
the sharing of ideas and promote innovation. This concept has been popular in the software world
for many years. This book is intended for a wide variety of audiences including students of the fine
arts, middle and senior high school students, engineering design students, and practicing scientists
and engineers. To meet this wide audience, the book has been divided into sections to satisfy the
need of each reader. The book contains many software and hardware examples to assist the reader in
developing a wide variety of systems. For the examples, the Arduino Duemilanove and the Atmel
ATmega328 is employed as the target processor.

KEYWORDS
Arduino microcontroller, Arduino Duemilanove, Atmel microcontroller, Atmel AVR,
ATmega328, microcontroller interfacing, embedded systems design
 ix

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xv

5 Analog to Digital Conversion (ADC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2 Sampling, Quantization and Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.2.1 Resolution and Data Rate 100
5.3 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC) Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.3.1 Transducer Interface Design (TID) Circuit 102
5.3.2 Operational Amplifiers 103
5.4 ADC Conversion Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.4.1 Successive-Approximation 107
5.5 The Atmel ATmega328 ADC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.5.1 Block Diagram 109
5.5.2 Registers 109
5.6 Programming the ADC using the Arduino Development Environment . . . . . . . . 112
5.7 Programming the ADC in C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.8 Example: ADC Rain Gage Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.8.1 ADC Rain Gage Indicator using the Arduino Development
Environment 114
5.8.2 ADC Rain Gage Indicator in C 119
5.8.3 ADC Rain Gage using the Arduino Development
Environment—Revisited 125
5.9 One-bit ADC - Threshold Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.10 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.10.1 DAC with the Arduino Development Environment 130
5.10.2 DAC with external converters 130
5.10.3 Octal Channel, 8-bit DAC via the SPI 130
x
5.11 Application: Art piece illumination system – Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.14 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

6 Interrupt Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.2 ATmega328 Interrupt System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.3 Interrupt Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.4 Programming Interrupts in C and the Arduino Development Environment . . . . 140
6.4.1 External Interrupt Programming 141
6.4.2 Internal Interrupt Programming 144
6.5 Foreground and Background Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.6 Interrupt Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.6.1 Real Time Clock in C 149
6.6.2 Real Time Clock using the Arduino Development Environment
153
6.6.3 Interrupt Driven USART in C 155
6.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.9 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

7 Timing Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.2 Timing related terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.2.1 Frequency 170
7.2.2 Period 170
7.2.3 Duty Cycle 170
7.3 Timing System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.4.1 Input Capture — Measuring External Timing Event 174
7.4.2 Counting Events 175
 xi
7.4.3 Output Compare — Generating Timing Signals to Interface External
Devices 176
7.4.4 Industrial Implementation Case Study (PWM) 176
7.5 Overview of the Atmel ATmega328 Timer System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.6 Timer 0 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.6.1 Modes of Operation 180
7.6.2 Timer 0 Registers 182
7.7 Timer 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.7.1 Timer 1 Registers 185
7.8 Timer 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.9 Programming the Arduino Duemilanove using the built-in Arduino
Development Environment Timing Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.10 Programming the Timer System in C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.10.1 Precision Delay in C 194
7.10.2 Pulse Width Modulation in C 196
7.10.3 Input Capture Mode in C 197
7.11 Servo Motor Control with the PWM System in C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.14 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

8 Atmel AVR Operating Parameters and Interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.2 Operating Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
8.3 Battery Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.3.1 Embedded system voltage and current drain specifications 211
8.3.2 Battery characteristics 211
8.4 Input Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.4.1 Switches 211
8.4.2 Pullup resistors in switch interface circuitry 213
8.4.3 Switch Debouncing 213
8.4.4 Keypads 215
xii CONTENTS
8.4.5 Sensors 220
8.4.6 LM34 Temperature Sensor Example 222
8.5 Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
8.5.1 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 223
8.5.2 Seven Segment LED Displays 224
8.5.3 Code Example 226
8.5.4 Tri-state LED Indicator 227
8.5.5 Dot Matrix Display 229
8.5.6 Liquid Crystal Character Display (LCD) in C 229
8.5.7 Liquid Crystal Character Display (LCD) using the Arduino
Development Environment 239
8.5.8 High Power DC Devices 239
8.6 DC Solenoid Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
8.7 DC Motor Speed and Direction Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8.7.1 DC Motor Operating Parameters 242
8.7.2 H-bridge direction control 243
8.7.3 Servo motor interface 244
8.7.4 Stepper motor control 244
8.7.5 AC Devices 252
8.8 Interfacing to Miscellaneous Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.8.1 Sonalerts, Beepers, Buzzers 252
8.8.2 Vibrating Motor 254
8.9 Extended Example 1: Automated Fan Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
8.10 Extended Example 2: Fine Art Lighting System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264
8.11 Extended Example 3: Flight Simulator Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
8.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
8.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.14 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

A ATmega328 Register Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

B ATmega328 Header File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

 CONTENTS xiii
Author’s Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
 Preface
This book is about the Arduino microcontroller and the Arduino concept. The visionary
Arduino team of Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino, and David Mellis
launched a new innovation in microcontroller hardware in 2005, the concept of open source hardware.
There approach was to openly share details of microcontroller-based hardware design platforms to
stimulate the sharing of ideas and innovation. This concept has been popular in the software world
for many years.
This book is written for a number of audiences. First, in keeping with the Arduino concept,
the book is written for practitioners of the arts (design students, artists, photographers, etc.) who may
need processing power in a project but do not have an in depth engineering background. Second, the
book is written for middle school and senior high school students who may need processing power
for a school or science fair project. Third, we write for engineering students who require processing
power for their senior design project but do not have the background in microcontroller-based appli-
cations commonly taught in electrical and computer engineering curricula. Finally, the book provides
practicing scientists and engineers an advanced treatment of the Atmel AVR microcontroller.

APPROACH OF THE BOOK

To encompass such a wide range of readers, we have divided the book into several portions to address
the different readership. Chapters 1 through 2 are intended for novice microcontroller users. Chapter
1 provides a review of the Arduino concept, a description of the Arduino Duemilanove development
board, and a brief review of the features of the Duemilanove’s host processor, the Atmel ATmega 328
microcontroller. Chapter 2 provides an introduction to programming for the novice programmer.
Chapter 2 also introduces the Arduino Development Environment and how to program sketches.
It also serves as a good review for the seasoned developer.
Chapter 3 provides an introduction to embedded system design processes. It provides a sys-
tematic, step-by-step approach on how to design complex systems in a stress free manner.
Chapters 4 through 8 provide detailed engineering information on the ATmega328 microcon-
troller and advanced interfacing techniques. These chapters are intended for engineering students
and practicing engineers. However, novice microcontroller users will find the information readable
and well supported with numerous examples.
The final chapter provides a variety of example applications for a wide variety of skill levels.
xvi PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A number of people have made this book possible. I would like to thank Massimo Banzi of the
Arduino design team for his support and encouragement in writing the book. I would also like to
thank Joel Claypool of Morgan & Claypool Publishers who has supported a number of writing
projects of Daniel Pack and I over the last several years. He also provided permission to include
portions of background information on the Atmel line of AVR microcontrollers in this book from
several of our previous projects. I would also like to thank Sparkfun Electronics of Boulder, Colorado;
Atmel Incorporated; the Arduino team; and ImageCraft of Palo Alto, California for use of pictures
and figures used within the book.
I would like to dedicate this book to my close friend and writing partner Dr. Daniel Pack,
Ph.D., P.E. Daniel elected to “sit this one out” because of a thriving research program in unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs). Much of the writing is his from earlier Morgan & Claypool projects. In 2000,
Daniel suggested that we might write a book together on microcontrollers. I had always wanted to
write a book but I thought that’s what other people did. With Daniel’s encouragement we wrote
that first book (and six more since then). Daniel is a good father, good son, good husband, brilliant
engineer, a work ethic second to none, and a good friend. To you good friend I dedicate this book. I
know that we will do many more together.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife and best friend of many years, Cindy.

Laramie, Wyoming, May 2010

Steve Barrett
 97

CHAPTER 5

Analog to Digital Conversion

(ADC)
Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to
• Illustrate the analog-to-digital conversion process.

• Assess the quality of analog-to-digital conversion using the metrics of sampling rate, quanti-
zation levels, number of bits used for encoding and dynamic range.

• Design signal conditioning circuits to interface sensors to analog-to-digital converters.

• Implement signal conditioning circuits with operational amplifiers.

• Describe the key registers used during an ATmega328 ADC.

• Describe the steps to perform an ADC with the ATmega328.

• Program the Arduino Duemilanove processing board to perform an ADC using the built-in
features of the Arduino Development Environment.

• Program the ATmega328 to perform an ADC in C.

• Describe the operation of a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).

5.1 OVERVIEW
A microcontroller is used to process information from the natural world, decide on a course of action
based on the information collected, and then issue control signals to implement the decision. Since
the information from the natural world, is analog or continuous in nature, and the microcontroller
is a digital or discrete based processor, a method to convert an analog signal to a digital form is
required. An ADC system performs this task while a digital to analog converter (DAC) performs
the conversion in the opposite direction. We will discuss both types of converters in this chapter.
Most microcontrollers are equipped with an ADC subsystem; whereas, DACs must be added as an
external peripheral device to the controller.
In this chapter, we discuss the ADC process in some detail. In the first section, we discuss
the conversion process itself, followed by a presentation of the successive-approximation hardware
implementation of the process. We then review the basic features of the ATmega328 ADC system
98 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)
followed by a system description and a discussion of key ADC registers.We conclude our discussion of
the analog-to-digital converter with several illustrative code examples. We show how to program the
ADC using the built-in features of the Arduino Development Environment and C. We conclude the
chapter with a discussion of the DAC process and interface a multi-channel DAC to the ATmega328.
We also discuss the Arduino Development Environment built-in features that allow generation of
an output analog signal via pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques. Throughout the chapter,
we provide detailed examples.

5.2 SAMPLING, QUANTIZATION AND ENCODING

In this subsection, we provide an abbreviated discussion of the ADC process. This discussion was
condensed from “Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer Programming and Interfacing.” The interested
reader is referred to this text for additional details and examples [Barrett and Pack]. We present three
important processes associated with the ADC: sampling, quantization, and encoding.
Sampling. We first start with the subject of sampling. Sampling is the process of taking ‘snap
shots’ of a signal over time. When we sample a signal, we want to sample it in an optimal fashion such
that we can capture the essence of the signal while minimizing the use of resources. In essence, we
want to minimize the number of samples while retaining the capability to faithfully reconstruct the
original signal from the samples. Intuitively, the rate of change in a signal determines the number of
samples required to faithfully reconstruct the signal, provided that all adjacent samples are captured
with the same sample timing intervals.
Sampling is important since when we want to represent an analog signal in a digital system,
such as a computer, we must use the appropriate sampling rate to capture the analog signal for a
faithful representation in digital systems. Harry Nyquist from Bell Laboratory studied the sampling
process and derived a criterion that determines the minimum sampling rate for any continuous
analog signals. His, now famous, minimum sampling rate is known as the Nyquist sampling rate,
which states that one must sample a signal at least twice as fast as the highest frequency content
of the signal of interest. For example, if we are dealing with the human voice signal that contains
frequency components that span from about 20 Hz to 4 kHz, the Nyquist sample theorem requires
that we must sample the signal at least at 8 kHz, 8000 ‘snap shots’ every second. Engineers who work
for telephone companies must deal with such issues. For further study on the Nyquist sampling rate,
refer to Pack and Barrett listed in the References section.
When a signal is sampled a low pass anti-aliasing filter must be employed to insure the Nyquist
sampling rate is not violated. In the example above, a low pass filter with a cutoff frequency of 4
KHz would be used before the sampling circuitry for this purpose.
Quantization. Now that we understand the sampling process, let’s move on to the second
process of the analog-to-digital conversion, quantization. Each digital system has a number of bits it
uses as the basic unit to represent data. A bit is the most basic unit where single binary information,
one or zero, is represented. A nibble is made up of four bits put together. A byte is eight bits.
 5.2. SAMPLING, QUANTIZATION AND ENCODING 99
We have tacitly avoided the discussion of the form of captured signal samples. When a signal
is sampled, digital systems need some means to represent the captured samples. The quantization
of a sampled signal is how the signal is represented as one of the quantization levels. Suppose you
have a single bit to represent an incoming signal. You only have two different numbers, 0 and 1. You
may say that you can distinguish only low from high. Suppose you have two bits. You can represent
four different levels, 00, 01, 10, and 11. What if you have three bits? You now can represent eight
different levels: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, and 111. Think of it as follows. When you had
two bits, you were able to represent four different levels. If we add one more bit, that bit can be one
or zero, making the total possibilities eight. Similar discussion can lead us to conclude that given n
bits, we have 2n unique numbers or levels one can represent.
Figure 5.1 shows how n bits are used to quantize a range of values. In many digital systems,
the incoming signals are voltage signals. The voltage signals are first obtained from physical signals
(pressure, temperature, etc.) with the help of transducers, such as microphones, angle sensors, and
infrared sensors. The voltage signals are then conditioned to map their range with the input range of
a digital system, typically 0 to 5 volts. In Figure 5.1, n bits allow you to divide the input signal range
of a digital system into 2n different quantization levels. As can be seen from the figure, the more
quantization levels means the better mapping of an incoming signal to its true value. If we only had
a single bit, we can only represent level 0 and level 1. Any analog signal value in between the range
had to be mapped either as level 0 or level 1, not many choices. Now imagine what happens as we
increase the number of bits available for the quantization levels. What happens when the available
number of bits is 8? How many different quantization levels are available now? Yes, 256. How about
10, 12, or 14? Notice also that as the number of bits used for the quantization levels increases for a
given input range the ‘distance’ between two adjacent levels decreases accordingly.
Finally, the encoding process involves converting a quantized signal into a digital binary num-
ber. Suppose again we are using eight bits to quantize a sampled analog signal. The quantization
levels are determined by the eight bits and each sampled signal is quantized as one of 256 quanti-
zation levels. Consider the two sampled signals shown in Figure 5.1. The first sample is mapped to
quantization level 2 and the second one is mapped to quantization level 198. Note the amount of
quantization error introduced for both samples. The quantization error is inversely proportional to
the number of bits used to quantize the signal.
Encoding. Once a sampled signal is quantized, the encoding process involves representing
the quantization level with the available bits. Thus, for the first sample, the encoded sampled value
is 0000_0001, while the encoded sampled value for the second sample is 1100_0110. As a result of
the encoding process, sampled analog signals are now represented as a set of binary numbers. Thus,
the encoding is the last necessary step to represent a sampled analog signal into its corresponding
digital form, shown in Figure 5.1.
100 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)

Voltage reference high sampled value 2

level n-1

level 198 - encoded level

1100 0110

Analog
Signal

sampled value 1

level 1 - encoded level

0000 0001
Voltage reference low t(s)
Ts = 1/fs
sample time

Figure 5.1: Sampling, quantization, and encoding.

5.2.1 RESOLUTION AND DATA RATE

Resolution. Resolution is a measure used to quantize an analog signal. In fact, resolution is noth-
ing more than the voltage ‘distance’ between two adjacent quantization levels we discussed earlier.
Suppose again we have a range of 5 volts and one bit to represent an analog signal. The resolution
in this case is 2.5 volts, a very poor resolution. You can imagine how your TV screen will look if you
only had only two levels to represent each pixel, black and white. The maximum error, called the
resolution error, is 2.5 volts for the current case, 50 % of the total range of the input signal. Suppose
you now have four bits to represent quantization levels. The resolution now becomes 1.25 volts or 25
% of the input range. Suppose you have 20 bits for quantization levels. The resolution now becomes
4.77 × 10−6 volts, 9.54 × 10−5 % of the total range. The discussion we presented simply illustrates
that as we increase the available number of quantization levels within a fixed voltage range, the
distance between adjacent levels decreases, reducing the quantization error of a sampled signal. As
the number grows, the error decreases, making the representation of a sampled analog signal more
accurate in the corresponding digital form. The number of bits used for the quantization is directly
proportional to the resolution of a system. You now should understand the technical background
when you watch high definition television broadcasting. In general, resolution may be defined as:

resolution = (voltage span)/2b = (Vref high − Vref low )/2

b
 5.3. ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC) PROCESS 101
for the ATmega328, the resolution is:

resolution = (5 − 0)/210 = 4.88 mV

Data rate. The definition of the data rate is the amount of data generated by a system per some
time unit. Typically, the number of bits or the number of bytes per second is used as the data rate of
a system. We just saw that the more bits we use for the quantization levels, the more accurate we can
represent a sampled analog signal.Why not use the maximum number of bits current technologies can
offer for all digital systems, when we convert analog signals to digital counterparts? It has to do with
the cost involved. In particular, suppose you are working for a telephone company and your switching
system must accommodate 100,000 customers. For each individual phone conversation, suppose the
company uses an 8KHz sampling rate (fs ) and you are using 10 bits for the quantization levels for
each sampled signal.1 This means the voice conversation will be sampled every 125 microseconds
(Ts ) due to the reciprocal relationship between (fs ) and (Ts ). If all customers are making out of
town calls, what is the number of bits your switching system must process to accommodate all calls?
The answer will be 100,000 x 8000 x 10 or eight billion bits per every second! You will need some
major computing power to meet the requirement for processing and storage of the data. For such
reasons, when designers make decisions on the number of bits used for the quantization levels and
the sampling rate, they must consider the computational burden the selection will produce on the
computational capabilities of a digital system versus the required system resolution.
Dynamic range. You will also encounter the term “dynamic range” when you consider finding
appropriate analog-to-digital converters. The dynamic range is a measure used to describe the signal
to noise ratio. The unit used for the measurement is Decibel (dB), which is the strength of a signal
with respect to a reference signal. The greater the dB number, the stronger the signal is compared to
a noise signal. The definition of the dynamic range is 20 log 2b where b is the number of bits used
to convert analog signals to digital signals. Typically, you will find 8 to 12 bits used in commercial
analog-to-digital converters, translating the dynamic range from 20 log 28 dB to 20 log 212 dB.

5.3 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC) PROCESS

The goal of the ADC process is to accurately represent analog signals as digital signals. Toward
this end, three signal processing procedures, sampling, quantization, and encoding, described in the
previous section must be combined together. Before the ADC process takes place, we first need
to convert a physical signal into an electrical signal with the help of a transducer. A transducer
is an electrical and/or mechanical system that converts physical signals into electrical signals or
electrical signals to physical signals. Depending on the purpose, we categorize a transducer as an
input transducer or an output transducer. If the conversion is from physical to electrical, we call it an
input transducer. The mouse, the keyboard, and the microphone for your personal computer all fall
under this category. A camera, an infrared sensor, and a temperature sensor are also input transducers.
1 For the sake of our discussion, we ignore other overheads involved in processing a phone call such as multiplexing, de-multiplexing,
and serial-to-parallel conversion.
102 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)
The output transducer converts electrical signals to physical signals. The computer screen and the
printer for your computer are output transducers. Speakers and electrical motors are also output
transducers. Therefore, transducers play the central part for digital systems to operate in our physical
world by transforming physical signals to and from electrical signals. It is important to carefully
design the interface between transducers and the microcontroller to insure proper operation. A
poorly designed interface could result in improper embedded system operation or failure. Interface
techniques are discussed in detail in Chapter 8.

5.3.1 TRANSDUCER INTERFACE DESIGN (TID) CIRCUIT

In addition to transducers, we also need a signal conditioning circuitry before we apply the ADC.
The signal conditioning circuitry is called the transducer interface. The objective of the transducer
interface circuit is to scale and shift the electrical signal range to map the output of the input
transducer to the input range of the analog-to-digital converter which is typically 0 to 5 VDC.
Figure 5.2 shows the transducer interface circuit using an input transducer.

Xmax
V1max V2max

V1min
K
V2min
Xmin Scalar
Multiplier
Input Transducer ADC Input
B
(Bias)

Figure 5.2: A block diagram of the signal conditioning for an analog-to-digital converter. The range of
the sensor voltage output is mapped to the analog-to-digital converter input voltage range. The scalar
multiplier maps the magnitudes of the two ranges and the bias voltage is used to align two limits.

The output of the input transducer is first scaled by constant K. In the figure, we use a
microphone as the input transducer whose output ranges from -5 VDC to + 5 VDC. The input
to the analog-to-digital converter ranges from 0 VDC to 5 VDC. The box with constant K maps
the output range of the input transducer to the input range of the converter. Naturally, we need to
multiply all input signals by 1/2 to accommodate the mapping. Once the range has been mapped,
the signal now needs to be shifted. Note that the scale factor maps the output range of the input
transducer as -2.5 VDC to +2.5 VDC instead of 0 VDC to 5 VDC. The second portion of the circuit
shifts the range by 2.5 VDC, thereby completing the correct mapping. Actual implementation of
the TID circuit components is accomplished using operational amplifiers.
In general, the scaling and bias process may be described by two equations:
 5.3. ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC) PROCESS 103

V2max = (V1max × K) + B

V2min = (V1min × K) + B
The variable V1max represents the maximum output voltage from the input transducer. This
voltage occurs when the maximum physical variable (Xmax ) is presented to the input transducer.
This voltage must be scaled by the scalar multiplier (K) and then have a DC offset bias voltage (B)
added to provide the voltage V2max to the input of the ADC converter [USAFA].
Similarly, The variable V1min represents the minimum output voltage from the input trans-
ducer. This voltage occurs when the minimum physical variable (Xmin ) is presented to the input
transducer. This voltage must be scaled by the scalar multiplier (K) and then have a DC offset bias
voltage (B) added to produce voltage V2min to the input of the ADC converter.
Usually, the values of V1max and V1min are provided with the documentation for the transducer.
Also, the values of V2max and V2min are known. They are the high and low reference voltages for
the ADC system (usually 5 VDC and 0 VDC for a microcontroller). We thus have two equations
and two unknowns to solve for K and B. The circuits to scale by K and add the offset B are usually
implemented with operational amplifiers.
Example: A photodiode is a semiconductor device that provides an output current corre-
sponding to the light impinging on its active surface. The photodiode is used with a transimpedance
amplifier to convert the output current to an output voltage. A photodiode/transimpedance ampli-
fier provides an output voltage of 0 volts for maximum rated light intensity and -2.50 VDC output
voltage for the minimum rated light intensity. Calculate the required values of K and B for this light
transducer so it may be interfaced to a microcontroller’s ADC system.

V2max = (V1max × K) + B

V2min = (V1min × K) + B

5.0 V = (0 V × K) + B

0 V = (−2.50 V × K) + B
The values of K and B may then be determined to be 2 and 5 VDC, respectively.

5.3.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

In the previous section, we discussed the transducer interface design (TID) process. Going through
this design process yields a required value of gain (K) and DC bias (B). Operational amplifiers
(op amps) are typically used to implement a TID interface. In this section, we briefly introduce
104 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)
operational amplifiers including ideal op amp characteristics, classic op amp circuit configurations,
and an example to illustrate how to implement a TID with op amps. Op amps are also used in a
wide variety of other applications including analog computing, analog filter design, and a myriad
of other applications. We do not have the space to investigate all of these related applications. The
interested reader is referred to the References section at the end of the chapter for pointers to some
excellent texts on this topic.

5.3.2.1 The ideal operational amplifier

A generic ideal operational amplifier is illustrated in Figure 5.3. An ideal operational does not exist
in the real world. However, it is a good first approximation for use in developing op amp application
circuits.

Vcc
Vo
In
Vn - Vcc saturation

Vo = Avol (Vp - Vn)

Ip
Vp + linear region
-Vcc Vi = Vp - Vn

Ideal conditions:
-- In = Ip = 0
-Vcc
-- Vp = Vn saturation
-- Avol >> 50,000
-- Vo = Avol (Vp - Vn)

Figure 5.3: Ideal operational amplifier characteristics.

The op amp is an active device (requires power supplies) equipped with two inputs, a single
output, and several voltage source inputs. The two inputs are labeled Vp, or the non-inverting input,
and Vn, the inverting input. The output of the op amp is determined by taking the difference
between Vp and Vn and multiplying the difference by the open loop gain (Avol ) of the op amp
which is typically a large value much greater than 50,000. Due to the large value of Avol , it does not
take much of a difference between Vp and Vn before the op amp will saturate. When an op amp
saturates, it does not damage the op amp, but the output is limited to the supply voltages ±Vcc .
This will clip the output, and hence distort the signal, at levels slightly less than ±Vcc . Op amps
are typically used in a closed loop, negative feedback configuration. A sample of classic operational
amplifier configurations with negative feedback are provided in Figure 5.4 [Faulkenberry].
It should be emphasized that the equations provided with each operational amplifier circuit
are only valid if the circuit configurations are identical to those shown. Even a slight variation in the
circuit configuration may have a dramatic effect on circuit operation. It is important to analyze each
operational amplifier circuit using the following steps:
 5.3. ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC) PROCESS 105

Rf
+Vcc
+Vcc -
Ri Vout = Vin
- +
Vin Vout = - (Rf / Ri)(Vin)
+ Vin -Vcc
-Vcc

a) Inverting amplifier b) Voltage follower

Rf Ri Rf

Ri
+Vcc V1 +Vcc
- -
Vout = ((Rf + Ri)/Ri)(Vin) Vout = (Rf/Ri)(V2 -V1)
+ +
Vin -Vcc V2 -Vcc

Ri Rf
c) Non-inverting amplifier d) Differential input amplifier

R1
Rf Rf
V1
R2
V2 +Vcc +Vcc
R3
V3 - -
Vout = - (Rf / R1)(V1) Vout = - (I Rf)
+ +
- (Rf / R2)(V2) I
-Vcc -Vcc
- (Rf / R3)(V3)

e) Scaling adder amplifier f) Transimpedance amplifier

(current-to-voltage converter)

Rf C

+Vcc Rf +Vcc
C
- -
Vin Vout = - Rf C (dVin/dt) Vin Vout = - 1/(Rf C) (Vindt)
+ +
-Vcc -Vcc

g) Differentiator h) Integrator

Figure 5.4: Classic operational amplifier configurations. Adapted from [Faulkenberry].

106 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)
• Write the node equation at Vn for the circuit.

• Apply ideal op amp characteristics to the node equation.

• Solve the node equation for Vo.

As an example, we provide the analysis of the non-inverting amplifier circuit in Figure 5.5.
This same analysis technique may be applied to all of the circuits in Figure 5.4 to arrive at the
equations for Vout provided.

Rf Node equation at Vn:

(Vn - Vin)/ Ri + (Vn - Vout)/Rf + In = 0

Vn +Vcc
Ri Apply ideal conditions:

In
- In = Ip = 0
Vin Vout
Ip
+ Vn = Vp = 0 (since Vp is grounded)

Vp -Vcc
Solve node equation for Vout:

Vout = - (Rf / Ri)(Vin)

Figure 5.5: Operational amplifier analysis for the non-inverting amplifier. Adapted from [Faulkenberry].

Example: In the previous section, it was determined that the values of K and B were 2
and 5 VDC, respectively. The two-stage op amp circuitry provided in Figure 5.6 implements these
values of K and B. The first stage provides an amplification of -2 due to the use of the non-inverting
amplifier configuration. In the second stage, a summing amplifier is used to add the output of the
first stage with a bias of – 5 VDC. Since this stage also introduces a minus sign to the result, the
overall result of a gain of 2 and a bias of +5 VDC is achieved.

5.4 ADC CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

The ATmega328 uses a successive-approximation converter technique to convert an analog sample
into a 10-bit digital representation. In this section, we will discuss this type of conversion process. For a
review of other converter techniques, the interested reader is referred to “Atmel AVR Microcontroller
Primer: Programming and Interfacing.” In certain applications, you are required to use converter
technologies external to the microcontroller.
 5.5. THE ATMEL ATMEGA328 ADC SYSTEM 107

Rf = 20K
Rf = 10K

+Vcc
Ri = 10K +Vcc
- Ri = 10K
Vin -
+ -Vcc Vout
Ri = 10K +
-Vcc
bias = 5 VDC -Vcc
10K

Figure 5.6: Operational amplifier implementation of the transducer interface design (TID) example
circuit.

5.4.1 SUCCESSIVE-APPROXIMATION
The ATmega328 microcontroller is equipped with a successive-approximation ADC converter. The
successive-approximation technique uses a digital-to-analog converter, a controller, and a comparator
to perform the ADC process. Starting from the most significant bit down to the least significant
bit, the controller turns on each bit at a time and generates an analog signal, with the help of the
digital-to-analog converter, to be compared with the original input analog signal. Based on the
result of the comparison, the controller changes or leaves the current bit and turns on the next most
significant bit. The process continues until decisions are made for all available bits. Figure 5.7 shows
the architecture of this type of converter. The advantage of this technique is that the conversion time
is uniform for any input, but the disadvantage of the technology is the use of complex hardware for
implementation.

5.5 THE ATMEL ATMEGA328 ADC SYSTEM

The Atmel ATmega328 microcontroller is equipped with a flexible and powerful ADC system. It
has the following features [Atmel]:

• 10-bit resolution

• ±2 least significant bit (LSB) absolute accuracy

• 13 ADC clock cycle conversion time

• 6 multiplexed single ended input channels

108 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)

Analog
input signal

Analog
reference Digital-to-analog
signal converter Comparator

Start Controller
Conversion Serial digital output

Successive-approximation converter

Figure 5.7: Successive-approximation ADC.

• Selectable right or left result justification

• 0 to Vcc ADC input voltage range

Let’s discuss each feature in turn. The first feature of discussion is “10-bit resolution.” Reso-
lution is defined as:

Resolution = (VRH − VRL )/2b

VRH and VRL are the ADC high and low reference voltages. Whereas, “b” is the number of
bits available for conversion. For the ATmega328 with reference voltages of 5 VDC, 0 VDC, and
10-bits available for conversion, resolution is 4.88 mV. Absolute accuracy specified as ±2 LSB is
then ±9.76 mV at this resolution [Atmel].
It requires 13 analog-to-digital clock cycles to perform an ADC conversion.The ADC system
may be run at a slower clock frequency than the main microcontroller clock source. The main
microcontroller clock is divided down using the ADC Prescaler Select (ADPS[2:0]) bits in the
ADC Control and Status Register A (ADCSRA). A slower ADC clock results in improved ADC
accuracy at higher controller clock speeds.
The ADC is equipped with a single successive-approximation converter. Only a single ADC
channel may be converted at a given time. The input of the ADC is equipped with an six input
 5.5. THE ATMEL ATMEGA328 ADC SYSTEM 109
analog multiplexer. The analog input for conversion is selected using the MUX[3:0] bits in the ADC
Multiplexer Selection Register (ADMUX).
The 10-bit result from the conversion process is placed in the ADC Data Registers, ADCH
and ADCL. These two registers provide 16 bits for the 10-bit result. The result may be left justified
by setting the ADLAR (ADC Left Adjust Result) bit of the ADMUX register. Right justification
is provided by clearing this bit.
The analog input voltage for conversion must be between 0 and Vcc volts. If this is not the
case, external circuitry must be used to insure the analog input voltage is within these prescribed
bounds as discussed earlier in the chapter.

5.5.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

The block diagram for the ATmega328 ADC conversion system is provided in Figure 5.8. The left
edge of the diagram provides the external microcontroller pins to gain access to the ADC. The six
analog input channels are provided at ADC[5:0] and the ADC reference voltage pins are provided
at AREF and AVCC. The key features and registers of the ADC system previously discussed are
included in the diagram.

5.5.2 REGISTERS
The key registers for the ADC system are shown in Figure 5.9. It must be emphasized that the ADC
system has many advanced capabilities that we do not discuss here. Our goal is to review the basic
ADC conversion features of this powerful system. We have already discussed many of the register
setting already. We will discuss each register in turn [Atmel].

5.5.2.1 ADC Multiplexer Selection Register (ADMUX)

As previously discussed, the ADMUX register contains the ADLAR bit to select left or right
justification and the MUX[3:0] bits to determine which analog input will be provided to the analog-
to-digital converter for conversion. To select a specific input for conversion is accomplished when a
binary equivalent value is loaded into the MUX[3:0] bits. For example, to convert channel ADC7,
“0111” is loaded into the ADMUX register. This may be accomplished using the following C
instruction:

ADMUX = 0x07;

The REFS[1:0] bits of the ADMUX register are also used to determine the reference voltage
source for the ADC system. These bits may be set to the following values:

• REFS[0:0] = 00: AREF used for ADC voltage reference

• REFS[0:1] = 01: AVCC with external capacitor at the AREF pin

• REFS[1:0] = 10: Reserved

110 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)

Figure 5.8: Atmel AVR ATmega328 ADC block diagram. (Figure used with permission of Atmel,
Incorporated.)
 5.5. THE ATMEL ATMEGA328 ADC SYSTEM 111

ADC Multiplexer Selection Register - ADMUX

REFS1 REFS0 ADLAR --- MUX3 MUX2 MUX1 MUX0
7 0
ADC Control and Status Register A - ADCSRA
ADEN ADSC ADATE ADIF ADIE ADPS2 ADPS1 ADPS0
7 0

ADC Data Register - ADCH and ADCL (ADLAR = 0)

--- --- --- --- --- --- ADC9 ADC8 ADCH
15 8
ADC7 ADC6 ADC5 ADC4 ADC3 ADC2 ADC1 ADC0 ADCL
7 0

ADC Data Register - ADCH and ADCL (ADLAR = 1)

ADC9 ADC8 ADC7 ADC6 ADC5 ADC4 ADC3 ADC2 ADCH
15 8
ADC1 ADC0 --- --- --- --- --- --- ADCL
7 0

Figure 5.9: ADC Registers. Adapted from Atmel.

• REFS[1:1] = 11: Internal 1.1 VDC voltage reference with an external capacitor at the AREF
pin

5.5.2.2 ADC Control and Status Register A (ADCSRA)

The ADCSRA register contains the ADC Enable (ADEN) bit. This bit is the “on/off ” switch
for the ADC system. The ADC is turned on by setting this bit to a logic one. The ADC Start
Conversion (ADSC) bit is also contained in the ADCSRA register. Setting this bit to logic one
initiates an ADC. The ADCSRA register also contains the ADC Interrupt flag (ADIF) bit. This
bit sets to logic one when the ADC is complete. The ADIF bit is reset by writing a logic one to this
bit.
The ADC Prescaler Select (ADPS[2:0]) bits are used to set the ADC clock frequency. The
ADC clock is derived from dividing down the main microcontroller clock. The ADPS[2:0] may be
set to the following values:
• ADPS[2:0] = 000: division factor 2
112 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)
• ADPS[2:0] = 001: division factor 2

• ADPS[2:0] = 010: division factor 4

• ADPS[2:0] = 011: division factor 8

• ADPS[2:0] = 100: division factor 16

• ADPS[2:0] = 101: division factor 32

• ADPS[2:0] = 110: division factor 64

• ADPS[2:0] = 111: division factor 128

5.5.2.3 ADC Data Registers (ADCH, ADCL)

As previously discussed, the ADC Data Register contains the result of the ADC. The results may
be left (ADLAR=1) or right (ADLAR=0) justified.

5.6 PROGRAMMING THE ADC USING THE ARDUINO

DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT
The Arduino Development Environment has the built-in function analogRead to perform an ADC
conversion. The format for the analogRead function is:

unsigned int return_value;

return_value = analogRead(analog_pin_read);

The function returns an unsigned integer value from 0 to 1023, corresponding to the voltage
span from 0 to 5 VDC.
Recall that we introduced the use of this function in the Application section at the end of
Chapter 3. The analogRead function was used to read the analog output values from the three IR
sensors on the Blinky 602A robot.

5.7 PROGRAMMING THE ADC IN C

Provided below are two functions to operate the ATmega328 ADC system. The first function
“InitADC( )” initializes the ADC by first performing a dummy conversion on channel 0. In this
particular example, the ADC prescalar is set to 8 (the main microcontroller clock was operating at
10 MHz).
The function then enters a while loop waiting for the ADIF bit to set indicating the conversion
is complete. After conversion the ADIF bit is reset by writing a logic one to it.
 5.7. PROGRAMMING THE ADC IN C 113
The second function, “ReadADC(unsigned char),” is used to read the analog voltage from the
specified ADC channel. The desired channel for conversion is passed in as an unsigned character
variable. The result is returned as a left justified, 10 bit binary result. The ADC prescalar must be set
to 8 to slow down the ADC clock at higher external clock frequencies (10 MHz) to obtain accurate
results. After the ADC is complete, the results in the eight bit ADCL and ADCH result registers
are concatenated into a 16-bit unsigned integer variable and returned to the function call.

//*************************************************************************
//InitADC: initialize analog-to-digital converter
//*************************************************************************

void InitADC( void)

{
ADMUX = 0; //Select channel 0
ADCSRA = 0xC3; //Enable ADC & start 1st dummy
//conversion

//Set ADC module prescalar to 8

//critical for accurate ADC results

while (!(ADCSRA & 0x10)); //Check if conversation is ready
ADCSRA |= 0x10; //Clear conv rdy flag - set the bit
}

//*************************************************************************
//ReadADC: read analog voltage from analog-to-digital converter -
//the desired channel for conversion is passed in as an unsigned
//character variable.
//The result is returned as a right justified, 10 bit binary result.
//The ADC prescalar must be set to 8 to slow down the ADC clock at higher
//external clock frequencies (10 MHz) to obtain accurate results.
//*************************************************************************

unsigned int ReadADC(unsigned char channel)

{
unsigned int binary_weighted_voltage, binary_weighted_voltage_low;
//weighted binary voltage
unsigned int binary_weighted_voltage_high;
114 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)

ADMUX = channel; //Select channel

ADCSRA |= 0x43; //Start conversion
//Set ADC module prescalar to 8
//critical for accurate ADC results
while (!(ADCSRA & 0x10)); //Check if conversion is ready
ADCSRA |= 0x10; //Clear Conv rdy flag - set the bit
binary_weighted_voltage_low = ADCL; //Read 8 low bits first (important)
//Read 2 high bits, multiply by 256
binary_weighted_voltage_high = ((unsigned int)(ADCH << 8));
binary_weighted_voltage = binary_weighted_voltage_low |
binary_weighted_voltage_high;
return binary_weighted_voltage; //ADCH:ADCL
}

//*************************************************************************

5.8 EXAMPLE: ADC RAIN GAGE INDICATOR

In this example, we construct a rain gage type level display using small light emitting diodes. The
rain gage indicator consists of a panel of eight light emitting diodes. The gage may be constructed
from individual diodes or from an LED bar containing eight elements. Whichever style is chosen,
the interface requirements between the processor and the LEDs are the same.
The requirement for this project is to use the analog-to-digital converter to illuminate up to
eight LEDs based on the input voltage. A 10k trimmer potentiometer is connected to the ADC
channel to vary the input voltage. We first provide a solution using the Arduino Development
Environment with the Arduino Duemilanove processing board. Then a solution employing the
ATmega328 programmed in C is provided.

5.8.1 ADC RAIN GAGE INDICATOR USING THE ARDUINO

DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT
The circuit configuration employing the Arduino Duemilanove processing board is provided in
Figure 5.10. The DIGITAL pins of the microcontroller are used to communicate with the LED
interface circuit. We describe the operation of the LED interface circuit in Chapter 8.
The sketch to implement the project requirements is provided below. As in previous examples,
we define the Arduino Duemilanove pins, set them for output via the setup() function, and write
the loop() function. In this example, the loop() function senses the voltage from the 10K trimmer
potentiometer and illuminates a series of LEDs corresponding to the sensed voltage levels.

//*************************************************************************
 5.8. EXAMPLE: ADC RAIN GAGE INDICATOR 115

Vcc = 5 V
220

Vcc = 5 V
2N2222
10K 220

2N2222
10K

Vcc = 5 V
220

Vcc = 5 V
2N2222
10K 220

2N2222
10K

Vcc = 5 V
220

Vcc = 5 V
2N2222
10K 220

3 21 0 9 8 76 5 4 32 1 0 2N2222
1 1 1 1 DIGITAL 10K
Arduino
Duemilanove
Vcc = 5 V
220

Vcc = 5 V
2N2222
10K 220

ANALOG IN
5VGnd 0 123 4 5
2N2222
10K

Vcc = 5 V

10K

Figure 5.10: ADC with rain gage level indicator.

116 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)
#define trim_pot 0 //analog input pin

//digital output pins

//LED indicators 0 - 7
#define LED0 0 //digital pin
#define LED1 1 //digital pin
#define LED2 2 //digital pin
#define LED3 3 //digital pin
#define LED4 4 //digital pin
#define LED5 5 //digital pin
#define LED6 6 //digital pin
#define LED7 7 //digital pin

int trim_pot_reading; //declare variable for trim pot

void setup()
{
//LED indicators - wall detectors
pinMode(LED0, OUTPUT); //configure pin 0 for digital output
pinMode(LED1, OUTPUT); //configure pin 1 for digital output
pinMode(LED2, OUTPUT); //configure pin 2 for digital output
pinMode(LED3, OUTPUT); //configure pin 3 for digital output
pinMode(LED4, OUTPUT); //configure pin 4 for digital output
pinMode(LED5, OUTPUT); //configure pin 5 for digital output
pinMode(LED6, OUTPUT); //configure pin 6 for digital output
pinMode(LED7, OUTPUT); //configure pin 7 for digital output
}

void loop()
{
//read analog output from trim pot
trim_pot_reading = analogRead(trim_pot);

if(trim_pot_reading < 128)

{
digitalWrite(LED0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED1, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED2, LOW);
 5.8. EXAMPLE: ADC RAIN GAGE INDICATOR 117
digitalWrite(LED3, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED4, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED5, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED6, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED7, LOW);
}
else if(trim_pot_reading < 256)
{
digitalWrite(LED0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED2, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED3, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED4, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED5, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED6, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED7, LOW);
}
else if(trim_pot_reading < 384)
{
digitalWrite(LED0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED3, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED4, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED5, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED6, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED7, LOW);
}
else if(trim_pot_reading < 512)
{
digitalWrite(LED0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED3, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED4, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED5, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED6, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED7, LOW);
}
118 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)
else if(trim_pot_reading < 640)
{
digitalWrite(LED0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED3, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED4, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED5, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED6, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED7, LOW);
}
else if(trim_pot_reading < 768)
{
digitalWrite(LED0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED3, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED4, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED5, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED6, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED7, LOW);
}
else if(trim_pot_reading < 896)
{
digitalWrite(LED0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED3, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED4, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED5, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED6, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED7, LOW);

}
else
{
digitalWrite(LED0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED2, HIGH);
 5.8. EXAMPLE: ADC RAIN GAGE INDICATOR 119
digitalWrite(LED3, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED4, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED5, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED6, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED7, HIGH);

}
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
}

//*************************************************************************

5.8.2 ADC RAIN GAGE INDICATOR IN C

We now implement the rain gage indicator with the control algorithm (sketch) programmed in
C for the ATmega328. The circuit configuration employing the ATmega328 is provided in Figure
5.11. PORT D of the microcontroller is used to communicate with the LED interface circuit. In
this example, we extend the requirements of the project:
• Write a function to display an incrementing binary count from 0 to 255 on the LEDs.
• Write a function to display a decrementing binary count from 255 to 0 on the LEDs.
• Use the analog-to-digital converter to illuminate up to eight LEDs based on the input voltage.
A 10k trimmer potentiometer is connected to the ADC channel to vary the input voltage.
The algorithm for the project was written by Anthony (Tony) Kunkel, MSEE and Geoff
Luke, MSEE, at the University of Wyoming for an Industrial Controls class assignment. A 30 ms
delay is provided between PORTD LED display updates. This prevents the display from looking as
a series of LEDs that are always illuminated.
//*************************************************************************
//Tony Kunkel and Geoff Luke
//University of Wyoming
//*************************************************************************
//This program calls four functions:
//First: Display an incrementing binary count on PORTD from 0-255
//Second: Display a decrementing count on PORTD from 255-0
//Third: Display rain gauge info on PORTD
//Fourth: Delay 30 ms when ever PORTD is updated
//*************************************************************************

//ATMEL register definitions for ATmega328

120 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)

Vcc = 5 V
220

Vcc = 5 V
2N2222
10K 220

2N2222
10K
Atmega328
1 PUR - PC6 PC5 28
Vcc = 5 V Vcc = 5 V
2 RXD1 - PD0 PC4 27
3 TXD1 - PD1 PC3 26 220
4 PD2 PC2 25 10K
VDD 1M sys reset 5 PD3 PC1 24
1.0 uF 6 PD4 PCO 23
7 Vcc Vcc = 5 V
GND 22 2N2222
8 GND AREF 21 VDD 10K 220
9 PB6 AVCC 20
10 PB7 PB5 19
11 PD5 PB4 18
12 PD6 PB3 17 2N2222
13 PD7 PB2 16 10K
14 PB0 PB1 15

Vcc = 5 V
220

Vcc = 5 V
2N2222
10K 220

2N2222
10K

Vcc = 5 V
220

Vcc = 5 V
2N2222
10K 220

2N2222
10K

Figure 5.11: ADC with rain gage level indicator.

 5.8. EXAMPLE: ADC RAIN GAGE INDICATOR 121
#include<iom328pv.h>

//function prototypes
void display_increment(void); //Function
to display increment to PORTD
void display_decrement(void); //Function
to display decrement to PORTD
void rain_gage(void)
void InitADC(void); //Initialize ADC converter
unsigned int ReadADC(); //Read specified ADC channel
void delay_30ms(void); //Function to delay 30 ms

//*************************************************************************

int main(void)
{
display_increment(); //Display incrementing binary on

//PORTD from 0-255

delay_30ms(); //Delay 30 ms

display_decrement(); //Display decrementing binary on

//PORTD from 255-0

delay_30ms(); //Delay 30 ms

InitADC();

while(1)
{
rain_gage(); //Display gage info on PORTD
delay_30ms(); //Delay 30 ms
}

return 0;
}
122 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)
//*************************************************************************
//function definitions
//*************************************************************************

//*************************************************************************
//30 ms delay based on an 8MHz clock
//*************************************************************************

void delay_30ms(void)
{
int i, k;

for(i=0; i<400; i++)

{
for(k=0; k<300; k++)
{
asm("nop"); //assembly language nop, requires 2 cycles
}
}
}

//*************************************************************************
//Displays incrementing binary count from 0 to 255
//*************************************************************************

void display_increment(void)
{
int i;
unsigned char j = 0x00;

DDRD = 0xFF; //set PORTD to output

for(i=0; i<255; i++)

{
j++; //increment j
PORTD = j; //assign j to data port
delay_30ms(); //wait 30 ms
}
}
 5.8. EXAMPLE: ADC RAIN GAGE INDICATOR 123

//*************************************************************************
//Displays decrementing binary count from 255 to 0
//*************************************************************************

void display_decrement(void)
{
int i;
unsigned char j = 0xFF;

DDRD = 0xFF; //set PORTD to output

for(i=0; i<256; i++)

{
j=(j-0x01); //decrement j by one
PORTD = j; //assign char j to data port
delay_30ms(); //wait 30 ms
}
}

//*************************************************************************
//Initializes ADC
//*************************************************************************

void InitADC(void)
{
ADMUX = 0; //Select channel 0
ADCSRA = 0xC3; //Enable ADC & start dummy conversion
//Set ADC module prescalar
//to 8 critical for
//accurate ADC results
while (!(ADCSRA & 0x10)); //Check if conversation is ready
ADCSRA |= 0x10; //Clear conv rdy flag - set the bit
}

//*************************************************************************
//ReadADC: read analog voltage from analog-to-digital converter -
//the desired channel for conversion is passed in as an unsigned
124 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)
//character variable. The result is returned as a right justified,
//10 bit binary result.
//The ADC prescalar must be set to 8 to slow down the ADC clock at
//higher external clock frequencies (10 MHz) to obtain accurate results.
//*************************************************************************

unsigned int ReadADC(unsigned char channel)

{
unsigned int binary_weighted_voltage, binary_weighted_voltage_low;
unsigned int binary_weighted_voltage_high; //weighted binary voltage

ADMUX = channel; //Select channel

ADCSRA |= 0x43; //Start conversion
//Set ADC module prescalar
//to 8 critical for
//accurate ADC results
while (!(ADCSRA & 0x10)); //Check if conversion is ready
ADCSRA |= 0x10; //Clear Conv rdy flag - set the bit
binary_weighted_voltage_low = ADCL; //Read 8 low bits first-(important)
//Read 2 high bits, multiply by 256
binary_weighted_voltage_high = ((unsigned int)(ADCH << 8));
binary_weighted_voltage = binary_weighted_voltage_low |
binary_weighted_voltage_high;
return binary_weighted_voltage; //ADCH:ADCL
}

//*************************************************************************
//Displays voltage magnitude as LED level on PORTB
//*************************************************************************

void rain_gage(void)
{
unsigned int ADCValue;

ADCValue = readADC(0x00);

DDRD = 0xFF; //set PORTD to output

if(ADCValue < 128)

 5.8. EXAMPLE: ADC RAIN GAGE INDICATOR 125
{
PORTD = 0x01;
}
else if(ADCValue < 256)
{
PORTD = 0x03;
}
else if(ADCValue < 384)
{
PORTD = 0x07;
}
else if(ADCValue < 512)
{
PORTD = 0x0F;
}
else if(ADCValue < 640)
{
PORTD = 0x1F;
}
else if(ADCValue < 768)
{
PORTD = 0x3F;
}
else if(ADCValue < 896)
{
PORTD = 0x7F;
}
else
{
PORTD = 0xAA;
}
}
//*************************************************************************
//*************************************************************************

5.8.3 ADC RAIN GAGE USING THE ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT

ENVIRONMENT—REVISITED
If you carefully compare the two implementations of the rain gage indicator provided in the two pre-
vious examples, you will note that some activities are easier to perform in the Arduino Development
126 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)
Environment while others are easier to accomplish in C. Is it possible to mix the two techniques for
a more efficient sketch? The answer is “yes!”
In this example, we revise the earlier Arduino Development Environment sketch using por-
tions of the original sketch with the ATmega328 control algorithm code to significantly shorten
the program. In particular, we will address PORTD directly in the sketch to shorten up the code
when the LEDs are illuminated. Recall in Chapter 1, we provided the open source schematic of
the Arduino Duemilanove processing board (Figure ??). Careful study of the schematic reveals that
DIGITAL pins 7 to 0 are connected to PORTD of the Arduino Duemilanove processing board.
This allows direct configuration of PORTD using C language constructs.

//*************************************************************************
#define trim_pot 0 //analog input pin

int trim_pot_reading; //declare variable for trim pot

void setup()
{
DDRD = 0xFF; //Set PORTD (DIGITAL pins 7 to 0)
} //as output

void loop()
{
//read analog output from trim pot
trim_pot_reading = analogRead(trim_pot);

if(trim_pot_reading < 128)

{
PORTD = 0x01; //illuminate LED 0
}
else if(trim_pot_reading < 256)
{
PORTD = 0x03; //illuminate LED 0-1
}
else if(trim_pot_reading < 384)
{
PORTD = 0x07; //illuminate LED 0-2
}
else if(trim_pot_reading < 512)
{
PORTD = 0x0F; //illuminate LED 0-3
 5.9. ONE-BIT ADC - THRESHOLD DETECTOR 127
}
else if(trim_pot_reading < 640)
{
PORTD = 0x1F; //illuminate LED 0-4
}
else if(trim_pot_reading < 768)
{
PORTD = 0x3F; //illuminate LED 0-5
}
else if(trim_pot_reading < 896)
{
PORTD = 0x7F; //illuminate LED 0-6
}
else
{
PORTD = 0xFF; //illuminate LED 0-7
}
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
}

//*************************************************************************

5.9 ONE-BIT ADC - THRESHOLD DETECTOR

A threshold detector circuit or comparator configuration contains an operational amplifier employed

in the open loop configuration. That is, no feedback is provided from the output back to the input
to limit gain. A threshold level is applied to one input of the op amp. This serves as a comparison
reference for the signal applied to the other input. The two inputs are constantly compared to one
another. When the input signal is greater than the set threshold value, the op amp will saturate
to a value slightly less than +Vcc as shown in Figure 5.12a). When the input signal falls below
the threshold the op amp will saturate at a voltage slightly greater than –Vcc. If a single-sided op
amp is used in the circuit (e.g., LM324), the –Vcc supply pin may be connected to ground. In this
configuration, the op map provides for a one-bit ADC circuit.
A bank of threshold detectors may be used to construct a multi-channel threshold detector
as shown in Figure 5.12c). This provides a flash converter type ADC. It is a hardware version
of a rain gage indicator. In Chapter 1, we provided a 14-channel version for use in a laboratory
instrumentation project.
128 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)

Vo
Vcc saturation
+Vcc= 5 V

Vp
Vi + Vi > Vth
Vout
+Vcc Vn saturation
- Vth
Vi

Vth

a) Threshold detector b) Transfer characteristic for threshold detector

+5 VDC
voltage level
+5 VDC for comparison
10K (4) +5 VDC
4/5 supply (2)
(1)
(3)
(11) 220
10K small LED
3/5 supply (6)
(7)
(5)
220
10K small LED
2/5 supply (9)
(8)
(10)
220
10K small LED
1/5 supply (13)
(14)
(12)
220
10K small LED

threshold
detectors

c) 4-channel threshold detector

Figure 5.12: One-bit ADC threshold detector.

 5.10. DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION (DAC) 129

5.10 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION (DAC)

Once a signal is acquired to a digital system with the help of the analog-to digital conversion process
and has been processed, frequently the processed signal is converted back to another analog signal.
A simple example of such a conversion occurs in digital audio processing. Human voice is converted
to a digital signal, modified, processed, and converted back to an analog signal for people to hear.
The process to convert digital signals to analog signals is completed by a digital-to-analog converter.
The most commonly used technique to convert digital signals to analog signals is the summation
method shown in Figure 5.13.

scalar
comparators multipliers
MSB
1/2

1/4
quantized
analog
signal
1/8
adder

LSB
1/2n

2.5 v

Figure 5.13: A summation method to convert a digital signal into a quantized analog signal. Comparators
are used to clean up incoming signals and the resulting values are multiplied by a scalar multiplier and the
results are added to generate the output signal. For the final analog signal, the quantized analog signal
should be connected to a low pass filter followed by a transducer interface circuit.

With the summation method of digital-to-analog conversion, a digital signal, represented by

a set of ones and zeros, enters the digital-to-analog converter from the most significant bit to the
least significant bit. For each bit, a comparator checks its logic state, high or low, to produce a clean
digital bit, represented by a voltage level. Typically, in a microcontroller context, the voltage level is
130 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)
+5 or 0 volts to represent logic one or logic zero, respectively. The voltage is then multiplied by a
scalar value based on its significant position of the digital signal as shown in Figure 5.13. Once all
bits for the signal have been processed, the resulting voltage levels are summed together to produce
the final analog voltage value. Notice that the production of a desired analog signal may involve
further signal conditioning such as a low pass filter to ‘smooth’ the quantized analog signal and a
transducer interface circuit to match the output of the digital-to-analog converter to the input of an
output transducer.

5.10.1 DAC WITH THE ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT

The analogWrite command within the Arduino Development Environment issues a signal from 0
to 5 VDC by sending a constant from 0 to 255 using pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques.
This signal, when properly filtered, serves as a DC signal. The Blinky 602A control sketch provided
in Chapter 3 used the analogWrite command to issue drive signals to the robot motors to navigate
the robot through the maze.
The form of the analogWrite command is the following:
analogWrite(output pin, value);

5.10.2 DAC WITH EXTERNAL CONVERTERS

A microcontroller can be equipped with a wide variety of DAC configurations including:
• Single channel, 8-bit DAC connected via a parallel port (e.g., Motorola MC1408P8)

• Quad channel, 8-bit DAC connected via a parallel port (e.g., Analog Devices AD7305)

• Quad channel, 8-bit DAC connected via the SPI (e.g., Analog Devices AD7304)

• Octal channel, 8-bit DAC connected via the SPI (e.g., Texas Instrument TLC5628)
Space does not allow an in depth look at each configuration, but we will examine the TLC5628
in more detail.

5.10.3 OCTAL CHANNEL, 8-BIT DAC VIA THE SPI

The Texas Instruments (TI) TLC5628 is an eight channel, 8-bit DAC connected to the microcon-
troller via the SPI. Reference Figure 5.14a). It has a wide range of features packed into a 16-pin
chip including [Texas Instrument]:
• Eight individual, 8-bit DAC channels,

• Operation from a single 5 VDC supply,

• Data load via the SPI interface,

• Programmable gain (1X or 2X), and

 5.11. APPLICATION: ART PIECE ILLUMINATION SYSTEM – REVISITED 131
• A 12-bit command word to program each DAC.
Figure 5.14b) provides the interconnection between the ATmega328 and the TLC5628. The
ATmega328 SPI’s SCK line is connected to the TLC5628: the MOSI to the serial data line and
PORTB[2] to the Load line. As can be seen in the timing diagram, two sequential bytes are sent
from the ATmega328 to select the appropriate DAC channel and to provide updated data to the
DAC. The Load line is pulsed low to update the DAC. In this configuration, the LDAC line is tied
low. The function to transmit data to the DAC is left as an assignment for the reader at the end of
the chapter.

5.11 APPLICATION: ART PIECE ILLUMINATION SYSTEM –

REVISITED
In Chapter 2, we investigated an illumination system for a painting. The painting was to be illumi-
nated via high intensity white LEDs. The LEDs could be mounted in front of or behind the painting
as the artist desired. We equipped the lighting system with an IR sensor to detect the presence of
someone viewing the piece. We also wanted to adjust the intensity of the lighting based on how the
close viewer was to the art piece. A circuit diagram of the system is provided in Figure 5.15.
The Arduino Development Environment sketch to sense how away the viewer is and issue
a proportional intensity control signal to illuminate the LED is provided below. The analogRead
function is used to obtain the signal from the IR sensor. The analogWrite function is used to issue
a proportional signal.
//*************************************************************************
//analog input pins
#define viewer_sensor 0 //analog pin - left IR sensor

//digital output pins

#define illumination_output 0 //illumination output pin

unsigned int viewer_sensor_reading; //current value of sensor output

void setup()
{
pinMode(illumination_output, OUTPUT); //config. pin 0 for dig. output
}

void loop()
{ //read analog output from
//IR sensors
viewer_sensor_reading = analogRead(viewer_sensor);
132 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)

buffer
REF1
DAC gain DACA
latch latch
buffer
buffer RNG
REF2
DAC gain DACE
latch latch
RNG buffer

A[2:0] D[7:0] RNG

CLK
DATA serial interface
LOAD
LDAC
a) TLC5628 octal 8-bit DACs

ATmega164/TLC5628
SCK/CLK CLK CLK
LOW LOW
MOSI/DATA A2 A1 A0 RNG D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

PORTB[2]/Load
b) TLC5628 timing diagram

A[2:0] DAC Updated D[7:0] Output Voltage

000 DACA 0000_0000 GND
001 DACB 0000_0001 (1/256) x REF(1+RNG)
010 DACC : :
011 DACD : :
100 DACE : :
101 DACF : :
110 DACG : :
111 DACH 1111_1111 (255/256) x REF (1+RNG)

c) TLC5628 bit assignments.

Figure 5.14: Eight channel DAC. Adapted from [Texas Instrument].

 5.11. APPLICATION: ART PIECE ILLUMINATION SYSTEM – REVISITED 133
5 VDC

220

10K
2N2222

3 21 0 9 8 76 5 4 32 1 0
1 1 1 1 DIGITAL
Ground
Arduino
Duemilanove

ANALOG IN
5VGnd 0 123 4 5

R Y B

IR sensor

Figure 5.15: IR sensor interface.

if(viewer_sensor_reading < 128)

{
analogWrite(illumination_output,31); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(viewer_sensor_reading < 256)
{
analogWrite(illumination_output,63); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(viewer_sensor_reading < 384)
134 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)
{
analogWrite(illumination_output,95); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(viewer_sensor_reading < 512)
{
analogWrite(illumination_output,127); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(viewer_sensor_reading < 640)
{
analogWrite(illumination_output,159); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(viewer_sensor_reading < 768)
{
analogWrite(illumination_output,191); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(viewer_sensor_reading < 896)
{
analogWrite(illumination_output,223); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else
{
analogWrite(illumination_output,255); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
}

//*************************************************************************

5.12 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we presented the differences between analog and digital signals and used this knowl-
edge to discuss three sub-processing steps involved in analog to digital converters: sampling, quan-
tization, and encoding. We also presented the quantization errors and the data rate associated with
the ADC process. The dynamic range of an analog-to-digital converter, one of the measures to
describe a conversion process, was also presented. We then presented the successive-approximation
converter. Transducer interface design concepts were then discussed along with supporting informa-
tion on operational amplifier configurations. We then reviewed the operation, registers, and actions
required to program the ADC system aboard the ATmega328. We concluded the chapter with a
discussion of the ADC process and an implementation using a multi-channel DAC connected to
the ATmega328 SPI system.
 5.13. REFERENCES 135

5.13 REFERENCES
• Atmel 8-bit AVR Microcontroller with 16K Bytes In-System Programmable Flash, ATmega328,
ATmega328L, data sheet: 2466L-AVR-06/05, Atmel Corporation, 2325 Orchard Parkway,
San Jose, CA 95131.

• Barrett S, Pack D (2006) Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00025ED1V01Y200605DCS001

• Barrett S and Pack D (2008) Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer Programming and Inter-
facing. Morgan and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00100ED1V01Y200712DCS015

• Barrett S (2010) Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00225ED1V01Y200910DCS025

• Roland Thomas and Albert Rosa, The Analysis and Design of Linear Circuits, Fourth Edition,
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2003.

• M.A. Hollander, editor, Electrical Signals and Systems, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Compa-
nies, Inc, 1999.

• Daniel Pack and Steven Barrett, Microcontroller Theory and Applications: HC12 and S12, Pren-
tice Hall, 2ed, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, 2008.

• Alan Oppenheim and Ronald Schafer, Discrete-time Signal Processing, Second Edition, Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1999.

• John Enderle, Susan Blanchard, and Joseph Bronzino, Introduction to Biomedical Engineering,
Academic Press, 2000.

• L. Faulkenberry, An Introduction to Operational Amplifiers, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1977.

• P. Horowitz and W. Hill, The Art of Electronics, Cambridge University Press, 1989.

• L. Faulkenberry, Introduction to Operational Amplifiers with Linear Integrated Circuit Applica-

tions, 1982.

• D. Stout and M. Kaufman, Handbook of Operational Amplifier Circuit Design McGraw-Hill

Book Company, 1976.

• S. Franco, Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog Integrated Circuits, third edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 2002.

• TLC5628C, TLC5628I Octal 8-bit Digital-to-Analog Converters, Texas Instruments, Dallas,

TX, 1997.
136 5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)

5.14 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

1. Given a sinusoid with 500 Hz frequency, what should be the minimum sampling frequency
for an analog-to-digital converter, if we want to faithfully reconstruct the analog signal after
the conversion?

2. If 12 bits are used to quantize a sampled signal, what is the number of available quantized
levels? What will be the resolution of such a system if the input range of the analog-to-digital
converter is 10V?

3. Given the 12 V input range of an analog-to-digital converter and the desired resolution of
0.125 V, what should be the minimum number of bits used for the conversion?

4. Investigate the analog-to-digital converters in your audio system. Find the sampling rate, the
quantization bits, and the technique used for the conversion.

5. A flex sensor provides 10K ohm of resistance for 0 degrees flexure and 40K ohm of resistance
for 90 degrees of flexure. Design a circuit to convert the resistance change to a voltage change
(Hint: consider a voltage divider). Then design a transducer interface circuit to convert the
output from the flex sensor circuit to voltages suitable for the ATmega328 ADC system.

6. If an analog signal is converted by an analog-to-digital converter to a binary representation

and then back to an analog voltage using a DAC, will the original analog input voltage be the
same as the resulting analog output voltage? Explain.

7. Derive each of the characteristic equations for the classic operation amplifier configurations
provided in Figure 5.4.

8. If a resistor was connected between the non-inverting terminal and ground in the inverting
amplifier configuration of Figure 5.4a), how would the characteristic equation change?

9. A photodiode provides a current proportional to the light impinging on its active area. What
classic operational amplifier configuration should be used to current the diode output to a
voltage?

10. Does the time to convert an analog input signal to a digital representation vary in a successive-
approximation converter relative to the magnitude of the input signal?
 137

CHAPTER 6

Interrupt Subsystem
Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to

• Understand the need of a microcontroller for interrupt capability.

• Describe the general microcontroller interrupt response procedure.

• Describe the ATmega328 interrupt features.

• Properly configure and program an interrupt event for the ATmega328 in C.

• Properly configure and program an interrupt event for the Arduino Duemilanove using built-in
features of the Arduino Development Environment.

• Use the interrupt system to implement a real time clock.

• Employ the interrupt system as a component in an embedded system.

6.1 OVERVIEW
A microcontroller normally executes instructions in an orderly fetch-decode-execute sequence as
dictated by a user-written program as shown in Figure 6.1. However, the microcontroller must be
equipped to handle unscheduled (although planned), higher priority events that might occur inside
or outside the microcontroller.To process such events, a microcontroller requires an interrupt system.
The interrupt system onboard a microcontroller allows it to respond to higher priority events.
Appropriate responses to these events may be planned, but we do not know when these events will
occur. When an interrupt event occurs, the microcontroller will normally complete the instruction
it is currently executing and then transition program control to interrupt event specific tasks. These
tasks, which resolve the interrupt event, are organized into a function called an interrupt service
routine (ISR). Each interrupt will normally have its own interrupt specific ISR. Once the ISR is
complete, the microcontroller will resume processing where it left off before the interrupt event
occurred.
In this chapter, we discuss the ATmega328 interrupt system in detail. We provide several
examples on how to program an interrupt in C and also using the built-in features of the Arduino
Development Environment.
138 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM

Interrupt
Fetch Service
Routine

Decode

Execute

Figure 6.1: Microcontroller Interrupt Response.

6.2 ATMEGA328 INTERRUPT SYSTEM

The ATmega328 is equipped with a powerful and flexible complement of 26 interrupt sources.Two of
the interrupts originate from external interrupt sources while the remaining 24 interrupts support the
efficient operation of peripheral subsystems aboard the microcontroller. The ATmega328 interrupt
sources are shown in Figure 6.2. The interrupts are listed in descending order of priority. As you can
see, the RESET has the highest priority, followed by the external interrupt request pins INT0 (pin
4) and INT1 (pin 5). The remaining interrupt sources are internal to the ATmega328.
When an interrupt occurs, the microcontroller completes the current instruction, stores the
address of the next instruction on the stack, and starts executing instructions in the designated
interrupt service routine (ISR) corresponding to the particular interrupt source. It also turns off
the interrupt system to prevent further interrupts while one is in progress. The execution of the
ISR is performed by loading the beginning address of the interrupt service routine specific for that
interrupt into the program counter. The interrupt service routine will then commence. Execution of
139

Vector Address Source Definition AVR-GCC ISR name

6.2. ATMEGA328 INTERRUPT SYSTEM

1 0x0000 RESET External pin, power-on reset, brown-out reset, watchdog system reset
2 0x0002 INT0 External interrupt request 0 INT0_vect
3 0x0004 INT1 External interrupt request 1 INT1_vect
4 0x0006 PCINT0 Pin change interrupt request 0 PCINT0_vect
5 0x0008 PCINT1 Pin change interrupt request 1 PCINT1_vect
6 0x000A PCINT2 Pin change interrupt request 2 PCINT2_vect
7 0x000C WDT Watchdog time-out interrupt WDT_vect
8 0x000E TIMER2 COMPA Timer/Counter2 Compare Match A TIMER2_COMPA_vect
9 0x0010 TIMER2 COMPB Timer/Counter2 Compare Match B TIMER2_COMPB_vect
10 0x0012 TIMER2 OVF Timer/Counter2 Overflow TIMER2_OVF_vect
11 0x0014 TIMER1 CAPT Timer/Counter1 Capture Event TIMER1_CAPT_vect
12 0x0016 TIMER1 COMPA Timer/Counter1 Compare Match A TIMER1_COMPA_vect
13 0x0018 TIMER1 COMPB Timer/Counter1 Compare Match B TIMER1_COMPB_vect
14 0x001A TIMER1 OVF Timer/Counter1 Overflow TIMER1_OVF_vect
15 0x001C TIMER0 COMPA Timer/Counter0 Compare Match A TIMER0_COMPA_vect
16 0x001E TIMER0 COMPB Timer/Counter0 Compare Match B TIMER0_COMPB_vect
17 0x0020 TIMER0 OVF Timer/Counter0 Overflow TIMER0_OVF_vect
18 0x0022 SPI, STC SPI Serial Transfer Complete SPI_STC_vect
19 0x0024 USART, RX USART Rx Complete USART_RX_vect
20 0x0026 USART, UDRE USART, Data Register Empty USART_UDRE_vect
21 0x0028 USART, TX USART, Tx Complete USART_TX_vect
22 0x002A ADC ADC Conversion Complete ADC_vect
23 0x002C EE READY EEPROM Ready EE_READY_vect
24 0x002E ANALOG COMP Analog Comparator ANALOG_COMP_vect
25 0x0030 TWI 2-wire Serial Interface TWI_vect
26 0x0032 SPM READY Store Program Memory Ready SPM_ready_vect
Figure 6.2: Atmel AVR ATmega328 Interrupts. (Adapted from figure used with permission of Atmel, Incorporated.)
140 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM
the ISR continues until the return from interrupt instruction (reti) is encountered. Program control
then reverts back to the main program.

6.3 INTERRUPT PROGRAMMING

To program an interrupt the user is responsible for the following actions:
• Ensure the interrupt service routine for a specific interrupt is tied to the correct interrupt vector
address, which points to the starting address of the interrupt service routine.
• Ensure the interrupt system has been globally enabled. This is accomplished with the assembly
language instruction SEI.
• Ensure the specific interrupt subsystem has been locally enabled.
• Ensure the registers associated with the specific interrupt have been configured correctly.
In the next two examples that follow, we illustrate how to accomplish these steps. We use the
ImageCraft ICC AVR compiler which contains excellent support for interrupts. Other compilers
have similar features.

6.4 PROGRAMMING INTERRUPTS IN C AND THE

ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT
In this section, we provide two representative examples of writing interrupts. We provide both an
externally generated interrupt event and also one generated from within the microcontroller. For
each type of interrupt, we illustrate how to program it in C and also with the Arduino Development
Environment built-in features. For the C examples, we use the ImageCraft ICC AVR compiler.
The ImageCraft ICC AVR compiler uses the following syntax to link an interrupt service
routine to the correct interrupt vector address:
#pragma interrupt_handler timer_handler:4

void timer_handler(void)
{
:
:
}
As you can see, the #pragma with the reserved word interrupt_handler is used to communicate
to the compiler that the routine name that follows is an interrupt service routine. The number that
follows the ISR name corresponds to the interrupt vector number in Figure 6.2. The ISR is then
written like any other function. It is important that the ISR name used in the #pragma instruction
identically matches the name of the ISR in the function body. Since the compiler knows the function
is an ISR, it will automatically place the assembly language RETI instruction at the end of the ISR.
 6.4. PROGRAMMING INTERRUPTS IN C AND THE ARDUINO ENVIRONMENT 141
6.4.1 EXTERNAL INTERRUPT PROGRAMMING
The external interrupts INT0 (pin 4) and INT1 (pin 5) trigger an interrupt within the ATmega328
when an user-specified external event occurs at the pin associated with the specific interrupt. In-
terrupts INT0 and INT1 may be triggered with a falling or rising edge or a low level signal. The
specific settings for each interrupt is provided in Figure 6.3.

External Interrupt Control Register - EICRA

ISC11 ISC10 ISC01 ISC00
7 0
INT1 INT0
00: low level 00: low level
01: logic change 01: logic change
10: falling edge 10: falling edge
11: rising edge 11: rising edge

External Interrupt Mask Register - EIMSK

INT1 INT0
7 0
0: interrupt disabled
1: interrupt enabled

External Interrupt Flag Register - EIFR

INTF1 INTF0
7 0
Notes:
- INTFx flag sets when corresponding interrupt occurs.
- INTFx flag reset by executing ISR or writing logic one to flag.

Figure 6.3: Interrupt INT0 and INT1 Registers.

6.4.1.1 Programming external interrupts in C

Provided below is the code snapshot to configure an interrupt for INT0. In this specific example,
an interrupt will occur when a positive edge transition occurs on the ATmega328 INT0 external
interrupt pin.

//interrupt handler definition

142 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM
#pragma interrupt_handler int0_ISR:2

//function prototypes
void int0_ISR(void);
void initialize_interrupt0(void);

//*************************************************************************

//The following function call should be inserted in the main program to

//initialize the INT0 interrupt to respond to a positive edge trigger.
//This function should only be called once.

:
initialize_interrupt_int0();
:

//*************************************************************************

//function definitions

//*************************************************************************
//initialize_interrupt_int0: initializes interrupt INT0.
//Note: stack is automatically initialized by the compiler
//*************************************************************************

void initialize_interrupt_int0(void) //initialize interrupt INT0

{
DDRD = 0xFB; //set PD2 (int0) as input
PORTD &= ˜0x04; //disable pullup resistor PD2
EIMSK = 0x01; //enable INT0
EICRA = 0x03; //set for positive edge trigger
asm("SEI"); //global interrupt enable
}

//*************************************************************************
 6.4. PROGRAMMING INTERRUPTS IN C AND THE ARDUINO ENVIRONMENT 143
//int0_ISR: interrupt service routine for INT0
//*************************************************************************

void int0_ISR(void)
{

//Insert interrupt specific actions here.

}
The INT0 interrupt is reset by executing the associated interrupt service routine or writing a
logic one to the INTF0 bit in the External Interrupt Flag Register (EIFR).

6.4.1.2 Programming external interrupts using the Arduino Development Environment built-in
features
The Arduino Development Environment has four built-in functions to support external the INT0
and INT1 external interrupts [www.arduino.cc].
These are the four functions:
• interrupts(). This function enables interrupts.

• noInterrupts(). This function disables interrupts.

• attachInterrupt(interrupt, function, mode). This function links the interrupt to the appro-
priate interrupt service routine.

• detachInterrupt(interrupt). This function turns off the specified interrupt.

The Arduino Duemilanove processing board is equipped with two external interrupts: INT0
on DIGITAL pin 2 and INT1 on DIGITAL pin 3. The attachInterrupt(interrupt, function,
mode) function is used to link the hardware pin to the appropriate interrupt service pin. The three
arguments of the function are configured as follows:
• interrupt. Interrupt specifies the INT interrupt number: either 0 or 1.

• function. Function specifies the name of the interrupt service routine.

• mode. Mode specifies what activity on the interrupt pin will initiate the interrupt: LOW level
on pin, CHANGE in pin level, RISING edge, or FALLING edge.
To illustrate the use of these built-in Arduino Development Environment features, we revisit
the previous example.
//*************************************************************************
144 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM
void setup()
{
attachInterrupt(0, int0_ISR, RISING);
}

void loop()
{

//wait for interrupts

//*************************************************************************
//int0_ISR: interrupt service routine for INT0
//*************************************************************************

void int0_ISR(void)
{

//Insert interrupt specific actions here.

}
//*************************************************************************

6.4.2 INTERNAL INTERRUPT PROGRAMMING

In this example, we use Timer/Counter0 as a representative example on how to program internal
interrupts. In the example that follows, we use Timer/Counter0 to provide prescribed delays within
our program.
We discuss the ATmega328 timer system in detail in the next chapter. Briefly, the
Timer/Counter0 is an eight bit timer. It rolls over every time it receives 256 timer clock “ticks.”
There is an interrupt associated with the Timer/Counter0 overflow. If activated, the interrupt will
occur every time the contents of the Timer/Counter0 transitions from 255 back to 0 count. We
can use this overflow interrupt as a method of keeping track of real clock time (hours, minutes,
and seconds) within a program. In this specific example, we use the overflow to provide precision
program delays.

6.4.2.1 Programming an internal interrupt in C

In this example, the ATmega328 is being externally clocked by a 10 MHz ceramic resonator. The
resonator frequency is further divided by 256 using the clock select bits CS[2:1:0] in Timer/Counter
 6.4. PROGRAMMING INTERRUPTS IN C AND THE ARDUINO ENVIRONMENT 145
Control Register B (TCCR0B). When CS[2:1:0] are set for [1:0:0], the incoming clock source is
divided by 256. This provides a clock “tick” to Timer/Counter0 every 25.6 microseconds. Therefore,
the eight bit Timer/Counter0 will rollover every 256 clock “ticks” or every 6.55 ms.
To create a precision delay, we write a function called delay. The function requires an unsigned
integer parameter value indicating how many 6.55 ms interrupts the function should delay. The
function stays within a while loop until the desired number of interrupts has occurred. For example,
to delay one second the function would be called with the parameter value “153.” That is, it requires
153 interrupts occurring at 6.55 ms intervals to generate a one second delay.
The code snapshots to configure the Time/Counter0 Overflow interrupt is provided below
along with the associated interrupt service routine and the delay function.

//function prototypes******************************************************
//delay specified number 6.55ms
void delay(unsigned int number_of_6_55ms_interrupts);
void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void); //initialize timer0 overf.interrupt

//interrupt handler definition*********************************************

//interrupt handler definition
#pragma interrupt_handler timer0_interrupt_isr:17

//global variables*********************************************************
unsigned int input_delay; //counts number of Timer/Counter0
//Overflow interrupts

//main program*************************************************************

void main(void)
{
init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(); //initialize Timer/Counter0 Overflow

//interrupt - call once at beginning

//of program
:
:
delay(153); //1 second delay

}
146 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM

//*************************************************************************
//int_timer0_ovf_interrupt(): The Timer/Counter0 Overfl. interrupt is being
//employed as a time base for a master timer for this project. The ceramic
//resonator operating at 10 MHz is divided by 256.
//The 8-bit Timer0 register
//(TCNT0) overflows every 256 counts or every 6.55 ms.
//*************************************************************************

void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void)
{
TCCR0B = 0x04; //divide timer0 timebase by 256,
//overflow occurs every 6.55ms
TIMSK0 = 0x01; //enable timer0 overflow interrupt
asm("SEI"); //enable global interrupt
}

//*************************************************************************
//timer0_interrupt_isr:
//Note: Timer overflow 0 is cleared automatically
//when executing the corresponding interrupt handling vector.
//*************************************************************************

void timer0_interrupt_isr(void)
{
input_delay++; //increment overflow counter
}

//*************************************************************************
//delay(unsigned int num_of_6_55ms_interrupts): this generic delay function
//provides the specified delay as the number of 6.55 ms "clock ticks"
//from the Timer/Counter0 Overflow interrupt.
//
//Note: this function is only valid when using a 10 MHz crystal or ceramic
//resonator. If a different source frequency is used, the clock
//tick delay value must be recalculated.
//*************************************************************************

void delay(unsigned int number_of_6_55ms_interrupts)

 6.4. PROGRAMMING INTERRUPTS IN C AND THE ARDUINO ENVIRONMENT 147
{
TCNT0 = 0x00; //reset timer0
input_delay = 0; //reset timer0 overflow counter

while(input_delay <= number_of_6_55ms_interrupts)

{
; //wait for spec. number of interpts.
}
}

//*************************************************************************

6.4.2.2 Programming an internal interrupt using the Arduino Development Environment

The Arduino Development Environment uses the GNU tool chain and the AVR Libc to compile
programs. Internal interrupt configuration uses AVR-GCC conventions. To tie the interrupt event
to the correct interrupt service routine, the AVR-GCC interrupt name must be used. These vector
names are provided in the right column of Figure 6.2.
In the following sketch, the previous example is configured for use with the Arduino De-
velopment Environment using AVR-GCC conventions. Also, the timing functions in the previous
example assumed a time base of 10 MHz. The Arduino Duemilanove is clocked with a 16 MHz
crystal. Therefore, some of the parameters in the sketch were adjusted to account for this difference
in time base.

//*************************************************************************
#include <avr/interrupt.h>

unsigned int input_delay; //counts number of Timer/Counter0

//Overflow interrupts

void setup()
{
init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(); //initialize Timer/Counter0 Overfl.
}

void loop()
{

delay(244); //1 second delay

148 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM

//*************************************************************************
// ISR(TIMER0_OVF_vect) - increments counter on every interrupt.
//*************************************************************************

ISR(TIMER0_OVF_vect)
{
input_delay++; //increment overflow counter
}

//*************************************************************************
//int_timer0_ovf_interrupt(): The Timer/Counter0 Overflow interrupt is
//being employed as a time base for a master timer for this project.
//The crystal //resonator operating at 16 MHz is divided by 256.
//The 8-bit Timer0 register (TCNT0) overflows every 256 counts or every
//4.1 ms.
//*************************************************************************

void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void)
{
TCCR0B = 0x04; //divide timer0 timebase by 256, overflow occurs every 4.1 ms
TIMSK0 = 0x01; //enable timer0 overflow interrupt
asm("SEI"); //enable global interrupt
}

//*************************************************************************
//delay(unsigned int num_of_4_1ms_interrupts): this generic delay function
//provides the specified delay as the number of 4.1 ms "clock ticks" from
//the Timer/Counter0 Overflow interrupt.
//
//Note: this function is only valid when using a 16 MHz crystal or ceramic
//resonator. If a different source frequency is used, the clock
//tick delay value must be recalculated.
//*************************************************************************
 6.5. FOREGROUND AND BACKGROUND PROCESSING 149
void delay(unsigned int number_of_4_1ms_interrupts)
{
TCNT0 = 0x00; //reset timer0
input_delay = 0; //reset timer0 overflow counter

while(input_delay <= number_of_4_1ms_interrupts)

{
; //wait for spec. number of intrpts.
}
}

//*************************************************************************

6.5 FOREGROUND AND BACKGROUND PROCESSING

A microcontroller can only process a single instruction at a time. It processes instructions in a fetch-
decode-execute sequence as determined by the program and its response to external events. In many
cases, a microcontroller has to process multiple events seemingly simultaneously. How is this possible
with a single processor?
Normal processing accomplished by the microcontroller is called foreground processing. An
interrupt may be used to periodically break into foreground processing, ‘steal’ some clock cycles to
accomplish another event called background processing, and then return processor control back to
the foreground process.
As an example, a microcontroller controlling access for an electronic door must monitor input
commands from a user and generate the appropriate pulse width modulation (PWM) signals to open
and close the door. Once the door is in motion, the controller must monitor door motor operation
for obstructions, malfunctions, and other safety related parameters. This may be accomplished using
interrupts. In this example, the microcontroller is responding to user input status in the foreground
while monitoring safety related status in the background using interrupts as illustrated in Figure 6.4.

6.6 INTERRUPT EXAMPLES

In this section, we provide several varied examples on using interrupts internal and external to the
microcontroller.

6.6.1 REAL TIME CLOCK IN C

A microcontroller only ‘understands’ elapsed time in reference to its timebase clock ticks. To keep
track of clock time in seconds, minutes, hours etc., a periodic interrupt may be generated for use
as a ‘clock tick’ for a real time clock. In this example, we use the Timer 0 overflow to generate a
periodic clock tick very 6.55 ms. The ticks are counted in reference to clock time variables and may
150 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM

Background Processing

Interrupt Interrupt Interrupt

- check for obstruction - check for obstruction - check for obstruction
- check for malfunctions - check for malfunctions - check for malfunctions
- check safety parameters - check safety parameters - check safety parameters

periodic periodic
interrupt interrupt

Monitor to user input, generate motor control signals, etc.

time

Foreground Processing

Figure 6.4: Interrupt used for background processing. The microcontroller responds to user input status
in the foreground while monitoring safety related status in the background using interrupts.

be displayed on a liquid crystal display. This is also a useful technique for generating very long delays
in a microcontroller.

//function prototypes******************************************************
//delay specified number 6.55ms

void delay(unsigned int number_of_6_55ms_interrupts);

void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void);//initialize timer0 overflow interrupt

//interrupt handler definition*********************************************

//interrupt handler definition
#pragma interrupt_handler timer0_interrupt_isr:17

//global variables*********************************************************
unsigned int days_ctr, hrs_ctr, mins_ctr, sec_ctr, ms_ctr;

//main program*************************************************************
 6.6. INTERRUPT EXAMPLES 151

void main(void)
{
day_ctr = 0; hr_ctr = 0; min_ctr = 0; sec_ctr = 0; ms_ctr = 0;

init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(); //initialize Timer/Counter0 Overflow

//interrupt - call once at beginning

//of program
while(1)
{
; //wait for interrupts
}
}

//*************************************************************************
//int_timer0_ovf_interrupt(): The Timer/Counter0 Overflow interrupt is
//being employed as a time base for a master timer for this project.
//The ceramic resonator operating at 10 MHz is divided by 256.
//The 8-bit Timer0 register (TCNT0) overflows every 256 counts or
//every 6.55 ms.
//*************************************************************************

void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void)
{
TCCR0B = 0x04; //divide timer0 timebase by 256, overfl. occurs every 6.55ms

TIMSK0 = 0x01; //enable timer0 overflow interrupt

asm("SEI"); //enable global interrupt
}

//*************************************************************************
//timer0_interrupt_isr:
//Note: Timer overflow 0 is cleared by hardware when executing the
//corresponding interrupt handling vector.
//*************************************************************************

void timer0_interrupt_isr(void)
152 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM
{

//Update millisecond counter

ms_ctr = ms_ctr + 1; //increment ms counter

//Update second counter

if(ms_ctr == 154) //counter equates to 1000 ms at 154
{
ms_ctr = 0; //reset ms counter
sec_ctr = sec_ctr + 1; //increment second counter
}

//Update minute counter

if(sec_ctr == 60)
{
sec_ctr = 0; //reset sec counter
min_ctr = min_ctr + 1; //increment min counter
}

//Update hour counter

if(min_ctr == 60)
{
min_ctr = 0; //reset min counter
hr_ctr = hr_ctr + 1; //increment hr counter
}

//Update day counter

if(hr_ctr == 24)
{
hr_ctr = 0; //reset hr counter
day_ctr = day_ctr + 1; //increment day counter
}
}

//*************************************************************************
 6.6. INTERRUPT EXAMPLES 153
6.6.2 REAL TIME CLOCK USING THE ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENT
In this example, we reconfigure the previous example using the Arduino Development Environment.
The timing functions in the previous example assumed a time base of 10 MHz. The Arduino
Duemilanove is clocked with a 16 MHz crystal. Therefore, some of the parameters in the sketch are
adjusted to account for this difference in time base.

//*************************************************************************
#include <avr/interrupt.h>

//global variables*********************************************************
unsigned int days_ctr, hrs_ctr, mins_ctr, sec_ctr, ms_ctr;

void setup()
{
day_ctr = 0; hr_ctr = 0; min_ctr = 0; sec_ctr = 0; ms_ctr = 0;
init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(); //init. Timer/Counter0 Overflow
}

void loop()
{
:
: //wait for interrupts
:
}

//*************************************************************************
// ISR(TIMER0_OVF_vect) Timer0 interrupt service routine.
//
//Note: Timer overflow 0 is cleared by hardware when executing the
//corresponding interrupt handling vector.
//*************************************************************************

ISR(TIMER0_OVF_vect)
{
//Update millisecond counter
ms_ctr = ms_ctr + 1; //increment ms counter

//Update second counter

//counter equates to 1000 ms at 244
154 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM

if(ms_ctr == 244) //each clock tick is 4.1 ms

{
ms_ctr = 0; //reset ms counter
sec_ctr = sec_ctr + 1; //increment second counter
}

//Update minute counter

if(sec_ctr == 60)
{
sec_ctr = 0; //reset sec counter
min_ctr = min_ctr + 1; //increment min counter
}

//Update hour counter

if(min_ctr == 60)
{
min_ctr = 0; //reset min counter
hr_ctr = hr_ctr + 1; //increment hr counter
}

//Update day counter

if(hr_ctr == 24)
{
hr_ctr = 0; //reset hr counter
day_ctr = day_ctr + 1; //increment day counter
}
}

//*************************************************************************
//int_timer0_ovf_interrupt(): The Timer/Counter0
//Overflow interrupt is being employed as a time base for a master timer
//for this project. The ceramic resonator operating at 16 MHz is
//divided by 256.
//The 8-bit Timer0 register (TCNT0) overflows every 256 counts or
//every 4.1 ms.
//*************************************************************************

void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void)
 6.6. INTERRUPT EXAMPLES 155
{
TCCR0B = 0x04; //divide timer0 timebase by 256, overfl. occurs every 4.1 ms
TIMSK0 = 0x01; //enable timer0 overflow interrupt
asm("SEI"); //enable global interrupt
}
//*************************************************************************

6.6.3 INTERRUPT DRIVEN USART IN C

In Chapter 4, we discussed the serial communication capability of the USART in some detail. In
the following example, we revisit the USART and use it in an interrupt driven mode.
Example. You have been asked to evaluate a new positional encoder technology. The encoder
provides 12-bit resolution. The position data is sent serially at 9600 Baud as two sequential bytes as
shown in Figure 6.5. The actual encoder is new technology and production models are not available
for evaluation.
start bit (byte 1)

start bit (byte 2)

parity (if used)

parity (if used)

byte ID = 0

byte ID = 1

status bit 1

status bit 2
b10

b11
b0

b1

b2

b3

b4

b5

b6

b7

b8

b9

Figure 6.5: Encoder data format. The position data is sent serially at 9600 Baud as two sequential bytes.

Since the actual encoder is not available for evaluation, another Atmel ATmega328 will be used
to send signals in identical format and Baud rate as the encoder. The test configuration is illustrated
in Figure 6.6. The ATmega328 on the bottom serves as the positional encoder. The microcontroller
is equipped with two pushbuttons at PD2 and PD3. The pushbutton at PD2 provides a debounced
input to open a simulated door and increment the positional encoder. The pushbutton at PD3
provides a debounced input to close a simulated door and decrement the positional encoder. The
current count of the encoder (eight most significant bits) is fed to a digital-to-analog converter
(DAC0808) to provide an analog representation.
The positional data from the encoder is sent out via the USART in the format described
in Figure 6.5. The top ATmega328 receives the positional data using interrupt driven USART
techniques. The current position is converted to an analog signal via the DAC. The transmitted and
received signals may be compared at the respective DAC outputs.
 156

USART Receiver
1 PUR - PC6 PC5 28
2 RXD - PD0 PC4 27
3 TXD - PD1 PC3 26
4 PD2 PC2 25
5 PD3 PC1 24
VDD 6 PD4
1M PCO 23
7 Vcc Atmega328 GND 22
1uf
8 GND AREF 21 VDD
sys reset 9 PB6 AVCC 20
10 PB7 PB5 19
11 PD5 PB4 18
12 PD6 PB3 17 +5 VDC
13 PD7 PB2 16
14 PB0 PB1 15 1K
(13)
(14) Vref = 5 VDC
A1(5)
6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM

A2(6) (15)
2K
A3(7) DAC0808 1K
A4(8) (1)
A5(9) 400

Figure 6.6: Encoder test configuration.

A6(10)
(2)
A7(11) +5VDC
A8(12) (2) (7)
(4)
(6)
(16) (3) TL071
Position Encoder (3)
(4)-5VDC
Simulator
OP Open (active high) 1 PUR - PC6 PC5 28
Vcc = 5.0 volts 2 RXD - PD0 PC4 27
74HC14
4.7 K 100K 3 TXD - PD1 PC3 26
PD2 4 PD2 PC2 25
VEE = - 5 VDC
470K (1) (2) 5 PD3 PC1 24
0.1uF
3K VDD
1M 6 PD4 PCO 23
CL Close (active high) 7 Vcc Atmega328 GND 22
1uf
Vcc = 5.0 volts
8 GND AREF 21 VDD
74HC14 sys reset 9 PB6 AVCC 20
4.7 K 100K 10 PB7 PB5 19
PD3
(3) (4) 11 PD5 PB4 18
470K
0.1uF 3K 12 PD6 PB3 17 +5 VDC
13 PD7 PB2 16
14 PB0 PB1 15 1K
(13)
(14) Vref = 5 VDC
A1(5)
A2(6) (15)
2K
A3(7) DAC0808 1K
A4(8) (1)
A5(9) 400
A6(10)
(2)
A7(11) +5VDC
A8(12) (2) (7)
(4)
(6)
(16) (3) TL071
(3)
(4)-5VDC

VEE = - 5 VDC
 6.6. INTERRUPT EXAMPLES 157
Provided below is the code for the ATmega328 that serves as the encoder simulator followed
by the code for receiving the data.

//*************************************************************************
//author: Steven Barrett, Ph.D., P.E.
//last revised: April 15, 2010
//file: encode.c
//target controller: ATMEL ATmega328
//
//ATmega328 clock source: internal 8 MHz clock
//
//ATMEL AVR ATmega328PV Controller Pin Assignments
//Chip Port Function I/O Source/Dest Asserted Notes
//
//Pin 1 to system reset circuitry
//Pin 2 PD0: USART receive pin (RXD)
//Pin 3 PD1: USART transmit pin (TXD)
//Pin 4 PD2 to active high RC debounced switch - Open
//Pin 5 PD3 to active high RC debounced switch - Close
//Pin 7 Vcc - 1.0 uF to ground
//Pin 8 Gnd
//Pin 9 PB6 to pin A7(11) on DAC0808
//Pin 10 PB7 to pin A8(12) on DAC0808
//Pin 14 PB0 to pin A1(5) on DAC0808
//Pin 15 PB1 to pin A2(6) on DAC0808
//Pin 16 PB2 to pin A3(7) on DAC0808
//Pin 17 PB3 to pin A4(8) on DAC0808
//Pin 18 PB4 to pin A5(9) on DAC0808
//Pin 19 PB5 to pin A6(10) on DAC0808
//Pin 20 AVCC to 5 VDC
//Pin 21 AREF to 5 VDC
//Pin 22 Ground
//*************************************************************************

//include files************************************************************
#include<iom328v.h>
#include<macros.h>

//function prototypes******************************************************
158 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM
//delay specified number 6.55ms int
void initialize_ports(void); //initializes ports
void USART_init(void);
void USART_TX(unsigned char data);

//main program*************************************************************
//global variables
unsigned char old_PORTD = 0x08; //present value of PORTD
unsigned char new_PORTD; //new values of PORTD
unsigned int door_position = 0;

void main(void)
{
initialize_ports(); //return LED configuration to default
USART_init();

//main activity loop - checks PORTD to see if either PD2 (open)

//or PD3 (close) was depressed.
//If either was depressed the program responds.

while(1)
{
_StackCheck(); //check for stack overflow
read_new_input();
//read input status changes on PORTB
}
}//end main

//Function definitions
//*************************************************************************
//initialize_ports: provides initial configuration for I/O ports
//*************************************************************************

void initialize_ports(void)
{
//PORTB
DDRB=0xff; //PORTB[7-0] output
PORTB=0x00; //initialize low
 6.6. INTERRUPT EXAMPLES 159

//PORTC
DDRC=0xff; //set PORTC[7-0] as output
PORTC=0x00; //initialize low

//PORTD
DDRD=0xf2; //set PORTD[7-4, 0] as output
PORTD=0x00; //initialize low
}

//*************************************************************************
//*************************************************************************
//read_new_input: functions polls PORTD for a change in status. If status
//change has occurred, appropriate function for status change is called
//Pin 4 PD2 to active high RC debounced switch - Open
//Pin 5 PD3 to active high RC debounced switch - Close
//*************************************************************************

void read_new_input(void)
{
unsigned int gate_position; //measure instantaneous position of gate
unsigned int i;
unsigned char ms_door_position, ls_door_position, DAC_data;

new_PORTD = (PIND & 0x0c);

//mask all pins but PORTD[3:2]
if(new_PORTD != old_PORTD){
switch(new_PORTD){ //process change in PORTD input

case 0x01: //Open

while(PIND == 0x04)
{
//split into two bytes
ms_door_position=(unsigned char)(((door_position >> 6)
&(0x00FF))|0x01);
ls_door_position=(unsigned char)(((door_position << 1)
&(0x00FF))&0xFE);
//TX data to USART
USART_TX(ms_door_position);
160 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM
USART_TX(ls_door_position);

//format data for DAC and send to DAC on PORTB

DAC_data=(unsigned char)((door_position >> 4)&(0x00FF));
PORTB = DAC_data;

//increment position counter

if(door_position >= 4095)
door_position = 4095;
else
door_position++;
}
break;

case 0x02: //Close

while(PIND == 0x02)
{
//split into two bytes
ms_door_position=(unsigned char)(((door_position >>6)
&(0x00FF))|0x01);
ls_door_position=(unsigned char)(((door_position <<1)
&(0x00FF))&0xFE);
//TX data to USART
USART_TX(ms_door_position);
USART_TX(ls_door_position);

//format data for DAC and send to DAC on PORTB

DAC_data=(unsigned char)((door_position >> 4)&(0x00FF));

PORTB = DAC_data;

//decrement position counter

if(door_position <= 0)
door_position = 0;
else
door_position--;
}
break;
 6.6. INTERRUPT EXAMPLES 161
default:; //all other cases
} //end switch(new_PORTD)
} //end if new_PORTD
old_PORTD = new_PORTD; //update PORTD
}

//*************************************************************************
//USART_init: initializes the USART system
//
//Note: ATmega328 clocked by internal 8 MHz clock
//*************************************************************************

void USART_init(void)
{
UCSRA = 0x00; //control
register initialization
UCSRB = 0x08; //enable transmitter
UCSRC = 0x86; //async, no parity, 1 stop bit, 8 data bits
//Baud Rate initialization
//8 MHz clock requires UBRR value of 51
// or 0x0033 to achieve 9600 Baud rate
UBRRH = 0x00;
UBRRL = 0x33;
}

//*************************************************************************
//USART_transmit: transmits single byte of data
//*************************************************************************

void USART_transmit(unsigned char data)

{
while((UCSRA & 0x20)==0x00) //wait for UDRE flag
{
;
}
UDR = data; //load data to UDR for transmission
}

//*************************************************************************
162 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM
Receive ATmega328 code follows.

//*************************************************************************
//author: Steven Barrett, Ph.D., P.E.
//last revised: April 15, 2010
//file: receive.c
//target controller: ATMEL ATmega328
//
//ATmega328 clock source: internal 8 MHz clock
//
//ATMEL AVR ATmega328PV Controller Pin Assignments
//Chip Port Function I/O Source/Dest Asserted Notes
//
//Pin 1 to system reset circuitry
//Pin 2 PD0: USART receive pin (RXD)
//Pin 3 PD1: USART transmit pin (TXD)
//Pin 4 PD2 to active high RC debounced switch - Open
//Pin 5 PD3 to active high RC debounced switch - Close
//Pin 7 Vcc - 1.0 uF to ground
//Pin 8 Gnd
//Pin 9 PB6 to pin A7(11) on DAC0808
//Pin 10 PB7 to pin A8(12) on DAC0808
//Pin 14 PB0 to pin A1(5) on DAC0808
//Pin 15 PB1 to pin A2(6) on DAC0808
//Pin 16 PB2 to pin A3(7) on DAC0808
//Pin 17 PB3 to pin A4(8) on DAC0808
//Pin 18 PB4 to pin A5(9) on DAC0808
//Pin 19 PB5 to pin A6(10) on DAC0808
//Pin 20 AVCC to 5 VDC
//Pin 21 AREF to 5 VDC
//Pin 22 Ground
//*************************************************************************

//include files************************************************************
#include<iom328v.h>
#include<macros.h>
#include<eeprom.h> //EEPROM support functions

#pragma data: eeprom

unsigned int door_position_EEPROM
 6.6. INTERRUPT EXAMPLES 163
#pragma data:data

//function prototypes******************************************************
void initialize_ports(void); //initializes ports
void InitUSART(void);
unsigned char USART_RX(void);

//interrupt handler definition

#pragma interrupt_handler USART_RX_interrupt_isr: 19

//main program*************************************************************
unsigned int door_position = 0;
unsigned char data_rx;
unsigned int dummy1 = 0x1234;
unsigned int keep_going =1;
unsigned int loop_counter = 0;
unsigned int ms_position, ls_position;

void main(void)
{
initialize_ports(); //return LED configuration to deflt.
USART_init();
//limited startup features
//main activity loop - processor will
//continually cycle through loop
//waiting for USART data

while(1)
{
//continuous loop waiting for
//interrupts

_StackCheck(); //check for stack overflow

}
}//end main

//Function definitions
//*************************************************************************
164 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM
//initialize_ports: provides initial configuration for I/O ports
//*************************************************************************

void initialize_ports(void)
{
//PORTB
DDRB=0xff; //PORTB[7-0] output
PORTB=0x00; //initialize low

//PORTC
DDRC=0xff; //set PORTC[7-0] as output
PORTC=0x00; //initialize low

//PORTD
DDRD=0xff; //set PORTD[7-0] as output
PORTD=0x00; //initialize low
}

//*************************************************************************
//USART_init: initializes the USART system
//
//Note: ATmega328 clocked by internal 8 MHz clock
//*************************************************************************

void USART_init(void)
{
UCSRA = 0x00; //control
register initialization
UCSRB = 0x08; //enable transmitter
UCSRC = 0x86; //async, no parity, 1 stop bit, 8 data bits
//Baud Rate initialization
//8 MHz clock requires UBRR value of 51
// or 0x0033 to achieve 9600 Baud rate
UBRRH = 0x00;
UBRRL = 0x33;
}

//*************************************************************************
//USART_RX_interrupt_isr
 6.6. INTERRUPT EXAMPLES 165
//*************************************************************************

void USART_RX_interrupt_isr(void)
{
unsigned char data_rx, DAC_data;
unsigned int ls_position, ms_position;

//Receive USART data

data_rx = UDR;

//Retrieve door position data from EEPROM

EEPROM_READ((int) &door_position_EEPROM, door_position);

//Determine which byte to update

if((data_rx & 0x01)==0x01) //Byte ID = 1
{
ms_position = data_rx;

//Update bit 7
if((ms_position & 0x0020)==0x0020) //Test for logic 1
door_position = door_position | 0x0080; //Set bit 7 to 1
else
door_position = door_position & 0xff7f; //Reset bit 7 to 0

//Update remaining bits

ms_position = ((ms_position<<6) & 0x0f00);
//shift left 6--blank other bits
door_position = door_position & 0x00ff; //Blank ms byte
door_position = door_position | ms_position; //Update ms byte
}
else //Byte ID = 0
{
ls_position = data_rx; //Update ls_position
//Shift right 1-blank
ls_position = ((ls_position >> 1) & 0x007f); //other bits

if((door_position & 0x0080)==0x0080)

//Test bit 7 of curr position
ls_position = ls_position | 0x0080; //Set bit 7 to logic 1
166 6. INTERRUPT SUBSYSTEM
else
ls_position = ls_position & 0xff7f; //Reset bit 7 to 0
door_position = door_position & 0xff00; //Blank ls byte
door_position = door_position | ls_position; //Update ls byte
}

//Store door position data to EEPROM

EEPROM_WRITE((int) &door_position_EEPROM, door_position);

//format data for DAC and send to DAC on PORT C

DAC_data=(unsigned char)((door_position >> 4)&(0x00FF));

PORTB= DAC_data;
}

//*************************************************************************
//end of file
//*************************************************************************

6.7 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we provided an introduction to the interrupt features available aboard the ATmega328
and the Arduino Duemilanove processing board. We also discussed how to program an interrupt
for proper operation and provided representative samples for an external interrupt and an internal
interrupt.

6.8 REFERENCES
• Atmel 8-bit AVR Microcontroller with 4/8/16/32K Bytes In-System Programmable Flash, AT-
mega48PA, 88PA, 168PA, 328P data sheet: 8161D-AVR-10/09, Atmel Corporation, 2325
Orchard Parkway, San Jose, CA 95131.

• Barrett S, Pack D (2006) Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00025ED1V01Y200605DCS001

• Barrett S and Pack D (2008) Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer Programming and Inter-
facing. Morgan and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00100ED1V01Y200712DCS015

• Barrett S (2010) Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00225ED1V01Y200910DCS025
 6.9. CHAPTER PROBLEMS 167

6.9 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

1. What is the purpose of an interrupt?

2. Describe the flow of events when an interrupt occurs.

3. Describe the interrupt features available with the ATmega328.

4. Describe the built-in interrupt features available with the Arduino Development Environment.

5. What is the interrupt priority? How is it determined?

6. What steps are required by the system designer to properly configure an interrupt?

7. How is the interrupt system turned “ON” and “OFF”?

8. A 10 MHz ceramic resonator is not available. Redo the example of the Timer/Counter0
Overflow interrupt provided with a timebase of 1 MHz and 8 MHz.

9. What is the maximum delay that may be generated with the delay function provided in the
text without modification? How could the function be modified for longer delays?

10. In the text, we provided a 24 hour timer (hh:mm:ss:ms) using the Timer/Counter0 Overflow
interrupt. What is the accuracy of the timer? How can it be improved?

11. Adapt the 24 hour timer example to generate an active high logic pulse on a microcontroller
pin of your choice for three seconds. The pin should go logic high three weeks from now.

12. What are the concerns when using multiple interrupts in a given application?

13. How much time can background processing relative to foreground processing be implemented?

14. What is the advantage of using interrupts over polling techniques?

15. Can the USART transmit and interrupt receive system provided in the chapter be adapted to
operate in the Arduino Development Environment? Explain in detail.
 169

CHAPTER 7

Timing Subsystem
Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to

• Explain key timing system related terminology.

• Compute the frequency and the period of a periodic signal using a microcontroller.

• Describe functional components of a microcontroller timer system.

• Describe the procedure to capture incoming signal events.

• Describe the procedure to generate time critical output signals.

• Describe the timing related features of the Atmel ATmega328.

• Describe the four operating modes of the Atmel ATmega328 timing system.

• Describe the register configurations for the ATmega328’s Timer 0, Timer 1, and Timer 2.

• Program the Arduino Duemilanove using the built-in timer features of the Arduino Devel-
opment Environment.

• Program the ATmega328 timer system for a variety of applications using C.

7.1 OVERVIEW
One of the most important reasons for using microcontrollers is their capability to perform time
related tasks. In a simple application, one can program a microcontroller to turn on or turn off an
external device at a specific time. In a more involved application, we can use a microcontroller to
generate complex digital waveforms with varying pulse widths to control the speed of a DC motor.
In this chapter, we review the capabilities of the Atmel ATmega328 microcontroller to perform
time related functions. We begin with a review of timing related terminology. We then provide an
overview of the general operation of a timing system followed by the timing system features aboard
the ATmega328. Next, we present a detailed discussion of each of its timing channels: Timer 0,
Timer 1, and Timer 2 and their different modes of operation. We then review the built-in timing
functions of the Arduino Development Environment and conclude the chapter with a variety of
examples.
170 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM

7.2 TIMING RELATED TERMINOLOGY

In this section, we review timing related terminology including frequency, period, and duty cycle.

7.2.1 FREQUENCY
Consider signal x(t) that repeats itself. We call this signal periodic with period T, if it satisfies

x(t) = x(t + T ).
To measure the frequency of a periodic signal, we count the number of times a particular event
repeats within a one second period. The unit of frequency is the Hertz or cycles per second. For
example, a sinusoidal signal with the 60 Hz frequency means that a full cycle of a sinusoid signal
repeats itself 60 times each second or every 16.67 ms.

7.2.2 PERIOD
The reciprocal of frequency is the period of a waveform. If an event occurs with a rate of 1 Hz,
the period of that event is 1 second. To find a period, given the frequency of a signal, or vice versa,
we simply need to remember their inverse relationship f = T1 where f and T represent a frequency
and the corresponding period, respectively. Both periods and frequencies of signals are often used
to specify timing constraints of microcontroller-based systems. For example, when your car is on a
wintery road and slipping, the engineers who designed your car configured the anti-slippage unit
to react within some millisecond period, say 20 milliseconds. The constraint then forces the design
team that monitors the slippage to program their monitoring system to check a slippage at a rate of
50 Hz.

7.2.3 DUTY CYCLE

In many applications, periodic pulses are used as control signals. A good example is the use of a
periodic pulse to control a servo motor. To control the direction and sometimes the speed of a motor,
a periodic pulse signal with a changing duty cycle over time is used. The periodic pulse signal shown
in Figure 7.1(a) is on for 50 percent of the signal period and off for the rest of the period. The pulse
shown in (b) is on for only 25 percent of the same period as the signal in (a) and off for 75 percent
of the period. The duty cycle is defined as the percentage of the period a signal is on or logic high.
Therefore, we call the signal in Figure 7.1(a) as a periodic pulse signal with a 50 percent duty cycle
and the corresponding signal in (b), a periodic pulse signal with a 25 percent duty cycle.

7.3 TIMING SYSTEM OVERVIEW

The heart of the timing system is the time base. The time base’s frequency of a microcontroller is
used to generate a baseline clock signal. For a timer system, the system clock is used to update the
contents of a special register called a free running counter. The job of a free running counter is to
 7.3. TIMING SYSTEM OVERVIEW 171

50 %

100 %
25 % (a)

100 %
(b)

Figure 7.1: Two signals with the same period but different duty cycles.The top figure (a) shows a periodic
signal with a 50% duty cycle and the lower figure (b) displays a periodic signal with a 25% duty cycle.

count up (increment) each time it sees a rising edge (or a falling edge) of a clock signal. Thus, if a
clock is running at the rate of 2 MHz, the free running counter will count up or increment each
0.5 microseconds. All other timer related units reference the contents of the free running counter
to perform input and output time related activities: measurement of time periods, capture of timing
events, and generation of time related signals.
The ATmega328 may be clocked internally using a user-selectable resistor capacitor (RC)
time base or it may be clocked externally. The RC internal time base is selected using programmable
fuse bits. You may choose an internal fixed clock operating frequency of 1, 2, 4 or 8 MHz.
To provide for a wider range of frequency selections an external time source may be used. The
external time sources, in order of increasing accuracy and stability, are an external RC network, a
ceramic resonator, and a crystal oscillator. The system designer chooses the time base frequency and
clock source device appropriate for the application at hand. As previously mentioned, the maximum
operating frequency of the ATmega328P with a 5 VDC supply voltage is 20 MHz. The Arduino
Duemilanove processing board is equipped with a 16 MHz crystal oscillator time base.
172 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM
For input time related activities, all microcontrollers typically have timer hardware compo-
nents that detect signal logic changes on one or more input pins. Such components rely on a free
running counter to capture external event times. We can use such ability to measure the period of
an incoming signal, the width of a pulse, and the time of a signal logic change.
For output timer functions, a microcontroller uses a comparator, a free running counter, logic
switches, and special purpose registers to generate time related signals on one or more output pins.
A comparator checks the value of the free running counter for a match with the contents of another
special purpose register where a programmer stores a specified time in terms of the free running
counter value. The checking process is executed at each clock cycle and when a match occurs, the
corresponding hardware system induces a programmed logic change on a programmed output port
pin. Using such capability, one can generate a simple logic change at a designated time incident, a
pulse with a desired time width, or a pulse width modulated signal to control servo or Direct Current
(DC) motors.
You can also use the timer input system to measure the pulse width of an aperiodic signal. For
example, suppose that the times for the rising edge and the falling edge of an incoming signal are
1.5 sec and 1.6 sec, respectively. We can use these values to easily compute the pulse width of 0.1
second.
The second overall goal of the timer system is to generate signals to control external devices.
Again an event simply means a change of logic states on an output pin of a microcontroller at a
specified time. Now consider Figure 7.2. Suppose an external device connected to the microcontroller
requires a pulse signal to turn itself on. Suppose the particular pulse the external device needs is 2
millisecond wide. In such situations, we can use the free running counter value to synchronize the
time of desired logic state changes. Naturally, extending the same capability, we can also generate a
periodic pulse with a fixed duty cycle or a varying duty cycle.
From the examples we discussed above, you may have wondered how a microcontroller can
be used to compute absolute times from the relative free running counter values, say 1.5 second and
1.6 second. The simple answer is that we can not do so directly. A programmer must use the system
clock values and derive the absolute time values. Suppose your microcontroller is clocked by a 2
MHz signal and the system clock uses a 16-bit free running counter. For such a system, each clock
period represents 0.5 microsecond and it takes approximately 32.78 milliseconds to count from 0
to 216 (65,536). The timer input system then uses the clock values to compute frequencies, periods,
and pulse widths. For example, suppose you want to measure a pulse width of an incoming aperiodic
signal. If the rising edge and the falling edge occurred at count values $0010 and $0114, 1 can you
find the pulse width when the free running counter is counting at 2 MHz? Let’s first convert the
two values into their corresponding decimal values, 276 and 16. The pulse width of the signal in the
number of counter value is 260. Since we already know how long it takes for the system to increment
by one, we can readily compute the pulse width as 260 × 0.5 microseconds = 130 microseconds.

1The $ symbol represents that the following value is in a hexadecimal form.

 7.3. TIMING SYSTEM OVERVIEW 173

Special Storage Comparator Free-Running

Register Counter

Programmed
Event
Timer Output
- Toggle
Flag
- Logic high
- Logic low

Timer Output Physical

Interrupt Output
System Pin

Figure 7.2: A diagram of a timer output system.

Our calculations do not take into account time increments lasting longer than the rollover
time of the counter. When a counter rolls over from its maximum value back to zero, a status flag is
set to notify the processor of this event. The rollover events may be counted to correctly determine
the overall elapsed time of an event.
To calculate the total elapsed time of an event; the event start time, stop time, and the number
of timer overflows (n) that occurred between the start time and stop time must be known. Elapsed
time may be calculated using:

elapsed clock ticks = (n × 2b ) + (stop count − start count) [clock ticks]

elapsed time = (elapsed clock ticks) × (F RC clock period) [seconds]

In this first equation, “n” is the number of Timer Overflow Flag (TOF) events that occur
between the start and stop events and “b” is the number of bits in the timer counter. The equation
174 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM
yields the elapsed time in clock ticks. To convert to seconds the number of clock ticks are multiplied
by the period of the clock source of the free running counter.

7.4 APPLICATIONS
In this section, we consider some important uses of the timer system of a microcontroller to (1)
measure an input signal timing event, termed input capture, (2) to count the number of external
signal occurrences, (3) to generate timed signals — termed output compare, and, finally, (4) to
generate pulse width modulated signals. We first start with a case of measuring the time duration of
an incoming signal.

7.4.1 INPUT CAPTURE — MEASURING EXTERNAL TIMING EVENT

In many applications, we are interested in measuring the elapsed time or the frequency of an external
event using a microcontroller. Using the hardware and functional units discussed in the previous
sections, we now present a procedure to accomplish the task of computing the frequency of an
incoming periodic signal. Figure 7.3 shows an incoming periodic signal to our microcontroller.

Microcontroller

Timer Input Port

External
Timer Output Port
Device

Figure 7.3: Use of the timer input and output systems of a microcontroller. The signal on top is fed into
a timer input port. The captured signal is subsequently used to compute the input signal frequency. The
signal on the bottom is generated using the timer output system. The signal is used to control an external
device.

The first necessary step for the current task is to turn on the timer system. To reduce power
consumption a microcontroller usually does not turn on all of its functional systems after reset until
they are needed. In addition to a separate timer module, many microcontroller manufacturers allow
a programmer to choose the rate of a separate timer clock that governs the overall functions of a
timer module.
Once the timer is turned on and the clock rate is selected, a programmer must configure the
physical port to which the incoming signal arrives. This step is done using a special input timer port
 7.4. APPLICATIONS 175
configuration register. The next step is to program the input event to capture. In our current example,
we should capture two consecutive rising edges or falling edges of the incoming signal. Again, the
programming portion is done by storing an appropriate setup value to a special register.
Now that the input timer system is configured appropriately, you now have two options to
accomplish the task. The first one is the use of a polling technique; the microcontroller continuously
polls a flag, which holds a logic high signal when a programmed event occurs on the physical pin.
Once the microcontroller detects the flag, it needs to clear the flag and record the time when the flag
was set using another special register that captures the time of the associated free running counter
value. The program needs to continue to wait for the next flag, which indicates the end of one
period of the incoming signal. A programmer then needs to record the newly acquired captured
time represented in the form of a free running counter value again. The period of the signal can now
be computed by computing the time difference between the two captured event times, and, based
on the clock speed of the microcontroller’s timer system, the programmer can compute the actual
time changes and consequently the frequency of the signal.
In many cases, a microcontroller can’t afford the time to poll for one event. Such situation in-
troduces the second method: interrupt systems. Most microcontroller manufacturers have developed
built-in interrupt systems with their timer input modules. Instead of continuously polling for a flag,
a microcontroller performs other tasks and relies on its interrupt system to detect the programmed
event. The task of computing the period and the frequency is the same as the first method, except
that the microcontroller will not be tied down to constantly checking the flag, increasing the efficient
use of the microcontroller resources. To use interrupt systems, of course, we must pay the price by
appropriately configuring the interrupt systems to be triggered when a desired event is detected.
Typically, additional registers must be configured, and a special program called an interrupt service
routine must be written.
Suppose that for an input capture scenario the two captured times for the two rising edges are
$1000 and $5000, respectively. Note that these values are not absolute times but the representations
of times reflected as the values of the free running counter. The period of the signal is $4000 or
16384 in a decimal form. If we assume that the timer clock runs at 10 MHz, the period of the signal
is 1.6384 msec, and the corresponding frequency of the signal is approximately 610.35 Hz.

7.4.2 COUNTING EVENTS

The same capability of measuring the period of a signal can also be used to simply count external
events. Suppose we want to count the number of logic state changes of an incoming signal for a given
period of time. Again, we can use the polling technique or the interrupt technique to accomplish
the task. For both techniques, the initial steps of turning on a timer and configuring a physical input
port pin are the same. In this application, however, the programmed event should be any logic state
changes instead of looking for a rising or a falling edge as we have done in the previous section. If
the polling technique is used, at each event detection, the corresponding flag must be cleared and
176 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM
a counter must be updated. If the interrupt technique is used, one must write an interrupt service
routine within which the flag is cleared and a counter is updated.

7.4.3 OUTPUT COMPARE — GENERATING TIMING SIGNALS TO

INTERFACE EXTERNAL DEVICES
In the previous two sections, we considered two applications of capturing external incoming signals.
In this subsection and the next one, we consider how a microcontroller can generate time critical
signals for external devices. Suppose in this application, we want to send a signal shown in Figure
7.3 to turn on an external device. The timing signal is arbitrary but the application will show that a
timer output system can generate any desired time related signals permitted under the timer clock
speed limit of the microcontroller.
Similar to the use of the timer input system, one must first turn on the timer system and
configure a physical pin as a timer output pin using special registers. In addition, one also needs to
program the desired external event using another special register associated with the timer output
system. To generate the signal shown in Figure 7.3, one must compute the time required between the
rising and the falling edges. Suppose that the external device requires a pulse which is 2 milliseconds
wide to be activated. To generate the desired pulse, one must first program the logic state for the
particular pin to be low and set the time value using a special register with respect to the contents of
the free running counter. As was mentioned in Section 5.2, at each clock cycle, the special register
contents are compared with the contents of the free running counter and when a match occurs, the
programmed logic state appears on the designated hardware pin. Once the rising edge is generated,
the program then must reconfigure the event to be a falling edge (logic state low) and change the
contents of the special register to be compared with the free running counter. For the particular
example in Figure 7.3, let’s assume that the main clock runs at 2 MHz, the free running counter is
a 16 bit counter, and the name of the special register (16 bit register) where we can put appropriate
values is output timer register. To generate the desired pulse, we can put $0000 first to the output
timer register, and after the rising edge has been generated, we need to change the program event to
a falling edge and put $0FA0 or 4000 in decimal to the output timer register. As was the case with
the input timer system module, we can use output timer system interrupts to generate the desired
signals as well.

7.4.4 INDUSTRIAL IMPLEMENTATION CASE STUDY (PWM)

In this section, we discuss a well-known method to control the speed of a DC motor using a pulse
width modulated (PWM) signal. The underlying concept is as follows. If we turn on a DC motor
and provide the required voltage, the motor will run at its maximum speed. Suppose we turn the
motor on and off rapidly, by applying a periodic signal. The motor at some point can not react fast
enough to the changes of the voltage values and will run at the speed proportional to the average
time the motor was turned on. By changing the duty cycle, we can control the speed of a DC motor
as we desire. Suppose again we want to generate a speed profile shown in Figure 7.4. As shown in
 7.4. APPLICATIONS 177
[hbt]

Speed Profile

Constant Speed
Period
Motor Velocity

Acceleration Deceleration
Period Period

Time
Pulse Width Modulated Signal

DC Motor
GND

Figure 7.4: The figure shows the speed profile of a DC motor over time when a pulse-width-modulated
signal is applied to the motor.

the figure, we want to accelerate the speed, maintain the speed, and decelerate the speed for a fixed
amount of time.
As an example, an elevator control system does not immediately operate the elevator motor
at full speed. The elevator motor speed will ramp up gradually from stop to desired speed. As the
elevator approaches, the desired floor it will gradually ramp back down to stop.
The first task necessary is again to turn on the timer system, configure a physical port, and
program the event to be a rising edge. As a part of the initialization process, we need to put $0000 to
the output timer register we discussed in the previous subsection. Once the rising edge is generated,
the program then needs to modify the event to a falling edge and change the contents of the output
timer register to a value proportional to a desired duty cycle. For example, if we want to start off
with 25% duty cycle, we need to input $4000 to the register, provided that we are using a 16 bit free
running counter. Once the falling edge is generated, we now need to go back and change the event
to be a rising edge and the contents of the output timer counter value back to $0000. If we want
178 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM
to continue to generate a 25% duty cycle signal, then we must repeat the process indefinitely. Note
that we are using the time for a free running counter to count from $0000 to $FFFF as one period.
Now suppose we want to increase the duty cycle to 50% over 1 sec and that the clock is
running at 2 MHz. This means that the free running counter counts from $0000 to $FFFF every
32.768 milliseconds, and the free running counter will count from $0000 to $FFFF approximately
30.51 times over the period of one second. That is we need to increase the pulse width from $4000
to $8000 in approximately 30 turns, or approximately 546 clock counts every turn. This technique
may be used to generate any desired duty cycle.

7.5 OVERVIEW OF THE ATMEL ATMEGA328 TIMER

SYSTEM
The Atmel ATmega328 is equipped with a flexible and powerful three channel timing system. The
timer channels are designated Timer 0,Timer 1, and Timer 2. In this section, we review the operation
of the timing system in detail. We begin with an overview of the timing system features followed by a
detailed discussion of timer channel 0. Space does not permit a complete discussion of the other two
timing channels; we review their complement of registers and highlight their features not contained
in our discussion of timer channel 0. The information provided on timer channel 0 is readily adapted
to the other two channels.
The features of the timing system are summarized in Figure 7.5.Timer 0 and 2 are 8-bit timers;
whereas, Timer 1 is a 16-bit timer. Each timing channel is equipped with a prescaler. The prescaler is
used to subdivide the main microcontroller clock source (designated fclk_I /O in upcoming diagrams)
down to the clock source for the timing system (clkT n ).
Each timing channel has the capability to generate pulse width modulated signals, generate
a periodic signal with a specific frequency, count events, and generate a precision signal using the
output compare channels. Additionally, Timer 1 is equipped with the Input Capture feature.
All of the timing channels may be configured to operate in one of four operational modes
designated : Normal, Clear Timer on Compare Match (CTC), Fast PWM, and Phase Correct
PWM. We provide more information on these modes shortly.

7.6 TIMER 0 SYSTEM

In this section, we discuss the features, overall architecture, modes of operation, registers, and pro-
gramming of Timer 0. This information may be readily adapted to Timer 1 and Timer 2.
A Timer 0 block diagram is shown in Figure 7.6. The clock source for Timer 0 is provided via
an external clock source at the T0 pin (PD4) of the microcontroller. Timer 0 may also be clocked
internally via the microcontroller’s main clock (fclk_I /O ). This clock frequency may be too rapid
for many applications. Therefore, the timing system is equipped with a prescaler to subdivide the
main clock frequency down to timer system frequency (clkT n ). The clock source for Timer 0 is
selected using the CS0[2:0] bits contained in the Timer/Counter Control Register B (TCCR0B).
 7.6. TIMER 0 SYSTEM 179

Timer 0 Timer 1 Timer 2

- 8-bit timer/counter - 16-bit timer/counter - 8-bit timer/counter
- 10-bit clock prescaler - 10-bit clock prescaler - 10-bit clock prescaler
- Functions: - Functions: - Functions:
-- Pulse width modulation -- Pulse width modulation -- Pulse width modulation
-- Frequency generation -- Frequency generation -- Frequency generation
-- Event counter -- Event counter -- Event counter
-- Output compare -- 2 ch -- Output compare -- 2 ch -- Output compare -- 2 ch
- Modes of operation: -- Input capture - Modes of operation:
-- Normal - Modes of operation: -- Normal
-- Clear timer on -- Normal -- Clear timer on
compare match (CTC) -- Clear timer on compare match (CTC)
-- Fast PWM compare match (CTC) -- Fast PWM
-- Phase correct PWM -- Fast PWM -- Phase correct PWM
-- Phase correct PWM

Figure 7.5: Atmel timer system overview.

The TCCR0A register contains the WGM0[1:0] bits and the COM0A[1:0] (and B) bits. Whereas,
the TCCR0B register contains the WGM0[2] bit.These bits are used to select the mode of operation
for Timer 0 as well as tailor waveform generation for a specific application.
The timer clock source (clkT n ) is fed to the 8-bit Timer/Counter Register (TCNT0). This
register is incremented (or decremented) on each clkT n clock pulse. Timer 0 is also equipped with
two 8-bit comparators that constantly compares the numerical content of TCNT0 to the Output
Compare Register A (OCR0A) and Output Compare Register B (OCR0B). The compare signal
from the 8-bit comparator is fed to the waveform generators. The waveform generators have a
number of inputs to perform different operations with the timer system.
The BOTTOM signal for the waveform generation and the control logic, shown in Figure
7.6, is asserted when the timer counter TCNT0 reaches all zeroes (0x00). The MAX signal for
the control logic unit is asserted when the counter reaches all ones (0xFF). The TOP signal for
the waveform generation is asserted by either reaching the maximum count values of 0xFF on the
TCNT0 register or reaching the value set in the Output Compare Register 0 A (OCR0A) or B.
The setting for the TOP signal will be determined by the Timer’s mode of operation.
Timer 0 also uses certain bits within the Timer/Counter Interrupt Mask Register 0 (TIMSK0)
and the Timer/Counter Interrupt Flag Register 0 (TIFR0) to signal interrupt related events.
180 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM

Figure 7.6: Timer 0 block diagram. (Figure used with permission Atmel, Inc.)

7.6.1 MODES OF OPERATION

Each of the timer channels may be set for a specific mode of operation: normal, clear timer on
compare match (CTC), fast PWM, and phase correct PWM. The system designer chooses the
correct mode for the application at hand. The timer modes of operation are summarized in Figure
7.7. A specific mode of operation is selected using the Waveform Generation Mode bits located in
Timer/Control Register A (TCCR0A) and Timer/Control Register B (TCCR0B).

7.6.1.1 Normal Mode

In the normal mode, the timer will continually count up from 0x00 (BOTTOM) to 0xFF (TOP).
When the TCNT0 returns to zero on each cycle of the counter the Timer/Counter Overflow Flag
181

Clear Timer on Compare Match (CTC)

7.6. TIMER 0 SYSTEM

Normal Mode
fOC0 = (fclk_I/O)/ (2 x N x (1 + OCR0))
OC0
TOP OCR0
OCR0
OCR0
TCNT0 TCNT0
BOTTOM
TOV0 TOV0 TOV0 OC0 OC0 OC0 OC0 OC0
inter
flag
Fast PWM Mode Phase Correct PWM Mode
fOC0PWM = fclk_I/O/ (N x 510)
fOC0PWM = fclk_I/O/ (N x 256)
TOV0 TOV0 TOV0 TOV0 TOV0 TOV0
TOP TOP
OCR0
TCNT0 OCR0 OCR0 TCNT0 OCR0 OCR0
BOTTOM BOTTOM
OC0 OC0 OC0 OC0 OC0 OC0
OC0 OC0
Figure 7.7: Timer 0 modes of operation.
182 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM
(TOV0) will be set. The normal mode is useful for generating a periodic “clock tick” that may be
used to calculate elapsed real time or provide delays within a system. We provide an example of this
application in Section 5.9.

7.6.1.2 Clear Timer on Compare Match (CTC)

In the CTC mode, the TCNT0 timer is reset to zero every time the TCNT0 counter reaches the
value set in Output Compare Register A (OCR0A) or B. The Output Compare Flag A (OCF0A)
or B is set when this event occurs. The OCF0A or B flag is enabled by asserting the Timer/Counter
0 Output Compare Math Interrupt Enable (OCIE0A) or B flag in the Timer/Counter Interrupt
Mask Register 0 (TIMSK0) and when the I-bit in the Status Register is set to one.
The CTC mode is used to generate a precision digital waveform such as a periodic signal or
a single pulse. The user must describe the parameters and key features of the waveform in terms
of Timer 0 “clock ticks.” When a specific key feature is reached within the waveform the next key
feature may be set into the OCR0A or B register.

7.6.1.3 Phase Correct PWM Mode

In the Phase Correct PWM Mode, the TCNT0 register counts from 0x00 to 0xFF and back down
to 0x00 continually. Every time the TCNT0 value matches the value set in the OCR0A or B register
the OCF0A or B flag is set and a change in the PWM signal occurs.

7.6.1.4 Fast PWM

The Fast PWM mode is used to generate a precision PWM signal of a desired frequency and duty
cycle. It is called the Fast PWM because its maximum frequency is twice that of the Phase Correct
PWM mode. When the TCNT0 register value reaches the value set in the OCR0A or B register it
will cause a change in the PWM output as prescribed by the system designer. It continues to count
up to the TOP value at which time the Timer/Counter 0 Overflow Flag is set.

7.6.2 TIMER 0 REGISTERS

A summary of the Timer 0 registers are shown in Figure 7.8.

7.6.2.1 Timer/Counter Control Registers A and B (TCCR0A and TCCR0B)

The TCCR0 register bits are used to:
• Select the operational mode of Timer 0 using the Waveform Mode Generation (WGM0[2:0])
bits,
• Determine the operation of the timer within a specific mode with the Compare Match Output
Mode (COM0A[1:0] or COM0B[1:0] or) bits, and
• Select the source of the Timer 0 clock using Clock Select (CS0[2:0]) bits.
The bit settings for the TCCR0 register are summarized in Figure 7.9.
 7.6. TIMER 0 SYSTEM 183

Timer/Counter Control Register A (TCCR0A)

COM0A1 COM0A0 COM0B1 COM0B0 --- --- WGM01 WGM00
7 0
Timer/Counter Control Register B (TCCR0B)
FOC0A FOC0B --- --- WGM02 CS02 CS01 CS00
7 0
Timer/Counter Register (TCNT0)

7 0
Output Compare Register A (OCR0A)

7 0
Output Compare Register B (OCR0B)

7 0
Timer/Counter Interrupt Mask Register 0 (TIMSK0)
--- --- --- --- --- OCIE0B OCIE0A TOIE0
7 0
Timer/Counter Interrupt Flag REgister 0 (TIFR0)
--- --- --- --- --- OCF0B OCF0A TOV0
7 0

Figure 7.8: Timer 0 registers.

7.6.2.2 Timer/Counter Register(TCNT0)

The TCNT0 is the 8-bit counter for Timer 0.

7.6.2.3 Output Compare Registers A and B (OCR0A and OCR0B)

The OCR0A and B registers holds a user-defined 8-bit value that is continuously compared to the
TCNT0 register.

7.6.2.4 Timer/Counter Interrupt Mask Register (TIMSK0)

Timer 0 uses the Timer/Counter 0 Output Compare Match Interrupt Enable A and B (OCIE0A
and B) bits and the Timer/Counter 0 Overflow Interrupt Enable (TOIE0) bit. When the OCIE0A
184 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM

CS0[2:0] Clock Source

000 None
001 clkI/0
010 clkI/0/8
011 clkI/0/64
100 clkI/0/8clkI/0/256
101 clkI/0/8clkI/0/1024
110 External clock on T0 (falling edge trigger)
111 External clock on T1 (rising edge trigger)

Timer/Counter Control Register B (TCCR0B) Clock Select

FOC0A FOC0B --- --- WGM02 CS02 CS01 CS00
7 0
Timer/Counter Control Register A (TCCR0A)
COM0A1 COM0A0 COM0B1 COM0B0 --- --- WGM01 WGM00

Waveform Generation
Mode
Mode WGM[02:00] Mode
0 000 Normal
1 001 PWM, Phase Correct
2 010 CTC
3 011 Fast PWM
4 100 Reserved
5 101 PWM, Phase Correct
6 110 Reserved
7 111 Fast PWM
Compare Output Mode, non-PWM Mode Compare Output Mode, non-PWM Mode
COM0A[1:0] Description COM0B[1:0] Description
00 Normal, OC0A disconnected 00 Normal, OC0B disconnected
01 Toggle OC0A on compare match 01 Toggle OC0B on compare match
10 Clear OC0A on compare match 10 Clear OC0B on compare match
11 Set OC0A on compare match 11 Set OC0B on compare match
Compare Output Mode, Fast PWM Mode Compare Output Mode, Fast PWM Mode
COM0A[1:0] Description COM0B[1:0] Description
00 Normal, OC0A disconnected 00 Normal, OC0B disconnected
01 WGM02 = 0: normal operation, 01 Reserved
OC0A disconnected
WGM02 = 1: Toggle OC0A on
compare match
10 Clear OC0A on compare match, 10 Clear OC0B on compare match,
set OC0A at Bottom set OC0B at Bottom
(non-inverting mode) (non-inverting mode)
11 Set OC0A on compare match, 11 Set OC0B on compare match,
clear OC0A at Bottom clear OC0B at Bottom
(inverting mode) (inverting mode)

Compare Output Mode, Phase Correct PWM Compare Output Mode, Phase Correct PWM
COM0A[1:0] Description COM0B[1:0] Description
00 Normal, OC0A disconnected 00 Normal, OC0B disconnected
01 WGM02 = 0: normal operation, 01 Reserved
OC0A disconnected
WGM02 = 1: Toggle OC0A on
compare match
Clear OC0A on compare match, 10 Clear OC0B on compare match,
10 when upcounting. Set OC0A on when upcounting. Set OC0B on
compare match when down counting compare match when down counting
Set OC0A on compare match, 11 Set OC0B on compare match,
11 when upcounting. Set OC0A on when upcounting. Set OC0B on
compare match when down counting compare match when down counting

Figure 7.9: Timer/Counter Control Registers A and B (TCCR0A and TCCR0B) bit settings.
 7.7. TIMER 1 185
or B bit and the I-bit in the Status Register are both set to one, the Timer/Counter 0 Compare
Match interrupt is enabled. When the TOIE0 bit and the I-bit in the Status Register are both set
to one, the Timer/Counter 0 Overflow interrupt is enabled.

7.6.2.5 Timer/Counter Interrupt Flag Register 0 (TIFR0)

Timer 0 uses the Output Compare Flag A or B (OCF0A and OCF0B) which sets for an output
compare match. Timer 0 also uses the Timer/Counter 0 Overflow Flag (TOV0) which sets when
Timer/Counter 0 overflows.

7.7 TIMER 1
Timer 1 is a 16-bit timer/counter. It shares many of the same features of the Timer 0 channel.
Due to limited space the shared information will not be repeated. Instead, we concentrate on the
enhancements of Timer 1 which include an additional output compare channel and also the capability
for input capture. The block diagram for Timer 1 is shown in Figure 7.10.
As discussed earlier in the chapter, the input capture feature is used to capture the character-
istics of an input signal including period, frequency, duty cycle, or pulse length. This is accomplished
by monitoring for a user-specified edge on the ICP1 microcontroller pin. When the desired edge
occurs, the value of the Timer/Counter 1 (TCNT1) register is captured and stored in the Input
Capture Register 1 (ICR1).

7.7.1 TIMER 1 REGISTERS

The complement of registers supporting Timer 1 are shown in Figure 7.11. Each register will be
discussed in turn.

7.7.1.1 TCCR1A and TCCR1B registers

The TCCR1 register bits are used to:

• Select the operational mode of Timer 1 using the Waveform Mode Generation (WGM1[3:0])
bits,

• Determine the operation of the timer within a specific mode with the Compare Match Output
Mode (Channel A: COM1A[1:0] and Channel B: COM1B[1:0]) bits, and

• Select the source of the Timer 1 clock using Clock Select (CS1[2:0]) bits.

The bit settings for the TCCR1A and TCCR1B registers are summarized in Figure 7.12.

7.7.1.2 Timer/Counter Register 1 (TCNT1H/TCNT1L)

The TCNT1 is the 16-bit counter for Timer 1.
186 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM

Figure 7.10: Timer 1 block diagram. (Figure used with Permission, Atmel,Inc.)
 7.7. TIMER 1 187

Timer/Counter 1 Control Register A (TCCR1A)

COM1A1 COM1A0 COM1B1 COM1B0 --- --- WGM11 WGM10

7 0
Timer/Counter 1 Control Register B (TCCR1B)
ICNC1 ICES1 --- WGM13 WGM12 CS12 CS11 CS10
7 0
Timer/Counter 1 Control Register C (TCCR1C)
FOC1A FOC1B --- --- --- --- --- ---
7 0

Timer Counter1 (TCNT1H/TCNT1L)

15 8
7 0

Output Compare Register 1 A (OCR1AH/OCR1AL)

15 8
7 0
Output Compare Register 1 B (OCR1BH/OCR1BL)
15 8
7 0

Input Capture Register 1 (ICR1H/ICR1L)

15 8
7 0

Timer/Counter Interrupt Mask Register 1 (TIMSK1)

--- --- ICIE1 --- --- OCIE1B OCIE1A TOIE1
7 0
Timer/Counter 1 Interrupt Flag REgister (TIFR1)
--- --- ICF1 --- --- OCF1B OCF1A TOV1
7 0

Figure 7.11: Timer 1 registers.

188 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM

CS0[2:0] Clock Source

000 None
001 clkI/0
010 clkI/0/8
011 clkI/0/64
100 clkI/0/8clkI/0/256
101 clkI/0/8clkI/0/1024
110 External clock on T0 (falling edge trigger)
111 External clock on T1 (rising edge trigger)

Clock Select
Timer/Counter 1 Control Register B (TCCR1B)
ICNC1 ICES1 --- WGM13 WGM12 CS12 CS11 CS10
7 0
Timer/Counter 1 Control Register A (TCCR1A)
COM1A1 COM1A0 COM1B1 COM1B0 --- --- WGM11 WGM10

7 0
Waveform Generation Mode Normal, CTC
Mode WGM[13:12:11:10] Mode COMx[1:0] Description
0 0000 Normal 00 Normal, OC1A/1B disconnected
1 0001 PWM, Phase Correct, 8-bit 01 Toggle OC1A/1B on compare match
2 0010 PWM, Phase Correct, 9-bit 10 Clear OC1A/1B on compare match
3 0011 PWM, Phase Correct, 10-bit 11 Set OC1A/1B on compare match
4 0100 CTC
PWM, Phase Correct, Phase & Freq Correct
5 0101 Fast PWM, 8-bit
COMx[1:0] Description
6 0110 Fast PWM, 9-bit
00 Normal, OC0 disconnected
7 0111 Fast PWM, 10-bit
01 WGM1[3:0] = 9 or 14: toggle OCnA
8 1000 PWM, Phase & Freq Correct
on compare match, OCnB discon-
9 1001 PWM, Phase & Freq Correct
nected
10 1010 PWM, Phase Correct
WGM1[3:0]= other settings,
11 1011 PWM, Phase Correct
OC1A/1B disconnected
12 1100 CTC
10 Clear OC0 on compare match
13 1101 Reserved
when up-counting. Set OC0
14 1110 Fast PWM
on compare match when
15 1111 Fast PWM
down counting
11 Set OC0 on compare match
when up-counting. Clear OC0
on compare match when
down counting.
Fast PWM
COMx[1:0] Description
00 Normal, OC1A/1B disconnected
01 WGM1[3:0] = 9 or 11, toggle OC1A on
compare match OC1B disconnected
WGM1[3:0] = other settings,
OC1A/1B disconnected
10 Clear OC1A/1B on compare match,
set OC1A/1B on Compare Match when
down counting
11 Set OC1A/1B on compare match when
upcounting. Clear OC1A/1B on Compare
Match when upcounting

Figure 7.12: TCCR1A and TCCR1B registers.

 7.8. TIMER 2 189
7.7.1.3 Output Compare Register 1 (OCR1AH/OCR1AL)
The OCR1A register holds a user-defined 16-bit value that is continuously compared to the TCNT1
register when Channel A is used.

7.7.1.4 OCR1BH/OCR1BL
The OCR1B register holds a user-defined 16-bit value that is continuously compared to the TCNT1
register when Channel B is used.

7.7.1.5 Input Capture Register 1 (ICR1H/ICR1L)

ICR1 is a 16-bit register used to capture the value of the TCNT1 register when a desired edge on
ICP1 pin has occurred.

7.7.1.6 Timer/Counter Interrupt Mask Register 1 (TIMSK1)

Timer 1 uses the Timer/Counter 1 Output Compare Match Interrupt Enable (OCIE1A/1B) bits,
the Timer/Counter 1 Overflow Interrupt Enable (TOIE1) bit, and the Timer/Counter 1 Input
Capture Interrupt Enable (IC1E1) bit. When the OCIE1A/B bit and the I-bit in the Status Register
are both set to one, the Timer/Counter 1 Compare Match interrupt is enabled. When the OIE1 bit
and the I-bit in the Status Register are both set to one, the Timer/Counter 1 Overflow interrupt
is enabled. When the IC1E1 bit and the I-bit in the Status Register are both set to one, the
Timer/Counter 1 Input Capture interrupt is enabled.

7.7.1.7 Timer/Counter Interrupt Flag Register (TIFR1)

Timer 1 uses the Output Compare Flag 1 A/B (OCF1A/B) which sets for an output compare
A/B match. Timer 1 also uses the Timer/Counter 1 Overflow Flag (TOV1) which sets when
Timer/Counter 1 overflows. Timer Channel 1 also uses the Timer/Counter 1 Input Capture Flag
(ICF1) which sets for an input capture event.

7.8 TIMER 2
Timer 2 is another 8-bit timer channel similar to Timer 0. The Timer 2 channel block diagram is
provided in Figure 7.13. Its registers are summarized in Figure 7.14.

7.8.0.8 Timer/Counter Control Register A and B (TCCR2A and B)

The TCCR2A and B register bits are used to:

• Select the operational mode of Timer 2 using the Waveform Mode Generation (WGM2[2:0])
bits,

• Determine the operation of the timer within a specific mode with the Compare Match Output
Mode (COM2A[1:0] and B) bits, and
190 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM

Figure 7.13: Timer 2 block diagram. (Figure used with Permission, Atmel,Inc.)
 7.8. TIMER 2 191

Timer/Counter Control Register A (TCCR2A)

COM2A1 COM2A0 COM2B1 COM2B0 --- --- WGM21 WGM20
7 0
Timer/Counter Control Register B (TCCR2B)
FOC2A FOC2B --- --- WGM22 CS22 CS21 CS20
7 0

Timer/Counter Register (TCNT2)

7 0
Output Compare Register A (OCR2A)

7 0
Output Compare Register B (OCR2B)

7 0
Timer/Counter 2 Interrupt Mask Register (TIMSK2)
--- --- --- --- --- OCIE2B OCIE2A TOIE2
7 0
Timer/Counter 2 Interrupt Flag REgister (TIFR2)
--- --- --- --- --- OCF2B OCF2A TOV2
7 0

Figure 7.14: Timer 2 registers.

192 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM
• Select the source of the Timer 2 clock using Clock Select (CS2[2:0]) bits.
The bit settings for the TCCR2A and B registers are summarized in Figure 7.15.

7.8.0.9 Timer/Counter Register(TCNT2)

The TCNT2 is the 8-bit counter for Timer 2.

7.8.0.10 Output Compare Register A and B (OCR2A and B)

The OCR2A and B registers hold a user-defined 8-bit value that is continuously compared to the
TCNT2 register.

7.8.0.11 Timer/Counter Interrupt Mask Register 2 (TIMSK2)

Timer 2 uses the Timer/Counter 2 Output Compare Match Interrupt Enable A and B (OCIE2A
and B) bits and the Timer/Counter 2 Overflow Interrupt Enable A and B (OIE2A and B) bits. When
the OCIE2A or B bit and the I-bit in the Status Register are both set to one, the Timer/Counter 2
Compare Match interrupt is enabled. When the TOIE2 bit and the I-bit in the Status Register are
both set to one, the Timer/Counter 2 Overflow interrupt is enabled.

7.8.0.12 Timer/Counter Interrupt Flag Register 2 (TIFR2)

Timer 2 uses the Output Compare Flags 2 A and B (OCF2A and B) which sets for an output
compare match. Timer 2 also uses the Timer/Counter 2 Overflow Flag (TOV2) which sets when
Timer/Counter 2 overflows.

7.9 PROGRAMMING THE ARDUINO DUEMILANOVE

USING THE BUILT-IN ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENT TIMING FEATURES
The Arduino Development Environment has several built-in timing features. These include:
• delay(unsigned long): The delay function pauses a sketch for the amount of time specified in
milliseconds.
• delayMicroseconds(unsigned int): The delayMicroseconds function pauses a sketch for the
amount of time specified in microseconds.
• pulseIn(pin, value): The pulseIn function measures the length of an incoming digital pulse. If
value is specified as HIGH, the function waits for the specified pin to go high and then times
until the pin goes low. The pulseIn function returns the length of elapsed time in microseconds
as an unsigned long.
• analogWrite(pin, value): The analog write function provides a pulse width modulated
(PWM) output signal on the specified pin. The PWM frequency is approximately 490 Hz.
The duty cycle is specified from 0 (value of 0) to 100 (value of 255) percent.
 7.9. PROGRAMMING THE ARDUINO DUEMILANOVE 193

CS2[2:0] Clock Source

000 None
001 clkI/0
010 clkI/0/8
011 clkI/0/32
100 clkI/0/64
101 clkI/0/128
110 clkI/0/256
111 clkI/0/1024

Timer/Counter Control Register B (TCCR2B) Clock Select

FOC2A FOC2B --- --- WGM22 CS22 CS21 CS20
7 0
Timer/Counter Control Register A (TCCR2A)
COM2A1 COM2A0 COM2B1 COM2B0 --- --- WGM21 WGM20
Waveform Generation
Mode
Mode WGM[02:00] Mode
0 000 Normal
1 001 PWM, Phase Correct
2 010 CTC
3 011 Fast PWM
4 100 Reserved
5 101 PWM, Phase Correct
6 110 Reserved
7 111 Fast PWM
Compare Output Mode, non-PWM Mode Compare Output Mode, non-PWM Mode
COM2A[1:0] Description COM2B[1:0] Description
00 Normal, OC2A disconnected 00 Normal, OC2B disconnected
01 Toggle OC2A on compare match 01 Toggle OC2B on compare match
10 Clear OC2A on compare match 10 Clear OC2B on compare match
11 Set OC2A on compare match 11 Set OC2B on compare match
Compare Output Mode, Fast PWM Mode Compare Output Mode, Fast PWM Mode
COM2A[1:0] Description COM2B[1:0] Description
00 Normal, OC2A disconnected 00 Normal, OC2B disconnected
01 WGM22 = 0: normal operation, 01 Reserved
OC2A disconnected
WGM22 = 1: Toggle OC2A on
compare match
10 Clear OC2A on compare match, 10 Clear OC2B on compare match,
set OC2A at Bottom set OC2B at Bottom
(non-inverting mode) (non-inverting mode)
11 Set OC2A on compare match, 11 Set OC2B on compare match,
clear OC2A at Bottom clear OC2B at Bottom
(inverting mode) (inverting mode)

Compare Output Mode, Phase Correct PWM Compare Output Mode, Phase Correct PWM
COM2A[1:0] Description COM2B[1:0] Description
00 Normal, OC2A disconnected 00 Normal, OC2B disconnected
01 WGM22 = 0: normal operation, 01 Reserved
OC2A disconnected
WGM22 = 1: Toggle OC2A on
compare match
Clear OC2A on compare match, 10 Clear OC2B on compare match,
10 when upcounting. Set OC2A on when upcounting. Set OC2B on
compare match when down counting compare match when down counting
Set OC2A on compare match, 11 Set OC2B on compare match,
11 when upcounting. Set OC2A on when upcounting. Set OC2B on
compare match when down counting compare match when down counting

Figure 7.15: Timer/Counter Control Register A and B (TCCR2A and B) bit settings.
194 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM
We have already used the analogWrite function in an earlier chapter to control the motor
speed of the Blinky 602A robot.

7.10 PROGRAMMING THE TIMER SYSTEM IN C

In this section, we provide several representative examples of using the timer system for various
applications. We will provide examples of using the timer system to generate a prescribed delay, to
generate a PWM signal, and to capture an input event.

7.10.1 PRECISION DELAY IN C

In this example, we program the ATmega328 to provide a delay of some number of 6.55 ms interrupts.
The Timer 0 overflow is configured to occur every 6.55 ms. The overflow flag is used as a “clock
tick” to generate a precision delay. To create the delay the microcontroller is placed in a while loop
waiting for the prescribed number of Timer 0 overflows to occur.

//Function prototypes
void delay(unsigned int number_of_6_55ms_interrupts);
void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void);
void timer0_interrupt_isr(void);

//interrupt handler definition

#pragma interrupt_handler timer0_interrupt_isr:17

//door profile data

//*************************************************************************
//int_timer0_ovf_interrupt(): The Timer0 overflow interrupt is being
//employed as a time base for a master timer for this project.
//The ceramic resonator operating at 10 MHz is divided by 256.
//The 8-bit Timer0 register (TCNT0) overflows every 256 counts
//or every 6.55 ms.
//*************************************************************************

void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void)
{
TCCR0B = 0x04; //divide timer0 timebase by 256, overfl. occurs every 6.55ms
 7.10. PROGRAMMING THE TIMER SYSTEM IN C 195
TIMSK0 = 0x01; //enable timer0 overflow interrupt
asm("SEI"); //enable global interrupt
}

//*************************************************************************
//*************************************************************************
//timer0_interrupt_isr:
//Note: Timer overflow 0 is cleared by hardware when executing the
//corresponding interrupt handling vector.
//*************************************************************************

void timer0_interrupt_isr(void)
{
input_delay++; //input delay processing
}

//*************************************************************************
//*************************************************************************
//delay(unsigned int num_of_6_55ms_interrupts): this generic delay function
//provides the specified delay as the number of 6.55 ms "clock ticks" from
//the Timer0 interrupt.
//Note: this function is only valid when using a 10 MHz crystal or ceramic
// resonator
//*************************************************************************

void delay(unsigned int number_of_6_55ms_interrupts)

{
TCNT0 = 0x00; //reset timer0
input_delay = 0;
while(input_delay <= number_of_6_55ms_interrupts)
{
;
}
}

//*************************************************************************
196 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM
7.10.2 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION IN C
The function provided below is used to configure output compare channel B to generate a pulse
width modulated signal. An analog voltage provided to ADC Channel 3 is used to set the desired
duty cycle from 50 to 100 percent. Note how the PWM ramps up from 0 to the desired speed.

//Function Prototypes
void PWM(unsigned int PWM_incr)
{
unsigned int Open_Speed_int;
float Open_Speed_float;
int gate_position_int;

PWM_duty_cycle = 0;
InitADC(); //Initialize ADC

//Read "Open Speed" volt

Open_Speed_int = ReadADC(0x03); //setting PA3

//Open Speed Setting unsigned int

//Convert to max duty cycle

//setting

//0 VDC = 50% = 127,

//5 VDC = 100% =255
Open_Speed_float = ((float)(Open_Speed_int)/(float)(0x0400));

//Convert volt to PWM constant

//127-255
Open_Speed_int = (unsigned int)((Open_Speed_float * 127) + 128.0);
//Configure PWM clock
TCCR1A = 0xA1; //freq = resonator/510 = 10MHz/510

//freq = 19.607 kHz

TCCR1B = 0x01; //no clock source division

PWM_duty_cycle = 0; //Initiate PWM duty cycle

//variables
 7.10. PROGRAMMING THE TIMER SYSTEM IN C 197
OCR1BH = 0x00;
OCR1BL = (unsigned char)(PWM_duty_cycle);//Set PWM duty cycle CH B to 0%
//Ramp up to Open Speed in 1.6s
OCR1BL = (unsigned char)(PWM_duty_cycle);//Set PWM duty cycle CH B

while (PWM_duty_cycle < Open_Speed_int)

{
if(PWM_duty_cycle < Open_Speed_int) //Increment duty cycle
PWM_duty_cycle=PWM_duty_cycle + PWM_open_incr;
//Set PWM duty cycle CH B
OCR1BL = (unsigned char)(PWM_duty_cycle);
}

//Gate continues to open at specified upper speed (PA3)

:
:
:

//*************************************************************************

7.10.3 INPUT CAPTURE MODE IN C

This example was developed by Julie Sandberg, BSEE and Kari Fuller, BSEE at the University of
Wyoming as part of their senior design project. In this example, the input capture channel is being
used to monitor the heart rate (typically 50-120 beats per minute) of a patient. The microcontroller
is set to operate at an internal clock frequency of 1 MHz. Timer/Counter channel 1 is used in this
example.

//*************************************************************************
//initialize_ICP_interrupt: Initialize Timer/Counter 1 for input capture
//*************************************************************************

void initialize_ICP_interrupt(void)
{
TIMSK=0x20; //Allows input capture interrupts
SFIOR=0x04; //Internal pull-ups disabled
TCCR1A=0x00; //No output comp or waveform
//generation mode
TCCR1B=0x45; //Capture on rising edge,
//clock prescalar=1024
198 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM
TCNT1H=0x00; //Initially clear timer/counter 1
TCNT1L=0x00;
asm("SEI"); //Enable global interrupts
}

//*************************************************************************

void Input_Capture_ISR(void)
{
if(first_edge==0)
{
ICR1L=0x00; //Clear ICR1 and TCNT1 on first edge
ICR1H=0x00;
TCNT1L=0x00;
TCNT1H=0x00;
first_edge=1;
}

else
{
ICR1L=TCNT1L; //Capture time from TCNT1
ICR1H=TCNT1H;
TCNT1L=0x00;
TCNT1H=0x00;
first_edge=0;
}

heart_rate(); //Calculate the heart rate

TIFR=0x20; //Clear the input capture flag
asm("RETI"); //Resets the I flag to allow
//global interrupts
}

//*************************************************************************

void heart_rate(void)
{
if(first_edge==0)
{
 7.11. SERVO MOTOR CONTROL WITH THE PWM SYSTEM IN C 199
time_pulses_low = ICR1L; //Read 8 low bits first
time_pulses_high = ((unsigned int)(ICR1H << 8));
time_pulses = time_pulses_low | time_pulses_high;
if(time_pulses!=0) //1 counter increment = 1.024 ms
{ //Divide by 977 to get seconds/pulse
HR=60/(time_pulses/977); //(secs/min)/(secs/beat) =bpm
}
else
{
HR=0;
}
}
else
{
HR=0;
}
}

//*************************************************************************

7.11 SERVO MOTOR CONTROL WITH THE PWM SYSTEM IN

C
A servo motor provides an angular displacement from 0 to 180 degrees. Most servo motors provide
the angular displacement relative to the pulse length of repetitive pulses sent to the motor as shown
in Figure 7.16. A 1 ms pulse provides an angular displacement of 0 degrees while a 2 ms pulse
provides a displacement of 180 degrees. Pulse lengths in between these two extremes provide angular
displacements between 0 and 180 degrees. Usually, a 20 to 30 ms low signal is provided between the
active pulses.
A test and interface circuit for a servo motor is provided in Figure 7.16. The PB0 and PB1
inputs of the ATmega328 provide for clockwise (CW) and counter-clockwise (CCW) rotation of
the servo motor, respectively. The time base for the ATmega328 is provided by a 128 KHz external
RC oscillator. Also, the external time base divide-by-eight circuit is active via a fuse setting. Pulse
width modulated signals to rotate the servo motor is provided by the ATmega328. A voltage-follower
op amp circuit is used as a buffer between the ATmega328 and the servo motor.
The software to support the test and interface circuit is provided below.
200 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM

128 kHz
ceramic resonator
1 PUR - PC6 PC5 28
2 RXD - PD0 PC4 27
3 TXD - PD1 PC3 26
4 PD2 PC2 25
sys reset
VDD 5 PD3 PC1 24
1M 6 PD4 PCO 23
7 Vcc Atmega328 GND 22
1uf
8 GND AREF 21 VDD
9 PB6 AVCC 20
10 PB7 PB5 19
Vcc = 5.0 volts 11 PD5 PB4 18
74HC14 12 PD6 PB3 17
4.7 K 100K 13 PD7 PB2 16
PB0
14 PB0 PB1 15
CW 470K (1) (2)
0.1uF
3K

Vcc = 5.0 volts

74HC14
4.7 K 100K
PB1
CCW 470K (3) (4)
0.1uF 3K

Vcc = 5 VDC
Red
White Black

CCW
Vcc = 5 VDC
(3) (4)
(1) CW
(2) LM324
(11)

6
=8 =1
% 5%
.25 o= 6.2
o =3
= 0 = 180
s s
1m 2m

2 ms 30 ms
T = 32 ms, f = 31.25 Hz

Figure 7.16: Test and interface circuit for a servo motor.

 7.11. SERVO MOTOR CONTROL WITH THE PWM SYSTEM IN C 201
//*************************************************************************
//target controller: ATMEL ATmega328
//
//ATMEL AVR ATmega328PV Controller Pin Assignments
//Chip Port Function I/O Source/Dest Asserted Notes
//Pin 1 PUR Reset - 1M resistor to Vdd, tact switch to ground,
// 1.0 uF to ground
//Pin 7 Vdd - 1.0 uF to ground
//Pin 8 Gnd
//Pin 9 PB6 ceramic resonator connection
//Pin 10 PB7 ceramic resonator connection
//PORTB:
//Pin 14 PB0 to active high RC debounced switch - CW
//Pin 15 PB1 to active high RC debounced switch - CCW
//Pin 16 PB2 - to servo control input
//Pin 20 AVcc to Vdd
//Pin 21 ARef to Vdd
//Pin 22 AGnd to Ground

//*************************************************************************

//include files************************************************************
//ATMEL register definitions for ATmega328
#include<iom328pv.h>
#include<macros.h>

//function prototypes******************************************************
void initialize_ports(void); //initializes ports
void read_new_input(void); //used to read input change on PORTB
void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void); //used to initialize timer0 overflow

//main program*************************************************************
//The main program checks PORTB for user input activity.
//If new activity is found, the program responds.

//global variables
unsigned char old_PORTB = 0x08; //present value of PORTB
unsigned char new_PORTB; //new values of PORTB
unsigned int PWM_duty_cycle;
202 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM

void main(void)
{
initialize_ports();
//return LED configuration to default

//external ceramic resonator: 128 KHZ

//fuse set for divide by 8
//configure PWM clock
TCCR1A = 0xA1;
//freq = oscillator/510 = 128KHz/8/510
//freq = 31.4 Hz
TCCR1B = 0x01; //no clock source division

//duty cycle will vary from 3.1% =

//1 ms = 0 degrees = 8 counts to

//6.2% = 2 ms = 180 degrees = 16 counts

//initiate PWM duty cycle variables

PWM_duty_cycle = 12;
OCR1BH = 0x00;
OCR1BL = (unsigned char)(PWM_duty_cycle);

//main activity loop - processor will continually cycle through

//loop for new activity.
//Activity initialized by external signals presented to PORTB[1:0]

while(1)
{
_StackCheck(); //check for stack overflow
read_new_input(); //read input status changes on PORTB
}
}//end main

//Function definitions
//*************************************************************************
//initialize_ports: provides initial configuration for I/O ports
 7.11. SERVO MOTOR CONTROL WITH THE PWM SYSTEM IN C 203
//*************************************************************************

void initialize_ports(void)
{
//PORTB
DDRB=0xfc; //PORTB[7-2] output, PORTB[1:0] input
PORTB=0x00; //disable PORTB pull-up resistors

//PORTC
DDRC=0xff; //set PORTC[7-0] as output
PORTC=0x00; //init low

//PORTD
DDRD=0xff; //set PORTD[7-0] as output
PORTD=0x00; //initialize low
}

//*************************************************************************
//*************************************************************************

//read_new_input: functions polls PORTB for a change in status. If status

//change has occurred, appropriate function for status change is called
//Pin 1 PB0 to active high RC debounced switch - CW
//Pin 2 PB1 to active high RC debounced switch - CCW
//*************************************************************************

void read_new_input(void)
{
new_PORTB = (PINB);
if(new_PORTB != old_PORTB){
switch(new_PORTB){ //process change in PORTB input
case 0x01: //CW
while(PINB == 0x01)
{
PWM_duty_cycle = PWM_duty_cycle + 1;
if(PWM_duty_cycle > 16) PWM_duty_cycle = 16;
OCR1BH = 0x00;
OCR1BL = (unsigned char)(PWM_duty_cycle);
}
204 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM
break;

case 0x02: //CCW

while(PINB == 0x02)
{
PWM_duty_cycle = PWM_duty_cycle - 1;
if(PWM_duty_cycle < 8) PWM_duty_cycle = 8;
OCR1BH = 0x00;
OCR1BL = (unsigned char)(PWM_duty_cycle);
}
break;

default:; //all other cases

} //end switch(new_PORTB)
} //end if new_PORTB
old_PORTB=new_PORTB; //update PORTB
}

//*************************************************************************

7.12 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we considered a microcontroller timer system, associated terminology for timer
related topics, discussed typical functions of a timer subsystem, studied timer hardware operations,
and considered some applications where the timer subsystem of a microcontroller can be used. We
then took a detailed look at the timer subsystem aboard the ATmega328 and reviewed the features,
operation, registers, and programming of the three timer channels. We then investigated the built-
in timing features of the Arduino Development Environment. We concluded with an example
employing a servo motor controlled by the ATmega328 PWM system.

7.13 REFERENCES
• Kenneth Short, Embedded Microprocessor Systems Design: An Introduction Using the INTEL
80C188EB, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 1998.

• Frederick Driscoll, Robert Coughlin, and Robert Villanucci, Data Acquisition and Process Con-
trol with the M68HC11 Microcontroller, Second Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
2000.
 7.14. CHAPTER PROBLEMS 205
• Todd Morton, Embedded Microcontrollers, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall,
2001.

• Atmel 8-bit AVR Microcontroller with 16K Bytes In-System Programmable Flash, ATmega328,
ATmega328L, data sheet: 2466L-AVR-06/05, Atmel Corporation, 2325 Orchard Parkway,
San Jose, CA 95131.

• Barrett S, Pack D (2006) Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00025ED1V01Y200605DCS001

• Barrett S and Pack D (2008) Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer Programming and Inter-
facing. Morgan and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00100ED1V01Y200712DCS015

• Barrett S (2010) Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00225ED1V01Y200910DCS025

7.14 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

1. Given an 8 bit free running counter and the system clock rate of 24 MHz, find the time
required for the counter to count from zero to its maximum value.

2. If we desire to generate periodic signals with periods ranging from 125 nanoseconds to 500
microseconds, what is the minimum frequency of the system clock?

3. Describe how you can compute the period of an incoming signal with varying duty cycles.

4. Describe how one can generate an aperiodic pulse with a pulse width of 2 minutes?

5. Program the output compare system of the ATmega328 to generate a 1 kHz signal with a 10
percent duty cycle.

6. Design a microcontroller system to control a sprinkler controller that performs the following
tasks. We assume that your microcontroller runs with 10 MHz clock and it has a 16 bit
free running counter. The sprinkler controller system controls two different zones by turning
sprinklers within each zone on and off. To turn on the sprinklers of a zone, the controller needs
to receive a 152.589 Hz PWM signal from your microcontroller. To turn off the sprinklers of
the same zone, the controller needs to receive the PWM signal with a different duty cycle.

(a) Your microcontroller needs to provide the PWM signal with 10% duty cycle for 10
millisecond to turn on the sprinklers in zone one.
(b) After 15 minutes, your microcontroller must send the PWM signal with 15% duty cycle
for 10 millisecond to turn off the sprinklers in zone one.
(c) After 15 minutes, your microcontroller must send the PWM signal with 20% duty cycle
for 10 millisecond to turn on the sprinklers in zone two.
206 7. TIMING SUBSYSTEM
(d) After 15 minutes, your microcontroller must send the PWM signal with 25% duty cycle
for 10 millisecond to turn off the sprinklers in zone two.

7. Modify the servo motor example to include a potentiometer connected to PORTA[0]. The
servo will deflect 0 degrees for 0 VDC applied to PORTA[0] and 180 degrees for 5 VDC.

8. For the automated cooling fan example, what would be the effect of changing the PWM
frequency applied to the fan?

9. Modify the code of the automated cooling fan example to also display the set threshold
temperature.
 207

CHAPTER 8

Atmel AVR Operating

Parameters and Interfacing
Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to

• Describe the voltage and current parameters for the Arduino Duemilanove and the Atmel
AVR HC CMOS type microcontroller.

• Specify a battery system to power an Arduino Duemilanove and the Atmel AVR based system.

• Apply the voltage and current parameters toward properly interfacing input and output devices
to the Arduino Duemilanove and the Atmel AVR microcontroller.

• Interface a wide variety of input and output devices to the Arduino Duemilanove and the
Atmel AVR microcontroller.

• Describe the special concerns that must be followed when the Arduino Duemilanove and the
Atmel AVR microcontroller is used to interface to a high power DC or AC device.

• Discuss the requirement for an optical based interface.

• Describe how to control the speed and direction of a DC motor.

• Describe how to control several types of AC loads.

8.1 OVERVIEW
The textbook for Morgan & Claypool Publishers (M&C) titled, “Microcontrollers Fundamentals
for Engineers and Scientists,” contains a chapter entitled “Operating Parameters and Interfacing.”
With M&C permission, we repeated portions of the chapter here for your convenience. However,
we have customized the information provided to the Arduino Duemilanove and the Atmel AVR
line of microcontrollers and have also expanded the coverage of the chapter to include interface
techniques for a number of additional input and output devices.
In this chapter, we introduce you to the extremely important concepts of the operating envelope
for a microcontroller. We begin by reviewing the voltage and current electrical parameters for the HC
CMOS based Atmel AVR line of microcontrollers. We then show how to apply this information
to properly interface input and output devices to the Arduino Duemilanove and the ATmega328
208 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
microcontroller. We then discuss the special considerations for controlling a high power DC or AC
load such as a motor and introduce the concept of an optical interface. Throughout the chapter, we
provide a number of detailed examples.
The importance of this chapter can not be emphasized enough. Any time an input or an output
device is connected to a microcontroller, the interface between the device and the microcontroller
must be carefully analyzed and designed.This will ensure the microcontroller will continue to operate
within specified parameters. Should the microcontroller be operated outside its operational envelope,
erratic, unpredictable, and unreliable system may result.

8.2 OPERATING PARAMETERS

Any time a device is connected to a microcontroller, careful interface analysis must be performed.
Most microcontrollers are members of the “HC,” or high-speed CMOS, family of chips. As long as
all components in a system are also of the “HC” family, as is the case for the Arduino Duemilanove
and the Atmel AVR line of microcontrollers, electrical interface issues are minimal. If the micro-
controller is connected to some component not in the “HC” family, electrical interface analysis must
be completed. Manufacturers readily provide the electrical characteristic data necessary to complete
this analysis in their support documentation.
To perform the interface analysis, there are eight different electrical specifications required
for electrical interface analysis. The electrical parameters are:
• VOH : the lowest guaranteed output voltage for a logic high,

• VOL : the highest guaranteed output voltage for a logic low,

• IOH : the output current for a VOH logic high,

• IOL : the output current for a VOL logic low,

• VI H : the lowest input voltage guaranteed to be recognized as a logic high,

• VI L : the highest input voltage guaranteed to be recognized as a logic low,

• II H : the input current for a VI H logic high, and

• II L : the input current for a VI L logic low.

These electrical characteristics are required for both the microcontroller and the external
components. Typical values for a microcontroller in the HC CMOS family assuming VDD = 5.0
volts and VSS = 0 volts are provided below. The minus sign on several of the currents indicates a
current flow out of the device. A positive current indicates current flow into the device.
• VOH = 4.2 volts,

• VOL = 0.4 volts,

 8.2. OPERATING PARAMETERS 209
• IOH = -0.8 milliamps,
• IOL = 1.6 milliamps,
• VI H = 3.5 volts,
• VI L = 1.0 volt,
• II H = 10 microamps, and
• II L = -10 microamps.
It is important to realize that these are static values taken under very specific operating condi-
tions. If external circuitry is connected such that the microcontroller acts as a current source (current
leaving the microcontroller) or current sink (current entering the microcontroller), the voltage pa-
rameters listed above will also be affected.
In the current source case, an output voltage VOH is provided at the output pin of the micro-
controller when the load connected to this pin draws a current of IOH . If a load draws more current
from the output pin than the IOH specification, the value of VOH is reduced. If the load current
becomes too high, the value of VOH falls below the value of VI H for the subsequent logic circuit
stage and not be recognized as an acceptable logic high signal. When this situation occurs, erratic
and unpredictable circuit behavior results.
In the sink case, an output voltage VOL is provided at the output pin of the microcontroller
when the load connected to this pin delivers a current of IOL to this logic pin. If a load delivers
more current to the output pin of the microcontroller than the IOL specification, the value of VOL
increases. If the load current becomes too high, the value of VOL rises above the value of VI L for
the subsequent logic circuit stage and not be recognized as an acceptable logic low signal. As before,
when this situation occurs, erratic and unpredictable circuit behavior results.
For convenience this information is illustrated in Figure 8.1. In (a), we provided an illustration
of the direction of current flow from the HC device and also a comparison of voltage levels. As a
reminder current flowing out of a device is considered a negative current (source case) while current
flowing into the device is considered positive current(sink case). The magnitude of the voltage and
current for HC CMOS devices are shown in (b). As more current is sinked or sourced from a
microcontroller pin, the voltage will be pulled up or pulled down, respectively, as shown in (c). If
input and output devices are improperly interfaced to the microcontroller, these loading conditions
may become excessive, and voltages will not be properly interpreted as the correct logic levels.
You must also ensure that total current limits for an entire microcontroller port and overall
bulk port specifications are complied with. For planning purposes the sum of current sourced or
sinked from a port should not exceed 100 mA. Furthermore, the sum of currents for all ports should
not exceed 200 mA. As before, if these guidelines are not followed, erratic microcontroller behavior
may result.
The procedures presented in the following sections, when followed carefully, will ensure the
microcontroller will operate within its designed envelope.The remainder of the chapter is divided into
210 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

Output Gate Input Gate

Parameters Parameters
VDD = 5 VDC VDD = 5 VDC
VOH IOH
IIH VIH

IIL VIL
VOL IOL
VSS = 0 VDC VSS = 0 VDC

a) Voltage and current electrical parameters

Output Parameters Input Parameters

VOH = 4.2 V VIH = 3.5 V

VOL = 0.4 V VIL = 1.0 V

IOH = - 0.8 mA IIH = 10 μA
IOL = 1.6 mA IIL = - 10 μA

b) HC CMOS voltage and current parameters

Current sink Current source

25 -25
Iout [mA]

Iout [mA]

0 0
0 Vout [V] 5 5 Vout [V] 0
c) CMOS loading curves

Figure 8.1: Electrical voltage and current parameters.

 8.3. BATTERY OPERATION 211
input device interface analysis followed by output device interface analysis. Since many embedded
systems operate from a DC battery source, we begin by examining several basic battery supply
circuits.

8.3 BATTERY OPERATION

Many embedded systems are remote, portable systems operating from a battery supply. To properly
design a battery source for an embedded system, the operating characteristics of the embedded
system must be matched to the characteristics of the battery supply.

8.3.1 EMBEDDED SYSTEM VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DRAIN

SPECIFICATIONS
An embedded system has a required supply voltage and an overall current requirement. For the
purposes of illustration, we will assume our microcontroller based embedded system operates from
5 VDC. The overall current requirements of the system is determined by the worst case current
requirements when all embedded system components are operational.

8.3.2 BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS

To properly match a battery to an embedded system, the battery voltage and capacity must be
specified. Battery capacity is typically specified as a mAH rating. For example, a typical 9 VDC non-
rechargeable alkaline battery has a capacity of 550 mAH. If the embedded system has a maximum
operating current of 50 mA, it will operate for approximately eleven hours before battery replacement
is required.
A battery is typically used with a voltage regulator to maintain the voltage at a prescribed
level. Figure 8.2 provides sample circuits to provide a +5 VDC and a ±5 VDC portable battery
source. Additional information on battery capacity and characteristics may be found in Barrett and
Pack [Prentice-Hall, 2005].

8.4 INPUT DEVICES

In this section, we discuss how to properly interface input devices to a microcontroller. We will start
with the most basic input component, a simple on/off switch.

8.4.1 SWITCHES
Switches come in a variety of types. As a system designer it is up to you to choose the appropriate
switch for a specific application. Switch varieties commonly used in microcontroller applications are
illustrated in Figure 8.3(a). Here is a brief summary of the different types:

• Slide switch: A slide switch has two different positions: on and off. The switch is manually
moved to one position or the other. For microcontroller applications, slide switches are available
212 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

I O
7805 +5 VDC

C
9 VDC 0.33 uF 0.1 uF

a) +5 VDC battery supply.

I O
7805 +5 VDC
C
9 VDC 0.33 uF 0.1 uF

9 VDC 0.33 uF 0.1 uF

C
I O
7905 -5 VDC

b) +/-5 VDC battery supply.

Figure 8.2: Battery supply circuits employing a 9 VDC battery with a 5 VDC regulators.
 8.4. INPUT DEVICES 213
that fit in the profile of a common integrated circuit size dual inline package (DIP). A bank
of four or eight DIP switches in a single package is commonly available.

• Momentary contact pushbutton switch: A momentary contact pushbutton switch comes

in two varieties: normally closed (NC) and normally open (NO). A normally open switch,
as its name implies, does not normally provide an electrical connection between its contacts.
When the pushbutton portion of the switch is depressed, the connection between the two
switch contacts is made. The connection is held as long as the switch is depressed. When the
switch is released the connection is opened. The converse is true for a normally closed switch.
For microcontroller applications, pushbutton switches are available in a small tact type switch
configuration.

• Push on/push off switches: These type of switches are also available in a normally open or
normally closed configuration. For the normally open configuration, the switch is depressed to
make connection between the two switch contacts. The pushbutton must be depressed again
to release the connection.

• Hexadecimal rotary switches: Small profile rotary switches are available for microcontroller
applications. These switches commonly have sixteen rotary switch positions. As the switch is
rotated to each position, a unique four bit binary code is provided at the switch contacts.

A common switch interface is shown in Figure 8.3(b). This interface allows a logic one or zero
to be properly introduced to a microcontroller input port pin.The basic interface consists of the switch
in series with a current limiting resistor. The node between the switch and the resistor is provided
to the microcontroller input pin. In the configuration shown, the resistor pulls the microcontroller
input up to the supply voltage VDD . When the switch is closed, the node is grounded and a logic
zero is provided to the microcontroller input pin. To reverse the logic of the switch configuration,
the position of the resistor and the switch is simply reversed.

8.4.2 PULLUP RESISTORS IN SWITCH INTERFACE CIRCUITRY

Many microcontrollers are equipped with pullup resistors at the input pins. The pullup resistors are
asserted with the appropriate register setting. The pullup resistor replaces the external resistor in the
switch configuration as shown in Figure 8.3b) right.

8.4.3 SWITCH DEBOUNCING

Mechanical switches do not make a clean transition from one position (on) to another (off ). When
a switch is moved from one position to another, it makes and breaks contact multiple times. This
activity may go on for tens of milliseconds. A microcontroller is relatively fast as compared to the
action of the switch. Therefore, the microcontroller is able to recognize each switch bounce as a
separate and erroneous transition.
214 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

DIP switch Tact switch PB switch Hexadecimal

rotary switch
a) Switch varieties

VDD VDD
microcontroller
4.7 kohm pullup resistor
activated
To microcontroller input
- Logic one when switch open
- Logic zero when switch is closed

b) Switch interface

VDD

4.7 k ohm 74HC14

470 k ohm

0.1 μF

c) Switch interface equipped with debouncing circuitry

Figure 8.3: Switch interface.

 8.4. INPUT DEVICES 215
To correct the switch bounce phenomena additional external hardware components may be
used or software techniques may be employed. A hardware debounce circuit is illustrated in Figure
8.3(c). The node between the switch and the limiting resistor of the basic switch circuit is fed to a
low pass filter (LPF) formed by the 470 k ohm resistor and the capacitor. The LPF prevents abrupt
changes (bounces) in the input signal from the microcontroller. The LPF is followed by a 74HC14
Schmitt Trigger, which is simply an inverter equipped with hysteresis. This further limits the switch
bouncing.
Switches may also be debounced using software techniques. This is accomplished by inserting
a 30 to 50 ms lockout delay in the function responding to port pin changes. The delay prevents the
microcontroller from responding to the multiple switch transitions related to bouncing.
You must carefully analyze a given design to determine if hardware or software switch de-
bouncing techniques will be used. It is important to remember that all switches exhibit bounce
phenomena and, therefore, must be debounced.

8.4.4 KEYPADS
A keypad is simply an extension of the simple switch configuration. A typical keypad configuration
and interface are shown in Figure 8.4. As you can see the keypad is simply multiple switches in the
same package. A hexadecimal keypad is provided in the figure. A single row of keypad switches are
asserted by the microcontroller and then the host keypad port is immediately read. If a switch has
been depressed, the keypad pin corresponding to the column the switch is in will also be asserted.
The combination of a row and a column assertion can be decoded to determine which key has
been pressed as illustrated in the table. Keypad rows are continually asserted one after the other in
sequence. Since the keypad is a collection of switches, debounce techniques must also be employed.
The keypad may be used to introduce user requests to a microcontroller. A standard keypad
with alphanumeric characters may be used to provide alphanumeric values to the microcontroller
such as providing your personal identification number (PIN) for a financial transaction. However,
some keypads are equipped with removable switch covers such that any activity can be associated
with a key press.
In Figure 8.5, we have connected the ATmega328 to a hexadecimal keypad via PORTB.
PORTB[3:0] is configured as output to selectively assert each row. PORTB[7:4] is configured as
input. Each row is sequentially asserted low. Each column is then read via PORTB[7:4] to see if
any switch in that row has been depressed. If no switches have been depressed in the row, an “F”
will be read from PORTB[7:4]. If a switch has been depressed, some other value than “F” will be
read. The read value is then passed into a switch statement to determine the ASCII equivalent of
the depressed switch. The function is not exited until the switch is released. This prevents a switch
“double hit.”

//*************************************************************************
216 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

0 1 2 3
assert
0 keypad row 0
PORTx[0]
4 5 6 7
assert
1 keypad row 1
PORTx[1]
8 9 A B
assert
2 keypad row 2
PORTx[2]
C D E F
assert

Microcontroller PORTx
3 keypad row 3
PORTx[3]
Vcc
4 5 6 7
10K
read keypad column 0
PORTx[4]
Vcc
10K
read keypad column 1
PORTx[5]
Vcc
10K
read keypad column 2
PORTx[6]
Vcc
10K
read keypad column 3 PORTx[7]

Row asserted Column response Row/Column

by from combination
microcontroller keypad switch read at micro
Key pressed
by user 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 port
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0xEE
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0xDE
2 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0xBE
3 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0x7E
4 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0xED
5 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0xDD
6 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0xBD
7 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0x7D
8 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0xEB
9 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0xDB
A 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0xBB
B 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0x7B
C 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0xE7
D 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0xD7
E 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0xB7
F 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0x77
none X X X X 1 1 1 1 0xXF

Figure 8.4: Keypad interface.

 8.4. INPUT DEVICES 217

Atmega328
1 PUR - PC6 PC5 28
2 RXD1 - PD0 PC4 27
3 TXD1 - PD1 PC3 26
4 PD2 PC2 25
VDD 1M sys reset 5 PD3 PC1 24
1.0 uF 6 PD4 PCO 23
7 Vcc GND 22
8 GND AREF 21 VDD
9 PB6 AVCC 20
10 PB7 PB5 19
11 PD5 PB4 18
12 PD6 PB3 17
13 PD7 PB2 16
14 PB0 PB1 15

Vcc Vcc Vcc Vcc

10K 10K 10K 10K

PB4 PB5 PB6 PB7

4 5 6 7

0 1 2 3
PB0
0
4 5 6 7
PB1
1
8 9 A B
PB2
2
C D E F
PB3
3

Figure 8.5: Hexadecimal keypad interface to microcontroller.

218 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
unsigned char get_keypad_value(void)
{
unsigned char PORTB_value, PORTB_value_masked;
unsigned char ascii_value;

DDRC = 0x0F;
//set PORTB[7:4] to input,
//PORTB[3:0] to output

//switch depressed in row 0?

PORTB = 0xFE; //assert row 0 via PORTB[0]
PORTB_value = PINB; //read PORTB
PORTB_value_masked = (PORTB_value & 0xf0); //mask PORTB[3:0]

//switch depressed in row 1?

if(PORTB_value_masked == 0xf0)
//no switches depressed in row 0
{
PORTB = 0xFD; //assert Row 1 via PORTB[1]
PORTB_value = PINB; //read PORTB
PORTB_value_masked = (PORTB_value & 0xf0);//mask PORTB[3:0]
}

//switch depressed in row 2?

if(PORTB_value_masked == 0xf0)
//no switches depressed in row 0
{
PORTB = 0xFB; //assert Row 2 via PORTC[2]
PORTB_value = PINB; //read PORTB
PORTB_value_masked = (PORTB_value & 0xf0);//mask PORTB[3:0]
}

//switch depressed in row 3?

if(PORTB_value_masked == 0xf0)
//no switches depressed in row 0
{
PORTB = 0xF7; //assert Row 3 via PORTB[3]
PORTB_value = PINB; //read PORTB
PORTB_value_masked = (PORTB_value & 0xf0);//mask PORTB[3:0]
 8.4. INPUT DEVICES 219
}

if(PORTB_value_masked != 0xf0)
{
switch(PORTB_value_masked)
{
case 0xEE: ascii_value = ’0’;
break;

case 0xDE: ascii_value = ’1’;

break;

case 0xBE: ascii_value = ’2’;

break;

case 0x7E: ascii_value = ’3’;

break;

case 0xED: ascii_value = ’4’;

break;

case 0xDD: ascii_value = ’5’;

break;

case 0xBD: ascii_value = ’6’;

break;

case 0x7D: ascii_value = ’7’;

break;

case 0xEB: ascii_value = ’8’;

break;

case 0xDB: ascii_value = ’9’;

break;

case 0xBB: ascii_value = ’a’;

break;
220 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
case 0x&B: ascii_value = ’b’;
break;

case 0xE7: ascii_value = ’c’;

break;

case 0xD7: ascii_value = ’d’;

break;

case 0xB7: ascii_value = ’e’;

break;

case 0x77: ascii_value = ’f’;

break;

default:;
}

while(PORTB_value_masked != 0xf0);
//wait for key to be released

return ascii_value;
}

//*************************************************************************

8.4.5 SENSORS
A microcontroller is typically used in control applications where data is collected, the data is as-
similated and processed by the host algorithm, and a control decision and accompanying signals are
provided by the microcontroller. Input data for the microcontroller is collected by a complement of
input sensors. These sensors may be digital or analog in nature.

8.4.5.1 Digital Sensors

Digital sensors provide a series of digital logic pulses with sensor data encoded. The sensor data
may be encoded in any of the parameters associated with the digital pulse train such as duty cycle,
frequency, period, or pulse rate.The input portion of the timing system may be configured to measure
these parameters.
An example of a digital sensor is the optical encoder. An optical encoder consists of a small
plastic transparent disk with opaque lines etched into the disk surface. A stationary optical emitter
 8.4. INPUT DEVICES 221
and detector pair is placed on either side of the disk. As the disk rotates, the opaque lines break the
continuity between the optical source and detector. The signal from the optical detector is monitored
to determine disk rotation as shown in Figure 8.6.

stationary optical
source and detector
rotating pair
disk D

Detector output

a) Incremental tachometer encoder

Ch A

Ch B

b) Incremental quadrature encoder

Figure 8.6: Optical encoder.

Optical encoders are available in a variety of types depending on the information desired.
There are two major types of optical encoders: incremental encoders and absolute encoders. An
absolute encoder is used when it is required to retain position information when power is lost. For
example, if you were using an optical encoder in a security gate control system, an absolute encoder
would be used to monitor the gate position. An incremental encoder is used in applications where
a velocity or a velocity and direction information is required.
The incremental encoder types may be further subdivided into tachometers and quadrature
encoders. An incremental tachometer encoder consists of a single track of etched opaque lines as
shown in Figure 8.6(a). It is used when the velocity of a rotating device is required. To calculate
222 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
velocity, the number of detector pulses are counted in a fixed amount of time. Since the number of
pulses per encoder revolution is known, velocity may be calculated.
The quadrature encoder contains two tracks shifted in relationship to one another by 90
degrees. This allows the calculation of both velocity and direction. To determine direction, one
would monitor the phase relationship between Channel A and Channel B as shown in Figure
8.6(b). The absolute encoder is equipped with multiple data tracks to determine the precise location
of the encoder disk [Sick Stegmann].

8.4.5.2 Analog Sensors

Analog sensors provide a DC voltage that is proportional to the physical parameter being measured.
As discussed in the analog to digital conversion chapter, the analog signal may be first preprocessed by
external analog hardware such that it falls within the voltage references of the conversion subsystem.
The analog voltage is then converted to a corresponding binary representation.
An example of an analog sensor is the flex sensor shown in Figure 8.7(a). The flex sensor
provides a change in resistance for a change in sensor flexure. At 0 degrees flex, the sensor provides
10k ohms of resistance. For 90 degrees flex, the sensor provides 30-40k ohms of resistance. Since
the microcontroller can not measure resistance directly, the change in flex sensor resistance must be
converted to a change in a DC voltage.This is accomplished using the voltage divider network shown
in Figure 8.7(c). For increased flex, the DC voltage will increase. The voltage can be measured using
the ATmega328’s analog to digital converter subsystem. The flex sensor may be used in applications
such as virtual reality data gloves, robotic sensors, biometric sensors, and in science and engineering
experiments [Images Company].

8.4.6 LM34 TEMPERATURE SENSOR EXAMPLE

Temperature may be sensed using an LM34 (Fahrenheit) or LM35 (Centigrade) temperature trans-
ducer. The LM34 provides an output voltage that is linearly related to temperature. For example,
the LM34D operates from 32 degrees F to 212 degrees F providing +10mV/degree Fahrenheit
resolution with a typical accuracy of ±0.5 degrees Fahrenheit [National]. This sensor is used in the
automated cooling fan example at the end of the chapter. The output from the sensor is typically
connected to the ADC input of the microcontroller.

8.5 OUTPUT DEVICES

As previously mentioned, an external device should not be connected to a microcontroller without
first performing careful interface analysis to ensure the voltage, current, and timing requirements of
the microcontroller and the external device. In this section, we describe interface considerations for
a wide variety of external devices. We begin with the interface for a single light emitting diode.
 8.5. OUTPUT DEVICES 223

0.25 in (0.635 cm)

4.5 in (11.43 cm)

a) flex sensor physical dimensions

VDD = 5 VDC

10K fixed
resistor

flex sensor:
-- 0 degree flex, 10K
-- 90 degree flex, 30-40K
b) flex action

c) equivalent circuit

Figure 8.7: Flex sensor.

8.5.1 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDS)

An LED is typically used as a logic indicator to inform the presence of a logic one or a logic zero at a
specific pin of a microcontroller. An LED has two leads: the anode or positive lead and the cathode
or negative lead. To properly bias an LED, the anode lead must be biased at a level approximately
1.7 to 2.2 volts higher than the cathode lead. This specification is known as the forward voltage (Vf )
of the LED. The LED current must also be limited to a safe level known as the forward current
(If ). The diode voltage and current specifications are usually provided by the manufacturer.
An example of an LED biasing circuit is provided in Figure 8.8. A logic one is provided by
the microcontroller to the input of the inverter. The inverter provides a logic zero at its output which
provides a virtual ground at the cathode of the LED. Therefore, the proper voltage biasing for the
LED is provided. The resistor (R) limits the current through the LED. A proper resistor value can
be calculated using R = (VDD − VDI ODE )/IDI ODE . It is important to note that a 7404 inverter
must be used due to its capability to safely sink 16 mA of current. Alternately, an NPN transistor
224 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
such as a 2N2222 (PN2222 or MPQ2222) may be used in place of the inverter as shown in the
figure. In Chapter 1, we used large (10 mm) red LEDs in the KNH instrumentation project. These
LEDs have Vf of 6 to 12 VDC and If of 20 mA at 1.85 VDC. This requires the interface circuit
shown in Figure 8.8c) right.

Vcc = 5 VDC Vcc = 5 VDC Vcc = 9 VDC

I R2
I
R 220

+ + +

from I from 4.7K

from
micro micro micro
7404 R1

Figure 8.8: LED display devices.

8.5.2 SEVEN SEGMENT LED DISPLAYS

To display numeric data, seven segment LED displays are available as shown in Figure 8.9(a).
Different numerals can be displayed by asserting the proper LED segments. For example, to display
the number five, segments a, c, d, f, and g would be illuminated. Seven segment displays are available
in common cathode (CC) and common anode (CA) configurations. As the CC designation implies,
all seven individual LED cathodes on the display are tied together.
The microcontroller is not capable of driving the LED segments directly. As shown in Figure
8.9(a), an interface circuit is required. We use a 74LS244 octal buffer/driver circuit to boost the
current available for the LED. The LS244 is capable of providing 15 mA per segment (IOH ) at 2.0
VDC (VOH ). A limiting resistor is required for each segment to limit the current to a safe value for
the LED. Conveniently, resistors are available in DIP packages of eight for this type of application.
Seven segment displays are available in multi-character panels. In this case, separate micro-
controller ports are not used to provide data to each seven segment character. Instead, a single port
is used to provide character data. A portion of another port is used to sequence through each of
the characters as shown in Figure 8.9(b). An NPN (for a CC display) transistor is connected to the
common cathode connection of each individual character. As the base contact of each transistor is
sequentially asserted, the specific character is illuminated. If the microcontroller sequences through
the display characters at a rate greater than 30 Hz, the display will have steady illumination.
 8.5. OUTPUT DEVICES 225

common cathode
VOH: 2.0 VDC 7-segment display
DIP
IOH : 15 mA (Vf 1.85 VDC @ If 12mA)
resistor
a a

microcontroller port
b
c 74LS244 f b
d octal buffer/
e line driver
f g
g
e c

R = (VOH - Vf) / If
d
R = (2.0 - 1.85)/ 12 mA
R = 12.5 ohms

a) seven segment display interface

74LS244
octal buffer/
line driver
5 VDC quad common cathode
(20)
7-segment display
dp (18) (1) (16) (dp)3
PORTC[7]
a (16) (2) (15) (a)11 a a a a
b (14) (3) (14) (b) 7
f b f b f b f b
c (12) (4) (13) (c) 4
d g g g g
(9) (5) (12) (d) 2
e (7) (6) (11) (e) 1 e c e c e c e c
f (5) (7) (10) (f) 10
d d d d
g (3) (8) (9) (g) 5
PORTC[0]
(6) (8) (9) (12)
(10) (1) (19)
/1G /2G (7) (14)
(1) (8)
10K (2)
PORTD[3]
10K (6)
numeral select MPQ2222
10K (9)

10K (13)
PORTD[0]
(3) (5) (10) (12)

b) quad seven segment display interface

dp PORTC[7]

a PORTC[6]

b PORTC[5]

d PORTC[3]

g PORTC[0]
c PORTC[4]

e PORTC[2]

f PORTC[1]
numeral

12 7
hex rep

a a a a

f b f b f b f b

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0x7E g g g g

e c e c e c e c

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0x30 d d d d

2 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0x6D
1 6
3 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0x79 d) quad seven segment display pinout
4 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0x33 UN(M)5624-11 EWRS
5 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0x5D
6 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0x1F
7 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0x70
8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0x7F
9 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0x73
c) numeral to segment converion

Figure 8.9: Seven segment LED display devices.

226 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
8.5.3 CODE EXAMPLE
Provided below is a function used to illuminate the correct segments on a multi-numeral seven
display. The numeral is passed in as an argument to the function along with the numerals position
on the display and also an argument specifying whether or not the decimal point (dp) should be
displayed at that position. The information to illuminate specific segments are provided in Figure
8.9c).

//*************************************************************************
void LED_character_display(unsigned int numeral, unsigned int position,
unsigned int decimal_point)
{
unsigned char output_value;

//illuminate numerical segments

switch(numeral)
{
case 0: output_value = 0x7E;
break;

case 1: output_value = 0x30;

break;

case 2: output_value = 0x6D;

break;

case 3: output_value = 0x79;

break;

case 4: output_value = 0x33;

break;

case 5: output_value = 0x5D;

break;

case 6: output_value = 0x1F;

break;

case 7: output_value = 0x70;

break;
 8.5. OUTPUT DEVICES 227
case 8: output_value = 0x7F;
break;

case 9: output_value = 0x73;

break;

default:;
}

if(decimal_point != 0)
PORTB = output_value | 0x80; //illuminate decimal point

switch(position) //assert position

{
case 0: PORTD = 0x01; //least significant bit
break;

case 1: PORTD = 0x02; //least significant bit + 1

break;

case 2: PORTD = 0x04; //least significant bit + 2

break;

case 3: PORTD = 0x08; //most significant bit

break;

default:;
}
}
//*************************************************************************

8.5.4 TRI-STATE LED INDICATOR

The tri-state LED indicator is shown in Figure 8.10. It is used to provide the status of an entire
microcontroller port. The indicator bank consists of eight green and eight red LEDs. When an
individual port pin is logic high, the green LED is illuminated. When logic low, the red LED is
illuminated. If the port pin is at a tri-state high impedance state, no LED is illuminated.
The NPN/PNP transistor pair at the bottom of the figure provides a 2.5 VDC voltage reference
for the LEDs. When a specific port pin is logic high (5.0 VDC), the green LED will be forward
biased since its anode will be at a higher potential than its cathode. The 47 ohm resistor limits
228 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

47 G

47 G

47 G

R
microcontroller port

47 G

47 G

47 G

47 G

47 G

VDD VDD

3.0 K 2N2222
-
+
LM324 2N2907
3.0 K

Figure 8.10: Tri-state LED display.

 8.5. OUTPUT DEVICES 229
current to a safe value for the LED. Conversely, when a specific port pin is at a logic low (0 VDC)
the red LED will be forward biased and illuminate. For clarity, the red and green LEDs are shown
as being separate devices. LEDs are available that have both LEDs in the same device.

8.5.5 DOT MATRIX DISPLAY

The dot matrix display consists of a large number of LEDs configured in a single package. A typical
5 x 7 LED arrangement is a matrix of five columns of LEDs with seven LEDs per row as shown
in Figure 8.11. Display data for a single matrix column [R6-R0] is provided by the microcontroller.
That specific row is then asserted by the microcontroller using the column select lines [C2-C0]. The
entire display is sequentially built up a column at a time. If the microcontroller sequences through
each column fast enough (greater than 30 Hz), the matrix display appears to be stationary to a human
viewer.
In Figure 8.11(a), we have provided the basic configuration for the dot matrix display for a
single display device. However, this basic idea can be expanded in both dimensions to provide a multi-
character, multi-line display. A larger display does not require a significant number of microcontroller
pins for the interface. The dot matrix display may be used to display alphanumeric data as well as
graphics data. In Figure 8.11(b), we have provided additional detail of the interface circuit.

8.5.6 LIQUID CRYSTAL CHARACTER DISPLAY (LCD) IN C

An LCD is an output device to display text information as shown in Figure 8.12. LCDs come in a
wide variety of configurations, including multi-character, multi-line format. A 16 x 2 LCD format
is common. That is, it has the capability of displaying two lines of 16 characters each. The characters
are sent to the LCD via American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) format a
single character at a time. For a parallel configured LCD, an eight bit data path and two lines are
required between the microcontroller and the LCD. A small microcontroller mounted to the back
panel of the LCD translates the ASCII data characters and control signals to properly display the
characters. LCDs are configured for either parallel or serial data transmission format. In the example
provided, we use a parallel configured display.

8.5.6.1 Programming an LCD in C

Some sample C code is provided below to send data and control signals to an LCD. In this specific
example, an AND671GST 1 x 16 character LCD was connected to the Atmel ATmega328 micro-
controller. One 8-bit port and two extra control lines are required to connect the microcontroller
to the LCD. Note: The initialization sequence for the LCD is specified within the manufacturer’s
technical data.
//*************************************************************************
//Internal Oscillator: 1 MHz
//ATMEL AVR ATmega328
//Chip Port Function I/O Source/Dest Asserted Notes
230 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

C2

column
interface

select
C1
circuitry
C0

microcontroller
R6
R5

row select
R4

interface
circuitry
R3
R2
R1
R0

5 x 7 dot
matrix display
a) dot matrix display layout

74HC137
column

C2:C1:C0
select

3 1:8 decoder

R6
5 VDC
row select

R0
5 VDC

5 x 7 dot matrix display

b) dot matrix interface details

Figure 8.11: Dot matrix display.

 8.5. OUTPUT DEVICES 231

ta
n d/da
ma ble ta
com ena da
Vcc

10K

R/W-5
GND-1
VDD-2
Vo-3
RS-4

E-6
DB0-7
DB1-8
DB2-9
DB3-10
DB4-11
DB5-12
DB6-13
DB7-14
line1 line2
AND671GST

Figure 8.12: LCD display.

//*************************************************************************
//Pin 1: /Reset
//Pin 2: PD0 to DB0 LCD
//Pin 3: PD1 to DB1 LCD
//Pin 4: PD2 to DB2 LCD
//Pin 5: PD3 to DB3 LCD
//Pin 6: PD4 to DB4 LCD
//Pin 7: Vcc
//Pin 8: Gnd
//Pin 11: PD5 to DB6 LCD
//Pin 12: PD6 to DB6 LCD
//Pin 13: PD7 to DB7 LCD
//Pin 20: AVCC to Vcc
//Pin 21: AREF to Vcc
//Pin 22 Gnd
//Pin 27 PC4 to LCD Enable (E)
//Pin 28 PC5 to LCD RS

//include files************************************************************

//ATMEL register definitions for ATmega328

#include<iom328v.h>
232 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

//function prototypes******************************************************
void delay(unsigned int number_of_65_5ms_interrupts);
void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void);
void initialize_ports(void); //initializes ports
void power_on_reset(void); //returns system to startup state
void clear_LCD(void); //clears LCD display
void LCD_Init(void); //initialize AND671GST LCD
void putchar(unsigned char c); //send character to LCD
void putcommand(unsigned char c); //send command to LCD
void timer0_interrupt_isr(void);
void perform_countdown(void);
void clear_LCD(void);
void systems_A_OK(void);
void print_mission_complete(void);
void convert_int_to_string_display_LCD(unsigned int total_integer_value);

//program constants
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0
#define OPEN 1
#define CLOSE 0
#define YES 1
#define NO 0
#define SAFE 1
#define UNSAFE 0
#define ON 1
#define OFF 0

//interrupt handler definition

#pragma interrupt_handler timer0_interrupt_isr:17

//main program*************************************************************

//global variables

void main(void)
{
 8.5. OUTPUT DEVICES 233
init_timer0_ovf_interrupt();
//initialize Timer0 to serve as elapsed
initialize_ports(); //initialize ports

perform_countdown();
delay(46);
:
:
:
systems_A_OK();

}//end main

//function definitions*****************************************************

//*************************************************************************
//initialize_ports: provides initial configuration for I/O ports
//*************************************************************************

void initialize_ports(void)
{
DDRB = 0xff; //PORTB[7:0] as output
PORTB= 0x00; //initialize low
DDRC = 0xff; //PORTC[7:0] as output
PORTC= 0x00; //initialize low

DDRD = 0xff; //PORTB[7:0] as output

PORTD= 0x00; //initialize low
}

//*************************************************************************
//delay(unsigned int num_of_65_5ms_interrupts): this generic delay function
//provides the specified delay as the number of 65.5 ms "clock ticks" from
//the Timer0 interrupt.
//Note: this function is only valid when using a 1 MHz crystal or ceramic
// resonator
//*************************************************************************

void delay(unsigned int number_of_65_5ms_interrupts)

234 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
{
TCNT0 = 0x00; //reset timer0
delay_timer = 0;
while(delay_timer <= number_of_65_5ms_interrupts)
{
;
}
}

//*************************************************************************
//int_timer0_ovf_interrupt(): The Timer0 overflow interrupt is being
//employed as a time base for a master timer for this project.
//The internal time base is set to operate at 1 MHz and then
//is divided by 256. The 8-bit Timer0
//register (TCNT0) overflows every 256 counts or every 65.5 ms.
//*************************************************************************

void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void)
{
TCCR0 = 0x04; //divide timer0 timebase by 256, overflow occurs every 65.5ms
TIMSK = 0x01; //enable timer0 overflow interrupt
asm("SEI"); //enable global interrupt
}

//*************************************************************************
//LCD_Init: initialization for an LCD connected in the following manner:
//LCD: AND671GST 1x16 character display
//LCD configured as two 8 character lines in a 1x16 array
//LCD data bus (pin 14-pin7) ATMEL 8: PORTD
//LCD RS (pin 28) ATMEL 8: PORTC[5]
//LCD E (pin 27) ATMEL 8: PORTC[4]
//*************************************************************************

void LCD_Init(void)
{
delay(1);
delay(1);
delay(1);
// output command string to initialize LCD
 8.5. OUTPUT DEVICES 235
putcommand(0x38); //function set 8-bit
delay(1);
putcommand(0x38); //function set 8-bit
putcommand(0x38); //function set 8-bit
putcommand(0x38); //one line, 5x7 char
putcommand(0x0C); //display on
putcommand(0x01); //display clear-1.64 ms
putcommand(0x06); //entry mode set
putcommand(0x00); //clear display, cursor at home
putcommand(0x00); //clear display, cursor at home
}

//*************************************************************************
//putchar:prints specified ASCII character to LCD
//*************************************************************************

void putchar(unsigned char c)

{
DDRD = 0xff; //set PORTD as output
DDRC = DDRC|0x30; //make PORTC[5:4] output
PORTD = c;
PORTC = (PORTC|0x20)|PORTC_pullup_mask; //RS=1
PORTC = (PORTC|0x10)|PORTC_pullup_mask;; //E=1
PORTC = (PORTC&0xef)|PORTC_pullup_mask;; //E=0
delay(1);
}

//*************************************************************************
//putcommand: performs specified LCD related command
//*************************************************************************

void putcommand(unsigned char d)

{
DDRD = 0xff; //set PORTD as output
DDRC = DDRC|0xC0; //make PORTA[5:4] output
PORTC = (PORTC&0xdf)|PORTC_pullup_mask; //RS=0
PORTD = d;
PORTC = (PORTC|0x10)|PORTC_pullup_mask; //E=1
PORTC = (PORTC&0xef)|PORTC_pullup_mask; //E=0
236 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
delay(1);
}

//*************************************************************************
//clear_LCD: clears LCD
//*************************************************************************

void clear_LCD(void)
{
putcommand(0x01);
}

//*************************************************************************
//void timer0_interrupt_isr(void)
//*************************************************************************

void timer0_interrupt_isr(void)
{
delay_timer++;
}
//*************************************************************************
//void perform_countdown(void)
//*************************************************************************

void perform_countdown(void)
{
clear_LCD();
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home
putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’1’); putchar (’0’); //print 10
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’9’); //print 9
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
 8.5. OUTPUT DEVICES 237
putchar(’8’); //print 8
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’7’); //print 7
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’6’); //print 6
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’5’); //print 5
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’4’); //print 4
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’3’); //print 3
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’2’); //print 2
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’1’); //print 1
delay(15); //delay 1s
238 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home
putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’0’); //print 0
delay(15); //delay 1s

//BLASTOFF!
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1

putchar(’B’); putchar(’L’); putchar(’A’); putchar(’S’); putchar(’T’);
putchar(’O’); putchar(’F’); putchar(’F’); putchar(’!’);

//*************************************************************************
//void systems_A_OK(void)
//*************************************************************************

void systems_A_OK(void)
{
clear_LCD();
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home
putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’S’); putchar(’Y’); putchar(’S’); putchar(’T’); putchar(’E’);
putchar(’M’); putchar(’S’); putchar(’ ’); putchar(’A’); putchar(’-’);
putchar(’O’); putchar(’K’); putchar(’!’); putchar(’!’); putchar(’!’);
}

//*************************************************************************
//void print_mission_complete(void)
//*************************************************************************

void print_mission_complete(void)
{
clear_LCD();
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home
putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’M’); putchar(’I’); putchar(’S’); putchar(’S’); putchar(’I’);
putchar(’O’); putchar(’N’);
 8.5. OUTPUT DEVICES 239

putcommand(0xC0);//DD RAM location 1 - line 2

putchar(’C’); putchar(’O’); putchar(’M’); putchar(’P’); putchar(’L’);
putchar(’E’); putchar(’T’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’!’);
}

//*************************************************************************
//end of file

//*************************************************************************

8.5.7 LIQUID CRYSTAL CHARACTER DISPLAY (LCD) USING THE

ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT
The Arduino Development Environment provides full support to interface an Arduino Duemilanove
to either a 4-bit or 8-bit configured LCD. In the 4-bit mode precious output pins are preserved for
other uses over the 8-bit configuration [www.arduino.cc].
The Arduino Development Environment hosts the following LCD related functions:

• Hello World: This function displays the greeting “hello world” and also displays elapsed time
since the last reset.

• Blink: The Blink function provides cursor control.

• Cursor: This function provides control over the underscore style cursor.

• Display: This function blanks the display without the loss of displayed information.

• Text Direction: This function controls which direction text flows from the cursor.

• Autoscroll: This function provides automatic scrolling to the new text.

• Serial Input: This function accepts serial input and displays it on the LCD.

• SetCursor: This function sets the cursor position on the LCD.

• Scroll: This function scrolls text left and right.

Rather than include the excellent Arduino resource here, the interested reader is referred to
the Arduino website for sample code and full documentation [www.arduino.cc].

8.5.8 HIGH POWER DC DEVICES

A number of direct current devices may be controlled with an electronic switching device such as
a MOSFET. Specifically, an N-channel enhancement MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field
240 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
effect transistor) may be used to switch a high current load on and off (such as a motor) using
a low current control signal from a microcontroller as shown in Figure 8.13(a). The low current
control signal from the microcontroller is connected to the gate of the MOSFET. The MOSFET
switches the high current load on and off consistent with the control signal. The high current load
is connected between the load supply and the MOSFET drain. It is important to note that the load
supply voltage and the microcontroller supply voltage do not have to be at the same value. When
the control signal on the MOSFET gate is logic high, the load current flows from drain to source.
When the control signal applied to the gate is logic low, no load current flows. Thus, the high power
load is turned on and off by the low power control signal from the microcontroller.

VDD

load

Drain
Iload
from Gate
micro Source

a) N-channel enhance MOSFET b) solid state relay with optical interface

Figure 8.13: MOSFET circuits.

Often the MOSFET is used to control a high power motor load. A motor is a notorious source
of noise. To isolate the microcontroller from the motor noise an optical isolator may be used as an
interface as shown in Figure 8.13(b). The link between the control signal from the microcontroller
to the high power load is via an optical link contained within a Solid State Relay (SSR). The SSR
is properly biased using techniques previously discussed.

8.6 DC SOLENOID CONTROL

The interface circuit for a DC solenoid is provided in Figure 8.14. A solenoid provides a mechanical
insertion (or extraction) when asserted. In the interface, an optical isolator is used between the
microcontroller and the MOSFET used to activate the solenoid. A reverse biased diode is placed
across the solenoid. Both the solenoid power supply and the MOSFET must have the appropriate
voltage and current rating to support the solenoid requirements.
 8.7. DC MOTOR SPEED AND DIRECTION CONTROL 241

DC solenoid
supply voltage

+
VDD protection
diode
-
I R

D
MOSFET
ILOAD

from G
S
micro RG
7404 Solid State Relay

Figure 8.14: Solenoid interface circuit.

8.7 DC MOTOR SPEED AND DIRECTION CONTROL

Often, a microcontroller is used to control a high power motor load. To properly interface the motor
to the microcontroller, we must be familiar with the different types of motor technologies. Motor
types are illustrated in Figure 8.15.

• DC motor: A DC motor has a positive and negative terminal. When a DC power supply
of suitable current rating is applied to the motor it will rotate. If the polarity of the supply is
switched with reference to the motor terminals, the motor will rotate in the opposite direction.
The speed of the motor is roughly proportional to the applied voltage up to the rated voltage
of the motor.

• Servo motor: A servo motor provides a precision angular rotation for an applied pulse width
modulation duty cycle. As the duty cycle of the applied signal is varied, the angular displacement
of the motor also varies. This type of motor is used to change mechanical positions such as
the steering angle of a wheel.

• Stepper motor: A stepper motor as its name implies provides an incremental step change in
rotation (typically 2.5 degree per step) for a step change in control signal sequence. The motor
is typically controlled by a two or four wire interface. For the four wire stepper motor, the
242 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

Vmotor
+
Veff

Veff = Vmotor x duty cycle [%] -

a) DC motor

b) Servo motor
1 step

4 control interface
signals circuitry

power
ground

c) Stepper motor

Figure 8.15: Motor types.

microcontroller provides a four bit control sequence to rotate the motor clockwise. To turn the
motor counterclockwise, the control sequence is reversed. The low power control signals are
interfaced to the motor via MOSFETs or power transistors to provide for the proper voltage
and current requirements of the pulse sequence.

8.7.1 DC MOTOR OPERATING PARAMETERS

Space does not allow a full discussion of all motor types. We will concentrate on the DC motor.
As previously mentioned, the motor speed may be varied by changing the applied voltage. This
is difficult to do with a digital control signal. However, PWM control signal techniques discussed
earlier may be combined with a MOSFET interface to precisely control the motor speed. The duty
cycle of the PWM signal will also be the percentage of the motor supply voltage applied to the
 8.7. DC MOTOR SPEED AND DIRECTION CONTROL 243
motor, and hence the percentage of rated full speed at which the motor will rotate. The interface
circuit to accomplish this type of control is shown in Figure 8.16. Various portions of this interface
circuit have been previously discussed. The resistor RG , typically 10 k ohm, is used to discharge
the MOSFET gate when no voltage is applied to the gate. For an inductive load, a reversed biased
protection diode must be across the load. The interface circuit shown allows the motor to rotate in
a given direction. As previously mentioned, to rotate the motor in the opposite direction, the motor
polarity must be reversed. This may be accomplished with a high power switching network called an
H-bridge specifically designed for this purpose. Reference Pack and Barrett for more information
on this topic.

DC motor
supply voltage

+
VDD protection
M diode
-
I R

D
MOSFET
ILOAD
G
S
7404 RG
from Solid State Relay
micro

Figure 8.16: DC motor interface.

8.7.2 H-BRIDGE DIRECTION CONTROL

For a DC motor to operate in both the clockwise and counter clockwise direction, the polarity of the
DC motor supplied must be changed. To operate the motor in the forward direction, the positive
battery terminal must be connected to the positive motor terminal while the negative battery terminal
must be provided to the negative motor terminal. To reverse the motor direction the motor supply
polarity must be reversed. An H-bridge is a circuit employed to perform this polarity switch. Low
power H-bridges (500 mA) come in a convenient dual in line package (e.g., 754110). For higher
244 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
power motors, a H-bridge may be constructed from discrete components as shown in Figure 8.17.
If PWM signals are used to drive the base of the transistors (from microcontroller pins PD4 and
PD5), both motor speed and direction may be controlled by the circuit. The transistors used in the
circuit must have a current rating sufficient to handle the current requirements of the motor during
start and stall conditions.

12 VDC

1000uF
200 200
11DQ06
ZTX451 ZTX451

M
+

-
11DQ06
to PD4 to PD5
470 ZTX551 ZTX551
470

Figure 8.17: H-bridge control circuit.

8.7.3 SERVO MOTOR INTERFACE

The servo motor is used for a precise angular displacement. The displacement is related to the duty
cycle of the applied control signal. A servo control circuit and supporting software was provided in
Chapter 7.

8.7.4 STEPPER MOTOR CONTROL

Stepper motors are used to provide a discrete angular displacement in response to a control signal
step. There are a wide variety of stepper motors including bipolar and unipolar types with different
configurations of motor coil wiring. Due to space limitations, we only discuss the unipolar, 5 wire
stepper motor. The internal coil configuration for this motor is provided in Figure 8.18(b).
Often, a wiring diagram is not available for the stepper motor. Based on the wiring config-
uration (Reference Figure 8.18b), one can find out the common line for both coils. It will have a
resistance that is one-half of all of the other coils. Once the common connection is found, one can
connect the stepper motor into the interface circuit. By changing the other connections, one can
determine the correct connections for the step sequence.
 8.7. DC MOTOR SPEED AND DIRECTION CONTROL 245

a) a stepper motor rotates a fixed angle per step

step

b) coil configuration and step sequence

12 VDC

PORTD[7] 10K
TIP130
PORTD[6] TIP130
10K
PORTD[5] TIP130
10K
PORTD[4] TIP130
10K

c) stepper motor interface circuit

Figure 8.18: Unipolar stepper motor control circuit.

246 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
To rotate the motor either clockwise or counter clockwise, a specific step sequence must be
sent to the motor control wires as shown in Figure 8.18(c). As shown in Figure 8.18(c), the control
sequence is transmitted by four pins on the microcontroller. In this example, we use PORTD[7:5].
The microcontroller does not have sufficient capability to drive the motor directly. Therefore,
an interface circuit is required as shown in Figure 8.18c). For a unipolar stepper motor, we employ
a TIP130 power Darlington transistor to drive each coil of the stepper motor. The speed of motor
rotation is determined by how fast the control sequence is completed. The TIP 30 must be powered
by a supply that has sufficient capability for the stepper motor coils.
Example: An ATmega324 has been connected to a JRP 42BYG016 unipolar, 1.8 degree per
step, 12 VDC at 160 mA stepper motor. The interface circuit is shown in Figure 8.19. PORTD
pins 7 to 4 are used to provide the step sequence. A one second delay is used between the steps
to control motor speed. Pushbutton switches are used on PORTB[1:0] to assert CW and CCW
stepper motion. An interface circuit consisting of four TIP130 transistors are used between the
microcontroller and the stepper motor to boost the voltage and current of the control signals. Code
to provide the step sequence is shown below.
Provided below is a basic function to rotate the stepper motor in the forward or reverse
direction.

//*************************************************************************
//target controller: ATMEL ATmega328
//
//ATMEL AVR ATmega328PV Controller Pin Assignments
//Pin 1 Reset - 1M resistor to Vdd, tact switch to ground, 1.0 uF to ground
//Pin 6 PD4 - to stepper motor coil
//Pin 7 Vdd - 1.0 uF to ground
//Pin 8 Gnd
//Pin 11 PD5 - to stepper motor coil
//Pin 12 PD6 - to stepper motor coil
//Pin 13 PD7 - to stepper motor coil
//Pin 14 PB0 to active high RC debounced switch - CW
//Pin 20 AVcc to Vdd
//Pin 21 ARef to Vcc
//Pin 22 Gnd to Ground
//*************************************************************************

//include files************************************************************

//ATMEL register definitions for ATmega328

#include<iom328pv.h>
#include<macros.h>
 8.7. DC MOTOR SPEED AND DIRECTION CONTROL 247

Atmega328
1 PUR - PC6 PC5 28
2 RXD1 - PD0 PC4 27
3 TXD1 - PD1 PC3 26
4 PD2 PC2 25
VDD 1M sys reset 5 PD3 PC1 24
1.0 uF 6 PD4 PCO 23
7 Vcc GND 22
8 GND AREF 21 VDD
9 PB6 AVCC 20
10 PB7 PB5 19
Vcc = 5.0 volts 11 PD5 PB4 18
12 PD6 PB3 17
74HC14
4.7 K 100K 13 PD7 PB2 16
PB0 14 PB0 PB1 15
CW 470K (1) (2)
0.1uF
3K

Vcc = 5.0 volts

74HC14
4.7 K 100K
PB1
CCW 470K (3) (4)
0.1uF 3K

12 VDC

TIP130
TIP130 BC E
TIP130
TIP130
(top view)
TIP130

c) stepper motor interface circuit

Figure 8.19: Unipolar stepper motor control circuit.

248 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
//interrupt handler definition
#pragma interrupt_handler timer0_interrupt_isr:17

//function prototypes******************************************************
void initialize_ports(void); //initializes ports
void read_new_input(void); //used to read input change on PORTB
void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void); //used to initialize timer0 overflow
void timer0_interrupt_isr(void);
void delay(unsigned int);

//main program*************************************************************
//The main program checks PORTB for user input activity. If new activity
//is found, the program responds.

//global variables
unsigned char old_PORTB = 0x08; //present value of PORTB
unsigned char new_PORTB; //new values of PORTB
unsigned int input_delay; //delay counter - increment via Timer0
//overflow interrupt

void main(void)
{
initialize_ports(); //return LED configuration to default
init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(); //used to initialize timer0 overflow

while(1)
{
_StackCheck(); //check for stack overflow
read_new_input(); //read input status changes on PORTB
}
}//end main

//Function definitions
//*************************************************************************
//initialize_ports: provides initial configuration for I/O ports
//*************************************************************************
 8.7. DC MOTOR SPEED AND DIRECTION CONTROL 249
void initialize_ports(void)
{
//PORTB
DDRB=0xfc; //PORTB[7-2] output, PORTB[1:0] input
PORTB=0x00; //disable PORTB pull-up resistors

//PORTC
DDRC=0xff; //set PORTC[7-0] as output
PORTC=0x00; //init low

//PORTD
DDRD=0xff; //set PORTD[7-0] as output
PORTD=0x00; //initialize low
}

//*************************************************************************
//read_new_input: functions polls PORTB for a change in status. If status
//change has occurred, appropriate function for status change is called
//Pin 1 PB0 to active high RC debounced switch - CW
//Pin 2 PB1 to active high RC debounced switch - CCW
//*************************************************************************

void read_new_input(void)
{
new_PORTB = (PINB & 0x03);
if(new_PORTB != old_PORTB){
switch(new_PORTB){ //process change in PORTB input

case 0x01: //CW

while((PINB & 0x03)==0x01)
{
PORTD = 0x80;
delay(15); //delay 1s
PORTD = 0x00;
delay(1); //delay 65 ms

PORTD = 0x40;
delay(15);
PORTD = 0x00;
250 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
delay(1);

PORTD = 0x20;
delay(15);
PORTD = 0x00;
delay(1);

PORTD = 0x10;
delay(15);
PORTD = 0x00;
delay(1);
}
break;

case 0x02: //CCW

while((PINB & 0x03)==0x02)
{
PORTD = 0x10;
delay(15);
PORTD = 0x00;
delay(1);

PORTD = 0x20;
delay(15);
PORTD = 0x00;
delay(1);

PORTD = 0x40;
delay(15);
PORTD = 0x00;
delay(1);

PORTD = 0x80;
delay(15);
PORTD = 0x00;
delay(1);
}
break;
 8.7. DC MOTOR SPEED AND DIRECTION CONTROL 251

default:; //all other cases

} //end switch(new_PORTB)
} //end if new_PORTB
old_PORTB=new_PORTB; //update PORTB
}

//*************************************************************************
//int_timer0_ovf_interrupt(): The Timer0 overflow interrupt is being
//employed as a time base for a master timer for this project. The internal
//oscillator of 8 MHz is divided internally by 8 to provide a 1 MHz time
//base and is divided by 256. The 8-bit Timer0 register (TCNT0) overflows
//every 256 counts or every 65.5 ms.
//*************************************************************************

void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void)
{
TCCR0B = 0x04; //divide timer0 timebase by 256, overfl. occurs every 65.5ms
TIMSK0 = 0x01; //enable timer0 overflow interrupt
asm("SEI"); //enable global interrupt
}

//*************************************************************************
//timer0_interrupt_isr:
//Note: Timer overflow 0 is cleared by hardware when executing the
//corresponding interrupt handling vector.
//*************************************************************************

void timer0_interrupt_isr(void)
{
input_delay++; //input delay processing
}

//*************************************************************************
//void delay(unsigned int number_of_65_5ms_interrupts)
//this generic delay function provides the specified delay as the number
//of 65.5 ms "clock ticks" from the Timer0 interrupt.
//Note: this function is only valid when using a 1 MHz crystal or ceramic
// resonator
252 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
//*************************************************************************

void delay(unsigned int number_of_65_5ms_interrupts)

{
TCNT0 = 0x00; //reset timer0
input_delay = 0;
while(input_delay <= number_of_65_5ms_interrupts)
{
;
}
}

//*************************************************************************

8.7.5 AC DEVICES
In a similar manner, a high power alternating current (AC) load may be switched on and off using
a low power control signal from the microcontroller. In this case, a Solid State Relay is used as the
switching device. Solid state relays are available to switch a high power DC or AC load [Crydom].
For example, the Crydom 558-CX240D5R is a printed circuit board mounted, air cooled, single
pole single throw (SPST), normally open (NO) solid state relay. It requires a DC control voltage of
3-15 VDC at 15 mA. However, this small microcontroller compatible DC control signal is used to
switch 12-280 VAC loads rated from 0.06 to 5 amps [Crydom] as shown in Figure 8.20.
To vary the direction of an AC motor you must use a bi-directional AC motor. A bi-directional
motor is equipped with three terminals: common, clockwise, and counterclockwise.To turn the motor
clockwise, an AC source is applied to the common and clockwise connections. In like manner, to
turn the motor counterclockwise, an AC source is applied to the common and counterclockwise
connections. This may be accomplished using two of the Crydom SSRs.

8.8 INTERFACING TO MISCELLANEOUS DEVICES

In this section, we provide a pot pourri of interface circuits to connect a microcontroller to a wide
variety of peripheral devices.

8.8.1 SONALERTS, BEEPERS, BUZZERS

In Figure 8.21, we provide several circuits used to interface a microcontroller to a buzzer, beeper
or other types of annunciator indexannunciator devices such as a sonalert. It is important that the
interface transistor and the supply voltage are matched to the requirements of the sound producing
device.
253
8.8. INTERFACING TO MISCELLANEOUS DEVICES

fuse
Atmega328 115 VAC
1 PUR - PC6 PC5 28
2 RXD1 - PD0 PC4 27
3 TXD1 - PD1 PC3 26
4 PD2 PC2 25
VDD sys reset 5 PD3 PC1 24
1M
6 PD4 PCO 23 1
1.0 uF
7 Vcc GND 22
8 GND AREF 21 2
VDD
9 PB6 AVCC 20
10 PB7 PB5 19
11 PD5 PB4 18
CRYDOM
12 PD6 PB3 17 AC fan
13 PD7 PB2 16
14 PB0 PB1 15 3:DC+
4:DC-
Figure 8.20: AC motor control circuit.
254 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

Vcc = 5 VDC Vcc = 12 VDC

buzzer, 3850 Hz annunciator

5 VDC, 3-14 mA 12 VDC, 8 mA

220 220

from 10K from 10K

2N2222 2N2222
micro micro

a) 5 VDC buzzer interface a) 12 VDC annunciator

Figure 8.21: Sonalert, beepers, buzzers.

8.8.2 VIBRATING MOTOR

A vibrating motor is often used to gain one’s attention as in a cell phone. These motors are typically
rated at 3 VDC and a high current. The interface circuit shown in Figure 8.22 is used to drive the
low voltage motor. Note that the control signal provided to the transistor base is 5 VDC. To step the
motor supply voltage down to the motor voltage of 3 VDC, two 1N4001 silicon rectifier diodes are
used in series. These diodes provide approximately 1.4 to 1.6 VDC voltage drop. Another 1N4001
diode is reversed biased across the motor and the series diode string. The motor may be turned on
and off with a 5 VDC control signal from the microcontroller or a PWM signal may be used to
control motor speed.

8.9 EXTENDED EXAMPLE 1: AUTOMATED FAN COOLING

SYSTEM
In this section, we describe an embedded system application to control the temperature of a room or
some device. The system is illustrated in Figure 8.23. An LM34 temperature sensor (PORTC[0])
is used to monitor the instantaneous temperature of the room or device of interest. The current
temperature is displayed on the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).
We send a 1 KHz PWM signal to a cooling fan (M) whose duty cycle is set from 50% to
90% using the potentiometer connected to PORTC[2]. The PWM signal should last until the
 8.9. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 1: AUTOMATED FAN COOLING SYSTEM 255

5 VDC

1N4001

1N4001

+ 1N4001

M 3 VDC
-

240

Figure 8.22: Controlling a low voltage motor.

temperature of the LM34 cools to a value as set by another potentiometer (PORTC[1]). When the
temperature of the LM34 falls below the set level, the cooling fan is shut off. If the temperature falls
while the fan is active, the PWM signal should gently return to zero, and wait for further temperature
changes.
Provided below is the embedded code for the system. This solution was developed by Geoff
Luke, UW MSEE, as a laboratory assignment for an Industrial Control class.

//*************************************************************************
//Geoff Luke
//EE 5880 - Industrial Controls
//PWM Fan Control
//Last Updated: April 10, 2010
//*************************************************************************
//Description: This program reads the voltage from an LM34 temperature
//sensor then sends the corresponding temperature to an LCD.
//If the sensed temperature is greater than the temperature designated
256 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

Vcc = 5 V
cooling fan speed
Atmega328 10K
1 PUR - PC6 PC5 28
2 RXD1 - PD0 PC4 27
3 TXD1 - PD1 PC3 26
4 PD2 PC2 25 Vcc = 5 V
sys reset 5 PD3 PC1 24
VDD 1M
6 PD4 PCO 23
threshold temperature setting
1.0 uF 10K
7 Vcc GND 22
8 GND AREF 21 VDD
9 PB6 AVCC 20 Vcc = 5 V
10 PB7 PB5 19
11 PD5 PB4 18 LM34 temperature sensor
12 PD6 PB3 17 75
13 PD7 PB2 16 1uF
14 PB0 PB1 15

to PORTB[7:0]
Vcc
10K
data
GND-1
VDD-2
Vo-3
RS-4
R/W-5
E-6
DB0-7
DB1-8
DB2-9
DB3-10
DB4-11
DB5-12
DB6-13
DB7-14

AND671GST

DC motor
supply voltage

+
VDD protection
M diode
-
I R

D
MOSFET
ILOAD
G
S
7404 RG
Solid State Relay
from
micro

Figure 8.23: Automated fan cooling system.

 8.9. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 1: AUTOMATED FAN COOLING SYSTEM 257
//by a potentiometer, then a PWM signal is turned on to trigger a fan
//with duty cycle designated by another potentiometer.
//
//Ports:
// PORTB[7:0]: data output to LCD
// PORTD[7:6]: LCD control pins
// PORTC[2:0]:
// PORTC[0]: LM34 temperature sensor
// PORTC[1]: threshold temperature
// PORTC[2]: fan speed
// PORTD[4] : PWM channel B output
//
//*************************************************************************

//include files************************************************************
#include<iom328pv.h>

//function prototypes******************************************************
void initializePorts();
void initializeADC();
unsigned int readADC(unsigned char);
void LCD_init();
void putChar(unsigned char);
void putcommand(unsigned char);
void voltageToLCD(unsigned int);
void temperatureToLCD(unsigned int);
void PWM(unsigned int);
void delay_5ms();

int main(void)
{
unsigned int tempVoltage, tempThreshold;

initializePorts();
initializeADC();
LCD_init();

while(1)
{
258 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
tempVoltage = readADC(0);
temperatureToLCD(tempVoltage);
tempThreshold = readADC(1);
if(tempVoltage > tempThreshold)
{
PWM(1);
while(tempVoltage > tempThreshold)
{
tempVoltage = readADC(0);
temperatureToLCD(tempVoltage);
tempThreshold = readADC(1);
}
OCR1BL = 0x00;
}
}
return 0;
}

//*************************************************************************

void initializePorts()
{
DDRD = 0xFF;
DDRC = 0xFF;
DDRB = 0xFF;
}

//*************************************************************************

void initializeADC()
{
//select channel 0
ADMUX = 0;

//enable ADC and set module enable ADC and

//set module prescalar to 8
ADCSRA = 0xC3;

//Wait until conversion is ready

 8.9. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 1: AUTOMATED FAN COOLING SYSTEM 259
while(!(ADCSRA & 0x10));

//Clear conversion ready flag

ADCSRA |= 0x10;
}

//*************************************************************************

unsigned int readADC(unsigned char channel)

{
unsigned int binary_weighted_voltage, binary_weighted_voltage_low;
unsigned int binary_weighted_voltage_high; //weighted binary

ADMUX = channel; //Select channel

ADCSRA |= 0x43; //Start conversion

//Set ADC module prescalar to 8

//critical accurate ADC results
while (!(ADCSRA & 0x10)); //Check if conversion is ready
ADCSRA |= 0x10; //Clear conv rdy flag - set the bit

binary_weighted_voltage_low = ADCL;
//Read 8 low bits first (important)
//Read 2 high bits, multiply by 256
binary_weighted_voltage_high = ((unsigned int)(ADCH << 8));
binary_weighted_voltage = binary_weighted_voltage_low +
binary_weighted_voltage_high;

return binary_weighted_voltage; //ADCH:ADCL

}

//*************************************************************************
//LCD_Init: initialization for an LCD connected in the following manner:
//LCD: AND671GST 1x16 character display
//LCD configured as two 8 character lines in a 1x16 array
//LCD data bus (pin 14-pin7) ATMEL ATmega16: PORTB
//LCD RS (pin 4) ATMEL ATmega16: PORTD[7]
//LCD E (pin 6) ATMEL ATmega16: PORTD[6]
260 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
//*************************************************************************

void LCD_init(void)
{
delay_5ms();
delay_5ms();
delay_5ms();
// output command string to
//initialize LCD
putcommand(0x38); //function set 8-bit
delay_5ms();
putcommand(0x38); //function set 8-bit
delay_5ms();
putcommand(0x38); //function set 8-bit
putcommand(0x38); //one line, 5x7 char
putcommand(0x0E); //display on
putcommand(0x01); //display clear-1.64 ms
putcommand(0x06); //entry mode set
putcommand(0x00); //clear display, cursor at home
putcommand(0x00); //clear display, cursor at home
}

//*************************************************************************
//putchar:prints specified ASCII character to LCD
//*************************************************************************

void putChar(unsigned char c)

{
DDRB = 0xff; //set PORTB as output
DDRD = DDRD|0xC0; //make PORTD[7:6] output
PORTB = c;
PORTD = PORTD|0x80; //RS=1
PORTD = PORTD|0x40; //E=1
PORTD = PORTD&0xbf; //E=0
delay_5ms();
}
 8.9. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 1: AUTOMATED FAN COOLING SYSTEM 261
//*************************************************************************
//performs specified LCD related command
//*************************************************************************

void putcommand(unsigned char d)

{
DDRB = 0xff; //set PORTB as output
DDRD = DDRD|0xC0; //make PORTD[7:6] output
PORTD = PORTD&0x7f; //RS=0
PORTB = d;
PORTD = PORTD|0x40; //E=1
PORTD = PORTD&0xbf; //E=0
delay_5ms();
}

//*************************************************************************
//delays for 5 ms with a clock speed of 1 MHz
//*************************************************************************

void delay_5ms(void)
{
unsigned int i;

for(i=0; i<2500; i++)

{
asm("nop");
}
}

//*************************************************************************
void voltageToLCD(unsigned int ADCValue)

{
float voltage;
unsigned int ones, tenths, hundredths;

voltage = (float)ADCValue*5.0/1024.0;
262 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
ones = (unsigned int)voltage;
tenths = (unsigned int)((voltage-(float)ones)*10);
hundredths = (unsigned int)(((voltage-(float)ones)*10-(float)tenths)*10);

putcommand(0x80);

putChar((unsigned char)(ones)+48);
putChar(’.’);
putChar((unsigned char)(tenths)+48);
putChar((unsigned char)(hundredths)+48);
putChar(’V’);
putcommand(0xC0);
}

//*************************************************************************

void temperatureToLCD(unsigned int ADCValue)

{
float voltage,temperature;
unsigned int tens, ones, tenths;

voltage = (float)ADCValue*5.0/1024.0;
temperature = voltage*100;

tens = (unsigned int)(temperature/10);

ones = (unsigned int)(temperature-(float)tens*10);
tenths = (unsigned int)(((temperature-(float)tens*10)-(float)ones)*10);

putcommand(0x80);
putChar((unsigned char)(tens)+48);
putChar((unsigned char)(ones)+48);
putChar(’.’);
putChar((unsigned char)(tenths)+48);
putChar(’F’);
}

//*************************************************************************
 8.9. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 1: AUTOMATED FAN COOLING SYSTEM 263
void PWM(unsigned int PWM_incr)
{

unsigned int fan_Speed_int;

float fan_Speed_float;
int PWM_duty_cycle;

fan_Speed_int = readADC(0x02); //fan Speed Setting

//unsigned int convert to max duty cycle setting:

// 0 VDC = 50% = 127,
// 5 VDC = 100% = 255

fan_Speed_float = ((float)(fan_Speed_int)/(float)(0x0400));

//convert volt to PWM constant 127-255

fan_Speed_int = (unsigned int)((fan_Speed_float * 127) + 128.0);

//Configure PWM clock

TCCR1A = 0xA1; //freq = resonator/510 = 4 MHz/510

//freq = 19.607 kHz
TCCR1B = 0x02; //clock source
//division of 8: 980 Hz

//Initiate PWM duty cycle variables

PWM_duty_cycle = 0;
OCR1BH = 0x00;
OCR1BL = (unsigned char)(PWM_duty_cycle);//set PWM duty cycle Ch B to 0%
//Ramp up to fan Speed in 1.6s
OCR1BL = (unsigned char)(PWM_duty_cycle);//set PWM duty cycle Ch B

while (PWM_duty_cycle < fan_Speed_int)

{
if(PWM_duty_cycle < fan_Speed_int) //increment duty cycle
PWM_duty_cycle=PWM_duty_cycle + PWM_incr;
//set PWM duty cycle Ch B
OCR1BL = (unsigned char)(PWM_duty_cycle);
}
264 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
}

//*************************************************************************

8.10 EXTENDED EXAMPLE 2: FINE ART LIGHTING SYSTEM

In Chapter 2 and 5, we investigated an illumination system for a painting. The painting was to be
illuminated via high intensity white LEDs. The LEDs could be mounted in front of or behind the
painting as the artist desired. In Chapter 5, we equipped the lighting system with an IR sensor to
detect the presence of someone viewing the piece. We also wanted to adjust the intensity of the
lighting based on how the close viewer was to the art piece. In this example, we enhance the lighting
system with three IR sensors. The sensors will determine the location of viewers and illuminate
portions of the painting accordingly. The analogWrite function is used to set the intensity of the
LEDs using PWM techniques.
The Arduino Development Environment sketch to sense how away the viewer is and issue
a proportional intensity control signal to illuminate the LED is provided below. The analogRead
function is used to obtain the signal from the IR sensor. The analogWrite function is used to issue
a proportional signal.
//*************************************************************************
//analog input pins
#define left_IR_sensor 0 //analog pin - left IR sensor
#define center_IR_sensor 1 //analog pin - center IR sensor
#define right_IR_sensor 2 //analog pin - right IR sensor

//digital output pins

//LED indicators - wall detectors
#define col_0_control 0 //digital pin - column 0 control
#define col_1_control 1 //digital pin - column 1 control
#define col_2_control 2 //digital pin - column 2 control

int left_IR_sensor_value; //declare var. for left IR sensor

int center_IR_sensor_value; //declare var. for center IR sensor

int right_IR_sensor_value; //declare var. for right IR sensor

void setup()
{
//LED indicators - wall detectors
pinMode(col_0_control, OUTPUT); //configure pin 0 for digital output
pinMode(col_1_control, OUTPUT); //configure pin 1 for digital output
 9 VDC 9 VDC 9 VDC

R Column 1 R Column 2 R
Column 0
control control
control

10K 10K 10K

2N2222 2N2222 2N2222

Column 2 control
Column 1 control
Column 0 control

Figure 8.24: IR sensor interface.

9 VDC 9 VDC 9 VDC
3 21 0 9 8 76 5 4 32 1 0
1 1 1 1 DIGITAL R R R
Arduino
Duemilanove
10K 10K 10K
2N2222 2N2222 2N2222

9 VDC 9 VDC 9 VDC

ANALOG IN R R R
5VGnd 0 123 4 5

10K 10K 10K

2N2222 2N2222 2N2222

IR sensor IR sensor IR sensor Sensor connection:

left middle right - Red: 5 VDC
- Yellow: Signal output
5 VDC 5 VDC 5 VDC - Black: Ground
male
header
A0 pins
A1 A2
8.10. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 2: FINE ART LIGHTING SYSTEM
265
266 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
pinMode(col_2_control, OUTPUT); //configure pin 2 for digital output

void loop()
{
//read analog output from IR sensors
left_IR_sensor_value = analogRead(left_IR_sensor);
center_IR_sensor_value = analogRead(center_IR_sensor);
right_IR_sensor_value = analogRead(right_IR_sensor);

if(left_IR_sensor_value < 128)

{
analogWrite(col_0_control, 31); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(left_IR_sensor_value < 256)
{
analogWrite(col_0_control, 63); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(left_IR_sensor_value < 384)
{
analogWrite(col_0_control, 95); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(left_IR_sensor_value < 512)
{
analogWrite(col_0_control, 127); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(left_IR_sensor_value < 640)
{
analogWrite(col_0_control, 159); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(left_IR_sensor_value < 768)
{
analogWrite(col_0_control, 191); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(left_IR_sensor_value < 896)
{
analogWrite(col_0_control, 223); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
 8.10. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 2: FINE ART LIGHTING SYSTEM 267
else
{
analogWrite(col_0_control, 255); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}

if(center_IR_sensor_value < 128)

{
analogWrite(col_1_control, 31); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(center_IR_sensor_value < 256)
{
analogWrite(col_1_control, 63); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(center_IR_sensor_value < 384)
{
analogWrite(col_1_control, 95); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(center_IR_sensor_value < 512)
{
analogWrite(col_1_control, 127); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(center_IR_sensor_value < 640)
{
analogWrite(col_1_control, 159); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(center_IR_sensor_value < 768)
{
analogWrite(col_1_control, 191); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(center_IR_sensor_value < 896)
{
analogWrite(col_1_control, 223); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else
{
analogWrite(col_1_control, 255); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}

if(right_IR_sensor_value < 128)

268 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
{
analogWrite(col_2_control, 31); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(right_IR_sensor_value < 256)
{
analogWrite(col_2_control, 63); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(right_IR_sensor_value < 384)
{
analogWrite(col_2_control, 95); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(right_IR_sensor_value < 512)
{
analogWrite(col_2_control, 127); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(right_IR_sensor_value < 640)
{
analogWrite(col_2_control, 159); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(right_IR_sensor_value < 768)
{
analogWrite(col_2_control, 191); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else if(right_IR_sensor_value < 896)
{
analogWrite(col_2_control, 223); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}
else
{
analogWrite(col_2_control, 255); //0 (off) to 255 (full speed)
}

delay(500); //delay 500 ms

}

//*************************************************************************
 8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL 269

8.11 EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL

We close the chapter with an extended example of developing a flight simulator panel.This panel was
actually designed and fabricated for a middle school to allow students to react to space mission like
status while using a program that allowed them to travel about the planets. An Atmel ATmega328
microcontroller is used because its capabilities best fit the requirements for the project.
The panel face is shown in Figure 8.25. It consists of a joystick that is connected to a host
computer for the flight simulator software. Below the joystick is a two line liquid crystal display
equipped with a backlight LED (Hantronix HDM16216L-7, Jameco# 658988). Below the LCD is
a buzzer to alert students to changing status. There are also a complement of other status indicators.
From left-to-right is the Trip Duration potentiometer. At the beginning of the flight episode students
are prompted to set this from 0 to 60 minutes to communicate to the microcontroller the length of
the flight episode. This data is used to calculate different flight increments. There are also a series of
simulated circuit breakers: system reset (SYS Reset), oxygen (O2 CB), auxiliary fuel (AUX FUEL
CB), and the main power circuit breakers (MAIN PWR CB). These are not actual circuit breakers
but normally open (NO) single pole single throw (SPST) momentary pushbutton switches that
allow the students to interact with the microcontroller. There are also a series of LEDs that form a
Y pattern on the panel face. They are also used to indicate status changes.
To interface the flight simulator panel to the microcontroller a number of different techniques
previously discussed in the book were employed. The interface diagram is shown in Figure 8.26. Pin
1 is a reset for the microcontroller. When the switch is depressed, pin 1 is taken low and resets the
microcontroller. Port D of the microcontroller (pins 2-6, 11-13) forms the data connection for the
LCD. Pin 9 is used to turn the buzzer on and off. This pin is routed through a transistor interface
described earlier in the text. Port B[5:0] (pins 14-19) is used to control the LEDs on the front panel.
Each individual LED is also supported with a transistor interface circuit. Conveniently, these small
NPN signal transistors come in four to a 14 pin DIP package (MPQ2222). Port C [0] (pin 23) is
used as an analog input pin. It is connected to the trip duration potentiometer. Port C pins [3:1]
(pins 24 to 26) are used to connect the NO SPST tact switches to the microcontroller. Port C pins
[4:5] (pins 27, 28) are used for the LCD control signals.
The software flowchart is shown in Figure 8.27. After startup the students are prompted
via the LCD display to set the trip duration and then press the main power circuit breaker. This
potentiometer setting is then used to calculate four different trip increments. Countdown followed by
blastoff then commences. At four different trip time increments, students are presented with status
that they must respond to. Real clock time is kept using the TCNT0 timer overflow configured as
a 65.5 ms “clock tick.” The overall time base for the microcontroller was its internal 1 MHz clock
that may be selected during programming with the STK500.
Provided below is the code listing for the flight simulator panel.
//*************************************************************************
//file name: flight_sim.c
//author: Steve Barrett, Ph.D., P.E.
270 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

Joystick

Status Panel

TRIP TIME: 0-60m

SET MAIN PWR CB
buzzer

(PB5) (PB6)

(PB3) (PB4)
(PB2)

(PB1)
Trip MAIN
Duration (PB0) PWR CB
O2 AUX
SYS
Reset CB FUEL CB

Figure 8.25: Flight Simulator Panel.

 1M
5 VDC 1-(/Reset) PC6 PC5-28 RS
system reset 1 uF 2-PD0
DB0 PC4-27 E
DB1 3-PD1 PC3-26 O2 Circuit Breaker
AUX Fuel Vcc = 5 VDC
DB2 4-PD2 ATmega328 PC2-25
DB3 5-PD3 PC1-24 Engine Power trip
line1
DB4 6-PD4 PC0 (ADC0)-23 duration
line 2
Vcc 7-VCC GND-22 pot
8-GND AREF-21 Vcc

DB7-14
DB6-13
DB5-12
DB4-11
DB3-10
DB2-9
DB1-8
DB0-7
E-6
R/W-5
RS-4
Vo-3
VDD-2
GND-1
LED A-15
LED K-16
LED6 9-PB6 AVCC-20 Vcc

RS
E piezo buzzer 10-PB7 PB5-19 LED5
data
DB5 11-PD5 PB4-18 LED4

LED
5V DB6 12-PD6 PB3-17 LED3

contrast
DB7 Vcc
13-PD7 PB2-16 LED2 buzzer
LED0 14-PB0 PB1-15 LED1 3850 Hz

Vcc Vcc Vcc Vcc Vcc Vcc Vcc 5 VDC,

3-14 mA

Figure 8.26: Interface diagram for the flight simulator panel.

220 DIP
resistor
+ + + + + + +
LED0 LED1 LED2 LED3 LED4 LED5 LED6
1 7 8 14 1 7 8 14
2 6 9 13 2 6 9 13
3 5 10 12 3 5 10 12

10K DIP
resistor
PB0 PB1 PB2 PB3 PB4 PB5 PB6 PB7
8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL
271
 272

initialize_timer

initialize_ports

initialize_ADC

initialize_LCD

TRIP TIME 0-60m

SET MAIN PWR CB

no main pwr
set?
yes
read_ADC
calculate_trip_inc (25...)

perform_countdown
LED_blastoff_seq

Figure 8.27: Software flow for the flight simulator panel.

delay(3s)

SYSTEMS A-OK

while(1)

flt25_actions no
***LOW O2*** yes
8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

25% trip time? sound_alarm flash_LED_panel actions_complete? SYS A-OK reset_alarm restore_panel
RESET O2 CB
no
flt50_actions
***LOW FUEL*** yes
50% trip time? sound_alarm flash_LED_panel actions_complete? SYS A-OK reset_alarm restore_panel
ASSERT AUX FUEL
no flt75_actions
ENGINE OVERHEAT yes
75% trip time? sound_alarm flash_LED_panel actions_complete? SYS A-OK reset_alarm restore_panel
POWER DOWN 30S
no flt100_actions
no FUEL EXPENDED
100% trip time? sound_alarm flash_LED_panel LED_power_down_seq
MISSION ABORT
 8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL 273
//last revised: April 10, 2010
//function: Controls Flight Simulator Control Panel for Larimer County
// School District #1
//
//ATMEL AVR ATmega328
//Chip Port Function I/O Source/Dest Asserted Notes
//*************************************************************************
//Pin 1: /Reset
//Pin 2: PD0 to DB0 LCD
//Pin 3: PD1 to DB1 LCD
//Pin 4: PD2 to DB2 LCD
//Pin 5: PD3 to DB3 LCD
//Pin 6: PD4 to DB4 LCD
//Pin 7: Vcc
//Pin 8: Gnd
//Pin 9: PB6 to LED6
//Pin 10: PB7 to piezo buzzer
//Pin 11: PD5 to DB6 LCD
//Pin 12: PD6 to DB6 LCD
//Pin 13: PD7 to DB7 LCD
//Pin 14: PB0 to LED0
//Pin 15: PB1 to LED1
//Pin 16: PB2 to LED2
//Pin 17: PB3 to LED3
//Pin 18: PB4 to LED4
//Pin 19: PB5 to LED5
//Pin 20: AVCC to Vcc
//Pin 21: AREF to Vcc
//Pin 22 Gnd
//Pin 23 ADC0 to trip duration potentiometer
//Pin 24 PC1 Engine Power Switch
//Pin 25 PC2 AUX Fuel circuit breaker
//Pin 26 PC3 O2 circuit breaker
//Pin 27 PC4 to LCD Enable (E)
//Pin 28 PC5 to LCD RS
//

//include files************************************************************
274 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
//ATMEL register definitions for ATmega8
#include<iom328v.h>

//function prototypes******************************************************
void delay(unsigned int number_of_65_5ms_interrupts);
void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void);
void InitADC(void); //initialize ADC
void initialize_ports(void); //initializes ports
void power_on_reset(void);
//returns system to startup state
unsigned int ReadADC(unsigned char chan);//read value from ADC results
void clear_LCD(void); //clears LCD display
void LCD_Init(void); //initialize AND671GST LCD
void putchar(unsigned char c); //send character to LCD
void putcommand(unsigned char c); //send command to LCD
unsigned int ReadADC(unsigned char chan);//read value from ADC results
void timer0_interrupt_isr(void);
void flt25_actions(void);
void flt50_actions(void);
void flt75_actions(void);
void flt100_actions(void);
void sound_alarm(void);
void turn_off_LEDs(void);
void reset_alarm(void);
void restore_panel(void);
void LED_blastoff_sequence(void);
void LED_power_down_sequence(void);
void monitor_main_power_CB(void);
void monitor_O2_CB_reset(void);
void monitor_aux_fuel_CB(void);
void perform_countdown(void);
void print_LOWO2(void);
void print_LOW_FUEL(void);
void print_fuel_expended(void);
void print_OVERHEAT(void);
void print_trip_dur(void);
void flash_LED_panel(void);
void clear_LCD(void);
 8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL 275
void calculate_trip_int(void);
void systems_A_OK(void);

//program constants
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0
#define OPEN 1
#define CLOSE 0
#define YES 1
#define NO 0
#define SAFE 1
#define UNSAFE 0
#define ON 1
#define OFF 0

//interrupt handler definition

#pragma interrupt_handler timer0_interrupt_isr:17

//main program*************************************************************

//global variables
unsigned int flt_25, flt_50, flt_75, flt_100;
unsigned int action25_done=NO, action50_done=NO;
unsigned int action75_done=NO, action100_done=NO;
unsigned int achieved25=NO, achieved50=NO;
unsigned int achieved75=NO, achieved100=NO;
unsigned int flt_timer=0;
unsigned int trip_duration_volt;
unsigned char PORTC_pullup_mask = 0x0e;
unsigned int flash_timer;
unsigned int PORTB_LEDs;
unsigned int flash_panel=NO;
unsigned int delay_timer;
unsigned int troubleshooting = 1;
void convert_display_voltage_LCD(int trip_duration_volt);
void convert_int_to_string_display_LCD(unsigned int total_integer_value);

void main(void)
{
276 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
init_timer0_ovf_interrupt();
//initialize Timer0 to serve as elapsed
initialize_ports(); //initialize ports
InitADC(); //initialize ADC
LCD_Init(); //initialize LCD
print_trip_dur();
//prompt user to enter trip duration
monitor_main_power_CB();
clear_LCD();

trip_duration_volt = ReadADC(0x00); //Read trip duration ADC0

if(troubleshooting)
{ //display voltage LCD
convert_display_voltage_LCD(trip_duration_volt);
delay(46);
}
calculate_trip_int();
if(troubleshooting)
{
convert_int_to_string_display_LCD(flt_25);
delay(46);
}
perform_countdown();
LED_blastoff_sequence();
sound_alarm();
delay(46);
reset_alarm();
systems_A_OK();

while(1)
{
if(flt_timer > flt_25) achieved25 = YES;
if(flt_timer > flt_50) achieved50 = YES;
if(flt_timer > flt_75) achieved75 = YES;
if(flt_timer > flt_100) achieved100 = YES;

if((achieved25==YES)&&(action25_done==NO))
//25% flight complete
{
 8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL 277
flt25_actions();
action25_done=YES;
systems_A_OK();
}

if((achieved50==YES)&&(action50_done==NO))
//50% flight complete
{
flt50_actions();
action50_done=YES;
systems_A_OK();
}

if((achieved75==YES)&&(action75_done==NO))
//75% flight complete
{
flt75_actions();
action75_done=YES;
systems_A_OK();
}

if((achieved100==YES)&&(action100_done==NO))
//100% flight complete
{
flt100_actions();
action100_done=YES;
}
}//end while
}//end main

//function definitions*****************************************************

//*************************************************************************
//initialize_ports: provides initial configuration for I/O ports
//
//Note: when the RSTDISBL fuse is unprogrammed, the RESET circuitry is
// connected to the pin, and the pin can not be used as an I/O pin.
//*************************************************************************
278 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
void initialize_ports(void)
{
DDRB = 0xff; //PORTB[7:0] as output
PORTB= 0x00; //initialize low
DDRC = 0xb0; //set PORTC as output OROO_IIII 1011_0000
PORTC= PORTC_pullup_mask; //initialize pullups PORTC[3:1]
DDRD = 0xff; //set PORTD as output
PORTD =0x00; //initialize low
}

//*************************************************************************
//delay(unsigned int num_of_65_5ms_interrupts): this generic delay function
//provides the specified delay as the number of 65.5 ms "clock ticks"
//from the Timer0 interrupt.
//Note: this function is only valid when using a 1 MHz crystal or ceramic
// resonator
//*************************************************************************

void delay(unsigned int number_of_65_5ms_interrupts)

{
TCNT0 = 0x00; //reset timer0
delay_timer = 0;
while(delay_timer <= number_of_65_5ms_interrupts)
{
;
}
}

//*************************************************************************
//InitADC: initialize ADC converter
//*************************************************************************

void InitADC( void)

{
ADMUX = 0; //Select channel 0
ADCSRA = 0xC3; //Enable ADC & start 1st dummy conversion
//Set ADC module prescalar to 8
//critical for accurate ADC results
while (!(ADCSRA & 0x10)); //Check if conversation is ready
 8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL 279
ADCSRA |= 0x10; //Clear conv rdy flag - set the bit
}

//*************************************************************************
//ReadADC: read analog voltage from ADC-the desired channel for conversion
//is passed in as an unsigned character variable. The result is returned
//as a left justified, 10 bit binary result.
//The ADC prescalar must be set to 8 to slow down the ADC clock at higher
//external clock frequencies (10 MHz) to obtain accurate results.
//*************************************************************************

unsigned int ReadADC(unsigned char channel)

{
unsigned int binary_weighted_voltage, binary_weighted_voltage_low;
//weighted binary voltage
unsigned int binary_weighted_voltage_high;

ADMUX = channel; //Select channel

ADCSRA |= 0x43; //Start conversion
//Set ADC module prescalar to 8
//critical for accurate ADC results
while (!(ADCSRA & 0x10)); //Check if conversion is ready
ADCSRA |= 0x10; //Clear Conv rdy flag - set the bit
binary_weighted_voltage_low = ADCL; //Read 8 low bits first (important)
//Read 2 high bits, multiply by 256
binary_weighted_voltage_high = ((unsigned int)(ADCH << 8));
binary_weighted_voltage=binary_weighted_voltage_low |
binary_weighted_voltage_high;
return binary_weighted_voltage; //ADCH:ADCL
}

//*************************************************************************
//int_timer0_ovf_interrupt(): The Timer0 overflow interrupt is being
//employed as a time base for a master timer for this project.
//The internal time base is set to operate at 1 MHz and then
//is divided by 256. The 8-bit Timer0 register (TCNT0) overflows
//every 256 counts or every 65.5 ms.
//*************************************************************************
280 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
void init_timer0_ovf_interrupt(void)
{
TCCR0 = 0x04; //divide timer0 timebase by 256, overfl. occurs every 65.5ms
TIMSK = 0x01; //enable timer0 overflow interrupt
asm("SEI"); //enable global interrupt
}

//*************************************************************************
//LCD_Init: initialization for an LCD connected in the following manner:
//LCD: AND671GST 1x16 character display
//LCD configured as two 8 character lines in a 1x16 array
//LCD data bus (pin 14-pin7) ATMEL 8: PORTD
//LCD RS (pin 28) ATMEL 8: PORTC[5]
//LCD E (pin 27) ATMEL 8: PORTC[4]
//*************************************************************************

void LCD_Init(void)
{
delay(1);
delay(1);
delay(1);
// output command string to initialize LCD
putcommand(0x38); //function set 8-bit
delay(1);
putcommand(0x38); //function set 8-bit
putcommand(0x38); //function set 8-bit
putcommand(0x38); //one line, 5x7 char
putcommand(0x0C); //display on
putcommand(0x01); //display clear-1.64 ms
putcommand(0x06); //entry mode set
putcommand(0x00); //clear display, cursor at home
putcommand(0x00); //clear display, cursor at home
}

//*************************************************************************
//putchar:prints specified ASCII character to LCD
//*************************************************************************

void putchar(unsigned char c)

 8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL 281
{
DDRD = 0xff; //set PORTD as output
DDRC = DDRC|0x30; //make PORTC[5:4] output
PORTD = c;
PORTC = (PORTC|0x20)|PORTC_pullup_mask; //RS=1
PORTC = (PORTC|0x10)|PORTC_pullup_mask;; //E=1
PORTC = (PORTC&0xef)|PORTC_pullup_mask;; //E=0
delay(1);
}

//*************************************************************************
//putcommand: performs specified LCD related command
//*************************************************************************

void putcommand(unsigned char d)

{
DDRD = 0xff; //set PORTD as output
DDRC = DDRC|0xC0; //make PORTA[5:4] output
PORTC = (PORTC&0xdf)|PORTC_pullup_mask; //RS=0
PORTD = d;
PORTC = (PORTC|0x10)|PORTC_pullup_mask; //E=1
PORTC = (PORTC&0xef)|PORTC_pullup_mask; //E=0
delay(1);
}

//*************************************************************************
//clear_LCD: clears LCD
//*************************************************************************

void clear_LCD(void)
{
putcommand(0x01);
}

//*************************************************************************
//*void calculate_trip_int(void)
//*************************************************************************

void calculate_trip_int(void)
282 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
{
unsigned int trip_duration_sec;
unsigned int trip_duration_int;

trip_duration_sec=(unsigned int)(((double)(trip_duration_volt)/1024.0)*
60.0*60.0);
trip_duration_int = (unsigned int)((double)(trip_duration_sec)/0.0655);
flt_25 = (unsigned int)((double)(trip_duration_int) * 0.25);
flt_50 = (unsigned int)((double)(trip_duration_int) * 0.50);
flt_75 = (unsigned int)((double)(trip_duration_int) * 0.75);
flt_100 = trip_duration_int;
}

//*************************************************************************
//void timer0_interrupt_isr(void)
//*************************************************************************

void timer0_interrupt_isr(void)
{
delay_timer++;
flt_timer++; //increment flight timer

if(flash_panel==YES)
{
if(flash_timer <= 8)
{
flash_timer++;
}
else
{
flash_timer = 0;
if(PORTB_LEDs == OFF)
{
PORTB = 0xff;
PORTB_LEDs = ON;
}
else
{
PORTB = 0x00;
 8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL 283
PORTB_LEDs = OFF;
}
}
}
else
{
flash_timer = 0;
}
}

//*************************************************************************
//void flt25_actions(void)
//*************************************************************************

void flt25_actions(void)
{
sound_alarm();
flash_LED_panel();
print_LOWO2();
monitor_O2_CB_reset();
reset_alarm();
restore_panel();
action25_done = YES;
}

//*************************************************************************
//void flt50_actions(void)
//*************************************************************************

void flt50_actions(void)
{
sound_alarm();
flash_LED_panel();
print_LOW_FUEL();
monitor_aux_fuel_CB();
reset_alarm();
restore_panel();
action50_done = YES;
}
284 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

//*************************************************************************
//void flt75_actions(void)
//*************************************************************************

void flt75_actions(void)
{
sound_alarm();
flash_LED_panel();
print_OVERHEAT();
delay(458); //delay 30s
monitor_main_power_CB();
reset_alarm();
restore_panel();
action75_done = YES;
}

//*************************************************************************
//void flt100_actions(void)
//*************************************************************************

void flt100_actions(void)
{
sound_alarm();
flash_LED_panel();
print_fuel_expended();
turn_off_LEDs();
action100_done = YES;
}

//*************************************************************************
//void sound_alarm(void)
//*************************************************************************

void sound_alarm(void)
{
PORTB = PORTB | 0x80;
}
 8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL 285

//*************************************************************************
//void turn_off_LEDs(void)
//*************************************************************************

void turn_off_LEDs(void)
{
PORTB = PORTB & 0x80;
}

//*************************************************************************
//void reset_alarm(void)
//*************************************************************************

void reset_alarm(void)
{
PORTB = PORTB & 0x7F;
}

//*************************************************************************
//void restore_panel(void)
//*************************************************************************

void restore_panel(void)
{
flash_panel = NO;
PORTB = PORTB | 0x7F;
}

//*************************************************************************
//void LED_blastoff_sequence(void)
//*************************************************************************

void LED_blastoff_sequence(void)
{
PORTB = 0x00; //0000_0000
delay(15); //delay 1s
PORTB = 0x01; //0000_0001
286 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
delay(15); //delay 1s
PORTB = 0x03; //0000_0011
delay(15); //delay 1s
PORTB = 0x07; //0000_0111
delay(15); //delay 1s
PORTB = 0x1F; //0001_1111
delay(15); //delay 1s
PORTB = 0x7F; //0111_1111
delay(15); //delay 1s
}

//*************************************************************************
//void LED_power_down_sequence(void)
//*************************************************************************

void LED_power_down_sequence(void)
{
PORTB = 0x7F; //0111_1111
delay(15); //delay 1s
PORTB = 0x1F; //0001_1111
delay(15); //delay 1s
PORTB = 0x07; //0000_0111
delay(15); //delay 1s
PORTB = 0x03; //0000_0011
delay(15); //delay 1s
PORTB = 0x01; //0000_0001
delay(15); //delay 1s
PORTB = 0x00; //0000_0000
delay(15); //delay 1s
}

//*************************************************************************
//void monitor_main_power_CB(void)
//*************************************************************************

void monitor_main_power_CB(void)
{
while((PINC & 0x02) == 0x02)
{
 8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL 287
; //wait for PC1 to be exerted low
}
}

//*************************************************************************
//void monitor_O2_CB_reset(void)
//*************************************************************************

void monitor_O2_CB_reset(void)
{
while((PINC & 0x08) == 0x08)
{
; //wait for PC3 to be exerted low
}
}

//*************************************************************************
//void monitor_aux_fuel_CB(void)
//*************************************************************************

void monitor_aux_fuel_CB(void)
{
while((PINC & 0x04) == 0x04)
{
; //wait for PC2 to be exerted low
}
}

//*************************************************************************
//void perform_countdown(void)
//*************************************************************************

void perform_countdown(void)
{
clear_LCD();
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home
putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’1’); putchar (’0’); //print 10
delay(15); //delay 1s
288 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’9’); //print 9
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’8’); //print 8
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’7’); //print 7
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’6’); //print 6
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’5’); //print 5
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’4’); //print 4
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’3’); //print 3
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1

 8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL 289
putchar(’2’); //print 2
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’1’); //print 1
delay(15); //delay 1s

putcommand(0x01); //cursor home

putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’0’); //print 0
delay(15); //delay 1s

//BLASTOFF!
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home
putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’B’); putchar(’L’); putchar(’A’); putchar(’S’); putchar(’T’);
putchar(’O’); putchar(’F’); putchar(’F’); putchar(’!’);

//*************************************************************************
//void print_LOWO2(void)
//*************************************************************************

void print_LOWO2(void)
{
clear_LCD();
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home
putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’L’); putchar(’O’); putchar(’W’); putchar(’ ’); putchar(’O’);
putchar(’2’);

putcommand(0xC0);//DD RAM location 1 - line 2

putchar(’R’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’S’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’T’);
putchar(’ ’); putchar(’O’); putchar(’2’); putchar(’ ’); putchar(’C’);
putchar(’B’);
}
290 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

//*************************************************************************
//void print_LOW_FUEL(void)
//*************************************************************************

void print_LOW_FUEL(void)
{
clear_LCD();
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home
putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’L’); putchar(’O’); putchar(’W’); putchar(’ ’); putchar(’F’);
putchar(’U’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’L’);

putcommand(0xC0);//DD RAM location 1 - line 2

putchar(’A’); putchar(’S’); putchar(’S’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’R’);
putchar(’T’); putchar(’ ’); putchar(’A’); putchar(’U’); putchar(’X’);
putchar(’F’); putchar(’U’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’L’); putchar(’C’);
putchar(’B’);
}

//*************************************************************************
//void print_fuel_expended(void)
//*************************************************************************

void print_fuel_expended(void)
{
clear_LCD();
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home
putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’F’); putchar(’U’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’L’); putchar(’ ’);
putchar(’E’); putchar(’X’); putchar(’P’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’N’);
putchar(’D’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’D’);

putcommand(0xC0);//DD RAM location 1 - line 2

putchar(’S’); putchar(’H’); putchar(’U’); putchar(’T’); putchar(’T’);
putchar(’I’); putchar(’N’); putchar(’G’); putchar(’ ’); putchar(’D’);
putchar(’O’); putchar(’W’); putchar(’N’); putchar(’.’); putchar(’.’);
putchar(’.’);
}
 8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL 291

//*************************************************************************
//void print_trip_dur(void);
//*************************************************************************

void print_trip_dur(void)
{
clear_LCD();
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home
putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’T’); putchar(’R’); putchar(’I’); putchar(’P’);
putchar(’T’); putchar(’I’); putchar(’M’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’:’);
putchar(’0’); putchar(’-’); putchar(’6’); putchar(’0’);

putcommand(0xC0);//DD RAM location 1 - line 2

putchar(’S’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’T’); putchar(’ ’); putchar(’M’);
putchar(’A’); putchar(’I’); putchar(’N’); putchar(’ ’); putchar(’P’);
putchar(’W’); putchar(’R’); putchar(’ ’); putchar(’C’); putchar(’B’);
}

//*************************************************************************
//void print_OVERHEAT(void)
//*************************************************************************

void print_OVERHEAT(void)
{
clear_LCD();
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home
putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’E’); putchar(’N’); putchar(’G’); putchar(’I’); putchar(’N’);
putchar(’E’); putchar(’ ’); putchar(’O’); putchar(’V’); putchar(’E’);
putchar(’R’); putchar(’H’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’A’); putchar(’T’);

putcommand(0xC0);//DD RAM location 1 - line 2

putchar(’R’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’S’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’T’);
putchar(’ ’); putchar(’E’); putchar(’N’); putchar(’G’); putchar(’ ’);
putchar(’C’); putchar(’B’); putchar(’ ’); putchar(’3’); putchar(’0’);
putchar(’S’);
292 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
}

//*************************************************************************
//void systems_A_OK(void)
//*************************************************************************

void systems_A_OK(void)
{
clear_LCD();
putcommand(0x01); //cursor home
putcommand(0x80); //DD RAM location 1 - line 1
putchar(’S’); putchar(’Y’); putchar(’S’); putchar(’T’); putchar(’E’);
putchar(’M’); putchar(’S’); putchar(’ ’); putchar(’A’); putchar(’-’);
putchar(’O’); putchar(’K’); putchar(’!’); putchar(’!’); putchar(’!’);
}

//*************************************************************************
//void flash_LED_panel(void)
//*************************************************************************

void flash_LED_panel(void)
{
flash_panel = YES;
flash_timer = 0;
PORTB = 0x00;
PORTB_LEDs = OFF;
}

//*************************************************************************
//convert_display_voltage_LCD: converts binary weighted voltage to ASCII
//representation and prints result to LCD screen
//*************************************************************************

void convert_display_voltage_LCD(int binary_voltage)

{
float actual_voltage; //voltage between 0 and 5 volts
int all_integer_voltage;
//integer representation of voltage
//int representation of voltage
 8.11. EXTENDED EXAMPLE 3: FLIGHT SIMULATOR PANEL 293
int hundreths_place, tens_place, ones_place;
//char representation of voltage
char hundreths_place_char, tens_place_char, ones_place_char;

// display analog voltage on LCD

putcommand(0xC0); //LCD cursor to line 2
//scale float voltage 0..5V
actual_voltage = ((float)(binary_voltage)/(float)(0x3FF))*5.0;
//voltage represented 0 to 500
all_integer_voltage=actual_voltage * 100;//represent as all integer
hundreths_place = all_integer_voltage/100;//isolate first digit
hundreths_place_char = (char)(hundreths_place + 48); //convert to ascii
putchar(hundreths_place_char); //display first digit
putchar(’.’); //print decimal point to LCD
//isolate tens place
tens_place = (int)((all_integer_voltage - (hundreths_place*100))/10);
tens_place_char=(char)(tens_place+48); //convert to ASCII
putchar(tens_place_char); //print to LCD
//isolate ones place
ones_place = (int)((all_integer_voltage - (hundreths_place*100))%10);
ones_place_char=(char)(ones_place+48); //convert to ASCII
putchar(ones_place_char); //print to LCD
putchar(’V’); //print unit V
}

//*************************************************************************
//convert_int_to_string_display_LCD: converts 16 bit to unsigned integer
//values range from 0 to 65,535
//prints result to LCD screen
//*************************************************************************

void convert_int_to_string_display_LCD(unsigned int total_integer_value)

{
int ten_thousandths_place, thousandths_place;
int hundreths_place, tens_place, ones_place;
char ten_thousandths_place_char, thousandths_place_char;
char hundreths_place_char, tens_place_char, ones_place_char;

putcommand(0xC0); //LCD cursor to line 2

294 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
//10,000th place
ten_thousandths_place = total_integer_value/10000;
ten_thousandths_place_char = (char)(ten_thousandths_place+48);
putchar(ten_thousandths_place_char);
//1,000th place
thousandths_place = (int)((total_integer_value -
(ten_thousandths_place*10000))/1000);
thousandths_place_char = (char)(thousandths_place+48);
putchar(thousandths_place_char);
//100th place
hundreths_place = (int)((total_integer_value -
(ten_thousandths_place*10000)-
(thousandths_place*1000))/100);
hundreths_place_char = (char)(hundreths_place + 48);
putchar(hundreths_place_char);
//10th place
tens_place = (int)((total_integer_value -(ten_thousandths_place*10000)-
(thousandths_place*1000)-(hundreths_place*100))/10);
tens_place_char=(char)(tens_place+48); //convert to ASCII
putchar(tens_place_char); //print to LCD
//isolate ones place
ones_place = (int)((total_integer_value -(ten_thousandths_place*10000)-
(thousandths_place*1000)-(hundreths_place*100))%10);
ones_place_char=(char)(ones_place+48); //convert to ASCII
putchar(ones_place_char); //print to LCD
}

//*************************************************************************
//end of file: flight_sim.c
//*************************************************************************

8.12 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we discussed the voltage and current operating parameters for the Arduino Duemi-
lanove processing board and the Atmel ATmega328 microcontroller. We discussed how this infor-
mation may be applied to properly design an interface for common input and output circuits. It must
be emphasized a properly designed interface allows the microcontroller to operate properly within its
parameter envelope. If due to a poor interface design, a microcontroller is used outside its prescribed
 8.13. REFERENCES 295
operating parameter values, spurious and incorrect logic values will result. We provided interface in-
formation for a wide range of input and output devices. We also discussed the concept of interfacing
a motor to a microcontroller using PWM techniques coupled with high power MOSFET or SSR
switching devices. We closed the chapter with three extended examples.

8.13 REFERENCES
• Pack D, Barrett S (2002) 68HC12 Microcontroller: Theory and Applications. Prentice-Hall
Incorporated, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

• Barrett S, Pack D (2004) Embedded Systems Design with the 68HC12 and HCS12. Prentice-
Hall Incorporated, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

• Crydom Corporation, 2320 Paseo de las Americas, Suite 201, San Diego, CA (www.crydom.
com).

• Sick/Stegmann Incorporated, Dayton, OH, (www.stegmann.com).

• Images Company, 39 Seneca Loop, Staten Island, NY 10314.

• Atmel 8-bit AVR Microcontroller with 16/32/64K Bytes In-System Programmable Flash, AT-
mega328P/V, ATmega324P/V, 644P/V data sheet: 8011I-AVR-05/08, Atmel Corporation,
2325 Orchard Parkway, San Jose, CA 95131.

• Barrett S, Pack D (2006) Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00025ED1V01Y200605DCS001

• Barrett S and Pack D (2008) Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer Programming and Inter-
facing. Morgan and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00100ED1V01Y200712DCS015

• Barrett S (2010) Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller. Morgan
and Claypool Publishers. DOI: 10.2200/S00225ED1V01Y200910DCS025

• National Semiconductor, LM34/LM34A/LM34C/LM34CA/LM34D Precision Fahrenheit

Temperature Sensor, 1995.

8.14 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

1. What will happen if a microcontroller is used outside of its prescribed operating envelope?

2. Discuss the difference between the terms “sink” and “source” as related to current loading of
a microcontroller.

3. Can an LED with a series limiting resistor be directly driven by the Atmel microcontroller?
Explain.
296 8. ATMEL AVR OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
4. In your own words, provide a brief description of each of the microcontroller electrical param-
eters.

5. What is switch bounce? Describe two techniques to minimize switch bounce.

6. Describe a method of debouncing a keypad.

7. What is the difference between an incremental encoder and an absolute encoder? Describe
applications for each type.

8. What must be the current rating of the 2N2222 and 2N2907 transistors used in the tri-state
LED circuit? Support your answer.

9. Draw the circuit for a six character seven segment display. Fully specify all components. Write
a program to display “ATmega328. ”

10. Repeat the question above for a dot matrix display.

11. Repeat the question above for a LCD display.

12. What is the difference between a unipolar and bipolar stepper motor?

13. What controls the speed of rotation of a stepper motor?

14. A stepper motor provides and angular displacement of 1.8 degrees per step. How can this
resolution be improved?

15. Write a function to convert an ASCII numeral representation (0 to 9) to a seven segment

display.

16. Why is an interface required between a microcontroller and a stepper motor?

 297

APPENDIX A

ATmega328 Register Set

Figure A.1: Atmel AVR ATmega328 Register Set. (Figure used with permission of Atmel, Incorpo-
rated.)
298 A. ATMEGA328 REGISTER SET

Figure A.2: Atmel AVR ATmega328 Register Set. (Figure used with permission of Atmel, Incorpo-
rated.)
 299

Figure A.3: Atmel AVR ATmega328 Register Set. (Figure used with permission of Atmel, Incorpo-
rated.)
300 A. ATMEGA328 REGISTER SET

Figure A.4: Atmel AVR ATmega328 Register Set. (Figure used with permission of Atmel, Incorpo-
rated.)
 301

APPENDIX B

ATmega328 Header File

During C programming, the contents of a specific register may be referred to by name when an
appropriate header file is included within your program. The header file provides the link between
the register name used within a program and the hardware location of the register.
Provided below is the ATmega328 header file from the ICC AVR compiler. This header file
was provided courtesy of ImageCraft Incorporated.

#ifndef __iom328pv_h
#define __iom328pv_h

/* ATmega328P header file for

* ImageCraft ICCAVR compiler
*/

/* i/o register addresses

* >= 0x60 are memory mapped only
*/

/* 2006/10/01 created
*/

/* Port D */
#define PIND (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x29)
#define DDRD (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x2A)
#define PORTD (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x2B)

/* Port C */
#define PINC (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x26)
#define DDRC (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x27)
#define PORTC (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x28)

/* Port B */
#define PINB (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x23)
#define DDRB (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x24)
302 B. ATMEGA328 HEADER FILE
#define PORTB (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x25)

/* Port A */
#define PINA (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x20)
#define DDRA (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x21)
#define PORTA (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x22)

/* Timer/Counter Interrupts */
#define TIFR0 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x35)
#define OCF0B 2
#define OCF0A 1
#define TOV0 0
#define TIMSK0 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x6E)
#define OCIE0B 2
#define OCIE0A 1
#define TOIE0 0
#define TIFR1 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x36)
#define ICF1 5
#define OCF1B 2
#define OCF1A 1
#define TOV1 0
#define TIMSK1 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x6F)
#define ICIE1 5
#define OCIE1B 2
#define OCIE1A 1
#define TOIE1 0
#define TIFR2 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x37)
#define OCF2B 2
#define OCF2A 1
#define TOV2 0
#define TIMSK2 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x70)
#define OCIE2B 2
#define OCIE2A 1
#define TOIE2 0

/* External Interrupts */
#define EIFR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x3C)
#define INTF2 2
#define INTF1 1
 303
#define INTF0 0
#define EIMSK (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x3D)
#define INT2 2
#define INT1 1
#define INT0 0
#define EICRA (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x69)
#define ISC21 5
#define ISC20 4
#define ISC11 3
#define ISC10 2
#define ISC01 1
#define ISC00 0

/* Pin Change Interrupts */

#define PCIFR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x3B)
#define PCIF3 3
#define PCIF2 2
#define PCIF1 1
#define PCIF0 0
#define PCICR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x68)
#define PCIE3 3
#define PCIE2 2
#define PCIE1 1
#define PCIE0 0
#define PCMSK0 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x6B)
#define PCMSK1 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x6C)
#define PCMSK2 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x6D)
#define PCMSK3 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x73)

/* GPIOR */
#define GPIOR0 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x3E)
#define GPIOR1 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x4A)
#define GPIOR2 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x4B)

/* EEPROM */
#define EECR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x3F)
#define EEPM1 5
#define EEPM0 4
#define EERIE 3
304 B. ATMEGA328 HEADER FILE
#define EEMPE 2
#define EEMWE 2
#define EEPE 1
#define EEWE 1
#define EERE 0
#define EEDR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x40)
#define EEAR (*(volatile unsigned int *)0x41)
#define EEARL (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x41)
#define EEARH (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x42)

/* GTCCR */
#define GTCCR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x43)
#define TSM 7
#define PSRASY 1
#define PSR2 1
#define PSRSYNC 0
#define PSR10 0

/* Timer/Counter 0 */
#define OCR0B (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x48)
#define OCR0A (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x47)
#define TCNT0 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x46)
#define TCCR0B (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x45)
#define FOC0A 7
#define FOC0B 6
#define WGM02 3
#define CS02 2
#define CS01 1
#define CS00 0
#define TCCR0A (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x44)
#define COM0A1 7
#define COM0A0 6
#define COM0B1 5
#define COM0B0 4
#define WGM01 1
#define WGM00 0

/* SPI */
#define SPCR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x4C)
 305
#define SPIE 7
#define SPE 6
#define DORD 5
#define MSTR 4
#define CPOL 3
#define CPHA 2
#define SPR1 1
#define SPR0 0
#define SPSR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x4D)
#define SPIF 7
#define WCOL 6
#define SPI2X 0
#define SPDR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x4E)

/* Analog Comparator Control and Status Register */

#define ACSR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x50)
#define ACD 7
#define ACBG 6
#define ACO 5
#define ACI 4
#define ACIE 3
#define ACIC 2
#define ACIS1 1
#define ACIS0 0

/* OCDR */
#define OCDR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x51)
#define IDRD 7

/* MCU */
#define MCUSR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x54)
#define JTRF 4
#define WDRF 3
#define BORF 2
#define EXTRF 1
#define PORF 0
#define MCUCR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x55)
#define JTD 7
#define PUD 4
306 B. ATMEGA328 HEADER FILE
#define IVSEL 1
#define IVCE 0

#define SMCR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x53)

#define SM2 3
#define SM1 2
#define SM0 1
#define SE 0

/* SPM Control and Status Register */

#define SPMCSR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x57)
#define SPMIE 7
#define RWWSB 6
#define SIGRD 5
#define RWWSRE 4
#define BLBSET 3
#define PGWRT 2
#define PGERS 1
#define SPMEN 0

/* Stack Pointer */
#define SP (*(volatile unsigned int *)0x5D)
#define SPL (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x5D)
#define SPH (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x5E)

/* Status REGister */
#define SREG (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x5F)

/* Watchdog Timer Control Register */

#define WDTCSR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x60)
#define WDTCR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x60)
#define WDIF 7
#define WDIE 6
#define WDP3 5
#define WDCE 4
#define WDE 3
#define WDP2 2
#define WDP1 1
#define WDP0 0
 307

/* clock prescaler control register */

#define CLKPR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x61)
#define CLKPCE 7
#define CLKPS3 3
#define CLKPS2 2
#define CLKPS1 1
#define CLKPS0 0

/* PRR */
#define PRR0 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x64)
#define PRTWI 7
#define PRTIM2 6
#define PRTIM0 5
#define PRUSART1 4
#define PRTIM1 3
#define PRSPI 2
#define PRUSART0 1
#define PRADC 0

/* Oscillator Calibration Register */

#define OSCCAL (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x66)

/* ADC */
#define ADC (*(volatile unsigned int *)0x78)
#define ADCL (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x78)
#define ADCH (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x79)
#define ADCSRA (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x7A)
#define ADEN 7
#define ADSC 6
#define ADATE 5
#define ADIF 4
#define ADIE 3
#define ADPS2 2
#define ADPS1 1
#define ADPS0 0
#define ADCSRB (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x7B)
#define ACME 6
#define ADTS2 2
308 B. ATMEGA328 HEADER FILE
#define ADTS1 1
#define ADTS0 0
#define ADMUX (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x7C)
#define REFS1 7
#define REFS0 6
#define ADLAR 5
#define MUX4 4
#define MUX3 3
#define MUX2 2
#define MUX1 1
#define MUX0 0

/* DIDR */
#define DIDR0 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x7E)
#define ADC7D 7
#define ADC6D 6
#define ADC5D 5
#define ADC4D 4
#define ADC3D 3
#define ADC2D 2
#define ADC1D 1
#define ADC0D 0
#define DIDR1 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x7F)
#define AIN1D 1
#define AIN0D 0

/* Timer/Counter1 */
#define ICR1 (*(volatile unsigned int *)0x86)
#define ICR1L (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x86)
#define ICR1H (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x87)
#define OCR1B (*(volatile unsigned int *)0x8A)
#define OCR1BL (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x8A)
#define OCR1BH (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x8B)
#define OCR1A (*(volatile unsigned int *)0x88)
#define OCR1AL (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x88)
#define OCR1AH (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x89)
#define TCNT1 (*(volatile unsigned int *)0x84)
#define TCNT1L (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x84)
#define TCNT1H (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x85)
 309
#define TCCR1C (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x82)
#define FOC1A 7
#define FOC1B 6
#define TCCR1B (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x81)
#define ICNC1 7
#define ICES1 6
#define WGM13 4
#define WGM12 3
#define CS12 2
#define CS11 1
#define CS10 0
#define TCCR1A (*(volatile unsigned char *)0x80)
#define COM1A1 7
#define COM1A0 6
#define COM1B1 5
#define COM1B0 4
#define WGM11 1
#define WGM10 0

/* Timer/Counter2 */
#define ASSR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xB6)
#define EXCLK 6
#define AS2 5
#define TCN2UB 4
#define OCR2AUB 3
#define OCR2BUB 2
#define TCR2AUB 1
#define TCR2BUB 0
#define OCR2B (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xB4)
#define OCR2A (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xB3)
#define TCNT2 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xB2)
#define TCCR2B (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xB1)
#define FOC2A 7
#define FOC2B 6
#define WGM22 3
#define CS22 2
#define CS21 1
#define CS20 0
#define TCCR2A (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xB0)
310 B. ATMEGA328 HEADER FILE
#define COM2A1 7
#define COM2A0 6
#define COM2B1 5
#define COM2B0 4
#define WGM21 1
#define WGM20 0

/* 2-wire SI */
#define TWBR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xB8)
#define TWSR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xB9)
#define TWPS1 1
#define TWPS0 0
#define TWAR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xBA)
#define TWGCE 0
#define TWDR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xBB)
#define TWCR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xBC)
#define TWINT 7
#define TWEA 6
#define TWSTA 5
#define TWSTO 4
#define TWWC 3
#define TWEN 2
#define TWIE 0
#define TWAMR (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xBD)

/* USART0 */
#define UBRR0H (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xC5)
#define UBRR0L (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xC4)
#define UBRR0 (*(volatile unsigned int *)0xC4)
#define UCSR0C (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xC2)
#define UMSEL01 7
#define UMSEL00 6
#define UPM01 5
#define UPM00 4
#define USBS0 3
#define UCSZ01 2
#define UCSZ00 1
#define UCPOL0 0
#define UCSR0B (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xC1)
 311
#define RXCIE0 7
#define TXCIE0 6
#define UDRIE0 5
#define RXEN0 4
#define TXEN0 3
#define UCSZ02 2
#define RXB80 1
#define TXB80 0
#define UCSR0A (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xC0)
#define RXC0 7
#define TXC0 6
#define UDRE0 5
#define FE0 4
#define DOR0 3
#define UPE0 2
#define U2X0 1
#define MPCM0 0
#define UDR0 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xC6)

/* USART1 */
#define UBRR1H (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xCD)
#define UBRR1L (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xCC)
#define UBRR1 (*(volatile unsigned int *)0xCC)
#define UCSR1C (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xCA)
#define UMSEL11 7
#define UMSEL10 6
#define UPM11 5
#define UPM10 4
#define USBS1 3
#define UCSZ11 2
#define UCSZ10 1
#define UCPOL1 0
#define UCSR1B (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xC9)
#define RXCIE1 7
#define TXCIE1 6
#define UDRIE1 5
#define RXEN1 4
#define TXEN1 3
#define UCSZ12 2
312 B. ATMEGA328 HEADER FILE
#define RXB81 1
#define TXB81 0
#define UCSR1A (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xC8)
#define RXC1 7
#define TXC1 6
#define UDRE1 5
#define FE1 4
#define DOR1 3
#define UPE1 2
#define U2X1 1
#define MPCM1 0
#define UDR1 (*(volatile unsigned char *)0xCE)

/* bits */

/* Port A */
#define PORTA7 7
#define PORTA6 6
#define PORTA5 5
#define PORTA4 4
#define PORTA3 3
#define PORTA2 2
#define PORTA1 1
#define PORTA0 0
#define PA7 7
#define PA6 6
#define PA5 5
#define PA4 4
#define PA3 3
#define PA2 2
#define PA1 1
#define PA0 0
#define DDA7 7
#define DDA6 6
#define DDA5 5
#define DDA4 4
#define DDA3 3
#define DDA2 2
 313
#define DDA1 1
#define DDA0 0
#define PINA7 7
#define PINA6 6
#define PINA5 5
#define PINA4 4
#define PINA3 3
#define PINA2 2
#define PINA1 1
#define PINA0 0

/* Port B */
#define PORTB7 7
#define PORTB6 6
#define PORTB5 5
#define PORTB4 4
#define PORTB3 3
#define PORTB2 2
#define PORTB1 1
#define PORTB0 0
#define PB7 7
#define PB6 6
#define PB5 5
#define PB4 4
#define PB3 3
#define PB2 2
#define PB1 1
#define PB0 0
#define DDB7 7
#define DDB6 6
#define DDB5 5
#define DDB4 4
#define DDB3 3
#define DDB2 2
#define DDB1 1
#define DDB0 0
#define PINB7 7
#define PINB6 6
#define PINB5 5
314 B. ATMEGA328 HEADER FILE
#define PINB4 4
#define PINB3 3
#define PINB2 2
#define PINB1 1
#define PINB0 0

/* Port C */
#define PORTC7 7
#define PORTC6 6
#define PORTC5 5
#define PORTC4 4
#define PORTC3 3
#define PORTC2 2
#define PORTC1 1
#define PORTC0 0
#define PC7 7
#define PC6 6
#define PC5 5
#define PC4 4
#define PC3 3
#define PC2 2
#define PC1 1
#define PC0 0
#define DDC7 7
#define DDC6 6
#define DDC5 5
#define DDC4 4
#define DDC3 3
#define DDC2 2
#define DDC1 1
#define DDC0 0
#define PINC7 7
#define PINC6 6
#define PINC5 5
#define PINC4 4
#define PINC3 3
#define PINC2 2
#define PINC1 1
#define PINC0 0
 315

/* Port D */
#define PORTD7 7
#define PORTD6 6
#define PORTD5 5
#define PORTD4 4
#define PORTD3 3
#define PORTD2 2
#define PORTD1 1
#define PORTD0 0
#define PD7 7
#define PD6 6
#define PD5 5
#define PD4 4
#define PD3 3
#define PD2 2
#define PD1 1
#define PD0 0
#define DDD7 7
#define DDD6 6
#define DDD5 5
#define DDD4 4
#define DDD3 3
#define DDD2 2
#define DDD1 1
#define DDD0 0
#define PIND7 7
#define PIND6 6
#define PIND5 5
#define PIND4 4
#define PIND3 3
#define PIND2 2
#define PIND1 1
#define PIND0 0

/* PCMSK3 */
#define PCINT31 7
#define PCINT30 6
#define PCINT29 5
316 B. ATMEGA328 HEADER FILE
#define PCINT28 4
#define PCINT27 3
#define PCINT26 2
#define PCINT25 1
#define PCINT24 0
/* PCMSK2 */
#define PCINT23 7
#define PCINT22 6
#define PCINT21 5
#define PCINT20 4
#define PCINT19 3
#define PCINT18 2
#define PCINT17 1
#define PCINT16 0
/* PCMSK1 */
#define PCINT15 7
#define PCINT14 6
#define PCINT13 5
#define PCINT12 4
#define PCINT11 3
#define PCINT10 2
#define PCINT9 1
#define PCINT8 0
/* PCMSK0 */
#define PCINT7 7
#define PCINT6 6
#define PCINT5 5
#define PCINT4 4
#define PCINT3 3
#define PCINT2 2
#define PCINT1 1
#define PCINT0 0

/* Lock and Fuse Bits with LPM/SPM instructions */

/* lock bits */
#define BLB12 5
#define BLB11 4
 317
#define BLB02 3
#define BLB01 2
#define LB2 1
#define LB1 0

/* fuses low bits */

#define CKDIV8 7
#define CKOUT 6
#define SUT1 5
#define SUT0 4
#define CKSEL3 3
#define CKSEL2 2
#define CKSEL1 1
#define CKSEL0 0

/* fuses high bits */

#define OCDEN 7
#define JTAGEN 6
#define SPIEN 5
#define WDTON 4
#define EESAVE 3
#define BOOTSZ1 2
#define BOOTSZ0 1
#define BOOTRST 0

/* extended fuses */
#define BODLEVEL2 2
#define BODLEVEL1 1
#define BODLEVEL0 0

/* Interrupt Vector Numbers */

#define iv_RESET 1
#define iv_INT0 2
#define iv_EXT_INT0 2
#define iv_INT1 3
#define iv_EXT_INT1 3
#define iv_INT2 4
318 B. ATMEGA328 HEADER FILE
#define iv_EXT_INT2 4
#define iv_PCINT0 5
#define iv_PCINT1 6
#define iv_PCINT2 7
#define iv_PCINT3 8
#define iv_WDT 9
#define iv_TIMER2_COMPA 10
#define iv_TIMER2_COMPB 11
#define iv_TIMER2_OVF 12
#define iv_TIM2_COMPA 10
#define iv_TIM2_COMPB 11
#define iv_TIM2_OVF 12
#define iv_TIMER1_CAPT 13
#define iv_TIMER1_COMPA 14
#define iv_TIMER1_COMPB 15
#define iv_TIMER1_OVF 16
#define iv_TIM1_CAPT 13
#define iv_TIM1_COMPA 14
#define iv_TIM1_COMPB 15
#define iv_TIM1_OVF 16
#define iv_TIMER0_COMPA 17
#define iv_TIMER0_COMPB 18
#define iv_TIMER0_OVF 19
#define iv_TIM0_COMPA 17
#define iv_TIM0_COMPB 18
#define iv_TIM0_OVF 19
#define iv_SPI_STC 20
#define iv_USART0_RX 21
#define iv_USART0_RXC 21
#define iv_USART0_DRE 22
#define iv_USART0_UDRE 22
#define iv_USART0_TX 23
#define iv_USART0_TXC 23
#define iv_ANA_COMP 24
#define iv_ANALOG_COMP 24
#define iv_ADC 25
#define iv_EE_RDY 26
#define iv_EE_READY 26
#define iv_TWI 27
 319
#define iv_TWSI 27
#define iv_SPM_RDY 28
#define iv_SPM_READY 28
#define iv_USART1_RX 29
#define iv_USART1_RXC 29
#define iv_USART1_DRE 30
#define iv_USART1_UDRE 30
#define iv_USART1_TX 31
#define iv_USART1_TXC 31

/* */

#endif
 321

Author’s Biography

STEVEN F. BARRETT
Steven F. Barrett, Ph.D., P.E., received the BS Electronic Engineering Technology from the
University of Nebraska at Omaha in 1979, the M.E.E.E. from the University of Idaho at Moscow
in 1986, and the Ph.D. from The University of Texas at Austin in 1993. He was formally an active
duty faculty member at the United States Air Force Academy, Colorado and is now the Associate
Dean of Academic Programs at the University of Wyoming. He is a member of IEEE (senior)
and Tau Beta Pi (chief faculty advisor). His research interests include digital and analog image
processing, computer-assisted laser surgery, and embedded controller systems. He is a registered
Professional Engineer in Wyoming and Colorado. He co-wrote with Dr. Daniel Pack six textbooks
on microcontrollers and embedded systems. In 2004, Barrett was named “Wyoming Professor of the
Year” by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and in 2008 was the recipient of
the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) Professional Engineers in Higher Education,
Engineering Education Excellence Award.
 323

Index

AC device control, 252 elapsed time, 173

AC interfacing, 252 electrical specifications, 208
ADC block diagram, 109 encoding, 99
ADC conversion, 97 external interrupts, 141
ADC process, 101
ADC registers, 109 fan cooling system, 254
analog sensor, 222 fast PWM timer mode, 182
anti-aliasing filter, 98 flight simulator panel, 269
ATmega328 ADC, 107 foreground and background processing, 149
ATmega328 interrupt system, 138 frequency measurement, 175
ATmega328 timers, 178
ATmega328 timing system, 169 H-bridge, 243
Harry Nyquist, 98
battery capacity, 211 HC CMOS, 208
battery operation, 211
Bell Laboratory, 98 ideal op amp, 104
ImageCraft ICC AVR compiler, 140
counting events, 175 input capture, 174
CTC timer mode, 182 input capture programming, 197
current sink, 209 input devices, 211
current source, 209 internal interrupt, 144
interrupt theory, 137
DAC converter, 129
interrupt vector table, 140
data rate, 101
ISR, 137
DC motor, 241
DC motor control, 241 keypad, 215
DC motor speed control, 177
decibel (dB), 101 LED biasing, 223
digital sensor, 220 light emitting diode (LED), 223
dot matrix display, 229 liquid crystal display (LCD), 229
duty cycle, 170
dynamic range, 101 MOSFET, 239
324 INDEX
motor operating parameters, 242 servo motor, 199, 241
seven segment displays, 224
normal timer mode, 180 signal conditioning, 102
Nyquist sampling rate, 98 signal generation, 176
solenoid, 240
op amp, 104
solid state relay (SSR), 240
operating parameters, 207
sonalert, 252
operational amplifier, 103
stepper motor, 241, 244
optical encoder, 220
successive-approximation ADC, 107
output compare, 176
switch debouncing, 213
output device, 222
switch interface, 213
output timer, 172
switches, 211
period, 170
threshold detector, 127
phase correct timer mode, 182
time base, 170
photodiode, 103
Timer 0, 178
pullup resistors, 213
Timer 1, 185
PWM, 176
Timer 2, 189
PWM programming, 196
timer applications, 174
quantization, 98 timer modes, 180
timer system programming, 194
real time clock, 149 timing system, 169
resolution, 100 transducer interface, 102
tri-state LED indicator, 227
sampling, 98
sensors, 220 vibrating motor, 254