Project Management

Syllabus
Conventional Software Management

Unit-I Evolution of Software Economics
Improving Software Economics
The old way and the new
Life cycle phases
Unit-II Artifacts of the process
Model based software architectures
Unit-III Work Flows of the process
Checkpoints of the process
Iterative Process Planning
Project Organizations and Responsibilities
Unit-IV Process Automation
Project Control and Process instrumentation
Unit-V Tailoring the Process
Unit-VI Future Software Project Management
Index
Sr. No Topic Page No
1 Conventional Software Management
Evolution of Software Economics
Improving Software Economics
2 The old way and the new
Life cycle phases
Artifacts of the process
Model based software architectures
3 Work Flows of the process
Checkpoints of the process
Iterative Process Planning
4 Project Organizations and Responsibilities
Process Automation
5 Project Control and Process instrumentation
Tailoring the Process
6 Future Software Project Management
Salvi Collège Assistant Professor: Sonu Raj | 8976249271 Page 1

Unit-I
Conventional Software Management| Evolution of
Software Economics |Improving Software Economics

Q.1 Explain “Royce’s analysis” towards waterfall model.
Most software engineering texts present the waterfall model as the source of the "conventional"
software process. This section examines and critiques the waterfall model theory, then looks at how
most of the industry has practiced the conventional software process.
The paper made three primary points.
 There are two essential steps common to the development of computer programs: analysis and coding.
 In order to manage and control all of the intellectual freedom associated with software development,
one must introduce several other "overhead" steps, including system requirements definition, software
requirements definition, program design, and testing.
 The basic framework described in the waterfall model is risky and invites failure. The testing phase that
occurs at the end of the development cycle is the first event for which timing, storage, input/output
transfers, etc., are experienced as distinguished from analyzed.
Q2. State the improvements to the waterfall model.

The following are the five improvements to the basic waterfall process.
 Complete program design before analysis and coding begin.
 Maintain current and complete documentation.
 Do the job twice, if possible.
 Plan, control, and monitor testing.
 Involve the customer.
The description of the five improvements mentioned is as follows:
 Program design comes first.
o The first step toward a fix is to insert a preliminary program design phase between the software
requirements generation phase and the analysis phase. By this technique, the program designer
assures that the software will not fail because of storage, timing, and data flux.
o To implement program design procedure, the following steps are required:
(1) Begin the design process with program designers, not analysts or programmers.
(2) Design, define, and allocate the data processing modes even at the risk of being wrong.
 Document the design.
o The amount of documentation required on most software programs is quite a lot, certainly much
more than most programmers, analysts, or program designers are willing to do if left to their own
devices. We need so much documentation because
(1) Each designer must communicate with interfacing designers, managers, and possibly
customers.
(2) During early phases, the documentation is the design.
 Do it twice.
o If a computer program is being developed for the first time, arrange matters so that the version
finally delivered to the customer for operational deployment is actually the second version insofar
as critical design/operations are concerned.
 Plan, control, and monitor testing.
o There are important things to be done in the test phase, including:
(1) employ a team of test specialists who were not responsible for the original design;
(2) test every logic path;
 Involve the customer.
o It is important to involve the customer in a formal way so that he has committed himself at earlier
points before final delivery.
Q3. State "Industrial Software Metrics Top 10 Lists"
OR
Q3. State and explain any 5 Boehm’s principles.
 Following are Boehm’s Principal as follows:
1. Finding and fixing a software problem after delivery costs 100 times more than finding and fixing the
problem in early design phases.
This metric dominates the rationale for virtually every dimension of process improvement. When one of
the big automobile companies implements a recall for a post-delivery defect, the cost of repair can be
many orders of magnitude greater than the cost of fixing the defect during the engineering or
production stage.
2. You can compress software development schedules 25% of nominal, but no more.
One reason for this is that an N% reduction in schedule would require an M% increase in personnel
resources (assuming that other parameters remain fixed). Any increase in the number of people
requires more management overhead.
3. For every $1 you spend on development, you will spend $2 on maintenance.
Boehm calls this the "iron law of software development". Whether you build a long-lived product that
undergoes commercial version upgrades twice a year or build a one-of-a-kind custom software system,
twice as much money will probably be spent over the maintenance life cycle than was spent in the
development life cycle.
4. Software development and maintenance costs are primarily a function of the number of source lines
of code.
This metric is primarily the result of the predominance of custom software development, lack of
commercial componentry, and lack of reuse inherent in the era of the conventional process.
5. Variations among people account for the biggest differences in software productivity.
This metric is subjects of both overhype and under hype. When you don't know objectively why you
succeeded or failed, the obvious scapegoat is the quality of the people.
6. The overall ratio of software to hardware costs is still growing. In 1955 it was 15:85; in 1985, 85:15.
The fact that software represents 85% of the cost of most systems is not so much a statement about
software productivity as it is about the level of functionality being allocated to software in system
solutions.
7. Only about 15% of software development effort is devoted to programming.
This is an important indicator of the need for balance. Many activities besides coding are necessary for
software project success.
8. Software systems and products typically cost 3 times as much per SLOC as individual software
programs. Software-system products (i.e., system of systems) cost 9 times as much.
This exponential relationship is the essence of what is called diseconomy of scale. Unlike other
commodities, the more software you build, the more expensive it is per source line.
9. Walkthroughs catch 60% of the errors.
This may be true. Walkthroughs and other forms of human inspection are good at catching surface
problems and style issues.
10. 80% of the contribution comes from 20% of the contributors.
This is a motherhood statement that is true across almost any engineering discipline (or any professional
discipline, for that matter).
Q4. What are the factors that can be abstracted with software economics? Explain in detail.
Most software cost models can be abstracted into a function of five basic parameters: size, process,
personnel, environment, and required quality.
 The size of the end product (in human-generated components), which is typically quantified in terms of
the number of source instructions or the number of function points required to develop the required
functionality.
 The process used to produce the end product, in particular the ability of the process to avoid non-value-
adding activities (rework, bureaucratic delays, and communications overhead).
 The capabilities of software engineering personnel and particularly their experience with the computer
science issues and the applications domain issues of the project.
 The environment, which is made up of the tools and techniques available to support efficient software
development and to automate the process.
 The required quality of the product, including its features, performance, reliability, and adaptability.
The relationships among these parameters and the estimated cost can be written as follows:
Effort = (Personnel)(Environment)(Quality)(SizeProcess)
Q5. Explain Evolution of software economics over three generations

The three generations of software development are defined as follows:
 Conventional: 1960’s and 1970’s, craftsmanship. Organizations used custom tools, custom processes,
and virtually all custom components built in primitive languages. Project performance was highly
predictable in that cost, schedule, and quality objectives were almost always underachieved.
 Transition: 1980’s and 1990’s, software engineering. Organizations used more-repeatable processes and
off-the-shelf tools, and mostly (>70%) custom components built in higher level languages. Some of the
components (<30%) were available as commercial products, including the operating system, database
management system, networking, and graphical user interface.
 Modern practices: 2000 and later, software production. The modern generation philosophy is rooted in
the use of managed and measured processes, integrated automation environments, and mostly (70%)
off-the-shelf components. Perhaps as few as 30% of the components need to be custom built. With
advances in software technology and integrated production environments, these component-based
systems can be produced very rapidly.
Q6. Write a short note on software cost estimation process.

One critical problem in software cost estimation is a lack of well-documented case studies of projects
that used an iterative development approach.
There have been many long-standing debates among developers and vendors of software cost
estimation models and tools. Three topics of these debates are of particular interest here:
 Which cost estimation model to use?
 Whether to measure software size in source lines of code or function points?
 What constitutes a good estimate?

There are several popular cost estimation models (such as COCOMO, CHECKPOINT, ESTIMACS,
Knowledge Plan, Price-S, ProQMS, SEER, SLIM, SOFTCOST, and SPQR/20), as well as numerous
organization-specific models. COCOMO is one of the most open and well-documented, cost estimation
models.
The measurement of software size has been the subject of much rhetoric. There are basically two
objective points of view: source lines of code and function points.
Most real-world use of cost models is bottom-up (substantiating a target cost) rather than top-down
(estimating the “should” cost). The figure given below illustrates the predominant practice: The
software project manager defines the target cost of the software, and then manipulates the parameters
and sizing until the target cost can be justified. The rationale for the target cost may be to win a
proposal, to solicit customer funding, to attain internal corporate funding, or to achieve some other
goal.
Q7. Write a short note on Reducing Software size

Following factors consider during reducing software size:
Language
The basic units of function points are external user inputs, external outputs, internal logical data
groups, external data interfaces, and external inquiries. SLOC metrics are useful estimators for
software after a candidate solution is formulated and an implementation language is known. Some of
these results are shown in table below.
Object – Oriented Methods and Visual Modeling

By providing more-formalized notations for capturing and visualizing software abstractions, the
fundamental impact of object-oriented technology is in reducing the overall size of what needs to be
developed.

Reuse
Reusing existing components and building reusable components have been natural software
engineering activities since the earliest improvements in programming languages. Software design
methods have always dealt implicitly with reuse in order to minimize development costs while achieving
all the other required attributes of performance, feature set, and quality.
Commercial components
A common approach being pursued today in many domains is to maximize integration of commercial
components and off-the-shelf products. While the use of commercial components is certainly desirable
as a means of reducing custom development, it has not proven to be straightforward in practice.
Q8. Explain Microprocess , Metaprocess and Macro process.

OR
Q8. Write a short note on improving software processes.
For software-oriented organizations, there are many processes and sub-processes. We use three distinct
process perspectives.
 Metaprocess: An organization's policies, procedures, and practices for pursuing a software-intensive
line of business. The focus of this process is on organizational economics, long-term strategies, and
software ROI.
 Macroprocess: A project's policies, procedures, and practices for producing a complete software
product within certain cost, schedule, and quality constraints. The focus of the macro process is on
creating an adequate instance of the metaprocess for a specific set of constraints.
 Microprocess: A project team's policies, procedures, and practices for achieving an artifact of the
software process. The focus of the microprocess is on achieving an intermediate product baseline with
adequate quality and adequate functionality as economically and rapidly as practical.
Although these three levels of process overlap somewhat, they have different objectives, audiences,
metrics, concerns, and time scales, as shown in the above table.
Q9. How can the team effectiveness be improved? Explain.
It has long been understood that differences in personnel account for the greatest swings in productivity

Teamwork is much more important than the sum of the individuals. With software teams, a project
manager needs to configure a balance of solid talent with highly skilled people in the leverage positions.
In examining how to staff a software project, Boehm offered the following five staffing
 The principle of top talent: Use better and fewer people.
 The principle of job matching: Fit the tasks to the skills and motivation of the people available.
 The principle of career progression: An organization does best in the long run by helping its people to
self-actualize.
 The principle of team balance: Select people who will complement and harmonize with one another.
 The principle of phase out: Keeping a misfit on the team doesn't benefit anyone.
Software project managers need many leadership qualities in order to enhance team effectiveness. The
following are some crucial attributes of successful software project managers that deserve much more
attention:
1) Hiring skills
 Few decisions are as important as hiring decisions. Placing the right person in the right job seems
obvious but is surprisingly hard to achieve.
2) Customer-interface skill
 Avoiding adversarial relationships among stakeholders is a prerequisite for success.
3) Decision-making skill
 The zillion books written about management have failed to provide a clear definition of this
attribute. Decision-making skill seems obvious despite its intangible definition.
4) Team-building skill
 Teamwork requires that a manager establish trust, motivate progress, exploit eccentric prima
donnas, transition average people into top performers, eliminate misfits, and consolidate diverse
opinions into a team direction.
5) Selling skill
 Successful project managers must sell all stakeholders (including themselves) on decisions and
priorities, sell candidates on job positions, sell changes to the status quo in the face of resistance,
and sell achievements against objectives. In practice, selling requires continuous negotiation,
compromise, and empathy.
Q10.State and explain Boehm’s staffing principles.
It has long been understood that differences in personnel account for the greatest swings in productivity
Teamwork is much more important than the sum of the individuals. With software teams, a project
manager needs to configure a balance of solid talent with highly skilled people in the leverage positions.
In examining how to staff a software project, Boehm offered the following five staffing
 The principle of top talent: Use better and fewer people.
 The principle of job matching: Fit the tasks to the skills and motivation of the people available.
 The principle of career progression: An organization does best in the long run by helping its people to
self-actualize.
 The principle of team balance: Select people who will complement and harmonize with one another.
 The principle of phase out: Keeping a misfit on the team doesn't benefit anyone.
Q11. Explain improving Automation through Software Environments.

The tools and environment used in the software process generally have a linear effect on the
productivity of the process. Planning tools, requirements management tools, visual modeling tools,
compilers, editors, debuggers, quality assurance analysis tools, test tools, and user interfaces provide
crucial automation support for evolving the software engineering artifacts.
Round-trip engineering is a term used to describe the key capability of environments that support
iterative development. As we have moved into maintaining different information repositories for the
engineering artifacts, we need automation support to ensure efficient and error-free transition of data
from one artifact to another.
Forward engineering is the automation of one engineering artifact from another, more abstract
representation. For example, compilers and linkers have provided automated transition of source code
into executable code.
Reverse engineering is the generation or modification of a more abstract representation from an
existing artifact (for example, creating a visual design model from a source code representation).
Q12. How “Peer Inspection” helps in improving ROI? Explain

Peer inspections are frequently overhyped as the key aspect of a quality system. Peer reviews are
valuable as secondary mechanisms, but they are rarely significant contributors to quality compared with
the following primary quality mechanisms and indicators, which should be emphasized in the
management process:
 Transitioning engineering information from one artifact set to another, thereby assessing the
consistency, feasibility, understandability, and technology constraints inherent in the engineering
artifacts
 Major milestone demonstrations that force the artifacts to be assessed against tangible criteria in the
context of relevant use cases
 Environment tools (compilers, debuggers, analyzers, automated test suites) that ensure representation
rigor, consistency, completeness, and change control
 Life-cycle testing for detailed insight into critical trade-offs, acceptance criteria, and requirements
compliance
 Change management metrics for objective insight into multiple-perspective change trends and
convergence or divergence from quality and progress goals.
Q13. Write a short note on function points”.

 There were some of the disadvantages found in method of SLOC cost estimation technique like it was
not useful or a new invention projects and not useful for fully component based models. So FP as a
measure of estimation cost of software is being used.
 It is one of the measure/mechanism to know the size of the project
 It is used when it is brand new invented project and no case studies or prior documents for reference
are available for help of the project.
 It can be used when the project is 100% customized or 100% component based.
 It is worldwide accepted forum as it has its own consortium for universal function point.
 The primary advantage of using function point is that this method is independent of technology and is
therefore a much better primitive unit for comparisons among project and organizations the main
disadvantage is that the primitive definitions are abstract and measurements are not easily derived
directly from the evolving artifacts.
 Function points are also probably a more accurate estimator in the early phases of the project life cycle.

 As function point has its own universal functional point these points depend on the following table:-
There are 5 rules used to calculate LOC they are:-

 How many number of input screen are going to be in the project: - The LOC depends on the no of input
forms/screens available for the project.
 Number of output achieved: - The no of output achieved also helps to calculate LOC as based on
number of outputs the particular coding will be required.
 Logical units: - It provides interaction between interfaces and logical units so based on number of logical
units provided interfaces can communicate and that too helps in calculating LOC.
 Interfaces: - Interfaces enable communication between different parts of the project and can be a
measure to calculate LOC.
 Graphical user interface: - the more GUI based interfaces provided the LOC differs so it is also a
measure to calculate LOC.
In this way function point is also a metric added to calculate the cost estimation of the project or
software. It is added due to the disadvantages of SLOC technique.

Unit-II
The old way and the new | Life cycle phases | Artifacts
of the process |Model based software architectures

Q1. Explain any 10 conventional principles.
Make quality #1.
 Quality must be quantified and mechanisms put into place to motivate its achievement. Defining
quality commensurate with the project at hand is important but is not easily done at the outset
of a project.
High-quality software is possible.
 Techniques that have been demonstrated to increase quality include involving the customer,
prototyping, simplifying design, conducting inspections, and hiring the best people. This principle
is mostly redundant.
Give products to customers early.
 No matter how hard you try to learn users' needs during the requirements phase, the most
effective way to determine real needs is to give users a product and let them play with it.
Determine the problem before writing the requirements.
 When faced with what they believe is a problem, most engineers rush to offer a solution. Before
you try to solve a problem, be sure to explore all the alternatives and don't be blinded by the
obvious solution.
Evaluate design alternatives.
 After the requirements are agreed upon, you must examine a variety of architectures and
algorithms.
Use an appropriate process model.
 Each project must select a process that makes the most sense for that project on the basis of
corporate culture, willingness to take risks, application area, volatility of requirements, and the
extent to which requirements are well understood. It's true that no individual process is
universal.
Use different languages for different phases.
 Our industry's eternal thirst for simple solutions to complex problems has driven many to declare
that the best development method is one that uses the same notation throughout the life cycle.
Minimize intellectual distance.
 This principle has been the primary motivation for the development of objects oriented
techniques, component-based development, and visual modeling.
Put techniques before tools.

 An undisciplined software engineer with a tool becomes a dangerous, undisciplined software
engineer.
Get it right before you make it faster.
 It is far easier to make a working program run faster than it is to make a fast program work.
Don't worry about optimization during initial coding. This is an insightful statement.
Inspect code.
 Inspecting the detailed design and code is a much better way to find errors than testing. The
value of this principle is overhyped for all but the simplest software systems.
Good management is more important than good technology.
 The best technology will not compensate for poor management, and a good manager can
produce great results even with meager resources. Good management motivates people to do
their best, but there are no universal “right” styles of management.
People are the key to success.
 Highly skilled people with appropriate experience, talent, and training are key. The right people
with insufficient tools, languages, and process will succeed.
Follow with care.

 Just because everybody is doing something does not make it right for you. It may be right, but
you must carefully assess its applicability to your environment.
Take responsibility.
 It also takes good people, good management, and a learning culture that is focused on forward
progress even when confronted with numerous and inevitable intermediate setbacks.
Understand the customer's priorities.
 It is possible the customer would tolerate 90% of the functionality delivered late if they could
have 10% of it on time. Understanding the customer's priorities is important, but only in balance
with other stakeholder priorities.
The more they see, the more they need. The more functionality (or performance) you provide a user,
the more functionality (or performance) the user wants.
 This principle is true, but it suggests that you would never want to show a user anything. Not all
stakeholders are 100% driven by greed.
Plan to throw one away. One of the most important critical success factors is whether or not a
product is entirely new. Such brand-new applications, architectures, interfaces, or algorithms rarely
work the first time.
 You should not plan to throw one away. Rather, you should plan to evolve a product from an
immature prototype to a mature baseline.
Design for change. The architectures, components, and specification techniques you use must
accommodate change.
 This is a very simple statement that has proven to be exceedingly complex to realize. Basically, it
says that we must predict the future and construct a framework that can accommodate change
that is not yet well defined.
Design without documentation is not design.
 With visual modeling and higher order programming languages, it is usually counterproductive to
maintain separate documents for the purpose of describing the software design.
Use tools, but be realistic. Software tools make their users more efficient.
 This principle trivializes a crucial aspect of modern software engineering: the importance of the
development environment.
Avoid tricks.
 Many programmers love to create programs with tricks constructs that perform a function
correctly, but in an obscure way. Show the world how smart you are by avoiding tricky code.
Obfuscated coding techniques should be avoided unless there are compelling reasons to use
them. Unfortunately, such compelling reasons are common in nontrivial projects.
Encapsulate.
 Information-hiding is a simple, proven concept that results in software that is easier to test and
much easier to maintain. Component-based design, object-oriented design, and modern design
and programming notations have advanced this principle into mainstream practice.

Use coupling and cohesion. Coupling and cohesion are the best ways to measure software's inherent
maintainability and adaptability.
 This vital principle is difficult to apply. Coupling and cohesion are abstract descriptions of
components for which there are no well-established, objective definitions. Coupling and
cohesion are therefore difficult to measure.
Use the McCabe complexity measure.
 Complexity metrics are important for identifying some of the critical components that need
special attention. Although there are many metrics available to report the inherent complexity of
software, none is as intuitive and easy to use as Tom McCabe’s.
Don't test your own software. Software developers should never be the primary testers of their own
software.
 This principle is often debated. On one hand, an independent test team offers an objective
perspective. On the other hand, software developers need to take ownership of the quality of
their products.
Analyze causes for errors.
 It is far more cost-effective to reduce the effect of an error by preventing it than it is to find and
fix it. One way to do this is to analyze the causes of errors as they are detected.
Realize that software's entropy increases.
 Any software system that undergoes continuous change will grow in complexity and will become
more and more disorganized.
People and time are not interchangeable.
 Measuring a project solely by person-months makes little sense. This principle is timeless.
Expect excellence.
 Your employees will do much better if you have high expectations for them. This principle
applies to all disciplines, not just software management.
Q2. State & explain Modern Principles.

Base the process on an architecture-first approach.
 This requires that a demonstrable balance be achieved among the driving requirements, the
architecturally significant design decisions, and the life-cycle plans before the resources are
committed for full-scale development.
Establish an iterative life-cycle process that confronts risk early.
 With today's sophisticated software systems, it is not possible to define the entire problem,
design the entire solution, build the software, and then test the end product in sequence.
Instead, an iterative process that refines the problem understanding, an effective solution, and
an effective plan over several iterations encourages a balanced treatment of all stakeholder
objectives. Major risks must be addressed early to increase predictability and avoid expensive
downstream scrap and rework.
Transition design methods to emphasize component-based development.
 Moving from a line-of-code mentality to a component-based mentality is necessary to reduce
the amount of human-generated source code and custom development. A component is a
cohesive set of preexisting lines of code, either in source or executable format, with a defined
interface and behavior.
Establish changé management environnent

 The dynamics of iterative development, including concurrent workflows by different teams
working on shared artifacts, necessitates objectively controlled baselines.
Enhance change freedom through tools that support round-trip engineering.
 Round-trip engineering is the environment support necessary to automate and synchronize
engineering information in different. Without substantial automation of this bookkeeping,
change management, documentation, and testing, it is difficult to reduce iteration cycles to
manageable time frames in which change is encouraged rather than avoided. Change freedom is
a necessity in an iterative process, and establishing an integrated environment is crucial.
Q3. Write a short note on engineering phases.

OR
Q3. Write a short note on production phases
OR
Q3. State and explain various life cycle phases
Q. Wr
To achieve economies of scale and higher returns on investment, we must move toward a software
manufacturing process driven by technological improvements in process automation and component-
based development. At first order are the following two stages of the life cycle:
 The engineering stage, driven by less predictable but smaller teams doing design and synthesis
activities. The engineering stage of the life cycle evolves the plans, the requirements, and the

architecture together, resolving the development risks. This stage concludes with an executable
architecture baseline.
 The production stage, driven by more predictable but larger teams doing construction, test, and
deployment activities. The production stage of the life cycle constructs usable versions of capability
within the context of the baseline plans, requirements, and architecture developed in the engineering
stage.
The transition between engineering and production is a crucial event for the various stakeholders. The
production plan has been agreed upon, and there is a good enough understanding of the problem and
the solution that all stakeholders can make a firm commitment to go ahead with production. Depending
on the specifics of a project, the time and resources dedicated to these two stages can be highly
variable. The table given below summarizes the differences in emphasis between these two stages.
Attributing only two stages to a life cycle is a little too coarse, too simplistic, for most applications.
Consequently, the engineering stage is decomposed into two distinct phases, inception and elaboration,
and the production stage into construction and transition. These four phases of the life-cycle process are
loosely mapped to the conceptual framework of the spiral model as shown in the figure below, and are
named to depict the state of the project. In the figure, the size of the spiral corresponds to the inertia of
the project with respect to the breadth and depth of the artifacts that have been developed.
In most conventional life cycles, the phases are named after the primary activity within each phase:
requirements analysis, design, coding, unit test, integration test, and system test. Conventional software
development efforts emphasized a mostly sequential process, in which one activity was required to be
complete before the next was begun.
With an iterative process, each phase includes all the activities, in varying proportions. The primary
objectives, essential activities, and general evaluation criteria for each phase are discussed below.
Q4. Write a short note on Inception Phase.

The overriding goal of the inception phase is to achieve concurrence among stakeholders on the life-
cycle objectives for the project.
Primary objectives
 Establishing the project’s software scope and boundary conditions, including an operational concept,
acceptance criteria, and a clear understanding of what is and is not intended to be in the product
 Discriminating the critical use cases of the system and the primary scenarios of operation that will drive
the major design trade-offs
 Demonstrating at least one candidate architecture against some of the primary scenarios
 Estimating the cost and schedule for the entire project
 Estimating potential risks
Essential activities
 Formulating the scope of the project
o This activity involves capturing the requirements and operational concept in an
information repository that describes the user’s view of the requirements. The
information repository should be sufficient to define the problem space and derive the
acceptance criteria for the end product.
 Synthesizing the architecture
o Design trade-offs, problem space ambiguities, and available solution-space assets are
evaluated. An information repository is created that is sufficient to demonstrate the
feasibility of at least one candidate architecture and an initial baseline of make/buy
decisions so that the cost, schedule, and resource estimates can be derived.
 Planning and preparing a business case
o Alternatives for risk management, staffing, iteration plans, and cost/schedule/profitability
trade-offs are evaluated. The infrastructure (tools, processes, automation support)
sufficient to support the life-cycle development task is determined.
Primary evaluation criteria
 Do all stakeholders concur on the scope definition and cost and schedule estimates?
 Are requirements understood, as evidenced by the fidelity of the critical use cases?
 Are the cost and schedule estimates, priorities, risks, and development processes credible?
 Do the depth and breadth of an architecture prototype demonstrate the preceding criteria?
 Are actual resource expenditures versus planned expenditures acceptable?
Q5. Write a short note on Elaboration phase.

The elaboration phase is the most critical of the four phases. At the end of this phase, the “engineering”
is considered complete and the project faces its reckoning: The decision is made whether or not to
commit to the production phases.
While the process must always accommodate changes, the elaboration phase activities must ensure
that the architecture, requirements, and plans are stable enough, and the risks sufficiently mitigated,
that the cost and schedule for the completion of the development can be predicted within an
acceptable range.
Primary objectives
 Baselining the architecture as rapidly as practical
 Baselining the vision
 Baselining a high-fidelity plan for the construction phase
 Demonstrating that the baseline architecture will support the vision at a reasonable cost in a reasonable
time

 Elaborating the vision
o This activity involves establishing a high-fidelity understanding of the critical use cases
that drive architectural or planning decisions.
 Elaborating the process and infrastructure
o The construction process, the tools and process automation support, and the
intermediate milestones and their respective evaluation criteria are established.
 Elaborating the architecture and selecting components
o Potential components are evaluated and make/buy decisions are sufficiently understood
so that construction phase cost and schedule can be determined with confidence. The
selected architectural components are integrated and assessed against the primary
scenarios.
 Is the vision stable?
 Is the architecture stable?
 Does the executable demonstration show that the major risk elements have been addressed and
credibly resolved?
 Is the construction phase plan of sufficient fidelity, and is it backed up with a credible basis of estimate?
Q6. Write a short note on Construction phase.

During the construction phase, all remaining components and application features are integrated into
the application, and all features are thoroughly tested. Newly developed software is integrated where
required. The construction phase represents a production process, in which emphasis is placed on
managing resources and controlling operations to optimize costs, schedules, and quality.
Primary objectives
 Minimizing development costs by optimizing resources and avoiding unnecessary scrap and rework
 Achieving adequate quality as rapidly as practical
 Achieving useful versions (alpha, beta, and other test releases) as rapidly as practical
 Resource management, control, and process optimization
 Complete component development and testing against evaluation criteria
 Assessment of product releases against acceptance criteria of the vision
 Is this product baseline mature enough to be deployed in the user community?
 Is this product baseline stable enough to be deployed in the user community?
 Are the stakeholders ready for transition to the user community?
Q7. Write a short note on Transition phase.

The transition phase is entered when a baseline is mature enough to be deployed in the end-user
domain. This typically requires that a usable subset of the system has been achieved with acceptable
quality levels and user documentation so that transition to the user will provide positive results.
This phase could include any of the following activities:

 Beta testing to validate the new system against user expectations
 Beta testing and parallel operation relative to a legacy system it is replacing
 Conversion of operational databases
 Training of users and maintainers
Primary objectives
 Achieving user self-supportability
 Achieving stakeholder concurrence that deployment baselines are complete and consistent with the
evaluation criteria of the vision
 Achieving final product baselines as rapidly and cost-effectively as practical
 Synchronization and integration of concurrent construction increments into consistent deployment
baselines
 Deployment-specific engineering (cutover, commercial packaging and production, sales rollout kit
development, field personnel training)
 Assessment of deployment baselines against the complete vision and acceptance criteria in the
requirements set
 Is the user satisfied?
 Are actual resource expenditures versus planned expenditures acceptable
Q8. State and explain various Artifacts.

To make the development of a complete software system manageable, distinct collections of
information are organized into artifact sets.
The artifact sets are shown in the figure given below; their purposes and notations are described next.
accept
The Management Set
The management set captures the artifacts associated with process planning and execution. These
artifacts use ad hoc notations, including text, graphics, or whatever representation is required to
capture the “contracts” among project personnel (project management, architects, developers, testers,
marketers, administrators), among stakeholders and between project personnel and stakeholders.
Management set artifacts are evaluated, assessed, and measured through a combination of the following:
 Relevant stakeholder review
 Analysis of changes between the current version of the artifact and previous versions
(management trends and project performance changes in terms of cost, schedule, and quality)

 Major milestone demonstrations of the balance among all artifacts and, in particular, the
accuracy of the business case and vision artifacts
The Engineering Sets
The engineering sets consist of the requirements set, the design set, the implementation set, and the
deployment set.
Requirements Set
Structured text is used for the vision statement, which documents the project scope that supports the
contract between the funding authority and the project team. The requirement set is the primary
engineering context for evaluating the other three engineering artifact sets and is the basis for test
cases. Requirements artifacts are evaluated, assessed, and measured through a combination of the
following:
 Analysis of consistency with the release specifications of the management set
 Analysis of consistency between the vision and the requirements models
 Analysis of changes between the current version of requirements artifacts and previous versions
 Subjective review of other dimensions of quality
Design Set
UML notation is used to engineer the design models for the solution. The design set contains varying
levels of abstraction that represent the components of the solution space (their identities, attributes,
static relationships, dynamic interactions). The design set is evaluated, assessed, and measured through
a combination of the following:
 Analysis of the internal consistency and quality of the design model
 Analysis of consistency with the requirements models
 Analysis of changes between the current version of the design model and previous versions
Implementation Set
The implementation set includes source code that represents the tangible implementations of
components and any executables necessary for stand-alone testing of components. Implementation sets
are human-readable formats that are evaluated, assessed, and measured through a combination of the
following:
 Analysis of consistency with the design models
 Translation into deployment set notations to evaluate the consistency and completeness among
artifact sets
 Analysis of changes between the current version of the implementation set and previous
versions
Deployment Set
The deployment set includes user deliverables and machine language notations, executable software,
and the build scripts, installation scripts, and executable target specific data necessary to use the
product in its target environment. Deployment sets are evaluated, assessed, and measured through a
combination of the following:
 Testing against the usage scenarios and quality attributes defined in the requirements set to
evaluate the consistency and completeness and the semantic balance between information in
the two sets
 Testing the partitioning, replication, and allocation strategies in mapping components of the
implementation set to physical resources of the deployment system (platform type, number,
network topology)

 Testing against the defined usage scenarios in the user manual such as installation, user-oriented
dynamic reconfiguration, mainstream usage, and anomaly management
 Analysis of changes between the current version of the deployment set and previous versions
(defect elimination trends, performance changes)
Each artifact set is the predominant development focus of one phase of the life cycle; the other sets
take on check and balance roles. As illustrated in the figure above, each phase has a predominant focus:
Requirements are the focus of the inception phase; design, the elaboration phase; implementation, the
construction phase; and deployment, the transition phase. The management artifacts also evolve, but at
a fairly constant level across the life cycle. Most of today's software development tools map closely to
one of the five artifact sets.
1. Management: scheduling, workflow, defect tracking, change management, documentation,
spreadsheet, resource management, and presentation tools
2. Requirements: requirements management tools
3. Design: visual modeling tools
4. Implementation: compiler/debugger tools, code analysis tools, test coverage analysis tools, and test
management tools
5. Deployment: test coverage and test automation tools, network management tools, commercial
components (operating systems, GUIs, DBMSs, networks, middleware), and installation tools
Q9. Differentiate between Implementation Set and Deployment Set

The separation of the implementation set (source code) from the deployment set (executable code) is
important because there are very different concerns with each set. The structure of the information
delivered to the user (and typically the test organization) is very different from the structure of the
source code information.
Engineering decisions that have an impact on the quality of the deployment set but are relatively
incomprehensible in the design and implementation sets include the following:
 Dynamically reconfigurable parameters (buffer sizes, color palettes, number of servers, number of
simultaneous clients, data files, run-time parameters)
 Effects of compiler/link optimizations (such as space optimization versus speed optimization)
 Performance under certain allocation strategies (centralized versus distributed, primary and shadow
threads, dynamic load balancing, hot backup versus checkpoint/rollback)
 Virtual machine constraints (file descriptors, garbage collection, heap size, maximum record size, disk
file rotations)

 Process-level concurrency issues (deadlock and race conditions)
 Platform-specific differences in performance or behavior
Q10. Write a short note on test artifacts.

Conventional software testing followed the same document-driven approach that was applied to
software development. Development teams built requirements documents, top-level design documents,
and detailed design documents before constructing any source files or executables.
Similarly, test teams built system test plan documents, system test procedure documents, integration
test plan documents, unit test plan documents, and unit test procedure documents before building any
test drivers, stubs, or instrumentation. This document-driven approach caused the same problems for
the test activities that it did for the development activities.
One of the truly discriminating tenets of a modern process is to use exactly the same sets, notations,
and artifacts for the products of test activities as are used for product development. In essence, we are
simply identifying the test infrastructure necessary to execute the test process as a required subset of
the end product. By doing this, we have forced several engineering disciplines into the process.
 The test artifacts must be developed concurrently with the product from inception through deployment.
Thus, testing is a full-life-cycle activity, not a late life-cycle activity.
 The test artifacts are communicated, engineered, and developed within the same artifact sets as the
developed product.
 The test artifacts are implemented in programmable and repeatable formats (as software programs).
 The test artifacts are documented in the same way that the product is documented.
 Developers of the test artifacts use the same tools, techniques, and training as the software engineers
developing the product.
Q11. State and explain various Management artifacts.

The management set includes several artifacts that capture intermediate results and ancillary
information necessary to document the product/process legacy, maintain the product, improve the
product, and improve the process.
Work Breakdown Structure
A work breakdown structure (WBS) is the vehicle for budgeting and collecting costs. To monitor and
control a project's financial performance, the software project manager must have insight into project
costs and how they are expended. The structure of cost accountability is a serious project planning
constraint. If the WBS is structured improperly, it can drive the evolving design and product structure in
the wrong direction. A project manager should not layout lower levels of a until a commensurate level
of stability in the product structure is achieved. A functional breakdown in the WBS will result in a
functional decomposition in the software.
Business Case
The business case artifact provides all the information necessary to determine whether the project is
worth investing in. It details the expected revenue, expected cost, technical and management plans, and
backup data necessary to demonstrate the risks and realism of the plans. The main purpose is to
transform the vision into economic terms so that an organization can make an accurate ROI assessment.
The financial forecasts are evolutionary, updated with more accurate forecasts as the life cycle
progresses.

Release Specifications
The scope, plan, and objective evaluation criteria for each baseline release are derived from the vision
statement as well as many other sources. These artifacts are intended to evolve along with the process,
achieving greater fidelity as the life cycle progresses and requirements understanding matures.
Software Development Plan
The software development plan (SDP) elaborates the process framework into a fully detailed plan. It is
the defining document for the project's process. It must comply with the contract (if any), comply with
organization standards (if any), evolve along with the design and requirements, and be used consistently
across all subordinate organizations doing software development. Two indications of a useful SDP are
periodic updating (it is not stagnant shelf-ware) and understanding and acceptance by managers and
practitioners alike.
Release Descriptions
Release description documents describe the results of each release, including performance against each
of the evaluation criteria in the corresponding release specification. Release baselines should be
accompanied by a release description document that describes the evaluation criteria for that
configuration baseline and provides that each criterion has been addressed in an acceptable manner.
Status Assessments
Status assessments provide periodic snapshots of project health and status, including the software
project manager’s risk assessment, quality indicators, and management indicators. The periodic status
assessment documents provide the critical mechanism for managing everyone's expectations
throughout the life cycle; for addressing, communicating, and resolving management issues, technical
issues, and project risks; and for capturing project history.
Software Change Order Database
Managing change is one of the fundamental primitives of an iterative development process. With
greater change freedom, a project can iterate more productively. This flexibility increases the content,
quality, and number of iterations that a project can achieve within a given schedule. Change freedom
has been achieved in practice through automation, and today's iterative development environments
carry the burden of change management. Organizational processes that depend on manual change
management techniques have encountered major inefficiencies.
Deployment
A deployment document can take many forms. Depending on the project, it could include several
document subsets for transitioning the product into operational status.
Environment
An important emphasis of a modern approach is to define the development and maintenance
environment as a first-class artifact of the process. A robust, integrated development environment must
support automation of the development process.
Q.12 State and explain various Engineering artifacts.

OR
Q12. Explain the significance of vision document.
Most of the engineering artifacts are captured in rigorous engineering notations such as UML,
programming languages, or executable machine codes. Three engineering artifacts are explicitly
intended for more general review, and they deserve further elaboration.
Vision Document

The vision document provides a complete vision for the software system under development and
supports the contract between the funding authority and the development organization. A project
vision is meant to be changeable as understanding evolves of the requirements, architecture, plans, and
technology. A good vision document should change slowly. The figure below provides a default outline
for a vision document.
The vision document is written from the user's perspective, focusing on the essential features of the
system and acceptable levels of quality. The vision document should contain at least two appendixes.
The first appendix should describe the operational concept using use cases (a visual model and a
separate artifact). The second appendix should describe the change risks inherent in the vision
statement, to guide defensive design efforts.
The vision statement should include a description of what will be included as well as those features
considered but not included. It should also specify operational capacities (volumes, response times, and
accuracies), user profiles, and inter-operational interfaces with entities outside the system boundary,
where applicable. The vision document provides the contractual basis for the requirements visible to the
stakeholders.
Architecture Description
The architecture description provides an organized view of the software architecture under
development. It is extracted largely from the design model and includes views of the design,
implementation, and deployment sets sufficient to understand how the operational concept of the
requirements set will be achieved.
Software User Manual
The software user manual provides the user with the reference documentation necessary to support the
delivered software. Although content is highly variable across application domains, the user manual
should include installation procedures, usage procedures and guidance, operational constraints, and a
user interface description, at a minimum.
Q13 .Write a short note on pragmatic artifacts

Conventional document-driven approaches squandered incredible amounts of engineering time on
developing, polishing, formatting, reviewing, updating, and distributing documents.
 People want to review information but don't understand the language of the artifact.
o Many interested reviewers of a particular artifact will resist having to learn the engineering
language in which the artifact is written. We would require that the reviewer be knowledgeable
in the engineering notation. We should stop patronizing audiences who resist treating software
as an engineering discipline. These interested parties typically add cost and time to the process
without adding value.
 People want to review the information but don't have access to the tools.

o It is extremely rare that the other stakeholders have any capability to review the engineering
artifacts on-line.
 Human-readable engineering artifacts should use rigorous notations that are complete, consistent,
and used in a self-documenting manner.
o Properly spelled English words should be used for all identifiers and descriptions. Acronyms and
abbreviations should be used only where they are well accepted jargon in the context of the
component's usage.
 Useful documentation is self-defining: It is documentation that gets used.
o Above all, building self-documenting engineering artifacts gives the development organization
the “right” to work solely in the engineering notations and avoid separate documents to describe
all the details of a model, component, or test procedure. If you find that information, and
particularly a document, is getting produced but not used, eliminate it in favor of whatever is
getting used to accomplish the intended purpose. Strive to improve its self-documenting nature.
 Paper is tangible; electronic artifacts are too easy to change.
o One reason some stakeholders prefer paper documents is that once they are delivered, they are
tangible, static, and persistent. On-line and Web-based artifacts can be changed easily and are
viewed with more skepticism because of their inherent volatility. Although electronic artifacts
will and should be met with healthy skepticism by many stakeholders, it is simply a matter of
time before the whole world operates this way.
Q14. Explain architecture from Management Perspective.

The most critical technical product of a software project is its architecture: the infrastructure, control,
and data interfaces that permit software components to cooperate as a system and software designers
to cooperate efficiently as a team. Establishing accurate and precise communications among teams of
people is a timeless problem in any organization.
From a management perspective, there are three different aspects of architecture.
1. Architecture (the intangible design concept) is the design of a software system, as opposed to the
design of a component. This includes all engineering necessary to specify a complete bill of materials.
Significant make/buy decisions are resolved, and all custom components are elaborated so that
individual component costs and construction/assembly costs can be determined with confidence.
2. An architecture baseline (the tangible artifacts) is a slice of information across the engineering artifact
sets sufficient to satisfy all stakeholders that the vision (function and quality) can be achieved within the
parameters of the business case (cost, profit, time, technology, and people).
3. An architecture description (a human-readable representation of an architecture, which is one of the
components of an architecture baseline) is an organized subset of information extracted from the
design set model(s). It includes the additional ad hoc notation (text and graphics) necessary to clarify the
information in the models. The architecture description communicates how the intangible concept is
realized in the tangible artifacts.
The importance of software architecture and its close linkage with modern software development
processes can be summarized as follows:
1. Achieving stable software architecture represents a significant project milestone at which the critical
make/buy decisions should have been resolved. This life-cycle event represents a transition from the
engineering stage of a project, characterized by discovery and resolution of numerous unknowns, to the
production stage, characterized by management to a predictable development plan.
2. Architecture representations provide a basis for balancing the trade-offs between the problem space
(requirements and constraints) and the solution space (the operational product).

3. The architecture and process encapsulate many of the important (high-payoff or high-risk)
communications among individuals, teams, organizations, and stakeholders.
4. Poor architectures and immature processes are often given as reasons for project failures.
5. A mature process, an understanding of the primary requirements, and a demonstrable architecture are
important prerequisites for predictable planning.
6. Architecture development and process definition are the intellectual steps that map the problem to a
solution without violating the constraints; they require human innovation and cannot be automated.
Q15. Explain architecture from Technical Perspective.

Software architecture encompasses the structure of software systems their behavior and the patterns
that guide these elements, their collaborations, and their composition. The context of software
architecture structure, behavior, and patterns must include functionality, performance, resilience,
comprehensibility, economic trade-offs, technology constraints, and aesthetic concerns.
An architecture framework is defined in terms of views that are abstractions of the UML models in the
design set. Most real-world systems require four views: design, process, component, and deployment.
The purposes of these views are as follows:
 Design: describes architecturally significant structures and functions of the design model
 Process: describes concurrency and control thread relationships among the design, component,
and deployment views
 Component: describes the structure of the implementation set
 Deployment: describes the structure of the deployment set
The design view is probably necessary in every system; the other three views can be added to deal with
the complexity of the system at hand. The engineering models and architectural views are defined as
collections of UML diagrams. The requirements model addresses the behavior of the system as seen by
its end users, analysts, and testers. This view is modeled statically using use case and class diagrams, and
dynamically using sequence, collaboration, state chart, and activity diagrams.
 The use case view describes how the system's critical (architecturally significant) use cases are
realized by elements of the design model. It is modeled statically using use case diagrams, and
dynamically using any of the UML behavioral diagrams.
 The design view describes the architecturally significant elements of the design model. This view,
an abstraction of the design model, addresses the basic structure and functionality of the
solution. It is modeled statically using class and object diagrams, and dynamically using any of
the UML behavioral diagrams.
 The process view addresses the run-time collaboration issues involved in executing the
architecture on a distributed deployment model, including the logical software network
topology, inter-process communication, and state management. This view is modeled statically
using deployment diagrams, and dynamically using any of the UML behavioral diagrams.
 The component view describes the architecturally significant elements of the implementation
set. This view, an abstraction of the design model, addresses the software source code
realization of the system from the perspective of the project's integrators and developers,
especially with regard to releases and configuration management. It is modeled statically using
component diagrams, and dynamically using any of the UML behavioral diagrams.
 The deployment view addresses the executable realization of the system, including the allocation
of logical processes in the distribution view to physical resources of the deployment network. It

is modeled statically using deployment diagrams, and dynamically using any of the UML
behavioral diagrams.
Generally, an architecture baseline should include the following:
 Requirements: critical use cases, system-level quality objectives, and priority relationships
among features and qualities
 Design: names, attributes, structures, behaviors, groupings, and relationships of significant
classes and components
 Implementation: source component inventory and bill of materials (number, name, purpose,
cost) of all primitive components
 Deployment: executable components sufficient to demonstrate the critical use cases and the risk
associated with achieving the system qualities

Unit-III
Work Flows of the process |Checkpoints of the process
|Iterative Process Planning

Q1. State and explain various workflows.
The term workflow is used to mean a thread of cohesive and mostly sequential activities. Workflows are
mapped to product artifacts and to project. There are seven top-level workflows:
 Management workflow: controlling the process and ensuring win conditions for all stakeholders
 Environment workflow: automating the process and evolving the maintenance environment
 Requirements workflow: analyzing the problem space and evolving the requirements artifacts
 Design workflow: modeling the solution and evolving the architecture and design artifacts
 Implementation workflow: programming the components and evolving the implementation and
deployment artifacts
 Assessment workflow: assessing the trends in process and product quality
 Deployment workflow: transitioning the end products to the user
The figure given above illustrates the relative levels of effort expected across the phases in each of the
top-level workflows. It represents one of the key signatures of a modern process framework and
provides a viewpoint from which to discuss several of the key principles.
 Architecture-first approach
o Extensive requirements analysis, design, implementation, and assessment activities are performed
before the construction phase, when full-scale implementation is .the focus. This early life-cycle
focus on implementing and testing the architecture must precede full-scale development and
testing of all the components and must precede the downstream focus on completeness and quality
of the entire breadth of the product features.
 Iterative life-cycle process
o In the figure given above, each phase portrays at least two iterations of each workflow. This default
is intended to be descriptive, not prescriptive. Some projects may require only one iteration in a
phase; others may require several iterations. The point is that the activities and artifacts of any
given workflow may require more than one pass to achieve adequate results.
 Round-trip engineering
o Raising the environment activities to a first-class workflow is critical. The environment is the
tangible embodiment of the project’s process, methods, and notations for producing the artifacts.
 Demonstration-based approach
o Implementation and assessment activities are initiated early in the life cycle, reflecting the emphasis
on constructing executable subsets of the evolving architecture.

Q2. Write a short note on iterative workflows.
Iteration consists of a loosely sequential set of activities in various proportions, depending on where the
iteration is located in the development cycle. Each iteration is defined in terms of a set of allocated
usage scenarios.
The components needed to implement all selected scenarios are developed and integrated with the
results of previous iterations. An individual iteration’s workflow, illustrated in the figure given below,
generally includes the following sequence:
1. Management: iteration planning to determine the content of the release and develop the detailed plan
for the iteration; assignment of work packages, or tasks, to the development team
2. Environment: evolving the software change order database to reflect all new baselines and changes to
existing baselines for all product, test, and environment components
3. Requirements: analyzing the baseline plan, the baseline architecture, and the baseline requirements set
artifacts to fully elaborate the use cases to be demonstrated at the end of this iteration and their
evaluation criteria; updating any requirements set artifacts to reflect changes necessitated by results of
this iteration's engineering activities
4. Design: evolving the baseline architecture and the baseline design set artifacts to elaborate fully the
design model and test model components necessary to demonstrate against the evaluation criteria
allocated to this iteration; updating design set artifacts to reflect changes necessitated by the results of
this iteration’s engineering activities
5. Implementation: developing or acquiring any new components, and enhancing or modifying any existing
components, to demonstrate the evaluation criteria allocated to this iteration; integrating and testing all
new and modified components with existing baselines (previous versions)
6. Assessment: evaluating the results of the iteration, including compliance with the allocated evaluation
criteria and the quality of the current baselines; identifying any rework required and determining
whether it should be performed before deployment of this release or allocated to the next release;
assessing results to improve the basis of the subsequent iteration’s plan
7. Deployment: transitioning the release either to an external organization (such as a user, independent
verification and validation contractor, or regulatory agency) or to internal closure by conducting a post-
mortem so that lessons learned can be captured and reflected in the next iteration
Q3. Write a short note on joint management reviews.

The four major milestones occur at the transition points between life-cycle phases. They can be used in
many different process models, including the conventional waterfall model. In an iterative model, the
major milestones are used to achieve concurrence among all stakeholders on the current state of the
project. Different stakeholders have very different concerns:
 Customers: schedule and budget estimates, feasibility, risk assessment, requirements understanding,
progress, product line compatibility
 Users: consistency with requirements and usage scenarios, potential for accommodating growth, quality
attributes
 Architects and systems engineers: product line compatibility, requirements changes, trade-off analyses,
completeness and consistency, balance among risk, quality, and usability
 Developers: sufficiency of requirements detail and usage scenario descriptions, frameworks for
component selection or development, resolution of development risk, product line compatibility,
sufficiency of the development environment
 Maintainers: sufficiency of product and documentation artifacts, understandability, interoperability
with existing systems, sufficiency of maintenance environment
 Others: possibly many other perspectives by stakeholders such as regulatory agencies, independent
verification and validation contractors, venture capital investors, subcontractors, associate contractors,
and sales and marketing teams
Q4. State and explain various Major Milestones.

Major milestones: provide visibility to system wide issues synchronize the management and engineering
perspectives and verify that the aims of the phase have been achieved.
Life – Cycle Objectives Milestone

The life-cycle objectives milestone occurs at the end of the inception phase. The goal is to present to all
stakeholders a recommendation on how to proceed with development, including a plan, estimated cost
and schedule, and expected benefits and cost savings.
The vision statement and the critical issues relative to requirements and the operational concept are
addressed. A draft architecture document and a prototype architecture demonstration provide evidence
of the completeness of the vision and the software development plan. A successfully completed life-
cycle objectives milestone will result in authorization from all stakeholders to proceed with the
elaboration phase.
Life – Cycle Architecture Milestone
The life-cycle architecture milestone occurs at the end of the elaboration phase. The primary goal is to
demonstrate an executable architecture to all stakeholders. A more detailed plan for the construction
phase is presented for approval. Critical issues relative to requirements and the operational concept are
addressed. This review will also produce consensus on a baseline architecture, baseline vision, baseline
software development plan, and evaluation criteria for the initial operational capability milestone.
Initial Operational Capability Milestone
The initial operational capability milestone occurs late in the construction phase. The goals are to assess
the readiness of the software to begin the transition into customer/user sites and to authorize the start

of acceptance testing. Issues are addressed concerning installation instructions, software version
descriptions, user and operator manuals, and the ability of the development organization to support
user sites. Software quality metrics are reviewed to determine whether quality is sufficient for
transition.
Product Release Milestone
The product release milestone occurs at the end of the transition phase. The goal is to assess the
completion of the software and its transition to the support organization, if any. The results of
acceptance testing are reviewed, and all open issues are addressed. These issues could include
installation instructions, software version descriptions, user and operator manuals, software support
manuals, and the installation of the development environment at the support sites. Software quality
metrics are reviewed to determine whether quality is sufficient for transition to the support
organization.
Q5. Write a short note on Minor Milestones.

Q5. Explain iteration readiness reviews and iteration assessment.
The number of iteration-specific, informal milestones needed depends on the content and length of the
iteration. For most iterations, which have a one-month to six-month duration, only two minor
milestones are needed: the iteration readiness review and the iteration assessment review. For longer
iterations, more intermediate review points may be necessary.
All iterations are not created equal. Iteration can take on very different forms and priorities, depending
on where the project is in the life cycle.
Iteration Readiness Review
This informal milestone is conducted at the start of each iteration to review the detailed iteration plan
and the evaluation criteria that have been allocated to this iteration.
Iteration Assessment Review
This informal milestone is conducted at the end of each iteration to assess the degree to which the
iteration achieved its objectives and satisfied its evaluation criteria, to review iteration results, to review
qualification test results (if part of the iteration), to determine the amount of rework to be done, and to
review the impact of the iteration results on the plan for subsequent iterations.
The format and content of these minor milestones tend to be highly dependent on the project and the
organizational culture. The figure given below identifies the various minor milestones to be considered
when a project is being planned.

Q6. What is the significance of periodic assessments? Discuss the contents of Status assessment review.
Periodic status assessments serve as project snapshots. While the period may vary, the recurring event
forces the project history to be captured and documented.
Status assessments provide the following:
 A mechanism for openly addressing, communicating, and resolving management issues,
technical issues, and project risks
 Objective data derived directly from on-going activities and evolving product configurations
 A mechanism for disseminating process, progress, quality trends, practices, and experience
information to and from all stakeholders in an open forum
Periodic status assessments are crucial for focusing continuous attention on the evolving health of the
project and its dynamic priorities. They force the software project manager to collect and review the
data periodically, force outside peer review, and encourage dissemination of best practices to and from
other stakeholders.
Q7. Short note on WBS

Work Breakdown Structures (WBS)
A good work breakdown structure and its synchronization with the process framework are critical
factors in software project success. Although the concept and practice of using a WBS are well
established, this topic is largely avoided in the published literature.
This is primarily because the development of a work breakdown structure is dependent on the project
management style, organizational culture, customer preference, financial constraints, and several other
hard-to-define, project-specific parameters. A WBS is simply a hierarchy of elements that decomposes
the project plan into the discrete work tasks.
A WBS provides the following information structure:
 A delineation of all significant work
 A clear task decomposition for assignment of responsibilities
 A framework for scheduling, budgeting, and expenditure tracking
Many parameters can drive the decomposition of work into discrete tasks: product subsystems,
components, functions, organizational units, life-cycle phases, even geographies. Most systems have
first-level decomposition by subsystem. Subsystems are then decomposed into their components, one
of which is typically the software. This section focuses on software WBS elements, whether the software
is the whole project or simply one component of a larger system.
Q8. State and explain various Drawbacks of evolutionary work break down structures.
Conventional work breakdown structures frequently suffer from three fundamental flaws.
 They are prematurely structured around the product design.
 They are prematurely decomposed, planned, and budgeted in either too much or too little detail.
 They are project-specific, and cross-project comparisons are usually difficult or impossible.
Conventional work breakdown structures are prematurely structured around the product design.
A typical conventional WBS that structured primarily around the subsystems of its product architecture,
and then further decomposed into the components of each subsystem. Once this structure is ingrained
in the WBS and then allocated to responsible managers with budgets, schedules, and expected
deliverables, a concrete planning foundation has been set that is difficult and expensive to change.
A WBS is the architecture for the financial plan. Just as software architectures need to encapsulate
components that are likely to change, so must planning architectures. To couple the plan tightly to the
product structure may make sense if both are reasonably mature. However, a looser coupling is
desirable if either the plan or the architecture is subject to change.
Conventional work breakdown structures are prematurely decomposed, planned, and budgeted in
either too little or too much detail.
Large software projects tend to be over planned and small projects tend to be under planned. The WBS
shown in the figure given above is overly simplistic for most large-scale systems, where six or more
levels of WBS elements are commonplace. In general, a WBS elaborated to at least two or three levels
makes sense. For large-scale systems, additional levels may be necessary in later phases of the life cycle.
The basic problem with planning too much detail at the outset is that the detail does not evolve with the
level of fidelity in the plan.
Conventional work breakdown structures are project-specific, and cross-project comparisons are
usually difficult or impossible.
Most organizations allow individual projects to define their own project-specific structure tailored to the
project manager’s style, the customer's demands, or other project-specific preferences. What is the
ratio of productive activities (requirements, design, implementation, assessment, deployment) to
overhead activities (management, environment)?
Q9. Explain Evolutionary WBS.

An evolutionary WBS should organize the planning elements around the process framework rather than
the product framework. This approach better accommodates the expected changes in the evolving plan
and allows the level of planning fidelity to evolve in a straightforward way.
The basic recommendation for the WBS is to organize the hierarchy as follows:
 First-level WBS elements are the workflows (management, environment, requirements, design,
implementation, assessment, and deployment). These elements are usually allocated to a single team
and constitute the anatomy of a project for the purposes of planning and comparison with other
projects.
 Second-level elements are defined for each phase of the life cycle (inception, elaboration, construction,
and transition). These elements allow the fidelity of the plan to evolve more naturally with the level of
understanding of the requirements and architecture, and the risks therein.
 Third-level elements are defined for the focus of activities that produce the artifacts of each phase.
These elements may be the lowest level in the hierarchy that collects the cost of a discrete artifact for a

given phase, or they may be decomposed further into several lower level activities that, taken together,
produce a single artifact.
It needs to be tailored to the specifics of a project in many ways.
 Scale
o Larger projects will have more levels and substructures.
 Organizational structure
o Projects that include subcontractors or span multiple organizational entities may
introduce constraints that necessitate different WBS allocations.
 Degree of custom development
o Depending on the character of the project, there can be very different emphases in the
requirements, design, and implementation workflows. A business process re-engineering
project based primarily on existing components would have much more depth in the
requirements element and a fairly shallow design and implementation element.
 Business context
o Contractual projects require much more elaborate management and assessment
elements. Projects developing commercial products for delivery to a broad customer
base may require much more elaborate substructures for the deployment element.
 Precedent experience
o Very few projects start with a clean slate. Most of them are developed as new
generations of a legacy system (with a mature WBS) or in the context of existing
organizational standards (with preordained WBS expectations). It is important to
accommodate these constraints to ensure that new projects exploit the existing
experience base and benchmarks of project performance.
Q10. Write a short note on forward looking approach Cost & schedule estimating process.
Project plans need to be derived from two perspectives. The first is a forward-looking, top-down
approach. It starts with an understanding of the general requirements and constraints, derives a macro-
level budget and schedule, and then decomposes these elements into lower level budgets and
intermediate milestones. From this perspective, the following planning sequence would occur:
1. The software project manager (and others) develops a characterization of the overall size, process,
environment, people, and quality required for the project.
2. A macro-level estimate of the total effort and schedule is developed using a software cost estimation
model.
3. The software project manager partitions the estimate for the effort into a top-level WBS. The project
manager also partitions the schedule into major milestone dates and partitions the effort into a staffing
profile across the life-cycle phases. These sorts of estimates tend to ignore many detailed project-
specific parameters.
4. At this point, subproject managers are given the responsibility for decomposing each of the WBS
elements into lower levels using their top-level allocation, staffing profile, and major milestone dates as
constraints.
The second perspective is a backward-looking, bottom-up approach. It starts with the end in mind,
analyze the micro-level budgets and schedules, and then sum all these elements into the higher level
budgets and intermediate milestones. This approach tends to define and populate the WBS from the
lowest levels upward.
From this perspective, the following planning sequence would occur:

1. The lowest level WBS elements are elaborated into detailed tasks, for which budgets and schedules are
estimated by the responsible WBS element manager. These estimates tend to incorporate the project-
specific parameters in an exaggerated way.
2. Estimates are combined and integrated into higher level budgets and milestones. The biases of
individual estimators need to be homogenized so that there is a consistent basis of negotiation.
3. Comparisons are made with the top-down budgets and schedule milestones. Gross differences are
assessed and adjustments are made in order to converge on agreement between the top-down and the
bottom-up estimates.
Q11. Explain iteration planning process.

Iteration is used to mean a complete synchronization across the project, with a well-orchestrated global
assessment of the entire project baseline. Other micro-iterations, such as monthly, weekly, or daily
builds, are performed en route to these project-level synchronization points.
 Inception iterations
The early prototyping activities integrate the foundation components of candidate architecture and
provide an executable framework for elaborating the critical use cases of the system. This framework
includes existing components, commercial components, and custom prototypes sufficient to
demonstrate candidate architecture and sufficient requirements understanding to establish a credible
business case, vision, and software development plan. Large-scale, custom developments may require
two iterations to achieve an acceptable prototype, but most projects should be able to get by with only
one.
 Elaboration iterations
These iterations result in architecture, including a complete framework and infrastructure for execution.
Upon completion of the architecture iteration, a few critical use cases should be demonstrable:
(1) Initializing the architecture, (2) injecting a scenario to drive the worst-case data processing flow
through the system, and (3) injecting a scenario to drive the worst-case control flow through the system.
Most projects should plan on two iterations to achieve an acceptable architecture baseline.
Unprecedented architectures may require additional iterations, whereas projects built on a well-
established architecture framework can probably get by with a single iteration.
 Construction iterations
Most projects require at least two major construction iterations: an alpha release and a beta release. An
alpha release would include executable capability for all the critical use cases. It usually represents only
about 70% of the total product breadth and performs at quality levels (performance and reliability)
below those expected in the final product. A beta release typically provides 95% of the total product
capability breadth and achieves some of the important quality attributes. Typically, however, a few
more features need to be completed, and improvements in robustness and performance are necessary
for the final product release to be acceptable. Although most projects need at least two construction
iterations, there are many reasons to add one or two more in order to manage risks or optimize
resource expenditures.
 Transition iterations
Most projects use a single iteration to transition a beta release into the final product. Again, numerous
informal, small-scale iterations may be necessary to resolve all the defects, incorporate beta feedback,
and incorporate performance improvements. However, because of the overhead associated with a full-
scale transition to the user community, most projects learn to live with a single iteration between a beta
release and the final product release.

Unit-IV
Project Organizations and Responsibilities |Process
Automation

Q1. Write a short note on Line if business Organizations.
OR
Q1. Discuss briefly, default roles in a software Line-of-business organization.
This structure can be tailored to specific circumstances. The main features of the default organization
are as follows:
 Responsibility for process definition and maintenance is specific to a cohesive line of business, where
process commonality makes sense. For example, the process for developing avionics software is
different from the process used to develop office applications.
 Responsibility for process automation is an organizational role and is equal in importance to the process
definition role. Projects achieve process commonality primarily through the environment support of
common tools.
 Organizational roles may be fulfilled by a single individual or several different teams, depending on the
scale of the organization. A 20-person software product company may require only a single person to
fulfill all the roles, while a 10,000-person telecommunications company may require hundreds of people
to achieve an effective software organization.
Software Engineering Process Authority

The Software Engineering Process Authority (SEPA) facilitates the exchange of information and process
guidance both to and from project practitioners. This role is accountable to the organization general
manager for maintaining a current assessment of the organization's process maturity and its plan for
future process improvements.
The SEPA must help initiate and periodically assess project processes. Catalyzing the capture and
dissemination of software best practices can be accomplished only when the SEPA understands both the
desired improvement and the project context.
The SEPA is a necessary role in any organization. It takes on responsibility and accountability for the
process definition and its maintenance (modification, improvement, technology insertion). The SEPA
could be a single individual, the general manager, or even a team of representatives. The SEPA must
truly be an authority, competent and powerful, not a staff position rendered impotent by ineffective
bureaucracy.

Project Review Authority
The Project Review Authority (PRA) is the single individual responsible for ensuring that a software
project complies with all organizational and business unit software policies, practices, and standards. A
software project manager is responsible for meeting the requirements of a contract or some other
project compliance standard, and is also accountable to the PRA.
The PRA reviews both the project’s conformance to contractual obligations and the project’s
organizational policy obligations. The customer monitors contract requirements, contract milestones,
contract deliverables, monthly management reviews, progress, quality, cost, schedule, and risk.
The PRA reviews customer commitments as well as adherence to organizational policies, organizational
deliverables, financial performance, and other risks and accomplishments.
Software Engineering Environment Authority
The Software Engineering Environment Authority (SEEA) is responsible for automating the organization’s
process, maintaining the organization’s standard environment, training projects to use the environment,
and maintaining organization-wide reusable assets.
The SEEA role is necessary to achieve a significant return on investment for a common process. Tools,
techniques, and training can be amortized effectively across multiple projects only if someone in the
organization (the SEEA) is responsible for supporting and administering a standard environment. In
many cases, the environment may be augmented, customized, or modified, but the existence of an 80%
default solution for each project is critical to achieving institutionalization of the organization’s process
and a good ROI on capital tool investments.
Infrastructure
An organization’s infrastructure provides human resources support, project-independent research and
development, and other capital software engineering assets. The infrastructure for any given software
line of business can range from trivial to highly entrenched bureaucracies.
The typical components of the organizational infrastructure are as follows:
Project administration: time accounting system; contracts, pricing, terms and conditions; corporate
information systems integration
Engineering skill centers: custom tools repository and maintenance, bid and proposal support,
independent research and development
Professional development: internal training boot camp, personnel recruiting, personnel skills database
maintenance, literature and assets library, technical publications
Q2. Explain the tasks of software Management team.

The software management team carries the burden of delivering win conditions to all stakeholders. In
this regard, the software project manager spends every day worrying about balance. The figure given
below shows the focus of software management team activities over the project life cycle.
The software management team is responsible for planning the effort, conducting the plan, and
adapting the plan to changes in the understanding of the requirements or the design. Toward this end,
the team takes ownership of resource management and project scope, and sets operational priorities
across the project life cycle.
At an abstract level, these activities correspond to managing the expectations of all stakeholders
throughout the project life cycle. The software management team takes ownership of all aspects of
quality. In particular, it is responsible for attaining and maintaining a balance among these aspects so
that the overall solution is adequate for all stakeholders and optimal for as many of them as possible.

Q3. What are the key points that software architecture team should focus on? Explain their roles, artifacts and
responsibilities.
For any project, the skill of the software architecture team is crucial. It provides the framework for
facilitating team communications, for achieving system-wide qualities, and for implementing the
applications. In most projects, the inception and elaboration phases will be dominated by two distinct
teams: the software management team and the software architecture team.
The software development and software assessment teams tend to engage in support roles while
preparing for the full-scale production stage. By the time the construction phase is initiated, the
architecture transitions into a maintenance mode and must be supported by a minimal level of effort to
ensure that there is continuity of the engineering legacy.
To succeed, the architecture team must include a fairly broad level of expertise, including the following:
 Domain experience to produce an acceptable design view and use case view
 Software technology experience to produce an acceptable process view, component view, and
deployment view
The architecture team is responsible for system-level quality, which includes attributes such as
reliability, performance, and maintainability. These attributes span multiple components and represent
how well the components integrate to provide an effective solution. In this regard, the architecture
team decides how most multiple component design issues are resolved.

Q4. Explain the tasks of software Development Team.
The figure given below shows the focus of software development team activities over the project life
cycle. The software development team is the most application-specific group. In general, the software
development team comprises several sub teams dedicated to groups of components that require a
common skill set. Typical skill sets include the following:
 Commercial component: specialists with detailed knowledge of commercial components central to a
system’s architecture
 Database: specialists with experience in the organization, storage, and retrieval of data
 Graphical user interfaces: specialists with experience in the display organization, data presentation, and
user interaction necessary to support human input, output, and control needs
 Operating systems and networking: specialists with experience in the execution of multiple software
objects on a network of hardware resources, including all the typical control issues associated with
initialization, synchronization, resource sharing, name space management, reconfiguration, termination,
and inter object communications
 Domain applications: specialists with experience in the algorithms, application processing, or business
rules specific to the system
The software development team is responsible for the quality of individual components, including all
component development, testing, and maintenance. Component tests should be built as self-
documented, repeatable software that is treated like other operational component source code so that
it is maintained naturally and is available for automated regression testing. The development team
decides how any design or implementation issue local to a single component is resolved.
Q5. Explain the tasks of software Assessment team.
The figure given below shows the focus of software assessment team activities over the project life
cycle. There are two reasons for using an independent team for software assessment. The first has to do
with ensuring an independent quality perspective.
This often debated approach has its pros (such as ensuring that the ownership biases of developers do
not pollute the assessment of quality) and cons (such as relieving the software development team of
ownership in quality, to some extent).

A more important reason for using an independent test team is to exploit the concurrency of activities.
Schedules can be accelerated by developing the software and preparing for testing in parallel with
development activities. Change management, test planning, and test scenario development can be
performed in parallel with design and development. A modern process should employ use-case-oriented
or capability-based testing organized as a sequence of builds and mechanized via two artifacts:
 Release specification (the plan and evaluation criteria for a release)
 Release description (the results of a release)
Each release may encompass several (perhaps incomplete) components, because integration is
proceeding continuously. Evaluation criteria will document what the customer may expect to see at a
major milestone, and release descriptions will substantiate the test results. The final iteration(s) will
generally be equivalent to acceptance testing and include levels of detail similar to the levels of detail of
conventional software test plans, procedures, and reports.
Some component tests may get elevated to evaluation criteria, with their results documented in release
descriptions. Many components may undergo only informal component testing by the development
team, with the results captured only within the test software built by a developer. Formal testing for
many components will then be subsumed in higher level evaluation criteria and corresponding release
descriptions. All components are not created equal: Some of them deserve formal component testing to
verify requirements, while others are best tested in the context of capability testing. This judgment must
be left to the discretion of the assessment team.
The assessment team is responsible for the quality of baseline releases with respect to the requirements
and customer expectations. The assessment team is therefore responsible for exposing any quality
issues that affect the customer’s expectations, whether or not these expectations are captured in the
requirements.
Q6. Why the process is to be automated? Explain the reasons and the three levels of automation.
Need for automation:
As the software industry moves into maintaining different information sets for the engineering artifacts,
more automation support is needed to ensure efficient and error free transition of data from one
artifact to another.

Round trip Engineering:
Round-trip engineering is the environment support necessary to maintain consistency among the
engineering artifacts. The figure given below depicts some important transitions between information
repositories. The primary reason for round-trip engineering is to allow freedom in changing software
engineering data sources. This configuration control of all the technical artifacts is crucial to maintaining
a consistent and error-free representation of the evolving product. It is not necessary, however, to have
bi-directional transitions in, all cases.
Three levels such as
 Forward Engineering
 Reverse Engineering
 Re-Engineering
Q7. Explain the term ‘software project team evolution’

The project organization represents the architecture of the team and needs to evolve consistent with
the project plan captured in the work breakdown structure. The figure given below illustrates how the
team’s center of gravity shifts over the life cycle, with about 50% of the staff assigned to one set of
activities in each phase.

A different set of activities is emphasized in each phase, as follows:
 Inception team: an organization focused on planning, with enough support from the other teams to
ensure that the plans represent a consensus of all perspectives
 Elaboration team: an architecture-focused organization in which the driving forces of the project reside
in the software architecture team and are supported by the software development and software
assessment teams as necessary to achieve a stable architecture baseline
 Construction team: a fairly balanced organization in which most of the activity resides in the software
development and software assessment teams
 Transition team: a customer-focused organization in which usage feedback drives the deployment
activities
It is equally important to elaborate the details of sub teams, responsibilities, and work packages, but not
until the planning details in the WBS are stable. Defining all the details of lower level team structures
prematurely can result in serious downstream inefficiencies.
Q8. Explain mapping between process workflows and software development tools.
Many tools are available to automate the software development process. Most of the core software
development tools map closely to one of the process workflows, as illustrated in the figure given below.
Each of the process workflows has a distinct need for automation support. In some cases, it is necessary
to generate an artifact; in others, it is needed for simple bookkeeping. Some of the critical concerns
associated with each workflow are discussed next.
Management
There are many opportunities for automating the project planning and control activities of the
management workflow. Software cost estimation tools and WBS tools are useful for generating the
planning artifacts. For managing against a plan, workflow management tools and a software project
control panel that can maintain an on-line version of the status assessment are advantageous. This
automation support can considerably improve the insight of the metrics collection and reporting
concepts.
Environment
Configuration management and version control are essential in a modern iterative development
process. Much of the metrics approach is dependent on measuring changes in software artifact
baselines.

Requirements
Conventional approaches decomposed system requirements into subsystem requirements, subsystem
requirements into component requirements, and component requirements into unit requirements. In a
modern process, the system requirements are captured in the vision statement. Lower levels of
requirements are driven by the process-organized by iteration rather than by lower level component-in
the form of evaluation criteria.
Design
The tools that support the requirements, design, implementation, and assessment workflows are usually
used together. In fact, the less separable they are the better. The primary support required for the
design workflow is visual modeling, which is used for capturing design models, presenting them in
human-readable format, and translating them into source code. Architecture-first and demonstration-
based process is enabled by existing architecture components and middleware.
Implementation
The implementation workflow relies primarily on a programming environment (editor, compiler,
debugger, and linker) but must also include substantial integration with the change management tools,
visual modeling tools, and test automation tools to support productive iteration.
Assessment and Deployment
The assessment workflow requires all the tools just discussed as well as additional capabilities to
support test automation and test management. To increase change freedom, testing and document
production must be mostly automated. Defect tracking is another important tool that supports
assessment: It provides the change management instrumentation necessary to automate metrics and
control release baselines. It is also needed to support the deployment workflow throughout the life
cycle.
Q9. “The project environment artifacts evolve through three discrete states”. Explain.
The project environment artifacts evolve through three discrete states: the prototyping environment,
the development environment, and the maintenance environment.
1. The prototyping environment includes an architecture test bed for prototyping project architectures to
evaluate trade-offs during the inception and elaboration phases of the life cycle. This informal
configuration of tools should be capable of supporting the following activities:
a. Performance trade-offs and technical risk analyses
b. Make/buy trade-offs and feasibility studies for commercial products
c. Fault tolerance/dynamic reconfiguration trade-offs
d. Analysis of the risks associated with transitioning to full-scale implementation
e. Development of test scenarios, tools, and instrumentation suitable for analyzing the requirements
2. The development environment should include a full suite of development tools needed to support the
various process workflows and to support round-trip engineering to the maximum extent possible.
3. The maintenance environment should typically coincide with a mature version of the development
environment. In some cases, the maintenance environment may be a subset of the development
environment delivered as one of the project's end products.
Q10. Explain SCO (Software Change Order)

The atomic unit of software work that is authorized to create, modify, or obsolesce components within a
configuration baseline is called a software change order (SCO). Software change orders are a key
mechanism for partitioning, allocating, and scheduling software work against an established software
baseline and for assessing progress and quality.

The basic fields of the SCO are title, description, metrics, resolution, assessment, and disposition.
Title
The title is suggested by the originator and is finalized upon acceptance by the configuration control
board (CCB). This field should include a reference to an external software problem report if the change
was initiated by an external person (such as a user).
Description
The problem description includes the name of the originator, date of origination, CCB-assigned SCO
identifier, and relevant version identifiers of related support software. The textual problem description
should provide as much detail as possible, along with attached code excerpts, display snapshots, error
messages, and any other data that may help to isolate the problem or describe the change needed.
Metrics
The metrics collected for each SCO are important for planning, for scheduling, and for assessing quality
improvement. Change categories are type 0 (critical bug), type 1 (bug), type 2 (enhancement), type 3
(new feature), and type 4 (other). Upon acceptance of the SCO, initial estimates are made of the amount
of breakage and the effort required to resolve the problem. The breakage item quantifies the volume of
change, and the rework item quantifies the complexity of change. Upon resolution, the actual breakage
is noted, and the actual rework effort is further elaborated. The analysis item identifies the number of
staff hours expended in understanding the required change. The implement item identifies the staff
hours necessary to design and implement the resolution. The test item identifies the hours expended in
testing the resolution, and the document item identifies all effort expended in updating other artifacts
such as the user manual or release description. Breakage quantifies the extent of change and can be
defined in units of SLOC, function points, files, components, or classes.
Resolution
This field includes the name of the person responsible for implementing the change, the components
changed, the actual metrics, and a description of the change.
Assessment
This field describes the assessment technique as inspection, analysis, demonstration, or test. Where
applicable, it should also reference all existing test cases and new test cases executed, and it should
identify all different test configurations, such as platforms, topologies, and compilers.
Disposition
The SCO is assigned one of the following states by the CCB:
a) Proposed: written, pending CCB review
b) Accepted: CCB-approved for resolution
c) Rejected: closed, with rationale, such as not a problem, duplicate, obsolete change, resolved
by another SCO
d) Archived: accepted but postponed until a later release
e) In progress: assigned and actively being resolved by the development organization
f) In assessment: resolved by the development organization; being assessed by a test
organization
g) Closed: completely resolved, with the concurrence of all CCB members
Q11. “Project software standard is to be set by Organization Policy.” Explain the statement.
Organization Policy
The organization policy is usually packaged as a handbook that defines the life cycle and the process
primitives (major milestones, intermediate artifacts, engineering repositories, metrics, roles and
responsibilities).

The handbook provides a general framework for answering the following questions:
 What gets done? (activities and artifacts)
 When does it get done? (mapping to the life-cycle phases and milestones)
 Who does it? (team roles and responsibilities)
 How do we know that it is adequate? (checkpoints, metrics, and standards of performance)
The need for balance is an important consideration in defining organizational policy. Too often,
organizations end up at one of two extremes: no institutionalized process, or too much standardization
and bureaucracy.
The organization policy is the defining document for the organization's software policies. In any process
assessment, this is the tangible artifact that says what you do. From this document, reviewers should be
able to question and review projects and personnel and determine whether the organization does what
it says.

Unit-V
Project Control and Process instrumentation | Tailoring
the Process

Q1. State and explain various core metrics.
Many different metrics may be of value in managing a modern process. There are seven core metrics
that should be used on all software projects. Three are management indicators and four are quality
indicators.
Management Indicators
 Work and progress (work performed over time)
 Budgeted cost and expenditures (cost incurred over time)
 Staffing and team dynamics (personnel changes over time)
Quality Indicators
 Change traffic and stability (change traffic over time)
 Breakage and modularity (average breakage per change over time)
 Rework and adaptability (average rework per change over time)
 Mean time between failures (MTBF) and maturity (defect rate over time)
The table given below describes the core software metrics. Each metric has two dimensions: a static
value used as an objective, and the dynamic trend used to manage the achievement of that objective.
The seven core metrics are based on common sense and field experience with both successful and
unsuccessful metrics programs. Their attributes include the following:
 They are simple, objective, easy to collect, easy to interpret, and hard to misinterpret.
 Collection can be automated and nonintrusive.
 They provide for consistent assessments throughout the life cycle and are derived from the evolving
product baselines rather than from a subjective assessment.
 They are useful to both management and engineering personnel for communicating progress and
quality in a consistent format.
 Their fidelity improves across the life cycle.
Q2. Explain the three management indicators’ metrics in detail.

OR
Q2. Write a short note on “Earned Value System”.
There are three fundamental sets of management metrics as follows:

 Work and progress
 Budgeted cost and expenditures
 Staffing and team dynamics
Work and Progress
For the standard teams, the default perspectives of this metric would be as follows:
 Software architecture team: use cases demonstrated
 Software development team: SLOC under baseline change management, SCOs closed
 Software assessment team: SCOs opened, test hours executed, evaluation criteria met
 Software management team: milestones completed
Budgeted Cost and Expenditures
To maintain management control, measuring cost expenditures over the project life cycle is always
necessary. Tracking financial progress usually takes on an organization-specific format. One common
approach to financial performance measurement is use of an earned value system, which provides a
highly detailed cost and schedule insight.
The basic parameters of an earned value system, usually expressed in units of dollars, are as follows:
 Expenditure plan: the planned spending profile for a project over its planned schedule. For most
software projects (and other labor-intensive projects), this profile generally tracks the staffing profile.
 Actual progress: the technical accomplishment relative to the planned progress underlying the spending
profile. Ina healthy project, the actual progress tracks planned progress closely.
 Actual cost: the actual spending profile for a project over its actual schedule. Ina healthy project, this
profile tracks the planned profile closely.
 Earned value: the value that represents the planned cost of the actual progress.
 Cost variance: the difference between the actual cost and the earned value. Positive values correspond
to over-budget situations; negative values correspond to under-budget situations.
 Schedule variance: the difference between the planned cost and the earned value. Positive values
correspond to behind-schedule situations; negative values correspond to head-of-schedule situations.
The figure below provides a graphical perspective of these parameters and shows a simple example of a
project situation. The main purpose of the other core metrics is to provide management and
engineering teams with a more objective approach for assessing actual progress with greater accuracy
Staffing and Team Dynamics

An iterative development should start with a small team until the risks in the requirements and
architecture have been suitably resolved. Depending on the overlap of iterations and other project-
specific circumstances, staffing can vary.

Q3. Write a short note on Quality Indicators.
The four quality indicators are based primarily on the measurement of software change across evolving
baselines of engineering data (such as design models and source code).
Change Traffic and Stability
Change traffic is defined as the number of software change orders opened and closed over the life cycle
.This metric can be collected by change type, by release, across all releases, by team, by components, by
subsystem, and so forth. Coupled with the work and progress metrics, it provides insight into the
stability of the software and its convergence toward.
Stability is defined as the relationship between opened versus closed SCOs. The change traffic relative to
the release schedule provides insight into schedule predictability, which are the primary value of this
metric and an indicator of how well the process is performing. The next three quality metrics focus more
on the quality of the product.
Breakage and Modularity

Breakage is defined as the average extent of change, which is the amount of software baseline that
needs rework (in SLOC, function points, components, subsystems, files, etc.). Modularity is the average
breakage trend over time. For a healthy project, the trend expectation is decreasing or stable .This
indicator provides insight into the benign or malignant character of software change. In a mature
iterative development process, earlier changes are expected to result in more scrap than later changes.
Breakage trends that are increasing with time clearly indicate that product maintainability is suspect.

Rework and Adaptability
Rework is defined as the average cost of change, which is the effort to analyze, resolve, and retest all
changes to software baselines. Adaptability is defined as the rework trend over time. For a healthy
project, the trend expectation is decreasing or stable.
MTBF and Maturity

MTBF is the average usage time between software faults. In rough terms, MTBF is computed by dividing
the test hours by the number of type 0 and type 1 SCOs. Maturity is defined as the MTBF trend over
time (figure given below).
Q4. Write a short note on pragmatic software metrics.

OR
Q4. Define metrics and discuss characteristics of a good metric.
Metrics: Software process and project metrics are quantitative measures that enable software
engineers to gain insight into the efficiency of the software process and the projects conducted using
the process framework.
The basic characteristics of a good metric are as follows:
It is considered meaningful by the customer, manager, and performer.
If anyone of these stakeholders does not see the metric as meaningful, it will not be used. Customers
come to software engineering providers because the providers are more expert than they are at
developing and managing software. Customers will accept metrics that are demonstrated to be
meaningful to the developer.
It demonstrates quantifiable correlation between process perturbations and business performance.
The only real organizational goals and objectives are financial: cost reduction, revenue increase, and
margin increase.
It is objective and unambiguously defined.
Objectivity should translate into some form of numeric representation (such as numbers, percentages,
ratios) as opposed to textual representations (such as excellent, good, fair, poor). Ambiguity is
minimized through well-understood units of measurement (such as staff-month, SLOC, change, function

point, class, scenario, requirement), which are surprisingly hard to define precisely in the software
engineering world.
It displays trends.
This is an important characteristic. Understanding the change in a metric’s value with respect to time,
subsequent projects, subsequent releases, and so forth is an extremely important perspective,
especially for today’s iterative development models. More typically, a metric presents a perspective. It is
up to the decision authority (manager, team, or other information processing entity) to interpret the
metric and decide what action is necessary.
It is a natural by-product of the process.
The metric does not introduce new artifacts or overhead activities; it is derived directly from the
mainstream engineering and management workflows.
It is supported by automation.
Experience has demonstrated that the most successful metrics are those that are collected and reported
by automated tools, in part because software tools require rigorous definitions of the data they process.
Q5. Write a short note on SPCP (software project control panel).
The SPCP is one example of a metrics automation approach that collects, organizes, and reports values
and trends extracted directly from the evolving engineering artifacts. Software engineers will accept
metrics only if metrics are automated by the environment.
 Start the SPCP: The SPCP starts and shows the most current information that was saved when the user
last used the SPCP.
 Select a panel preference: The user selects from a list of previously defined default panel preferences.
The SPCP displays the preference selected.
 Select a value or graph metric: The user selects whether the metric should be displayed for a given
point in time or in a graph, as a trend. The default for values is the most recent measurement available.
The default for trends is monthly.
 Select to superimpose controls: The user points to a graphical object and requests that the control
values for that metric and point in time be displayed. In the case of trends, the controls are shown
superimposed with the metric.
 Drill down to trend: The user points to a graphical object displaying a point in time and drills down to
view the trend for the metric.
 Drill down to point in time: The user points to a graphical object displaying a trend and drills down to
view the values for the metric.
 Drill down to lower levels of information: The user points to a graphical object displaying a point in
time and drills down to view the next level of information.
 Drill down to lower level of indicators: The user points to a graphical object displaying an indicator and
drills down to view the breakdown of the next level of indicators.
Q6. Explain the two dimensions of process discriminate with neat diagram.
In tailoring the management process to a specific domain or project, there are two dimensions of
discriminating factors:
 Technical complexity
 Management complexity

The figure above illustrates these two dimensions of process variability and shows some example
project applications. The formality of reviews, the quality control of artifacts, the priorities of concerns,
and numerous other process instantiation parameters are governed by the point a project occupies in
these two dimensions.
A process framework is not a project-specific process implementation with a well-defined recipe for
success. Judgment must be injected, and the methods, techniques, culture, formality, and organization
must be tailored to the specific domain to achieve a process implementation that can succeed. The
following discussion about the major differences among project processes is organized around six
process parameters: the size of the project and the five parameters that affect the process exponent,
and hence economies of scale, in COCOMO II. These are some of the critical dimensions that a software
project manager must consider when tailoring a process framework to create a practical process
implementation.
Q7. Enlist the factors of tailoring a software process framework. Explain the scale factor in detail.
Factors of tailoring software process framework:
o Scale
o Stakeholder cohesion and contention
o Process flexibility or rigor
o Process maturity
o Architectural risk
o Domain experience
 Scale
Perhaps the single most important factor in tailoring a software process framework to the specific needs
of a project is the total scale of the software application. There are many ways to measure scale,
including number of source lines of code, number of function points, number of use cases, and number
of dollars. From a process tailoring perspective, the primary measure of scale is the size of the team. As
the headcount increases, the importance of consistent interpersonal communications becomes
paramount. Otherwise, the diseconomies of scale can have a serious impact on achievement of the
project objectives.
Several size of the project:
 Trivial
 Small
 Medium-sized
 Large
 Huge
Trivial-sized projects require almost no management overhead (planning, communication,
coordination, progress assessment, review, administration). There is little need to document the
intermediate artifacts. Workflow is single-threaded. Performance is highly dependent on personnel
skills.
Small projects (5 people) require very little management overhead, but team leadership toward a
common objective is crucial. There is some need to communicate the intermediate artifacts among
team members. Project milestones are easily planned, informally conducted, and easily changed.
Performance depends primarily on personnel skills.
Moderate-sized projects (25 people) require moderate management overhead, including a dedicated
software project manager to synchronize team workflows and balance resources. Overhead workflows
across all team leads are necessary for review, coordination, and assessment. There is a definite need to
communicate the intermediate artifacts among teams.
Large projects (125 people) require substantial management overhead, including a dedicated software
project manager and several subproject managers to synchronize project-level and subproject-level
workflows and to balance resources. There is significant expenditure in overhead workflows across all
team leads for dissemination, review, coordination, and assessment. Intermediate artifacts are explicitly
emphasized to communicate engineering results across many diverse teams. Project milestones are
formally planned and conducted, and changes to milestone plans are expensive.
Huge projects (625 people) require substantial management overhead, including multiple software
project managers and many subproject managers to synchronize project-level and subproject-level
workflows and to balance resources. There is significant expenditure in overhead workflows across all
team leads for dissemination, review, coordination, and assessment. Intermediate artifacts are explicitly
emphasized to communicate engineering results across many diverse teams.
 Stakeholder Cohesion or Contention

The degree of cooperation and coordination among stakeholders (buyers, developers, users,
subcontractors, and maintainers, among others) can significantly drive the specifics of how a process is
defined. This process parameter can range from cohesive to adversarial. Cohesive teams have common
goals, complementary skills, and close communications. Adversarial teams have conflicting goals,
competing or incomplete skills, and less-than-open communications.
 Process Flexibility or Rigor

The degree of rigor, formality, and change freedom inherent in a specific project’s “contract” (vision
document, business case, and development plan) will have a substantial impact on the implementation
of the project’s process. For very loose contracts such as building a commercial product within a
business unit of a software company (such as a Microsoft application or a Rational Software Corporation
development tool), management complexity is minimal.

 Process Maturity
The process maturity level of the development organization, as defined by the Software Engineering
Institute's Capability Maturity Model [SEI, 1993; 1993b; 1995], is another key driver of management
complexity. Managing a mature process (level 3 or higher) is far simpler than managing an immature
process (levels 1 and 2). Organizations with a mature process typically have a high level of precedent
experience in developing software and a high level of existing process collateral that enables predictable
planning and execution of the process.
 Architectural Risk
The degree of technical feasibility demonstrated before commitment to full-scale production is an
important dimension of defining a specific project’s process. There are many sources of architectural
risk. Some of the most important and recurring sources are system performance (resource utilization,
response time, throughput, accuracy), robustness to change (addition of new features, incorporation of
new technology, adaptation to dynamic operational conditions), and system reliability (predictable
behavior, fault tolerance). The degree to which these risks can be eliminated before construction begins
can have dramatic ramifications in the process tailoring.
 Domain Experience
The development organization’s domain experience governs its ability to converge on an acceptable
architecture in a minimum number of iterations. An organization that has built five generations of radar
control switches may be able to converge on an adequate baseline architecture for a new radar
application in two or three prototype release iterations. A skilled software organization building its first
radar application may require four or five prototype releases before converging on an adequate
baseline.
Q8. Explain about small scale and large scale projects.

 Management is more important in the large projects than in the small projects.
 Large projects have numerous mundane jobs, especially in the overhead workflows, and more
communications.
 The probability of recruiting, maintaining, and retaining a large number of exceptional people is small.
 The number of people needed is more important than the project cost for tailoring the project.
 Size is the most important parameter in the effort formula (generally, lines of source code) and in
determining project scale and the number of people needed.
One key aspect of the differences between the two projects is the leverage of the various process
components in the success or failure of the project. This reflects the importance of staffing or the level
of associated risk management.

Unit-VI
Future Software Project Management

Q1. Discuss the five recurring issues of conventional process. How are they resolved by modern process
framework?
Following are five recurring issues of conventional process. A modern process framework exploits
several critical approaches for resolving these issues:
 Protracted integration and late design breakage are resolved by forcing integration into the engineering
stage. This is achieved through continuous integration of an architecture baseline supported by
executable demonstrations of the primary scenarios.
 Late risk resolution is resolved by emphasizing an architecture-first approach, in which the high-leverage
elements of the system are elaborated early in the life cycle.
 The analysis paralysis of a requirements-driven functional decomposition is avoided by organizing lower
level specifications along the content of releases rather than along the product decomposition (by
subsystem, by component, etc.)
 Adversarial stakeholder relationships are avoided by providing much more tangible and objective results
throughout the life cycle.
 The conventional focus on documents and review meetings is replaced by a focus on demonstrable
results and well-defined sets of artifacts, with more-rigorous notations and extensive automation
supporting a paperless environment
Q2. How is risk resolution carried out in the iterative process? What is its advantage?
According to modern project management ways, risk resolution is done very early in the life cycle.
The engineering stage of the life cycle focuses on exploring the risk and resolving them before
production stage.
Entire project life cycle is divided into three different time period related to Risk resolution.
They are as follows:-
 Risk Exploration Period (REP)
 Risk Resolution Period (RRP)
 Controlled Risk Management Period (CRMP)
The figure given below compares the risk management profile of a modern project with the profile for a
typical conventional project.

Q3. Enlist the various principles of modern project management
Following are top 10 Software Management Principles as follows:
1. Base the process on an architecture-first approach. An early focus on the architecture results in a solid
foundation for the 20% of the stuff (requirements, components, use cases, risks, and errors) that drives
the overall success of the project. Getting the architecturally important components to be well
understood and stable should result in scrap and rework rates to decrease or remain stable over the
project life cycle.
2. Establish an iterative life-cycle process that confronts risk early. A more dynamic planning framework
supported by an iterative process results in better risk management and more predictable performance.
Resolving the critical issues first results in a predictable construction phase with no surprises, as well as
minimal exposure to sources of cost and schedule unpredictability.
3. Transition design methods to emphasize component-based development. The complexity of a software
effort is mostly a function of the number of human-generated artifacts. Making the solution smaller
reduces management complexity.
4. Establish a changé management environnement. The dynamics of iterative development, including
concurrent workflows by different teams working on shared artifacts, necessitate highly controlled
baselines.
5. Enhance change freedom through tools that support round-trip engineering. Automation enables teams
to spend more time on engineering and less time on overhead tasks.
6. Capture design artifacts in rigorous, model-based notation. An engineering notation for design enables
complexity control, objective assessment, and automated analyses.
7. Instrument the process for objective quality control and progress assessment. Progress and quality
indicators are derived directly from the evolving artifacts, providing more-meaningful insight into trends
and correlation with requirements.
8. Use a demonstration-based approach to assess intermediate artifacts. Integration occurs early and
continuously throughout the life cycle. Intermediate results are objective and tangible.
9. Plan intermediate releases in groups of usage scenarios with evolving levels of detail. Requirements,
designs, and plans evolve in balance. Useful software releases are available early in the life cycle.
10. Establish a configurable process that is economically scalable. Methods, techniques, tools, and
experience can be applied straightforwardly to a broad domain, providing improved return on
investment across a line of business.
Q4. Explain the steps or strategies to make error-free software

The steps or strategies to make error-free software are as follows:
1. Continuous integration
2. Early risk resolution
3. Evolutionary requirements
4. Teamwork among stakeholders
Q5. Explain the best practices listed it out by “Airline Software Council”.
OR
Q5. Discuss nine best practices of software management.
Following is list of best practices listed in out by “Airline Software Council”.
1. Formal risk management
Using an iterative process that confronts risk is more or less what this is saying.
2. Agreement on interfaces
While we may use different words, this is exactly the same intent as architecture-first principle. Getting
the architecture baselined forces the project to gain agreement on the various external interfaces and
the important internal interfaces, all of which are inherent in the architecture.
3. Formal inspections
The assessment workflow throughout the life cycle, along with the other engineering workflows, must
balance several different defect removal strategies. The least important strategy, in terms of breadth,
should be formal inspection, because of its high costs in human resources and its low defect discovery
rate for the critical architectural defects that span multiple components and temporal complexity.
4. Metric-based scheduling and management
This important principle is directly related to the model-based notation and objective quality control
principles. Without rigorous notations for artifacts, the measurement of progress and quality
degenerates into subjective estimates.
5. Binary quality gates at the inch-pebble level
This practice is easy to misinterpret. Too many projects have taken exactly this approach early in the life
cycle and have laid out a highly detailed plan at great expense. Three months later, when some of the
requirements change or the architecture changes, a large percentage of the detailed planning must be
rebasing lined. A better approach would be to maintain fidelity of the plan commensurate with an
understanding of the requirements and the architecture. Rather than inch pebbles, establish milestones
in the engineering stage followed by inch pebbles in the production stage. This is the primary message
behind evolving levels of detail principle.
6. Program wide visibility of progress versus plan
This practice namely, open communications among project team members is obviously necessary.
7. Defect tracking against quality targets
This important principle is directly related to architecture-first and objective quality control principles.
The make-or-break defects and quality targets are architectural. Getting a handle on these qualities
early and tracking their trends are requirements for success.
8. Configuration management
The Airlie Software Council emphasized configuration management as key to controlling complexity and
tracking changes to all artifacts. It also recognized that automation is important because of the volume
and dynamics of modern; large scale projects, which make manual methods cost-prohibitive and error-
prone. The same reasoning is behind change management principle.
9. People-aware management accountability

This is another management principle that seems so obvious.
Q6. Write a short note on Next generation cost models.
OR
Q6. Analyze the future perspective of cost estimation model.
Software experts hold widely varying opinions about software economics and its manifestation in
software cost estimation models:
 Source lines of code versus function points
 Economy of scale versus diseconomy of scale
 Productivity measures versus quality measures
 Java versus C++
 Object-oriented versus functionally oriented
 Commercial components versus custom development
It will be difficult to improve empirical estimation models while the project data going into these models
are noisy and highly uncorrelated, and are based on differing process and technology foundations.
Some of today’s popular software cost models are not well matched to an iterative software process
focused an architecture-first approach.
Many cost estimators are still using a conventional process experience base to estimate a modern
project profile.
A next-generation software cost model should explicitly separate architectural engineering from
application production, just as an architecture-first process does.
Two major improvements in next-generation software cost estimation models:
 Separation of the engineering stage from the production stage will force estimators to differentiate
between architectural scale and implementation size.
 Rigorous design notations such as UML will offer an opportunity to define units of measure for scale that
are more standardized and therefore can be automated and tracked.
Q7. Explain the basic difference between problem space Vs. Solution space with respect to software cost
model.
Next-generation environments and infrastructures are moving to automate and standardize many of
these management activities, thereby requiring a lower percentage of effort for overhead activities as
scale increases.
Reusing common processes across multiple iterations of a single project, multiple releases of a single
product, or multiple projects in an organization also relieves many of the sources of diseconomy of
scale. Critical sources of scrap and rework are eliminated by applying precedent experience and mature
processes. Establishing trustworthy plans based on credible project performance norms and using
reliable components reduce other sources of scrap and rework. While most reuse of components results
in reducing the size of the production effort, the reuse of processes, tools, and experience has a direct
impact on the economies of scale.
Another important difference in this cost model is that architectures and applications have different
units of mass (scale versus size) and are representations of the solution space. Scale might be measured
in terms of architecturally significant elements (classes, components, processes, nodes), and size might
be measured in SLOC or megabytes of executable code. These measures differ from measures of the
problem space such as discrete requirements or use cases.

Q8. Write an exhaustive note on “Culture shift”
Culture Shift successfully overcomes the transition of software management process but for some process it is
difficult to distinguish between objective opposition and stubborn contention.
Many of these indicators are derived directly from the process framework.
Lower level and mid-level managers are performers
There should be no “pure managers” in an organization or sub-organization with 25 or fewer people.
The need for pure managers arises only when personnel resources exceed this level. Hands-on
management skills vary, but competent managers typically spend much of their time performing,
especially with regard to understanding the status of the project firsthand and developing plans and
estimates. Above all, the person managing an effort should plan it. This does not mean the manager
should approve the plan; it means the manager should participate in developing it.
Requirements and designs are fluid and tangible
The conventional process focused too much on producing documents that attempted to describe the
software product and focused too little on producing tangible increments of the products themselves.
Development organizations for large contractual projects were driven to produce tons of paper in order
to meet milestones and receive progress payments, rather than spend their energy on tasks that would
have reduced risk and produced quality software.
Ambitious demonstrations are encouraged
The purpose of early life-cycle demonstrations is to expose design flaws, not to put up a facade.
Stakeholders must not overreact to early mistakes, digressions, or immature designs. Evaluation criteria
in early release plans are goals, not requirements. If early engineering obstacles are overemphasized,
development organizations will set up future iterations to be less ambitious.
Good and bad project performance is much more obvious earlier in the life cycle
In an iterative development, success breeds success, and early failures are extremely risky to turn
around. Real-world project experience has shown time and again that it is the early phases that make or
break a project. It is therefore of paramount importance to ensure that the very best team possible
performs the planning and architecture phases
Early increments will be immature
External stakeholders, such as customers and users, cannot expect initial deliveries to perform up to
specification, to be complete, to be fully reliable, or to have end-target levels of quality or performance.
Artifacts are less important early, more important later

It is a waste of time to worry about the details (traceability, thoroughness, and completeness) of the
artifact sets until a baseline is achieved that is useful enough and stable enough to warrant time-
consuming analyses of these quality factors.
Real issues are surfaced and resolved systematically
Successful projects recognize that requirements and designs evolve together, with continuous
negotiation, trade-off, and bartering toward best value, rather than blindly adhering to an ambiguous
contract statement. On a healthy project that is making progress, it should be easy to differentiate
between real and apparent issues. Depending on the situation, this culture shift could affect almost any
team.
Quality assurance is everyone's Job, not a separate discipline
Many organizations have a separate group called quality assurance. Quality assurance should be woven
into every role, every activity, and every artifact. True quality assurance is measured by tangible
progress and objective data, not by checklists, meetings, and human inspections. The software project
manager or designee should assume the role of ensuring that quality assurance is properly integrated
into the process.
Performance issues arise early in the life cycle
Early performance issues are a sign of an immature design but a mature design process. Stakeholders
will usually be concerned over early performance issues. Development engineers will embrace the
emphasis on early demonstrations and the ability to assess and evaluate performance trade-offs in
subsequent releases.
Investments in automation are necessary
Because iterative development projects require extensive automation, it is important not to underinvest
in the capital environment. It is also important for stakeholders to acquire an integrated environment
that permits efficient participation in an iterative development.
Good software organizations should be more profitable
In the commercial software domain, this is not an issue. In most of the software contracting domain,
especially government contracts, it is definitely an issue. As part of the adversarial nature of the
acquisition and contracting process, there is considerable focus on ensuring that contractor profits are
within a certain acceptable range (typically 5% to 15%).
Q9. Write a short note on the process of denouement.

OR
Q9. Explain how modern process transition claims that to be fruitful.
A modern process framework attacks the primary sources of the diseconomy of scale inherent in the
conventional software process. The figure below illustrates the next generation of software project
performance by depicting the development progress versus time, where progress is defined as percent
coded.

As an organization transitions to new techniques and technologies, there is always apprehension and
concern about failing. Maintaining the status quo and relying on existing methods is usually considered
the safest path. When an organization decides to make a transition, these two pieces of conventional
wisdom are usually offered by internal champions as well as external change agents:
 Pioneer any new techniques on a small pilot program
 Be prepared to spend more resources-money and time-on your first project that makes the
transition
Small pilot programs outside the mainstream have their place, but they rarely achieve any paradigm
shift of consequence. Trying a new little technique, tool, or method on a very rapid, small-scale
effortless than 3 months, say, and only a few people can frequently show good results, initial
momentum, or proof of concept. The problem with pilot programs is that they are almost never on the
critical path of the organization. Consequently, they do not merit “A” players, adequate resources, or
management attention.
A better way to transition to a more mature iterative development process that supports automation
technologies and modern architectures is to take the following shot:
 Ready: Do your homework. Analyze modern approaches and technologies. Define (or improve, or
optimize) your process. Support it with mature environments, tools, and components. Plan
thoroughly.
 Aim: Select a critical project. Staff it with the right team of complementary resources and demand
improved results.
 Fire: Execute the organizational and project-level plans with vigor and follow-through.

Project Management

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Project Management

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Syllabus

Conventional Software Management

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Q2. State the improvements to the waterfall model.

Q5. Explain Evolution of software economics over three generations

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Q6. Write a short note on software cost estimation process.

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Q7. Write a short note on Reducing Software size

Object – Oriented Methods and Visual Modeling

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Q8. Explain Microprocess , Metaprocess and Macro process.

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Q12. How “Peer Inspection” helps in improving ROI? Explain

Q13. Write a short note on function points”.

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There are 5 rules used to calculate LOC they are:-

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Put techniques before tools.

Follow with care.

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Q2. State & explain Modern Principles.

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Q3. Write a short note on engineering phases.

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Q4. Write a short note on Inception Phase.

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Q5. Write a short note on Elaboration phase.

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Q6. Write a short note on Construction phase.

Q7. Write a short note on Transition phase.

This phase could include any of the following activities:

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Q8. State and explain various Artifacts.

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Q9. Differentiate between Implementation Set and Deployment Set

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Q10. Write a short note on test artifacts.

Q11. State and explain various Management artifacts.

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Q.12 State and explain various Engineering artifacts.

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Q13 .Write a short note on pragmatic artifacts

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Q14. Explain architecture from Management Perspective.

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Q15. Explain architecture from Technical Perspective.

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Q3. Write a short note on joint management reviews.

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Q4. State and explain various Major Milestones.

Life – Cycle Objectives Milestone

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Q5. Write a short note on Minor Milestones.

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Q7. Short note on WBS

Q9. Explain Evolutionary WBS.

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Q11. Explain iteration planning process.

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Software Engineering Process Authority

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Q2. Explain the tasks of software Management team.

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Q5. Explain the tasks of software Assessment team.

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