Math Analysis

Topics In Analysis
Kuttler
December 18, 2006

2
Contents
I Review Of Advanced Calculus 15

1 Set Theory 17
1.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2 The Schroder Bernstein Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 Equivalence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4 Partially Ordered Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Continuous Functions Of One Variable 25

2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 Theorems About Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 The Riemann Stieltjes Integral 33

3.1 Upper And Lower Riemann Stieltjes Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 Functions Of Riemann Integrable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4 Properties Of The Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.5 Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4 Some Important Linear Algebra 51

4.1 Algebra in Fn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3 Subspaces Spans And Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4 An Application To Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.5 The Mathematical Theory Of Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.7 The Cayley Hamilton Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.8 An Identity Of Cauchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.9 Block Multiplication Of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.11 Shur’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.12 The Right Polar Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3
4 CONTENTS
5 Multi-variable Calculus 91
5.1 Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.1.1 Distance In Fn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2 Open And Closed Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.3 Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.3.1 Sufficient Conditions For Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.5 Limits Of A Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.7 The Limit Of A Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.7.1 Sequences And Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.7.2 Continuity And The Limit Of A Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.8 Properties Of Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.10 Proofs Of Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.11 The Space L (Fn , Fm ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.11.1 The Operator Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.12 The Frechet Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.13 C 1 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.14 C k Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.15 Mixed Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.16 Implicit Function Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.16.1 More Continuous Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.17 The Method Of Lagrange Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6 Metric Spaces And General Topological Spaces 133

6.1 Metric Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2 Compactness In Metric Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.3 Some Applications Of Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.4 Ascoli Arzela Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.5 The Tietze Extension Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.6 General Topological Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.7 Connected Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7 Weierstrass Approximation Theorem 157

7.1 The Bernstein Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.2 Stone Weierstrass Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.2.1 The Case Of Compact Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.2.2 The Case Of Locally Compact Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.2.3 The Case Of Complex Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
CONTENTS 5
II Real And Abstract Analysis 169

8 Abstract Measure And Integration 171
8.1 σ Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
8.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.3 The Abstract Lebesgue Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.3.1 Preliminary Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.3.2 Definition Of The Lebesgue Integral For Nonnegative Mea-
surable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.3.3 The Lebesgue Integral For Nonnegative Simple Functions . . 187
8.3.4 Simple Functions And Measurable Functions . . . . . . . . . 190
8.3.5 The Monotone Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.3.6 Other Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.3.7 Fatou’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.3.8 The Righteous Algebraic Desires Of The Lebesgue Integral . 196
8.4 The Space L1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.5 Vitali Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
9 The Construction Of Measures 209

9.1 Outer Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
9.2 Regular Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.3 Urysohn’s lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
9.4 Positive Linear Functionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.5 One Dimensional Lebesgue Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.6 The Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.7 Product Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
9.8 Alternative Treatment Of Product Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
9.8.1 Monotone Classes And Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
9.8.2 Product Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.9 Completion Of Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
9.10 Another Version Of Product Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
9.10.1 General Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
9.10.2 Completion Of Product Measure Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
9.11 Disturbing Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
9.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
10 Lebesgue Measure 267

10.1 Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.2 The Vitali Covering Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10.3 The Vitali Covering Theorem (Elementary Version) . . . . . . . . . . 273
10.4 Vitali Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
10.5 Change Of Variables For Linear Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
10.6 Change Of Variables For C 1 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
10.7 Mappings Which Are Not One To One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
6 CONTENTS
10.8 Lebesgue Measure And Iterated Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

10.9 Spherical Coordinates In Many Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
10.10The Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
10.11The Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem Another Proof . . . . . . . . . . 298
11 Some Extension Theorems 303

11.1 Caratheodory Extension Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
11.2 The Tychonoff Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
11.3 Kolmogorov Extension Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
11.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
12 The Lp Spaces 315

12.1 Basic Inequalities And Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
12.2 Density Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
12.3 Separability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
12.4 Continuity Of Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
12.5 Mollifiers And Density Of Smooth Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
12.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
13 Banach Spaces 337

13.1 Theorems Based On Baire Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
13.1.1 Baire Category Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
13.1.2 Uniform Boundedness Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
13.1.3 Open Mapping Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
13.1.4 Closed Graph Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
13.2 Hahn Banach Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
13.3 Weak And Weak ∗ Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
13.3.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
13.3.2 Banach Alaoglu Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
13.3.3 Eberlein Smulian Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
13.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
14 Hilbert Spaces 365

14.1 Basic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
14.2 Approximations In Hilbert Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
14.3 The Müntz Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
14.4 Orthonormal Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
14.5 Fourier Series, An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
14.6 Compact Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
14.6.1 Compact Operators In Hilbert Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
14.6.2 Nuclear Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
14.6.3 Hilbert Schmidt Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
14.7 Compact Operators In Banach Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
14.8 The Fredholm Alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
CONTENTS 7
15 Representation Theorems 399

15.1 Radon Nikodym Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
15.2 Vector Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
15.3 Representation Theorems For The Dual Space Of Lp . . . . . . . . . 412
15.4 The Dual Space Of C (X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
15.5 The Dual Space Of C0 (X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
15.6 More Attractive Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
15.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
16 Integrals And Derivatives 429

16.1 The Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
16.2 Absolutely Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
16.3 Differentiation Of Measures With Respect To Lebesgue Measure . . 439
16.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
17 Hausdorff Measure 449

17.1 Definition Of Hausdorff Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
17.1.1 Properties Of Hausdorff Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
17.1.2 Hn And mn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
17.1.3 A Formula For α (n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
17.1.4 Hausdorff Measure And Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . 458
17.2 The Area Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
17.2.1 Preliminary Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
17.2.2 The Area Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
17.3 The Area Formula Alternate Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
17.3.1 Preliminary Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
17.3.2 The Area Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
17.4 The Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
18 Differentiation With Respect To General Radon Measures 495

18.1 Besicovitch Covering Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
18.2 Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus For Radon Measures . . . . . . . 500
18.3 Slicing Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
18.4 Vitali Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
18.5 Differentiation Of Radon Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
18.6 The Radon Nikodym Theorem For Radon Measures . . . . . . . . . 515
19 Fourier Transforms 517

19.1 An Algebra Of Special Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
19.2 Fourier Transforms Of Functions In G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
19.3 Fourier Transforms Of Just About Anything . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
19.3.1 Fourier Transforms Of Functions In L1 (Rn ) . . . . . . . . . . 525
19.3.2 Fourier Transforms Of Functions In L2 (Rn ) . . . . . . . . . . 528
19.3.3 The Schwartz Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
19.3.4 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
19.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
8 CONTENTS
20 Fourier Analysis In Rn An Introduction 541

20.1 The Marcinkiewicz Interpolation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
20.2 The Calderon Zygmund Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
20.3 Mihlin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
20.4 Singular Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
20.5 Helmholtz Decompositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
21 The Bochner Integral 577

21.1 Strong And Weak Measurability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
21.2 The Bochner Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
21.2.1 Definition And Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
21.2.2 Taking A Closed Operator Out Of The Integral . . . . . . . . 589
21.3 Operator Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
21.3.1 Review Of Hilbert Schmidt Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
21.3.2 Measurable Compact Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
21.4 Fubini’s Theorem For Bochner Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
21.5 The Spaces Lp (Ω; X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
21.6 Measurable Representatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
21.7 Vector Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
21.8 The Riesz Representation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
21.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
III Complex Analysis 623

22 The Complex Numbers 625
22.1 The Extended Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
22.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
23 Riemann Stieltjes Integrals 629

23.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
24 Fundamentals Of Complex Analysis 641

24.1 Analytic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
24.1.1 Cauchy Riemann Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
24.1.2 An Important Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
24.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
24.3 Cauchy’s Formula For A Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
24.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
24.5 Zeros Of An Analytic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
24.6 Liouville’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
24.7 The General Cauchy Integral Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
24.7.1 The Cauchy Goursat Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
24.7.2 A Redundant Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
24.7.3 Classification Of Isolated Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
24.7.4 The Cauchy Integral Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
CONTENTS 9
24.7.5 An Example Of A Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674

24.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
25 The Open Mapping Theorem 681

25.1 A Local Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
25.2 Branches Of The Logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
25.3 Maximum Modulus Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
25.4 Extensions Of Maximum Modulus Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
25.4.1 Phragmên Lindelöf Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
25.4.2 Hadamard Three Circles Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
25.4.3 Schwarz’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
25.4.4 One To One Analytic Maps On The Unit Ball . . . . . . . . 691
25.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
25.6 Counting Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
25.7 An Application To Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
25.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
26 Residues 705
26.1 Rouche’s Theorem And The Argument Principle . . . . . . . . . . . 708
26.1.1 Argument Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
26.1.2 Rouche’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
26.1.3 A Different Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
26.2 Singularities And The Laurent Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
26.2.1 What Is An Annulus? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
26.2.2 The Laurent Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
26.2.3 Contour Integrals And Evaluation Of Integrals . . . . . . . . 720
26.3 The Spectral Radius Of A Bounded Linear Transformation . . . . . 729
26.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
27 Complex Mappings 735

27.1 Conformal Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
27.2 Fractional Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
27.2.1 Circles And Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
27.2.2 Three Points To Three Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
27.3 Riemann Mapping Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
27.3.1 Montel’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
27.3.2 Regions With Square Root Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
27.4 Analytic Continuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
27.4.1 Regular And Singular Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
27.4.2 Continuation Along A Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
27.5 The Picard Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
27.5.1 Two Competing Lemmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
27.5.2 The Little Picard Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
27.5.3 Schottky’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
27.5.4 A Brief Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
10 CONTENTS
27.5.5 Montel’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761

27.5.6 The Great Big Picard Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
27.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
28 Approximation By Rational Functions 767

28.1 Runge’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
28.1.1 Approximation With Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
28.1.2 Moving The Poles And Keeping The Approximation . . . . . 769
28.1.3 Merten’s Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
28.1.4 Runge’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
28.2 The Mittag-Leffler Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
28.2.1 A Proof From Runge’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
28.2.2 A Direct Proof Without Runge’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 778
28.2.3 Functions Meromorphic On C b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
28.2.4 A Great And Glorious Theorem About Simply Connected
Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
28.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
29 Infinite Products 785

29.1 Analytic Function With Prescribed Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
29.2 Factoring A Given Analytic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
29.2.1 Factoring Some Special Analytic Functions . . . . . . . . . . 796
29.3 The Existence Of An Analytic Function With Given Values . . . . . 798
29.4 Jensen’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
29.5 Blaschke Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
29.5.1 The Müntz-Szasz Theorem Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
29.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810
30 Elliptic Functions 819

30.1 Periodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
30.1.1 The Unimodular Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
30.1.2 The Search For An Elliptic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
30.1.3 The Differential Equation Satisfied By ℘ . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
30.1.4 A Modular Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
30.1.5 A Formula For λ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
30.1.6 Mapping Properties Of λ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
30.1.7 A Short Review And Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
30.2 The Picard Theorem Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
30.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
IV Stochastic Processes, An Introduction 855

31 Random Variables And Basic Probability 857
31.1 The Characteristic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
31.2 Conditional Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
CONTENTS 11
31.3 The Multivariate Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867

31.4 The Central Limit Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
31.5 Brownian Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881
32 Conditional Expectation And Martingales 893

32.1 Conditional Expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
32.2 Discrete Martingales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
33 Filtrations And Martingales 903

33.1 Continuous Martingales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
33.2 Doob’s Martingale Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
34 The Itô Integral 917

34.1 Properties Of The Itô Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
35 Stochastic Processes 933

35.1 An Important Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
35.2 Itô Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
35.3 Some Representation Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
35.4 Stochastic Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
35.4.1 Gronwall’s Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
35.4.2 Review Of Itô Integrals And A Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . 961
35.4.3 A Function Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
35.4.4 An Extension Of The Itô Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
35.4.5 A Vector Valued Deterministic Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
35.4.6 The Existence And Uniqueness Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
35.4.7 Some Simple Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
35.5 A Different Proof Of Existence And Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
35.5.1 Gronwall’s Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
35.5.2 Review Of Itô Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976
35.5.3 The Existence And Uniqueness Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
35.5.4 Some Simple Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
36 Probability In Infinite Dimensions 987

36.1 Expected Value Covariance And Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987
36.2 Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990
36.3 Conditional Expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
36.4 Probability Measures And Tightness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000
36.5 A Major Existence And Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
36.6 Characteristic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
36.7 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
36.8 The Multivariate Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
36.9 Gaussian Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
36.9.1 Definitions And Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
36.10Gaussian Measures For A Separable Hilbert Space . . . . . . . . . . 1033
36.11Abstract Wiener Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036
12 CONTENTS
36.12White Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046

36.13Existence Of Abstract Wiener Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
36.14Fernique’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
36.15Reproducing Kernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
36.16Reproducing Kernels And White Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
V Sobolev Spaces 1077

37 Weak Derivatives 1079
37.1 Weak ∗ Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079
37.2 Test Functions And Weak Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080
37.3 Weak Derivatives In Lploc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
37.4 Morrey’s Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
37.5 Rademacher’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
37.6 Change Of Variables Formula Lipschitz Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
38 The Area And Coarea Formulas 1103

38.1 The Area Formula Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
38.2 Mappings That Are Not One To One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106
38.3 The Coarea Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110
38.4 A Nonlinear Fubini’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121
39 Integration On Manifolds 1123

39.1 Partitions Of Unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123
39.2 Integration On Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127
39.3 Comparison With Hn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133
40 Basic Theory Of Sobolev Spaces 1135

40.1 Embedding Theorems For W m,p (Rn ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1144
40.2 An Extension Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
40.3 General Embedding Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
40.4 More Extension Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1168
41 Sobolev Spaces Based On L2 1173

41.1 Fourier Transform Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
41.2 Fractional Order Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1178
41.3 Embedding Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186
41.4 The Trace On The Boundary Of A Half Space . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188
41.5 Sobolev Spaces On Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
41.5.1 General Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
41.5.2 The Trace On The Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200
42 Weak Solutions 1205

42.1 The Lax Milgram Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205
CONTENTS 13
43 Korn’s Inequality 1211

43.1 A Fundamental Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1211
43.2 Korn’s Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217
44 Elliptic Regularity And Nirenberg Differences 1219

44.1 The Case Of A Half Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1219
44.2 The Case Of Bounded Open Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229
45 Interpolation In Banach Space 1239

45.1 An Assortment Of Important Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239
45.1.1 Weak Vector Valued Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239
45.1.2 Some Imbedding Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249
45.2 The K Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1254
45.3 The J Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1259
45.4 Duality And Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1265
46 Trace Spaces 1275

46.1 Definition And Basic Theory Of Trace Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275
46.2 Equivalence Of Trace And Interpolation Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
47 Traces Of Sobolev Spaces And Fractional Order Spaces 1289

47.1 Traces Of Sobolev Spaces On The Boundary Of A Half Space . . . . 1289
47.2 A Right Inverse For The Trace For A Half Space . . . . . . . . . . . 1292
47.3 Fractional Order Sobolev Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1294
48 Sobolev Spaces On Manifolds 1299

48.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1299
48.2 The Trace On The Boundary Of An Open Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1301
A The Hausdorff Maximal Theorem 1305

A.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309
c 2004,
Copyright °
14 CONTENTS
Part I
Review Of Advanced
Calculus
15
Set Theory
1.1 Basic Definitions

A set is a collection of things called elements of the set. For example, the set of
integers, the collection of signed whole numbers such as 1,2,-4, etc. This set whose
existence will be assumed is denoted by Z. Other sets could be the set of people in
a family or the set of donuts in a display case at the store. Sometimes parentheses,
{ } specify a set by listing the things which are in the set between the parentheses.
For example the set of integers between -1 and 2, including these numbers could
be denoted as {−1, 0, 1, 2}. The notation signifying x is an element of a set S, is
written as x ∈ S. Thus, 1 ∈ {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3}. Here are some axioms about sets.
Axioms are statements which are accepted, not proved.
1. Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements.
2. To every set, A, and to every condition S (x) there corresponds a set, B, whose
elements are exactly those elements x of A for which S (x) holds.
3. For every collection of sets there exists a set that contains all the elements
that belong to at least one set of the given collection.
4. The Cartesian product of a nonempty family of nonempty sets is nonempty.
5. If A is a set there exists a set, P (A) such that P (A) is the set of all subsets
of A. This is called the power set.
These axioms are referred to as the axiom of extension, axiom of specification,
axiom of unions, axiom of choice, and axiom of powers respectively.
It seems fairly clear you should want to believe in the axiom of extension. It is
merely saying, for example, that {1, 2, 3} = {2, 3, 1} since these two sets have the
same elements in them. Similarly, it would seem you should be able to specify a
new set from a given set using some “condition” which can be used as a test to
determine whether the element in question is in the set. For example, the set of all
integers which are multiples of 2. This set could be specified as follows.
{x ∈ Z : x = 2y for some y ∈ Z} .
17
18 SET THEORY
In this notation, the colon is read as “such that” and in this case the condition is
being a multiple of 2.
Another example of political interest, could be the set of all judges who are not
judicial activists. I think you can see this last is not a very precise condition since
there is no way to determine to everyone’s satisfaction whether a given judge is an
activist. Also, just because something is grammatically correct does not mean it
makes any sense. For example consider the following nonsense.
S = {x ∈ set of dogs : it is colder in the mountains than in the winter} .
So what is a condition?
We will leave these sorts of considerations and assume our conditions make sense.
The axiom of unions states that for any collection of sets, there is a set consisting
of all the elements in each of the sets in the collection. Of course this is also open to
further consideration. What is a collection? Maybe it would be better to say “set
of sets” or, given a set whose elements are sets there exists a set whose elements
consist of exactly those things which are elements of at least one of these sets. If S
is such a set whose elements are sets,
∪ {A : A ∈ S} or ∪ S
signify this union.

Something is in the Cartesian product of a set or “family” of sets if it consists
of a single thing taken from each set in the family. Thus (1, 2, 3) ∈ {1, 4, .2} ×
{1, 2, 7} × {4, 3, 7, 9} because it consists of exactly one element from each of the sets
which are separated by ×. Also, this is the notation for the Cartesian product of
finitely many sets. If S is a set whose elements are sets,
Y
A
A∈S
signifies the Cartesian product.

The Cartesian product is the set of choice functions, a choice function being a
function which selects exactly one element of each set of S. You may think the axiom
of choice, stating that the Cartesian product of a nonempty family of nonempty sets
is nonempty, is innocuous but there was a time when many mathematicians were
ready to throw it out because it implies things which are very hard to believe, things
which never happen without the axiom of choice.
A is a subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if every element of A is also an element of
B. This can also be written as B ⊇ A. A is a proper subset of B, written A ⊂ B
or B ⊃ A if A is a subset of B but A is not equal to B, A 6= B. A ∩ B denotes the
intersection of the two sets, A and B and it means the set of elements of A which
are also elements of B. The axiom of specification shows this is a set. The empty
set is the set which has no elements in it, denoted as ∅. A ∪ B denotes the union
of the two sets, A and B and it means the set of all elements which are in either of
the sets. It is a set because of the axiom of unions.
1.1. BASIC DEFINITIONS 19
The complement of a set, (the set of things which are not in the given set ) must
be taken with respect to a given set called the universal set which is a set which
contains the one whose complement is being taken. Thus, the complement of A,
denoted as AC ( or more precisely as X \ A) is a set obtained from using the axiom
of specification to write
AC ≡ {x ∈ X : x ∈ / A}
The symbol ∈ / means: “is not an element of”. Note the axiom of specification takes
place relative to a given set. Without this universal set it makes no sense to use
the axiom of specification to obtain the complement.
Words such as “all” or “there exists” are called quantifiers and they must be
understood relative to some given set. For example, the set of all integers larger
than 3. Or there exists an integer larger than 7. Such statements have to do with a
given set, in this case the integers. Failure to have a reference set when quantifiers
are used turns out to be illogical even though such usage may be grammatically
correct. Quantifiers are used often enough that there are symbols for them. The
symbol ∀ is read as “for all” or “for every” and the symbol ∃ is read as “there
exists”. Thus ∀∀∃∃ could mean for every upside down A there exists a backwards
E.
DeMorgan’s laws are very useful in mathematics. Let S be a set of sets each of
which is contained in some universal set, U . Then
© ª C
∪ AC : A ∈ S = (∩ {A : A ∈ S})
and © ª C
∩ AC : A ∈ S = (∪ {A : A ∈ S}) .
These laws follow directly from the definitions. Also following directly from the
definitions are:
Let S be a set of sets then
B ∪ ∪ {A : A ∈ S} = ∪ {B ∪ A : A ∈ S} .
and: Let S be a set of sets show
B ∩ ∪ {A : A ∈ S} = ∪ {B ∩ A : A ∈ S} .
Unfortunately, there is no single universal set which can be used for all sets.
Here is why: Suppose there were. Call it S. Then you could consider A the set
of all elements of S which are not elements of themselves, this from the axiom of
specification. If A is an element of itself, then it fails to qualify for inclusion in A.
Therefore, it must not be an element of itself. However, if this is so, it qualifies for
inclusion in A so it is an element of itself and so this can’t be true either. Thus
the most basic of conditions you could imagine, that of being an element of, is
meaningless and so allowing such a set causes the whole theory to be meaningless.
The solution is to not allow a universal set. As mentioned by Halmos in Naive
set theory, “Nothing contains everything”. Always beware of statements involving
quantifiers wherever they occur, even this one.
20 SET THEORY
1.2 The Schroder Bernstein Theorem

It is very important to be able to compare the size of sets in a rational way. The
most useful theorem in this context is the Schroder Bernstein theorem which is the
main result to be presented in this section. The Cartesian product is discussed
above. The next definition reviews this and defines the concept of a function.
Definition 1.1 Let X and Y be sets.
X × Y ≡ {(x, y) : x ∈ X and y ∈ Y }
A relation is defined to be a subset of X × Y . A function, f, also called a mapping,
is a relation which has the property that if (x, y) and (x, y1 ) are both elements of
the f , then y = y1 . The domain of f is defined as
D (f ) ≡ {x : (x, y) ∈ f } ,
written as f : D (f ) → Y .
It is probably safe to say that most people do not think of functions as a type
of relation which is a subset of the Cartesian product of two sets. A function is like
a machine which takes inputs, x and makes them into a unique output, f (x). Of
course, that is what the above definition says with more precision. An ordered pair,
(x, y) which is an element of the function or mapping has an input, x and a unique
output, y,denoted as f (x) while the name of the function is f . “mapping” is often
a noun meaning function. However, it also is a verb as in “f is mapping A to B
”. That which a function is thought of as doing is also referred to using the word
“maps” as in: f maps X to Y . However, a set of functions may be called a set of
maps so this word might also be used as the plural of a noun. There is no help for
it. You just have to suffer with this nonsense.
The following theorem which is interesting for its own sake will be used to prove
the Schroder Bernstein theorem.
Theorem 1.2 Let f : X → Y and g : Y → X be two functions. Then there exist
sets A, B, C, D, such that
A ∪ B = X, C ∪ D = Y, A ∩ B = ∅, C ∩ D = ∅,
f (A) = C, g (D) = B.
The following picture illustrates the conclusion of this theorem.
X Y
f
A - C = f (A)
g
B = g(D) ¾ D
1.2. THE SCHRODER BERNSTEIN THEOREM 21
Proof: Consider the empty set, ∅ ⊆ X. If y ∈ Y \ f (∅), then g (y) ∈ / ∅ because

∅ has no elements. Also, if A, B, C, and D are as described above, A also would
have this same property that the empty set has. However, A is probably larger.
Therefore, say A0 ⊆ X satisfies P if whenever y ∈ Y \ f (A0 ) , g (y) ∈
/ A0 .
A ≡ {A0 ⊆ X : A0 satisfies P}.
Let A = ∪A. If y ∈ Y \ f (A), then for each A0 ∈ A, y ∈ Y \ f (A0 ) and so

g (y) ∈
/ A0 . Since g (y) ∈
/ A0 for all A0 ∈ A, it follows g (y) ∈
/ A. Hence A satisfies
P and is the largest subset of X which does so. Now define
C ≡ f (A) , D ≡ Y \ C, B ≡ X \ A.
It only remains to verify that g (D) = B.

Suppose x ∈ B = X \ A. Then A ∪ {x} does not satisfy P and so there exists
y ∈ Y \ f (A ∪ {x}) ⊆ D such that g (y) ∈ A ∪ {x} . But y ∈ / f (A) and so since A
satisfies P, it follows g (y) ∈
/ A. Hence g (y) = x and so x ∈ g (D) and this proves
the theorem.
Theorem 1.3 (Schroder Bernstein) If f : X → Y and g : Y → X are one to one,

then there exists h : X → Y which is one to one and onto.
Proof: Let A, B, C, D be the sets of Theorem1.2 and define

½
f (x) if x ∈ A
h (x) ≡
g −1 (x) if x ∈ B
Then h is the desired one to one and onto mapping.

Recall that the Cartesian product may be considered as the collection of choice
functions.
Definition 1.4 Let I be a set and let Xi be a set for each i ∈ I. f is a choice
function written as Y
f∈ Xi
i∈I
if f (i) ∈ Xi for each i ∈ I.
The axiom of choice says that if Xi 6= ∅ for each i ∈ I, for I a set, then
Y
Xi 6= ∅.
i∈I
Sometimes the two functions, f and g are onto but not one to one. It turns out
that with the axiom of choice, a similar conclusion to the above may be obtained.
Corollary 1.5 If f : X → Y is onto and g : Y → X is onto, then there exists

h : X → Y which is one to one and onto.
22 SET THEORY
Proof: For each y ∈ Y , f −1 (y)Q≡ {x ∈ X : f (x) = y} 6= ∅. Therefore, by the

axiom of choice, there exists f0−1 ∈ y∈Y f −1 (y) which is the same as saying that
for each y ∈ Y , f0−1 (y) ∈ f −1 (y). Similarly, there exists g0−1 (x) ∈ g −1 (x) for all
x ∈ X. Then f0−1 is one to one because if f0−1 (y1 ) = f0−1 (y2 ), then
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
y1 = f f0−1 (y1 ) = f f0−1 (y2 ) = y2 .
Similarly g0−1 is one to one. Therefore, by the Schroder Bernstein theorem, there
exists h : X → Y which is one to one and onto.
Definition 1.6 A set S, is finite if there exists a natural number n and a map θ
which maps {1, · · ·, n} one to one and onto S. S is infinite if it is not finite. A
set S, is called countable if there exists a map θ mapping N one to one and onto
S.(When θ maps a set A to a set B, this will be written as θ : A → B in the future.)
Here N ≡ {1, 2, · · ·}, the natural numbers. S is at most countable if there exists a
map θ : N →S which is onto.
The property of being at most countable is often referred to as being countable
because the question of interest is normally whether one can list all elements of the
set, designating a first, second, third etc. in such a way as to give each element of
the set a natural number. The possibility that a single element of the set may be
counted more than once is often not important.
Theorem 1.7 If X and Y are both at most countable, then X × Y is also at most
countable. If either X or Y is countable, then X × Y is also countable.
Proof: It is given that there exists a mapping η : N → X which is onto. Define
η (i) ≡ xi and consider X as the set {x1 , x2 , x3 , · · ·}. Similarly, consider Y as the
set {y1 , y2 , y3 , · · ·}. It follows the elements of X × Y are included in the following
rectangular array.
(x1 , y1 ) (x1 , y2 ) (x1 , y3 ) · · · ← Those which have x1 in first slot.
(x2 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 ) (x2 , y3 ) · · · ← Those which have x2 in first slot.
(x3 , y1 ) (x3 , y2 ) (x3 , y3 ) · · · ← Those which have x3 in first slot. .
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
Follow a path through this array as follows.
(x1 , y1 ) → (x1 , y2 ) (x1 , y3 ) →
. %
(x2 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 )
↓ %
(x3 , y1 )
Thus the first element of X × Y is (x1 , y1 ), the second element of X × Y is (x1 , y2 ),

the third element of X × Y is (x2 , y1 ) etc. This assigns a number from N to each
element of X × Y. Thus X × Y is at most countable.
1.3. EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS 23
It remains to show the last claim. Suppose without loss of generality that X
is countable. Then there exists α : N → X which is one to one and onto. Let
β : X × Y → N be defined by β ((x, y)) ≡ α−1 (x). Thus β is onto N. By the first
part there exists a function from N onto X × Y . Therefore, by Corollary 1.5, there
exists a one to one and onto mapping from X × Y to N. This proves the theorem.
Theorem 1.8 If X and Y are at most countable, then X ∪ Y is at most countable.

If either X or Y are countable, then X ∪ Y is countable.
Proof: As in the preceding theorem,
X = {x1 , x2 , x3 , · · ·}
and
Y = {y1 , y2 , y3 , · · ·} .
Consider the following array consisting of X ∪ Y and path through it.
x1 → x2 x3 →
. %
y1 → y2
Thus the first element of X ∪ Y is x1 , the second is x2 the third is y1 the fourth is
y2 etc.
Consider the second claim. By the first part, there is a map from N onto X × Y .
Suppose without loss of generality that X is countable and α : N → X is one to one
and onto. Then define β (y) ≡ 1, for all y ∈ Y ,and β (x) ≡ α−1 (x). Thus, β maps
X × Y onto N and this shows there exist two onto maps, one mapping X ∪ Y onto
N and the other mapping N onto X ∪ Y . Then Corollary 1.5 yields the conclusion.
This proves the theorem.
1.3 Equivalence Relations

There are many ways to compare elements of a set other than to say two elements
are equal or the same. For example, in the set of people let two people be equiv-
alent if they have the same weight. This would not be saying they were the same
person, just that they weighed the same. Often such relations involve considering
one characteristic of the elements of a set and then saying the two elements are
equivalent if they are the same as far as the given characteristic is concerned.
Definition 1.9 Let S be a set. ∼ is an equivalence relation on S if it satisfies the

following axioms.
1. x ∼ x for all x ∈ S. (Reflexive)

2. If x ∼ y then y ∼ x. (Symmetric)
3. If x ∼ y and y ∼ z, then x ∼ z. (Transitive)
24 SET THEORY
Definition 1.10 [x] denotes the set of all elements of S which are equivalent to x
and [x] is called the equivalence class determined by x or just the equivalence class
of x.
With the above definition one can prove the following simple theorem.
Theorem 1.11 Let ∼ be an equivalence class defined on a set, S and let H denote
the set of equivalence classes. Then if [x] and [y] are two of these equivalence classes,
either x ∼ y and [x] = [y] or it is not true that x ∼ y and [x] ∩ [y] = ∅.
1.4 Partially Ordered Sets

Definition 1.12 Let F be a nonempty set. F is called a partially ordered set if
there is a relation, denoted here by ≤, such that
x ≤ x for all x ∈ F.
If x ≤ y and y ≤ z then x ≤ z.
C ⊆ F is said to be a chain if every two elements of C are related. This means that
if x, y ∈ C, then either x ≤ y or y ≤ x. Sometimes a chain is called a totally ordered
set. C is said to be a maximal chain if whenever D is a chain containing C, D = C.
The most common example of a partially ordered set is the power set of a given
set with ⊆ being the relation. It is also helpful to visualize partially ordered sets
as trees. Two points on the tree are related if they are on the same branch of
the tree and one is higher than the other. Thus two points on different branches
would not be related although they might both be larger than some point on the
trunk. You might think of many other things which are best considered as partially
ordered sets. Think of food for example. You might find it difficult to determine
which of two favorite pies you like better although you may be able to say very
easily that you would prefer either pie to a dish of lard topped with whipped cream
and mustard. The following theorem is equivalent to the axiom of choice. For a
discussion of this, see the appendix on the subject.
Theorem 1.13 (Hausdorff Maximal Principle) Let F be a nonempty partially

ordered set. Then there exists a maximal chain.
Continuous Functions Of
One Variable
There is a theorem about the integral of a continuous function which requires the
notion of uniform continuity. This is discussed in this section. Consider the function
f (x) = x1 for x ∈ (0, 1) . This is a continuous function because, it is continuous at
every point of (0, 1) . However, for a given ε > 0, the δ needed in the ε, δ definition of
continuity becomes very small as x gets close to 0. The notion of uniform continuity
involves being able to choose a single δ which works on the whole domain of f. Here
is the definition.
Definition 2.1 Let f : D ⊆ R → R be a function. Then f is uniformly continuous

if for every ε > 0, there exists a δ depending only on ε such that if |x − y| < δ
then |f (x) − f (y)| < ε.
It is an amazing fact that under certain conditions continuity implies uniform

continuity.
Definition 2.2 A set, K ⊆ R is sequentially compact if whenever {an } ⊆ K is a

sequence, there exists a subsequence, {ank } such that this subsequence converges to
a point of K.
The following theorem is part of the Heine Borel theorem.
Theorem 2.3 Every closed interval, [a, b] is sequentially compact.

£ ¤ £ ¤
Proof: Let {xn } ⊆ [a, b] ≡ I0 . Consider the two intervals a, a+b 2 and a+b
2 ,b
each of which has length (b − a) /2. At least one of these intervals contains xn for
infinitely many values of n. Call this interval I1 . Now do for I1 what was done for I0 .
Split it in half and let I2 be the interval which contains xn for infinitely many values
of n. Continue this way obtaining a sequence of nested intervals I0 ⊇ I1 ⊇ I2 ⊇ I3 ···
where the length of In is (b − a) /2n . Now pick n1 such that xn1 ∈ I1 , n2 such that
n2 > n1 and xn2 ∈ I2 , n3 such that n3 > n2 and xn3 ∈ I3 , etc. (This can be done
because in each case the intervals contained xn for infinitely many values of n.) By
25
26 CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE
the nested interval lemma there exists a point, c contained in all these intervals.
Furthermore,
|xnk − c| < (b − a) 2−k
and so limk→∞ xnk = c ∈ [a, b] . This proves the theorem.
Theorem 2.4 Let f : K → R be continuous where K is a sequentially compact set

in R. Then f is uniformly continuous on K.
Proof: If this is not true, there exists ε > 0 such that for every δ > 0 there exists
a pair of points, xδ and yδ such that even though |xδ − yδ | < δ, |f (xδ ) − f (yδ )| ≥ ε.
Taking a succession of values for δ equal to 1, 1/2, 1/3, ···, and letting the exceptional
pair of points for δ = 1/n be denoted by xn and yn ,
1
|xn − yn | < , |f (xn ) − f (yn )| ≥ ε.
n
Now since K is sequentially compact, there exists a subsequence, {xnk } such that
xnk → z ∈ K. Now nk ≥ k and so
1
|xnk − ynk | < .
k
Consequently, ynk → z also. ( xnk is like a person walking toward a certain point
and ynk is like a dog on a leash which is constantly getting shorter. Obviously ynk
must also move toward the point also. You should give a precise proof of what is
needed here.) By continuity of f
0 = |f (z) − f (z)| = lim |f (xnk ) − f (ynk )| ≥ ε,

k→∞
an obvious contradiction. Therefore, the theorem must be true.

The following corollary follows from this theorem and Theorem 2.3.
Corollary 2.5 Suppose I is a closed interval, I = [a, b] and f : I → R is continu-

ous. Then f is uniformly continuous.
2.1 Exercises
1. A function, f : D ⊆ R → R is Lipschitz continuous or just Lipschitz for short
if there exists a constant, K such that
|f (x) − f (y)| ≤ K |x − y|
for all x, y ∈ D. Show every Lipschitz function is uniformly continuous.

2. If |xn − yn | → 0 and xn → z, show that yn → z also.
3. Consider f : (1, ∞) → R given by f (x) = x1 . Show f is uniformly continuous
even though the set on which f is defined is not sequentially compact.
2.2. THEOREMS ABOUT CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 27
4. If f is uniformly continuous, does it follow that |f | is also uniformly continu-

ous? If |f | is uniformly continuous does it follow that f is uniformly continu-
ous? Answer the same questions with “uniformly continuous” replaced with
“continuous”. Explain why.
2.2 Theorems About Continuous Functions

In this section, proofs of some theorems which have not been proved yet are given.
Theorem 2.6 The following assertions are valid
1. The function, af + bg is continuous at x when f , g are continuous at x

∈ D (f ) ∩ D (g) and a, b ∈ R.
2. If and f and g are each real valued functions continuous at x, then f g is

continuous at x. If, in addition to this, g (x) 6= 0, then f /g is continuous at
x.
3. If f is continuous at x, f (x) ∈ D (g) ⊆ R, and g is continuous at f (x) ,then

g ◦ f is continuous at x.
4. The function f : R → R, given by f (x) = |x| is continuous.
Proof: First consider 1.) Let ε > 0 be given. By assumption, there exist
ε
δ 1 > 0 such that whenever |x − y| < δ 1 , it follows |f (x) − f (y)| < 2(|a|+|b|+1) and
there exists δ 2 > 0 such that whenever |x − y| < δ 2 , it follows that |g (x) − g (y)| <
ε
2(|a|+|b|+1) . Then let 0 < δ ≤ min (δ 1 , δ 2 ) . If |x − y| < δ, then everything happens
at once. Therefore, using the triangle inequality
|af (x) + bf (x) − (ag (y) + bg (y))|
≤ |a| |f (x) − f (y)| + |b| |g (x) − g (y)|

µ ¶ µ ¶
ε ε
< |a| + |b| < ε.
2 (|a| + |b| + 1) 2 (|a| + |b| + 1)
Now consider 2.) There exists δ 1 > 0 such that if |y − x| < δ 1 , then
|f (x) − f (y)| < 1.
Therefore, for such y,

|f (y)| < 1 + |f (x)| .
It follows that for such y,
|f g (x) − f g (y)| ≤ |f (x) g (x) − g (x) f (y)| + |g (x) f (y) − f (y) g (y)|
≤ |g (x)| |f (x) − f (y)| + |f (y)| |g (x) − g (y)|

≤ (1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|) [|g (x) − g (y)| + |f (x) − f (y)|] .
Now let ε > 0 be given. There exists δ 2 such that if |x − y| < δ 2 , then
ε
|g (x) − g (y)| < ,
2 (1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|)
and there exists δ 3 such that if |x−y| < δ 3 , then
ε
|f (x) − f (y)| <
2 (1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|)
Now let 0 < δ ≤ min (δ 1 , δ 2 , δ 3 ) . Then if |x−y| < δ, all the above hold at once and
so
|f g (x) − f g (y)| ≤
(1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|) [|g (x) − g (y)| + |f (x) − f (y)|]

µ ¶
ε ε
< (1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|) + = ε.
2 (1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|) 2 (1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|)
This proves the first part of 2.) To obtain the second part, let δ 1 be as described
above and let δ 0 > 0 be such that for |x−y| < δ 0 ,
|g (x) − g (y)| < |g (x)| /2
and so by the triangle inequality,
− |g (x)| /2 ≤ |g (y)| − |g (x)| ≤ |g (x)| /2
which implies |g (y)| ≥ |g (x)| /2, and |g (y)| < 3 |g (x)| /2.
Then if |x−y| < min (δ 0 , δ 1 ) ,
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ f (x) f (y) ¯ ¯ f (x) g (y) − f (y) g (x) ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ g (x) − g (y) ¯ = ¯ g (x) g (y) ¯
|f (x) g (y) − f (y) g (x)|
≤ ³ 2
´
|g(x)|
2
2 |f (x) g (y) − f (y) g (x)|

= 2
|g (x)|
2
≤ 2 [|f (x) g (y) − f (y) g (y) + f (y) g (y) − f (y) g (x)|]
|g (x)|
2
≤ 2 [|g (y)| |f (x) − f (y)| + |f (y)| |g (y) − g (x)|]
|g (x)|
· ¸
2 3
≤ 2 |g (x)| |f (x) − f (y)| + (1 + |f (x)|) |g (y) − g (x)|
|g (x)| 2
2
≤ 2 (1 + 2 |f (x)| + 2 |g (x)|) [|f (x) − f (y)| + |g (y) − g (x)|]
|g (x)|
≡ M [|f (x) − f (y)| + |g (y) − g (x)|]
where M is defined by
2
M≡ 2 (1 + 2 |f (x)| + 2 |g (x)|)
|g (x)|
Now let δ 2 be such that if |x−y| < δ 2 , then

ε −1
|f (x) − f (y)| < M
2
and let δ 3 be such that if |x−y| < δ 3 , then
ε −1
|g (y) − g (x)| < M .
2
Then if 0 < δ ≤ min (δ 0 , δ 1 , δ 2 , δ 3 ) , and |x−y| < δ, everything holds and
¯ ¯
¯ f (x) f (y) ¯
¯ − ¯ ≤ M [|f (x) − f (y)| + |g (y) − g (x)|]
¯ g (x) g (y) ¯
hε ε i
< M M −1 + M −1 = ε.
2 2
This completes the proof of the second part of 2.)
Note that in these proofs no effort is made to find some sort of “best” δ. The
problem is one which has a yes or a no answer. Either is it or it is not continuous.
Now consider 3.). If f is continuous at x, f (x) ∈ D (g) ⊆ Rp , and g is continuous
at f (x) ,then g ◦ f is continuous at x. Let ε > 0 be given. Then there exists η > 0
such that if |y−f (x)| < η and y ∈ D (g) , it follows that |g (y) − g (f (x))| < ε. From
continuity of f at x, there exists δ > 0 such that if |x−z| < δ and z ∈ D (f ) , then
|f (z) − f (x)| < η. Then if |x−z| < δ and z ∈ D (g ◦ f ) ⊆ D (f ) , all the above hold
and so
|g (f (z)) − g (f (x))| < ε.
This proves part 3.)
To verify part 4.), let ε > 0 be given and let δ = ε. Then if |x−y| < δ, the
triangle inequality implies
|f (x) − f (y)| = ||x| − |y||

≤ |x−y| < δ = ε.
This proves part 4.) and completes the proof of the theorem.
Next here is a proof of the intermediate value theorem.
Theorem 2.7 Suppose f : [a, b] → R is continuous and suppose f (a) < c < f (b) .
Then there exists x ∈ (a, b) such that f (x) = c.
Proof: Let d = a+b 2 and consider the intervals [a, d] and [d, b] . If f (d) ≥ c,
then on [a, d] , the function is ≤ c at one end point and ≥ c at the other. On the
other hand, if f (d) ≤ c, then on [d, b] f ≥ 0 at one end point and ≤ 0 at the
other. Pick the interval on which f has values which are at least as large as c and
values no larger than c. Now consider that interval, divide it in half as was done for
the original interval and argue that on one of these smaller intervals, the function
has values at least as large as c and values no larger than c. Continue in this way.
Next apply the nested interval lemma to get x in all these intervals. In the nth
interval, let xn , yn be elements of this interval such that f (xn ) ≤ c, f (yn ) ≥ c.
Now |xn − x| ≤ (b − a) 2−n and |yn − x| ≤ (b − a) 2−n and so xn → x and yn → x.
Therefore,
f (x) − c = lim (f (xn ) − c) ≤ 0
n→∞
while
f (x) − c = lim (f (yn ) − c) ≥ 0.
n→∞
Consequently f (x) = c and this proves the theorem.
Lemma 2.8 Let φ : [a, b] → R be a continuous function and suppose φ is 1 − 1 on
(a, b). Then φ is either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing on [a, b] .
Proof: First it is shown that φ is either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing
on (a, b) .
If φ is not strictly decreasing on (a, b), then there exists x1 < y1 , x1 , y1 ∈ (a, b)
such that
(φ (y1 ) − φ (x1 )) (y1 − x1 ) > 0.
If for some other pair of points, x2 < y2 with x2 , y2 ∈ (a, b) , the above inequality
does not hold, then since φ is 1 − 1,
(φ (y2 ) − φ (x2 )) (y2 − x2 ) < 0.
Let xt ≡ tx1 + (1 − t) x2 and yt ≡ ty1 + (1 − t) y2 . Then xt < yt for all t ∈ [0, 1]
because
tx1 ≤ ty1 and (1 − t) x2 ≤ (1 − t) y2
with strict inequality holding for at least one of these inequalities since not both t
and (1 − t) can equal zero. Now define
h (t) ≡ (φ (yt ) − φ (xt )) (yt − xt ) .
Since h is continuous and h (0) < 0, while h (1) > 0, there exists t ∈ (0, 1) such
that h (t) = 0. Therefore, both xt and yt are points of (a, b) and φ (yt ) − φ (xt ) = 0
contradicting the assumption that φ is one to one. It follows φ is either strictly
increasing or strictly decreasing on (a, b) .
This property of being either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing on (a, b)
carries over to [a, b] by the continuity of φ. Suppose φ is strictly increasing on (a, b) ,
a similar argument holding for φ strictly decreasing on (a, b) . If x > a, then pick
y ∈ (a, x) and from the above, φ (y) < φ (x) . Now by continuity of φ at a,
φ (a) = lim φ (z) ≤ φ (y) < φ (x) .
x→a+
Therefore, φ (a) < φ (x) whenever x ∈ (a, b) . Similarly φ (b) > φ (x) for all x ∈ (a, b).
This proves the lemma.
Corollary 2.9 Let f : (a, b) → R be one to one and continuous. Then f (a, b) is
an open interval, (c, d) and f −1 : (c, d) → (a, b) is continuous.
Proof: Since f is either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing, it follows that

f (a, b) is an open interval, (c, d) . Assume f is decreasing. Now let x ∈ (a, b).
Why is f −1 is continuous at f (x)? Since f is decreasing, if f (x) < f (y) , then
y ≡ f −1 (f (y)) < x ≡ f −1 (f (x)) and so f −1 is also decreasing. Let ε > 0 be given.
Let ε > η > 0 and (x − η, x + η) ⊆ (a, b) . Then f (x) ∈ (f (x + η) , f (x − η)) . Let
δ = min (f (x) − f (x + η) , f (x − η) − f (x)) . Then if
|f (z) − f (x)| < δ,
it follows
z ≡ f −1 (f (z)) ∈ (x − η, x + η) ⊆ (x − ε, x + ε)
so ¯ −1 ¯ ¯ ¯
¯f (f (z)) − x¯ = ¯f −1 (f (z)) − f −1 (f (x))¯ < ε.
This proves the theorem in the case where f is strictly decreasing. The case where
f is increasing is similar.
The Riemann Stieltjes
Integral
The integral originated in attempts to find areas of various shapes and the ideas
involved in finding integrals are much older than the ideas related to finding deriva-
tives. In fact, Archimedes1 was finding areas of various curved shapes about 250
B.C. using the main ideas of the integral. What is presented here is a generaliza-
tion of these ideas. The main interest is in the Riemann integral but if it is easy to
generalize to the so called Stieltjes integral in which the length of an interval, [x, y]
is replaced with an expression of the form F (y) − F (x) where F is an increasing
function, then the generalization is given. However, there is much more that can
be written about Stieltjes integrals than what is presented here. A good source for
this is the book by Apostol, [3].
3.1 Upper And Lower Riemann Stieltjes Sums

The Riemann integral pertains to bounded functions which are defined on a bounded
interval. Let [a, b] be a closed interval. A set of points in [a, b], {x0 , · · ·, xn } is a
partition if
a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b.
Such partitions are denoted by P or Q. For f a bounded function defined on [a, b] ,

let
Mi (f ) ≡ sup{f (x) : x ∈ [xi−1 , xi ]},

mi (f ) ≡ inf{f (x) : x ∈ [xi−1 , xi ]}.
1 Archimedes 287-212 B.C. found areas of curved regions by stuffing them with simple shapes
which he knew the area of and taking a limit. He also made fundamental contributions to physics.
The story is told about how he determined that a gold smith had cheated the king by giving him
a crown which was not solid gold as had been claimed. He did this by finding the amount of water
displaced by the crown and comparing with the amount of water it should have displaced if it had
been solid gold.
33
34 THE RIEMANN STIELTJES INTEGRAL
Definition 3.1 Let F be an increasing function defined on [a, b] and let ∆Fi ≡
F (xi ) − F (xi−1 ) . Then define upper and lower sums as
n
X n
X
U (f, P ) ≡ Mi (f ) ∆Fi and L (f, P ) ≡ mi (f ) ∆Fi
i=1 i=1
respectively. The numbers, Mi (f ) and mi (f ) , are well defined real numbers because
f is assumed to be bounded and R is complete. Thus the set S = {f (x) : x ∈
[xi−1 , xi ]} is bounded above and below.
In the following picture, the sum of the areas of the rectangles in the picture on
the left is a lower sum for the function in the picture and the sum of the areas of the
rectangles in the picture on the right is an upper sum for the same function which
uses the same partition. In these pictures the function, F is given by F (x) = x and
these are the ordinary upper and lower sums from calculus.
y = f (x)
x0 x1 x2 x3 x0 x1 x2 x3
What happens when you add in more points in a partition? The following
pictures illustrate in the context of the above example. In this example a single
additional point, labeled z has been added in.
y = f (x)
x0 x1 x2 z x3 x0 x1 x2 z x3
Note how the lower sum got larger by the amount of the area in the shaded
rectangle and the upper sum got smaller by the amount in the rectangle shaded by
dots. In general this is the way it works and this is shown in the following lemma.
Lemma 3.2 If P ⊆ Q then
U (f, Q) ≤ U (f, P ) , and L (f, P ) ≤ L (f, Q) .
3.1. UPPER AND LOWER RIEMANN STIELTJES SUMS 35
Proof: This is verified by adding in one point at a time. Thus let
P = {x0 , · · ·, xn }
and let
Q = {x0 , · · ·, xk , y, xk+1 , · · ·, xn }.
Thus exactly one point, y, is added between xk and xk+1 . Now the term in the
upper sum which corresponds to the interval [xk , xk+1 ] in U (f, P ) is
sup {f (x) : x ∈ [xk , xk+1 ]} (F (xk+1 ) − F (xk )) (3.1)
and the term which corresponds to the interval [xk , xk+1 ] in U (f, Q) is
sup {f (x) : x ∈ [xk , y]} (F (y) − F (xk ))

+ sup {f (x) : x ∈ [y, xk+1 ]} (F (xk+1 ) − F (y)) (3.2)
≡ M1 (F (y) − F (xk )) + M2 (F (xk+1 ) − F (y))
All the other terms in the two sums coincide. Now sup {f (x) : x ∈ [xk , xk+1 ]} ≥
max (M1 , M2 ) and so the expression in 3.2 is no larger than
sup {f (x) : x ∈ [xk , xk+1 ]} (F (xk+1 ) − F (y))

+ sup {f (x) : x ∈ [xk , xk+1 ]} (F (y) − F (xk ))
= sup {f (x) : x ∈ [xk , xk+1 ]} (F (xk+1 ) − F (xk )) ,
the term corresponding to the interval, [xk , xk+1 ] and U (f, P ) . This proves the
first part of the lemma pertaining to upper sums because if Q ⊇ P, one can obtain
Q from P by adding in one point at a time and each time a point is added, the
corresponding upper sum either gets smaller or stays the same. The second part
about lower sums is similar and is left as an exercise.
Lemma 3.3 If P and Q are two partitions, then
L (f, P ) ≤ U (f, Q) .
Proof: By Lemma 3.2,
L (f, P ) ≤ L (f, P ∪ Q) ≤ U (f, P ∪ Q) ≤ U (f, Q) .
Definition 3.4
I ≡ inf{U (f, Q) where Q is a partition}
I ≡ sup{L (f, P ) where P is a partition}.
Note that I and I are well defined real numbers.

Theorem 3.5 I ≤ I.
Proof: From Lemma 3.3,
I = sup{L (f, P ) where P is a partition} ≤ U (f, Q)
because U (f, Q) is an upper bound to the set of all lower sums and so it is no
smaller than the least upper bound. Therefore, since Q is arbitrary,
I = sup{L (f, P ) where P is a partition}

≤ inf{U (f, Q) where Q is a partition} ≡ I
where the inequality holds because it was just shown that I is a lower bound to the
set of all upper sums and so it is no larger than the greatest lower bound of this
set. This proves the theorem.
Definition 3.6 A bounded function f is Riemann Stieltjes integrable, written as
f ∈ R ([a, b])
if
I=I
and in this case,
Z b
f (x) dF ≡ I = I.
a
When F (x) = x, the integral is called the Riemann integral and is written as
Z b
f (x) dx.
a
Thus, in words, the Riemann integral is the unique number which lies between
all upper sums and all lower sums if there is such a unique number.
Recall the following Proposition which comes from the definitions.
Proposition 3.7 Let S be a nonempty set and suppose sup (S) exists. Then for
every δ > 0,
S ∩ (sup (S) − δ, sup (S)] 6= ∅.
If inf (S) exists, then for every δ > 0,
S ∩ [inf (S) , inf (S) + δ) 6= ∅.
This proposition implies the following theorem which is used to determine the
question of Riemann Stieltjes integrability.
Theorem 3.8 A bounded function f is Riemann integrable if and only if for all
ε > 0, there exists a partition P such that
U (f, P ) − L (f, P ) < ε. (3.3)

3.2. EXERCISES 37
Proof: First assume f is Riemann integrable. Then let P and Q be two parti-
tions such that
U (f, Q) I − ε/2.
Then since I = I,
U (f, Q ∪ P ) − L (f, P ∪ Q) ≤ U (f, Q) − L (f, P ) 0 there exists a partition such that 3.3 holds. Then
for given ε and partition P corresponding to ε
I − I ≤ U (f, P ) − L (f, P ) ≤ ε.
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows I = I and this proves the theorem.

The condition described in the theorem is called the Riemann criterion .
Not all bounded functions are Riemann integrable. For example, let F (x) = x
and ½
1 if x ∈ Q
f (x) ≡ (3.4)
0 if x ∈ R \ Q
Then if [a, b] = [0, 1] all upper sums for f equal 1 while all lower sums for f equal
0. Therefore the Riemann criterion is violated for ε = 1/2.
3.2 Exercises
1. Prove the second half of Lemma 3.2 about lower sums.
2. Verify that for f given in 3.4, the lower sums on the interval [0, 1] are all equal
to zero while the upper sums are all equal to one.
© ª
3. Let f (x) = 1 + x2 for x ∈ [−1, 3] and let P = −1, − 31 , 0, 21 , 1, 2 . Find
U (f, P ) and L (f, P ) for F (x) = x and for F (x) = x3 .
4. Show that if f ∈ R ([a, b]) for F (x) = x, there exists a partition, {x0 , · · ·, xn }
such that for any zk ∈ [xk , xk+1 ] ,
¯Z ¯
¯ b X n ¯
¯ ¯
¯ f (x) dx − f (zk ) (xk − xk−1 )¯ < ε
¯ a ¯
k=1
Pn
This sum, k=1 f (zk ) (xk − xk−1 ) , is called a Riemann sum and this exercise
shows that the Riemann integral can always be approximated by a Riemann
sum. For the general Riemann Stieltjes case, does anything change?
© ª
5. Let P = 1, 1 14 , 1 12 , 1 34 , 2 and F (x) = x. Find upper and lower sums for the
function, f (x) = x1 using this partition. What does this tell you about ln (2)?
6. If f ∈ R ([a, b]) with F (x) = x and f is changed at finitely many points,
show the new function is also in R ([a, b]) . Is this still true for the general case
where F is only assumed to be an increasing function? Explain.
7. In the case where F (x) = x, define a “left sum” as

n
X
f (xk−1 ) (xk − xk−1 )
k=1
and a “right sum”,

n
X
f (xk ) (xk − xk−1 ) .
k=1
Also suppose that all partitions have the property that xk − xk−1 equals a
constant, (b − a) /n so the points in the partition are equally spaced, and
define the integral to be the number these right and leftR sums get close to as
x
n gets larger and larger. Show that for f given in 3.4, 0 f (t) dt = 1 if x is
Rx
rational and 0 f (t) dt = 0 if x is irrational. It turns out that the correct
answer should always equal zero for that function, regardless of whether x is
rational. This is shown when the Lebesgue integral is studied. This illustrates
why this method of defining the integral in terms of left and right sums is total
nonsense. Show that even though this is the case, it makes no difference if f
is continuous.
3.3 Functions Of Riemann Integrable Functions

It is often necessary to consider functions of Riemann integrable functions and a
natural question is whether these are Riemann integrable. The following theorem
gives a partial answer to this question. This is not the most general theorem which
will relate to this question but it will be enough for the needs of this book.
Theorem 3.9 Let f, g be bounded functions and let
f ([a, b]) ⊆ [c1 , d1 ] , g ([a, b]) ⊆ [c2 , d2 ] .
Let H : [c1 , d1 ] × [c2 , d2 ] → R satisfy,
|H (a1 , b1 ) − H (a2 , b2 )| ≤ K [|a1 − a2 | + |b1 − b2 |]
for some constant K. Then if f, g ∈ R ([a, b]) it follows that H ◦ (f, g) ∈ R ([a, b]) .
Proof: In the following claim, Mi (h) and mi (h) have the meanings assigned
above with respect to some partition of [a, b] for the function, h.
Claim: The following inequality holds.
|Mi (H ◦ (f, g)) − mi (H ◦ (f, g))| ≤
K [|Mi (f ) − mi (f )| + |Mi (g) − mi (g)|] .

Proof of the claim: By the above proposition, there exist x1 , x2 ∈ [xi−1 , xi ]
be such that
H (f (x1 ) , g (x1 )) + η > Mi (H ◦ (f, g)) ,
3.3. FUNCTIONS OF RIEMANN INTEGRABLE FUNCTIONS 39
and
H (f (x2 ) , g (x2 )) − η < mi (H ◦ (f, g)) .
Then
|Mi (H ◦ (f, g)) − mi (H ◦ (f, g))|
< 2η + |H (f (x1 ) , g (x1 )) − H (f (x2 ) , g (x2 ))|

< 2η + K [|f (x1 ) − f (x2 )| + |g (x1 ) − g (x2 )|]
≤ 2η + K [|Mi (f ) − mi (f )| + |Mi (g) − mi (g)|] .
Since η > 0 is arbitrary, this proves the claim.

Now continuing with the proof of the theorem, let P be such that
n
X n
ε X ε
(Mi (f ) − mi (f )) ∆Fi < , (Mi (g) − mi (g)) ∆Fi < .
i=1
2K i=1 2K
Then from the claim,

n
X
(Mi (H ◦ (f, g)) − mi (H ◦ (f, g))) ∆Fi
i=1
n
X
< K [|Mi (f ) − mi (f )| + |Mi (g) − mi (g)|] ∆Fi < ε.
i=1
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this shows H ◦ (f, g) satisfies the Riemann criterion and
hence H ◦ (f, g) is Riemann integrable as claimed. This proves the theorem.
This theorem implies that if f, g are Riemann Stieltjes integrable, then so is
af + bg, |f | , f 2 , along with infinitely many other such continuous combinations of
Riemann Stieltjes integrable functions. For example, to see that |f | is Riemann
integrable, let H (a, b) = |a| . Clearly this function satisfies the conditions of the
above theorem and so |f | = H (f, f ) ∈ R ([a, b]) as claimed. The following theorem
gives an example of many functions which are Riemann integrable.
Theorem 3.10 Let f : [a, b] → R be either increasing or decreasing on [a, b] and

suppose F is continuous. Then f ∈ R ([a, b]) .
Proof: Let ε > 0 be given and let

µ ¶
b−a
xi = a + i , i = 0, · · ·, n.
n
Since F is continuous, it follows from Corollary 2.5 on Page 26 that it is uniformly

continuous. Therefore, if n is large enough, then for all i,
ε
F (xi ) − F (xi−1 ) <
f (b) − f (a) + 1
Then since f is increasing,

n
X
U (f, P ) − L (f, P ) = (f (xi ) − f (xi−1 )) (F (xi ) − F (xi−1 ))
i=1
X n
ε
≤ (f (xi ) − f (xi−1 ))
f (b) − f (a) + 1 i=1
ε
= (f (b) − f (a)) < ε.
f (b) − f (a) + 1
Thus the Riemann criterion is satisfied and so the function is Riemann Stieltjes
integrable. The proof for decreasing f is similar.
Corollary 3.11 Let [a, b] be a bounded closed interval and let φ : [a, b] → R be
Lipschitz continuous and suppose F is continuous. Then φ ∈ R ([a, b]) . Recall that
a function, φ, is Lipschitz continuous if there is a constant, K, such that for all
x, y,
|φ (x) − φ (y)| < K |x − y| .
Proof: Let f (x) = x. Then by Theorem 3.10, f is Riemann Stieltjes integrable.

Let H (a, b) ≡ φ (a). Then by Theorem 3.9 H ◦ (f, f ) = φ ◦ f = φ is also Riemann
Stieltjes integrable. This proves the corollary.
In fact, it is enough to assume φ is continuous, although this is harder. This
is the content of the next theorem which is where the difficult theorems about
continuity and uniform continuity are used. This is the main result on the existence
of the Riemann Stieltjes integral for this book.
Theorem 3.12 Suppose f : [a, b] → R is continuous and F is just an increasing

function defined on [a, b]. Then f ∈ R ([a, b]) .
Proof: By Corollary 2.5 on Page 26, f is uniformly continuous on [a, b] . There-

fore, if ε > 0 is given, there exists a δ > 0 such that if |xi − xi−1 | < δ, then
Mi − mi < F (b)−Fε (a)+1 . Let
P ≡ {x0 , · · ·, xn }
be a partition with |xi − xi−1 | < δ. Then

n
X
U (f, P ) − L (f, P ) < (Mi − mi ) (F (xi ) − F (xi−1 ))
i=1
ε
< (F (b) − F (a)) < ε.
F (b) − F (a) + 1
By the Riemann criterion, f ∈ R ([a, b]) . This proves the theorem.

3.4. PROPERTIES OF THE INTEGRAL 41
3.4 Properties Of The Integral

The integral has many important algebraic properties. First here is a simple lemma.
Lemma 3.13 Let S be a nonempty set which is bounded above and below. Then if
−S ≡ {−x : x ∈ S} ,
sup (−S) = − inf (S) (3.5)
and
inf (−S) = − sup (S) . (3.6)
Proof: Consider 3.5. Let x ∈ S. Then −x ≤ sup (−S) and so x ≥ − sup (−S) . If
follows that − sup (−S) is a lower bound for S and therefore, − sup (−S) ≤ inf (S) .
This implies sup (−S) ≥ − inf (S) . Now let −x ∈ −S. Then x ∈ S and so x ≥ inf (S)
which implies −x ≤ − inf (S) . Therefore, − inf (S) is an upper bound for −S and
so − inf (S) ≥ sup (−S) . This shows 3.5. Formula 3.6 is similar and is left as an
exercise.
In particular, the above lemma implies that for Mi (f ) and mi (f ) defined above
Mi (−f ) = −mi (f ) , and mi (−f ) = −Mi (f ) .
Lemma 3.14 If f ∈ R ([a, b]) then −f ∈ R ([a, b]) and
Z b Z b
− f (x) dF = −f (x) dF.
a a
Proof: The first part of the conclusion of this lemma follows from Theorem 3.10
since the function φ (y) ≡ −y is Lipschitz continuous. Now choose P such that
Z b
−f (x) dF − L (−f, P ) < ε.
a
Then since mi (−f ) = −Mi (f ) ,

Z b n
X Z b n
X
ε> −f (x) dF − mi (−f ) ∆Fi = −f (x) dF + Mi (f ) ∆Fi
a i=1 a i=1
which implies
Z b n
X Z b Z b
ε> −f (x) dF + Mi (f ) ∆Fi ≥ −f (x) dF + f (x) dF.
a i=1 a a
Thus, since ε is arbitrary,

Z b Z b
−f (x) dF ≤ − f (x) dF
a a
whenever f ∈ R ([a, b]) . It follows

Z b Z b Z b Z b
−f (x) dF ≤ − f (x) dF = − − (−f (x)) dF ≤ −f (x) dF
a a a a
and this proves the lemma.

Theorem 3.15 The integral is linear,

Z b Z b Z b
(αf + βg) (x) dF = α f (x) dF + β g (x) dF.
a a a
whenever f, g ∈ R ([a, b]) and α, β ∈ R.
Proof: First note that by Theorem 3.9, αf + βg ∈ R ([a, b]) . To begin with,
consider the claim that if f, g ∈ R ([a, b]) then
Z b Z b Z b
(f + g) (x) dF = f (x) dF + g (x) dF. (3.7)
a a a
Let P1 ,Q1 be such that
U (f, Q1 ) − L (f, Q1 ) < ε/2, U (g, P1 ) − L (g, P1 ) < ε/2.
Then letting P ≡ P1 ∪ Q1 , Lemma 3.2 implies
U (f, P ) − L (f, P ) < ε/2, and U (g, P ) − U (g, P ) < ε/2.
Next note that
mi (f + g) ≥ mi (f ) + mi (g) , Mi (f + g) ≤ Mi (f ) + Mi (g) .
Therefore,
L (g + f, P ) ≥ L (f, P ) + L (g, P ) , U (g + f, P ) ≤ U (f, P ) + U (g, P ) .
For this partition,

Z b
(f + g) (x) dF ∈ [L (f + g, P ) , U (f + g, P )]
a
⊆ [L (f, P ) + L (g, P ) , U (f, P ) + U (g, P )]
and
Z b Z b
f (x) dF + g (x) dF ∈ [L (f, P ) + L (g, P ) , U (f, P ) + U (g, P )] .
a a
Therefore,
¯Z ÃZ Z b !¯
¯ b b ¯
¯ ¯
¯ (f + g) (x) dF − f (x) dF + g (x) dF ¯ ≤
¯ a a a ¯
U (f, P ) + U (g, P ) − (L (f, P ) + L (g, P )) < ε/2 + ε/2 = ε.

This proves 3.7 since ε is arbitrary.
3.4. PROPERTIES OF THE INTEGRAL 43
It remains to show that

Z b Z b
α f (x) dF = αf (x) dF.
a a
Suppose first that α ≥ 0. Then

Z b
αf (x) dF ≡ sup{L (αf, P ) : P is a partition} =
a
Z b
α sup{L (f, P ) : P is a partition} ≡ α f (x) dF.
a
If α < 0, then this and Lemma 3.14 imply
Z b Z b
αf (x) dF = (−α) (−f (x)) dF
a a
Z b Z b
= (−α) (−f (x)) dF = α f (x) dF.
a a
In the next theorem, suppose F is defined on [a, b] ∪ [b, c] .
Theorem 3.16 If f ∈ R ([a, b]) and f ∈ R ([b, c]) , then f ∈ R ([a, c]) and
Z c Z b Z c
f (x) dF = f (x) dF + f (x) dF. (3.8)
a a b
Proof: Let P1 be a partition of [a, b] and P2 be a partition of [b, c] such that

U (f, Pi ) − L (f, Pi ) < ε/2, i = 1, 2.
Let P ≡ P1 ∪ P2 . Then P is a partition of [a, c] and
U (f, P ) − L (f, P )
= U (f, P1 ) − L (f, P1 ) + U (f, P2 ) − L (f, P2 ) < ε/2 + ε/2 = ε. (3.9)
Thus, f ∈ R ([a, c]) by the Riemann criterion and also for this partition,
Z b Z c
f (x) dF + f (x) dF ∈ [L (f, P1 ) + L (f, P2 ) , U (f, P1 ) + U (f, P2 )]
a b
= [L (f, P ) , U (f, P )]
and Z c
f (x) dF ∈ [L (f, P ) , U (f, P )] .
a
Hence by 3.9,
¯Z ÃZ Z c !¯
¯ c b ¯
¯ ¯
¯ f (x) dF − f (x) dF + f (x) dF ¯ < U (f, P ) − L (f, P ) < ε
¯ a a b ¯
which shows that since ε is arbitrary, 3.8 holds. This proves the theorem.
Corollary 3.17 Let F be continuous and let [a, b] be a closed and bounded interval
and suppose that
a = y1 < y2 · ·· < yl = b
and that f is a bounded function defined on [a, b] which has the property that f is
either increasing on [yj , yj+1 ] or decreasing on [yj , yj+1 ] for j = 1, · · ·, l − 1. Then
f ∈ R ([a, b]) .
Proof: This Rfollows from Theorem 3.16 and Theorem 3.10.

b
The symbol, a f (x) dF when a > b has not yet been defined.
Definition 3.18 Let [a, b] be an interval and let f ∈ R ([a, b]) . Then
Z a Z b
f (x) dF ≡ − f (x) dF.
b a
Note that with this definition,

Z a Z a
f (x) dF = − f (x) dF
a a
and so Z a
f (x) dF = 0.
a
Theorem 3.19 Assuming all the integrals make sense,

Z b Z c Z c
f (x) dF + f (x) dF = f (x) dF.
a b a
Proof: This follows from Theorem 3.16 and Definition 3.18. For example, as-
sume
c ∈ (a, b) .
Then from Theorem 3.16,
Z c Z b Z b
f (x) dF + f (x) dF = f (x) dF
a c a
and so by Definition 3.18,

Z c Z b Z b
f (x) dF = f (x) dF − f (x) dF
a a c
Z b Z c
= f (x) dF + f (x) dF.
a b
The other cases are similar.

3.5. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 45
The following properties of the integral have either been established or they
follow quickly from what has been shown so far.
If f ∈ R ([a, b]) then if c ∈ [a, b] , f ∈ R ([a, c]) , (3.10)

Z b
α dF = α (F (b) − F (a)) , (3.11)
a
Z b Z b Z b
(αf + βg) (x) dF = α f (x) dF + β g (x) dF, (3.12)
a a a
Z b Z c Z c
f (x) dF + f (x) dF = f (x) dF, (3.13)
a b a
Z b
f (x) dF ≥ 0 if f (x) ≥ 0 and a < b, (3.14)
a
¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯
¯ b ¯ ¯ b ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ f (x) dF ¯ ≤ ¯ |f (x)| dF ¯ . (3.15)
¯ a ¯ ¯ a ¯
The only one of these claims which may not be completely obvious is the last one.
To show this one, note that
|f (x)| − f (x) ≥ 0, |f (x)| + f (x) ≥ 0.
Therefore, by 3.14 and 3.12, if a < b,

Z b Z b
|f (x)| dF ≥ f (x) dF
a a
and Z Z
b b
|f (x)| dF ≥ − f (x) dF.
a a
Therefore, ¯Z ¯
Z b ¯ b ¯
¯ ¯
|f (x)| dF ≥ ¯ f (x) dF ¯ .
a ¯ a ¯
If b < a then the above inequality holds with a and b switched. This implies 3.15.
3.5 Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus

In this section F (x) = x so things are specialized to the ordinary Riemann integral.
With these properties, it is easy to prove the fundamental theorem of calculus2 .
2 This theorem is why Newton and Liebnitz are credited with inventing calculus. The integral
had been around for thousands of years and the derivative was by their time well known. However
the connection between these two ideas had not been fully made although Newton’s predecessor,
Isaac Barrow had made some progress in this direction.
Let f ∈ R ([a, b]) . Then by 3.10 f ∈ R ([a, x]) for each x ∈ [a, b] . The first version
of the fundamental theorem of calculus is a statement about the derivative of the
function Z x
x→ f (t) dt.
a
Theorem 3.20 Let f ∈ R ([a, b]) and let

Z x
F (x) ≡ f (t) dt.
a
Then if f is continuous at x ∈ (a, b) ,
F 0 (x) = f (x) .
Proof: Let x ∈ (a, b) be a point of continuity of f and let h be small enough

that x + h ∈ [a, b] . Then by using 3.13,
Z x+h
h−1 (F (x + h) − F (x)) = h−1 f (t) dt.
x
Also, using 3.11,

Z x+h
f (x) = h−1 f (x) dt.
x
Therefore, by 3.15,
¯ Z ¯
¯ −1 ¯ ¯¯ −1 x+h ¯
¯
¯h (F (x + h) − F (x)) − f (x)¯ = ¯h (f (t) − f (x)) dt¯
¯ x ¯
¯ Z x+h ¯
¯ ¯
¯ −1 ¯
≤ ¯h |f (t) − f (x)| dt¯ .
¯ x ¯
Let ε > 0 and let δ > 0 be small enough that if |t − x| < δ, then
|f (t) − f (x)| < ε.
Therefore, if |h| < δ, the above inequality and 3.11 shows that
¯ −1 ¯
¯h (F (x + h) − F (x)) − f (x)¯ ≤ |h|−1 ε |h| = ε.
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this shows
lim h−1 (F (x + h) − F (x)) = f (x)

h→0
and this proves the theorem.

Note this gives existence for the initial value problem,
F 0 (x) = f (x) , F (a) = 0

3.5. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 47
whenever f is Riemann integrable and continuous.3

The next theorem is also called the fundamental theorem of calculus.
Theorem 3.21 Let f ∈ R ([a, b]) and suppose there exists an antiderivative for
f, G, such that
G0 (x) = f (x)
for every point of (a, b) and G is continuous on [a, b] . Then
Z b
f (x) dx = G (b) − G (a) . (3.16)
a
Proof: Let P = {x0 , · · ·, xn } be a partition satisfying
U (f, P ) − L (f, P ) < ε.
Then
G (b) − G (a) = G (xn ) − G (x0 )

Xn
= G (xi ) − G (xi−1 ) .
i=1
By the mean value theorem,

n
X
G (b) − G (a) = G0 (zi ) (xi − xi−1 )
i=1
n
X
= f (zi ) ∆xi
i=1
where zi is some point in [xi−1 , xi ] . It follows, since the above sum lies between the
upper and lower sums, that
G (b) − G (a) ∈ [L (f, P ) , U (f, P )] ,
and also Z b
f (x) dx ∈ [L (f, P ) , U (f, P )] .
a
Therefore,
¯ Z b ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯G (b) − G (a) − f (x) dx¯ 0 is arbitrary, 3.16 holds. This proves the theorem.

3 Of course it was proved that if f is continuous on a closed interval, [a, b] , then f ∈ R ([a, b])
but this is a hard theorem using the difficult result about uniform continuity.
The following notation is often used in this context. Suppose F is an antideriva-

tive of f as just described with F continuous on [a, b] and F 0 = f on (a, b) . Then
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a) ≡ F (x) |ba .
a
Definition 3.22 Let f be a bounded function defined on a closed interval [a, b] and
let P ≡ {x0 , · · ·, xn } be a partition of the interval. Suppose zi ∈ [xi−1 , xi ] is chosen.
Then the sum
Xn
f (zi ) (xi − xi−1 )
i=1
is known as a Riemann sum. Also,
||P || ≡ max {|xi − xi−1 | : i = 1, · · ·, n} .
Proposition 3.23 Suppose f ∈ R ([a, b]) . Then there exists a partition, P ≡

{x0 , · · ·, xn } with the property that for any choice of zk ∈ [xk−1 , xk ] ,
¯Z ¯
¯ b Xn ¯
¯ ¯
¯ f (x) dx − f (zk ) (xk − xk−1 )¯ < ε.
¯ a ¯
k=1
Rb
Proof:
Pn Choose P such that U (f, P ) − L (f, P ) < ε and then both a f (x) dx
and k=1 f (zk ) (xk − xk−1 ) are contained in [L (f, P ) , U (f, P )] and so the claimed
inequality must hold. This proves the proposition.
It is significant because it gives a way of approximating the integral.
The definition of Riemann integrability given in this chapter is also called Dar-
boux integrability and the integral defined as the unique number which lies between
all upper sums and all lower sums which is given in this chapter is called the Dar-
boux integral . The definition of the Riemann integral in terms of Riemann sums
is given next.
Definition 3.24 A bounded function, f defined on [a, b] is said to be Riemann

integrable if there exists a number, I with the property that for every ε > 0, there
exists δ > 0 such that if
P ≡ {x0 , x1 , · · ·, xn }
is any partition having ||P || < δ, and zi ∈ [xi−1 , xi ] ,
¯ ¯
¯ Xn ¯
¯ ¯
¯I − f (zi ) (xi − xi−1 )¯ < ε.
¯ ¯
i=1
Rb
The number a
f (x) dx is defined as I.
Thus, there are two definitions of the Riemann integral. It turns out they are
equivalent which is the following theorem of of Darboux.
3.6. EXERCISES 49
Theorem 3.25 A bounded function defined on [a, b] is Riemann integrable in the

sense of Definition 3.24 if and only if it is integrable in the sense of Darboux.
Furthermore the two integrals coincide.
The proof of this theorem is left for the exercises in Problems 10 - 12. It isn’t
essential that you understand this theorem so if it does not interest you, leave it
out. Note that it implies that given a Riemann integrable function f in either sense,
it can be approximated by Riemann sums whenever ||P || is sufficiently small. Both
versions of the integral are obsolete but entirely adequate for most applications and
as a point of departure for a more up to date and satisfactory integral. The reason
for using the Darboux approach to the integral is that all the existence theorems
are easier to prove in this context.
3.6 Exercises
R x3 t5 +7
1. Let F (x) = x2 t7 +87t6 +1
dt. Find F 0 (x) .
Rx 1
2. Let F (x) = 2 1+t4
dt. Sketch a graph of F and explain why it looks the way
it does.
3. Let a and b be positive numbers and consider the function,

Z ax Z a/x
1 1
F (x) = dt + dt.
0 a2 + t2 b a2 + t2
Show that F is a constant.
4. Solve the following initial value problem from ordinary differential equations
which is to find a function y such that
x7 + 1
y 0 (x) = , y (10) = 5.
x6 + 97x5 + 7
R
5. If F, G ∈ f (x) dx for all x ∈ R, show F (x) = G (x) + C for some constant,
C. Use this to give a different proof of the fundamental theorem of calculus
Rb
which has for its conclusion a f (t) dt = G (b) − G (a) where G0 (x) = f (x) .
6. Suppose f is Riemann integrable on [a, b] and continuous. (In fact continuous

implies Riemann integrable.) Show there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that
Z b
1
f (c) = f (x) dx.
b−a a
Rx
Hint: You might consider the function F (x) ≡ a f (t) dt and use the mean
value theorem for derivatives and the fundamental theorem of calculus.
7. Suppose f and g are continuous functions on [a, b] and that g (x) 6= 0 on (a, b) .
Show there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that
Z b Z b
f (c) g (x) dx = f (x) g (x) dx.
a a
Rx Rx
Hint: Define F (x) ≡ a f (t) g (t) dt and let G (x) ≡ a g (t) dt. Then use
the Cauchy mean value theorem on these two functions.
8. Consider the function
½ ¡ ¢
sin x1 if x 6= 0
f (x) ≡ .
0 if x = 0
Is f Riemann integrable? Explain why or why not.

9. Prove the second part of Theorem 3.10 about decreasing functions.
10. Suppose f is a bounded function defined on [a, b] and |f (x)| < M for all
x ∈ [a, b] . Now let Q be a partition having n points, {x∗0 , · · ·, x∗n } and let P
be any other partition. Show that
|U (f, P ) − L (f, P )| ≤ 2M n ||P || + |U (f, Q) − L (f, Q)| .
Hint: Write the sum for U (f, P ) − L (f, P ) and split this sum into two sums,
the sum of terms for which [xi−1 , xi ] contains at least one point of Q, and
terms for which [xi−1 , xi ] does not contain any£points of¤Q. In the latter case,
[xi−1 , xi ] must be contained in some interval, x∗k−1 , x∗k . Therefore, the sum
of these terms should be no larger than |U (f, Q) − L (f, Q)| .
11. ↑ If ε > 0 is given and f is a Darboux integrable function defined on [a, b],
show there exists δ > 0 such that whenever ||P || < δ, then
|U (f, P ) − L (f, P )| < ε.
12. ↑ Prove Theorem 3.25.

Some Important Linear
Algebra
This chapter contains some important linear algebra as distinguished from that
which is normally presented in undergraduate courses consisting mainly of uninter-
esting things you can do with row operations.
The notation, Cn refers to the collection of ordered lists of n complex numbers.
Since every real number is also a complex number, this simply generalizes the usual
notion of Rn , the collection of all ordered lists of n real numbers. In order to avoid
worrying about whether it is real or complex numbers which are being referred to,
the symbol F will be used. If it is not clear, always pick C.
Definition 4.1 Define
Fn ≡ {(x1 , · · ·, xn ) : xj ∈ F for j = 1, · · ·, n} .
(x1 , · · ·, xn ) = (y1 , · · ·, yn ) if and only if for all j = 1, · · ·, n, xj = yj . When
(x1 , · · ·, xn ) ∈ Fn ,
it is conventional to denote (x1 , · · ·, xn ) by the single bold face letter, x. The num-
bers, xj are called the coordinates. The set
{(0, · · ·, 0, t, 0, · · ·, 0) : t ∈ F}
for t in the ith slot is called the ith coordinate axis. The point 0 ≡ (0, · · ·, 0) is
called the origin.
Thus (1, 2, 4i) ∈ F3 and (2, 1, 4i) ∈ F3 but (1, 2, 4i) 6= (2, 1, 4i) because, even
though the same numbers are involved, they don’t match up. In particular, the
first entries are not equal.
The geometric significance of Rn for n ≤ 3 has been encountered already in
calculus or in precalculus. Here is a short review. First consider the case when
n = 1. Then from the definition, R1 = R. Recall that R is identified with the
points of a line. Look at the number line again. Observe that this amounts to
51
52 SOME IMPORTANT LINEAR ALGEBRA
identifying a point on this line with a real number. In other words a real number
determines where you are on this line. Now suppose n = 2 and consider two lines
which intersect each other at right angles as shown in the following picture.
6 · (2, 6)
(−8, 3) · 3
2
−8
Notice how you can identify a point shown in the plane with the ordered pair,
(2, 6) . You go to the right a distance of 2 and then up a distance of 6. Similarly,
you can identify another point in the plane with the ordered pair (−8, 3) . Go to
the left a distance of 8 and then up a distance of 3. The reason you go to the left
is that there is a − sign on the eight. From this reasoning, every ordered pair
determines a unique point in the plane. Conversely, taking a point in the plane,
you could draw two lines through the point, one vertical and the other horizontal
and determine unique points, x1 on the horizontal line in the above picture and x2
on the vertical line in the above picture, such that the point of interest is identified
with the ordered pair, (x1 , x2 ) . In short, points in the plane can be identified with
ordered pairs similar to the way that points on the real line are identified with
real numbers. Now suppose n = 3. As just explained, the first two coordinates
determine a point in a plane. Letting the third component determine how far up
or down you go, depending on whether this number is positive or negative, this
determines a point in space. Thus, (1, 4, −5) would mean to determine the point
in the plane that goes with (1, 4) and then to go below this plane a distance of 5
to obtain a unique point in space. You see that the ordered triples correspond to
points in space just as the ordered pairs correspond to points in a plane and single
real numbers correspond to points on a line.
You can’t stop here and say that you are only interested in n ≤ 3. What if you
were interested in the motion of two objects? You would need three coordinates
to describe where the first object is and you would need another three coordinates
to describe where the other object is located. Therefore, you would need to be
considering R6 . If the two objects moved around, you would need a time coordinate
as well. As another example, consider a hot object which is cooling and suppose
you want the temperature of this object. How many coordinates would be needed?
You would need one for the temperature, three for the position of the point in the
object and one more for the time. Thus you would need to be considering R5 .
Many other examples can be given. Sometimes n is very large. This is often the
case in applications to business when they are trying to maximize profit subject
to constraints. It also occurs in numerical analysis when people try to solve hard
problems on a computer.
4.1. ALGEBRA IN FN 53
There are other ways to identify points in space with three numbers but the one
presented is the most basic. In this case, the coordinates are known as Cartesian
coordinates after Descartes1 who invented this idea in the first half of the seven-
teenth century. I will often not bother to draw a distinction between the point in n
dimensional space and its Cartesian coordinates.
The geometric significance of Cn for n > 1 is not available because each copy of
C corresponds to the plane or R2 .
4.1 Algebra in Fn
There are two algebraic operations done with elements of Fn . One is addition and
the other is multiplication by numbers, called scalars. In the case of Cn the scalars
are complex numbers while in the case of Rn the only allowed scalars are real
numbers. Thus, the scalars always come from F in either case.
Definition 4.2 If x ∈ Fn and a ∈ F, also called a scalar, then ax ∈ Fn is defined

by
ax = a (x1 , · · ·, xn ) ≡ (ax1 , · · ·, axn ) . (4.1)
This is known as scalar multiplication. If x, y ∈ Fn then x + y ∈ Fn and is defined
by
x + y = (x1 , · · ·, xn ) + (y1 , · · ·, yn )
≡ (x1 + y1 , · · ·, xn + yn ) (4.2)
With this definition, the algebraic properties satisfy the conclusions of the fol-
lowing theorem.
Theorem 4.3 For v, w ∈ Fn and α, β scalars, (real numbers), the following hold.
v + w = w + v, (4.3)
the commutative law of addition,
(v + w) + z = v+ (w + z) , (4.4)
the associative law for addition,
v + 0 = v, (4.5)
the existence of an additive identity,
v+ (−v) = 0, (4.6)
1 René Descartes 1596-1650 is often credited with inventing analytic geometry although it seems
the ideas were actually known much earlier. He was interested in many different subjects, physi-
ology, chemistry, and physics being some of them. He also wrote a large book in which he tried to
explain the book of Genesis scientifically. Descartes ended up dying in Sweden.
the existence of an additive inverse, Also
α (v + w) = αv+αw, (4.7)
(α + β) v =αv+βv, (4.8)
α (βv) = αβ (v) , (4.9)
1v = v. (4.10)
In the above 0 = (0, · · ·, 0).
You should verify these properties all hold. For example, consider 4.7
α (v + w) = α (v1 + w1 , · · ·, vn + wn )
= (α (v1 + w1 ) , · · ·, α (vn + wn ))
= (αv1 + αw1 , · · ·, αvn + αwn )
= (αv1 , · · ·, αvn ) + (αw1 , · · ·, αwn )
= αv + αw.
As usual subtraction is defined as x − y ≡ x+ (−y) .
4.2 Exercises
1. Verify all the properties 4.3-4.10.
2. Compute 5 (1, 2 + 3i, 3, −2) + 6 (2 − i, 1, −2, 7) .
3. Draw a picture of the points in R2 which are determined by the following

ordered pairs.
(a) (1, 2)
(b) (−2, −2)
(c) (−2, 3)
(d) (2, −5)
4. Does it make sense to write (1, 2) + (2, 3, 1)? Explain.
5. Draw a picture of the points in R3 which are determined by the following

ordered triples.
(a) (1, 2, 0)
(b) (−2, −2, 1)
(c) (−2, 3, −2)
4.3. SUBSPACES SPANS AND BASES 55
4.3 Subspaces Spans And Bases

Definition 4.4 Let {x1 , · · ·, xp } be vectors in Fn . A linear combination is any ex-
pression of the form
Xp
c i xi
i=1
where the ci are scalars. The set of all linear combinations of these vectors is
called span (x1 , · · ·, xn ) . If V ⊆ Fn , then V is called a subspace if whenever α, β
are scalars and u and v are vectors of V, it follows αu + βv ∈ V . That is, it is
“closed under the algebraic operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication”.
A linear combination of vectors is said to be trivial if all the scalars in the linear
combination equal zero. A set of vectors is said to be linearly independent if the
only linear combination of these vectors which equals the zero vector is the trivial
linear combination. Thus {x1 , · · ·, xn } is called linearly independent if whenever
p
X
ck xk = 0
k=1
it follows that all the scalars, ck equal zero. A set of vectors, {x1 , · · ·, xp } , is called
linearly dependent if it is not linearly independent. Thus the set of vectors
Pp is linearly
dependent if there exist scalars, ci , i = 1, ···, n, not all zero such that k=1 ck xk = 0.
Lemma 4.5 A set of vectors {x1 , · · ·, xp } is linearly independent if and only if

none of the vectors can be obtained as a linear combination of the others.
Proof: Suppose first that {x1 , · · ·, xp } is linearly independent. If

X
xk = cj xj ,
j6=k
then X
0 = 1xk + (−cj ) xj ,
j6=k
a nontrivial linear combination, contrary to assumption. This shows that if the

set is linearly independent, then none of the vectors is a linear combination of the
others.
Now suppose no vector is a linear combination of the others. Is {x1 , · · ·, xp }
linearly independent? If it is not there exist scalars, ci , not all zero such that
p
X
ci xi = 0.
i=1
Say ck 6= 0. Then you can solve for xk as

X
xk = (−cj ) /ck xj
j6=k
contrary to assumption. This proves the lemma.

The following is called the exchange theorem.
Theorem 4.6 (Exchange Theorem) Let {x1 , · · ·, xr } be a linearly independent set

of vectors such that each xi is in span(y1 , · · ·, ys ) . Then r ≤ s.
Proof: Define span{y1 , · · ·, ys } ≡ V, it follows there exist scalars, c1 , · · ·, cs

such that
s
X
x1 = ci yi . (4.11)
i=1
Not all of these scalars can equal zero because if this were the case, it would follow
that x1 = 0 and Prso {x1 , · · ·, xr } would not be linearly independent. Indeed, if
x1 = 0, 1x1 + i=2 0xi = x1 = 0 and so there would exist a nontrivial linear
combination of the vectors {x1 , · · ·, xr } which equals zero.
Say ck 6= 0. Then solve (4.11) for yk and obtain
 
s-1 vectors here
z }| {
yk ∈ span x1 , y1 , · · ·, yk−1 , yk+1 , · · ·, ys  .
Define {z1 , · · ·, zs−1 } by
{z1 , · · ·, zs−1 } ≡ {y1 , · · ·, yk−1 , yk+1 , · · ·, ys }
Therefore, span {x1 , z1 , · · ·, zs−1 } = V because if v ∈ V, there exist constants c1 , · ·

·, cs such that
s−1
X
v= ci zi + cs yk .
i=1
Now replace the yk in the above with a linear combination of the vectors,
{x1 , z1 , · · ·, zs−1 }
to obtain
v ∈ span {x1 , z1 , · · ·, zs−1 } .
The vector yk , in the list {y1 , · · ·, ys } , has now been replaced with the vector x1
and the resulting modified list of vectors has the same span as the original list of
vectors, {y1 , · · ·, ys } .
Now suppose that r > s and that
span (x1 , · · ·, xl , z1 , · · ·, zp ) = V
where the vectors, z1 , · · ·, zp are each taken from the set, {y1 , · · ·, ys } and l + p = s.
This has now been done for l = 1 above. Then since r > s, it follows that l ≤ s < r
4.3. SUBSPACES SPANS AND BASES 57
and so l + 1 ≤ r. Therefore, xl+1 is a vector not in the list, {x1 , · · ·, xl } and since
span {x1 , · · ·, xl , z1 , · · ·, zp } = V, there exist scalars, ci and dj such that
l
X p
X
xl+1 = ci xi + dj zj . (4.12)
i=1 j=1
Now not all the dj can equal zero because if this were so, it would follow that
{x1 , · · ·, xr } would be a linearly dependent set because one of the vectors would
equal a linear combination of the others. Therefore, (4.12) can be solved for one of
the zi , say zk , in terms of xl+1 and the other zi and just as in the above argument,
replace that zi with xl+1 to obtain
 
p-1 vectors here
z }| {
span x1 , · · ·xl , xl+1 , z1 , · · ·zk−1 , zk+1 , · · ·, zp  = V.
Continue this way, eventually obtaining
span (x1 , · · ·, xs ) = V.
But then xr ∈ span (x1 , · · ·, xs ) contrary to the assumption that {x1 , · · ·, xr } is

linearly independent. Therefore, r ≤ s as claimed.
Definition 4.7 A finite set of vectors, {x1 , · · ·, xr } is a basis for Fn if
span (x1 , · · ·, xr ) = Fn
and {x1 , · · ·, xr } is linearly independent.
Corollary 4.8 Let {x1 , · · ·, xr } and {y1 , · · ·, ys } be two bases2 of Fn . Then r =

s = n.
Proof: From the exchange theorem, r ≤ s and s ≤ r. Now note the vectors,
1 is in the ith slot

z }| {
ei = (0, · · ·, 0, 1, 0 · ··, 0)
for i = 1, 2, · · ·, n are a basis for Fn . This proves the corollary.
Lemma 4.9 Let {v1 , · · ·, vr } be a set of vectors. Then V ≡ span (v1 , · · ·, vr ) is a

subspace.
2 This is the plural form of basis. We could say basiss but it would involve an inordinate amount
of hissing as in “The sixth shiek’s sixth sheep is sick”. This is the reason that bases is used instead
of basiss.
Pr Pr
Proof: Suppose α, β are two scalars and let k=1 ck vk and k=1 dk vk are two
elements of V. What about
r
X Xr
α ck vk + β dk vk ?
k=1 k=1
Is it also in V ?
r
X r
X r
X
α ck vk + β dk vk = (αck + βdk ) vk ∈ V
k=1 k=1 k=1
so the answer is yes. This proves the lemma.

Definition 4.10 A finite set of vectors, {x1 , · · ·, xr } is a basis for a subspace, V
of Fn if span (x1 , · · ·, xr ) = V and {x1 , · · ·, xr } is linearly independent.
Corollary 4.11 Let {x1 , · · ·, xr } and {y1 , · · ·, ys } be two bases for V . Then r = s.
Proof: From the exchange theorem, r ≤ s and s ≤ r. Therefore, this proves
the corollary.
Definition 4.12 Let V be a subspace of Fn . Then dim (V ) read as the dimension
of V is the number of vectors in a basis.
Of course you should wonder right now whether an arbitrary subspace even has
a basis. In fact it does and this is in the next theorem. First, here is an interesting
lemma.
Lemma 4.13 Suppose v ∈ / span (u1 , · · ·, uk ) and {u1 , · · ·, uk } is linearly indepen-
dent. Then {u1 , · · ·, uk , v} is also linearly independent.
Pk
Proof: Suppose i=1 ci ui + dv = 0. It is required to verify that each ci = 0
and that d = 0. But if d 6= 0, then you can solve for v as a linear combination of
the vectors, {u1 , · · ·, uk },
X k ³ ´
ci
v=− ui
i=1
d
Pk
contrary to assumption. Therefore, d = 0. But then i=1 ci ui = 0 and the linear
independence of {u1 , · · ·, uk } implies each ci = 0 also. This proves the lemma.
Theorem 4.14 Let V be a nonzero subspace of Fn . Then V has a basis.
Proof: Let v1 ∈ V where v1 6= 0. If span {v1 } = V, stop. {v1 } is a basis for V .
Otherwise, there exists v2 ∈ V which is not in span {v1 } . By Lemma 4.13 {v1 , v2 }
is a linearly independent set of vectors. If span {v1 , v2 } = V stop, {v1 , v2 } is a basis
for V. If span {v1 , v2 } 6= V, then there exists v3 ∈
/ span {v1 , v2 } and {v1 , v2 , v3 } is
a larger linearly independent set of vectors. Continuing this way, the process must
stop before n + 1 steps because if not, it would be possible to obtain n + 1 linearly
independent vectors contrary to the exchange theorem. This proves the theorem.
In words the following corollary states that any linearly independent set of vec-
tors can be enlarged to form a basis.
4.4. AN APPLICATION TO MATRICES 59
Corollary 4.15 Let V be a subspace of Fn and let {v1 , · · ·, vr } be a linearly inde-

pendent set of vectors in V . Then either it is a basis for V or there exist vectors,
vr+1 , · · ·, vs such that {v1 , · · ·, vr , vr+1 , · · ·, vs } is a basis for V.
Proof: This follows immediately from the proof of Theorem 31.23. You do
exactly the same argument except you start with {v1 , · · ·, vr } rather than {v1 }.
It is also true that any spanning set of vectors can be restricted to obtain a
basis.
Theorem 4.16 Let V be a subspace of Fn and suppose span (u1 · ··, up ) = V

where the ui are nonzero vectors. Then there exist vectors, {v1 · ··, vr } such that
{v1 · ··, vr } ⊆ {u1 · ··, up } and {v1 · ··, vr } is a basis for V .
Proof: Let r be the smallest positive integer with the property that for some
set, {v1 · ··, vr } ⊆ {u1 · ··, up } ,
span (v1 · ··, vr ) = V.
Then r ≤ p and it must be the case that {v1 · ··, vr } is linearly independent because
if it were not so, one of the vectors, say vk would be a linear combination of the
others. But then you could delete this vector from {v1 · ··, vr } and the resulting list
of r − 1 vectors would still span V contrary to the definition of r. This proves the
theorem.
4.4 An Application To Matrices

The following is a theorem of major significance.
Theorem 4.17 Suppose A is an n × n matrix. Then A is one to one if and only

if A is onto. Also, if B is an n × n matrix and AB = I, then it follows BA = I.
Proof: First suppose A is one to one. Consider the vectors, {Ae1 , · · ·, Aen }
where ek is the column vector which is all zeros except for a 1 in the k th position.
This set of vectors is linearly independent because if
n
X
ck Aek = 0,
k=1
then since A is linear, Ã !

n
X
A ck ek =0
k=1
and since A is one to one, it follows

n
X
ck ek = 03
k=1
which implies each ck = 0. Therefore, {Ae1 , · · ·, Aen } must be a basis for Fn because
if not there would exist a vector, y ∈ / span (Ae1 , · · ·, Aen ) and then by Lemma 4.13,
{Ae1 , · · ·, Aen , y} would be an independent set of vectors having n + 1 vectors in it,
contrary to the exchange theorem. It follows that for y ∈ Fn there exist constants,
ci such that
n
Ã n !
X X
y= ck Aek = A ck ek
k=1 k=1
showing that, since y was arbitrary, A is onto.

Next suppose A is onto. This means the span of the columns of A equals Fn . If
these columns are not linearly independent, then by Lemma 4.5 on Page 55, one of
the columns is a linear combination of the others and so the span of the columns of
A equals the span of the n − 1 other columns. This violates the exchange theorem
because {e1 , · · ·, en } would be a linearly independent set of vectors contained in the
span of only n − 1 vectors. Therefore, the columns of A must be independent and
this equivalent to saying that Ax = 0 if and only if x = 0. This implies A is one to
one because if Ax = Ay, then A (x − y) = 0 and so x − y = 0.
Now suppose AB = I. Why is BA = I? Since AB = I it follows B is one to
one since otherwise, there would exist, x 6= 0 such that Bx = 0 and then ABx =
A0 = 0 6= Ix. Therefore, from what was just shown, B is also onto. In addition to
this, A must be one to one because if Ay = 0, then y = Bx for some x and then
x = ABx = Ay = 0 showing y = 0. Now from what is given to be so, it follows
(AB) A = A and so using the associative law for matrix multiplication,
A (BA) − A = A (BA − I) = 0.
But this means (BA − I) x = 0 for all x since otherwise, A would not be one to
one. Hence BA = I as claimed. This proves the theorem.
This theorem shows that if an n×n matrix, B acts like an inverse when multiplied
on one side of A it follows that B = A−1 and it will act like an inverse on both sides
of A.
The conclusion of this theorem pertains to square matrices only. For example,
let  
1 0 µ ¶
1 0 0
A =  0 1 , B = (4.13)
1 1 −1
1 0
Then µ ¶
1 0
BA =
0 1
but  
1 0 0
AB =  1 1 −1  .
1 0 0
4.5. THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF DETERMINANTS 61
4.5 The Mathematical Theory Of Determinants

It is assumed the reader is familiar with matrices. However, the topic of determi-
nants is often neglected in linear algebra books these days. Therefore, I will give a
fairly quick and grubby treatment of this topic which includes all the main results.
Two books which give a good introduction to determinants are Apostol [3] and
Rudin [44]. A recent book which also has a good introduction is Baker [7]
Let (i1 , · · ·, in ) be an ordered list of numbers from {1, · · ·, n} . This means the
order is important so (1, 2, 3) and (2, 1, 3) are different.
The following Lemma will be essential in the definition of the determinant.
Lemma 4.18 There exists a unique function, sgnn which maps each list of n num-
bers from {1, · · ·, n} to one of the three numbers, 0, 1, or −1 which also has the
following properties.
sgnn (1, · · ·, n) = 1 (4.14)
sgnn (i1 , · · ·, p, · · ·, q, · · ·, in ) = − sgnn (i1 , · · ·, q, · · ·, p, · · ·, in ) (4.15)

In words, the second property states that if two of the numbers are switched, the
value of the function is multiplied by −1. Also, in the case where n > 1 and
{i1 , · · ·, in } = {1, · · ·, n} so that every number from {1, · · ·, n} appears in the ordered
list, (i1 , · · ·, in ) ,
sgnn (i1 , · · ·, iθ−1 , n, iθ+1 , · · ·, in ) ≡
n−θ
(−1) sgnn−1 (i1 , · · ·, iθ−1 , iθ+1 , · · ·, in ) (4.16)
where n = iθ in the ordered list, (i1 , · · ·, in ) .
Proof: To begin with, it is necessary to show the existence of such a func-

tion. This is clearly true if n = 1. Define sgn1 (1) ≡ 1 and observe that it works.
No switching is possible. In the case where n = 2, it is also clearly true. Let
sgn2 (1, 2) = 1 and sgn2 (2, 1) = 0 while sgn2 (2, 2) = sgn2 (1, 1) = 0 and verify it
works. Assuming such a function exists for n, sgnn+1 will be defined in terms of
sgnn . If there are any repeated numbers in (i1 , · · ·, in+1 ) , sgnn+1 (i1 , · · ·, in+1 ) ≡ 0.
If there are no repeats, then n + 1 appears somewhere in the ordered list. Let
θ be the position of the number n + 1 in the list. Thus, the list is of the form
(i1 , · · ·, iθ−1 , n + 1, iθ+1 , · · ·, in+1 ) . From 4.16 it must be that
sgnn+1 (i1 , · · ·, iθ−1 , n + 1, iθ+1 , · · ·, in+1 ) ≡
n+1−θ
(−1) sgnn (i1 , · · ·, iθ−1 , iθ+1 , · · ·, in+1 ) .
It is necessary to verify this satisfies 4.14 and 4.15 with n replaced with n + 1. The
first of these is obviously true because
n+1−(n+1)
sgnn+1 (1, · · ·, n, n + 1) ≡ (−1) sgnn (1, · · ·, n) = 1.
If there are repeated numbers in (i1 , · · ·, in+1 ) , then it is obvious 4.15 holds because
both sides would equal zero from the above definition. It remains to verify 4.15 in
the case where there are no numbers repeated in (i1 , · · ·, in+1 ) . Consider
³ r s
´
sgnn+1 i1 , · · ·, p, · · ·, q, · · ·, in+1 ,
where the r above the p indicates the number, p is in the rth position and the s
above the q indicates that the number, q is in the sth position. Suppose first that
r < θ < s. Then
µ ¶
r θ s
sgnn+1 i1 , · · ·, p, · · ·, n + 1, · · ·, q, · · ·, in+1 ≡
³ r s−1
´
n+1−θ
(−1) sgnn i1 , · · ·, p, · · ·, q , · · ·, in+1
while µ ¶
r θ s
sgnn+1 i1 , · · ·, q, · · ·, n + 1, · · ·, p, · · ·, in+1 =
³ r s−1
´
n+1−θ
(−1) sgnn i1 , · · ·, q, · · ·, p , · · ·, in+1
and so, by induction, a switch of p and q introduces a minus sign in the result.
Similarly, if θ > s or if θ < r it also follows that 4.15 holds. The interesting case
is when θ = r or θ = s. Consider the case where θ = r and note the other case is
entirely similar. ³ ´
r s
sgnn+1 i1 , · · ·, n + 1, · · ·, q, · · ·, in+1 =
³ s−1
´
n+1−r
(−1) sgnn i1 , · · ·, q , · · ·, in+1 (4.17)
while ³ ´
r s
sgnn+1 i1 , · · ·, q, · · ·, n + 1, · · ·, in+1 =
³ r
´
n+1−s
(−1) sgnn i1 , · · ·, q, · · ·, in+1 . (4.18)
By making s − 1 − r switches, move the q which is in the s − 1th position in 4.17 to

the rth position in 4.18. By induction, each of these switches introduces a factor of
−1 and so
³ s−1
´ ³ r
´
s−1−r
sgnn i1 , · · ·, q , · · ·, in+1 = (−1) sgnn i1 , · · ·, q, · · ·, in+1 .
Therefore,
³ r s
´
sgnn+1 i1 , · · ·, n + 1, · · ·, q, · · ·, in+1
³ s−1
´
n+1−r
= (−1) sgnn i1 , · · ·, q , · · ·, in+1
³ r
´
n+1−r s−1−r
= (−1) (−1) sgnn i1 , · · ·, q, · · ·, in+1
³ r
´
n+s
= (−1) sgnn i1 , · · ·, q, · · ·, in+1
³ r
´
2s−1 n+1−s
= (−1) (−1) sgnn i1 , · · ·, q, · · ·, in+1
³ r s ´
= − sgnn+1 i1 , · · ·, q, · · ·, n + 1, · · ·, in+1 .
This proves the existence of the desired function.
To see this function is unique, note that you can obtain any ordered list of
distinct numbers from a sequence of switches. If there exist two functions, f and
g both satisfying 4.14 and 4.15, you could start with f (1, · · ·, n) = g (1, · · ·, n)
and applying the same sequence of switches, eventually arrive at f (i1 , · · ·, in ) =
g (i1 , · · ·, in ) . If any numbers are repeated, then 4.15 gives both functions are equal
to zero for that ordered list. This proves the lemma.
In what follows sgn will often be used rather than sgnn because the context
supplies the appropriate n.
Definition 4.19 Let f be a real valued function which has the set of ordered lists
of numbers from {1, · · ·, n} as its domain. Define
X
f (k1 · · · kn )
(k1 ,···,kn )
to be the sum of all the

f (k1 · · · kn )
for all possible choices of ordered lists
(k1 , · · ·, kn )
of numbers of
{1, · · ·, n} .
For example,
X
f (k1 , k2 ) = f (1, 2) + f (2, 1) + f (1, 1) + f (2, 2) .
(k1 ,k2 )
Definition 4.20 Let (aij ) = A denote an n × n matrix. The determinant of A,

denoted by det (A) is defined by
X
det (A) ≡ sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) a1k1 · · · ankn
(k1 ,···,kn )
where the sum is taken over all ordered lists of numbers from {1, · · ·, n}. Note it
suffices to take the sum over only those ordered lists in which there are no repeats
because if there are, sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) = 0 and so that term contributes 0 to the sum.
Let A be an n × n matrix, A = (aij ) and let (r1 , · · ·, rn ) denote an ordered list

of n numbers from {1, · · ·, n}. Let A (r1 , · · ·, rn ) denote the matrix whose k th row
is the rk row of the matrix, A. Thus
X
det (A (r1 , · · ·, rn )) = sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) ar1 k1 · · · arn kn (4.19)
(k1 ,···,kn )
and
A (1, · · ·, n) = A.
Proposition 4.21 Let

(r1 , · · ·, rn )
be an ordered list of numbers from {1, · · ·, n}. Then
sgn (r1 , · · ·, rn ) det (A)
X
= sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) ar1 k1 · · · arn kn (4.20)
(k1 ,···,kn )
= det (A (r1 , · · ·, rn )) . (4.21)
Proof: Let (1, · · ·, n) = (1, · · ·, r, · · ·s, · · ·, n) so r < s.
det (A (1, · · ·, r, · · ·, s, · · ·, n)) = (4.22)
X
sgn (k1 , · · ·, kr , · · ·, ks , · · ·, kn ) a1k1 · · · arkr · · · asks · · · ankn ,
(k1 ,···,kn )
and renaming the variables, calling ks , kr and kr , ks , this equals

X
= sgn (k1 , · · ·, ks , · · ·, kr , · · ·, kn ) a1k1 · · · arks · · · askr · · · ankn
(k1 ,···,kn )
 These got switched 

X z }| {
= − sgn k1 , · · ·, kr , · · ·, ks , · · ·, kn  a1k1 · · · askr · · · arks · · · ankn
(k1 ,···,kn )
= − det (A (1, · · ·, s, · · ·, r, · · ·, n)) . (4.23)

Consequently,
det (A (1, · · ·, s, · · ·, r, · · ·, n)) =
− det (A (1, · · ·, r, · · ·, s, · · ·, n)) = − det (A)
Now letting A (1, · · ·, s, · · ·, r, · · ·, n) play the role of A, and continuing in this way,
switching pairs of numbers,
p
det (A (r1 , · · ·, rn )) = (−1) det (A)
where it took p switches to obtain(r1 , · · ·, rn ) from (1, · · ·, n). By Lemma 4.18, this
implies
p
det (A (r1 , · · ·, rn )) = (−1) det (A) = sgn (r1 , · · ·, rn ) det (A)
and proves the proposition in the case when there are no repeated numbers in the
ordered list, (r1 , · · ·, rn ). However, if there is a repeat, say the rth row equals the
sth row, then the reasoning of 4.22 -4.23 shows that A (r1 , · · ·, rn ) = 0 and also
sgn (r1 , · · ·, rn ) = 0 so the formula holds in this case also.
Observation 4.22 There are n! ordered lists of distinct numbers from {1, · · ·, n} .
To see this, consider n slots placed in order. There are n choices for the first
slot. For each of these choices, there are n − 1 choices for the second. Thus there
are n (n − 1) ways to fill the first two slots. Then for each of these ways there are
n − 2 choices left for the third slot. Continuing this way, there are n! ordered lists
of distinct numbers from {1, · · ·, n} as stated in the observation.
With the above, it is possible to give a more symmetric
¡ ¢ description of the de-
terminant from which it will follow that det (A) = det AT .
Corollary 4.23 The following formula for det (A) is valid.
1
det (A) = ·
n!
X X
sgn (r1 , · · ·, rn ) sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) ar1 k1 · · · arn kn . (4.24)
(r1 ,···,rn ) (k1 ,···,kn )
¡ ¢
And also
¡ det AT = det (A) where AT is the transpose of A. (Recall that for
¢
AT = aTij , aTij = aji .)
Proof: From Proposition 4.21, if the ri are distinct,

X
det (A) = sgn (r1 , · · ·, rn ) sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) ar1 k1 · · · arn kn .
(k1 ,···,kn )
Summing over all ordered lists, (r1 , · · ·, rn ) where the ri are distinct, (If the ri are
not distinct, sgn (r1 , · · ·, rn ) = 0 and so there is no contribution to the sum.)
n! det (A) =
X X
sgn (r1 , · · ·, rn ) sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) ar1 k1 · · · arn kn .
(r1 ,···,rn ) (k1 ,···,kn )
This proves the corollary since the formula gives the same number for A as it does
for AT .
Corollary 4.24 If two rows or two columns in an n×n matrix, A, are switched, the
determinant of the resulting matrix equals (−1) times the determinant of the original
matrix. If A is an n × n matrix in which two rows are equal or two columns are
equal then det (A) = 0. Suppose the ith row of A equals (xa1 + yb1 , · · ·, xan + ybn ).
Then
det (A) = x det (A1 ) + y det (A2 )
where the ith row of A1 is (a1 , · · ·, an ) and the ith row of A2 is (b1 , · · ·, bn ) , all
other rows of A1 and A2 coinciding with those of A. In other words, det is a linear
function of each row A. The same is true with the word “row” replaced with the
word “column”.
Proof: By Proposition 4.21 when two rows are switched, the determinant of the
resulting matrix is (−1) times the determinant of the original matrix. By Corollary
4.23 the same holds for columns because the columns of the matrix equal the rows
of the transposed matrix. Thus if A1 is the matrix obtained from A by switching
two columns,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
det (A) = det AT = − det AT1 = − det (A1 ) .
If A has two equal columns or two equal rows, then switching them results in the
same matrix. Therefore, det (A) = − det (A) and so det (A) = 0.
It remains to verify the last assertion.
X
det (A) ≡ sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) a1k1 · · · (xaki + ybki ) · · · ankn
(k1 ,···,kn )
X
=x sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) a1k1 · · · aki · · · ankn
(k1 ,···,kn )
X
+y sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) a1k1 · · · bki · · · ankn
(k1 ,···,kn )
≡ x det (A1 ) + y det (A2 ) .

¡ ¢
The same is true of columns because det AT = det (A) and the rows of AT are
the columns of A.
Definition 4.25 A vector, w, is a linear combination

Pr of the vectors {v1 , · · ·, vr } if
there exists scalars, c1 , · · ·cr such that w = k=1 ck vk . This is the same as saying
w ∈ span {v1 , · · ·, vr } .
The following corollary is also of great use.
Corollary 4.26 Suppose A is an n × n matrix and some column (row) is a linear

combination of r other columns (rows). Then det (A) = 0.
¡ ¢
Proof: Let A = a1 · · · an be the columns of A and suppose the condition
that one column is a linear combination of r of the others is satisfied. Then by using
Corollary 4.24 you may rearrange the columnsPto have the nth column a linear
r
combination of the first r columns. Thus an = k=1 ck ak and so
¡ Pr ¢
det (A) = det a1 · · · ar · · · an−1 k=1 ck ak .
By Corollary 4.24
r
X ¡ ¢
det (A) = ck det a1 · · · ar ··· an−1 ak = 0.
k=1
¡ ¢
The case for rows follows from the fact that det (A) = det AT . This proves the
corollary.
Recall the following definition of matrix multiplication.
Definition 4.27 If A and B are n × n matrices, A = (aij ) and B = (bij ), AB =

(cij ) where
n
X
cij ≡ aik bkj .
k=1
One of the most important rules about determinants is that the determinant of
a product equals the product of the determinants.
Theorem 4.28 Let A and B be n × n matrices. Then
det (AB) = det (A) det (B) .
Proof: Let cij be the ij th entry of AB. Then by Proposition 4.21,
det (AB) =
X
sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) c1k1 · · · cnkn
(k1 ,···,kn )
Ã ! Ã !
X X X
= sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) a1r1 br1 k1 ··· anrn brn kn
(k1 ,···,kn ) r1 rn
X X
= sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) br1 k1 · · · brn kn (a1r1 · · · anrn )
(r1 ···,rn ) (k1 ,···,kn )
X
= sgn (r1 · · · rn ) a1r1 · · · anrn det (B) = det (A) det (B) .
(r1 ···,rn )

Lemma 4.29 Suppose a matrix is of the form

µ ¶
A ∗
M= (4.25)
0 a
or µ ¶
A 0
M= (4.26)
∗ a
where a is a number and A is an (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix and ∗ denotes either a
column or a row having length n − 1 and the 0 denotes either a column or a row of
length n − 1 consisting entirely of zeros. Then
det (M ) = a det (A) .
Proof: Denote M by (mij ) . Thus in the first case, mnn = a and mni = 0 if
i 6= n while in the second case, mnn = a and min = 0 if i 6= n. From the definition
of the determinant,
X
det (M ) ≡ sgnn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) m1k1 · · · mnkn
(k1 ,···,kn )
Letting θ denote the position of n in the ordered list, (k1 , · · ·, kn ) then using the
earlier conventions used to prove Lemma 4.18, det (M ) equals
X µ ¶
θ n−1
n−θ
(−1) sgnn−1 k1 , · · ·, kθ−1 , kθ+1 , · · ·, kn m1k1 · · · mnkn
(k1 ,···,kn )
Now suppose 4.26. Then if kn 6= n, the term involving mnkn in the above expression
equals zero. Therefore, the only terms which survive are those for which θ = n or
in other words, those for which kn = n. Therefore, the above expression reduces to
X
a sgnn−1 (k1 , · · ·kn−1 ) m1k1 · · · m(n−1)kn−1 = a det (A) .
(k1 ,···,kn−1 )
To get the assertion in the situation of 4.25 use Corollary 4.23 and 4.26 to write
µµ T ¶¶
¡ ¢ A 0 ¡ ¢
det (M ) = det M T = det = a det AT = a det (A) .
∗ a
In terms of the theory of determinants, arguably the most important idea is
that of Laplace expansion along a row or a column. This will follow from the above
definition of a determinant.
Definition 4.30 Let A = (aij ) be an n × n matrix. Then a new matrix called
the cofactor matrix, cof (A) is defined by cof (A) = (cij ) where to obtain cij delete
the ith row and the j th column of A, take the determinant of the (n − 1) × (n − 1)
matrix which results, (This is called the ij th minor of A. ) and then multiply this
i+j
number by (−1) . To make the formulas easier to remember, cof (A)ij will denote
the ij th entry of the cofactor matrix.
The following is the main result. Earlier this was given as a definition and the
outrageous totally unjustified assertion was made that the same number would be
obtained by expanding the determinant along any row or column. The following
theorem proves this assertion.
Theorem 4.31 Let A be an n × n matrix where n ≥ 2. Then
n
X n
X
det (A) = aij cof (A)ij = aij cof (A)ij . (4.27)
j=1 i=1
The first formula consists of expanding the determinant along the ith row and the
second expands the determinant along the j th column.
Proof: Let (ai1 , · · ·, ain ) be the ith row of A. Let Bj be the matrix obtained
from A by leaving every row the same except the ith row which in Bj equals
(0, · · ·, 0, aij , 0, · · ·, 0) . Then by Corollary 4.24,
n
X
det (A) = det (Bj )
j=1
Denote by Aij the (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix obtained by deleting the ith row and
i+j ¡ ¢
the j th column of A. Thus cof (A)ij ≡ (−1) det Aij . At this point, recall that
from Proposition 4.21, when two rows or two columns in a matrix, M, are switched,
this results in multiplying the determinant of the old matrix by −1 to get the
determinant of the new matrix. Therefore, by Lemma 4.29,
µµ ij ¶¶
n−j n−i A ∗
det (Bj ) = (−1) (−1) det
0 aij
µµ ij ¶¶
i+j A ∗
= (−1) det = aij cof (A)ij .
0 aij
Therefore,
n
X
det (A) = aij cof (A)ij
j=1
which is the formula for expanding det (A) along the ith row. Also,
n
¡ ¢ X ¡ ¢
det (A) = det AT = aTij cof AT ij
j=1
n
X
= aji cof (A)ji
j=1
which is the formula for expanding det (A) along the ith column. This proves the
theorem.
Note that this gives an easy way to write a formula for the inverse of an n × n
matrix.
¡Theorem
¢ 4.32 A−1 exists if and only if det(A) 6= 0. If det(A) 6= 0, then A−1 =
−1
aij where
a−1
ij = det(A)
−1
cof (A)ji
for cof (A)ij the ij th cofactor of A.
Proof: By Theorem 4.31 and letting (air ) = A, if det (A) 6= 0,

n
X
air cof (A)ir det(A)−1 = det(A) det(A)−1 = 1.
i=1
Now consider
n
X
air cof (A)ik det(A)−1
i=1
when k 6= r. Replace the k column with the rth column to obtain a matrix, Bk
th
whose determinant equals zero by Corollary 4.24. However, expanding this matrix
along the k th column yields
n
X
−1 −1
0 = det (Bk ) det (A) = air cof (A)ik det (A)
i=1
Summarizing,
n
X −1
air cof (A)ik det (A) = δ rk .
i=1
Using the other formula in Theorem 4.31, and similar reasoning,

n
X −1
arj cof (A)kj det (A) = δ rk
j=1
¡ ¢
This proves that if det (A) 6= 0, then A−1 exists with A−1 = a−1
ij , where
−1
a−1
ij = cof (A)ji det (A) .
Now suppose A−1 exists. Then by Theorem 4.28,

¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
1 = det (I) = det AA−1 = det (A) det A−1
so det (A) 6= 0. This proves the theorem.

The next corollary points out that if an n × n matrix, A has a right or a left
inverse, then it has an inverse.
Corollary 4.33 Let A be an n×n matrix and suppose there exists an n×n matrix,
B such that BA = I. Then A−1 exists and A−1 = B. Also, if there exists C an
n × n matrix such that AC = I, then A−1 exists and A−1 = C.
Proof: Since BA = I, Theorem 4.28 implies
det B det A = 1
and so det A 6= 0. Therefore from Theorem 4.32, A−1 exists. Therefore,

¡ ¢
A−1 = (BA) A−1 = B AA−1 = BI = B.
The case where CA = I is handled similarly.

The conclusion of this corollary is that left inverses, right inverses and inverses
are all the same in the context of n × n matrices.
Theorem 4.32 says that to find the inverse, take the transpose of the cofactor
matrix and divide by the determinant. The transpose of the cofactor matrix is
called the adjugate or sometimes the classical adjoint of the matrix A. It is an
abomination to call it the adjoint although you do sometimes see it referred to in
this way. In words, A−1 is equal to one over the determinant of A times the adjugate
matrix of A.
In case you are solving a system of equations, Ax = y for x, it follows that if
A−1 exists, ¡ ¢
x = A−1 A x = A−1 (Ax) = A−1 y
thus solving the system. Now in the case that A−1 exists, there is a formula for
A−1 given above. Using this formula,
n
X n
X 1
xi = a−1
ij yj = cof (A)ji yj .
j=1 j=1
det (A)
By the formula for the expansion of a determinant along a column,

 
∗ · · · y1 · · · ∗
1  ..  ,
xi = det  ... ..
. . 
det (A)
∗ · · · yn · · · ∗
T
where here the ith column of A is replaced with the column vector, (y1 · · · ·, yn ) ,
and the determinant of this modified matrix is taken and divided by det (A). This
formula is known as Cramer’s rule.
Definition 4.34 A matrix M , is upper triangular if Mij = 0 whenever i > j. Thus

such a matrix equals zero below the main diagonal, the entries of the form Mii as
shown.  
∗ ∗ ··· ∗
 .. . 
 0 ∗
 . .. 

 . . 
 .. .. ... ∗ 
0 ··· 0 ∗
A lower triangular matrix is defined similarly as a matrix for which all entries above
the main diagonal are equal to zero.
With this definition, here is a simple corollary of Theorem 4.31.
Corollary 4.35 Let M be an upper (lower) triangular matrix. Then det (M ) is

obtained by taking the product of the entries on the main diagonal.
Definition 4.36 A submatrix of a matrix A is the rectangular array of numbers

obtained by deleting some rows and columns of A. Let A be an m × n matrix. The
determinant rank of the matrix equals r where r is the largest number such that
some r × r submatrix of A has a non zero determinant. The row rank is defined
to be the dimension of the span of the rows. The column rank is defined to be the
dimension of the span of the columns.
Theorem 4.37 If A has determinant rank, r, then there exist r rows of the matrix
such that every other row is a linear combination of these r rows.
Proof: Suppose the determinant rank of A = (aij ) equals r. If rows and columns
are interchanged, the determinant rank of the modified matrix is unchanged. Thus
rows and columns can be interchanged to produce an r × r matrix in the upper left
corner of the matrix which has non zero determinant. Now consider the r + 1 × r + 1
matrix, M,
 
a11 · · · a1r a1p
 .. .. .. 
 . . . 
 
 ar1 · · · arr arp 
al1 · · · alr alp
where C will denote the r × r matrix in the upper left corner which has non zero
determinant. I claim det (M ) = 0.
There are two cases to consider in verifying this claim. First, suppose p > r.
Then the claim follows from the assumption that A has determinant rank r. On the
other hand, if p < r, then the determinant is zero because there are two identical
columns. Expand the determinant along the last column and divide by det (C) to
obtain
Xr
cof (M )ip
alp = − aip .
i=1
det (C)
Now note that cof (M )ip does not depend on p. Therefore the above sum is of the
form
r
X
alp = mi aip
i=1
which shows the lth row is a linear combination of the first r rows of A. Since l is
arbitrary, this proves the theorem.
Corollary 4.38 The determinant rank equals the row rank.

Proof: From Theorem 4.37, the row rank is no larger than the determinant
rank. Could the row rank be smaller than the determinant rank? If so, there exist
p rows for p < r such that the span of these p rows equals the row space. But this
implies that the r × r submatrix whose determinant is nonzero also has row rank
no larger than p which is impossible if its determinant is to be nonzero because at
least one row is a linear combination of the others.
Corollary 4.39 If A has determinant rank, r, then there exist r columns of the
matrix such that every other column is a linear combination of these r columns.
Also the column rank equals the determinant rank.
Proof: This follows from the above by considering AT . The rows of AT are the
columns of A and the determinant rank of AT and A are the same. Therefore, from
Corollary 4.38, column rank of A = row rank of AT = determinant rank of AT =
determinant rank of A.
The following theorem is of fundamental importance and ties together many of
the ideas presented above.
Theorem 4.40 Let A be an n × n matrix. Then the following are equivalent.
1. det (A) = 0.
2. A, AT are not one to one.
3. A is not onto.
Proof: Suppose det (A) = 0. Then the determinant rank of A = r < n.

Therefore, there exist r columns such that every other column is a linear com-
bination of these columns by Theorem 4.37. In particular, it follows that for
some¡ m, the mth column is a ¢linear combination of all the others. Thus letting
A = a1 · · · am · · · an where the columns are denoted by ai , there exists
scalars, αi such that X
am = α k ak .
k6=m
¡ ¢T
Now consider the column vector, x ≡ α1 · · · −1 · · · αn . Then
X
Ax = −am + αk ak = 0.
k6=m
Since also A0 = 0, it follows A is not one to one. Similarly, AT is not one to one
by the same argument applied to AT . This verifies that 1.) implies 2.).
Now suppose 2.). Then since AT is not one to one, it follows there exists x 6= 0
such that
AT x = 0.
Taking the transpose of both sides yields
xT A = 0
where the 0 is a 1 × n matrix or row vector. Now if Ay = x, then

2 ¡ ¢
|x| = xT (Ay) = xT A y = 0y = 0
contrary to x 6= 0. Consequently there can be no y such that Ay = x and so A is

not onto. This shows that 2.) implies 3.).
Finally, suppose 3.). If 1.) does not hold, then det (A) 6= 0 but then from
Theorem 4.32 A−1 exists and so for every y ∈ Fn there exists a unique x ∈ Fn such
that Ax = y. In fact x = A−1 y. Thus A would be onto contrary to 3.). This shows
3.) implies 1.) and proves the theorem.
Corollary 4.41 Let A be an n × n matrix. Then the following are equivalent.
1. det(A) 6= 0.
2. A and AT are one to one.
3. A is onto.
Proof: This follows immediately from the above theorem.
4.6 Exercises
1. Let m < n and let A be an m × n matrix. Show that A is not one to one.
Hint: Consider the n × n matrix, A1 which is of the form
µ ¶
A
A1 ≡
0
where the 0 denotes an (n − m) × n matrix of zeros. Thus det A1 = 0 and so

A1 is not one to one. Now observe that A1 x is the vector,
µ ¶
Ax
A1 x =
0
which equals zero if and only if Ax = 0.
4.7 The Cayley Hamilton Theorem

Definition 4.42 Let A be an n×n matrix. The characteristic polynomial is defined
as
pA (t) ≡ det (tI − A)
and the solutions to pA (t) = 0 are called eigenvalues. For A a matrix and p (t) =
tn + an−1 tn−1 + · · · + a1 t + a0 , denote by p (A) the matrix defined by
p (A) ≡ An + an−1 An−1 + · · · + a1 A + a0 I.
The explanation for the last term is that A0 is interpreted as I, the identity matrix.
4.7. THE CAYLEY HAMILTON THEOREM 75
The Cayley Hamilton theorem states that every matrix satisfies its characteristic
equation, that equation defined by PA (t) = 0. It is one of the most important
theorems in linear algebra. The following lemma will help with its proof.
Lemma 4.43 Suppose for all |λ| large enough,
A0 + A1 λ + · · · + Am λm = 0,
where the Ai are n × n matrices. Then each Ai = 0.
Proof: Multiply by λ−m to obtain
A0 λ−m + A1 λ−m+1 + · · · + Am−1 λ−1 + Am = 0.
Now let |λ| → ∞ to obtain Am = 0. With this, multiply by λ to obtain
A0 λ−m+1 + A1 λ−m+2 + · · · + Am−1 = 0.
Now let |λ| → ∞ to obtain Am−1 = 0. Continue multiplying by λ and letting

λ → ∞ to obtain that all the Ai = 0. This proves the lemma.
With the lemma, here is a simple corollary.
Corollary 4.44 Let Ai and Bi be n × n matrices and suppose
A0 + A1 λ + · · · + Am λm = B0 + B1 λ + · · · + Bm λm
for all |λ| large enough. Then Ai = Bi for all i. Consequently if λ is replaced by
any n × n matrix, the two sides will be equal. That is, for C any n × n matrix,
A0 + A1 C + · · · + Am C m = B0 + B1 C + · · · + Bm C m .
Proof: Subtract and use the result of the lemma.

With this preparation, here is a relatively easy proof of the Cayley Hamilton
theorem.
Theorem 4.45 Let A be an n × n matrix and let p (λ) ≡ det (λI − A) be the
characteristic polynomial. Then p (A) = 0.
Proof: Let C (λ) equal the transpose of the cofactor matrix of (λI − A) for |λ|
large. (If |λ| is large enough, then λ cannot be in the finite list of eigenvalues of A
−1
and so for such λ, (λI − A) exists.) Therefore, by Theorem 4.32
−1
C (λ) = p (λ) (λI − A) .
Note that each entry in C (λ) is a polynomial in λ having degree no more than n−1.
Therefore, collecting the terms,
C (λ) = C0 + C1 λ + · · · + Cn−1 λn−1

for Cj some n × n matrix. It follows that for all |λ| large enough,
¡ ¢
(A − λI) C0 + C1 λ + · · · + Cn−1 λn−1 = p (λ) I
and so Corollary 4.44 may be used. It follows the matrix coefficients corresponding
to equal powers of λ are equal on both sides of this equation. Therefore, if λ is
replaced with A, the two sides will be equal. Thus
¡ ¢
0 = (A − A) C0 + C1 A + · · · + Cn−1 An−1 = p (A) I = p (A) .
This proves the Cayley Hamilton theorem.
4.8 An Identity Of Cauchy

There is a very interesting identity for determinants due to Cauchy.
Theorem 4.46 The following identity holds.

¯ 1 1 ¯
¯ a +b · · · a1 +b ¯
Y ¯ 1 1 n ¯ Y
¯ .
.. .
.. ¯
(ai + bj ) ¯ ¯= (ai − aj ) (bi − bj ) . (4.28)
¯ ¯
i,j ¯ 1 1
· · · an +bn ¯ j 2. Therefore, there are exactly n − 1 factors which contain a2 .
Therefore, a2 has an exponent of n − 1. Similarly, each ak is raised to the n − 1
power and the same holds for the bk as well. Therefore, the right side of 4.28 is of
the form
ca1n−1 a2n−1 · · · an−1
n bn−1
1 · · · bn−1
n
where c is some constant. Now consider the left side of 4.28.

This is of the form
1 Y X
(ai + bj ) sgn (i1 · · · in ) sgn (j1 · · · jn ) ·
n! i,j i 1 ···in ,j1 ,···jn
1 1 1
··· .
ai1 + bj1 ai2 + bj2 ain + bjn
For a given i1 · · · in , j1 , · · ·jn , let
S (i1 · · · in , j1 , · · ·jn ) ≡ {(i1 , j1 ) , (i2 , j2 ) · ··, (in , jn )} .
This equals
1 X Y
sgn (i1 · · · in ) sgn (j1 · · · jn ) (ai + bj )
n! i
1 ···in ,j1 ,···jn (i,j)∈{(i
/ 1 ,j1 ),(i2 ,j2 )···,(in ,jn )}
4.9. BLOCK MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES 77
where you can assume the ik are all distinct and the jk are also all distinct because
otherwise sgn will produce a 0. Therefore, in
Y
(ai + bj ) ,
(i,j)∈{(i
/ 1 ,j1 ),(i2 ,j2 )···,(in ,jn )}
there are exactly n − 1 factors which contain ak for each k and similarly, there are
exactly n − 1 factors which contain bk for each k. Therefore, the left side of 4.28 is
of the form
dan−1
1 a2n−1 · · · an−1
n bn−1
1 · · · bn−1
n
and it remains to verify that c = d. Using the properties of determinants, the left
side of 4.28 is of the form
¯ a1 +b1 +b1 ¯
¯ 1 · · · aa11+b ¯
¯ a2 +b2 a1 +b2 n ¯
Y ¯ 1 a2 +b2 ¯
· · · a2 +bn ¯
¯ a2 +b1
(ai + bj ) ¯ . . .. .. ¯
¯ .
. .
. . . ¯
i6=j ¯ ¯
¯ an +bn an +bn · · · 1 ¯
an +b1 an +b2
Q
Let ak → −bk . Then this converges to i6=j (−bi + bj ) . The right side of 4.28
converges to Y Y
(−bi + bj ) (bi − bj ) = (−bi + bj ) .
j<i i6=j
Therefore, d = c and this proves the identity.
4.9 Block Multiplication Of Matrices

Suppose A is a matrix of the form
 
A11 ··· A1m
 .. .. .. 
 . . .  (4.29)
Ar1 ··· Arm
where Aij is a si × pj matrix where si does not depend onPj and pj does not
P depend
on i. Such a matrix is called a block matrix. Let n = j pj and k = i si so A
is an k × n matrix. What is Ax where x ∈ Fn ? From the process of multiplying a
matrix times a vector, the following lemma follows.
Lemma 4.47 Let A be an m × n block matrix as in 4.29 and let x ∈ Fn . Then Ax

is of the form  P 
j A1j xj
 .. 
Ax =  
P .
j Arj xj
T
where x = (x1 , · · ·, xm ) and xi ∈ Fpi .
Suppose also that B is a l × k block matrix of the form

 
B11 · · · B1p
 .. .. .. 
 . . .  (4.30)
Bm1 ··· Bmp
and that for all i, j, it makes sense to multiply Bis Asj for all s ∈ {1, · · ·, m}. (That
is the two matrices are conformable.)
P and that for each s, Bis Asj is the same size
so that it makes sense to write s Bis Asj .
Theorem 4.48 Let B be an l × k block matrix as in 4.30 and let A be a k × n block
matrix as in 4.29 such that Bis is conformable with Asj and each product, Bis Asj
is of the same size so they can be added. Then BA is a l × n block matrix having
rp blocks such that the ij th block is of the form
X
Bis Asj . (4.31)
s
Proof: Let Bis be a qi × ps matrix and Asj be a ps × rj matrix. Also let x ∈ Fn

T
and let x = (x1 , · · ·, xm ) and xi ∈ Fri so it makes sense to multiply Asj xj . Then
from the associative law of matrix multiplication and Lemma 4.47 applied twice,
(BA) x = B (Ax)
  P 
B11 · · · B1p j A1j xj
 ..   
=  ... ..
. .   P ..
.

Bm1 · · · Bmp j Arj xj
 P P   P P 
s j B1s Asj xj j( s B1s Asj ) xj
 ..   .. 
= . = . .
P P P P
s j Bms Asj xj j( s Bms Asj ) xj
By Lemma 4.47, this shows that (BA) x equals the block matrix whose ij th entry is
given by 4.31 times x. Since x is an arbitrary vector in Fn , this proves the theorem.
The message of this theorem is that you can formally multiply block matrices as
though the blocks were numbers. You just have to pay attention to the preservation
of order.
This simple idea of block multiplication turns out to be very useful later. For now
here is an interesting and significant application. In this theorem, pM (t) denotes
the polynomial, det (tI − M ) . Thus the zeros of this polynomial are the eigenvalues
of the matrix, M .
Theorem 4.49 Let A be an m × n matrix and let B be an n × m matrix for m ≤ n.
Then
pBA (t) = tn−m pAB (t) ,
so the eigenvalues of BA and AB are the same including multiplicities except that
BA has n − m extra zero eigenvalues.
4.10. EXERCISES 79
Proof: Use block multiplication to write

µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
AB 0 I A AB ABA
=
B 0 0 I B BA
µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
I A 0 0 AB ABA
= .
0 I B BA B BA
Therefore,
µ ¶−1 µ ¶µ ¶ ¶ µ
I A AB 0 I0 A 0
=
0 I B 0 0
BA I B
¶ µ
µ ¶
0 0 AB 0
By Problem 11 of Page 80, it follows that and have the
B BA B 0
same characteristic polynomials. Therefore, noting that BA is an n × n matrix and
AB is an m × m matrix,
tm det (tI − BA) = tn det (tI − AB)
and so det (tI − BA) = pBA (t) = tn−m det (tI − AB) = tn−m pAB (t) . This proves
the theorem.
4.10 Exercises
1. Show that matrix multiplication is associative. That is, (AB) C = A (BC) .
2. Show the inverse of a matrix, if it exists, is unique. Thus if AB = BA = I,
then B = A−1 .
3. In the proof of Theorem 4.32 it was claimed that det (I) = 1. Here I = (δ ij ) .
Prove this assertion. Also prove Corollary 4.35.
4. Let v1 , ···, vn be vectors in Fn and let M (v1 , · · ·, vn ) denote the matrix whose
ith column equals vi . Define
d (v1 , · · ·, vn ) ≡ det (M (v1 , · · ·, vn )) .
Prove that d is linear in each variable, (multilinear), that
d (v1 , · · ·, vi , · · ·, vj , · · ·, vn ) = −d (v1 , · · ·, vj , · · ·, vi , · · ·, vn ) , (4.32)
and
d (e1 , · · ·, en ) = 1 (4.33)
n
where here ej is the vector in F which has a zero in every position except
the j th position in which it has a one.
5. Suppose f : Fn × · · · × Fn → F satisfies 4.32 and 4.33 and is linear in each
variable. Show that f = d.
6. Show that if you replace a row (column) of an n×n matrix A with itself added
to some multiple of another row (column) then the new matrix has the same
determinant as the original one.
P
7. If A = (aij ) , show det (A) = (k1 ,···,kn ) sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) ak1 1 · · · akn n .
8. Use the result of Problem 6 to evaluate by hand the determinant
 
1 2 3 2
 −6 3 2 3 
det 
 5 2 2 3 .

3 4 6 4
9. Find the inverse if it exists of the matrix,

 t 
e cos t sin t
 et − sin t cos t  .
et − cos t − sin t
10. Let Ly = y (n) +an−1 (x) y (n−1) +···+a1 (x) y 0 +a0 (x) y where the ai are given
continuous functions defined on a closed interval, (a, b) and y is some function
which has n derivatives so it makes sense to write Ly. Suppose Lyk = 0 for
k = 1, 2, · · ·, n. The Wronskian of these functions, yi is defined as
 
y1 (x) ··· yn (x)
 y10 (x) ··· yn0 (x) 
 
W (y1 , · · ·, yn ) (x) ≡ det  .. .. 
 . . 
(n−1) (n−1)
y1 (x) · · · yn (x)
Show that for W (x) = W (y1 , · · ·, yn ) (x) to save space,

 
y1 (x) · · · yn (x)
 y10 (x) · · · yn0 (x) 
 
W 0 (x) = det  .. .. .
 . . 
(n) (n)
y1 (x) · · · yn (x)
Now use the differential equation, Ly = 0 which is satisfied by each of these

functions, yi and properties of determinants presented above to verify that
W 0 + an−1 (x) W = 0. Give an explicit solution of this linear differential equa-
tion, Abel’s formula, and use your answer to verify that the Wronskian of
these solutions to the equation, Ly = 0 either vanishes identically on (a, b) or
never.
11. Two n × n matrices, A and B, are similar if B = S −1 AS for some invertible
n × n matrix, S. Show that if two matrices are similar, they have the same
characteristic polynomials.
4.11. SHUR’S THEOREM 81
12. Suppose the characteristic polynomial of an n × n matrix, A is of the form
tn + an−1 tn−1 + · · · + a1 t + a0
and that a0 6= 0. Find a formula A−1 in terms of powers of the matrix, A.

Show that A−1 exists if and only if a0 6= 0.
13. In constitutive modeling P of the stress and strain tensors, one sometimes con-
∞
siders sums of the form k=0 ak Ak where A is a 3×3 matrix. Show using
the Cayley Hamilton theorem that if such a thing makes any sense, you can
always obtain it as a finite sum having no more than n terms.
4.11 Shur’s Theorem

Every matrix is related to an upper triangular matrix in a particularly significant
way. This is Shur’s theorem and it is the most important theorem in the spectral
theory of matrices.
Lemma 4.50 Let

{x1 , · · ·, xn }
be a basis for Fn . Then there exists an orthonormal basis for Fn ,
{u1 , · · ·, un }
which has the property that for each k ≤ n,
span (x1 , · · ·, xk ) = span (u1 , · · ·, uk ) .
Proof: Let {x1 , · · ·, xn } be a basis for Fn . Let u1 ≡ x1 / |x1 | . Thus for k = 1,

span (u1 ) = span (x1 ) and {u1 } is an orthonormal set. Now suppose for some k < n,
u1 , · · ·, uk have been chosen such that (uj · ul ) = δ jl and span (x1 , · · ·, xk ) =
span (u1 , · · ·, uk ). Then define
Pk
xk+1 − j=1 (xk+1 · uj ) uj
uk+1 ≡ ¯¯ Pk ¯,
¯ (4.34)
¯xk+1 − j=1 (xk+1 · uj ) uj ¯
where the denominator is not equal to zero because the xj form a basis and so
xk+1 ∈
/ span (x1 , · · ·, xk ) = span (u1 , · · ·, uk )
Thus by induction,
uk+1 ∈ span (u1 , · · ·, uk , xk+1 ) = span (x1 , · · ·, xk , xk+1 ) .
Also, xk+1 ∈ span (u1 , · · ·, uk , uk+1 ) which is seen easily by solving 4.34 for xk+1
and it follows
span (x1 , · · ·, xk , xk+1 ) = span (u1 , · · ·, uk , uk+1 ) .

If l ≤ k,
 
k
X
(uk+1 · ul ) = C (xk+1 · ul ) − (xk+1 · uj ) (uj · ul )
j=1
 
k
X
= C (xk+1 · ul ) − (xk+1 · uj ) δ lj 
j=1
= C ((xk+1 · ul ) − (xk+1 · ul )) = 0.
n
The vectors, {uj }j=1 , generated in this way are therefore an orthonormal basis
because each vector has unit length.
The process by which these vectors were generated is called the Gram Schmidt
process. Recall the following definition.
Definition 4.51 An n × n matrix, U, is unitary if U U ∗ = I = U ∗ U where U ∗ is

defined to be the transpose of the conjugate of U.
Theorem 4.52 Let A be an n × n matrix. Then there exists a unitary matrix, U

such that
U ∗ AU = T, (4.35)
where T is an upper triangular matrix having the eigenvalues of A on the main
diagonal listed according to multiplicity as roots of the characteristic equation.
Proof: Let v1 be a unit eigenvector for A . Then there exists λ1 such that
Av1 = λ1 v1 , |v1 | = 1.
Extend {v1 } to a basis and then use Lemma 4.50 to obtain {v1 , · · ·, vn }, an or-
thonormal basis in Fn . Let U0 be a matrix whose ith column is vi . Then from the
above, it follows U0 is unitary. Then U0∗ AU0 is of the form
 
λ1 ∗ · · · ∗
 0 
 
 .. 
 . A 1

0
where A1 is an n − 1 × n − 1 matrix. Repeat the process for the matrix, A1 above.

e1 such that U
There exists a unitary matrix U e ∗ A1 U
e1 is of the form
1
 
λ2 ∗ · · · ∗
 0 
 
 .. .
 . A 2

0
Now let U1 be the n × n matrix of the form

µ ¶
1 0
0 U e1 .
This is also a unitary matrix because by block multiplication,
µ ¶∗ µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
e1 e1 = e∗ e1
0 U 0 U 0 U 1 0 U
µ ¶ µ ¶
1 0 1 0
= e ∗Ue =
0 U 1 1 0 I
Then using block multiplication, U1∗ U0∗ AU0 U1 is of the form
 
λ1 ∗ ∗ ··· ∗
 0 λ2 ∗ · · · ∗ 
 
 0 0 
 
 .. .. 
 . . A2 
0 0
where A2 is an n − 2 × n − 2 matrix. Continuing in this way, there exists a unitary
matrix, U given as the product of the Ui in the above construction such that
U ∗ AU = T
where T is some upper triangular
Qn matrix. Since the matrix is upper triangular, the
characteristic equation is i=1 (λ − λi ) where the λi are the diagonal entries of T.
Therefore, the λi are the eigenvalues.
What if A is a real matrix and you only want to consider real unitary matrices?
Theorem 4.53 Let A be a real n × n matrix. Then there exists a real unitary
matrix, Q and a matrix T of the form
 
P1 · · · ∗
 .. . 
T = . ..  (4.36)
0 Pr
where Pi equals either a real 1 × 1 matrix or Pi equals a real 2 × 2 matrix having
two complex eigenvalues of A such that QT AQ = T. The matrix, T is called the real
Schur form of the matrix A.
Proof: Suppose
Av1 = λ1 v1 , |v1 | = 1
where λ1 is real. Then let {v1 , · · ·, vn } be an orthonormal basis of vectors in Rn .
Let Q0 be a matrix whose ith column is vi . Then Q∗0 AQ0 is of the form
 
λ1 ∗ · · · ∗
 0 
 
 .. 
 . A
1

0
where A1 is a real n − 1 × n − 1 matrix. This is just like the proof of Theorem 4.52
up to this point.
Now in case λ1 = α + iβ, it follows since A is real that v1 = z1 + iw1 and
that v1 = z1 − iw1 is an eigenvector for the eigenvalue, α − iβ. Here z1 and w1
are real vectors. It is clear that {z1 , w1 } is an independent set of vectors in Rn .
Indeed,{v1 , v1 } is an independent set and it follows span (v1 , v1 ) = span (z1 , w1 ) .
Now using the Gram Schmidt theorem in Rn , there exists {u1 , u2 } , an orthonormal
set of real vectors such that span (u1 , u2 ) = span (v1 , v1 ) . Now let {u1 , u2 , · · ·, un }
be an orthonormal basis in Rn and let Q0 be a unitary matrix whose ith column
is ui . Then Auj are both in span (u1 , u2 ) for j = 1, 2 and so uTk Auj = 0 whenever
k ≥ 3. It follows that Q∗0 AQ0 is of the form
 
∗ ∗ ··· ∗
 ∗ ∗ 
 
 0 
 
 .. 
 . A 1

0
e 1 an n − 2 × n − 2
where A1 is now an n − 2 × n − 2 matrix. In this case, find Q
matrix to put A1 in an appropriate form as above and come up with A2 either an
n − 4 × n − 4 matrix or an n − 3 × n − 3 matrix. Then the only other difference is
to let  
1 0 0 ··· 0
 0 1 0 ··· 0 
 
 
Q1 =  0 0 
 .. .. 
 . . e
Q1 
0 0
thus putting a 2 × 2 identity matrix in the upper left corner rather than a one.
Repeating this process with the above modification for the case of a complex eigen-
value leads eventually to 4.36 where Q is the product of real unitary matrices Qi
above. Finally,  
λI1 − P1 · · · ∗
 .. .. 
λI − T =  . . 
0 λIr − Pr
where Ik is the 2 × 2 identity matrix in the case that Pk is 2 × 2 and is the num-
ber
Qr 1 in the case where Pk is a 1 × 1 matrix. Now, it follows that det (λI − T ) =
k=1 det (λIk − Pk ) . Therefore, λ is an eigenvalue of T if and only if it is an eigen-
value of some Pk . This proves the theorem since the eigenvalues of T are the same
as those of A because they have the same characteristic polynomial due to the
similarity of A and T.
Definition 4.54 When a linear transformation, A, mapping a linear space, V to

V has a basis of eigenvectors, the linear transformation is called non defective.
Otherwise it is called defective. An n×n matrix, A, is called normal if AA∗ = A∗ A.

An important class of normal matrices is that of the Hermitian or self adjoint
matrices. An n × n matrix, A is self adjoint or Hermitian if A = A∗ .
The next lemma is the basis for concluding that every normal matrix is unitarily
similar to a diagonal matrix.
Lemma 4.55 If T is upper triangular and normal, then T is a diagonal matrix.
Proof: Since T is normal, T ∗ T = T T ∗ . Writing this in terms of components

and using the description of the adjoint as the transpose of the conjugate, yields
the following for the ik th entry of T ∗ T = T T ∗ .
X X X X
tij t∗jk = tij tkj = t∗ij tjk = tji tjk .
j j j j
Now use the fact that T is upper triangular and let i = k = 1 to obtain the following
from the above. X X
2 2 2
|t1j | = |tj1 | = |t11 |
j j
You see, tj1 = 0 unless j = 1 due to the assumption that T is upper triangular.
This shows T is of the form
 
∗ 0 ··· 0
 0 ∗ ··· ∗ 
 
 .. . . .. . .
 . . . .. 
0 ··· 0 ∗
Now do the same thing only this time take i = k = 2 and use the result just
established. Thus, from the above,
X 2
X 2 2
|t2j | = |tj2 | = |t22 | ,
j j
showing that t2j = 0 if j > 2 which means T has the form

 
∗ 0 0 ··· 0
 0 ∗ 0 ··· 0 
 
 0 0 ∗ ··· ∗ 
 .
 .. .. . . .. .. 
 . . . . . 
0 0 0 0 ∗
Next let i = k = 3 and obtain that T looks like a diagonal matrix in so far as the
first 3 rows and columns are concerned. Continuing in this way it follows T is a
diagonal matrix.
Theorem 4.56 Let A be a normal matrix. Then there exists a unitary matrix, U
such that U ∗ AU is a diagonal matrix.
Proof: From Theorem 4.52 there exists a unitary matrix, U such that U ∗ AU
equals an upper triangular matrix. The theorem is now proved if it is shown that
the property of being normal is preserved under unitary similarity transformations.
That is, verify that if A is normal and if B = U ∗ AU, then B is also normal. But
this is easy.
B∗B = U ∗ A∗ U U ∗ AU = U ∗ A∗ AU
= U ∗ AA∗ U = U ∗ AU U ∗ A∗ U = BB ∗ .
Therefore, U ∗ AU is a normal and upper triangular matrix and by Lemma 4.55 it

must be a diagonal matrix. This proves the theorem.
Corollary 4.57 If A is Hermitian, then all the eigenvalues of A are real and there
exists an orthonormal basis of eigenvectors.
Proof: Since A is normal, there exists unitary, U such that U ∗ AU = D, a

diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries are the eigenvalues of A. Therefore, D∗ =
U ∗ A∗ U = U ∗ AU = D showing D is real.
Finally, let
¡ ¢
U = u1 u2 · · · un
where the ui denote the columns of U and

 
λ1 0
 .. 
D= . 
0 λn
The equation, U ∗ AU = D implies

¡ ¢
AU = Au1 Au2 ··· Aun
¡ ¢
= UD = λ1 u1 λ2 u2 ··· λn un
where the entries denote the columns of AU and U D respectively. Therefore, Aui =
λi ui and since the matrix is unitary, the ij th entry of U ∗ U equals δ ij and so
δ ij = uTi uj = uTi uj = ui · uj .
This proves the corollary because it shows the vectors {ui } form an orthonormal
basis.
Corollary 4.58 If A is a real symmetric matrix, then A is Hermitian and there

exists a real unitary matrix, U such that U T AU = D where D is a diagonal matrix.
Proof: This follows from Theorem 4.53 and Corollary 4.57.

4.12. THE RIGHT POLAR DECOMPOSITION 87
4.12 The Right Polar Decomposition

This is on the right polar decomposition.
Theorem 4.59 Let F be an m × n matrix where m ≥ n. Then there exists an

m × n matrix R and a n × n matrix U such that
F = RU, U = U ∗ ,
all eigenvalues of U are non negative,
U 2 = F ∗ F, R∗ R = I,
and |Rx| = |x|.

∗
Proof: (F ∗ F ) = F ∗ F and so F ∗ F is self adjoint. Also,
(F ∗ F x, x) = (F x, F x) ≥ 0.
Therefore, all eigenvalues of F ∗ F must be nonnegative because if F ∗ F x = λx for

x 6= 0,
2
0 ≤ (F x, F x) = (F ∗ F x, x) = (λx, x) = λ |x| .
From linear algebra, there exists Q such that Q∗ Q = I and F ∗ F = Q∗ DQ where
D is a diagonal matrix of the form
 
λ1 · · · 0
 .. .. .. 
 . . . 
0 ··· λn
where each λi ≥ 0. Therefore, you can consider

 
µ1 · · · ··· ··· ··· 0
 .. 
 1/2    0
. v 

λ1 ··· 0  .. .. 

D1/2 ≡  ... .. ..  ≡  . µr . 
 (4.37)
. .   .. .. 
 . 0 . 
0 · · · λ1/2
n

 .


 .. .. .. 
. .
0 ··· ··· ··· ··· 0
where the µi are the positive eigenvalues of D1/2 .

Let U ≡ Q∗ D1/2 Q. This matrix is the square root of F ∗ F because
³ ´³ ´
Q∗ D1/2 Q Q∗ D1/2 Q = Q∗ D1/2 D1/2 Q = Q∗ DQ = F ∗ F
¡ ¢∗
It is self adjoint because Q∗ D1/2 Q = Q∗ D1/2 Q∗∗ = Q∗ D1/2 Q.
Let {x1 , · · ·, xr } be an orthogonal set of eigenvectors such that U xi = µi xi and

normalize so that
{µ1 x1 , · · ·, µr xr } = {U x1 , · · ·, U xr }
is an orthonormal set of vectors. By 4.37 it follows rank (U ) = r and so
{U x1 , · · ·, U xr }
is also an orthonormal basis for U (Fn ).

Then {F xr , · · ·, F xr } is also an orthonormal set of vectors in Fm because
¡ ¢
(F xi , F xj ) = (F ∗ F xi , xj ) = U 2 xi , xj = (U xi , U xj ) = δ ij .
Let
{U x1 , · · ·, U xr , yr+1 , · · ·, yn }
be an orthonormal basis for Fn and let
{F xr , · · ·, F xr , zr+1 , · · ·, zn , · · ·, zm }
be an orthonormal basis for Fm . Then a typical vector of Fn is of the form

r
X n
X
ak U xk + bj yj .
k=1 j=r+1
Define  
r
X n
X r
X n
X
R ak U xk + bj yj  ≡ ak F xk + bj zj
k=1 j=r+1 k=1 j=r+1
Then since
{U x1 , · · ·, U xr , yr+1 , · · ·, yn }
and
{F xr , · · ·, F xr , zr+1 , · · ·, zn , · · ·, zm }
are orthonormal,
¯   ¯2 ¯ ¯2
¯ r n ¯ ¯X ¯
¯ X X ¯ ¯ r Xn
¯
¯R  ak U xk + bj yj ¯¯
 = ¯ ak F xk + bj zj ¯¯
¯ ¯
¯ k=1 j=r+1 ¯ ¯k=1 j=r+1 ¯
r
X n
X
2 2
= |ak | + |bj |
k=1 j=r+1
¯ ¯2
¯ r n ¯
¯X X ¯
= ¯ ak U xk + bj yj ¯¯ .
¯
¯k=1 j=r+1 ¯
Therefore, R preserves distances.

4.12. THE RIGHT POLAR DECOMPOSITION 89
Letting x ∈ Fn ,
r
X
Ux = ak U xk (4.38)
k=1
for some unique choice of scalars, ak because {U x1 , · · ·, U xr } is a basis for U (Fn ).

Therefore,
Ã r ! r
Ã r !
X X X
RU x = R ak U xk ≡ ak F xk = F ak xk .
k=1 k=1 k=1
Pr
Is F ( k=1 ak xk ) = F (x)? Using 4.38,
Ã r ! Ã r !
X X
F ∗F ak xk − x = U2 ak xk − x
k=1 k=1
r
X
= ak µ2k xk − U (U x)
k=1
r
Ã r
!
X X
= ak µ2k xk − U ak U xk
k=1 k=1
r
Ã r !
X X
= ak µ2k xk −U ak µk xk = 0.
k=1 k=1
Therefore,
¯ Ã !¯2 Ã Ã ! Ã !!
¯ X r ¯ r
X r
X
¯ ¯
¯F ak xk − x ¯ = F ak xk − x , F ak xk − x
¯ ¯
k=1 k=1 k=1
Ã Ã r
! Ã r !!
X X
= F ∗F ak xk − x , ak xk − x =0
k=1 k=1
Pr
and so F ( k=1 ak xk ) = F (x) as hoped. Thus RU = F on Fn .
Since R preserves distances,

2 2 2 2
|x| + |y| + 2 (x, y) = |x + y| = |R (x + y)|
2 2
= |x| + |y| + 2 (Rx,Ry).
Therefore,
(x, y) = (R∗ Rx, y)
for all x, y and so R∗ R = I as claimed. This proves the theorem.
Multi-variable Calculus
5.1 Continuous Functions

In what follows, F will denote either R or C. It turns out it is more efficient to not
make a distinction. However, the main interest is in R so if you like, you can think
R whenever you see F.
5.1.1 Distance In Fn
It is necessary to give a generalization of the dot product for vectors in Cn . This
definition reduces to the usual one in the case the components of the vector are real.
Definition 5.1 Let x, y ∈ Cn . Thus x = (x1 , · · ·, xn ) where each xk ∈ C and a
similar formula holding for y. Then the dot product of these two vectors is defined
to be X
x·y ≡ xj yj ≡ x1 y1 + · · · + xn yn .
j
Notice how you put the conjugate on the entries of the vector, y. It makes no
difference if the vectors happen to be real vectors but with complex vectors you
must do it this way. The reason for this is that when you take the dot product of a
vector with itself, you want to get the square of the length of the vector, a positive
number. Placing the conjugate on the components of y in the above definition
assures this will take place. Thus
X X 2
x·x= xj xj = |xj | ≥ 0.
j j
If you didn’t place a conjugate as in the above definition, things wouldn’t work out
correctly. For example,
2
(1 + i) + 22 = 4 + 2i
and this is not a positive number.
The following properties of the dot product follow immediately from the defini-
tion and you should verify each of them.
Properties of the dot product:
91
92 MULTI-VARIABLE CALCULUS
1. u · v = v · u.
2. If a, b are numbers and u, v, z are vectors then (au + bv) · z = a (u · z) +

b (v · z) .
3. u · u ≥ 0 and it equals 0 if and only if u = 0.
The norm is defined in the usual way.
Definition 5.2 For x ∈ Cn ,

Ã n
!1/2
X 2 1/2
|x| ≡ |xk | = (x · x)
k=1
Here is a fundamental inequality called the Cauchy Schwarz inequality which

is stated here in Cn . First here is a simple lemma.
Lemma 5.3 If z ∈ C there exists θ ∈ C such that θz = |z| and |θ| = 1.
z
Proof: Let θ = 1 if z = 0 and otherwise, let θ = . Recall that for z =
|z|
2
x + iy, z = x − iy and zz = |z| .
Theorem 5.4 (Cauchy Schwarz)The following inequality holds for xi and yi ∈ C.

¯ ¯ Ã n !1/2 Ã n !1/2
¯Xn ¯ X X
¯ ¯ 2 2
|(x · y)| = ¯ xi y i ¯ ≤ |xi | |yi | = |x| |y| (5.1)
¯ ¯
i=1 i=1 i=1
Proof: Let θ ∈ C such that |θ| = 1 and

¯ ¯
Xn ¯Xn ¯
¯ ¯
θ xi y i = ¯ xi y i ¯
¯ ¯
i=1 i=1
Thus ¯ n ¯
n
X n
X ¡ ¢ ¯X ¯
¯ ¯
θ xi y i = xi θyi =¯ xi y i ¯ .
¯ ¯
i=1 i=1 i=1
Pn ¡ ¢³ ´
Consider p (t) ≡ i=1 xi + tθyi xi + tθyi where t ∈ R.
n
Ã n
! n
X 2
X X 2
2
0 ≤ p (t) = |xi | + 2t Re θ xi y i +t |yi |
i=1 i=1 i=1
¯ ¯
¯Xn ¯
2 ¯ ¯ 2
= |x| + 2t ¯ xi y i ¯ + t2 |y|
¯ ¯
i=1
5.1. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 93
If |y| = 0 then 5.1 is obviously true because both sides equal zero. Therefore,
assume |y| 6= 0 and then p (t) is a polynomial of degree two whose graph opens
up. Therefore, it either has no zeroes, two zeros or one repeated zero. If it has two
zeros, the above inequality must be violated because in this case the graph must
dip below the x axis. Therefore, it either has no zeros or exactly one. From the
quadratic formula this happens exactly when
¯ n ¯2
¯X ¯
¯ ¯ 2 2
4¯ xi y i ¯ − 4 |x| |y| ≤ 0
¯ ¯
i=1
and so ¯ n ¯
¯X ¯
¯ ¯
¯ xi y i ¯ ≤ |x| |y|
¯ ¯
i=1
as claimed. This proves the inequality.
By analogy to the case of Rn , length or magnitude of vectors in Cn can be
defined.
1/2
Definition 5.5 Let z ∈ Cn . Then |z| ≡ (z · z) . Also numbers in F will often be
referred to as scalars.
Theorem 5.6 For length defined in Definition 5.5, the following hold.
|z| ≥ 0 and |z| = 0 if and only if z = 0 (5.2)
If α is a scalar, |αz| = |α| |z| (5.3)
|z + w| ≤ |z| + |w| . (5.4)
Proof: The first two claims are left as exercises. To establish the third,
2
|z + w| = (z + w, z + w)
= z·z+w·w+w·z+z·w
2 2
= |z| + |w| + 2 Re w · z
2 2
≤ |z| + |w| + 2 |w · z|
2 2 2
≤ |z| + |w| + 2 |w| |z| = (|z| + |w|) .
The main difference between Cn and Rn is that the scalars are complex numbers.
Definition 5.7 Suppose you have a vector space, V and for z, w ∈ V and α a scalar
a norm is a way of measuring distance or magnitude which satisfies the properties
5.2 - 5.4. Thus a norm is something which does the following.
||z|| ≥ 0 and ||z|| = 0 if and only if z = 0 (5.5)
If α is a scalar, ||αz|| = |α| ||z|| (5.6)
||z + w|| ≤ ||z|| + ||w|| . (5.7)
Here is is understood that for all z ∈ V, ||z|| ∈ [0, ∞).
Note that |·| provides a norm on Fn from the above.
5.2 Open And Closed Sets

Eventually, one must consider functions which are defined on subsets of Fn and
their properties. The next definition will end up being quite important. It describe
a type of subset of Fn with the property that if x is in this set, then so is y whenever
y is close enough to x.
Definition 5.8 Let U ⊆ Fn . U is an open set if whenever x ∈ U, there exists

r > 0 such that B (x, r) ⊆ U. More generally, if U is any subset of Fn , x ∈ U is
an interior point of U if there exists r > 0 such that x ∈ B (x, r) ⊆ U. In other
words U is an open set exactly when every point of U is an interior point of U .
If there is something called an open set, surely there should be something called
a closed set and here is the definition of one.
Definition 5.9 A subset, C, of Fn is called a closed set if Fn \ C is an open set.

They symbol, Fn \ C denotes everything in Fn which is not in C. It is also called
the complement of C. The symbol, S C is a short way of writing Fn \ S.
To illustrate this definition, consider the following picture.
qx U
B(x, r)
You see in this picture how the edges are dotted. This is because an open set,
can not include the edges or the set would fail to be open. For example, consider
what would happen if you picked a point out on the edge of U in the above picture.
Every open ball centered at that point would have in it some points which are
outside U . Therefore, such a point would violate the above definition. You also see
the edges of B (x, r) dotted suggesting that B (x, r) ought to be an open set. This
is intuitively clear but does require a proof. This will be done in the next theorem
and will give examples of open sets. Also, you can see that if x is close to the edge
of U, you might have to take r to be very small.
It is roughly the case that open sets don’t have their skins while closed sets do.
Here is a picture of a closed set, C.
5.2. OPEN AND CLOSED SETS 95
C qx
B(x, r)
Note that x ∈/ C and since Fn \ C is open, there exists a ball, B (x, r) contained
entirely in F \ C. If you look at Fn \ C, what would be its skin? It can’t be in
n
Fn \ C and so it must be in C. This is a rough heuristic explanation of what is going

on with these definitions. Also note that Fn and ∅ are both open and closed. Here
is why. If x ∈ ∅, then there must be a ball centered at x which is also contained in
∅. This must be considered to be true because there is nothing in ∅ so there can be
no example to show it false1 . Therefore, from the definition, it follows ∅ is open.
/ ∅, then B (x, 1) is also contained in Fn \ ∅ = Fn .
It is also closed because if x ∈
Therefore, ∅ is both open and closed. From this, it follows Fn is also both open and
closed.
Theorem 5.10 Let x ∈ Fn and let r ≥ 0. Then B (x, r) is an open set. Also,
D (x, r) ≡ {y ∈ Fn : |y − x| ≤ r}
is a closed set.
Proof: Suppose y ∈ B (x,r) . It is necessary to show there exists r1 > 0 such

that B (y, r1 ) ⊆ B (x, r) . Define r1 ≡ r − |x − y| . Then if |z − y| < r1 , it follows
from the above triangle inequality that
|z − x| = |z − y + y − x|
≤ |z − y| + |y − x|
< r1 + |y − x| = r − |x − y| + |y − x| = r.
Note that if r = 0 then B (x, r) = ∅, the empty set. This is because if y ∈ Fn ,

|x − y| ≥ 0 and so y ∈
/ B (x, 0) . Since ∅ has no points in it, it must be open because
1 To a mathematician, the statment: Whenever a pig is born with wings it can fly must be taken
as true. We do not consider biological or aerodynamic considerations in such statements. There

is no such thing as a winged pig and therefore, all winged pigs must be superb flyers since there
can be no example of one which is not. On the other hand we would also consider the statement:
Whenever a pig is born with wings it can’t possibly fly, as equally true. The point is, you can say
anything you want about the elements of the empty set and no one can gainsay your statement.
Therefore, such statements are considered as true by default. You may say this is a very strange
way of thinking about truth and ultimately this is because mathematics is not about truth. It is
more about consistency and logic.
every point in it, (There are none.) satisfies the desired property of being an interior
point.
Now suppose y ∈ / D (x, r) . Then |x − y| > r and defining δ ≡ |x − y| − r, it
follows that if z ∈ B (y, δ) , then by the triangle inequality,
|x − z| ≥ |x − y| − |y − z| > |x − y| − δ
= |x − y| − (|x − y| − r) = r
and this shows that B (y, δ) ⊆ Fn \ D (x, r) . Since y was an arbitrary point in
Fn \ D (x, r) , it follows Fn \ D (x, r) is an open set which shows from the definition
that D (x, r) is a closed set as claimed.
A picture which is descriptive of the conclusion of the above theorem which also
implies the manner of proof is the following.
6 6
r r
q r-
q1 q r-
q1
x y x y
B(x, r) D(x, r)
5.3 Continuous Functions

With the above definition of the norm in Fp , it becomes possible to define continuity.
Definition 5.11 A function f : D (f ) ⊆ Fp → Fq is continuous at x ∈ D (f ) if for

each ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that whenever y ∈ D (f ) and
|y − x| < δ
it follows that
|f (x) − f (y)| < ε.
f is continuous if it is continuous at every point of D (f ) .
Note the total similarity to the scalar valued case.
5.3.1 Sufficient Conditions For Continuity

The next theorem is a fundamental result which will allow us to worry less about
the ε δ definition of continuity.
Theorem 5.12 The following assertions are valid.
1. The function, af + bg is continuous at x whenever f , g are continuous at x

∈ D (f ) ∩ D (g) and a, b ∈ F.
5.4. EXERCISES 97
2. If f is continuous at x, f (x) ∈ D (g) ⊆ Fp , and g is continuous at f (x) ,then

3. If f = (f1 , · · ·, fq ) : D (f ) → Fq , then f is continuous if and only if each fk is
a continuous F valued function.
4. The function f : Fp → F, given by f (x) = |x| is continuous.
The proof of this theorem is in the last section of this chapter. Its conclusions
are not surprising. For example the first claim says that (af + bg) (y) is close to
(af + bg) (x) when y is close to x provided the same can be said about f and g.
For the second claim, if y is close to x, f (x) is close to f (y) and so by continuity
of g at f (x), g (f (y)) is close to g (f (x)) . To see the third claim is likely, note that
closeness in Fp is the same as closeness in each coordinate. The fourth claim is
immediate from the triangle inequality.
For functions defined on Fn , there is a notion of polynomial just as there is for
functions defined on R.
Definition 5.13 Let α be an n dimensional multi-index. This means
α = (α1 , · · ·, αn )
where each αi is a natural number or zero. Also, let

n
X
|α| ≡ |αi |
i=1
The symbol, xα ,means

xα ≡ x α1 α2 αn
1 x2 · · · x3 .
An n dimensional polynomial of degree m is a function of the form

X
p (x) = dα xα.
|α|≤m
where the dα are complex or real numbers.
The above theorem implies that polynomials are all continuous.
5.4 Exercises
1. Let f (t) = (t, sin t) . Show f is continuous at every point t.
2. Suppose |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ K |x − y| where K is a constant. Show that f is
everywhere continuous. Functions satisfying such an inequality are called
Lipschitz functions.
α
3. Suppose |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ K |x − y| where K is a constant and α ∈ (0, 1).
Show that f is everywhere continuous.
4. Suppose f : F3 → F is given by f (x) = 3x1 x2 + 2x23 . Use Theorem 5.12 to

verify that f is continuous. Hint: You should first verify that the function,
π k : F3 → F given by π k (x) = xk is a continuous function.
5. Generalize the previous problem to the case where f : Fq → F is a polynomial.
6. State and prove a theorem which involves quotients of functions encountered

in the previous problem.
5.5 Limits Of A Function

As in the case of scalar valued functions of one variable, a concept closely related to
continuity is that of the limit of a function. The notion of limit of a function makes
sense at points, x, which are limit points of D (f ) and this concept is defined next.
Definition 5.14 Let A ⊆ Fm be a set. A point, x, is a limit point of A if B (x, r)

contains infinitely many points of A for every r > 0.
Definition 5.15 Let f : D (f ) ⊆ Fp → Fq be a function and let x be a limit point

of D (f ) . Then
lim f (y) = L
y→x
if and only if the following condition holds. For all ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such
that if
0 < |y − x| < δ, and y ∈ D (f )
then,
|L − f (y)| < ε.
Theorem 5.16 If limy→x f (y) = L and limy→x f (y) = L1 , then L = L1 .
Proof: Let ε > 0 be given. There exists δ > 0 such that if 0 < |y − x| < δ and
y ∈ D (f ) , then
|f (y) − L| < ε, |f (y) − L1 | < ε.
Pick such a y. There exists one because x is a limit point of D (f ) . Then
|L − L1 | ≤ |L − f (y)| + |f (y) − L1 | < ε + ε = 2ε.
Since ε > 0 was arbitrary, this shows L = L1 .

As in the case of functions of one variable, one can define what it means for
limy→x f (x) = ±∞.
Definition 5.17 If f (x) ∈ F, limy→x f (x) = ∞ if for every number l, there exists
δ > 0 such that whenever |y − x| < δ and y ∈ D (f ) , then f (x) > l.
The following theorem is just like the one variable version presented earlier.
5.5. LIMITS OF A FUNCTION 99
Theorem 5.18 Suppose limy→x f (y) = L and limy→x g (y) = K where K, L ∈ Fq .

Then if a, b ∈ F,
lim (af (y) + bg (y)) = aL + bK, (5.8)
y→x
lim f · g (y) = LK (5.9)

y→x
and if g is scalar valued with limy→x g (y) = K 6= 0,
lim f (y) g (y) = LK. (5.10)

y→x
Also, if h is a continuous function defined near L, then
lim h ◦ f (y) = h (L) . (5.11)

y→x
Suppose limy→x f (y) = L. If |f (y) − b| ≤ r for all y sufficiently close to x, then

|L − b| ≤ r also.
Proof: The proof of 5.8 is left for you. It is like a corresponding theorem for
continuous functions. Now 5.9is to be verified. Let ε > 0 be given. Then by the
triangle inequality,
|f · g (y) − L · K| ≤ |fg (y) − f (y) · K| + |f (y) · K − L · K|

≤ |f (y)| |g (y) − K| + |K| |f (y) − L| .
There exists δ 1 such that if 0 < |y − x| < δ 1 and y ∈ D (f ) , then
|f (y) − L| < 1,
and so for such y, the triangle inequality implies, |f (y)| < 1 + |L| . Therefore, for
0 < |y − x| < δ 1 ,
|f · g (y) − L · K| ≤ (1 + |K| + |L|) [|g (y) − K| + |f (y) − L|] . (5.12)
Now let 0 < δ 2 be such that if y ∈ D (f ) and 0 < |x − y| < δ 2 ,

ε ε
|f (y) − L| < , |g (y) − K| < .
2 (1 + |K| + |L|) 2 (1 + |K| + |L|)
Then letting 0 < δ ≤ min (δ 1 , δ 2 ) , it follows from 5.12 that
|f · g (y) − L · K| < ε
and this proves 5.9.

The proof of 5.10 is left to you.
Consider 5.11. Since h is continuous near L, it follows that for ε > 0 given,
there exists η > 0 such that if |y − L| < η, then
|h (y) −h (L)| < ε

Now since limy→x f (y) = L, there exists δ > 0 such that if 0 < |y − x| < δ, then
|f (y) −L| < η.
Therefore, if 0 < |y − x| < δ,
|h (f (y)) −h (L)| < ε.
It only remains to verify the last assertion. Assume |f (y) − b| ≤ r for all y
close enough to x. It is required to show that |L − b| ≤ r. If this is not true, then
|L − b| > r. Consider B (L, |L − b| − r) . Since L is the limit of f , it follows f (y) ∈
B (L, |L − b| − r) whenever y ∈ D (f ) is close enough to x. Thus, by the triangle
inequality,
|f (y) − L| < |L − b| − r
and so
r < |L − b| − |f (y) − L| ≤ ||b − L| − |f (y) − L||

≤ |b − f (y)| ,
a contradiction to the assumption that |b − f (y)| ≤ r.
Theorem 5.19 For f : D (f ) → Fq and x ∈ D (f ) a limit point of D (f ) , f is

continuous at x if and only if
lim f (y) = f (x) .

y→x
Proof: First suppose f is continuous at x a limit point of D (f ) . Then for

every ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that if |y − x| < δ and y ∈ D (f ) , then
|f (x) − f (y)| < ε. In particular, this holds if 0 < |x − y| < δ and this is just the
definition of the limit. Hence f (x) = limy→x f (y) .
Next suppose x is a limit point of D (f ) and limy→x f (y) = f (x) . This means
that if ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that for 0 < |x − y| < δ and y ∈ D (f ) , it follows
|f (y) − f (x)| < ε. However, if y = x, then |f (y) − f (x)| = |f (x) − f (x)| = 0 and
so whenever y ∈ D (f ) and |x − y| < δ, it follows |f (x) − f (y)| < ε, showing f is
continuous at x.
The following theorem is important.
Theorem 5.20 Suppose f : D (f ) → Fq . Then for x a limit point of D (f ) ,
lim f (y) = L (5.13)

y→x
if and only if
lim fk (y) = Lk (5.14)
y→x
where f (y) ≡ (f1 (y) , · · ·, fp (y)) and L ≡ (L1 , · · ·, Lp ) .

5.5. LIMITS OF A FUNCTION 101
Proof: Suppose 5.13. Then letting ε > 0 be given there exists δ > 0 such that
if 0 < |y − x| < δ, it follows
|fk (y) − Lk | ≤ |f (y) − L| < ε
which verifies 5.14.

Now suppose 5.14 holds. Then letting ε > 0 be given, there exists δ k such that
if 0 < |y − x| < δ k , then
ε
|fk (y) − Lk | < √ .
p
Let 0 < δ < min (δ 1 , · · ·, δ p ) . Then if 0 < |y − x| < δ, it follows
Ã p
!1/2
X 2
|f (y) − L| = |fk (y) − Lk |
k=1
Ã p
!1/2
X ε2
< = ε.
p
k=1

This theorem shows it suffices to consider the components of a vector valued
function when computing the limit.
³ ´
x2 −9
Example 5.21 Find lim(x,y)→(3,1) x−3 , y .
x2 −9
It is clear that lim(x,y)→(3,1) x−3 = 6 and lim(x,y)→(3,1) y = 1. Therefore, this
limit equals (6, 1) .
xy
Example 5.22 Find lim(x,y)→(0,0) x2 +y 2 .
First of all observe the domain of the function is F2 \ {(0, 0)} , every point in F2
except the origin. Therefore, (0, 0) is a limit point of the domain of the function
so it might make sense to take a limit. However, just as in the case of a function
of one variable, the limit may not exist. In fact, this is the case here. To see this,
take points on the line y = 0. At these points, the value of the function equals 0.
Now consider points on the line y = x where the value of the function equals 1/2.
Since arbitrarily close to (0, 0) there are points where the function equals 1/2 and
points where the function has the value 0, it follows there can be no limit. Just
take ε = 1/10 for example. You can’t be within 1/10 of 1/2 and also within 1/10
of 0 at the same time.
Note it is necessary to rely on the definition of the limit much more than in the
case of a function of one variable and it is the case there are no easy ways to do
limit problems for functions of more than one variable. It is what it is and you will
not deal with these concepts without agony.
5.6 Exercises
1. Find the following limits if possible
x2 −y 2
(a) lim(x,y)→(0,0) x2 +y 2
x(x2 −y 2 )
(b) lim(x,y)→(0,0) (x2 +y 2 )
2
(x2 −y4 )
(c) lim(x,y)→(0,0) (x2 +y 4 )2
Hint: Consider along y = 0 and along x = y 2 .
³ ´
1
(d) lim(x,y)→(0,0) x sin x2 +y 2
(e) The limit as (x, y) → (1, 2) of the expression
−2yx2 + 8yx + 34y + 3y 3 − 18y 2 + 6x2 − 13x − 20 − xy 2 − x3

.
−y 2 + 4y − 5 − x2 + 2x
Hint: It might help to write this in terms of the variables (s, t) =

(x − 1, y − 2) .
2. In the definition of limit, why must x be a limit point of D (f )? Hint: If x

were not a limit point of D (f ), show there exists δ > 0 such that B (x, δ)
contains no points of D (f ) other than possibly x itself. Argue that 33.3 is a
limit and that so is 22 and 7 and 11. In other words the concept is totally
worthless.
5.7 The Limit Of A Sequence

As in the case of real numbers, one can consider the limit of a sequence of points
in Fp .
∞
Definition 5.23 A sequence {an }n=1 converges to a, and write
lim an = a or an → a
n→∞
if and only if for every ε > 0 there exists nε such that whenever n ≥ nε ,
|an −a| < ε.
In words the definition says that given any measure of closeness, ε, the terms
of the sequence are eventually all this close to a. There is absolutely no difference
between this and the definition for sequences of numbers other than here bold face
is used to indicate an and a are points in Fp .
Theorem 5.24 If limn→∞ an = a and limn→∞ an = a1 then a1 = a.

5.7. THE LIMIT OF A SEQUENCE 103
Proof: Suppose a1 6= a. Then let 0 < ε < |a1 −a| /2 in the definition of the limit.
It follows there exists nε such that if n ≥ nε , then |an −a| < ε and |an −a1 | < ε.
Therefore, for such n,
|a1 −a| ≤ |a1 −an | + |an −a|

< ε + ε < |a1 −a| /2 + |a1 −a| /2 = |a1 −a| ,
a contradiction.
As in the case of a vector valued function, it suffices to consider the components.
This is the content of the next theorem.
¡ ¢
Theorem 5.25 Let an = an1 , · · ·, anp ∈ Fp . Then limn→∞ an = a ≡ (a1 , · · ·, ap )
if and only if for each k = 1, · · ·, p,
lim ank = ak . (5.15)

n→∞
Proof: First suppose limn→∞ an = a. Then given ε > 0 there exists nε such
that if n > nε , then
|ank − ak | ≤ |an − a| < ε
which establishes 5.15.
Now suppose 5.15 holds for each k. Then letting ε > 0 be given there exist nk
such that if n > nk ,
√
|ank − ak | < ε/ p.
Therefore, letting nε > max (n1 , · · ·, np ) , it follows that for n > nε ,
Ã n
!1/2 Ã n
!1/2
X 2
X ε2
|an − a| = |ank − ak | < = ε,
p
k=1 k=1
showing that limn→∞ an = a. This proves the theorem.

³ 2
´
Example 5.26 Let an = n21+1 , n1 sin (n) , 3nn2 +5n
+3
.
It suffices to consider the limits of the components according to the following

theorem. Thus the limit is (0, 0, 1/3) .
Theorem 5.27 Suppose {an } and {bn } are sequences and that
lim an = a and lim bn = b.

n→∞ n→∞
Also suppose x and y are numbers in F. Then
lim xan + ybn = xa + yb (5.16)

n→∞
lim an · bn = a · b (5.17)
n→∞
If bn ∈ F, then
an bn → ab.
Proof: The first of these claims is left for you to do. To do the second, let ε > 0
be given and choose n1 such that if n ≥ n1 then
|an −a| < 1.
Then for such n, the triangle inequality and Cauchy Schwarz inequality imply
|an · bn −a · b| ≤ |an · bn −an · b| + |an · b − a · b|

≤ |an | |bn −b| + |b| |an −a|
≤ (|a| + 1) |bn −b| + |b| |an −a| .
Now let n2 be large enough that for n ≥ n2 ,

ε ε
|bn −b| < , and |an −a| < .
2 (|a| + 1) 2 (|b| + 1)
Such a number exists because of the definition of limit. Therefore, let
nε > max (n1 , n2 ) .
For n ≥ nε ,
|an · bn −a · b| ≤ (|a| + 1) |bn −b| + |b| |an −a|

ε ε
< (|a| + 1) + |b| ≤ ε.
2 (|a| + 1) 2 (|b| + 1)
This proves 5.16. The proof of 5.17 is entirely similar and is left for you.
5.7.1 Sequences And Completeness

Recall the definition of a Cauchy sequence.
Definition 5.28 {an } is a Cauchy sequence if for all ε > 0, there exists nε such
that whenever n, m ≥ nε ,
|an −am | < ε.
A sequence is Cauchy means the terms are “bunching up to each other” as m, n

get large.
∞
Theorem 5.29 Let {an }n=1 be a Cauchy sequence in Fp . Then there exists a
unique a ∈ Fp such that an → a.
¡ ¢
Proof: Let an = an1 , · · ·, anp . Then
|ank − am
k | ≤ |an − am |
∞
which shows for each k = 1, · · ·, p, it follows {ank }n=1 is a Cauchy sequence in F.
This requires that both the real and imaginary parts of ank are Cauchy sequences
∞
in R which means the real and imaginary parts converge in R. This shows {ank }n=1
5.7. THE LIMIT OF A SEQUENCE 105
must converge to some ak . That is limn→∞ ank = ak . Letting a = (a1 , · · ·, ap ) , it

follows from Theorem 5.25 that
lim an = a.
n→∞
Theorem 5.30 The set of terms in a Cauchy sequence in Fp is bounded in the

sense that for all n, |an | < M for some M < ∞.
Proof: Let ε = 1 in the definition of a Cauchy sequence and let n > n1 . Then
from the definition,
|an −an1 | < 1.
It follows that for all n > n1 ,
|an | < 1 + |an1 | .
Therefore, for all n,

n1
X
|an | ≤ 1 + |an1 | + |ak | .
k=1
Theorem 5.31 If a sequence {an } in Fp converges, then the sequence is a Cauchy

sequence.
Proof: Let ε > 0 be given and suppose an → a. Then from the definition of
convergence, there exists nε such that if n > nε , it follows that
ε
|an −a| <
2
Therefore, if m, n ≥ nε + 1, it follows that
ε ε
|an −am | ≤ |an −a| + |a − am | < + =ε
2 2
showing that, since ε > 0 is arbitrary, {an } is a Cauchy sequence.
5.7.2 Continuity And The Limit Of A Sequence

Just as in the case of a function of one variable, there is a very useful way of thinking
of continuity in terms of limits of sequences found in the following theorem. In
words, it says a function is continuous if it takes convergent sequences to convergent
sequences whenever possible.
Theorem 5.32 A function f : D (f ) → Fq is continuous at x ∈ D (f ) if and only

if, whenever xn → x with xn ∈ D (f ) , it follows f (xn ) → f (x) .
Proof: Suppose first that f is continuous at x and let xn → x. Let ε > 0 be given.
By continuity, there exists δ > 0 such that if |y − x| < δ, then |f (x) − f (y)| < ε.
However, there exists nδ such that if n ≥ nδ , then |xn −x| < δ and so for all n this
large,
|f (x) −f (xn )| < ε
which shows f (xn ) → f (x) .
Now suppose the condition about taking convergent sequences to convergent
sequences holds at x. Suppose f fails to be continuous at x. Then there exists ε > 0
and xn ∈ D (f ) such that |x − xn | < n1 , yet
|f (x) −f (xn )| ≥ ε.
But this is clearly a contradiction because, although xn → x, f (xn ) fails to converge

to f (x) . It follows f must be continuous after all. This proves the theorem.
5.8 Properties Of Continuous Functions

Functions of p variables have many of the same properties as functions of one
variable. First there is a version of the extreme value theorem generalizing the one
dimensional case.
Theorem 5.33 Let C be closed and bounded and let f : C → R be continuous.

Then f achieves its maximum and its minimum on C. This means there exist,
x1 , x2 ∈ C such that for all x ∈ C,
f (x1 ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (x2 ) .
There is also the long technical theorem about sums and products of continuous
functions. These theorems are proved in the next section.
1. The function, af + bg is continuous at x when f , g are continuous at x ∈

D (f ) ∩ D (g) and a, b ∈ F.
2. If and f and g are each F valued functions continuous at x, then f g is

x.



5.9. EXERCISES 107
5.9 Exercises
1. f : D ⊆ Fp → Fq is Lipschitz continuous or just Lipschitz for short if there
exists a constant, K such that
|f (x) − f (y)| ≤ K |x − y|
for all x, y ∈ D. Show every Lipschitz function is uniformly continuous which

means that given ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 independent of x such that if
|x − y| < δ, then |f (x) − f (y)| < ε.
2. If f is uniformly continuous, does it follow that |f | is also uniformly continu-

ous? If |f | is uniformly continuous does it follow that f is uniformly continu-
ous? Answer the same questions with “uniformly continuous” replaced with
“continuous”. Explain why.
5.10 Proofs Of Theorems

This section contains the proofs of the theorems which were just stated without
proof.
1. The function, af + bg is continuous at x when f , g are continuous at x ∈

D (f ) ∩ D (g) and a, b ∈ F.
2. If and f and g are each F valued functions continuous at x, then f g is

x.


Proof: Begin with 1.) Let ε > 0 be given. By assumption, there exist δ 1 > 0
ε
such that whenever |x − y| < δ 1 , it follows |f (x) − f (y)| < 2(|a|+|b|+1) and there
exists δ 2 > 0 such that whenever |x − y| < δ 2 , it follows that |g (x) − g (y)| <
ε
2(|a|+|b|+1) . Then let 0 < δ ≤ min (δ 1 , δ 2 ) . If |x − y| < δ, then everything happens
at once. Therefore, using the triangle inequality
|af (x) + bf (x) − (ag (y) + bg (y))|

≤ |a| |f (x) − f (y)| + |b| |g (x) − g (y)|

µ ¶ µ ¶
ε ε
< |a| + |b| < ε.
2 (|a| + |b| + 1) 2 (|a| + |b| + 1)
Now begin on 2.) There exists δ 1 > 0 such that if |y − x| < δ 1 , then
|f (x) − f (y)| < 1.
Therefore, for such y,

|f (y)| < 1 + |f (x)| .
It follows that for such y,
|f g (x) − f g (y)| ≤ |f (x) g (x) − g (x) f (y)| + |g (x) f (y) − f (y) g (y)|
≤ |g (x)| |f (x) − f (y)| + |f (y)| |g (x) − g (y)|

≤ (1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|) [|g (x) − g (y)| + |f (x) − f (y)|] .
Now let ε > 0 be given. There exists δ 2 such that if |x − y| < δ 2 , then
ε
|g (x) − g (y)| < ,
2 (1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|)
and there exists δ 3 such that if |x − y| < δ 3 , then

ε
|f (x) − f (y)| <
2 (1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|)
Now let 0 < δ ≤ min (δ 1 , δ 2 , δ 3 ) . Then if |x − y| < δ, all the above hold at once and
|f g (x) − f g (y)| ≤
(1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|) [|g (x) − g (y)| + |f (x) − f (y)|]

µ ¶
ε ε
< (1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|) + = ε.
2 (1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|) 2 (1 + |g (x)| + |f (y)|)
This proves the first part of 2.) To obtain the second part, let δ 1 be as described
above and let δ 0 > 0 be such that for |x − y| < δ 0 ,
|g (x) − g (y)| < |g (x)| /2
and so by the triangle inequality,
− |g (x)| /2 ≤ |g (y)| − |g (x)| ≤ |g (x)| /2
which implies |g (y)| ≥ |g (x)| /2, and |g (y)| < 3 |g (x)| /2.
5.10. PROOFS OF THEOREMS 109
Then if |x − y| < min (δ 0 , δ 1 ) ,

¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ f (x) f (y) ¯ ¯ f (x) g (y) − f (y) g (x) ¯
¯ − ¯=¯ ¯
¯ g (x) g (y) ¯ ¯ g (x) g (y) ¯
|f (x) g (y) − f (y) g (x)|
≤ ³ 2
´
|g(x)|
2
2 |f (x) g (y) − f (y) g (x)|

= 2
|g (x)|
2
≤ 2 [|f (x) g (y) − f (y) g (y) + f (y) g (y) − f (y) g (x)|]
|g (x)|
2
≤ 2 [|g (y)| |f (x) − f (y)| + |f (y)| |g (y) − g (x)|]
|g (x)|
· ¸
2 3
≤ 2 |g (x)| |f (x) − f (y)| + (1 + |f (x)|) |g (y) − g (x)|
|g (x)| 2
2
≤ 2 (1 + 2 |f (x)| + 2 |g (x)|) [|f (x) − f (y)| + |g (y) − g (x)|]
|g (x)|
≡ M [|f (x) − f (y)| + |g (y) − g (x)|]
where
2
M≡ 2 (1 + 2 |f (x)| + 2 |g (x)|)
|g (x)|
Now let δ 2 be such that if |x − y| < δ 2 , then
ε −1
|f (x) − f (y)| < M
2
and let δ 3 be such that if |x − y| < δ 3 , then
ε −1
|g (y) − g (x)| < M .
2
Then if 0 < δ ≤ min (δ 0 , δ 1 , δ 2 , δ 3 ) , and |x − y| < δ, everything holds and
¯ ¯
¯ f (x) f (y) ¯
¯ ¯
¯ g (x) − g (y) ¯ ≤ M [|f (x) − f (y)| + |g (y) − g (x)|]
hε ε i
< M M −1 + M −1 = ε.
2 2
This completes the proof of the second part of 2.) Note that in these proofs no
effort is made to find some sort of “best” δ. The problem is one which has a yes or
a no answer. Either it is or it is not continuous.
Now begin on 3.). If f is continuous at x, f (x) ∈ D (g) ⊆ Fp , and g is continuous
at f (x) ,then g ◦ f is continuous at x. Let ε > 0 be given. Then there exists η > 0
such that if |y − f (x)| < η and y ∈ D (g) , it follows that |g (y) − g (f (x))| < ε. It
follows from continuity of f at x that there exists δ > 0 such that if |x − z| < δ and
z ∈ D (f ) , then |f (z) − f (x)| < η. Then if |x − z| < δ and z ∈ D (g ◦ f ) ⊆ D (f ) ,
all the above hold and so
|g (f (z)) − g (f (x))| < ε.

Part 4.) says: If f = (f1 , · · ·, fq ) : D (f ) → Fq , then f is continuous if and only
if each fk is a continuous F valued function. Then
|fk (x) − fk (y)| ≤ |f (x) − f (y)|

Ã q
!1/2
X 2
≡ |fi (x) − fi (y)|
i=1
q
X
≤ |fi (x) − fi (y)| . (5.18)
i=1
Suppose first that f is continuous at x. Then there exists δ > 0 such that if |x − y| <
δ, then |f (x) − f (y)| < ε. The first part of the above inequality then shows that for
each k = 1, · · ·, q, |fk (x) − fk (y)| < ε. This shows the only if part. Now suppose
each function, fk is continuous. Then if ε > 0 is given, there exists δ k > 0 such
that whenever |x − y| < δ k
|fk (x) − fk (y)| < ε/q.
Now let 0 < δ ≤ min (δ 1 , · · ·, δ q ) . For |x − y| < δ, the above inequality holds for all
k and so the last part of 5.18 implies
q
X
|f (x) − f (y)| ≤ |fi (x) − fi (y)|
i=1
Xq
ε
< = ε.
i=1
q

To verify part 5.), let ε > 0 be given and let δ = ε. Then if |x − y| < δ, the
triangle inequality implies
|f (x) − f (y)| = ||x| − |y||

≤ |x − y| < δ = ε.
This proves part 5.) and completes the proof of the theorem.
Here is a multidimensional version of the nested interval lemma.
The following definition is similar to that given earlier. It defines what is meant
by a sequentially compact set in Fp .
5.10. PROOFS OF THEOREMS 111
Definition 5.36 A set, K ⊆ Fp is sequentially compact if and only if whenever

∞
{xn }n=1 is a sequence of points in K, there exists a point, x ∈ K and a subsequence,
∞
{xnk }k=1 such that xnk → x.
It turns out the sequentially compact sets in Fp are exactly those which are closed
and bounded. Only half of this result will be needed in this book and this is proved
next. First note that C can be considered as R2 . Therefore, Cp may be considered
as R2p .
Theorem 5.37 Let C ⊆ Fp be closed and bounded. Then C is sequentially compact.

¡ ¢
Proof: Let {an } ⊆ C. Then let an = an1 , · · ·, anp . It follows the real and
© ª∞
imaginary parts of the terms of the sequence, anj n=1 are each contained in some
sufficiently large closed bounded interval. By© Theorem
ª∞ 2.3 on Page 25, there is a
subsequence of the sequence of real parts of anj n=1 which converges. Also there
© ª∞
is a further subsequence of the imaginary parts of anj n=1 which converges. Thus
there is a subsequence, nk with the property that anj k converges to a point, aj ∈ F.
Taking further subsequences, one obtains the existence of a subsequence, still called
nk such that for each r = 1, · · ·, p, anr k converges to a point, ar ∈ F as k → ∞.
Therefore, letting a ≡ (a1 , · · ·, ap ) , limk→∞ ank = a. Since C is closed, it follows
a ∈ C. This proves the theorem.
Here is a proof of the extreme value theorem.
Theorem 5.38 Let C be closed and bounded and let f : C → R be continuous.

Then f achieves its maximum and its minimum on C. This means there exist,
x1 , x2 ∈ C such that for all x ∈ C,
f (x1 ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (x2 ) .
Proof: Let M = sup {f (x) : x ∈ C} . Recall this means +∞ if f is not bounded

above and it equals the least upper bound of these values of f if f is bounded above.
Then there exists a sequence, {xn } such that f (xn ) → M. Since C is sequentially
compact, there exists a subsequence, xnk , and a point, x ∈ C such that xnk → x.
But then since f is continuous at x, it follows from Theorem 5.32 on Page 105
that f (x) = limk→∞ f (xnk ) = M. This proves f achieves its maximum and also
shows its maximum is less than ∞. Let x2 = x. The case of a minimum is handled
similarly.
Recall that a function is uniformly continuous if the following definition holds.
Definition 5.39 Let f : D (f ) → Fq . Then f is uniformly continuous if for every

ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that whenever |x − y| < δ, it follows |f (x) − f (y)| < ε.
Theorem 5.40 Let f :C → Fq be continuous where C is a closed and bounded set

in Fp . Then f is uniformly continuous on C.
Proof: If this is not so, there exists ε > 0 and pairs of points, xn and yn satisfy-
ing |xn − yn | < 1/n but |f (xn ) − f (yn )| ≥ ε. Since C is sequentially compact, there
exists x ∈ C and a subsequence, {xnk } satisfying xnk → x. But |xnk − ynk | < 1/k
and so ynk → x also. Therefore, from Theorem 5.32 on Page 105,
ε ≤ lim |f (xnk ) − f (ynk )| = |f (x) − f (x)| = 0,

k→∞
a contradiction. This proves the theorem.
5.11 The Space L (Fn , Fm )

Definition 5.41 The symbol, L (Fn , Fm ) will denote the set of linear transforma-
tions mapping Fn to Fm . Thus L ∈ L (Fn , Fm ) means that for α, β scalars and x, y
vectors in Fn ,
L (αx + βy) = αL (x) + βL (y) .
It is convenient to give a norm for the elements of L (Fn , Fm ) . This will allow
the consideration of questions such as whether a function having values in this space
of linear transformations is continuous.
5.11.1 The Operator Norm

How do you measure the distance between linear transformations defined on Fn ? It
turns out there are many ways to do this but I will give the most common one here.
Definition 5.42 L (Fn , Fm ) denotes the space of linear transformations mapping

Fn to Fm . For A ∈ L (Fn , Fm ) , the operator norm is defined by
||A|| ≡ max {|Ax|Fm : |x|Fn ≤ 1} < ∞.
Theorem 5.43 Denote by |·| the norm on either Fn or Fm . Then L (Fn , Fm ) with
this operator norm is a complete normed linear space of dimension nm with
||Ax|| ≤ ||A|| |x| .
Here Completeness means that every Cauchy sequence converges.
Proof: It is necessary to show the norm defined on L (Fn , Fm ) really is a norm.

This means it is necessary to verify
||A|| ≥ 0 and equals zero if and only if A = 0.
For α a scalar,
||αA|| = |α| ||A|| ,
and for A, B ∈ L (Fn , Fm ) ,
||A + B|| ≤ ||A|| + ||B||

¡ ¢
5.11. THE SPACE L FN , FM 113
The first two properties are obvious but you should verify them. It remains to verify
the norm is well defined and also to verify the triangle inequality above. First if
|x| ≤ 1, and (Aij ) is the matrix of the linear transformation with respect to the
usual basis vectors, then
Ã !1/2 
 X 
2
||A|| = max |(Ax)i | : |x| ≤ 1
 
i
 
 ¯ ¯2 1/2 

 X ¯X ¯ ¯ 

 ¯ 
= max  ¯ ¯
Aij xj ¯  : |x| ≤ 1
 ¯ 

 i ¯ j ¯ 

which is a finite number by the extreme value theorem.

It is clear that a basis for L (Fn , Fm ) consists of linear transformations whose
matrices are of the form Eij where Eij consists of the m × n matrix having all zeros
except for a 1 in the ij th position. In effect, this considers L (Fn , Fm ) as Fnm . Think
of the m × n matrix as a long vector folded up.
If x 6= 0, ¯ ¯
1 ¯ x¯
|Ax| = A ¯ ≤ ||A||
¯ (5.19)
|x| ¯ |x| ¯
It only remains to verify completeness. Suppose then that {Ak } is a Cauchy
sequence in L (Fn , Fm ) . Then from 5.19 {Ak x} is a Cauchy sequence for each x ∈ Fn .
This follows because
|Ak x − Al x| ≤ ||Ak − Al || |x|
which converges to 0 as k, l → ∞. Therefore, by completeness of Fm , there exists
Ax, the name of the thing to which the sequence, {Ak x} converges such that
lim Ak x = Ax.
k→∞
Then A is linear because

A (ax + by) ≡ lim Ak (ax + by)
k→∞
= lim (aAk x + bAk y)
k→∞
= a lim Ak x + b lim Ak y
k→∞ k→∞
= aAx + bAy.
By the first part of this argument, ||A|| < ∞ and so A ∈ L (Fn , Fm ) . This proves
the theorem.
Proposition 5.44 Let A (x) ∈ L (Fn , Fm ) for each x ∈ U ⊆ Fp . Then letting
(Aij (x)) denote the matrix of A (x) with respect to the standard basis, it follows
Aij is continuous at x for each i, j if and only if for all ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0
such that if |x − y| < δ, then ||A (x) − A (y)|| < ε. That is, A is a continuous
function having values in L (Fn , Fm ) at x.
Proof: Suppose first the second condition holds. Then from the material on
linear transformations,
|Aij (x) − Aij (y)| = |ei · (A (x) − A (y)) ej |

≤ |ei | |(A (x) − A (y)) ej |
≤ ||A (x) − A (y)|| .
Therefore, the second condition implies the first.

Now suppose the first condition holds. That is each Aij is continuous at x. Let
|v| ≤ 1.
 ¯ ¯2 1/2
X ¯X ¯
 ¯ ¯ 
|(A (x) − A (y)) (v)| =  ¯ (A (x) − A (y)) v ¯
j¯  (5.20)
¯ ij ij
i ¯ j ¯
  2 1/2
 X X 
≤   |Aij (x) − Aij (y)| |vj |  .
i j
By continuity of each Aij , there exists a δ > 0 such that for each i, j
ε
|Aij (x) − Aij (y)| < √
n m
whenever |x − y| < δ. Then from 5.20, if |x − y| < δ,


 2 1/2
 X X ε 
|(A (x) − A (y)) (v)| <   √ |v| 
i j
n m

 2 1/2
 X X ε 
≤   √   =ε
i j
n m
This proves the proposition.
5.12 The Frechet Derivative

Let U be an open set in Fn , and let f : U → Fm be a function.
Definition 5.45 A function g is o (v) if
g (v)
lim =0 (5.21)
|v|→0 |v|
5.12. THE FRECHET DERIVATIVE 115
A function f : U → Fm is differentiable at x ∈ U if there exists a linear transfor-

mation L ∈ L (Fn , Fm ) such that
f (x + v) = f (x) + Lv + o (v)
This linear transformation L is the definition of Df (x). This derivative is often

called the Frechet derivative. .
Usually no harm is occasioned by thinking of this linear transformation as its

matrix taken with respect to the usual basis vectors.
The definition 5.21 means that the error,
f (x + v) − f (x) − Lv
converges to 0 faster than |v|. Thus the above definition is equivalent to saying
|f (x + v) − f (x) − Lv|
lim =0 (5.22)
|v|→0 |v|
or equivalently,
|f (y) − f (x) − Df (x) (y − x)|
lim = 0. (5.23)
y→x |y − x|
Now it is clear this is just a generalization of the notion of the derivative of a
function of one variable because in this more specialized situation,
|f (x + v) − f (x) − f 0 (x) v|
lim = 0,
|v|→0 |v|
due to the definition which says
f (x + v) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim .
v→0 v
For functions of n variables, you can’t define the derivative as the limit of a difference
quotient like you can for a function of one variable because you can’t divide by a
vector. That is why there is a need for a more general definition.
The term o (v) is notation that is descriptive of the behavior in 5.21 and it is
only this behavior that is of interest. Thus, if t and k are constants,
o (v) = o (v) + o (v) , o (tv) = o (v) , ko (v) = o (v)
and other similar observations hold. The sloppiness built in to this notation is
useful because it ignores details which are not important. It may help to think of
o (v) as an adjective describing what is left over after approximating f (x + v) by
f (x) + Df (x) v.
Theorem 5.46 The derivative is well defined.

Proof: First note that for a fixed vector, v, o (tv) = o (t). Now suppose both
L1 and L2 work in the above definition. Then let v be any vector and let t be a
real scalar which is chosen small enough that tv + x ∈ U . Then
f (x + tv) = f (x) + L1 tv + o (tv) , f (x + tv) = f (x) + L2 tv + o (tv) .
Therefore, subtracting these two yields (L2 − L1 ) (tv) = o (tv) = o (t). There-
fore, dividing by t yields (L2 − L1 ) (v) = o(t)t . Now let t → 0 to conclude that
(L2 − L1 ) (v) = 0. Since this is true for all v, it follows L2 = L1 . This proves the
theorem.
Lemma 5.47 Let f be differentiable at x. Then f is continuous at x and in fact,

there exists K > 0 such that whenever |v| is small enough,
|f (x + v) − f (x)| ≤ K |v|
Proof: From the definition of the derivative, f (x + v)−f (x) = Df (x) v+o (v).
Let |v| be small enough that o(|v|)
|v| < 1 so that |o (v)| ≤ |v|. Then for such v,
|f (x + v) − f (x)| ≤ |Df (x) v| + |v|

≤ (|Df (x)| + 1) |v|
This proves the lemma with K = |Df (x)| + 1.
Theorem 5.48 (The chain rule) Let U and V be open sets, U ⊆ Fn and V ⊆
Fm . Suppose f : U → V is differentiable at x ∈ U and suppose g : V → Fq is
differentiable at f (x) ∈ V . Then g ◦ f is differentiable at x and
D (g ◦ f ) (x) = D (g (f (x))) D (f (x)) .
Proof: This follows from a computation. Let B (x,r) ⊆ U and let r also be small
enough that for |v| ≤ r, it follows that f (x + v) ∈ V . Such an r exists because f is
continuous at x. For |v| < r, the definition of differentiability of g and f implies
g (f (x + v)) − g (f (x)) =
Dg (f (x)) (f (x + v) − f (x)) + o (f (x + v) − f (x))

= Dg (f (x)) [Df (x) v + o (v)] + o (f (x + v) − f (x))
= D (g (f (x))) D (f (x)) v + o (v) + o (f (x + v) − f (x)) . (5.24)
It remains to show o (f (x + v) − f (x)) = o (v).

By Lemma 5.47, with K given there, letting ε > 0, it follows that for |v| small
enough,
|o (f (x + v) − f (x))| ≤ (ε/K) |f (x + v) − f (x)| ≤ (ε/K) K |v| = ε |v| .

5.12. THE FRECHET DERIVATIVE 117
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this shows o (f (x + v) − f (x)) = o (v) because whenever

|v| is small enough,
|o (f (x + v) − f (x))|
≤ ε.
|v|
By 5.24, this shows
g (f (x + v)) − g (f (x)) = D (g (f (x))) D (f (x)) v + o (v)
which proves the theorem.
The derivative is a linear transformation. What is the matrix of this linear
transformation taken with respect to the usual basis vectors? Let ei denote the
vector of Fn which has a one in the ith entry and zeroes elsewhere. Then the matrix
of the linear transformation is the matrix whose ith column is Df (x) ei . What is
this? Let t ∈ R such that |t| is sufficiently small.
f (x + tei ) − f (x) = Df (x) tei + o (tei )

= Df (x) tei + o (t) .
Then dividing by t and taking a limit,
f (x + tei ) − f (x) ∂f
Df (x) ei = lim ≡ (x) .
t→0 t ∂xi
Thus the matrix of Df (x) with respect to the usual basis vectors is the matrix of
the form  
f1,x1 (x) f1,x2 (x) · · · f1,xn (x)
 .. .. .. 
 . . . .
fm,x1 (x) fm,x2 (x) · · · fm,xn (x)
As mentioned before, there is no harm in referring to this matrix as Df (x) but it
may also be referred to as Jf (x) .
This is summarized in the following theorem.
Theorem 5.49 Let f : Fn → Fm and suppose f is differentiable at x. Then all the
partial derivatives ∂f∂x
i (x)
j
exist and if Jf (x) is the matrix of the linear transformation
with respect to the standard basis vectors, then the ij th entry is given by fi,j or
∂fi
∂xj (x).
What if all the partial derivatives of f exist? Does it follow that f is differen-
tiable? Consider the following function.
½ xy
f (x, y) = x2 +y 2 if (x, y) 6= (0, 0) .
0 if (x, y) = (0, 0)
Then from the definition of partial derivatives,
f (h, 0) − f (0, 0) 0−0
lim = lim =0
h→0 h h→0 h
and
f (0, h) − f (0, 0) 0−0
lim = lim =0
h→0 h h→0 h
However f is not even continuous at (0, 0) which may be seen by considering the
behavior of the function along the line y = x and along the line x = 0. By Lemma
5.47 this implies f is not differentiable. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the
correct definition of the derivative given above if you want to get a notion which
generalizes the concept of the derivative of a function of one variable in such a way
as to preserve continuity whenever the function is differentiable.
5.13 C 1 Functions
However, there are theorems which can be used to get differentiability of a function
based on existence of the partial derivatives.
Definition 5.50 When all the partial derivatives exist and are continuous the func-
tion is called a C 1 function.
Because of Proposition 5.44 on Page 113 and Theorem 5.49 which identifies the
entries of Jf with the partial derivatives, the following definition is equivalent to
the above.
Definition 5.51 Let U ⊆ Fn be an open set. Then f : U → Fm is C 1 (U ) if f is

differentiable and the mapping
x →Df (x) ,
is continuous as a function from U to L (Fn , Fm ).
The following is an important abstract generalization of the familiar concept of

partial derivative.
Definition 5.52 Let g : U ⊆ Fn × Fm → Fq , where U is an open set in Fn × Fm .

Denote an element of Fn × Fm by (x, y) where x ∈ Fn and y ∈ Fm . Then the map
x → g (x, y) is a function from the open set in X,
{x : (x, y) ∈ U }
to Fq . When this map is differentiable, its derivative is denoted by
D1 g (x, y) , or sometimes by Dx g (x, y) .
Thus,
g (x + v, y) − g (x, y) = D1 g (x, y) v + o (v) .
A similar definition holds for the symbol Dy g or D2 g. The special case seen in
beginning calculus courses is where g : U → Fq and
∂g (x) g (x + hei ) − g (x)
gxi (x) ≡ ≡ lim .
∂xi h→0 h
5.13. C 1 FUNCTIONS 119
The following theorem will be very useful in much of what follows. It is a version
of the mean value theorem.
Theorem 5.53 Suppose U is an open subset of Fn and f : U → Fm has the

property that Df (x) exists for all x in U and that, x+t (y − x) ∈ U for all t ∈ [0, 1].
(The line segment joining the two points lies in U .) Suppose also that for all points
on this line segment,
||Df (x+t (y − x))|| ≤ M.
Then
|f (y) − f (x)| ≤ M |y − x| .
Proof: Let
S ≡ {t ∈ [0, 1] : for all s ∈ [0, t] ,
|f (x + s (y − x)) − f (x)| ≤ (M + ε) s |y − x|} .
Then 0 ∈ S and by continuity of f , it follows that if t ≡ sup S, then t ∈ S and if
t < 1,
|f (x + t (y − x)) − f (x)| = (M + ε) t |y − x| . (5.25)
∞
If t < 1, then there exists a sequence of positive numbers, {hk }k=1 converging to 0
such that
|f (x + (t + hk ) (y − x)) − f (x)| > (M + ε) (t + hk ) |y − x|
which implies that
|f (x + (t + hk ) (y − x)) − f (x + t (y − x))|
+ |f (x + t (y − x)) − f (x)| > (M + ε) (t + hk ) |y − x| .

By 5.25, this inequality implies
|f (x + (t + hk ) (y − x)) − f (x + t (y − x))| > (M + ε) hk |y − x|
which yields upon dividing by hk and taking the limit as hk → 0,
|Df (x + t (y − x)) (y − x)| ≥ (M + ε) |y − x| .
Now by the definition of the norm of a linear operator,
M |y − x| ≥ ||Df (x + t (y − x))|| |y − x|
≥ |Df (x + t (y − x)) (y − x)| ≥ (M + ε) |y − x| ,
a contradiction. Therefore, t = 1 and so
|f (x + (y − x)) − f (x)| ≤ (M + ε) |y − x| .
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this proves the theorem.

The next theorem proves that if the partial derivatives exist and are continuous,
then the function is differentiable.
Theorem 5.54 Let g : U ⊆ Fn × Fm → Fq . Then g is C 1 (U ) if and only if D1 g

and D2 g both exist and are continuous on U . In this case,
Dg (x, y) (u, v) = D1 g (x, y) u+D2 g (x, y) v.
Proof: Suppose first that g ∈ C 1 (U ). Then if (x, y) ∈ U ,
g (x + u, y) − g (x, y) = Dg (x, y) (u, 0) + o (u) .
Therefore, D1 g (x, y) u =Dg (x, y) (u, 0). Then
|(D1 g (x, y) − D1 g (x0 , y0 )) (u)| =
|(Dg (x, y) − Dg (x0 , y0 )) (u, 0)| ≤

||Dg (x, y) − Dg (x0 , y0 )|| |(u, 0)| .
Therefore,
|D1 g (x, y) − D1 g (x0 , y0 )| ≤ ||Dg (x, y) − Dg (x0 , y0 )|| .
A similar argument applies for D2 g and this proves the continuity of the function,
(x, y) → Di g (x, y) for i = 1, 2. The formula follows from
Dg (x, y) (u, v) = Dg (x, y) (u, 0) + Dg (x, y) (0, v)

≡ D1 g (x, y) u+D2 g (x, y) v.
Now suppose D1 g (x, y) and D2 g (x, y) exist and are continuous.
g (x + u, y + v) − g (x, y) = g (x + u, y + v) − g (x, y + v)
+g (x, y + v) − g (x, y)
= g (x + u, y) − g (x, y) + g (x, y + v) − g (x, y) +
[g (x + u, y + v) − g (x + u, y) − (g (x, y + v) − g (x, y))]
= D1 g (x, y) u + D2 g (x, y) v + o (v) + o (u) +
[g (x + u, y + v) − g (x + u, y) − (g (x, y + v) − g (x, y))] . (5.26)
Let h (x, u) ≡ g (x + u, y + v) − g (x + u, y). Then the expression in [ ] is of the
form,
h (x, u) − h (x, 0) .
Also
D2 h (x, u) = D1 g (x + u, y + v) − D1 g (x + u, y)
and so, by continuity of (x, y) → D1 g (x, y),
||D2 h (x, u)|| < ε

5.13. C 1 FUNCTIONS 121
whenever ||(u, v)|| is small enough. By Theorem 5.53 on Page 119, there exists
δ > 0 such that if ||(u, v)|| < δ, the norm of the last term in 5.26 satisfies the
inequality,
||g (x + u, y + v) − g (x + u, y) − (g (x, y + v) − g (x, y))|| < ε ||u|| . (5.27)
Therefore, this term is o ((u, v)). It follows from 5.27 and 5.26 that
g (x + u, y + v) =
g (x, y) + D1 g (x, y) u + D2 g (x, y) v+o (u) + o (v) + o ((u, v))

= g (x, y) + D1 g (x, y) u + D2 g (x, y) v + o ((u, v))
Showing that Dg (x, y) exists and is given by
Dg (x, y) (u, v) = D1 g (x, y) u + D2 g (x, y) v.
The continuity of (x, y) → Dg (x, y) follows from the continuity of (x, y) →

Di g (x, y). This proves the theorem.
Not surprisingly, it can be generalized to many more factors.
Qn
Definition 5.55 Let g : U ⊆ i=1 Fri → Fq , where U is an open set. Then the
map xi → g (x) is a function from the open set in Fri ,
{xi : x ∈ U }
to Fq . When this map is differentiable,Qits derivative is denoted by Di g (x). To aid

n
in the notation, for v ∈ Xi , let θi vQ∈ i=1 Fri be the vector (0, · · ·, v, · · ·, 0) where
n
the v is in the i slot and for v ∈ i=1 Fri , let vi denote the entry in the ith slot of
th
v. Thus by saying xi → g (x) is differentiable is meant that for v ∈ Xi sufficiently

small,
g (x + θi v) − g (x) = Di g (x) v + o (v) .
Here is a generalization of Theorem 5.54.

Qn
Theorem 5.56 Let g, U, i=1 Fri , be given as in Definition 5.55. Then g is C 1 (U )
if and only if Di g exists and is continuous on U for each i. In this case,
X
Dg (x) (v) = Dk g (x) vk (5.28)
k
Proof: The only if part of the proof is leftPfor you. Suppose then that Di g
k
exists and is continuous for each i. Note that j=1 θj vj = (v1 , · · ·, vk , 0, · · ·, 0).
Pn P0
Thus j=1 θj vj = v and define j=1 θj vj ≡ 0. Therefore,
    
n
X k
X k−1
X
g (x + v) − g (x) = g x+ θj vj  − g x + θj vj  (5.29)
k=1 j=1 j=1
Consider the terms in this sum.

   
Xk k−1
X
g x+ θj vj  − g x + θj vj  = g (x+θk vk ) − g (x) + (5.30)
j=1 j=1
       
k
X k−1
X
g x+ θj vj  − g (x+θk vk ) − g x + θj vj  − g (x) (5.31)
j=1 j=1
and the expression in 5.31 is of the form h (vk ) − h (0) where for small w ∈ Frk ,
 
k−1
X
h (w) ≡ g x+ θj vj + θk w − g (x + θk w) .
j=1
Therefore,
 
k−1
X
Dh (w) = Dk g x+ θj vj + θk w − Dk g (x + θk w)
j=1
and by continuity, ||Dh (w)|| < ε provided |v| is small enough. Therefore, by
Theorem 5.53, whenever |v| is small enough, |h (θk vk ) − h (0)| ≤ ε |θk vk | ≤ ε |v|
which shows that since ε is arbitrary, the expression in 5.31 is o (v). Now in 5.30
g (x+θk vk ) − g (x) = Dk g (x) vk + o (vk ) = Dk g (x) vk + o (v). Therefore, referring
to 5.29,
X n
g (x + v) − g (x) = Dk g (x) vk + o (v)
k=1
which shows Dg exists and equals the formula given in 5.28.

The way this is usually used is in the following corollary, a case of Theorem 5.56
obtained by letting Frj = F in the above theorem.
Corollary 5.57 Let U be an open subset of Fn and let f :U → Fm be C 1 in the sense

that all the partial derivatives of f exist and are continuous. Then f is differentiable
and
Xn
∂f
f (x + v) = f (x) + (x) vk + o (v) .
∂xk
k=1
5.14 C k Functions
Recall the notation for partial derivatives in the following definition.
Definition 5.58 Let g : U → Fn . Then

∂g g (x + hek ) − g (x)
gxk (x) ≡ (x) ≡ lim
∂xk h→0 h
5.15. MIXED PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 123
Higher order partial derivatives are defined in the usual way.
∂2g
gxk xl (x) ≡ (x)
∂xl ∂xk
and so forth.
To deal with higher order partial derivatives in a systematic way, here is a useful
definition.
Definition 5.59 α = (α1 , · · ·, αn ) for α1 · · · αn positive integers is called a multi-

index. For α a multi-index, |α| ≡ α1 + · · · + αn and if x ∈ Fn ,
x = (x1 , · · ·, xn ),
and f a function, define
∂ |α| f (x)
xα ≡ x α1 α2 αn α
1 x2 · · · xn , D f (x) ≡ .
∂xα α2
1 ∂x2
1
· · · ∂xα
n
n
The following is the definition of what is meant by a C k function.
Definition 5.60 Let U be an open subset of Fn and let f : U → Fm . Then for k a

nonnegative integer, f is C k if for every |α| ≤ k, Dα f exists and is continuous.
5.15 Mixed Partial Derivatives

Under certain conditions the mixed partial derivatives will always be equal.
This astonishing fact is due to Euler in 1734.
Theorem 5.61 Suppose f : U ⊆ F2 → R where U is an open set on which fx , fy ,

fxy and fyx exist. Then if fxy and fyx are continuous at the point (x, y) ∈ U , it
follows
fxy (x, y) = fyx (x, y) .
Proof: Since U is open, there exists r > 0 such that B ((x, y) , r) ⊆ U. Now let
|t| , |s| < r/2, t, s real numbers and consider
h(t) h(0)
1 z }| { z }| {
∆ (s, t) ≡ {f (x + t, y + s) − f (x + t, y) − (f (x, y + s) − f (x, y))}. (5.32)
st
Note that (x + t, y + s) ∈ U because
¡ ¢1/2
|(x + t, y + s) − (x, y)| = |(t, s)| = t2 + s2
µ 2 ¶1/2
r r2 r
≤ + = √ < r.
4 4 2
As implied above, h (t) ≡ f (x + t, y + s) − f (x + t, y). Therefore, by the mean

value theorem from calculus and the (one variable) chain rule,
1 1
∆ (s, t) = (h (t) − h (0)) = h0 (αt) t
st st
1
= (fx (x + αt, y + s) − fx (x + αt, y))
s
for some α ∈ (0, 1) . Applying the mean value theorem again,
∆ (s, t) = fxy (x + αt, y + βs)
where α, β ∈ (0, 1).
If the terms f (x + t, y) and f (x, y + s) are interchanged in 5.32, ∆ (s, t) is un-
changed and the above argument shows there exist γ, δ ∈ (0, 1) such that
∆ (s, t) = fyx (x + γt, y + δs) .
Letting (s, t) → (0, 0) and using the continuity of fxy and fyx at (x, y) ,
lim ∆ (s, t) = fxy (x, y) = fyx (x, y) .
(s,t)→(0,0)

The following is obtained from the above by simply fixing all the variables except
for the two of interest.
Corollary 5.62 Suppose U is an open subset of Fn and f : U → R has the property
that for two indices, k, l, fxk , fxl , fxl xk , and fxk xl exist on U and fxk xl and fxl xk
are both continuous at x ∈ U. Then fxk xl (x) = fxl xk (x) .
By considering the real and imaginary parts of f in the case where f has values
in F you obtain the following corollary.
Corollary 5.63 Suppose U is an open subset of Fn and f : U → F has the property
that for two indices, k, l, fxk , fxl , fxl xk , and fxk xl exist on U and fxk xl and fxl xk
are both continuous at x ∈ U. Then fxk xl (x) = fxl xk (x) .
Finally, by considering the components of f you get the following generalization.
Corollary 5.64 Suppose U is an open subset of Fn and f : U → F m has the
property that for two indices, k, l, fxk , fxl , fxl xk , and fxk xl exist on U and fxk xl and
fxl xk are both continuous at x ∈ U. Then fxk xl (x) = fxl xk (x) .
It is necessary to assume the mixed partial derivatives are continuous in order
to assert they are equal. The following is a well known example [5].
Example 5.65 Let
(
xy (x2 −y 2 )
f (x, y) = x2 +y 2 if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
0 if (x, y) = (0, 0)
5.16. IMPLICIT FUNCTION THEOREM 125
From the definition of partial derivatives it follows immediately that fx (0, 0) =

fy (0, 0) = 0. Using the standard rules of differentiation, for (x, y) 6= (0, 0) ,
x4 − y 4 + 4x2 y 2 x4 − y 4 − 4x2 y 2
fx = y 2 , fy = x 2
(x2 + y 2 ) (x2 + y 2 )
Now
fx (0, y) − fx (0, 0)
fxy (0, 0) ≡ lim
y→0 y
−y 4
= lim = −1
y→0 (y 2 )2
while
fy (x, 0) − fy (0, 0)
fyx (0, 0) ≡ lim
x→0 x
x4
= lim =1
x→0 (x2 )2
showing that although the mixed partial derivatives do exist at (0, 0) , they are not
equal there.
5.16 Implicit Function Theorem

The implicit function theorem is one of the greatest theorems in mathematics. There
are many versions of this theorem. However, I will give a very simple proof valid in
finite dimensional spaces.
Theorem 5.66 (implicit function theorem) Suppose U is an open set in Rn × Rm .

Let f : U → Rn be in C 1 (U ) and suppose
−1
f (x0 , y0 ) = 0, D1 f (x0 , y0 ) ∈ L (Rn , Rn ) . (5.33)
Then there exist positive constants, δ, η, such that for every y ∈ B (y0 , η) there
exists a unique x (y) ∈ B (x0 , δ) such that
f (x (y) , y) = 0. (5.34)
Furthermore, the mapping, y → x (y) is in C 1 (B (y0 , η)).
Proof: Let  
f1 (x, y)
 f2 (x, y) 
 
f (x, y) =  .. .
 . 
fn (x, y)
¡ ¢ n
Define for x1 , · · ·, xn ∈ B (x0 , δ) and y ∈ B (y0 , η) the following matrix.
 ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ 
f1,x1 x1 , y · · · f1,xn x1 , y
¡ ¢  .. .. 
J x1 , · · ·, xn , y ≡  . . .
fn,x1 (xn , y) · · · fn,xn (xn , y)
Then by the assumption of continuity of all the partial derivatives, ¡ there exists ¢
δ 0 > 0 and η 0 > 0 such that if δ < δ 0 and η < η 0 , it follows that for all x1 , · · ·, xn ∈
n
B (x0 , δ) and y ∈ B (y0 , η) ,
¡ ¡ ¢¢
det J x1 , · · ·, xn , y > r > 0. (5.35)
and B (x0 , δ 0 )× B (y0 , η 0 ) ⊆ U . Pick y ∈ B (y0 , η) and suppose there exist x, z ∈

B (x0 , δ) such that f (x, y) = f (z, y) = 0. Consider fi and let
h (t) ≡ fi (x + t (z − x) , y) .
Then h (1) = h (0) and so by the mean value theorem, h0 (ti ) = 0 for some ti ∈ (0, 1) .
Therefore, from the chain rule and for this value of ti ,
h0 (ti ) = Dfi (x + ti (z − x) , y) (z − x) = 0. (5.36)
Then denote by xi the vector, x + ti (z − x) . It follows from 5.36 that

¡ ¢
J x1 , · · ·, xn , y (z − x) = 0
and so from 5.35 z − x = 0. Now it will be shown that if η is chosen sufficiently

small, then for all y ∈ B (y0 , η) , there exists a unique x (y) ∈ B (x0 , δ) such that
f (x (y) , y) = 0.
2
Claim: If η is small enough, then the function, hy (x) ≡ |f (x, y)| achieves its
minimum value on B (x0 , δ) at a point of B (x0 , δ) .
Proof of claim: Suppose this is not the case. Then there exists a sequence
η k → 0 and for some yk having |yk −y0 | < η k , the minimum of hyk occurs on a point
of the boundary of B (x0 , δ), xk such that |x0 −xk | = δ. Now taking a subsequence,
still denoted by k, it can be assumed that xk → x with |x − x0 | = δ and yk → y0 .
Let ε > 0. Then for k large enough, hyk (x0 ) < ε because f (x0 , y0 ) = 0. Therefore,
from the definition of xk , hyk (xk ) < ε. Passing to the limit yields hy0 (x) ≤ ε. Since
ε > 0 is arbitrary, it follows that hy0 (x) = 0 which contradicts the first part of the
argument in which it was shown that for y ∈ B (y0 , η) there is at most one point, x
of B (x0 , δ) where f (x, y) = 0. Here two have been obtained, x0 and x. This proves
the claim.
Choose η < η 0 and also small enough that the above claim holds and let x (y)
denote a point of B (x0 , δ) at which the minimum of hy on B (x0 , δ) is achieved.
Since x (y) is an interior point, you can consider hy (x (y) + tv) for |t| small and
conclude this function of t has a zero derivative at t = 0. Thus
T
Dhy (x (y)) v = 0 = 2f (x (y) , y) D1 f (x (y) , y) v
for every vector v. But from 5.35 and the fact that v is arbitrary, it follows
f (x (y) , y) = 0. This proves the existence of the function y → x (y) such that
f (x (y) , y) = 0 for all y ∈ B (y0 , η) .
It remains to verify this function is a C 1 function. To do this, let y1 and y2 be
points of B (y0 , η) . Then as before, consider the ith component of f and consider
the same argument using the mean value theorem to write
0 = fi (x (y1 ) , y1 ) − fi (x (y2 ) , y2 )
= fi (x (y¡1 ) , y1 )¢− fi (x (y2 ) , y1 ) + fi (x (y¡2 ) , y1 ) − f¢i (x (y2 ) , y2 )
= D1 fi xi , y1 (x (y1 ) − x (y2 )) + D2 fi x (y2 ) , yi (y1 − y2 ) .
Therefore, ¡ ¢
J x1 , · · ·, xn , y1 (x (y1 ) − x (y2 )) = −M (y1 − y2 ) (5.37)
¡ ¢
where M is the matrix whose ith row is D2 fi x (y2 ) , yi . Then from 5.35 there
exists a constant, C independent of the choice of y ∈ B (y0 , η) such that
¯¯ ¡ ¢−1 ¯¯¯¯
¯¯
¯¯J x1 , · · ·, xn , y ¯¯ < C
¡ ¢ n
whenever x1 , · · ·, xn ∈ B (x0 , δ) . By continuity of the partial derivatives of f it
also follows there exists a constant, C1 such that ||D2 fi (x, y)|| < C1 whenever,
(x, y) ∈ B (x0 , δ) × B (y0 , η) . Hence ||M || must also be bounded independent of
the choice of y1 and y2 in B (y0 , η) . From 5.37, it follows there exists a constant,
C such that for all y1 , y2 in B (y0 , η) ,
|x (y1 ) − x (y2 )| ≤ C |y1 − y2 | . (5.38)
It follows as in the proof of the chain rule that
o (x (y + v) − x (y)) = o (v) . (5.39)
Now let y ∈ B (y0 , η) and let |v| be sufficiently small that y + v ∈ B (y0 , η) .
Then
0 = f (x (y + v) , y + v) − f (x (y) , y)
= f (x (y + v) , y + v) − f (x (y + v) , y) + f (x (y + v) , y) − f (x (y) , y)
= D2 f (x (y + v) , y) v + D1 f (x (y) , y) (x (y + v) − x (y)) + o (|x (y + v) − x (y)|)
= D2 f (x (y) , y) v + D1 f (x (y) , y) (x (y + v) − x (y)) +

o (|x (y + v) − x (y)|) + (D2 f (x (y + v) , y) v−D2 f (x (y) , y) v)
= D2 f (x (y) , y) v + D1 f (x (y) , y) (x (y + v) − x (y)) + o (v) .
Therefore,
−1
x (y + v) − x (y) = −D1 f (x (y) , y) D2 f (x (y) , y) v + o (v)
−1
which shows that Dx (y) = −D1 f (x (y) , y) D2 f (x (y) , y) and y →Dx (y) is
continuous. This proves the theorem.
−1
In practice, how do you verify the condition, D1 f (x0 , y0 ) ∈ L (Fn , Fn )?
 
f1 (x1 , · · ·, xn , y1 , · · ·, yn )
 .. 
f (x, y) =  . .
fn (x1 , · · ·, xn , y1 , · · ·, yn )
The matrix of the linear transformation, D1 f (x0 , y0 ) is then

 ∂f (x ,···,x ,y ,···,y ) 
1 1
∂x1
n 1 n
· · · ∂f1 (x1 ,···,x
∂xn
n ,y1 ,···,yn )
 .. .. 
 
 . . 
∂fn (x1 ,···,xn ,y1 ,···,yn ) ∂fn (x1 ,···,xn ,y1 ,···,yn )
∂x1 ··· ∂xn
−1
and from linear algebra, D1 f (x0 , y0 ) ∈ L (Fn , Fn ) exactly when the above matrix
has an inverse. In other words when
 ∂f (x ,···,x ,y ,···,y ) ∂f1 (x1 ,···,xn ,y1 ,···,yn )

1 1
∂x1
n 1 n
··· ∂xn
 .. .. 
det 
 . .
 6= 0

∂fn (x1 ,···,xn ,y1 ,···,yn ) ∂fn (x1 ,···,xn ,y1 ,···,yn )
∂x1 ··· ∂xn
at (x0 , y0 ). The above determinant is important enough that it is given special

notation. Letting z = f (x, y) , the above determinant is often written as
∂ (z1 , · · ·, zn )
.
∂ (x1 , · · ·, xn )
Of course you can replace R with F in the above by applying the above to the
situation in which each F is replaced with R2 .
Corollary 5.67 (implicit function theorem) Suppose U is an open set in Fn × Fm .

Let f : U → Fn be in C 1 (U ) and suppose
−1
f (x0 , y0 ) = 0, D1 f (x0 , y0 ) ∈ L (Fn , Fn ) . (5.40)
f (x (y) , y) = 0. (5.41)
Furthermore, the mapping, y → x (y) is in C 1 (B (y0 , η)).
The next theorem is a very important special case of the implicit function the-
orem known as the inverse function theorem. Actually one can also obtain the
implicit function theorem from the inverse function theorem. It is done this way in
[36] and in [3].
Theorem 5.68 (inverse function theorem) Let x0 ∈ U ⊆ Fn and let f : U → Fn .

Suppose
f is C 1 (U ) , and Df (x0 )−1 ∈ L(Fn , Fn ). (5.42)
Then there exist open sets, W , and V such that
x0 ∈ W ⊆ U, (5.43)
f : W → V is one to one and onto, (5.44)

f −1 is C 1 . (5.45)
Proof: Apply the implicit function theorem to the function
F (x, y) ≡ f (x) − y
where y0 ≡ f (x0 ). Thus the function y → x (y) defined in that theorem is f −1 .

Now let
W ≡ B (x0 , δ) ∩ f −1 (B (y0 , η))
and
V ≡ B (y0 , η) .
5.16.1 More Continuous Partial Derivatives

Corollary 5.67 will now be improved slightly. If f is C k , it follows that the function
which is implicitly defined is also in C k , not just C 1 . Since the inverse function
theorem comes as a case of the implicit function theorem, this shows that the
inverse function also inherits the property of being C k .
Theorem 5.69 (implicit function theorem) Suppose U is an open set in Fn × Fm .

Let f : U → Fn be in C k (U ) and suppose
−1
f (x0 , y0 ) = 0, D1 f (x0 , y0 ) ∈ L (Fn , Fn ) . (5.46)
f (x (y) , y) = 0. (5.47)
Furthermore, the mapping, y → x (y) is in C k (B (y0 , η)).
Proof: From Corollary 5.67 y → x (y) is C 1 . It remains to show it is C k for

k > 1 assuming that f is C k . From 5.47
∂x −1 ∂f
l
= −D1 (x, y) .
∂y ∂y l
Thus the following formula holds for q = 1 and |α| = q.

X
Dα x (y) = Mβ (x, y) Dβ f (x, y) (5.48)
|β|≤q
where Mβ is a matrix whose entries are differentiable functions of Dγ (x) for |γ| < q
−1
and Dτ f (x, y) for |τ | ≤ q. This follows easily from the description of D1 (x, y) in
terms of the cofactor matrix and the determinant of D1 (x, y). Suppose 5.48 holds
for |α| = q < k. Then by induction, this yields x is C q . Then
∂Dα x (y) X ∂Mβ (x, y) ∂Dβ f (x, y)

p
= p
Dβ f (x, y) + Mβ (x, y) .
∂y ∂y ∂y p
|β|≤|α|
∂M (x,y)
By the chain rule β
∂y p is a matrix whose entries are differentiable functions of
D f (x, y) for |τ | ≤ q + 1 and Dγ (x) for |γ| < q + 1. It follows since y p was arbitrary
τ
that for any |α| = q + 1, a formula like 5.48 holds with q being replaced by q + 1.
By induction, x is C k . This proves the theorem.
As a simple corollary this yields an improved version of the inverse function
theorem.
Theorem 5.70 (inverse function theorem) Let x0 ∈ U ⊆ Fn and let f : U → Fn .

Suppose for k a positive integer,
f is C k (U ) , and Df (x0 )−1 ∈ L(Fn , Fn ). (5.49)
Then there exist open sets, W , and V such that
x0 ∈ W ⊆ U, (5.50)
f : W → V is one to one and onto, (5.51)

f −1 is C k . (5.52)
5.17 The Method Of Lagrange Multipliers

As an application of the implicit function theorem, consider the method of Lagrange
multipliers from calculus. Recall the problem is to maximize or minimize a function
subject to equality constraints. Let f : U → R be a C 1 function where U ⊆ Rn and
let
gi (x) = 0, i = 1, · · ·, m (5.53)
be a collection of equality constraints with m < n. Now consider the system of
nonlinear equations
f (x) = a
gi (x) = 0, i = 1, · · ·, m.
5.17. THE METHOD OF LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS 131
x0 is a local maximum if f (x0 ) ≥ f (x) for all x near x0 which also satisfies the
constraints 5.53. A local minimum is defined similarly. Let F : U × R → Rm+1 be
defined by  
f (x) − a
 g1 (x) 
 
F (x,a) ≡  .. . (5.54)
 . 
gm (x)
Now consider the m + 1 × n Jacobian matrix,
 
fx1 (x0 ) · · · fxn (x0 )
 g1x1 (x0 ) · · · g1xn (x0 ) 
 
 .. .. .
 . . 
gmx1 (x0 ) · · · gmxn (x0 )
If this matrix has rank m + 1 then some m + 1 × m + 1 submatrix has nonzero
determinant. It follows from the implicit function theorem that there exist m + 1
variables, xi1 , · · ·, xim+1 such that the system
F (x,a) = 0 (5.55)
specifies these m + 1 variables as a function of the remaining n − (m + 1) variables
and a in an open set of Rn−m . Thus there is a solution (x,a) to 5.55 for some x
close to x0 whenever a is in some open interval. Therefore, x0 cannot be either a
local minimum or a local maximum. It follows that if x0 is either a local maximum
or a local minimum, then the above matrix must have rank less than m + 1 which
requires the rows to be linearly dependent. Thus, there exist m scalars,
λ1 , · · ·, λm ,
and a scalar µ, not all zero such that
     
fx1 (x0 ) g1x1 (x0 ) gmx1 (x0 )
 ..   ..   .. 
µ .  = λ1  .  + · · · + λm  . . (5.56)
fxn (x0 ) g1xn (x0 ) gmxn (x0 )
If the column vectors
   
g1x1 (x0 ) gmx1 (x0 )
 ..   .. 
 . ,· · · .  (5.57)
g1xn (x0 ) gmxn (x0 )
are linearly independent, then, µ 6= 0 and dividing by µ yields an expression of the
form
     
fx1 (x0 ) g1x1 (x0 ) gmx1 (x0 )
 ..   ..   .. 
 .  = λ1  .  + · · · + λm  .  (5.58)
fxn (x0 ) g1xn (x0 ) gmxn (x0 )
at every point x0 which is either a local maximum or a local minimum. This proves
the following theorem.
Theorem 5.71 Let U be an open subset of Rn and let f : U → R be a C 1 function.

Then if x0 ∈ U is either a local maximum or local minimum of f subject to the
constraints 5.53, then 5.56 must hold for some scalars µ, λ1 , · · ·, λm not all equal to
zero. If the vectors in 5.57 are linearly independent, it follows that an equation of
the form 5.58 holds.
Metric Spaces And General
Topological Spaces
6.1 Metric Space

Definition 6.1 A metric space is a set, X and a function d : X × X → [0, ∞)
which satisfies the following properties.
d (x, y) = d (y, x)
d (x, y) ≥ 0 and d (x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y
d (x, y) ≤ d (x, z) + d (z, y) .
You can check that Rn and Cn are metric spaces with d (x, y) = |x − y| . How-
ever, there are many others. The definitions of open and closed sets are the same
for a metric space as they are for Rn .
Definition 6.2 A set, U in a metric space is open if whenever x ∈ U, there exists

r > 0 such that B (x, r) ⊆ U. As before, B (x, r) ≡ {y : d (x, y) < r} . Closed sets are
those whose complements are open. A point p is a limit point of a set, S if for every
r > 0, B (p, r) contains infinitely many points of S. A sequence, {xn } converges to
a point x if for every ε > 0 there exists N such that if n ≥ N, then d (x, xn ) < ε.
{xn } is a Cauchy sequence if for every ε > 0 there exists N such that if m, n ≥ N,
then d (xn , xm ) < ε.
Lemma 6.3 In a metric space, X every ball, B (x, r) is open. A set is closed if
and only if it contains all its limit points. If p is a limit point of S, then there exists
a sequence of distinct points of S, {xn } such that limn→∞ xn = p.
Proof: Let z ∈ B (x, r). Let δ = r − d (x, z) . Then if w ∈ B (z, δ) ,
d (w, x) ≤ d (x, z) + d (z, w) < d (x, z) + r − d (x, z) = r.
Therefore, B (z, δ) ⊆ B (x, r) and this shows B (x, r) is open.

The properties of balls are presented in the following theorem.
133
134 METRIC SPACES AND GENERAL TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
Theorem 6.4 Suppose (X, d) is a metric space. Then the sets {B(x, r) : r >
0, x ∈ X} satisfy
∪ {B(x, r) : r > 0, x ∈ X} = X (6.1)
If p ∈ B (x, r1 ) ∩ B (z, r2 ), there exists r > 0 such that
B (p, r) ⊆ B (x, r1 ) ∩ B (z, r2 ) . (6.2)
Proof: Observe that the union of these balls includes the whole space, X so
6.1 is obvious. Consider 6.2. Let p ∈ B (x, r1 ) ∩ B (z, r2 ). Consider
r ≡ min (r1 − d (x, p) , r2 − d (z, p))
and suppose y ∈ B (p, r). Then
d (y, x) ≤ d (y, p) + d (p, x) < r1 − d (x, p) + d (x, p) = r1
and so B (p, r) ⊆ B (x, r1 ). By similar reasoning, B (p, r) ⊆ B (z, r2 ). This proves
the theorem.
Let K be a closed set. This means K C ≡ X \ K is an open set. Let p be a
limit point of K. If p ∈ K C , then since K C is open, there exists B (p, r) ⊆ K C . But
this contradicts p being a limit point because there are no points of K in this ball.
Hence all limit points of K must be in K.
Suppose next that K contains its limit points. Is K C open? Let p ∈ K C .
Then p is not a limit point of K. Therefore, there exists B (p, r) which contains at
most finitely many points of K. Since p ∈ / K, it follows that by making r smaller if
necessary, B (p, r) contains no points of K. That is B (p, r) ⊆ K C showing K C is
open. Therefore, K is closed.
Suppose now that p is a limit point of S. Let x1 ∈ (S \ {p})∩B (p, 1) . If x1 , ···, xk
have been chosen, let
½ ¾
1
rk+1 ≡ min d (p, xi ) , i = 1, · · ·, k, .
k+1
Let xk+1 ∈ (S \ {p}) ∩ B (p, rk+1 ) . This proves the lemma.
Lemma 6.5 If {xn } is a Cauchy sequence in a metric space, X and if some subse-
quence, {xnk } converges to x, then {xn } converges to x. Also if a sequence converges,
then it is a Cauchy sequence.
Proof: Note first that nk ≥ k because in a subsequence, the indices, n1 , n2 , ··· are
strictly increasing. Let ε > 0 be given and let N be such that for k > N, d (x, xnk ) <
ε/2 and for m, n ≥ N, d (xm , xn ) < ε/2. Pick k > n. Then if n > N,
ε ε
d (xn , x) ≤ d (xn , xnk ) + d (xnk , x) < + = ε.
2 2
Finally, suppose limn→∞ xn = x. Then there exists N such that if n > N, then
d (xn , x) < ε/2. it follows that for m, n > N,
ε ε
d (xn , xm ) ≤ d (xn , x) + d (x, xm ) < + = ε.
2 2
6.2. COMPACTNESS IN METRIC SPACE 135

A useful idea is the idea of distance from a point to a set.
Definition 6.6 Let (X, d) be a metric space and let S be a nonempty set in X.
Then
dist (x, S) ≡ inf {d (x, y) : y ∈ S} .
The following lemma is the fundamental result.
Lemma 6.7 The function, x → dist (x, S) is continuous and in fact satisfies
|dist (x, S) − dist (y, S)| ≤ d (x, y) .
Proof: Suppose dist (x, y) is as least as large as dist (y, S). Then pick z ∈ S
such that d (y, z) ≤ dist (y, S) + ε. Then
|dist (x, S) − dist (y, S)| = dist (x, S) − dist (y, S)

≤ d (x, z) − (d (y, z) − ε)
= d (x, z) − d (y, z) + ε
≤ d (x, y) + d (y, z) − d (y, z) + ε
= d (x, y) + ε.
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this proves the lemma.
6.2 Compactness In Metric Space

Many existence theorems in analysis depend on some set being compact. Therefore,
it is important to be able to identify compact sets. The purpose of this section is
to describe compact sets in a metric space.
Definition 6.8 Let A be a subset of X. A is compact if whenever A is contained

in the union of a set of open sets, there exists finitely many of these open sets whose
union contains A. (Every open cover admits a finite subcover.) A is “sequen-
tially compact” means every sequence has a convergent subsequence converging to
an element of A.
In a metric space compact is not the same as closed and bounded!
Example 6.9 Let X be any infinite set and define d (x, y) = 1 if x 6= y while
d (x, y) = 0 if x = y.
You should verify the details that this is a metric space because it satisfies the
axioms of a metric. The set X is closed and bounded because its complement is
∅ which is clearly open because every point of ∅ is an interior point. (There are
© ¡X is ¢bounded ªbecause X = B (x, 2). However, X is clearly not compact
none.) Also
because B x, 12 : x ∈ X is a collection of open sets whose union contains X but
since they are all disjoint and¡ nonempty,

¢ there is no finite subset of these whose
union contains X. In fact B x, 21 = {x}.
From this example it is clear something more than closed and bounded is needed.
If you are not familiar with the issues just discussed, ignore them and continue.
Definition 6.10 In any metric space, a set E is totally bounded if for every ε > 0
there exists a finite set of points {x1 , · · ·, xn } such that
E ⊆ ∪ni=1 B (xi , ε).
This finite set of points is called an ε net.
The following proposition tells which sets in a metric space are compact. First
here is an interesting lemma.
Lemma 6.11 Let X be a metric space and suppose D is a countable dense subset
of X. In other words, it is being assumed X is a separable metric space. Consider
the open sets of the form B (d, r) where r is a positive rational number and d ∈ D.
Denote this countable collection of open sets by B. Then every open set is the union
of sets of B. Furthermore, if C is any collection of open sets, there exists a countable
subset, {Un } ⊆ C such that ∪n Un = ∪C.
Proof: Let U be an open set and let x ∈ U. Let B (x, δ) ⊆ U. Then by density of
D, there exists d ∈ D∩B (x, δ/4) . Now pick r ∈ Q∩(δ/4, 3δ/4) and consider B (d, r) .
Clearly, B (d, r) contains the point x because r > δ/4. Is B (d, r) ⊆ B (x, δ)? if so,
this proves the lemma because x was an arbitrary point of U . Suppose z ∈ B (d, r) .
Then
δ 3δ δ
d (z, x) ≤ d (z, d) + d (d, x) < r + < + =δ
4 4 4
Now let C be any collection of open sets. Each set in this collection is the union
of countably many sets of B. Let B 0 denote the sets of B which are contained in
some set of C. Thus ∪B0 = ∪C. Then for each B ∈ B 0 , pick UB ∈ C such that
B ⊆ UB . Then {UB : B ∈ B 0 } is a countable collection of sets of C whose union
equals ∪C. Therefore, this proves the lemma.
Proposition 6.12 Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then the following are equivalent.
(X, d) is compact, (6.3)
(X, d) is sequentially compact, (6.4)

(X, d) is complete and totally bounded. (6.5)
Proof: Suppose 6.3 and let {xk } be a sequence. Suppose {xk } has no convergent
subsequence. If this is so, then by Lemma 6.3, {xk } has no limit point and no value
of the sequence is repeated more than finitely many times. Thus the set
Cn = ∪{xk : k ≥ n}
6.2. COMPACTNESS IN METRIC SPACE 137
is a closed set because it has no limit points and if
Un = CnC ,
then
X = ∪∞
n=1 Un
but there is no finite subcovering, because no value of the sequence is repeated more
than finitely many times. This contradicts compactness of (X, d). This shows 6.3
implies 6.4.
Now suppose 6.4 and let {xn } be a Cauchy sequence. Is {xn } convergent? By
sequential compactness xnk → x for some subsequence. By Lemma 6.5 it follows
that {xn } also converges to x showing that (X, d) is complete. If (X, d) is not
totally bounded, then there exists ε > 0 for which there is no ε net. Hence there
exists a sequence {xk } with d (xk , xl ) ≥ ε for all l 6= k. By Lemma 6.5 again,
this contradicts 6.4 because no subsequence can be a Cauchy sequence and so no
subsequence can converge. This shows 6.4 implies 6.5.
Now suppose 6.5. What about 6.4? Let {pn } be a sequence and let {xni }m i=1 be
n
−n
a2 net for n = 1, 2, · · ·. Let
¡ ¢
Bn ≡ B xnin , 2−n
be such that Bn contains pk for infinitely many values of k and Bn ∩ Bn+1 6= ∅.

To do this, suppose Bn contains ¡ pk for infinitely
¢ many values of k. Then one of
the sets which intersect Bn , B xn+1
i , 2−(n+1) must contain pk for infinitely many
values of k because all these indices of points¡from {pn } contained
¢ in Bn must be
accounted for in one of finitely many sets, B xn+1 i , 2−(n+1) . Thus there exists a
strictly increasing sequence of integers, nk such that
pnk ∈ Bk .
Then if k ≥ l,
k−1
X ¡ ¢
d (pnk , pnl ) ≤ d pni+1 , pni
i=l
k−1
X
< 2−(i−1) < 2−(l−2).
i=l
Consequently {pnk } is a Cauchy sequence. Hence it converges because the metric

space is complete. This proves 6.4.
Now suppose 6.4 and 6.5 which have now been shown to be equivalent. Let Dn
be a n−1 net for n = 1, 2, · · · and let
D = ∪∞
n=1 Dn .
Thus D is a countable dense subset of (X, d).

Now let C be any set of open sets such that ∪C ⊇ X. By Lemma 6.11, there
exists a countable subset of C,
Ce = {Un }∞
n=1
such that ∪Ce = ∪C. If C admits no finite subcover, then neither does Ce and there ex-
ists pn ∈ X \ ∪nk=1 Uk . Then since X is sequentially compact, there is a subsequence
{pnk } such that {pnk } converges. Say
p = lim pnk .
k→∞
All but finitely many points of {pnk } are in X \ ∪nk=1 Uk . Therefore p ∈ X \ ∪nk=1 Uk
for each n. Hence
p∈/ ∪∞k=1 Uk
contradicting the construction of {Un }∞ ∞

n=1 which required that ∪n=1 Un ⊇ X. Hence
X is compact. This proves the proposition.
Consider Rn . In this setting totally bounded and bounded are the same. This
will yield a proof of the Heine Borel theorem from advanced calculus.
Lemma 6.13 A subset of Rn is totally bounded if and only if it is bounded.
Proof: Let A be totally bounded. Is it bounded? Let x1 , · · ·, xp be a 1 net for

A. Now consider the ball B (0, r + 1) where r > max (|xi | : i = 1, · · ·, p) . If z ∈ A,
then z ∈ B (xj , 1) for some j and so by the triangle inequality,
|z − 0| ≤ |z − xj | + |xj | < 1 + r.
Thus A ⊆ B (0,r + 1) and so A is bounded.

Now suppose A is bounded and suppose A is not totally bounded. Then there
exists ε > 0 such that there is no ε net for A. Therefore, there exists a sequence of
points {ai } with |ai − aj | ≥ ε if i 6= j. Since A is bounded, there exists r > 0 such
that
A ⊆ [−r, r)n.
(x ∈[−r, r)n means xi ∈ [−r, r) for each i.) Now define S to be all cubes of the form
n
Y
[ak , bk )
k=1
where
ak = −r + i2−p r, bk = −r + (i + 1) 2−p r,
¡ ¢n
for i ∈ {0, 1, · · ·, 2p+1 − 1}. Thus S is a collection of 2p+1 non overlapping
√ cubes
whose union equals [−r, r)n and whose diameters are all equal to 2−p r n. Now
choose p large enough that the diameter of these cubes is less than ε. This yields a
contradiction because one of the cubes must contain infinitely many points of {ai }.
The next theorem is called the Heine Borel theorem and it characterizes the
compact sets in Rn .
6.3. SOME APPLICATIONS OF COMPACTNESS 139
Theorem 6.14 A subset of Rn is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded.
Proof: Since a set in Rn is totally bounded if and only if it is bounded, this

theorem follows from Proposition 6.12 and the observation that a subset of Rn is
closed if and only if it is complete. This proves the theorem.
6.3 Some Applications Of Compactness

The following corollary is an important existence theorem which depends on com-
pactness.
Corollary 6.15 Let X be a compact metric space and let f : X → R be continuous.

Then max {f (x) : x ∈ X} and min {f (x) : x ∈ X} both exist.
Proof: First it is shown f (X) is compact. Suppose C is a set of open sets whose
−1
union contains
© −1f (X). Thenª since f is continuous f (U ) is open for all U ∈ C.
Therefore, f (U ) : U ∈ C is a collection of open sets © whose union contains X. ª
Since X is compact, it follows finitely many of these, f −1 (U1 ) , · · ·, f −1 (Up )
contains X in their union. Therefore, f (X) ⊆ ∪pk=1 Uk showing f (X) is compact
as claimed.
Now since f (X) is compact, Theorem 6.14 implies f (X) is closed and bounded.
Therefore, it contains its inf and its sup. Thus f achieves both a maximum and a
minimum.
Definition 6.16 Let X, Y be metric spaces and f : X → Y a function. f is

uniformly continuous if for all ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that whenever x1 and
x2 are two points of X satisfying d (x1 , x2 ) < δ, it follows that d (f (x1 ) , f (x2 )) < ε.
A very important theorem is the following.
Theorem 6.17 Suppose f : X → Y is continuous and X is compact. Then f is

uniformly continuous.
Proof: Suppose this is not true and that f is continuous but not uniformly
continuous. Then there exists ε > 0 such that for all δ > 0 there exist points,
pδ and qδ such that d (pδ , qδ ) < δ and yet d (f (pδ ) , f (qδ )) ≥ ε. Let pn and qn
be the points which go with δ = 1/n. By Proposition 6.12 {pn } has a convergent
subsequence, {pnk } converging to a point, x ∈ X. Since d (pn , qn ) < n1 , it follows
that qnk → x also. Therefore,
ε ≤ d (f (pnk ) , f (qnk )) ≤ d (f (pnk ) , f (x)) + d (f (x) , f (qnk ))
but by continuity of f , both d (f (pnk ) , f (x)) and d (f (x) , f (qnk )) converge to 0

as k → ∞ contradicting the above inequality. This proves the theorem.
Another important property of compact sets in a metric space concerns the finite
intersection property.
Definition 6.18 If every finite subset of a collection of sets has nonempty inter-
section, the collection has the finite intersection property.
Theorem 6.19 Suppose F is a collection of compact sets in a metric space, X

which has the finite intersection property. Then there exists a point in their inter-
section. (∩F 6= ∅).
© C ª
Proof: If this
© Cwere not so,
ª ∪ F : F ∈ F = X and so, in particular, picking
some F0 ∈ F, F : F ∈ F would be an open cover of F0 . Since F0 is compact,
some finite subcover, F1C , · · ·, FmC
exists. But then F0 ⊆ ∪m C
k=1 Fk which means
∞
∩k=0 Fk = ∅, contrary to the finite intersection property.
Qm
Theorem 6.20 Let Xi be a compact metric space with metric di . Then i=1 Xi is
also a compact metric space with respect to the metric, d (x, y) ≡ maxi (di (xi , yi )).
© ª∞
Proof: This is most easily seen from sequential compactness. Let xk k=1
Qm th k k
be a sequence
© k ª of points in i=1 Xi . Consider the i component of x , xi . It
follows xi is a sequence of points in Xi and so it has a convergent subsequence.
© ª
Compactness of X1 implies there exists a subsequence of xk , denoted by xk1 such
that
lim xk11 → x1 ∈ X1 .
k1 →∞
© ª
Now there exists a further subsequence, denoted by xk2 such that in addition to
this,ª xk22 → x2 ∈ X2 . After taking m such subsequences, there exists a subsequence,
©
xl such Q that liml→∞ xli = xi ∈ Xi for each i. Therefore, letting x ≡ (x1 , · · ·, xm ),
l m
x → x in i=1 Xi . This proves the theorem.
6.4 Ascoli Arzela Theorem

Definition 6.21 Let (X, d) be a complete metric space. Then it is said to be locally
compact if B (x, r) is compact for each r > 0.
Thus if you have a locally compact metric space, then if {an } is a bounded
sequence, it must have a convergent subsequence.
Let K be a compact subset of Rn and consider the continuous functions which
have values in a locally compact metric space, (X, d) where d denotes the metric on
X. Denote this space as C (K, X) .
Definition 6.22 For f, g ∈ C (K, X) , where K is a compact subset of Rn and X

is a locally compact complete metric space define
ρK (f, g) ≡ sup {d (f (x) , g (x)) : x ∈ K} .
Then ρK provides a distance which makes C (K, X) into a metric space.
The Ascoli Arzela theorem is a major result which tells which subsets of C (K, X)
are sequentially compact.
6.4. ASCOLI ARZELA THEOREM 141
Definition 6.23 Let A ⊆ C (K, X) for K a compact subset of Rn . Then A is said

to be uniformly equicontinuous if for every ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that
whenever x, y ∈ K with |x − y| < δ and f ∈ A,
d (f (x) , f (y)) < ε.
The set, A is said to be uniformly bounded if for some M < ∞, and a ∈ X,
f (x) ∈ B (a, M )
for all f ∈ A and x ∈ K.
Uniform equicontinuity is like saying that the whole set of functions, A, is uni-
formly continuous on K uniformly for f ∈ A. The version of the Ascoli Arzela
theorem I will present here is the following.
Theorem 6.24 Suppose K is a nonempty compact subset of Rn and A ⊆ C (K, X)
is uniformly bounded and uniformly equicontinuous. Then if {fk } ⊆ A, there exists
a function, f ∈ C (K, X) and a subsequence, fkl such that
lim ρK (fkl , f ) = 0.
l→∞
To give a proof of this theorem, I will first prove some lemmas.

∞
Lemma 6.25 If K is a compact subset of Rn , then there exists D ≡ {xk }k=1 ⊆ K
such that D is dense in K. Also, for every ε > 0 there exists a finite set of points,
{x1 , · · ·, xm } ⊆ K, called an ε net such that
∪m
i=1 B (xi , ε) ⊇ K.
Proof: For m ∈ N, pick xm m

1 ∈ K. If every point of K is within 1/m of x1 , stop.
Otherwise, pick
xm m
2 ∈ K \ B (x1 , 1/m) .
If every point of K contained in B (xm m

1 , 1/m) ∪ B (x2 , 1/m) , stop. Otherwise, pick
xm m m
3 ∈ K \ (B (x1 , 1/m) ∪ B (x2 , 1/m)) .
If every point of K is contained in B (xm m m

1 , 1/m) ∪ B (x2 , 1/m) ∪ B (x3 , 1/m) , stop.
Otherwise, pick
xm m m m
4 ∈ K \ (B (x1 , 1/m) ∪ B (x2 , 1/m) ∪ B (x3 , 1/m))
Continue this way until the process stops, say at N (m). It must stop because
if it didn’t, there would be a convergent subsequence due to the compactness of
K. Ultimately all terms of this convergent subsequence would be closer than 1/m,
N (m)
violating the manner in which they are chosen. Then D = ∪∞ m
m=1 ∪k=1 {xk } . This
is countable because it is a countable union of countable sets. If y ∈ K and ε > 0,
then for some m, 2/m < ε and so B (y, ε) must contain some point of {xm k } since
otherwise, the process stopped too soon. You could have picked y. This proves the
lemma.
Lemma 6.26 Suppose D is defined above and {gm } is a sequence of functions of

A having the property that for every xk ∈ D,
lim gm (xk ) exists.

m→∞
Then there exists g ∈ C (K, X) such that
lim ρ (gm , g) = 0.
m→∞
Proof: Define g first on D.
g (xk ) ≡ lim gm (xk ) .

m→∞
Next I show that {gm } converges at every point of K. Let x ∈ K and let ε > 0 be
given. Choose xk such that for all f ∈ A,
ε
d (f (xk ) , f (x)) < .
3
I can do this by the equicontinuity. Now if p, q are large enough, say p, q ≥ M,
ε
d (gp (xk ) , gq (xk )) < .
3
Therefore, for p, q ≥ M,
d (gp (x) , gq (x)) ≤ d (gp (x) , gp (xk )) + d (gp (xk ) , gq (xk )) + d (gq (xk ) , gq (x))
ε ε ε
< + + =ε
3 3 3
It follows that {gm (x)} is a Cauchy sequence having values X. Therefore, it con-
verges. Let g (x) be the name of the thing it converges to.
Let ε > 0 be given and pick δ > 0 such that whenever x, y ∈ K and |x − y| < δ,
it follows d (f (x) , f (y)) < 3ε for all f ∈ A. Now let {x1 , · · ·, xm } be a δ net for K
as in Lemma 6.25. Since there are only finitely many points in this δ net, it follows
that there exists N such that for all p, q ≥ N,
ε
d (gq (xi ) , gp (xi )) <
3
for all {x1 , · · ·, xm } · Therefore, for arbitrary x ∈ K, pick xi ∈ {x1 , · · ·, xm } such
that |xi − x| < δ. Then
d (gq (x) , gp (x)) ≤ d (gq (x) , gq (xi )) + d (gq (xi ) , gp (xi )) + d (gp (xi ) , gp (x))
ε ε ε
< + + = ε.
3 3 3
Since N does not depend on the choice of x, it follows this sequence {gm } is uni-
formly Cauchy. That is, for every ε > 0, there exists N such that if p, q ≥ N,
then
ρ (gp , gq ) < ε.
6.4. ASCOLI ARZELA THEOREM 143
Next, I need to verify that the function, g is a continuous function. Let N be

large enough that whenever p, q ≥ N, the above holds. Then for all x ∈ K,
ε
d (g (x) , gp (x)) ≤ (6.6)
3
whenever p ≥ N. This follows from observing that for p, q ≥ N,
ε
d (gq (x) , gp (x)) <
3
and then taking the limit as q → ∞ to obtain 6.6. In passing to the limit, you can
use the following simple claim.
Claim: In a metric space, if an → a, then d (an , b) → d (a, b) .
Proof of the claim: You note that by the triangle inequality, d (an , b) −
d (a, b) ≤ d (an , a) and d (a, b) − d (an , b) ≤ d (an , a) and so
|d (an , b) − d (a, b)| ≤ d (an , a) .
Now let p satisfy 6.6 for all x whenever p > N. Also pick δ > 0 such that if
|x − y| < δ, then
ε
d (gp (x) , gp (y)) < .
3
Then if |x − y| < δ,
d (g (x) , g (y)) ≤ d (g (x) , gp (x)) + d (gp (x) , gp (y)) + d (gp (y) , g (y))
ε ε ε
< + + = ε.
3 3 3
Since ε was arbitrary, this shows that g is continuous.
It only remains to verify that ρ (g, gk ) → 0. But this follows from 6.6. This
proves the lemma.
With these lemmas, it is time to prove Theorem 6.24.
Proof of Theorem 6.24: Let D = {xk } be the countable dense set of K
gauranteed by Lemma 6.25 and let
{(1, 1) , (1, 2) , (1, 3) , (1, 4) , (1, 5) , · · ·}
be a subsequence of N such that
lim f(1,k) (x1 ) exists.

k→∞
This is where the local compactness of X is being used. Now let
{(2, 1) , (2, 2) , (2, 3) , (2, 4) , (2, 5) , · · ·}
be a subsequence of
{(1, 1) , (1, 2) , (1, 3) , (1, 4) , (1, 5) , · · ·}

which has the property that
lim f(2,k) (x2 ) exists.

k→∞
Thus it is also the case that
f(2,k) (x1 ) converges to lim f(1,k) (x1 ) .

k→∞
because every subsequence of a convergent sequence converges to the same thing as

the convergent sequence. Continue this way and consider the array
f(1,1) , f(1,2) , f(1,3) , f(1,4) , · · · converges at x1

f(2,1) , f(2,2) , f(2,3) , f(2,4) · · · converges at x1 and x2
f(3,1) , f(3,2) , f(3,3) , f(3,4) · · · converges at x1 , x2 , and x3
..
.
© ª
Now let gk ≡ f(k,k) . Thus gk is ultimately a subsequence of f(m,k) whenever
k > m and therefore, {gk } converges at each point of D. By Lemma 6.26 it follows
there exists g ∈ C (K) such that
lim ρ (g, gk ) = 0.
k→∞
This proves the Ascoli Arzela theorem.

Actually there is an if and only if version of it but the most useful case is what
is presented here. The process used to get the subsequence in the proof is called
the Cantor diagonalization procedure.
6.5 The Tietze Extension Theorem

It turns out that if H is a closed subset of a metric space, (X, d) and if f : H → [a, b]
is continuous, then there exists g defined on all of X such that g = f on H and g
is continuous. This is called the Tietze extension theorem. First it is well to recall
continuity in the context of metric space.
Definition 6.27 Let (X, d) be a metric space and suppose f : X → Y is a function

where (Y, ρ) is also a metric space. For example, Y = R. Then f is continuous at
x ∈ X if for every ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that ρ (f (x) , f (z)) < ε whenever
d (x, z) < δ. As is usual in such definitions, f is said to be continuous if it is
continuous at every point of X.
The following lemma gives an important example of a continuous real valued

function defined on a metric space, (X, d) .
Lemma 6.28 Let (X, d) be a metric space and let S ⊆ X be a nonempty subset.
Define
dist (x, S) ≡ inf {d (x, y) : y ∈ S} .
6.5. THE TIETZE EXTENSION THEOREM 145
Then x → dist (x, S) is a continuous function satisfying the inequality,
|dist (x, S) − dist (y, S)| ≤ d (x, y) . (6.7)
Proof: The continuity of x → dist (x, S) is obvious if the inequality 6.7 is estab-
lished. So let x, y ∈ X. Without loss of generality, assume dist (x, S) ≥ dist (y, S)
and pick z ∈ S such that d (y, z) − ε < dist (y, S) . Then
|dist (x, S) − dist (y, S)| = dist (x, S) − dist (y, S) ≤ d (x, z) − (d (y, z) − ε)
≤ d (z, y) + d (x, y) − d (y, z) + ε = d (x, y) + ε.
Since ε is arbitrary, this proves 6.7.
Lemma 6.29 Let H, K be two nonempty disjoint closed subsets of a metric space,
(X, d) . Then there exists a continuous function, g : X → [−1, 1] such that g (H) =
−1/3, g (K) = 1/3, g (X) ⊆ [−1/3, 1/3] .
Proof: Let
dist (x, H)
f (x) ≡ .
dist (x, H) + dist (x, K)
The denominator is never equal to zero because if dist (x, H) = 0, then x ∈ H
becasue H is closed. (To see this, pick hk ∈ B (x, 1/k) ∩ H. Then hk → x and
since H is closed, x ∈ H.) Similarly, if dist (x, K) = 0, then x ∈ K and so the
denominator is never zero as claimed. Hence, by Lemma 6.28, f is continuous
¡ and
¢
from its definition, f = 0 on H and f = 1 on K. Now let g (x) ≡ 23 h (x) − 12 .
Then g has the desired properties.
Definition 6.30 For f a real or complex valued bounded continuous function de-
fined on a metric space, M
||f ||M ≡ sup {|f (x)| : x ∈ M } .
Lemma 6.31 Suppose M is a closed set in X where (X, d) is a metric space and
suppose f : M → [−1, 1] is continuous at every point of M. Then there exists a
function, g which is defined and continuous on all of X such that ||f − g||M < 23 .
Proof: Let H = f −1 ([−1, −1/3]) , K = f −1 ([1/3, 1]) . Thus H and K are

disjoint closed subsets of M. Suppose first H, K are both nonempty. Then by
Lemma 6.29 there exists g such that g is a continuous function defined on all of X
and g (H) = −1/3, g (K) = 1/3, and g (X) ⊆ [−1/3, 1/3] . It follows ||f − g||M <
2/3. If H = ∅, then f has all its values in [−1/3, 1] and so letting g ≡ 1/3, the
desired condition is obtained. If K = ∅, let g ≡ −1/3. This proves the lemma.
Lemma 6.32 Suppose M is a closed set in X where (X, d) is a metric space and
suppose f : M → [−1, 1] is continuous at every point of M. Then there exists a
function, g which is defined and continuous on all of X such that g = f on M and
g has its values in [−1, 1] .
Proof: Let g1 be such that g1 (X) ⊆ [−1/3, 1/3] and ||f − g1 ||M ≤ 23 . Suppose
g1 , · · ·, gm have been chosen such that gj (X) ⊆ [−1/3, 1/3] and
¯¯ m µ ¶i−1 ¯¯
¯¯ µ ¶m
¯¯ X 2 2
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯f − g i ¯¯ < . (6.8)
¯¯ 3 ¯¯ 3
i=1 M
Then ¯¯µ ¶ Ã !¯¯

¯¯ 3 m Xm µ ¶i−1 ¯¯
¯¯ 2 ¯¯
¯¯ f− gi ¯¯ ≤1
¯¯ 2 3 ¯¯
i=1 M
¡ ¢m ³ Pm ¡ ¢i−1 ´
and so 32 f − i=1 23 gi can play the role of f in the first step of the
proof. Therefore, there exists gm+1 defined and continuous on all of X such that
its values are in [−1/3, 1/3] and
¯¯µ ¶ Ã m µ ¶i−1
! ¯¯
¯¯ 3 m X 2 ¯¯ 2
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f− gi − gm+1 ¯¯ ≤ .
¯¯ 2 3 ¯¯ 3
i=1 M
Hence ¯¯Ã ! µ ¶ ¯¯
¯¯ m µ ¶i−1
X m ¯¯ µ ¶m+1
¯¯ 2 2 ¯¯ 2
¯¯ f − gi − gm+1 ¯¯ ≤ .
¯¯ 3 3 ¯¯ 3
i=1 M
It follows there exists a sequence, {gi } such that each has its values in [−1/3, 1/3]
and for every m 6.8 holds. Then let
∞ µ ¶i−1
X 2
g (x) ≡ gi (x) .
i=1
3
It follows ¯ ¯
¯X ∞ µ ¶i−1 ¯ X m µ ¶i−1
¯ 2 ¯ 2 1
|g (x)| ≤ ¯ gi (x)¯ ≤ ≤1
¯ 3 ¯ 3 3
i=1 i=1
and since convergence is uniform, g must be continuous. The estimate 6.8 implies
f = g on M .
The following is the Tietze extension theorem.
Theorem 6.33 Let M be a closed nonempty subset of a metric space (X, d) and
let f : M → [a, b] is continuous at every point of M. Then there exists a function,
g continuous on all of X which coincides with f on M such that g (X) ⊆ [a, b] .
2
Proof: Let f1 (x) = 1 + b−a (f (x) − b) . Then f1 satisfies the conditions of
Lemma 6.32 and so there exists g1 : X → [−1, ¡ 1]¢such that g is continuous on X
and equals f1 on M . Let g (x) = (g1 (x) − 1) b−a
2 + b. This works.
6.6. GENERAL TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 147
6.6 General Topological Spaces

It turns out that metric spaces are not sufficiently general for some applications.
This section is a brief introduction to general topology. In making this generaliza-
tion, the properties of balls which are the conclusion of Theorem 6.4 on Page 134
are stated as axioms for a subset of the power set of a given set which will be known
as a basis for the topology. More can be found in [35] and the references listed
there.
Definition 6.34 Let X be a nonempty set and suppose B ⊆ P (X). Then B is a

basis for a topology if it satisfies the following axioms.
1.) Whenever p ∈ A ∩ B for A, B ∈ B, it follows there exists C ∈ B such that
p ∈ C ⊆ A ∩ B.
2.) ∪B = X.
Then a subset, U, of X is an open set if for every point, x ∈ U, there exists
B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊆ U . Thus the open sets are exactly those which can be
obtained as a union of sets of B. Denote these subsets of X by the symbol τ and
refer to τ as the topology or the set of open sets.
Note that this is simply the analog of saying a set is open exactly when every
point is an interior point.
Proposition 6.35 Let X be a set and let B be a basis for a topology as defined
above and let τ be the set of open sets determined by B. Then
∅ ∈ τ, X ∈ τ, (6.9)
If C ⊆ τ , then ∪ C ∈ τ (6.10)
If A, B ∈ τ , then A ∩ B ∈ τ . (6.11)
Proof: If p ∈ ∅ then there exists B ∈ B such that p ∈ B ⊆ ∅ because there are

no points in ∅. Therefore, ∅ ∈ τ . Now if p ∈ X, then by part 2.) of Definition 6.34
p ∈ B ⊆ X for some B ∈ B and so X ∈ τ .
If C ⊆ τ , and if p ∈ ∪C, then there exists a set, B ∈ C such that p ∈ B.
However, B is itself a union of sets from B and so there exists C ∈ B such that
p ∈ C ⊆ B ⊆ ∪C. This verifies 6.10.
Finally, if A, B ∈ τ and p ∈ A ∩ B, then since A and B are themselves unions
of sets of B, it follows there exists A1 , B1 ∈ B such that A1 ⊆ A, B1 ⊆ B, and
p ∈ A1 ∩ B1 . Therefore, by 1.) of Definition 6.34 there exists C ∈ B such that
p ∈ C ⊆ A1 ∩ B1 ⊆ A ∩ B, showing that A ∩ B ∈ τ as claimed. Of course if
A ∩ B = ∅, then A ∩ B ∈ τ . This proves the proposition.
Definition 6.36 A set X together with such a collection of its subsets satisfying
6.9-6.11 is called a topological space. τ is called the topology or set of open sets of
X.
Definition 6.37 A topological space is said to be Hausdorff if whenever p and q

are distinct points of X, there exist disjoint open sets U, V such that p ∈ U, q ∈ V .
In other words points can be separated with open sets.
U V
p q
· ·
Hausdorff
Definition 6.38 A subset of a topological space is said to be closed if its comple-

ment is open. Let p be a point of X and let E ⊆ X. Then p is said to be a limit
point of E if every open set containing p contains a point of E distinct from p.
Note that if the topological space is Hausdorff, then this definition is equivalent
to requiring that every open set containing p contains infinitely many points from
E. Why?
Theorem 6.39 A subset, E, of X is closed if and only if it contains all its limit
points.
Proof: Suppose first that E is closed and let x be a limit point of E. Is x ∈ E?

/ E, then E C is an open set containing x which contains no points of E, a
If x ∈
contradiction. Thus x ∈ E.
Now suppose E contains all its limit points. Is the complement of E open? If
x ∈ E C , then x is not a limit point of E because E has all its limit points and so
there exists an open set, U containing x such that U contains no point of E other
than x. Since x ∈/ E, it follows that x ∈ U ⊆ E C which implies E C is an open set
because this shows E C is the union of open sets.
Theorem 6.40 If (X, τ ) is a Hausdorff space and if p ∈ X, then {p} is a closed

set.
Proof: If x 6= p, there exist open sets U and V such that x ∈ U, p ∈ V and

C
U ∩ V = ∅. Therefore, {p} is an open set so {p} is closed.
Note that the Hausdorff axiom was stronger than needed in order to draw the
conclusion of the last theorem. In fact it would have been enough to assume that
if x 6= y, then there exists an open set containing x which does not intersect y.
Definition 6.41 A topological space (X, τ ) is said to be regular if whenever C is

a closed set and p is a point not in C, there exist disjoint open sets U and V such
that p ∈ U, C ⊆ V . Thus a closed set can be separated from a point not in the
closed set by two disjoint open sets.
U V
p C
·
Regular
Definition 6.42 The topological space, (X, τ ) is said to be normal if whenever C

and K are disjoint closed sets, there exist disjoint open sets U and V such that
C ⊆ U, K ⊆ V . Thus any two disjoint closed sets can be separated with open sets.
U V
C K
Normal
Definition 6.43 Let E be a subset of X. E is defined to be the smallest closed set

containing E.
Lemma 6.44 The above definition is well defined.
Proof: Let C denote all the closed sets which contain E. Then C is nonempty
because X ∈ C. © ª
C
(∩ {A : A ∈ C}) = ∪ AC : A ∈ C ,
an open set which shows that ∩C is a closed set and is the smallest closed set which
contains E.
Theorem 6.45 E = E ∪ {limit points of E}.
Proof: Let x ∈ E and suppose that x ∈ / E. If x is not a limit point either, then
there exists an open set, U ,containing x which does not intersect E. But then U C
is a closed set which contains E which does not contain x, contrary to the definition
that E is the intersection of all closed sets containing E. Therefore, x must be a
limit point of E after all.
Now E ⊆ E so suppose x is a limit point of E. Is x ∈ E? If H is a closed set
containing E, which does not contain x, then H C is an open set containing x which
contains no points of E other than x negating the assumption that x is a limit point
of E.
The following is the definition of continuity in terms of general topological spaces.
It is really just a generalization of the ε - δ definition of continuity given in calculus.
Definition 6.46 Let (X, τ ) and (Y, η) be two topological spaces and let f : X → Y .
f is continuous at x ∈ X if whenever V is an open set of Y containing f (x), there
exists an open set U ∈ τ such that x ∈ U and f (U ) ⊆ V . f is continuous if
f −1 (V ) ∈ τ whenever V ∈ η.
You should prove the following.
Proposition 6.47 In the situation of Definition 6.46 f is continuous if and only

if f is continuous at every point of X.
Qn
Definition 6.48 Let (Xi , τ i ) be topological spaces.Q i=1 Xi is the Cartesian prod-
n
uct. Define a product topology as follows. Let B = i=1 Ai where Ai ∈ τ i . Then B
is a basis for the product topology.
Theorem 6.49 The set B of Definition 6.48 is a basis for a topology.

Qn Qn
Proof: Suppose x ∈ i=1 Ai ∩ i=1 Bi where Ai and Bi are open sets. Say
x = (x1 , · · ·, xn ) .
Qn Qn
Then
Qn xi ∈ Ai ∩ Bi for each i. Therefore, x ∈ i=1 Ai ∩ Bi ∈ B and i=1 Ai ∩ Bi ⊆
i=1 Ai .
The definition of compactness is also considered for a general topological space.
This is given next.
Definition 6.50 A subset, E, of a topological space (X, τ ) is said to be compact if

whenever C ⊆ τ and E ⊆ ∪C, there exists a finite subset of C, {U1 · · · Un }, such that
E ⊆ ∪ni=1 Ui . (Every open covering admits a finite subcovering.) E is precompact if
E is compact. A topological space is called locally compact if it has a basis B, with
the property that B is compact for each B ∈ B.
A useful construction when dealing with locally compact Hausdorff spaces is the
notion of the one point compactification of the space.
Definition 6.51 Suppose (X, τ ) is a locally compact Hausdorff space. Then let
Xe ≡ X ∪ {∞} where ∞ is just the name of some point which is not in X which is
called the point at infinity. A basis for the topology e e is
τ for X
© ª
τ ∪ K C where K is a compact subset of X .
e and so the open sets, K C are basic open

The complement is taken with respect to X
sets which contain ∞.
The reason this is called a compactification is contained in the next lemma.

³ ´
Lemma 6.52 If (X, τ ) is a locally compact Hausdorff space, then X, e e
τ is a com-
pact Hausdorff space.
³ ´
Proof: Since (X, τ ) is a locally compact Hausdorff space, it follows X, e e
τ is
a Hausdorff topological space. The only case which needs checking is the one of
p ∈ X and ∞. Since (X, τ ) is locally compact, there exists an open set of τ , U
C
having compact closure which contains p. Then p ∈ U and ∞ ∈ U and these are
disjoint open sets containing the points, p and ∞ respectively. Now let C be an
open cover of X e with sets from e
τ . Then ∞ must be in some set, U∞ from C, which
must contain a set of the form K C where K is a compact subset of X. Then there
e is
exist sets from C, U1 , · · ·, Ur which cover K. Therefore, a finite subcover of X
U1 , · · ·, Ur , U∞ .
In general topological spaces there may be no concept of “bounded”. Even if
there is, closed and bounded is not necessarily the same as compactness. However,
in any Hausdorff space every compact set must be a closed set.
Theorem 6.53 If (X, τ ) is a Hausdorff space, then every compact subset must also
be a closed set.
Proof: Suppose p ∈
/ K. For each x ∈ X, there exist open sets, Ux and Vx such
that
x ∈ Ux , p ∈ Vx ,
and
Ux ∩ Vx = ∅.
If K is assumed to be compact, there are finitely many of these sets, Ux1 , · · ·, Uxm
which cover K. Then let V ≡ ∩m i=1 Vxi . It follows that V is an open set containing
p which has empty intersection with each of the Uxi . Consequently, V contains no
points of K and is therefore not a limit point of K. This proves the theorem.
Definition 6.54 If every finite subset of a collection of sets has nonempty inter-
section, the collection has the finite intersection property.
Theorem 6.55 Let K be a set whose elements are compact subsets of a Hausdorff
topological space, (X, τ ). Suppose K has the finite intersection property. Then
∅ 6= ∩K.
Proof: Suppose to the contrary that ∅ = ∩K. Then consider

© ª
C ≡ KC : K ∈ K .
It follows C is an open cover of K0 where K0 is any particular element of K. But

then there are finitely many K ∈ K, K1 , · · ·, Kr such that K0 ⊆ ∪ri=1 KiC implying
that ∩ri=0 Ki = ∅, contradicting the finite intersection property.
Lemma 6.56 Let (X, τ ) be a topological space and let B be a basis for τ . Then K
is compact if and only if every open cover of basic open sets admits a finite subcover.
Proof: Suppose first that X is compact. Then if C is an open cover consisting

of basic open sets, it follows it admits a finite subcover because these are open sets
in C.
Next suppose that every basic open cover admits a finite subcover and let C be
an open cover of X. Then define Ce to be the collection of basic open sets which are
contained in some set of C. It follows Ce is a basic open cover of X and so it admits
a finite subcover, {U1 , · · ·, Up }. Now each Ui is contained in an open set of C. Let

Oi be a set of C which contains Ui . Then {O1 , · · ·, Op } is an open cover of X. This
proves the lemma.
In fact, much more can be said than Lemma 6.56. However, this is all which I
will present here.
6.7 Connected Sets

Stated informally, connected sets are those which are in one piece. More precisely,
Definition 6.57 A set, S in a general topological space is separated if there exist

sets, A, B such that
S = A ∪ B, A, B 6= ∅, and A ∩ B = B ∩ A = ∅.
In this case, the sets A and B are said to separate S. A set is connected if it is not
separated.
One of the most important theorems about connected sets is the following.
Theorem 6.58 Suppose U and V are connected sets having nonempty intersection.
Then U ∪ V is also connected.
Proof: Suppose U ∪ V = A ∪ B where A ∩ B = B ∩ A = ∅. Consider the sets,

A ∩ U and B ∪ U. Since
¡ ¢
(A ∩ U ) ∩ (B ∩ U ) = (A ∩ U ) ∩ B ∩ U = ∅,
It follows one of these sets must be empty since otherwise, U would be separated.
It follows that U is contained in either A or B. Similarly, V must be contained in
either A or B. Since U and V have nonempty intersection, it follows that both V
and U are contained in one of the sets, A, B. Therefore, the other must be empty
and this shows U ∪ V cannot be separated and is therefore, connected.
The intersection of connected sets is not necessarily connected as is shown by
the following picture.
V
6.7. CONNECTED SETS 153
Theorem 6.59 Let f : X → Y be continuous where X and Y are topological spaces

and X is connected. Then f (X) is also connected.
Proof: To do this you show f (X) is not separated. Suppose to the contrary
that f (X) = A ∪ B where A and B separate f (X) . Then consider the sets, f −1 (A)
and f −1 (B) . If z ∈ f −1 (B) , then f (z) ∈ B and so f (z) is not a limit point of
A. Therefore, there exists an open set, U containing f (z) such that U ∩ A = ∅.
But then, the continuity of f implies that f −1 (U ) is an open set containing z such
that f −1 (U ) ∩ f −1 (A) = ∅. Therefore, f −1 (B) contains no limit points of f −1 (A) .
Similar reasoning implies f −1 (A) contains no limit points of f −1 (B). It follows
that X is separated by f −1 (A) and f −1 (B) , contradicting the assumption that X
was connected.
An arbitrary set can be written as a union of maximal connected sets called
connected components. This is the concept of the next definition.
Definition 6.60 Let S be a set and let p ∈ S. Denote by Cp the union of all
connected subsets of S which contain p. This is called the connected component
determined by p.
Theorem 6.61 Let Cp be a connected component of a set S in a general topological

space. Then Cp is a connected set and if Cp ∩ Cq 6= ∅, then Cp = Cq .
Proof: Let C denote the connected subsets of S which contain p. If Cp = A ∪ B

where
A ∩ B = B ∩ A = ∅,
then p is in one of A or B. Suppose without loss of generality p ∈ A. Then every
set of C must also be contained in A also since otherwise, as in Theorem 6.58, the
set would be separated. But this implies B is empty. Therefore, Cp is connected.
From this, and Theorem 6.58, the second assertion of the theorem is proved.
This shows the connected components of a set are equivalence classes and par-
tition the set.
A set, I is an interval in R if and only if whenever x, y ∈ I then (x, y) ⊆ I. The
following theorem is about the connected sets in R.
Theorem 6.62 A set, C in R is connected if and only if C is an interval.
Proof: Let C be connected. If C consists of a single point, p, there is nothing

to prove. The interval is just [p, p] . Suppose p < q and p, q ∈ C. You need to show
(p, q) ⊆ C. If
x ∈ (p, q) \ C
let C ∩ (−∞, x) ≡ A, and C ∩ (x, ∞) ≡ B. Then C = A ∪ B and the sets, A and B
separate C contrary to the assumption that C is connected.
Conversely, let I be an interval. Suppose I is separated by A and B. Pick x ∈ A
and y ∈ B. Suppose without loss of generality that x < y. Now define the set,
S ≡ {t ∈ [x, y] : [x, t] ⊆ A}
and let l be the least upper bound of S. Then l ∈ A so l ∈

/ B which implies l ∈ A.
/ B, then for some δ > 0,
But if l ∈
(l, l + δ) ∩ B = ∅
contradicting the definition of l as an upper bound for S. Therefore, l ∈ B which

implies l ∈
/ A after all, a contradiction. It follows I must be connected.
The following theorem is a very useful description of the open sets in R.
Theorem 6.63 Let U be an open set in R. Then there exist countably many dis-
∞
joint open sets, {(ai , bi )}i=1 such that U = ∪∞
i=1 (ai , bi ) .
Proof: Let p ∈ U and let z ∈ Cp , the connected component determined by p.

Since U is open, there exists, δ > 0 such that (z − δ, z + δ) ⊆ U. It follows from
Theorem 6.58 that
(z − δ, z + δ) ⊆ Cp .
This shows Cp is open. By Theorem 6.62, this shows Cp is an open interval, (a, b)
where a, b ∈ [−∞, ∞] . There are therefore at most countably many of these con-
nected components because each must contain a rational number and the rational
∞
numbers are countable. Denote by {(ai , bi )}i=1 the set of these connected compo-
nents. This proves the theorem.
Definition 6.64 A topological space, E is arcwise connected if for any two points,
p, q ∈ E, there exists a closed interval, [a, b] and a continuous function, γ : [a, b] → E
such that γ (a) = p and γ (b) = q. E is locally connected if it has a basis of connected
open sets. E is locally arcwise connected if it has a basis of arcwise connected open
sets.
An example of an arcwise connected topological space would be the any subset

of Rn which is the continuous image of an interval. Locally connected is not the
same as connected. A well known example is the following.
½µ ¶ ¾
1
x, sin : x ∈ (0, 1] ∪ {(0, y) : y ∈ [−1, 1]} (6.12)
x
You can verify that this set of points considered as a metric space with the metric
from R2 is not locally connected or arcwise connected but is connected.
Proposition 6.65 If a topological space is arcwise connected, then it is connected.
Proof: Let X be an arcwise connected space and suppose it is separated.

Then X = A ∪ B where A, B are two separated sets. Pick p ∈ A and q ∈ B.
Since X is given to be arcwise connected, there must exist a continuous function
γ : [a, b] → X such that γ (a) = p and γ (b) = q. But then we would have γ ([a, b]) =
(γ ([a, b]) ∩ A) ∪ (γ ([a, b]) ∩ B) and the two sets, γ ([a, b]) ∩ A and γ ([a, b]) ∩ B are
separated thus showing that γ ([a, b]) is separated and contradicting Theorem 6.62
and Theorem 6.59. It follows that X must be connected as claimed.
6.7. CONNECTED SETS 155
Theorem 6.66 Let U be an open subset of a locally arcwise connected topological

space, X. Then U is arcwise connected if and only if U if connected. Also the
connected components of an open set in such a space are open sets, hence arcwise
connected.
Proof: By Proposition 6.65 it is only necessary to verify that if U is connected

and open in the context of this theorem, then U is arcwise connected. Pick p ∈ U .
Say x ∈ U satisfies P if there exists a continuous function, γ : [a, b] → U such that
γ (a) = p and γ (b) = x.
A ≡ {x ∈ U such that x satisfies P.}
If x ∈ A, there exists, according to the assumption that X is locally arcwise con-

nected, an open set, V, containing x and contained in U which is arcwise connected.
Thus letting y ∈ V, there exist intervals, [a, b] and [c, d] and continuous functions
having values in U , γ, η such that γ (a) = p, γ (b) = x, η (c) = x, and η (d) = y.
Then let γ 1 : [a, b + d − c] → U be defined as
½
γ (t) if t ∈ [a, b]
γ 1 (t) ≡
η (t) if t ∈ [b, b + d − c]
Then it is clear that γ 1 is a continuous function mapping p to y and showing that

V ⊆ A. Therefore, A is open. A 6= ∅ because there is an open set, V containing p
which is contained in U and is arcwise connected.
Now consider B ≡ U \ A. This is also open. If B is not open, there exists a
point z ∈ B such that every open set containing z is not contained in B. Therefore,
letting V be one of the basic open sets chosen such that z ∈ V ⊆ U, there exist
points of A contained in V. But then, a repeat of the above argument shows z ∈ A
also. Hence B is open and so if B 6= ∅, then U = B ∪ A and so U is separated by
the two sets, B and A contradicting the assumption that U is connected.
It remains to verify the connected components are open. Let z ∈ Cp where Cp
is the connected component determined by p. Then picking V an arcwise connected
open set which contains z and is contained in U, Cp ∪ V is connected and contained
in U and so it must also be contained in Cp . This proves the theorem.
As an application, consider the following corollary.
Corollary 6.67 Let f : Ω → Z be continuous where Ω is a connected open set.

Then f must be a constant.
Proof: Suppose not. Then it achieves two different values, k and l 6= k. Then
Ω = f −1 (l) ∪ f −1 ({m ∈ Z : m 6= l}) and these are disjoint nonempty open sets
which separate Ω. To see they are open, note
µ µ ¶¶
−1 −1 1 1
f ({m ∈ Z : m 6= l}) = f ∪m6=l m − , n +
6 6
which is the inverse image of an open set.

Weierstrass Approximation
Theorem
7.1 The Bernstein Polynomials

This short chapter is on the important Weierstrass approximation theorem. It is
about approximating an arbitrary continuous function uniformly by a polynomial.
It will be assumed only that f has values in C and that all scalars are in C. First
here is some notation.
Definition 7.1 α = (α1 , ···, αn ) for α1 ···αn positive integers is called a multi-index.
For α a multi-index, |α| ≡ α1 + · · · + αn and if x ∈ Rn ,
x = (x1 , · · ·, xn ) ,

1 x2 · · · xn .
A polynomial in n variables of degree m is a function of the form

X
p (x) = aα xα .
|α|≤m
Here α is a multi-index as just described.
The following estimate will be the basis for the Weierstrass approximation the-
orem. It is actually a statement about the variance of a binomial random variable.
Lemma 7.2 The following estimate holds for x ∈ [0, 1].

m µ ¶
X m 2 m−k 1
(k − mx) xk (1 − x) ≤ m
k 4
k=0
157
158 WEIERSTRASS APPROXIMATION THEOREM
Proof: By the Binomial theorem,

Xm µ ¶
m ¡ t ¢k m−k ¡ ¢m
e x (1 − x) = 1 − x + et x . (7.1)
k
k=0
Differentiating both sides with respect to t and then evaluating at t = 0 yields

Xm µ ¶
m m−k
kxk (1 − x) = mx.
k
k=0
Now doing two derivatives of 7.1 with respect to t yields

Pm ¡m¢ 2 t k m−k m−2 2t 2
k=0 k k (e x) (1 − x) = m (m − 1) (1 − x + et x) e x
t m−1 t
+m (1 − x + e x) xe .
Evaluating this at t = 0,
Xm µ ¶
m 2 k m−k
k (x) (1 − x) = m (m − 1) x2 + mx.
k
k=0
Therefore,
Xm µ ¶
m 2 m−k
(k − mx) xk (1 − x) = m (m − 1) x2 + mx − 2m2 x2 + m2 x2
k
k=0
¡ ¢ 1
= m x − x2 ≤ m.
4
n
Now for x = (x1 , · · ·, xn ) ∈ [0, 1] consider the polynomial,
m
X X m µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
m m m k1 m−k1 k2 m−k2
pm (x) ≡ ··· ··· x (1 − x1 ) x2 (1 − x2 )
k1 k2 kn 1
k1 =1 kn =1
µ ¶
m−kn k1 kn
··· xknn (1 − xn ) f , · · ·, . (7.2)
m m
Also define if I is a set in Rn
||h||I ≡ sup {|h (x)| : x ∈ I} .
Thus pm converges uniformly to f on a set, I if
lim ||pm − f ||I = 0.

m→∞
k
Also to simplify the notation, let k = (k1 , · · ·, kn ) where each ki ∈ [0, m], ≡
¡ k1 kn
¢ m
m , · · ·, m , and let µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
m m m m
≡ ··· .
k k1 k2 kn
7.1. THE BERNSTEIN POLYNOMIALS 159
Also define
||k||∞ ≡ max {ki , i = 1, 2, · · ·, n}
m−k m−k1 m−k2 m−kn
xk (1 − x) ≡ xk11 (1 − x1 ) xk22 (1 − x2 ) · · · xknn (1 − xn ) .
Thus in terms of this notation,
X µ ¶ µ ¶
m k m−k k
pm (x) = x (1 − x) f
k m
||k||∞ ≤m
n n
Lemma 7.3 For x ∈ [0, 1] , f a continuous function defined on [0, 1] , and pm
n
given in 7.2, pm converges uniformly to f on [0, 1] as m → ∞.
Proof: The function, f is uniformly continuous because it is continuous on a

compact set. Therefore, there exists δ > 0 such that if |x − y| < δ, then
|f (x) − f (y)| < ε.

2 √
Denote by G the set of k such that (ki − mxi ) < η 2 m2 for each
¯ k i where
¯ η = δ/ n.
Note this condition is equivalent to saying that for each i, ¯ mi − xi ¯ < η. By the
binomial theorem,
X µm¶ m−k
xk (1 − x) =1
k
||k||∞ ≤m
n
and so for x ∈ [0, 1] ,
µ ¶ ¯ µ ¶ ¯
X m k m−k ¯¯ k ¯
|pm (x) − f (x)| ≤ x (1 − x) ¯ f − f (x)¯¯
k m
||k||∞ ≤m
X µm¶ ¯ µ ¶ ¯
k m−k ¯¯ k ¯
¯
≤ x (1 − x) ¯f m − f (x)¯
k
k∈G
X µm¶ ¯ µ ¶ ¯
m−k ¯¯ k ¯
+ k
x (1 − x) ¯ f − f (x)¯¯ (7.3)
C
k m
k∈G
Now for k ∈ G it follows that for each i

¯ ¯
¯ ki ¯
¯ − xi ¯ < √δ (7.4)
¯m ¯ n
¯ ¡k¢ ¯ ¯k ¯
and so ¯f m − f (x)¯ < ε because the above implies ¯ m − x¯ < δ. Therefore, the
first sum on the right in 7.3 is no larger than
X µm¶ m−k
X µm¶ m−k
xk (1 − x) ε≤ xk (1 − x) ε = ε.
k k
k∈G ||k||∞ ≤m
n
Letting M ≥ max {|f (x)| : x ∈ [0, 1] } it follows
|pm (x) − f (x)|

X µm¶ m−k
≤ ε + 2M xk (1 − x)
C
k
k∈G
µ ¶n X µ ¶ Y n
1 m 2 m−k
≤ ε + 2M (kj − mxj ) xk (1 − x)
η 2 m2 k j=1
k∈GC
µ ¶n X µ ¶ Y n
1 m 2 m−k
≤ ε + 2M (kj − mxj ) xk (1 − x)
η 2 m2 k j=1
||k||∞ ≤m
because on GC ,
2
(kj − mxj )
< 1, j = 1, · · ·, n.
η 2 m2
Now by Lemma 7.2,
µ ¶n ³
1 m ń
|pm (x) − f (x)| ≤ ε + 2M .
η m2
2 4
Therefore, since the right side does not depend on x, it follows
lim sup ||pm − f ||[0,1]n ≤ ε

m→∞
and since ε is arbitrary, this shows limm→∞ ||pm − f ||[0,1]n = 0. This proves the
lemma.
The following is not surprising.
n
Lemma 7.4 Let f be a continuous function defined on [−M, M ] . Then there ex-
n
ists a sequence of polynomials, {pm } converging uniformly to f on [−M, M ] .
Proof: Let h (t) = −M + 2M t so h : [0, 1] → [−M, M ] and let h (t) ≡

n
(h (t1 ) , · · ·, h (tn )) . Therefore, f ◦ h is a continuous function defined on [0, 1] .
1
From Lemma 7.3 there exists a polynomial, p (t) such that ||pm − f ◦ h||[0,1]n < m .
n −1
¡ −1 −1
¢
Now for x ∈ [−M, M ] , h (x) = h (x1 ) , · · ·, h (xn ) and so
¯¯ ¯¯ 1
¯¯pm ◦ h−1 − f ¯¯ = ||pm − f ◦ h||[0,1]n < .
[−M,M ]n m
x
But h−1 (x) = 2M + 12 and so pm is still a polynomial. This proves the lemma.
The classical version of the Weierstrass approximation theorem involved showing
that a continuous function of one variable defined on a closed and bounded interval
is the uniform limit of a sequence of polynomials. This is certainly included as a
special case of the above. Now recall the Tietze extension theorem found on Page
146. In the general version about to be presented, the set on which f is defined is
just a compact subset of Rn , not the Cartesian product of intervals. For convenience
here is the Tietze extension theorem.
7.2. STONE WEIERSTRASS THEOREM 161
Theorem 7.5 Let M be a closed nonempty subset of a metric space (X, d) and let
f : M → [a, b] is continuous at every point of M. Then there exists a function, g
continuous on all of X which coincides with f on M such that g (X) ⊆ [a, b] .
The Weierstrass approximation theorem follows.
Theorem 7.6 Let K be a compact set in Rn and let f be a continuous function de-
fined on K. Then there exists a sequence of polynomials {pm } converging uniformly
to f on K.
Proof: Choose M large enough that K ⊆ [−M, M ] and let fe denote a contin-
n
n e
uous function defined on all of [−M, M ] such that f = f on K. Such an extension
exists by the Tietze extension theorem, Theorem 7.5 applied to the real and imagi-
nary parts of f . By Lemma
¯¯ 7.4 there
¯¯ exists a sequence of polynomials,
¯¯ ¯¯{pm } defined
n ¯¯ e ¯¯ ¯¯ e ¯¯
on [−M, M ] such that ¯¯f − pm ¯¯ n
→ 0. Therefore, ¯¯f − pm ¯¯ → 0 also.
[−M,M ] K
7.2 Stone Weierstrass Theorem

7.2.1 The Case Of Compact Sets
There is a profound generalization of the Weierstrass approximation theorem due
to Stone.
Definition 7.7 A is an algebra of functions if A is a vector space and if whenever

f, g ∈ A then f g ∈ A.
To begin with assume that the field of scalars is R. This will be generalized
later. Theorem 7.6 implies the following very special case.
Corollary 7.8 The polynomials are dense in C ([a, b]).
The next result is the key to the profound generalization of the Weierstrass
theorem due to Stone in which an interval will be replaced by a compact or locally
compact set and polynomials will be replaced with elements of an algebra satisfying
certain axioms.
Corollary 7.9 On the interval [−M, M ], there exist polynomials pn such that
pn (0) = 0
and
lim ||pn − |·|||∞ = 0.
n→∞
Proof: By Corollary 7.8 there exists a sequence of polynomials, {p̃n } such that
p̃n → |·| uniformly. Then let pn (t) ≡ p̃n (t) − p̃n (0) . This proves the corollary.
Definition 7.10 An algebra of functions, A defined on A, annihilates no point of

A if for all x ∈ A, there exists g ∈ A such that g (x) 6= 0. The algebra separates
points if whenever x1 6= x2 , then there exists g ∈ A such that g (x1 ) 6= g (x2 ).
The following generalization is known as the Stone Weierstrass approximation

theorem.
Theorem 7.11 Let A be a compact topological space and let A ⊆ C (A; R) be an

algebra of functions which separates points and annihilates no point. Then A is
dense in C (A; R).
Proof: First here is a lemma.
Lemma 7.12 Let c1 and c2 be two real numbers and let x1 6= x2 be two points of
A. Then there exists a function fx1 x2 such that
fx1 x2 (x1 ) = c1 , fx1 x2 (x2 ) = c2 .
Proof of the lemma: Let g ∈ A satisfy
g (x1 ) 6= g (x2 ).
Such a g exists because the algebra separates points. Since the algebra annihilates
no point, there exist functions h and k such that
h (x1 ) 6= 0, k (x2 ) 6= 0.
Then let
u ≡ gh − g (x2 ) h, v ≡ gk − g (x1 ) k.
It follows that u (x1 ) 6= 0 and u (x2 ) = 0 while v (x2 ) 6= 0 and v (x1 ) = 0. Let
c1 u c2 v
fx 1 x 2 ≡ + .
u (x1 ) v (x2 )
This proves the lemma. Now continue the proof of Theorem 7.11.
First note that A satisfies the same axioms as A but in addition to these axioms,
A is closed. The closure of A is taken with respect to the usual norm on C (A),
||f ||∞ ≡ max {|f (x)| : x ∈ A} .
Suppose f ∈ A and suppose M is large enough that
||f ||∞ < M.
Using Corollary 7.9, let pn be a sequence of polynomials such that
||pn − |·|||∞ → 0, pn (0) = 0.

It follows that pn ◦ f ∈ A and so |f | ∈ A whenever f ∈ A. Also note that
|f − g| + (f + g)
max (f, g) =
2
(f + g) − |f − g|
min (f, g) = .
2
Therefore, this shows that if f, g ∈ A then
max (f, g) , min (f, g) ∈ A.
By induction, if fi , i = 1, 2, · · ·, m are in A then
max (fi , i = 1, 2, · · ·, m) , min (fi , i = 1, 2, · · ·, m) ∈ A.
Now let h ∈ C (A; R) and let x ∈ A. Use Lemma 7.12 to obtain fxy , a function
of A which agrees with h at x and y. Letting ε > 0, there exists an open set U (y)
containing y such that
fxy (z) > h (z) − ε if z ∈ U (y).
Since A is compact, let U (y1 ) , · · ·, U (yl ) cover A. Let
fx ≡ max (fxy1 , fxy2 , · · ·, fxyl ).
Then fx ∈ A and
fx (z) > h (z) − ε
for all z ∈ A and fx (x) = h (x). This implies that for each x ∈ A there exists an
open set V (x) containing x such that for z ∈ V (x),
fx (z) < h (z) + ε.
Let V (x1 ) , · · ·, V (xm ) cover A and let
f ≡ min (fx1 , · · ·, fxm ).
Therefore,
f (z) < h (z) + ε
for all z ∈ A and since fx (z) > h (z) − ε for all z ∈ A, it follows
f (z) > h (z) − ε
also and so
|f (z) − h (z)| < ε
for all z. Since ε is arbitrary, this shows h ∈ A and proves A = C (A; R). This
proves the theorem.
7.2.2 The Case Of Locally Compact Sets

Definition 7.13 Let (X, τ ) be a locally compact Hausdorff space. C0 (X) denotes
the space of real or complex valued continuous functions defined on X with the
property that if f ∈ C0 (X) , then for each ε > 0 there exists a compact set K such
that |f (x)| < ε for all x ∈
/ K. Define
||f ||∞ = sup {|f (x)| : x ∈ X}.
Lemma 7.14 For (X, τ ) a locally compact Hausdorff space with the above norm,
C0 (X) is a complete space.
³ ´
Proof: Let X, e eτ be the one point compactification described in Lemma 6.52.
n ³ ´ o
e : f (∞) = 0 .
D≡ f ∈C X
³ ´
e . For f ∈ C0 (X) ,
Then D is a closed subspace of C X
½
f (x) if x ∈ X
fe(x) ≡
0 if x = ∞
and let θ : C0 (X) → D be given by θf = fe. Then θ is one to one and onto and also
satisfies ||f ||∞ = ||θf ||∞ . Now D is complete because it is a closed subspace of a
complete space and so C0 (X) with ||·||∞ is also complete. This proves the lemma.
The above refers to functions which have values in C but the same proof works
for functions which have values in any complete normed linear space.
In the case where the functions in C0 (X) all have real values, I will denote the
resulting space by C0 (X; R) with similar meanings in other cases.
With this lemma, the generalization of the Stone Weierstrass theorem to locally
compact sets is as follows.
Theorem 7.15 Let A be an algebra of functions in C0 (X; R) where (X, τ ) is a

locally compact Hausdorff space which separates the points and annihilates no point.
Then A is dense in C0 (X; R).
³ ´
Proof: Let X, e eτ be the one point compactification as described in Lemma
6.52. Let Ae denote all finite linear combinations of the form
( n )
X
ci fei + c0 : f ∈ A, ci ∈ R
i=1
where for f ∈ C0 (X; R) ,

½
f (x) if x ∈ X
fe(x) ≡ .
0 if x = ∞
³ ´
Then Ae is obviously an algebra of functions in C X;e R . It separates points because
this is true of A. Similarly, it annihilates no point because of the inclusion of c0 an
arbitrary element
³ óf R in the definition above. Therefore from³ Theorem
´ 7.11, Ae is
e e e
dense in C X; R . Letting f ∈ C0 (X; R) , it follows f ∈ C X; R and so there
exists a sequence {hn } ⊆ Ae such that hn converges uniformly to fe. Now hn is of
Pn
the form i=1 cni ff n n e n
i + c0 and since f (∞) = 0, you can take each c0 = 0 and so
this has shown the existence of a sequence of functions in A such that it converges
uniformly to f . This proves the theorem.
7.2.3 The Case Of Complex Valued Functions

What about the general case where C0 (X) consists of complex valued functions
and the field of scalars is C rather than R? The following is the version of the Stone
Weierstrass theorem which applies to this case. You have to assume that for f ∈ A
it follows f ∈ A. Such an algebra is called self adjoint.
Theorem 7.16 Suppose A is an algebra of functions in C0 (X) , where X is a

locally compact Hausdorff space, which separates the points, annihilates no point,
and has the property that if f ∈ A, then f ∈ A. Then A is dense in C0 (X).
Proof: Let Re A ≡ {Re f : f ∈ A}, Im A ≡ {Im f : f ∈ A}. First I will show

that A = Re A + i Im A = Im A + i Re A. Let f ∈ A. Then
1¡ ¢ 1¡ ¢
f= f +f + f − f = Re f + i Im f ∈ Re A + i Im A
2 2
and so A ⊆ Re A + i Im A. Also
1 ¡ ¢ i³ ´
f= if + if − if + (if ) = Im (if ) + i Re (if ) ∈ Im A + i Re A
2i 2
This proves one half of the desired equality. Now suppose h ∈ Re A + i Im A. Then
h = Re g1 + i Im g2 where gi ∈ A. Then since Re g1 = 21 (g1 + g1 ) , it follows Re g1 ∈
A. Similarly Im g2 ∈ A. Therefore, h ∈ A. The case where h ∈ Im A + i Re A is
similar. This establishes the desired equality.
Now Re A and Im A are both real algebras. I will show this now. First consider
Im A. It is obvious this is a real vector space. It only remains to verify that
the product of two functions in Im A is in Im A. Note that from the first part,
Re A, Im A are both subsets of A because, for example, if u ∈ Im A then u + 0 ∈
Im A + i Re A = A. Therefore, if v, w ∈ Im A, both iv and w are in A and so
Im (ivw) = vw and ivw ∈ A. Similarly, Re A is an algebra.
Both Re A and Im A must separate the points. Here is why: If x1 6= x2 , then
there exists f ∈ A such that f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) . If Im f (x1 ) 6= Im f (x2 ) , this shows
there is a function in Im A, Im f which separates these two points. If Im f fails
to separate the two points, then Re f must separate the points and so you could
consider Im (if ) to get a function in Im A which separates these points. This shows
Im A separates the points. Similarly Re A separates the points.
Neither Re A nor Im A annihilate any point. This is easy to see because if x

is a point there exists f ∈ A such that f (x) 6= 0. Thus either Re f (x) 6= 0 or
Im f (x) 6= 0. If Im f (x) 6= 0, this shows this point is not annihilated by Im A.
If Im f (x) = 0, consider Im (if ) (x) = Re f (x) 6= 0. Similarly, Re A does not
annihilate any point.
It follows from Theorem 7.15 that Re A and Im A are dense in the real valued
functions of C0 (X). Let f ∈ C0 (X) . Then there exists {hn } ⊆ Re A and {gn } ⊆
Im A such that hn → Re f uniformly and gn → Im f uniformly. Therefore, hn +
ign ∈ A and it converges to f uniformly. This proves the theorem.
7.3 Exercises
1. Let (X, τ ) , (Y, η) be topological spaces and let A ⊆ X be compact. Then if
f : X → Y is continuous, show that f (A) is also compact.
2. ↑ In the context of Problem 1, suppose R = Y where the usual topology is
placed on R. Show f achieves its maximum and minimum on A.
3. Let V be an open set in Rn . Show there is an increasing sequence of compact
sets, Km , such that V = ∪∞
m=1 Km . Hint: Let
½ ¾
n
¡ C
¢ 1
Cm ≡ x ∈ R : dist x,V ≥
m
where
dist (x,S) ≡ inf {|y − x| such that y ∈ S}.
Consider Km ≡ Cm ∩ B (0,m).
4. Let B (X; Rn ) be the space of functions f , mapping X to Rn such that
sup{|f (x)| : x ∈ X} < ∞.
Show B (X; Rn ) is a complete normed linear space if
||f || ≡ sup{|f (x)| : x ∈ X}.
5. Let α ∈ [0, 1]. Define, for X a compact subset of Rp ,
C α (X; Rn ) ≡ {f ∈ C (X; Rn ) : ρα (f ) + ||f || ≡ ||f ||α < ∞}
where
||f || ≡ sup{|f (x)| : x ∈ X}
and
|f (x) − f (y)|
ρα (f ) ≡ sup{ α : x, y ∈ X, x 6= y}.
|x − y|
Show that (C α (X; Rn ) , ||·||α ) is a complete normed linear space.
7.3. EXERCISES 167
6. Let {fn }∞ α n p
n=1 ⊆ C (X; R ) where X is a compact subset of R and suppose
||fn ||α ≤ M
for all n. Show there exists a subsequence, nk , such that fnk converges in
C (X; Rn ). The given sequence is called precompact when this happens. (This
also shows the embedding of C α (X; Rn ) into C (X; Rn ) is a compact embed-
ding.)
7. Use the general Stone Weierstrass approximation theorem to prove Theorem
7.6.
8. Let (X, d) be a metric space where d is a bounded metric. Let C denote the
collection of closed subsets of X. For A, B ∈ C, define
ρ (A, B) ≡ inf {δ > 0 : Aδ ⊇ B and Bδ ⊇ A}
where for a set S,
Sδ ≡ {x : dist (x, S) ≡ inf {d (x, s) : s ∈ S} ≤ δ} .
Show x → dist (x, S) is continuous and that therefore, Sδ is a closed set

containing S. Also show that ρ is a metric on C. This is called the Hausdorff
metric.
9. ↑Suppose (X, d) is a compact metric space. Show (C, ρ) is a complete met-
ric space. Hint: Show first that if Wn ↓ W where Wn is closed, then
ρ (Wn , W ) → 0. Now let {An } be a Cauchy sequence in C. Then if ε > 0
there exists N such that when m, n ≥ N, then ρ (An , Am ) < ε. Therefore, for
each n ≥ N,
(An )ε ⊇∪∞
k=n Ak .
Let A ≡ ∩∞ ∞
n=1 ∪k=n Ak . By the first part, there exists N1 > N such that for
n ≥ N1 , ¡ ¢
ρ ∪∞ ∞
k=n Ak , A < ε, and (An )ε ⊇ ∪k=n Ak .
Therefore, for such n, Aε ⊇ Wn ⊇ An and (Wn )ε ⊇ (An )ε ⊇ A because
(An )ε ⊇ ∪∞
k=n Ak ⊇ A.
10. ↑ Let X be a compact metric space. Show (C, ρ) is compact. Hint: Let Dn
be a 2−n net for X. Let Kn denote finite unions of sets of the form B (p, 2−n )
where p ∈ Dn . Show Kn is a 2−(n−1) net for (C, ρ) .
Part II
Real And Abstract Analysis
169
Abstract Measure And
Integration
8.1 σ Algebras
This chapter is on the basics of measure theory and integration. A measure is a real
valued mapping from some subset of the power set of a given set which has values
in [0, ∞]. Many apparently different things can be considered as measures and also
there is an integral defined. By discussing this in terms of axioms and in a very
abstract setting, many different topics can be considered in terms of one general
theory. For example, it will turn out that sums are included as an integral of this
sort. So is the usual integral as well as things which are often thought of as being
in between sums and integrals.
Let Ω be a set and let F be a collection of subsets of Ω satisfying
∅ ∈ F, Ω ∈ F , (8.1)
E ∈ F implies E C ≡ Ω \ E ∈ F ,
If {En }∞ ∞
n=1 ⊆ F, then ∪n=1 En ∈ F . (8.2)
Definition 8.1 A collection of subsets of a set, Ω, satisfying Formulas 8.1-8.2 is
called a σ algebra.
As an example, let Ω be any set and let F = P(Ω), the set of all subsets of Ω
(power set). This obviously satisfies Formulas 8.1-8.2.
Lemma 8.2 Let C be a set whose elements are σ algebras of subsets of Ω. Then
∩C is a σ algebra also.
Be sure to verify this lemma. It follows immediately from the above definitions
but it is important for you to check the details.
Example 8.3 Let τ denote the collection of all open sets in Rn and let σ (τ ) ≡
intersection of all σ algebras that contain τ . σ (τ ) is called the σ algebra of Borel
sets . In general, for a collection of sets, Σ, σ (Σ) is the smallest σ algebra which
contains Σ.
171
172 ABSTRACT MEASURE AND INTEGRATION
This is a very important σ algebra and it will be referred to frequently as the

Borel sets. Attempts to describe a typical Borel set are more trouble than they are
worth and it is not easy to do so. Rather, one uses the definition just given in the
example. Note, however, that all countable intersections of open sets and countable
unions of closed sets are Borel sets. Such sets are called Gδ and Fσ respectively.
Definition 8.4 Let F be a σ algebra of sets of Ω and let µ : F → [0, ∞]. µ is

called a measure if
∞
[ X∞
µ( Ei ) = µ(Ei ) (8.3)
i=1 i=1
whenever the Ei are disjoint sets of F. The triple, (Ω, F, µ) is called a measure
space and the elements of F are called the measurable sets. (Ω, F, µ) is a finite
measure space when µ (Ω) < ∞.
The following theorem is the basis for most of what is done in the theory of
measure and integration. It is a very simple result which follows directly from the
above definition.
Theorem 8.5 Let {Em }∞ m=1 be a sequence of measurable sets in a measure space
(Ω, F, µ). Then if · · ·En ⊆ En+1 ⊆ En+2 ⊆ · · ·,
µ(∪∞
i=1 Ei ) = lim µ(En ) (8.4)
n→∞
and if · · ·En ⊇ En+1 ⊇ En+2 ⊇ · · · and µ(E1 ) < ∞, then
µ(∩∞
i=1 Ei ) = lim µ(En ). (8.5)
n→∞
Stated more succinctly, Ek ↑ E implies µ (Ek ) ↑ µ (E) and Ek ↓ E with µ (E1 ) < ∞
implies µ (Ek ) ↓ µ (E).
Proof: First note that ∩∞ ∞ C C

i=1 Ei = (∪i=1 Ei ) ∈ F so ∩∞ E is measurable.
¡ C ¢C i=1 i
Also note that for A and B sets of F, A \ B ≡ A ∪ B ∈ F. To show 8.4, note
that 8.4 is obviously true if µ(Ek ) = ∞ for any k. Therefore, assume µ(Ek ) < ∞
for all k. Thus
µ(Ek+1 \ Ek ) + µ(Ek ) = µ(Ek+1 )
and so
µ(Ek+1 \ Ek ) = µ(Ek+1 ) − µ(Ek ).
Also,
∞
[ ∞
[
Ek = E1 ∪ (Ek+1 \ Ek )
k=1 k=1
and the sets in the above union are disjoint. Hence by 8.3,
∞
X
µ(∪∞
i=1 Ei ) = µ(E1 ) + µ(Ek+1 \ Ek ) = µ(E1 )
k=1
8.1. σ ALGEBRAS 173
∞
X
+ µ(Ek+1 ) − µ(Ek )
k=1
n
X
= µ(E1 ) + lim µ(Ek+1 ) − µ(Ek ) = lim µ(En+1 ).
n→∞ n→∞
k=1
This shows part 8.4.

To verify 8.5,
µ(E1 ) = µ(∩∞ ∞
i=1 Ei ) + µ(E1 \ ∩i=1 Ei )
since µ(E1 ) < ∞, it follows µ(∩∞ n ∞

i=1 Ei ) < ∞. Also, E1 \ ∩i=1 Ei ↑ E1 \ ∩i=1 Ei and
so by 8.4,
µ(E1 ) − µ(∩∞ ∞ n
i=1 Ei ) = µ(E1 \ ∩i=1 Ei ) = lim µ(E1 \ ∩i=1 Ei )
n→∞
= µ(E1 ) − lim µ(∩ni=1 Ei ) = µ(E1 ) − lim µ(En ),

n→∞ n→∞
Hence, subtracting µ (E1 ) from both sides,
lim µ(En ) = µ(∩∞

i=1 Ei ).
n→∞

It is convenient to allow functions to take the value +∞. You should think of
+∞, usually referred to as ∞ as something out at the right end of the real line and
its only importance is the notion of sequences converging to it. xn → ∞ exactly
when for all l ∈ R, there exists N such that if n ≥ N, then
xn > l.
This is what it means for a sequence to converge to ∞. Don’t think of ∞ as a

number. It is just a convenient symbol which allows the consideration of some limit
operations more simply. Similar considerations apply to −∞ but this value is not
of very great interest. In fact the set of most interest is the complex numbers or
some vector space. Therefore, this topic is not considered.
Lemma 8.6 Let f : Ω → (−∞, ∞] where F is a σ algebra of subsets of Ω. Then

the following are equivalent.
f −1 ((d, ∞]) ∈ F for all finite d,
f −1 ((−∞, d)) ∈ F for all finite d,

f −1 ([d, ∞]) ∈ F for all finite d,
f −1 ((−∞, d]) ∈ F for all finite d,
f −1 ((a, b)) ∈ F for all a < b, −∞ < a < b < ∞.
Proof: First note that the first and the third are equivalent. To see this, observe
f −1 ([d, ∞]) = ∩∞
n=1 f
−1
((d − 1/n, ∞]),
and so if the first condition holds, then so does the third.
f −1 ((d, ∞]) = ∪∞
n=1 f
−1
([d + 1/n, ∞]),
and so if the third condition holds, so does the first.

Similarly, the second and fourth conditions are equivalent. Now
f −1 ((−∞, d]) = (f −1 ((d, ∞]))C
so the first and fourth conditions are equivalent. Thus the first four conditions are
equivalent and if any of them hold, then for −∞ < a < b < ∞,
f −1 ((a, b)) = f −1 ((−∞, b)) ∩ f −1 ((a, ∞]) ∈ F .
Finally, if the last condition holds,

¡ ¢C
f −1 ([d, ∞]) = ∪∞
k=1 f
−1
((−k + d, d)) ∈ F
and so the third condition holds. Therefore, all five conditions are equivalent. This
proves the lemma.
This lemma allows for the following definition of a measurable function having
values in (−∞, ∞].
Definition 8.7 Let (Ω, F, µ) be a measure space and let f : Ω → (−∞, ∞]. Then
f is said to be measurable if any of the equivalent conditions of Lemma 8.6 hold.
When the σ algebra, F equals the Borel σ algebra, B, the function is called Borel
measurable. More generally, if f : Ω → X where X is a topological space, f is said
to be measurable if f −1 (U ) ∈ F whenever U is open.
Theorem 8.8 Let fn and f be functions mapping Ω to (−∞, ∞] where F is a σ al-

gebra of measurable sets of Ω. Then if fn is measurable, and f (ω) = limn→∞ fn (ω),
it follows that f is also measurable. (Pointwise limits of measurable functions are
measurable.)
¡ 1 1
¢
Proof: First is is shown f −1 ((a, b)) ∈ F. Let Vm ≡ a + m ,b − m and
£ 1 1
¤
Vm = a+ m ,b − m . Then for all m, Vm ⊆ (a, b) and
(a, b) = ∪∞ ∞
m=1 Vm = ∪m=1 V m .
Note that Vm 6= ∅ for all m large enough. Since f is the pointwise limit of fn ,
f −1 (Vm ) ⊆ {ω : fk (ω) ∈ Vm for all k large enough} ⊆ f −1 (V m ).
You should note that the expression in the middle is of the form
−1
∪∞ ∞
n=1 ∩k=n fk (Vm ).
Therefore,
−1
f −1 ((a, b)) = ∪∞
m=1 f
−1
(Vm ) ⊆ ∪∞ ∞ ∞
m=1 ∪n=1 ∩k=n fk (Vm )
⊆ ∪∞
m=1 f
−1
(V m ) = f −1 ((a, b)).
It follows f −1 ((a, b)) ∈ F because it equals the expression in the middle which is
measurable. This shows f is measurable.
The following theorem considers the case of functions which have values in a
metric space. Its proof is similar to the proof of the above.
Theorem 8.9 Let {fn } be a sequence of measurable functions mapping Ω to (X, d)

where (X, d) is a metric space and (Ω, F) is a measure space. Suppose also that
f (ω) = limn→∞ fn (ω) for all ω. Then f is also a measurable function.
Proof: It is required to show f −1 (U ) is measurable for all U open. Let

½ ¾
¡ C
¢ 1
Vm ≡ x ∈ U : dist x, U > .
m
Thus ½ ¾
¡ ¢ 1
Vm ⊆ x ∈ U : dist x, U C ≥
m
and Vm ⊆ Vm ⊆ Vm+1 and ∪m Vm = U. Then since Vm is open,
−1
f −1 (Vm ) = ∪∞ ∞
n=1 ∩k=n fk (Vm )
and so
f −1 (U ) = ∪∞
m=1 f
−1
(Vm )
−1
= ∪m=1 ∪n=1 ∩∞
∞ ∞
k=n fk (Vm )
¡ ¢
⊆ ∪∞
m=1 f
−1
Vm = f −1 (U )
which shows f −1 (U ) is measurable.

Now here is a simple observation.
Observation 8.10 Let f : Ω → X where X is some topological space. Suppose

m
X
f (ω) = xk XAk (ω)
k=1
where each xk ∈ X and the Ak are disjoint measurable sets. (Such functions are
often referred to as simple functions.) Then f is measurable.
Proof: Letting U be open, f −1 (U ) = ∪ {Ak : xk ∈ U } , a finite union of mea-

surable sets.
There is also a very interesting theorem due to Kuratowski [34] which is pre-
sented next.
Theorem 8.11 Let E be a compact metric space and let (Ω, F) be a measure space.
Suppose ψ : E × Ω → R has the property that x → ψ (x, ω) is continuous and
ω → ψ (x, ω) is measurable. Then there exists a measurable function, f having
values in E such that
ψ (f (ω) , ω) = sup ψ (x, ω) .
x∈E
Furthermore, ω → ψ (f (ω) , ω) is measurable.
Proof: Let C1 be a 2−1 net of E. Suppose C1 , ···, Cm have

© ¡been chosen¢ such thatª
Ck is a 2−k net and Ci+1 ⊇ Ci for all i. Then consider E\∪ B x, 2−(m+1) : x ∈ Cm .
r
If this set is empty, let Cm+1 = Cm . If it is nonempty, let {yi }i=1 be a 2−(m+1) net
r ∞
for this compact set. Then let Cm+1 = Cm ∪ {yi }i=1 . It follows {Cm }m=1 satisfies
−m
Cm is a 2 net and Cm ⊆ Cm+1 .
© 1 ªm(1)
Let xk k=1 equal C1 . Let
½ ¾
1
¡ 1 ¢ ¡ 1 ¢
A1 ≡ ω : ψ x1 , ω = max ψ xk , ω
k
For ω ∈ A11 , define s1 (ω) ≡ x11 . Next let

½ ¾
1 1
¡ 1 ¢ ¡ 1 ¢
A2 ≡ ω ∈ / A1 : ψ x2 , ω = max ψ xk , ω
k
and let s1 (ω) ≡ x12 on A12 . Continue in this way to obtain a simple function, s1
such that
ψ (s1 (ω) , ω) = max {ψ (x, ω) : x ∈ C1 }
and s1 has values in C1 .
Suppose s1 (ω) , s2 (ω) , · · ·, sm (ω) are simple functions with the property that if
m > 1,
|sk (ω) − sk+1 (ω)| < 2−k ,

ψ (sk (ω) , ω) = max {ψ (x, ω) : x ∈ Ck }
sk has values in Ck
for each k + 1 ≤ m, only the second and third assertions holding if m = 1. Letting
N
Cm = {xk }k=1 , it follows sm (ω) is of the form
N
X
sm (ω) = xk XAk (ω) , Ai ∩ Aj = ∅. (8.6)
k=1
n
Denote by {y1i }i=1
1
those points of Cm+1 which are contained in B (x1 , 2−m ) . Let-
ting Ak play the role of Ω in the first step in which s1 was constructed, for each
ω ∈ A1 let sm+1 (ω) be a simple function which has one of the values y1i and satisfies
ψ (sm+1 (ω) , ω) = max ψ (y1i , ω)

i≤n1
n n
for each ω ∈ A1 . Next let {y2i }i=1
2
be those points of Cm+1 different than {y1i }i=1
1
−m
which are contained in B (x2 , 2 ). Then define sm+1 (ω) on A2 to have values
n2
taken from {y2i }i=1 and
ψ (sm+1 (ω) , ω) = max ψ (y2i , ω)

i≤n2
for each ω ∈ A2 . Continuing this way defines sm+1 on all of Ω and it satisfies
|sm (ω) − sm+1 (ω)| < 2−m for all ω ∈ Ω (8.7)
It remains to verify
ψ (sm+1 (ω) , ω) = max {ψ (x, ω) : x ∈ Cm+1 } . (8.8)
To see this is so, pick ω ∈ Ω. Let
max {ψ (x, ω) : x ∈ Cm+1 } = ψ (yj , ω) (8.9)
where yj ∈ Cm+1 and out of all the balls B (xl , 2−m ) , the first one which contains
yj is B (xk , 2−m ). Then by the construction, sm+1 (ω) = yj . This and 8.9 verifies
8.8.
From 8.7 it follows sm (ω) converges uniformly on Ω to a measurable function,
f (ω) . Then from the construction, ψ (f (ω) , ω) ≥ ψ (sm (ω) , ω) for all m and ω.
Now pick ω ∈ Ω and let z be such that ψ (z, ω) = maxx∈E ψ (x, ω). Letting yk → z
where yk ∈ Ck , it follows from continuity of ψ in the first argument that
max ψ (x, ω) = ψ (z, ω) = lim ψ (yk , ω)

x∈E k→∞
≤ lim ψ (sm (ω) , ω) = ψ (f (ω) , ω) ≤ max ψ (x, ω) .
m→∞ x∈E
To show ω → ψ (f (ω) , ω) is measurable, note that since E is compact, there exists

a countable dense subset, D. Then using continuity of ψ in the first argument,
ψ (f (ω) , ω) = sup ψ (x, ω)

x∈E
= sup ψ (x, ω)
x∈D
which equals a measurable function of ω because D is countable. This proves the

theorem.
Theorem 8.12 Let B consist of open cubes of the form

n
Y
Qx ≡ (xi − δ, xi + δ)
i=1
where δ is a positive rational number and x ∈ Qn . Then every open set in Rn can be
written as a countable union of open cubes from B. Furthermore, B is a countable
set.
Proof: Let U be an open set and√let y ∈ U. Since U is open, B (y, r) ⊆ U for

some r > 0 and it can be assumed r/ n ∈ Q. Let
µ ¶
r
x ∈ B y, √ ∩ Qn
10 n
and consider the cube, Qx ∈ B defined by

n
Y
Qx ≡ (xi − δ, xi + δ)
i=1
√
where δ = r/4 n. The following picture is roughly illustrative of what is taking
place.
B(y, r)
Qx
qxq
y
Then the diameter of Qx equals

Ã µ ¶2 !1/2
r r
n √ =
2 n 2
and so, if z ∈ Qx , then
|z − y| ≤ |z − x| + |x − y|
r r
< + = r.
2 2
Consequently, Qx ⊆ U. Now also,
Ã n !1/2
X 2 r
(xi − yi ) < √
i=1
10 n
and so it follows that for each i,

r
|xi − yi | < √
4 n
since otherwise the above inequality would not hold. Therefore, y ∈ Qx ⊆ U . Now
let BU denote those sets of B which are contained in U. Then ∪BU = U.
To see B is countable, note there are countably many choices for x and countably
many choices for δ. This proves the theorem.
Recall that g : Rn → R is continuous means g −1 (open set) = an open set. In
particular g −1 ((a, b)) must be an open set.
Theorem 8.13 Let fi : Ω → R for i = 1, · · ·, n be measurable functions and let

g : Rn → R be continuous where f ≡ (f1 · · · fn )T . Then g ◦ f is a measurable function
from Ω to R.
Proof: First it is shown

−1
(g ◦ f )
((a, b)) ∈ F.
−1 ¡ ¢
Now (g ◦ f ) ((a, b)) = f −1 g −1 ((a, b)) and since g is continuous, it follows that
g −1 ((a, b)) is an open set which is denoted as U for convenience. Now by Theorem
8.12 above, it follows there are countably many open cubes, {Qk } such that
U = ∪∞
k=1 Qk
where each Qk is a cube of the form

n
Y
Qk = (xi − δ, xi + δ) .
i=1
Now Ã !
n
Y
f −1 (xi − δ, xi + δ) = ∩ni=1 fi−1 ((xi − δ, xi + δ)) ∈ F
i=1
and so
−1 ¡ ¢
(g ◦ f ) ((a, b)) = f −1 g −1 ((a, b)) = f −1 (U )
= f −1 (∪∞ ∞
k=1 Qk ) = ∪k=1 f
−1
(Qk ) ∈ F.
Corollary 8.14 Sums, products, and linear combinations of measurable functions

are measurable.
Proof: To see the product of two measurable functions is measurable, let

g (x, y) = xy, a continuous function defined on R2 . Thus if you have two mea-
surable functions, f1 and f2 defined on Ω,
g ◦ (f1 , f2 ) (ω) = f1 (ω) f2 (ω)
and so ω → f1 (ω) f2 (ω) is measurable. Similarly you can show the sum of two
measurable functions is measurable by considering g (x, y) = x + y and you can
show a linear combination of two measurable functions is measurable by considering

g (x, y) = ax + by. More than two functions can also be considered as well.
The message of this corollary is that starting with measurable real valued func-
tions you can combine them in pretty much any way you want and you end up with
a measurable function.
Here is some notation which will be used whenever convenient.
Definition 8.15 Let f : Ω → [−∞, ∞]. Define
[α < f ] ≡ {ω ∈ Ω : f (ω) > α} ≡ f −1 ((α, ∞])
with obvious modifications for the symbols [α ≤ f ] , [α ≥ f ] , [α ≥ f ≥ β], etc.
Definition 8.16 For a set E,

½
1 if ω ∈ E,
XE (ω) =
0 if ω ∈
/ E.
This is called the characteristic function of E. Sometimes this is called the

indicator function which I think is better terminology since the term characteristic
function has another meaning. Note that this “indicates” whether a point, ω is
contained in E. It is exactly when the function has the value 1.
Theorem 8.17 (Egoroff ) Let (Ω, F, µ) be a finite measure space,
(µ(Ω) < ∞)
and let fn , f be complex valued functions such that Re fn , Im fn are all measurable
and
lim fn (ω) = f (ω)
n→∞
for all ω ∈
/ E where µ(E) = 0. Then for every ε > 0, there exists a set,
F ⊇ E, µ(F ) < ε,
such that fn converges uniformly to f on F C .
Proof: First suppose E = ∅ so that convergence is pointwise everywhere. It

follows then that Re f and Im f are pointwise limits of measurable functions and
are therefore measurable. Let Ekm = {ω ∈ Ω : |fn (ω) − f (ω)| ≥ 1/m for some
n > k}. Note that
q
2 2
|fn (ω) − f (ω)| = (Re fn (ω) − Re f (ω)) + (Im fn (ω) − Im f (ω))
and so, By Theorem 8.13, · ¸

1
|fn − f | ≥
m
is measurable. Hence Ekm is measurable because

· ¸
1
Ekm = ∪∞n=k+1 |fn − f | ≥ .
m
For fixed m, ∩∞k=1 Ekm = ∅ because fn converges to f . Therefore, if ω ∈ Ω there

1
exists k such that if n > k, |fn (ω) − f (ω)| < m which means ω ∈
/ Ekm . Note also
that
Ekm ⊇ E(k+1)m .
Since µ(E1m ) < ∞, Theorem 8.5 on Page 172 implies
0 = µ(∩∞
k=1 Ekm ) = lim µ(Ekm ).
k→∞
Let k(m) be chosen such that µ(Ek(m)m ) < ε2−m and let
∞
[
F = Ek(m)m .
m=1
Then µ(F ) < ε because

∞
X ∞
¡ ¢ X
µ (F ) ≤ µ Ek(m)m < ε2−m = ε
m=1 m=1
Now let η > 0 be given and pick m0 such that m−1 C

0 < η. If ω ∈ F , then
∞
\
C
ω∈ Ek(m)m .
m=1
C
Hence ω ∈ Ek(m0 )m0
so
|fn (ω) − f (ω)| < 1/m0 < η
for all n > k(m0 ). This holds for all ω ∈ F C and so fn converges uniformly to f on
F C.
∞
Now if E 6= ∅, consider {XE C fn }n=1 . Each XE C fn has real and imaginary
parts measurable and the sequence converges pointwise to XE f everywhere. There-
fore, from the first part, there exists a set of measure less than ε, F such that on
C
F C , {XE C fn } converges uniformly to XE C f. Therefore, on (E ∪ F ) , {fn } con-
verges uniformly to f . This proves the theorem.
Finally here is a comment about notation.
Definition 8.18 Something happens for µ a.e. ω said as µ almost everywhere, if

there exists a set E with µ(E) = 0 and the thing takes place for all ω ∈ / E. Thus
f (ω) = g(ω) a.e. if f (ω) = g(ω) for all ω ∈
/ E where µ(E) = 0. A measure space,
(Ω, F, µ) is σ finite if there exist measurable sets, Ωn such that µ (Ωn ) < ∞ and
Ω = ∪∞n=1 Ωn .
8.2 Exercises
1. Let Ω = N ={1, 2, · · ·}. Let F = P(N) and let µ(S) = number of elements in
S. Thus µ({1}) = 1 = µ({2}), µ({1, 2}) = 2, etc. Show (Ω, F, µ) is a measure
space. It is called counting measure. What functions are measurable in this
case?
2. Let Ω be any uncountable set and let F = {A ⊆ Ω : either A or AC is
countable}. Let µ(A) = 1 if A is uncountable and µ(A) = 0 if A is countable.
Show (Ω, F, µ) is a measure space. This is a well known bad example.
3. Let F be a σ algebra of subsets of Ω and suppose F has infinitely many
elements. Show that F is uncountable. Hint: You might try to show there
exists a countable sequence of disjoint sets of F, {Ai }. It might be easiest to
verify this by contradiction if it doesn’t exist rather than a direct construction.
Once this has been done, you can define a map, θ, from P (N) into F which
is one to one by θ (S) = ∪i∈S Ai . Then argue P (N) is uncountable and so F
is also uncountable.
4. Prove Lemma 8.2.
5. g is Borel measurable if whenever U is open, g −1 (U ) is Borel. Let f : Ω → Rn
and let g : Rn → R and F is a σ algebra of sets of Ω. Suppose f is measurable
and g is Borel measurable. Show g ◦ f is measurable. To say g is Borel
measurable means g −1 (open set) = (Borel set) where a Borel set is one of
those sets in the smallest σ algebra containing the open sets of Rn . See Lemma
8.2. Hint: You should show, using Theorem 8.12 that f −1 (open set) ∈ F .
Now let © ª
S ≡ E ⊆ Rn : f −1 (E) ∈ F
By what you just showed, S contains the open sets. Now verify S is a σ
algebra. Argue that from the definition of the Borel sets, it follows S contains
the Borel sets.
6. Let (Ω, F) be a measure space and suppose f : Ω → C. Then f is said to be
mesurable if
f −1 (open set) ∈ F .
Show f is measurable if and only if Re f and Im f are measurable real-valued
functions. Thus it suffices to define a complex valued function to be mea-
surable if the real and imaginary parts are measurable. Hint: Argue that
−1 −1
f −1 (((a, b) + i (c, d))) = (Re f ) ((a, b)) ∩ (Im f ) ((c, d)) . Then use Theo-
rem 8.12 to verify that if Re f and Im f are measurable, it follows f is. Con-
−1
versely, argue that (Re f ) ((a, b)) = f −1 ((a, b) + iR) with a similar formula
holding for Im f.
7. Let (Ω, F, µ) be a measure space. Define µ : P(Ω) → [0, ∞] by
µ(A) = inf{µ(B) : B ⊇ A, B ∈ F}.

8.3. THE ABSTRACT LEBESGUE INTEGRAL 183
Show µ satisfies
µ(∅) = 0, if A ⊆ B, µ(A) ≤ µ(B),

X∞
µ(∪∞
i=1 Ai ) ≤ µ(Ai ), µ (A) = µ (A) if A ∈ F.
i=1
If µ satisfies these conditions, it is called an outer measure. This shows every

measure determines an outer measure on the power set.
8. Let {Ei } be a sequence of measurable sets with the property that
∞
X
µ(Ei ) < ∞.
i=1
Let S = {ω ∈ Ω such that ω ∈ Ei for infinitely many values of i}. Show

µ(S) = 0 and S is measurable. This is part of the Borel Cantelli lemma.
Hint: Write S in terms of intersections and unions. Something is in S means
that for every n there exists k > n such that it is in Ek . Remember the tail
of a convergent series is small.
9. ↑ Let fn , f be measurable functions. fn converges in measure if
lim µ(x ∈ Ω : |f (x) − fn (x)| ≥ ε) = 0

n→∞
for each fixed ε > 0. Prove the theorem of F. Riesz. If fn converges to f

in measure, then there exists a subsequence {fnk } which converges to f a.e.
Hint: Choose n1 such that
µ(x : |f (x) − fn1 (x)| ≥ 1) < 1/2.
Choose n2 > n1 such that
µ(x : |f (x) − fn2 (x)| ≥ 1/2) < 1/22,
n3 > n2 such that
µ(x : |f (x) − fn3 (x)| ≥ 1/3) < 1/23,
etc. Now consider what it means for fnk (x) to fail to converge to f (x). Then
use Problem 8.
8.3 The Abstract Lebesgue Integral

8.3.1 Preliminary Observations
This section is on the Lebesgue integral and the major convergence theorems which
are the reason for studying it. In all that follows µ will be a measure defined on a
σ algebra F of subsets of Ω. 0 · ∞ = 0 is always defined to equal zero. This is a

meaningless expression and so it can be defined arbitrarily but a little thought will
soon demonstrate that this is the right definition in the context of measure theory.
To see this, consider the zero function defined on R. What should the integral of
this function equal? Obviously, by an analogy with the Riemann integral, it should
equal zero. Formally, it is zero times the length of the set or infinity. This is why
this convention will be used.
Lemma 8.19 Let f (a, b) ∈ [−∞, ∞] for a ∈ A and b ∈ B where A, B are sets.
Then
sup sup f (a, b) = sup sup f (a, b) .
a∈A b∈B b∈B a∈A
Proof: Note that for all a, b, f (a, b) ≤ supb∈B supa∈A f (a, b) and therefore, for
all a,
sup f (a, b) ≤ sup sup f (a, b) .
b∈B b∈B a∈A
Therefore,
sup sup f (a, b) ≤ sup sup f (a, b) .
a∈A b∈B b∈B a∈A
Repeating the same argument interchanging a and b, gives the conclusion of the
lemma.
Lemma 8.20 If {An } is an increasing sequence in [−∞, ∞], then sup {An } =
limn→∞ An .
The following lemma is useful also and this is a good place to put it. First
∞
{bj }j=1 is an enumeration of the aij if
∪∞
j=1 {bj } = ∪i,j {aij } .
∞
In other words, the countable set, {aij }i,j=1 is listed as b1 , b2 , · · ·.
P∞ P∞ P∞ P∞ ∞
Lemma 8.21 Let aij ≥ 0. Then i=1 j=1 aij = j=1 i=1 aij . Also if {bj }j=1
P∞ P∞ P∞
is any enumeration of the aij , then j=1 bj = i=1 j=1 aij .
Proof: First note there is no trouble in defining these sums because the aij are
all nonnegative. If a sum diverges, it only diverges to ∞ and so ∞ is written as the
answer.
∞ X
X ∞ X∞ X n Xm Xn
aij ≥ sup aij = sup lim aij
n n m→∞
j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1
n X
X m n X
X ∞ ∞ X
X ∞
= sup lim aij = sup aij = aij . (8.10)
n m→∞ n
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
Interchanging the i and j in the above argument the first part of the lemma is
proved.
Finally, note that for all p,

p
X ∞ X
X ∞
bj ≤ aij
j=1 i=1 j=1
P∞ P∞ P∞
and so j=1 bj ≤ i=1 j=1 aij . Now let m, n > 1 be given. Then
m X
X n p
X
aij ≤ bj
i=1 j=1 j=1
where p is chosen large enough that {b1 , · · ·, bp } ⊇ {aij : i ≤ m and j ≤ n} . There-

fore, since such a p exists for any choice of m, n,it follows that for any m, n,
m X
X n ∞
X
aij ≤ bj .
i=1 j=1 j=1
Therefore, taking the limit as n → ∞,

m X
X ∞ ∞
X
aij ≤ bj
i=1 j=1 j=1
and finally, taking the limit as m → ∞,

∞ X
X ∞ ∞
X
aij ≤ bj
i=1 j=1 j=1
proving the lemma.
8.3.2 Definition Of The Lebesgue Integral For Nonnegative

Measurable Functions
The following picture illustrates the idea used to define the Lebesgue integral to be
like the area under a curve.
3h
2h hµ([3h < f ])
h hµ([2h < f ])
hµ([h < f ])
You can see that by following the procedure illustrated in the picture and letting
h get smaller, you would expect to obtain better approximations to the area under
the curve1 although all these approximations would likely be too small. Therefore,
define
Z ∞
X
f dµ ≡ sup hµ ([ih < f ])
h>0 i=1
Lemma 8.22 The following inequality holds.

∞
X X∞ µ· ¸¶
h h
hµ ([ih < f ]) ≤ µ i <f .
i=1 i=1
2 2
Also, it suffices to consider only h smaller than a given positive number in the above
definition of the integral.
Proof:
Let N ∈ N.
2N
X µ· ¸¶ X2N
h h h
µ i <f = µ ([ih < 2f ])
i=1
2 2 i=1
2
N
X N
X
h h
= µ ([(2i − 1) h < 2f ]) + µ ([(2i) h < 2f ])
i=1
2 i=1
2
XN µ· ¸¶ X N
h (2i − 1) h
= µ h<f + µ ([ih < f ])
i=1
2 2 i=1
2
N
X N
X N
X
h h
≥ µ ([ih < f ]) + µ ([ih < f ]) = hµ ([ih < f ]) .
i=1
2 i=1
2 i=1
Now letting N → ∞ yields the claim of the R lemma.

To verify the last claim, suppose M < f dµ and let δ > 0 be given. Then there
exists h > 0 such that
∞
X Z
M< hµ ([ih < f ]) ≤ f dµ.
i=1
By the first part of this lemma,
X∞ µ· ¸¶ Z
h h
M< µ i <f ≤ f dµ
i=1
2 2
1 Note the difference between this picture and the one usually drawn in calculus courses where
the little rectangles are upright rather than on their sides. This illustrates a fundamental philo-
sophical difference between the Riemann and the Lebesgue integrals. With the Riemann integral
intervals are measured. With the Lebesgue integral, it is inverse images of intervals which are
measured.
and continuing to apply the first part,
X∞ µ· ¸¶ Z
h h
M< µ i n <f ≤ f dµ.
i=1
2n 2
Choose n large enough that h/2n < δ. It follows

∞
X Z
M h>0 i=1
Since M is arbitrary, this proves the last claim.
8.3.3 The Lebesgue Integral For Nonnegative Simple Func-

tions
Definition 8.23 A function, s, is called simple if it is a measurable real valued
function and has only finitely many values. These values will never be ±∞. Thus
a simple function is one which may be written in the form
n
X
s (ω) = ci XEi (ω)
i=1
where the sets, Ei are disjoint and measurable. s takes the value ci at Ei .
Note that by taking the union of some of the Ei in the above definition, you
can assume that the numbers, ci are the distinct values of s. Simple functions are
important because it will turn out to be very easy to take their integrals as shown
in the following lemma.
Pp
Lemma 8.24 Let s (ω) = i=1 ai XEi (ω) be a nonnegative simple function with
the ai the distinct non zero values of s. Then
Z p
X
sdµ = ai µ (Ei ) . (8.11)
i=1
Also, for any nonnegative measurable function, f , if λ ≥ 0, then

Z Z
λf dµ = λ f dµ. (8.12)
Proof: Consider 8.11 first. Without loss of generality, you can assume 0 < a1 <
a2 < · · · < ap and that µ (Ei ) < ∞. Let ε > 0 be given and let
p
X
δ1 µ (Ei ) < ε.
i=1
Pick δ < δ 1 such that for h < δ it is also true that

1
h< min (a1 , a2 − a1 , a3 − a2 , · · ·, an − an−1 ) .
2
Then for 0 < h < δ
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
hµ ([s > kh]) = h µ ([ih < s ≤ (i + 1) h])
k=1 k=1 i=k
∞ X
X i
= hµ ([ih < s ≤ (i + 1) h])
i=1 k=1
X∞
= ihµ ([ih < s ≤ (i + 1) h]) . (8.13)
i=1
Because of the choice of h there exist positive integers, ik such that i1 < i2 < ···, < ip
and
i1 h < a1 ≤ (i1 + 1) h < · · · < i2 h < a2 <

< (i2 + 1) h < · · · < ip h < ap ≤ (ip + 1) h
Then in the sum of 8.13 the only terms which are nonzero are those for which
i ∈ {i1 , i2 · ··, ip }. From the above, you see that
µ ([ik h < s ≤ (ik + 1) h]) = µ (Ek ) .
Therefore,
∞
X p
X
hµ ([s > kh]) = ik hµ (Ek ) .
k=1 k=1
It follows that for all h this small,

p
X ∞
X
0 < ak µ (Ek ) − hµ ([s > kh])
k=1 k=1
Xp Xp p
X
= ak µ (Ek ) − ik hµ (Ek ) ≤ h µ (Ek ) < ε.
k=1 k=1 k=1
Taking the inf for h this small and using Lemma 8.22,
p
X ∞
X
0 ≤ ak µ (Ek ) − sup hµ ([s > kh])
δ>h>0
k=1 k=1
Xp Z
= ak µ (Ek ) − sdµ ≤ ε.
k=1
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this proves the first part.

To verify 8.12 Note the formula is obvious if λ = 0 because then [ih < λf ] = ∅
for all i > 0. Assume λ > 0. Then
Z ∞
X
λf dµ ≡ sup hµ ([ih < λf ])
h>0 i=1
X∞
= sup hµ ([ih/λ < f ])
h>0 i=1
∞
X
= sup λ (h/λ) µ ([i (h/λ) < f ])
h>0 i=1
Z
= λ f dµ.
Lemma 8.25 Let the nonnegative simple function, s be defined as

n
X
s (ω) = ci XEi (ω)
i=1
where the ci are not necessarily distinct but the Ei are disjoint. It follows that
Z n
X
s= ci µ (Ei ) .
i=1
Proof: Let the values of s be {a1 , · · ·, am }. Therefore, since the Ei are disjoint,
each ai equal to one of the cj . Let Ai ≡ ∪ {Ej : cj = ai }. Then from Lemma 8.24
it follows that
Z m
X m
X X
s = ai µ (Ai ) = ai µ (Ej )
i=1 i=1 {j:cj =ai }
m
X X n
X
= cj µ (Ej ) = ci µ (Ei ) .
i=1 {j:cj =ai } i=1
This proves the

R lemma. R
Note that s could equal +∞ if µ (Ak ) = ∞ and ak > 0 for some k, but s is
well defined because s ≥ 0. Recall that 0 · ∞ = 0.
Lemma 8.26 If a, b ≥ 0 and if s and t are nonnegative simple functions, then

Z Z Z
as + bt = a s + b t.
Proof: Let
n
X m
X
s(ω) = αi XAi (ω), t(ω) = β j XBj (ω)
i=1 i=1
where αi are the distinct values of s and the β j are the distinct values of t. Clearly
as + bt is a nonnegative simple function because it is measurable and has finitely
many values. Also,
m X
X n
(as + bt)(ω) = (aαi + bβ j )XAi ∩Bj (ω)
j=1 i=1
where the sets Ai ∩ Bj are disjoint. By Lemma 8.25,

Z Xm Xn
as + bt = (aαi + bβ j )µ(Ai ∩ Bj )
j=1 i=1
Xn m
X
= a αi µ(Ai ) + b β j µ(Bj )
i=1 j=1
Z Z
= a s+b t.
8.3.4 Simple Functions And Measurable Functions

There is a fundamental theorem about the relationship of simple functions to mea-
surable functions given in the next theorem.
Theorem 8.27 Let f ≥ 0 be measurable. Then there exists a sequence of nonneg-

ative simple functions {sn } satisfying
0 ≤ sn (ω) (8.14)
· · · sn (ω) ≤ sn+1 (ω) · ··

f (ω) = lim sn (ω) for all ω ∈ Ω. (8.15)
n→∞
If f is bounded the convergence is actually uniform.
Proof : Letting I ≡ {ω : f (ω) = ∞} , define

n
2
X k
tn (ω) = X[k/n≤f <(k+1)/n] (ω) + nXI (ω).
n
k=0
Then tn (ω) ≤ f (ω) for all ω and limn→∞ tn (ω) = f (ω) for all ω. This is because
n
tn (ω) = n for ω ∈ I and if f (ω) ∈ [0, 2 n+1 ), then
1
0 ≤ f (ω) − tn (ω) ≤ . (8.16)
n
Thus whenever ω ∈
/ I, the above inequality will hold for all n large enough. Let
s1 = t1 , s2 = max (t1 , t2 ) , s3 = max (t1 , t2 , t3 ) , · · ·.
Then the sequence {sn } satisfies 8.14-8.15.

To verify the last claim, note that in this case the term nXI (ω) is not present.
Therefore, for all n large enough, 8.16 holds for all ω. Thus the convergence is
uniform. This proves the theorem.
Although it is not needed here, there is a similar theorem which applies to
measurable functions which have values in a separable metric space. In this context,
a simple function is one which is of the form
m
X
xk XEk (ω)
k=1
where the Ek are disjoint measurable sets and the xk are in X.
Theorem 8.28 Let (Ω, F) be a measure space and let f : Ω → X where (X, d) is a
separable metric space. Then f be a measurable function if and only if there exists
a sequence of simple functions,{fn } such that for each ω ∈ Ω and n ∈ N,
d (fn (ω) , f (ω)) ≥ d (fn+1 (ω) , f (ω)) (8.17)
and
lim d (fn (ω) , f (ω)) = 0. (8.18)
n→∞
∞
Proof: Let D = {xk }k=1 be a countable dense subset of X. First suppose f is
measurable. Then since in a metric space every open set is the countable intersection
n
of closed sets, it follows f −1 (closed set) ∈ F. Now let Dn = {xk }k=1 . Let
½ ¾
A1 ≡ ω : d (x1 , f (ω)) = min d (xk , f (ω))
k≤n
That is, A1 are those ω such that f (ω) is approximated best out of Dn by x1 .
Why is this a measurable set? It is because ω → d (x, f (ω)) is a real valued
measurable function, being the composition of a continuous function, y → d (x, y)
and a measurable function, ω → f (ω) . Next let
½ ¾
A2 ≡ ω ∈ / A1 : d (x2 , f (ω)) = min d (xk , f (ω))
k≤n
n
and continue in this manner obtaining disjoint measurable sets, {Ak }k=1 such that
for ω ∈ Ak the best approximation to f (ω) from Dn is xk . Then
n
X
fn (ω) ≡ xk XAk (ω) .
k=1
Note
min d (xk , f (ω)) ≤ min d (xk , f (ω))
k≤n+1 k≤n
and so this verifies 8.17. It remains to verify 8.18.

Let ε > 0 be given and pick ω ∈ Ω. Then there exists xn ∈ D such that
d (xn , f (ω)) < ε. It follows from the construction that d (fn (ω) , f (ω)) ≤ d (xn , f (ω)) <
ε. This proves the first half.
Now suppose the existence of the sequence of simple functions as described
above. Each fn is a measurable function because fn−1 (U ) = ∪ {Ak : xk ∈ U }.
Therefore, the conclusion that f is measurable follows from Theorem 8.9 on Page
175.
8.3.5 The Monotone Convergence Theorem

The following is called the monotone convergence theorem. This theorem and re-
lated convergence theorems are the reason for using the Lebesgue integral.
Theorem 8.29 (Monotone Convergence theorem) Let f have values in [0, ∞] and
suppose {fn } is a sequence of nonnegative measurable functions having values in
[0, ∞] and satisfying
lim fn (ω) = f (ω) for each ω.
n→∞
· · ·fn (ω) ≤ fn+1 (ω) · ··

Then f is measurable and
Z Z
f dµ = lim fn dµ.
n→∞
Proof: From Lemmas 8.19 and 8.20,

Z ∞
X
f dµ ≡ sup hµ ([ih < f ])
h>0 i=1
k
X
= sup sup hµ ([ih < f ])
h>0 k i=1
k
X
= sup sup sup hµ ([ih < fm ])
h>0 k m
i=1
∞
X
= sup sup hµ ([ih < fm ])
m h>0
i=1
Z
≡ sup fm dµ
m
Z
= lim fm dµ.
m→∞
The third equality follows from the observation that
lim µ ([ih < fm ]) = µ ([ih < f ])

m→∞
which follows from Theorem 8.5 since the sets, [ih < fm ] are increasing in m and
their union equals [ih < f ]. This proves the theorem.
To illustrate what goes wrong without the Lebesgue integral, consider the fol-
lowing example.
Example 8.30 Let {rn } denote the rational numbers in [0, 1] and let
½
1 if t ∈
/ {r1 , · · ·, rn }
fn (t) ≡
0 otherwise
Then fn (t) ↑ f (t) where f is the function which is one on the rationals and zero
on the irrationals. Each fn is RiemannR integrable (why?)
R but f is not Riemann
integrable. Therefore, you can’t write f dx = limn→∞ fn dx.
A meta-mathematical observation related to this type of example is this. If you

can choose your functions, you don’t need the Lebesgue integral. The Riemann
integral is just fine. It is when you can’t choose your functions and they come to
you as pointwise limits that you really need the superior Lebesgue integral or at
least something more general than the Riemann integral. The Riemann integral
is entirely adequate for evaluating the seemingly endless lists of boring problems
found in calculus books.
8.3.6 Other Definitions

To review and summarize the above, if f ≥ 0 is measurable,
Z X∞
f dµ ≡ sup hµ ([f > ih]) (8.19)
h>0 i=1
R
another way to get the same thing for f dµ is to take an increasing sequence of
nonnegative simple functions, {sn } with sn (ω) → f (ω) and then by monotone
convergence theorem, Z Z
f dµ = lim sn
n→∞
Pm
where if sn (ω) = j=1 ci XEi (ω) ,
Z m
X
sn dµ = ci m (Ei ) .
i=1
Similarly this also shows that for such nonnegative measurable function,
Z ½Z ¾
f dµ = sup s : 0 ≤ s ≤ f, s simple
which is the usual way of defining the Lebesgue integral for nonnegative simple
functions in most books. I have done it differently because this approach led to an
easier proof of the Monotone convergence theorem. Here is an equivalent definition
of the integral. The fact it is well defined has been discussed above.
Definition 8.31 For s a nonnegative simple function,
Xn Z X n
s (ω) = ck XEk (ω) , s = ck µ (Ek ) .
k=1 k=1
For f a nonnegative measurable function,

Z ½Z ¾
f dµ = sup s : 0 ≤ s ≤ f, s simple .
8.3.7 Fatou’s Lemma

Sometimes the limit of a sequence does not exist. There are two more general
notions known as lim sup and lim inf which do always exist in some sense. These
notions are dependent on the following lemma.
Lemma 8.32 Let {an } be an increasing (decreasing) sequence in [−∞, ∞] . Then
limn→∞ an exists.
Proof: Suppose first {an } is increasing. Recall this means an ≤ an+1 for all n.
If the sequence is bounded above, then it has a least upper bound and so an → a
where a is its least upper bound. If the sequence is not bounded above, then for
every l ∈ R, it follows l is not an upper bound and so eventually, an > l. But this
is what is meant by an → ∞. The situation for decreasing sequences is completely
similar.
Now take any sequence, {an } ⊆ [−∞, ∞] and consider the sequence {An } where
An ≡ inf {ak : k ≥ n} .
Then as n increases, the set of numbers whose inf is being taken is getting smaller.
Therefore, An is an increasing sequence and so it must converge. Similarly, if Bn ≡
sup {ak : k ≥ n} , it follows Bn is decreasing and so {Bn } also must converge. With
this preparation, the following definition can be given.
Definition 8.33 Let {an } be a sequence of points in [−∞, ∞] . Then define
lim inf an ≡ lim inf {ak : k ≥ n}
n→∞ n→∞
and
lim sup an ≡ lim sup {ak : k ≥ n}
n→∞ n→∞
In the case of functions having values in [−∞, ∞] ,

³ ´
lim inf fn (ω) ≡ lim inf (fn (ω)) .
n→∞ n→∞
A similar definition applies to lim supn→∞ fn .

Lemma 8.34 Let {an } be a sequence in [−∞, ∞] . Then limn→∞ an exists if and
only if
lim inf an = lim sup an
n→∞ n→∞
and in this case, the limit equals the common value of these two numbers.
Proof: Suppose first limn→∞ an = a ∈ R. Then, letting ε > 0 be given, an ∈

(a − ε, a + ε) for all n large enough, say n ≥ N. Therefore, both inf {ak : k ≥ n}
and sup {ak : k ≥ n} are contained in [a − ε, a + ε] whenever n ≥ N. It follows
lim supn→∞ an and lim inf n→∞ an are both in [a − ε, a + ε] , showing
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯lim inf an − lim sup an ¯ < 2ε.
¯ n→∞ n→∞
¯
Since ε is arbitrary, the two must be equal and they both must equal a. Next suppose
limn→∞ an = ∞. Then if l ∈ R, there exists N such that for n ≥ N,
l ≤ an
and therefore, for such n,
l ≤ inf {ak : k ≥ n} ≤ sup {ak : k ≥ n}
and this shows, since l is arbitrary that
lim inf an = lim sup an = ∞.

n→∞ n→∞
The case for −∞ is similar.

Conversely, suppose lim inf n→∞ an = lim supn→∞ an = a. Suppose first that
a ∈ R. Then, letting ε > 0 be given, there exists N such that if n ≥ N,
sup {ak : k ≥ n} − inf {ak : k ≥ n} < ε
therefore, if k, m > N, and ak > am ,
|ak − am | = ak − am ≤ sup {ak : k ≥ n} − inf {ak : k ≥ n} < ε
showing that {an } is a Cauchy sequence. Therefore, it converges to a ∈ R, and

as in the first part, the lim inf and lim sup both equal a. If lim inf n→∞ an =
lim supn→∞ an = ∞, then given l ∈ R, there exists N such that for n ≥ N,
inf an > l.
n>N
Therefore, limn→∞ an = ∞. The case for −∞ is similar. This proves the lemma.
The next theorem, known as Fatou’s lemma is another important theorem which
justifies the use of the Lebesgue integral.
Theorem 8.35 (Fatou’s lemma) Let fn be a nonnegative measurable function with

values in [0, ∞]. Let g(ω) = lim inf n→∞ fn (ω). Then g is measurable and
Z Z
gdµ ≤ lim inf fn dµ.
n→∞
In other words, Z ³ Z
´
lim inf fn dµ ≤ lim inf fn dµ
n→∞ n→∞
Proof: Let gn (ω) = inf{fk (ω) : k ≥ n}. Then

−1
gn−1 ([a, ∞]) = ∩∞
k=n fk ([a, ∞]) ∈ F.
Thus gn is measurable by Lemma 8.6 on Page 173. Also g(ω) = limn→∞ gn (ω) so
g is measurable because it is the pointwise limit of measurable functions. Now the
functions gn form an increasing sequence of nonnegative measurable functions so
the monotone convergence theorem applies. This yields
Z Z Z
gdµ = lim gn dµ ≤ lim inf fn dµ.
n→∞ n→∞
The last inequality holding because

Z Z
gn dµ ≤ fn dµ.
R
(Note that it is not known whether limn→∞ fn dµ exists.) This proves the Theo-
rem.
8.3.8 The Righteous Algebraic Desires Of The Lebesgue In-

tegral
The monotone convergence theorem shows the integral wants to be linear. This is
the essential content of the next theorem.
Theorem 8.36 Let f, g be nonnegative measurable functions and let a, b be non-
negative numbers. Then
Z Z Z
(af + bg) dµ = a f dµ + b gdµ. (8.20)
Proof: By Theorem 8.27 on Page 190 there exist sequences of nonnegative

simple functions, sn → f and tn → g. Then by the monotone convergence theorem
and Lemma 8.26,
Z Z
(af + bg) dµ = lim asn + btn dµ
n→∞
µ Z Z ¶
= lim a sn dµ + b tn dµ
n→∞
Z Z
= a f dµ + b gdµ.
8.4. THE SPACE L1 197
As long as you are allowing functions to take the value +∞, you cannot consider
something like f + (−g) and so you can’t very well expect a satisfactory statement
about the integral being linear until you restrict yourself to functions which have
values in a vector space. This is discussed next.
8.4 The Space L1

The functions considered here have values in C, a vector space.
Definition 8.37 Let (Ω, S, µ) be a measure space and suppose f : Ω → C. Then f

is said to be measurable if both Re f and Im f are measurable real valued functions.
Definition 8.38 A complex simple function will be a function which is of the form
n
X
s (ω) = ck XEk (ω)
k=1
where ck ∈ C and µ (Ek ) < ∞. For s a complex simple function as above, define
n
X
I (s) ≡ ck µ (Ek ) .
k=1
Lemma 8.39 The definition, 8.38 is well defined. Furthermore, I is linear on the
vector space of complex simple functions. Also the triangle inequality holds,
|I (s)| ≤ I (|s|) .
Pn P
Proof: Suppose k=1 ck XEk (ω) = 0. Does it follow that k ck µ (Ek ) = 0?
The supposition implies
n
X n
X
Re ck XEk (ω) = 0, Im ck XEk (ω) = 0. (8.21)
k=1 k=1
P
Choose λ large and positive so that λ + Re ck ≥ 0. Then adding k λXEk to both
sides of the first equation above,
n
X n
X
(λ + Re ck ) XEk (ω) = λXEk
k=1 k=1
R
and by Lemma 8.26 on Page 189, it follows upon taking of both sides that
n
X n
X
(λ + Re ck ) µ (Ek ) = λµ (Ek )
k=1 k=1
Pn Pn
which
Pn implies k=1 Re ck µ (Ek ) = 0. Similarly, k=1 Im ck µ (Ek ) = 0 and so
k=1 ck µ (Ek ) = 0. Thus if
X X
cj XEj = dk XFk
j k
P P
then
P j cj XEjP+ k (−dk ) XFk = 0 and so the result just established verifies
j cj µ (Ej ) − k dk µ (Fk ) = 0 which proves I is well defined.
That I is linear is now obvious. It only remains to verify the triangle inequality.
Let s be a simple function,
X
s= cj XEj
j
Then pick θ ∈ C such that θI (s) = |I (s)| and |θ| = 1. Then from the triangle
inequality for sums of complex numbers,
X
|I (s)| = θI (s) = I (θs) = θcj µ (Ej )
j
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯X ¯ X
= ¯ θc µ (E )¯≤ |θcj | µ (Ej ) = I (|s|) .
¯ j j ¯
¯ j ¯ j

With this lemma, the following is the definition of L1 (Ω) .
Definition 8.40 f ∈ L1 (Ω) means there exists a sequence of complex simple func-
tions, {sn } such that
sn (ω) → f (ω) for all ωR ∈ Ω

(8.22)
limm,n→∞ I (|sn − sm |) = limn,m→∞ |sn − sm | dµ = 0
Then
I (f ) ≡ lim I (sn ) . (8.23)
n→∞
Lemma 8.41 Definition 8.40 is well defined.
Proof: There are several things which need to be verified. First suppose 8.22.
Then by Lemma 8.39
|I (sn ) − I (sm )| = |I (sn − sm )| ≤ I (|sn − sm |)
and for m, n large enough this last is given to be small so {I (sn )} is a Cauchy
sequence in C and so it converges. This verifies the limit in 8.23 at least exists. It
remains to consider another sequence {tn } having the same properties as {sn } and
verifying I (f ) determined by this other sequence is the same. By Lemma 8.39 and
Fatou’s lemma, Theorem 8.35 on Page 196,
Z
|I (sn ) − I (tn )| ≤ I (|sn − tn |) = |sn − tn | dµ
Z
≤ |sn − f | + |f − tn | dµ
Z Z
≤ lim inf |sn − sk | dµ + lim inf |tn − tk | dµ < ε
k→∞ k→∞
whenever n is large enough. Since ε is arbitrary, this shows the limit from using
the tn is the same as the limit from using Rsn . This proves the lemma.
What if f has values in [0, ∞)? Earlier f dµ was defined for such functions and
now I (f ) hasR been defined. Are they the same? If so, I can be regarded as an
extension of dµ to a larger class of functions.
Lemma 8.42 Suppose f has values in [0, ∞) and f ∈ L1 (Ω) . Then f is measurable
and Z
I (f ) = f dµ.
Proof: Since f is the pointwise limit of a sequence of complex simple func-

tions, {sn } having the properties described in Definition 8.40, it follows f (ω) =
limn→∞ Re sn (ω) and so f is measurable. Also
Z ¯ ¯ Z Z
¯ + +¯
¯(Re sn ) − (Re sm ) ¯ dµ ≤ |Re sn − Re sm | dµ ≤ |sn − sm | dµ
where x+ ≡ 12 (|x| + x) , the positive part of the real number, x. 2 Thus there is no
loss of generality in assuming {sn } is a sequence of complex simple functions
R having
values in [0, ∞). Then since for such complex simple functions, I (s) = sdµ,
¯ Z ¯ ¯Z Z ¯ Z
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯I (f ) − f dµ¯ ≤ |I (f ) − I (sn )| + ¯ sn dµ − f dµ¯ < ε + |sn − f | dµ
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
whenever n is large enough. But by Fatou’s lemma, Theorem 8.35 on Page 196, the
last term is no larger than
Z
lim inf |sn − sk | dµ < ε
k→∞
R
whenever n is large enough. Since ε is arbitrary, this shows I (f ) = f dµ as
claimed. R
As explained above,
R I can be regarded as an extension of
R dµ so from now on,
the usual symbol, dµ will be used. It is now easy to verify dµ is linear on L1 (Ω) .
2 The negative part of the real number x is defined to be x− ≡ 1
2
(|x| − x) . Thus |x| = x+ + x−
and x = x+ − x− . .
R
Theorem 8.43 dµ is linear on L1 (Ω) and L1 (Ω) is a complex vector space. If
f ∈ L1 (Ω) , then Re f, Im f, and |f | are all in L1 (Ω) . Furthermore, for f ∈ L1 (Ω) ,
Z Z Z µZ Z ¶
+ − + −
f dµ = (Re f ) dµ − (Re f ) dµ + i (Im f ) dµ − (Im f ) dµ
Also the triangle inequality holds,

¯Z ¯ Z
¯ ¯
¯ f dµ¯ ≤ |f | dµ
¯ ¯
Proof: First it is necessary to verify that L1 (Ω) is really a vector space because
it makes no sense to speak of linear maps without having these maps defined on
a vector space. Let f, g be in L1 (Ω) and let a, b ∈ C. Then let {sn } and {tn }
be sequences of complex simple functions associated with f and g respectively as
described in Definition 8.40. Consider {asn + btn } , another sequence of complex
simple functions. Then asn (ω) + btn (ω) → af (ω) + bg (ω) for each ω. Also, from
Lemma 8.39
Z Z Z
|asn + btn − (asm + btm )| dµ ≤ |a| |sn − sm | dµ + |b| |tn − tm | dµ
and the sum of the two terms on the right converge to zero as m, n → ∞. Thus
af + bg ∈ L1 (Ω) . Also
Z Z
(af + bg) dµ = lim (asn + btn ) dµ
n→∞
µ Z Z ¶
= lim a sn dµ + b tn dµ
n→∞
Z Z
= a lim sn dµ + b lim tn dµ
n→∞ n→∞
Z Z
= a f dµ + b gdµ.
If {sn } is a sequence of complex simple functions described in Definition 8.40

corresponding to f , then {|sn |} is a sequence of complex simple functions satisfying
the conditions of Definition 8.40 corresponding to |f | . This is because |sn (ω)| →
|f (ω)| and Z Z
||sn | − |sm || dµ ≤ |sm − sn | dµ
with this last expression converging to 0 as m, n → ∞. Thus |f | ∈ L1 (Ω). Also, by

similar reasoning, {Re sn } and {Im sn } correspond to Re f and Im f respectively in
the manner described by Definition 8.40 showing that Re f and Im f are in L1 (Ω).
+ −
Now (Re f ) = 12 (|Re f | + Re f ) and (Re f ) = 12 (|Re f | − Re f ) so both of these
+ −
functions are in L1 (Ω) . Similar formulas establish that (Im f ) and (Im f ) are in
1
L (Ω) .
The formula follows from the observation that

³ ´
+ − + −
f = (Re f ) − (Re f ) + i (Im f ) − (Im f )
R
and the fact shown first that dµ is linear.
To verify the triangle inequality, let {sn } be complex simple functions for f as
in Definition 8.40. Then
¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯ Z Z
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ f dµ¯ = lim ¯ sn dµ¯ ≤ lim |s | dµ = |f | dµ.
¯ ¯ n→∞ ¯ ¯ n→∞
n

The following description of L1 (Ω) is the version most often used because it is
easy to verify the conditions for it.
Corollary 8.44 Let (Ω, S, µ) be a measureR space and let f : Ω → C. Then f ∈

L1 (Ω) if and only if f is measurable and |f | dµ < ∞.
Proof: Suppose f ∈ L1 (Ω) . Then from Definition 8.40, it follows both real and
imaginary parts of f are measurable. Just take real and imaginary parts of sn and
observe the real and imaginary parts of f are limits of the real and imaginary parts
of sn respectively. By Theorem 8.43 this shows the only if part.
R The more interesting part is the if part. Suppose then that f is measurable and
|f | dµ < ∞. Suppose first that f has values in [0, ∞). It is necessary to obtain the
sequence of complex simple functions. By Theorem 8.27, there exists a sequence of
nonnegative simple functions, {sn } such that sn (ω) ↑ f (ω). Then by the monotone
convergence theorem,
Z Z
lim (2f − (f − sn )) dµ = 2f dµ
n→∞
and so Z
lim (f − sn ) dµ = 0.
n→∞
R
Letting m be large enough, it follows (f − sm ) dµ < ε and so if n > m
Z Z
|sm − sn | dµ ≤ |f − sm | dµ < ε.
Therefore, f ∈ L1 (Ω) because {sn } is a suitable sequence.

The general case follows from considering positive and negative parts of real and
imaginary parts of f. These are each measurable and nonnegative and their integral
is finite so each is in L1 (Ω) by what was just shown. Thus
¡ ¢
f = Re f + − Re f − + i Im f + − Im f −
and so f ∈ L1 (Ω). This proves the corollary.

Theorem 8.45 (Dominated Convergence theorem) Let fn ∈ L1 (Ω) and suppose
f (ω) = lim fn (ω),

n→∞
and there exists a measurable function g, with values in [0, ∞],3 such that
Z
|fn (ω)| ≤ g(ω) and g(ω)dµ < ∞.
Then f ∈ L1 (Ω) and Z Z

f dµ = lim fn dµ.
n→∞
Proof: f is measurable by Theorem 8.8. Since |f | ≤ g, it follows that
f ∈ L1 (Ω) and |f − fn | ≤ 2g.
By Fatou’s lemma (Theorem 8.35),

Z Z
2gdµ ≤ lim inf 2g − |f − fn |dµ
n→∞
Z Z
= 2gdµ − lim sup |f − fn |dµ.
n→∞
R
Subtracting 2gdµ, Z
0 ≤ − lim sup |f − fn |dµ.
n→∞
Hence
Z Z Z
0 ≥ lim sup ( |f − fn |dµ) ≥ lim sup | f dµ − fn dµ|
n→∞ n→∞
Z Z
≥ lim inf | f dµ − fn dµ| ≥ 0.
n→∞
This proves the theorem by Lemma 8.34 on Page 195 because the lim sup and lim inf
are equal.
Corollary 8.46 Suppose fn ∈ L1 (Ω) and f (ω) = limn→∞ fn (ω) . Suppose also
there exist measurable functions, gn , g with values in [0, ∞] such that
Z Z
lim gn dµ = gdµ,
n→∞
R R
gn (ω) → g (ω) µ a.e. and both gn dµ and gdµ are finite. Also suppose |fn (ω)| ≤
gn (ω) . Then Z
lim |f − fn | dµ = 0.
n→∞
3 Note that, since g is allowed to have the value ∞, it is not known that g ∈ L1 (Ω) .
8.5. VITALI CONVERGENCE THEOREM 203
Proof: It is just like the above. This time g + gn − |f − fn | ≥ 0 and so by

Fatou’s lemma, Z Z
2gdµ − lim sup |f − fn | dµ =
n→∞
Z Z
lim inf (gn + g) − lim sup |f − fn | dµ
n→∞ n→∞
Z Z
= lim inf ((gn + g) − |f − fn |) dµ ≥ 2gdµ
n→∞
R
and so − lim supn→∞ |f − fn | dµ ≥ 0.
Definition 8.47 Let E be a measurable subset of Ω.

Z Z
f dµ ≡ f XE dµ.
E
If L1 (E) is written, the σ algebra is defined as
{E ∩ A : A ∈ F}
and the measure is µ restricted to this smaller σ algebra. Clearly, if f ∈ L1 (Ω),

then
f XE ∈ L1 (E)
and if f ∈ L1 (E), then letting f˜ be the 0 extension of f off of E, it follows f˜
∈ L1 (Ω).
8.5 Vitali Convergence Theorem

The Vitali convergence theorem is a convergence theorem which in the case of a
finite measure space is superior to the dominated convergence theorem.
Definition 8.48 Let (Ω, F, µ) be a measure space and let S ⊆ L1 (Ω). S is uni-
formly integrable if for every ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that for all f ∈ S
Z
| f dµ| < ε whenever µ(E) < δ.
E
Lemma 8.49 If S is uniformly integrable, then |S| ≡ {|f | : f ∈ S} is uniformly

integrable. Also S is uniformly integrable if S is finite.
Proof: Let ε > 0 be given and suppose S is uniformly integrable. First suppose
the functions are real valued. Let δ be such that if µ (E) < δ, then
¯Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ f dµ¯ < ε
¯ ¯ 2
E
for all f ∈ S. Let µ (E) < δ. Then if f ∈ S,

Z Z Z
|f | dµ ≤ (−f ) dµ + f dµ
E E∩[f ≤0] E∩[f >0]
¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
= ¯ f dµ¯ + ¯ f dµ¯
¯ E∩[f ≤0] ¯ ¯ E∩[f >0] ¯
ε ε
< + = ε.
2 2
In general, if S is a uniformly integrable set of complex valued functions, the in-
equalities, ¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ Re f dµ¯ ≤ ¯ f dµ¯ , ¯ Im f dµ¯ ≤ ¯ f dµ¯ ,
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
E E E E
imply Re S ≡ {Re f : f ∈ S} and Im S ≡ {Im f : f ∈ S} are also uniformly inte-

grable. Therefore, applying the above result for real valued functions to these sets
of functions, it follows |S| is uniformly integrable also.
For the last part, is suffices to verify a single function in L1 (Ω) is uniformly
integrable. To do so, note that from the dominated convergence theorem,
Z
lim |f | dµ = 0.
R→∞ [|f |>R]
R ε
Let ε > 0 be given and choose R large enough that [|f |>R]
|f | dµ < 2. Now let
ε
µ (E) < 2R . Then
Z Z Z
|f | dµ = |f | dµ + |f | dµ
E E∩[|f |≤R] E∩[|f |>R]
ε ε ε
< Rµ (E) + < + = ε.
2 2 2
The following theorem is Vitali’s convergence theorem.
Theorem 8.50 Let {fn } be a uniformly integrable set of complex valued functions,
µ(Ω) < ∞, and fn (x) → f (x) a.e. where f is a measurable complex valued
function. Then f ∈ L1 (Ω) and
Z
lim |fn − f |dµ = 0. (8.24)
n→∞ Ω
Proof: First it will be shown that f ∈ L1 (Ω). By uniform integrability, there

exists δ > 0 such that if µ (E) < δ, then
Z
|fn | dµ < 1
E
8.6. EXERCISES 205
for all n. By Egoroff’s theorem, there exists a set, E of measure less than δ such
that on E C , {fn } converges uniformly. Therefore, for p large enough, and n > p,
Z
|fp − fn | dµ < 1
EC
which implies Z Z
|fn | dµ < 1 + |fp | dµ.
EC Ω
Then since there are only finitely many functions, fn with n ≤ p, there exists a
constant, M1 such that for all n,
Z
|fn | dµ < M1 .
EC
But also,
Z Z Z
|fm | dµ = |fm | dµ + |fm |
Ω EC E
≤ M1 + 1 ≡ M.
Therefore, by Fatou’s lemma,
Z Z
|f | dµ ≤ lim inf |fn | dµ ≤ M,
Ω n→∞
showing that f ∈ L1 as hoped.

Now
R S∪{f } is uniformly integrable so there exists δ 1 > 0 such that if µ (E) < δ 1 ,
then E |g| dµ < ε/3 for all g ∈ S ∪ {f }. By Egoroff’s theorem, there exists a set,
F with µ (F ) < δ 1 such that fn converges uniformly to f on F C . Therefore, there
exists N such that if n > N , then
Z
ε
|f − fn | dµ < .
F C 3
It follows that for n > N ,
Z Z Z Z
|f − fn | dµ ≤ |f − fn | dµ + |f | dµ + |fn | dµ
Ω FC F F
ε ε ε
< + + = ε,
3 3 3
which verifies 8.24.
8.6 Exercises
1. Let Ω = N = {1, 2, · · ·} and µ(S) = number of elements in S. If
f :Ω→C
R
what is meant by f dµ? Which functions are in L1 (Ω)? Which functions are
measurable?
R P∞
2. Show that for f ≥ 0 and measurable, f dµ ≡ limh→0+ i=1 hµ ([ih < f ]).
3. For the measure space of Problem 1, give an example of a sequence of nonneg-
ative measurable functions {fn } converging pointwise to a function f , such
that inequality is obtained in Fatou’s lemma.
4. Fill in all the details of the proof of Lemma 8.49.
Pn
5. Let i=1 ci XEi (ω) = s (ω) be a nonnegative simple function for which the ci
are the distinct nonzero values. Show with the aid of the monotone conver-
gence theorem that the two definitions of the Lebesgue integral given in the
chapter are equivalent.
6. Suppose (Ω, µ) is a finite measure space and S ⊆ L1 (Ω). Show S is uniformly
integrable and bounded in L1 (Ω) if there exists an increasing function h which
satisfies ½Z ¾
h (t)
lim = ∞, sup h (|f |) dµ : f ∈ S < ∞.
t→∞ t Ω
S is bounded if there is some number, M such that
Z
|f | dµ ≤ M
for all f ∈ S.
7. Let {an }, {bn } be sequences in [−∞, ∞] and a ∈ R. Show
lim inf (a − an ) = a − lim sup an .

n→∞ n→∞
This was used in the proof of the Dominated convergence theorem. Also show
lim sup (−an ) = − lim inf (an )

n→∞ n→∞
lim sup (an + bn ) ≤ lim sup an + lim sup bn

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
provided no sum is of the form ∞ − ∞. Also show strict inequality can hold
in the inequality. State and prove corresponding statements for lim inf.
8. Let (Ω, F, µ) be a measure space and suppose f, g : Ω → (−∞, ∞] are mea-
surable. Prove the sets
{ω : f (ω) < g(ω)} and {ω : f (ω) = g(ω)}
are measurable. Hint: The easy way to do this is to write
{ω : f (ω) < g(ω)} = ∪r∈Q [f < r] ∩ [g > r] .
Note that l (x, y) = x − y is not continuous on (−∞, ∞] so the obvious idea

doesn’t work.
8.6. EXERCISES 207
9. Let {fn } be a sequence of real or complex valued measurable functions. Let

S = {ω : {fn (ω)} converges}.
Show S is measurable. Hint: You might try to exhibit the set where fn
converges in terms of countable unions and intersections using the definition
of a Cauchy sequence.
10. Let (Ω, S, µ) be a measure space and let f be a nonnegative measurable func-
tion defined on Ω. Also let φ : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) be strictly increasing and
have a continuous derivative and φ (0) = 0. Suppose f is bounded and that
0 ≤ φ (f (ω)) ≤ M for some number, M . Show that
Z Z ∞
φ (f ) dµ = φ0 (s) µ ([s < f ]) ds,
Ω 0
where the integral on the right is the ordinary improper Riemann integral.
Hint: First note that s → φ0 (s) µ ([s < f ]) is Riemann integrable because φ0
is continuous and s → µ ([s < f ]) is a nonincreasing function, hence Riemann
integrable. From the second description of the Lebesgue integral and the
assumption that φ (f (ω)) ≤ M , argue that for [M/h] the greatest integer less
than M/h,
Z [M/h]
X
φ (f ) dµ = sup hµ ([ih < φ (f )])
Ω h>0 i=1
[M/h]
X ¡£ ¤¢
= sup hµ φ−1 (ih) < f
h>0 i=1
[M/h]
X h∆i ¡£ ¤¢
= sup µ φ−1 (ih) < f
h>0 i=1 ∆ i
¡ −1 ¢
where ∆i = φ (ih) − φ−1 ((i − 1) h) . Now use the mean value theorem to
write
¡ ¢0
∆i = φ−1 (ti ) h
1
= ¡ ¢h
φ0 φ−1 (ti )
for some ti between (i − 1) h and ih. Therefore, the right side is of the form
[M/h]
X ¡ ¢ ¡£ ¤¢
sup φ0 φ−1 (ti ) ∆i µ φ−1 (ih) < f
h i=1
¡ ¢
where φ (ti ) ∈ φ ((i − 1) h) , φ−1 (ih) . Argue that if ti were replaced
−1 −1
with ih, this would be a Riemann sum for the Riemann integral
Z φ−1 (M ) Z ∞
0
φ (t) µ ([t < f ]) dt = φ0 (t) µ ([t < f ]) dt.
0 0
11. Let (Ω, F, µ) be a measure space and suppose fn converges uniformly to f

and that fn is in L1 (Ω). When is
Z Z
lim fn dµ = f dµ?
n→∞
12. Suppose un (t) is a differentiable function for t ∈ (a, b) and suppose that for
t ∈ (a, b),
|un (t)|, |u0n (t)| < Kn
P∞
where n=1 Kn < ∞. Show
∞
X ∞
X
( un (t))0 = u0n (t).
n=1 n=1
Hint: This is an exercise in the use of the dominated convergence theorem

and the mean value theorem.
P∞
13. Show that { i=1 2−n µ ([i2−n < f ])} for f a nonnegative measurable function
is an increasing sequence. Could you define
Z ∞
X ¡£ ¤¢
f dµ ≡ lim 2−n µ i2−n < f
n→∞
i=1
and would it be equivalent to the above definitions of the Lebesgue integral?
14. Suppose {fn } is a sequence of nonnegative measurable functions defined on a

measure space, (Ω, S, µ). Show that
Z X
∞ ∞ Z
X
fk dµ = fk dµ.
k=1 k=1
Hint: Use the monotone convergence theorem along with the fact the integral
is linear.
The Construction Of
Measures
9.1 Outer Measures

What are some examples of measure spaces? In this chapter, a general procedure
is discussed called the method of outer measures. It is due to Caratheodory (1918).
This approach shows how to obtain measure spaces starting with an outer mea-
sure. This will then be used to construct measures determined by positive linear
functionals.
Definition 9.1 Let Ω be a nonempty set and let µ : P(Ω) → [0, ∞] satisfy
µ(∅) = 0,
If A ⊆ B, then µ(A) ≤ µ(B),

∞
X
µ(∪∞
i=1 Ei ) ≤ µ(Ei ).
i=1
Such a function is called an outer measure. For E ⊆ Ω, E is µ measurable if for

all S ⊆ Ω,
µ(S) = µ(S \ E) + µ(S ∩ E). (9.1)
To help in remembering 9.1, think of a measurable set, E, as a process which

divides a given set into two pieces, the part in E and the part not in E as in
9.1. In the Bible, there are four incidents recorded in which a process of division
resulted in more stuff than was originally present.1 Measurable sets are exactly
1 1 Kings 17, 2 Kings 4, Mathew 14, and Mathew 15 all contain such descriptions. The stuff
involved was either oil, bread, flour or fish. In mathematics such things have also been done with
sets. In the book by Bruckner Bruckner and Thompson there is an interesting discussion of the
Banach Tarski paradox which says it is possible to divide a ball in R3 into five disjoint pieces and
assemble the pieces to form two disjoint balls of the same size as the first. The details can be
found in: The Banach Tarski Paradox by Wagon, Cambridge University press. 1985. It is known
that all such examples must involve the axiom of choice.
209
210 THE CONSTRUCTION OF MEASURES
those for which no such miracle occurs. You might think of the measurable sets as
the nonmiraculous sets. The idea is to show that they form a σ algebra on which
the outer measure, µ is a measure.
First here is a definition and a lemma.
Definition 9.2 (µbS)(A) ≡ µ(S ∩ A) for all A ⊆ Ω. Thus µbS is the name of a
new outer measure, called µ restricted to S.
The next lemma indicates that the property of measurability is not lost by
considering this restricted measure.
Lemma 9.3 If A is µ measurable, then A is µbS measurable.
Proof: Suppose A is µ measurable. It is desired to to show that for all T ⊆ Ω,
(µbS)(T ) = (µbS)(T ∩ A) + (µbS)(T \ A).
Thus it is desired to show
µ(S ∩ T ) = µ(T ∩ A ∩ S) + µ(T ∩ S ∩ AC ). (9.2)
But 9.2 holds because A is µ measurable. Apply Definition 9.1 to S ∩ T instead of

S.
If A is µbS measurable, it does not follow that A is µ measurable. Indeed, if
you believe in the existence of non measurable sets, you could let A = S for such a
µ non measurable set and verify that S is µbS measurable.
The next theorem is the main result on outer measures. It is a very general
result which applies whenever one has an outer measure on the power set of any
set. This theorem will be referred to as Caratheodory’s procedure in the rest of the
book.
Theorem 9.4 The collection of µ measurable sets, S, forms a σ algebra and

∞
X
If Fi ∈ S, Fi ∩ Fj = ∅, then µ(∪∞
i=1 Fi ) = µ(Fi ). (9.3)
i=1
If · · ·Fn ⊆ Fn+1 ⊆ · · ·, then if F = ∪∞

n=1 Fn and Fn ∈ S, it follows that
µ(F ) = lim µ(Fn ). (9.4)

n→∞
If · · ·Fn ⊇ Fn+1 ⊇ · · ·, and if F = ∩∞

n=1 Fn for Fn ∈ S then if µ(F1 ) < ∞,
µ(F ) = lim µ(Fn ). (9.5)

n→∞
Also, (S, µ) is complete. By this it is meant that if F ∈ S and if E ⊆ Ω with

µ(E \ F ) + µ(F \ E) = 0, then E ∈ S.
9.1. OUTER MEASURES 211
Proof: First note that ∅ and Ω are obviously in S. Now suppose A, B ∈ S. I

will show A \ B ≡ A ∩ B C is in S. To do so, consider the following picture.
S
T T
S AC B C
T T
S AC B
T T
S A BC
T T
S A B
B
Since µ is subadditive,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
µ (S) ≤ µ S ∩ A ∩ B C + µ (A ∩ B ∩ S) + µ S ∩ B ∩ AC + µ S ∩ AC ∩ B C .
Now using A, B ∈ S,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
µ (S) ≤ µ S ∩ A ∩ B C + µ (S ∩ A ∩ B) + µ S ∩ B ∩ AC + µ S ∩ AC ∩ B C
¡ ¢
= µ (S ∩ A) + µ S ∩ AC = µ (S)
It follows equality holds in the above. Now observe using the picture if you like that
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
(A ∩ B ∩ S) ∪ S ∩ B ∩ AC ∪ S ∩ AC ∩ B C = S \ (A \ B)
and therefore,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
µ (S) = µ S ∩ A ∩ B C + µ (A ∩ B ∩ S) + µ S ∩ B ∩ AC + µ S ∩ AC ∩ B C
≥ µ (S ∩ (A \ B)) + µ (S \ (A \ B)) .
Therefore, since S is arbitrary, this shows A \ B ∈ S.

Since Ω ∈ S, this shows that A ∈ S if and only if AC ∈ S. Now if A, B ∈ S,
A ∪ B = (AC ∩ B C )C = (AC \ B)C ∈ S. By induction, if A1 , · · ·, An ∈ S, then so is
∪ni=1 Ai . If A, B ∈ S, with A ∩ B = ∅,
µ(A ∪ B) = µ((A ∪ B) ∩ A) + µ((A ∪ B) \ A) = µ(A) + µ(B).

Pn
By induction, if Ai ∩ Aj = ∅ and Ai ∈ S, µ(∪ni=1 Ai ) = i=1 µ(Ai ).
Now let A = ∪∞ i=1 Ai where Ai ∩ Aj = ∅ for i 6= j.
∞
X n
X
µ(Ai ) ≥ µ(A) ≥ µ(∪ni=1 Ai ) = µ(Ai ).
i=1 i=1
Since this holds for all n, you can take the limit as n → ∞ and conclude,
∞
X
µ(Ai ) = µ(A)
i=1
which establishes 9.3. Part 9.4 follows from part 9.3 just as in the proof of Theorem
8.5 on Page 172. That is, letting F0 ≡ ∅, use part 9.3 to write
∞
X
µ (F ) = µ (∪∞
k=1 (Fk \ Fk−1 )) = µ (Fk \ Fk−1 )
k=1
n
X
= lim (µ (Fk ) − µ (Fk−1 )) = lim µ (Fn ) .
n→∞ n→∞
k=1
In order to establish 9.5, let the Fn be as given there. Then, since (F1 \ Fn )
increases to (F1 \ F ), 9.4 implies
lim (µ (F1 ) − µ (Fn )) = µ (F1 \ F ) .

n→∞
Now µ (F1 \ F ) + µ (F ) ≥ µ (F1 ) and so µ (F1 \ F ) ≥ µ (F1 ) − µ (F ). Hence
lim (µ (F1 ) − µ (Fn )) = µ (F1 \ F ) ≥ µ (F1 ) − µ (F )

n→∞
which implies
lim µ (Fn ) ≤ µ (F ) .
n→∞
But since F ⊆ Fn ,
µ (F ) ≤ lim µ (Fn )
n→∞
and this establishes 9.5. Note that it was assumed µ (F1 ) < ∞ because µ (F1 ) was
subtracted from both sides.
It remains to show S is closed under countable unions. Recall that if A ∈ S, then
AC ∈ S and S is closed under finite unions. Let Ai ∈ S, A = ∪∞ n
i=1 Ai , Bn = ∪i=1 Ai .
Then
µ(S) = µ(S ∩ Bn ) + µ(S \ Bn ) (9.6)

= (µbS)(Bn ) + (µbS)(BnC ).
By Lemma 9.3 Bn is (µbS) measurable and so is BnC . I want to show µ(S) ≥

µ(S \ A) + µ(S ∩ A). If µ(S) = ∞, there is nothing to prove. Assume µ(S) < ∞.
9.1. OUTER MEASURES 213
Then apply Parts 9.5 and 9.4 to the outer measure, µbS in 9.6 and let n → ∞.
Thus
Bn ↑ A, BnC ↓ AC
and this yields µ(S) = (µbS)(A) + (µbS)(AC ) = µ(S ∩ A) + µ(S \ A).
Therefore A ∈ S and this proves Parts 9.3, 9.4, and 9.5. It remains to prove the
last assertion about the measure being complete.
Let F ∈ S and let µ(E \ F ) + µ(F \ E) = 0. Consider the following picture.
E F
Then referring to this picture and using F ∈ S,

µ(S) ≤ µ(S ∩ E) + µ(S \ E)
≤ µ (S ∩ E ∩ F ) + µ ((S ∩ E) \ F ) + µ (S \ F ) + µ (F \ E)
≤ µ (S ∩ F ) + µ (E \ F ) + µ (S \ F ) + µ (F \ E)
= µ (S ∩ F ) + µ (S \ F ) = µ (S)
Hence µ(S) = µ(S ∩ E) + µ(S \ E) and so E ∈ S. This shows that (S, µ) is complete
and proves the theorem.
Completeness usually occurs in the following form. E ⊆ F ∈ S and µ (F ) = 0.
Then E ∈ S.
Where do outer measures come from? One way to obtain an outer measure is
to start with a measure µ, defined on a σ algebra of sets, S, and use the following
definition of the outer measure induced by the measure.
Definition 9.5 Let µ be a measure defined on a σ algebra of sets, S ⊆ P (Ω). Then
the outer measure induced by µ, denoted by µ is defined on P (Ω) as
µ(E) = inf{µ(F ) : F ∈ S and F ⊇ E}.
A measure space, (S, Ω, µ) is σ finite if there exist measurable sets, Ωi with µ (Ωi ) <
∞ and Ω = ∪∞ i=1 Ωi .
You should prove the following lemma.

Lemma 9.6 If (S, Ω, µ) is σ finite then there exist disjoint measurable sets, {Bn }
such that µ (Bn ) < ∞ and ∪∞
n=1 Bn = Ω.
The following lemma deals with the outer measure generated by a measure
which is σ finite. It says that if the given measure is σ finite and complete then no
new measurable sets are gained by going to the induced outer measure and then
considering the measurable sets in the sense of Caratheodory.
Lemma 9.7 Let (Ω, S, µ) be any measure space and let µ : P(Ω) → [0, ∞] be the
outer measure induced by µ. Then µ is an outer measure as claimed and if S is the
set of µ measurable sets in the sense of Caratheodory, then S ⊇ S and µ = µ on S.
Furthermore, if µ is σ finite and (Ω, S, µ) is complete, then S = S.
Proof: It is easy to see that µ is an outer measure. Let E ∈ S. The plan is to

show E ∈ S and µ(E) = µ(E). To show this, let S ⊆ Ω and then show
µ(S) ≥ µ(S ∩ E) + µ(S \ E). (9.7)
This will verify that E ∈ S. If µ(S) = ∞, there is nothing to prove, so assume

µ(S) < ∞. Thus there exists T ∈ S, T ⊇ S, and
µ(S) > µ(T ) − ε = µ(T ∩ E) + µ(T \ E) − ε

≥ µ(T ∩ E) + µ(T \ E) − ε
≥ µ(S ∩ E) + µ(S \ E) − ε.
Since ε is arbitrary, this proves 9.7 and verifies S ⊆ S. Now if E ∈ S and V ⊇ E

with V ∈ S, µ(E) ≤ µ(V ). Hence, taking inf, µ(E) ≤ µ(E). But also µ(E) ≥ µ(E)
since E ∈ S and E ⊇ E. Hence
µ(E) ≤ µ(E) ≤ µ(E).
Next consider the claim about not getting any new sets from the outer measure
in the case the measure space is σ finite and complete.
Claim 1: If E, D ∈ S, and µ(E \ D) = 0, then if D ⊆ F ⊆ E, it follows F ∈ S.
Proof of claim 1:
F \ D ⊆ E \ D ∈ S,
and E \D is a set of measure zero. Therefore, since (Ω, S, µ) is complete, F \D ∈ S
and so
F = D ∪ (F \ D) ∈ S.
Claim 2: Suppose F ∈ S and µ (F ) < ∞. Then F ∈ S.
Proof of the claim 2: From the definition of µ, it follows there exists E ∈ S
such that E ⊇ F and µ (E) = µ (F ) . Therefore,
µ (E) = µ (E \ F ) + µ (F )
so
µ (E \ F ) = 0. (9.8)
Similarly, there exists D1 ∈ S such that
D1 ⊆ E, D1 ⊇ (E \ F ) , µ (D1 ) = µ (E \ F ) .
and
µ (D1 \ (E \ F )) = 0. (9.9)
9.2. REGULAR MEASURES 215
F
D
D1
Now let D = E \ D1 . It follows D ⊆ F because if x ∈ D, then x ∈ E but

x∈/ (E \ F ) and so x ∈ F . Also F \ D = D1 \ (E \ F ) because both sides equal
D1 ∩ F \ E.
Then from 9.8 and 9.9,
µ (E \ D) ≤ µ (E \ F ) + µ (F \ D)
= µ (E \ F ) + µ (D1 \ (E \ F )) = 0.
By Claim 1, it follows F ∈ S. This proves Claim 2.

∞
Now since (Ω, S,µ) is σ finite, there are sets of S, {Bn }n=1 such that µ (Bn ) <
∞, ∪n Bn = Ω. Then F ∩ Bn ∈ S by Claim 2. Therefore, F = ∪∞ n=1 F ∩ Bn ∈ S and
so S =S. This proves the lemma.
9.2 Regular Measures

Usually Ω is not just a set. It is also a topological space. It is very important to
consider how the measure is related to this topology.
Definition 9.8 Let µ be a measure on a σ algebra S, of subsets of Ω, where (Ω, τ )

is a topological space. µ is a Borel measure if S contains all Borel sets. µ is called
outer regular if µ is Borel and for all E ∈ S,
µ(E) = inf{µ(V ) : V is open and V ⊇ E}.
µ is called inner regular if µ is Borel and
µ(E) = sup{µ(K) : K ⊆ E, and K is compact}.
If the measure is both outer and inner regular, it is called regular.
It will be assumed in what follows that (Ω, τ ) is a locally compact Hausdorff

space. This means it is Hausdorff: If p, q ∈ Ω such that p 6= q, there exist open
sets, Up and Uq containing p and q respectively such that Up ∩ Uq = ∅ and Locally

compact: There exists a basis of open sets for the topology, B such that for each
U ∈ B, U is compact. Recall B is a basis for the topology if ∪B = Ω and if every
open set in τ is the union of sets of B. Also recall a Hausdorff space is normal if
whenever H and C are two closed sets, there exist disjoint open sets, UH and UC
containing H and C respectively. A regular space is one which has the property
that if p is a point not in H, a closed set, then there exist disjoint open sets, Up and
UH containing p and H respectively.
9.3 Urysohn’s lemma

Urysohn’s lemma which characterizes normal spaces is a very important result which
is useful in general topology and in the construction of measures. Because it is
somewhat technical a proof is given for the part which is needed.
Theorem 9.9 (Urysohn) Let (X, τ ) be normal and let H ⊆ U where H is closed
and U is open. Then there exists g : X → [0, 1] such that g is continuous, g (x) = 1
on H and g (x) = 0 if x ∈
/ U.
Proof: Let D ≡ {rn }∞

n=1 be the rational numbers in (0, 1). Choose Vr1 an open
set such that
H ⊆ Vr1 ⊆ V r1 ⊆ U.
This can be done by applying the assumption that X is normal to the disjoint closed
sets, H and U C , to obtain open sets V and W with
H ⊆ V, U C ⊆ W, and V ∩ W = ∅.
Then
H ⊆ V ⊆ V , V ∩ UC = ∅
and so let Vr1 = V .
Suppose Vr1 , · · ·, Vrk have been chosen and list the rational numbers r1 , · · ·, rk
in order,
rl1 < rl2 < · · · < rlk for {l1 , · · ·, lk } = {1, · · ·, k}.
If rk+1 > rlk then letting p = rlk , let Vrk+1 satisfy
V p ⊆ Vrk+1 ⊆ V rk+1 ⊆ U.
If rk+1 ∈ (rli , rli+1 ), let p = rli and let q = rli+1 . Then let Vrk+1 satisfy
V p ⊆ Vrk+1 ⊆ V rk+1 ⊆ Vq .
If rk+1 < rl1 , let p = rl1 and let Vrk+1 satisfy
H ⊆ Vrk+1 ⊆ V rk+1 ⊆ Vp .
9.3. URYSOHN’S LEMMA 217
Thus there exist open sets Vr for each r ∈ Q ∩ (0, 1) with the property that if
r < s,
H ⊆ Vr ⊆ V r ⊆ Vs ⊆ V s ⊆ U.
Now let [
f (x) = inf{t ∈ D : x ∈ Vt }, f (x) ≡ 1 if x ∈
/ Vt .
t∈D
I claim f is continuous.
f −1 ([0, a)) = ∪{Vt : t < a, t ∈ D},
an open set.
Next consider x ∈ f −1 ([0, a]) so f (x) ≤ a. If t > a, then x ∈ Vt because if not,
then
inf{t ∈ D : x ∈ Vt } > a.
Thus
f −1 ([0, a]) = ∩{Vt : t > a} = ∩{V t : t > a}
which is a closed set. If a = 1, f −1 ([0, 1]) = f −1 ([0, a]) = X. Therefore,
f −1 ((a, 1]) = X \ f −1 ([0, a]) = open set.
It follows f is continuous. Clearly f (x) = 0 on H. If x ∈ U C , then x ∈

/ Vt for any
t ∈ D so f (x) = 1 on U C. Let g (x) = 1 − f (x). This proves the theorem.
In any metric space there is a much easier proof of the conclusion of Urysohn’s
lemma which applies.
Lemma 9.10 Let S be a nonempty subset of a metric space, (X, d) . Define
f (x) ≡ dist (x, S) ≡ inf {d (x, y) : y ∈ S} .
Then f is continuous.
Proof: Consider |f (x) − f (x1 )|and suppose without loss of generality that
f (x1 ) ≥ f (x) . Then choose y ∈ S such that f (x) + ε > d (x, y) . Then
|f (x1 ) − f (x)| = f (x1 ) − f (x) ≤ f (x1 ) − d (x, y) + ε

≤ d (x1 , y) − d (x, y) + ε
≤ d (x, x1 ) + d (x, y) − d (x, y) + ε
= d (x1 , x) + ε.
Since ε is arbitrary, it follows that |f (x1 ) − f (x)| ≤ d (x1 , x) and this proves the
lemma.
Theorem 9.11 (Urysohn’s lemma for metric space) Let H be a closed subset of
an open set, U in a metric space, (X, d) . Then there exists a continuous function,
g : X → [0, 1] such that g (x) = 1 for all x ∈ H and g (x) = 0 for all x ∈
/ U.
Proof: If x ∈/ C, a closed set, then dist (x, C) > 0 because if not, there would
exist a sequence of points of¡ C converging
¢ to x and it would follow that x ∈ C.
Therefore, dist (x, H) + dist x, U C > 0 for all x ∈ X. Now define a continuous
function, g as ¡ ¢
dist x, U C
g (x) ≡ .
dist (x, H) + dist (x, U C )
It is easy to see this verifies the conclusions of the theorem and this proves the
theorem.
Theorem 9.12 Every compact Hausdorff space is normal.
Proof: First it is shown that X, is regular. Let H be a closed set and let p ∈ / H.
Then for each h ∈ H, there exists an open set Uh containing p and an open set Vh
containing h such that Uh ∩ Vh = ∅. Since H must be compact, it follows there
are finitely many of the sets Vh , Vh1 · · · Vhn such that H ⊆ ∪ni=1 Vhi . Then letting
U = ∩ni=1 Uhi and V = ∪ni=1 Vhi , it follows that p ∈ U , H ∈ V and U ∩ V = ∅. Thus
X is regular as claimed.
Next let K and H be disjoint nonempty closed sets.Using regularity of X, for
every k ∈ K, there exists an open set Uk containing k and an open set Vk containing
H such that these two open sets have empty intersection. Thus H ∩U k = ∅. Finitely
many of the Uk , Uk1 , ···, Ukp cover K and so ∪pi=1 U ki is a closed set which has empty
¡ ¢C
intersection with H. Therefore, K ⊆ ∪pi=1 Uki and H ⊆ ∪pi=1 U ki . This proves
the theorem.
A useful construction when dealing with locally compact Hausdorff spaces is the
notion of the one point compactification of the space discussed earler. However, it
is reviewed here for the sake of convenience or in case you have not read the earlier
treatment.
Definition 9.13 Suppose (X, τ ) is a locally compact Hausdorff space. Then let
Xe ≡ X ∪ {∞} where ∞ is just the name of some point which is not in X which is
called the point at infinity. A basis for the topology e e is
τ for X
© ª
τ ∪ K C where K is a compact subset of X .
e and so the open sets, K C are basic open

The complement is taken with respect to X
sets which contain ∞.
The reason this is called a compactification is contained in the next lemma.

³ ´
Lemma 9.14 If (X, τ ) is a locally compact Hausdorff space, then X, e e
τ is a com-
pact Hausdorff space.
³ ´
Proof: Since (X, τ ) is a locally compact Hausdorff space, it follows X, e e
τ is
a Hausdorff topological space. The only case which needs checking is the one of
p ∈ X and ∞. Since (X, τ ) is locally compact, there exists an open set of τ , U
9.3. URYSOHN’S LEMMA 219
C
having compact closure which contains p. Then p ∈ U and ∞ ∈ U and these are
disjoint open sets containing the points, p and ∞ respectively. Now let C be an
open cover of X e with sets from e
τ . Then ∞ must be in some set, U∞ from C, which
must contain a set of the form K C where K is a compact subset of X. Then there
e is
exist sets from C, U1 , · · ·, Ur which cover K. Therefore, a finite subcover of X
U1 , · · ·, Ur , U∞ .
Theorem 9.15 Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space, and let K be a compact
subset of the open set V . Then there exists a continuous function, f : X → [0, 1],
such that f equals 1 on K and {x : f (x) 6= 0} ≡ spt (f ) is a compact subset of V .
Proof: Let X e be the space just described. Then K and V are respectively
closed and open in eτ . By Theorem 9.12 there exist open sets in e τ , U , and W such
that K ⊆ U, ∞ ∈ V C ⊆ W , and U ∩ W = U ∩ (W \ {∞}) = ∅. Thus W \ {∞} is
an open set in the original topological space which contains V C , U is an open set in
the original topological space which contains K, and W \ {∞} and U are disjoint.
Now for each x ∈ K, let Ux be a basic open set whose closure is compact and
such that
x ∈ Ux ⊆ U.
Thus Ux must have empty intersection with V C because the open set, W \ {∞}
contains no points of Ux . Since K is compact, there are finitely many of these sets,
Ux1 , Ux2 , · · ·, Uxn which cover K. Now let H ≡ ∪ni=1 Uxi .
Claim: H = ∪ni=1 Uxi
Proof of claim: Suppose p ∈ H. If p ∈ / ∪ni=1 Uxi then if follows p ∈
/ Uxi for
each i. Therefore, there exists an open set, Ri containing p such that Ri contains
no other points of Uxi . Therefore, R ≡ ∩ni=1 Ri is an open set containing p which
contains no other points of ∪ni=1 Uxi = W, a contradiction. Therefore, H ⊆ ∪ni=1 Uxi .
On the other hand, if p ∈ Uxi then p is obviously in H so this proves the claim.
From the claim, K ⊆ H ⊆ H ⊆ V and H is compact because it is the finite
union of compact sets. Repeating the same argument, ¡ there
¢ exists an open set, I
such that H ⊆ I ⊆ I ⊆ V with I compact. Now I, τ I is a compact topological
space where τ I is the topology which is obtained by taking intersections of open
sets in X with I. Therefore, by Urysohn’s lemma, there exists f : I → ¡ [0, 1]¢ such
that f is continuous at every point of I and also f (K) = 1 while f I \ H = 0.
C
Extending f to equal 0 on I , it follows that f is continuous on X, has values in
[0, 1] , and satisfies f (K) = 1 and spt (f ) is a compact subset contained in I ⊆ V.
In fact, the conclusion of the above theorem could be used to prove that the
topological space is locally compact. However, this is not needed here.
Definition 9.16 Define spt(f ) (support of f ) to be the closure of the set {x :

f (x) 6= 0}. If V is an open set, Cc (V ) will be the set of continuous functions f ,
defined on Ω having spt(f ) ⊆ V . Thus in Theorem 9.15, f ∈ Cc (V ).
Definition 9.17 If K is a compact subset of an open set, V , then K ≺ φ ≺ V if
φ ∈ Cc (V ), φ(K) = {1}, φ(Ω) ⊆ [0, 1],
where Ω denotes the whole topological space considered. Also for φ ∈ Cc (Ω), K ≺ φ
if
φ(Ω) ⊆ [0, 1] and φ(K) = 1.
and φ ≺ V if
φ(Ω) ⊆ [0, 1] and spt(φ) ⊆ V.
Theorem 9.18 (Partition of unity) Let K be a compact subset of a locally compact

Hausdorff topological space satisfying Theorem 9.15 and suppose
K ⊆ V = ∪ni=1 Vi , Vi open.
Then there exist ψ i ≺ Vi with

n
X
ψ i (x) = 1
i=1
for all x ∈ K.
Proof: Let K1 = K \ ∪ni=2 Vi . Thus K1 is compact and K1 ⊆ V1 . Let K1 ⊆

W1 ⊆ W 1 ⊆ V1 with W 1 compact. To obtain W1 , use Theorem 9.15 to get f such
that K1 ≺ f ≺ V1 and let W1 ≡ {x : f (x) 6= 0} . Thus W1 , V2 , · · ·Vn covers K and
W 1 ⊆ V1 . Let K2 = K \ (∪ni=3 Vi ∪ W1 ). Then K2 is compact and K2 ⊆ V2 . Let
K2 ⊆ W2 ⊆ W 2 ⊆ V2 W 2 compact. Continue this way finally obtaining W1 , ···, Wn ,
K ⊆ W1 ∪ · · · ∪ Wn , and W i ⊆ Vi W i compact. Now let W i ⊆ Ui ⊆ U i ⊆ Vi , U i
compact.
W i U i Vi
By Theorem 9.15, let U i ≺ φi ≺ Vi , ∪ni=1 W i ≺ γ ≺ ∪ni=1 Ui . Define

½ Pn Pn
γ(x)φi (x)/ j=1 φj (x) if j=1 φj (x) 6= 0,
ψ i (x) = P n
0 if j=1 φj (x) = 0.
Pn
If x is such that j=1 φj (x) = 0, then x ∈ / ∪ni=1 U i . Consequently γ(y) = 0 for
allPy near x and so ψ i (y) = 0 for all y near x. Hence ψ i is continuous at such x.
n
If j=1 φj (x) 6= 0, this situation persists near x and so ψ i is continuous at such
Pn
points. Therefore ψ i is continuous. If x ∈ K, then γ(x) = 1 and so j=1 ψ j (x) = 1.
Clearly 0 ≤ ψ i (x) ≤ 1 and spt(ψ j ) ⊆ Vj . This proves the theorem.
The following corollary won’t be needed immediately but is of considerable in-
terest later.
9.4. POSITIVE LINEAR FUNCTIONALS 221
Corollary 9.19 If H is a compact subset of Vi , there exists a partition of unity

such that ψ i (x) = 1 for all x ∈ H in addition to the conclusion of Theorem 9.18.
Proof: Keep Vi the same but replace Vj with V fj ≡ Vj \ H. Now in the proof
above, applied to this modified collection of open sets, if j 6= i, φj (x) = 0 whenever
x ∈ H. Therefore, ψ i (x) = 1 on H.
9.4 Positive Linear Functionals

Definition 9.20 Let (Ω, τ ) be a topological space. L : Cc (Ω) → C is called a
positive linear functional if L is linear,
L(af1 + bf2 ) = aLf1 + bLf2 ,
and if Lf ≥ 0 whenever f ≥ 0.
Theorem 9.21 (Riesz representation theorem) Let (Ω, τ ) be a locally compact Haus-
dorff space and let L be a positive linear functional on Cc (Ω). Then there exists a
σ algebra S containing the Borel sets and a unique measure µ, defined on S, such
that
µ is complete, (9.10)
µ(K) < ∞ for all K compact, (9.11)
µ(F ) = sup{µ(K) : K ⊆ F, K compact},

for all F open and for all F ∈ S with µ(F ) < ∞,
µ(F ) = inf{µ(V ) : V ⊇ F, V open}
for all F ∈ S, and Z

f dµ = Lf for all f ∈ Cc (Ω). (9.12)
The plan is to define an outer measure and then to show that it, together with the
σ algebra of sets measurable in the sense of Caratheodory, satisfies the conclusions
of the theorem. Always, K will be a compact set and V will be an open set.
Definition 9.22 µ(V ) ≡ sup{Lf : f ≺ V } for V open, µ(∅) = 0. µ(E) ≡

inf{µ(V ) : V ⊇ E} for arbitrary sets E.
Lemma 9.23 µ is a well-defined outer measure.
Proof: First it is necessary to verify µ is well defined because there are two
descriptions of it on open sets. Suppose then that µ1 (V ) ≡ inf{µ(U ) : U ⊇ V
and U is open}. It is required to verify that µ1 (V ) = µ (V ) where µ is given as
sup{Lf : f ≺ V }. If U ⊇ V, then µ (U ) ≥ µ (V ) directly from the definition. Hence
from the definition of µ1 , it follows µ1 (V ) ≥ µ (V ) . On the other hand, V ⊇ V and

so µ1 (V ) ≤ µ (V ) . This verifies µ is well defined.
∞
It remains to show that µ is an outer measure. PnLet V = ∪i=1 Vi and let f ≺ V .
Then spt(f ) ⊆ ∪ni=1 Vi for some n. Let ψ i ≺ Vi , ψ
i=1 i = 1 on spt(f ).
n
X n
X ∞
X
Lf = L(f ψ i ) ≤ µ(Vi ) ≤ µ(Vi ).
i=1 i=1 i=1
Hence
∞
X
µ(V ) ≤ µ(Vi )
i=1
P∞
since f ≺ V is arbitrary. Now let E = ∪∞ i=1 Ei . Is µ(E) ≤ i=1 µ(Ei )? Without
loss of generality, it can be assumed µ(Ei ) < ∞ for each i since if not so, there is
nothing to prove. Let Vi ⊇ Ei with µ(Ei ) + ε2−i > µ(Vi ).
∞
X ∞
X
µ(E) ≤ µ(∪∞
i=1 Vi ) ≤ µ(Vi ) ≤ ε + µ(Ei ).
i=1 i=1
P∞
Since ε was arbitrary, µ(E) ≤ i=1 µ(Ei ) which proves the lemma.
Lemma 9.24 Let K be compact, g ≥ 0, g ∈ Cc (Ω), and g = 1 on K. Then

µ(K) ≤ Lg. Also µ(K) < ∞ whenever K is compact.
Proof: Let α ∈ (0, 1) and Vα = {x : g(x) > α} so Vα ⊇ K and let h ≺ Vα .
K Vα
g>α
Then h ≤ 1 on Vα while gα−1 ≥ 1 on Vα and so gα−1 ≥ h which implies
L(gα−1 ) ≥ Lh and that therefore, since L is linear,
Lg ≥ αLh.
Since h ≺ Vα is arbitrary, and K ⊆ Vα ,
Lg ≥ αµ (Vα ) ≥ αµ (K) .
Letting α ↑ 1 yields Lg ≥ µ(K). This proves the first part of the lemma. The
second assertion follows from this and Theorem 9.15. If K is given, let
K≺g≺Ω
and so from what was just shown, µ (K) ≤ Lg < ∞. This proves the lemma.
Lemma 9.25 If A and B are disjoint compact subsets of Ω, then µ(A ∪ B) =

µ(A) + µ(B).
Proof: By Theorem 9.15, there exists h ∈ Cc (Ω) such that A ≺ h ≺ B C . Let

U1 = h−1 (( 12 , 1]), V1 = h−1 ([0, 21 )). Then A ⊆ U1 , B ⊆ V1 and U1 ∩ V1 = ∅.
A U1 B V1
From Lemma 9.24 µ(A ∪ B) < ∞ and so there exists an open set, W such that
W ⊇ A ∪ B, µ (A ∪ B) + ε > µ (W ) .
Now let U = U1 ∩ W and V = V1 ∩ W . Then
U ⊇ A, V ⊇ B, U ∩ V = ∅, and µ(A ∪ B) + ε ≥ µ (W ) ≥ µ(U ∪ V ).
Let A ≺ f ≺ U, B ≺ g ≺ V . Then by Lemma 9.24,
µ(A ∪ B) + ε ≥ µ(U ∪ V ) ≥ L(f + g) = Lf + Lg ≥ µ(A) + µ(B).
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this proves the lemma.

From Lemma 9.24 the following lemma is obtained.
Lemma 9.26 Let f ∈ Cc (Ω), f (Ω) ⊆ [0, 1]. Then µ(spt(f )) ≥ Lf . Also, every
open set, V satisfies
µ (V ) = sup {µ (K) : K ⊆ V } .
Proof: Let V ⊇ spt(f ) and let spt(f ) ≺ g ≺ V . Then Lf ≤ Lg ≤ µ(V ) because

f ≤ g. Since this holds for all V ⊇ spt(f ), Lf ≤ µ(spt(f )) by definition of µ.
spt(f ) V
Finally, let V be open and let l < µ (V ) . Then from the definition of µ, there
exists f ≺ V such that L (f ) > l. Therefore, l < µ (spt (f )) ≤ µ (V ) and so this
shows the claim about inner regularity of the measure on an open set.
Lemma 9.27 If K is compact there exists V open, V ⊇ K, such that µ(V \ K) ≤

ε. If V is open with µ(V ) < ∞, then there exists a compact set, K ⊆ V with
µ(V \ K) ≤ ε.
Proof: Let K be compact. Then from the definition of µ, there exists an open
set U , with µ(U ) < ∞ and U ⊇ K. Suppose for every open set, V , containing
K, µ(V \ K) > ε. Then there exists f ≺ U \ K with Lf > ε. Consequently,
µ((f )) > Lf > ε. Let K1 = spt(f ) and repeat the construction with U \ K1 in
place of U.
K1
K
K2
K3
Continuing in this way yields a sequence of disjoint compact sets, K, K1 , · · ·

contained in U such that µ(Ki ) > ε. By Lemma 9.25
r
X
µ(U ) ≥ µ(K ∪ ∪ri=1 Ki ) = µ(K) + µ(Ki ) ≥ rε
i=1
for all r, contradicting µ(U ) < ∞. This demonstrates the first part of the lemma.
To show the second part, employ a similar construction. Suppose µ(V \ K) > ε
for all K ⊆ V . Then µ(V ) > ε so there exists f ≺ V with Lf > ε. Let K1 = spt(f )
so µ(spt(f )) > ε. If K1 · · · Kn , disjoint, compact subsets of V have been chosen,
there must exist g ≺ (V \ ∪ni=1 Ki ) be such that Lg > ε. Hence µ(spt(g)) > ε. Let
Kn+1 = spt(g). In this way there exists a sequence of disjoint compact subsets of
V , {Ki } with µ(Ki ) > ε. Thus for any m, K1 · · · Km are all contained in V and
are disjoint and compact. By Lemma 9.25
m
X
µ(V ) ≥ µ(∪m
i=1 Ki ) = µ(Ki ) > mε
i=1
for all m, a contradiction to µ(V ) < ∞. This proves the second part.
Lemma 9.28 Let S be the σ algebra of µ measurable sets in the sense of Carath-
eodory. Then S ⊇ Borel sets and µ is inner regular on every open set and for every
E ∈ S with µ(E) < ∞.
Proof: Define
S1 = {E ⊆ Ω : E ∩ K ∈ S}
for all compact K.
Let C be a compact set. The idea is to show that C ∈ S. From this it will follow
that the closed sets are in S1 because if C is only closed, C ∩ K is compact. Hence
C ∩ K = (C ∩ K) ∩ K ∈ S. The steps are to first show the compact sets are in
S and this implies the closed sets are in S1 . Then you show S1 is a σ algebra and
so it contains the Borel sets. Finally, it is shown that S1 = S and then the inner
regularity conclusion is established.
Let V be an open set with µ (V ) < ∞. I will show that
µ (V ) ≥ µ(V \ C) + µ(V ∩ C).
By Lemma 9.27, there exists an open set U containing C and a compact subset of
V , K, such that µ(V \ K) < ε and µ (U \ C) < ε.
U V
C K
Then by Lemma 9.25,
µ(V ) ≥ µ(K) ≥ µ((K \ U ) ∪ (K ∩ C))

= µ(K \ U ) + µ(K ∩ C)
≥ µ(V \ C) + µ(V ∩ C) − 3ε
Since ε is arbitrary,
µ(V ) = µ(V \ C) + µ(V ∩ C) (9.13)
whenever C is compact and V is open. (If µ (V ) = ∞, it is obvious that µ (V ) ≥
µ(V \ C) + µ(V ∩ C) and it is always the case that µ (V ) ≤ µ (V \ C) + µ (V ∩ C) .)
Of course 9.13 is exactly what needs to be shown for arbitrary S in place of V .
It suffices to consider only S having µ (S) < ∞. If S ⊆ Ω, with µ(S) < ∞, let
V ⊇ S, µ(S) + ε > µ(V ). Then from what was just shown, if C is compact,
ε + µ(S) > µ(V ) = µ(V \ C) + µ(V ∩ C)

≥ µ(S \ C) + µ(S ∩ C).
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows the compact sets are in S. As discussed above, this
verifies the closed sets are in S1 .
Therefore, S1 contains the closed sets and S contains the compact sets. There-
fore, if E ∈ S and K is a compact set, it follows K ∩ E ∈ S and so S1 ⊇ S.
To see that S1 is closed with respect to taking complements, let E ∈ S1 .
K = (E C ∩ K) ∪ (E ∩ K).
Then from the fact, just established, that the compact sets are in S,
E C ∩ K = K \ (E ∩ K) ∈ S.
Similarly S1 is closed under countable unions. Thus S1 is a σ algebra which contains

the Borel sets since it contains the closed sets.
The next task is to show S1 = S. Let E ∈ S1 and let V be an open set with
µ(V ) < ∞ and choose K ⊆ V such that µ(V \ K) < ε. Then since E ∈ S1 , it
follows E ∩ K ∈ S and
µ(V ) = µ(V \ (K ∩ E)) + µ(V ∩ (K ∩ E))

≥ µ(V \ E) + µ(V ∩ E) − ε
because
<ε
z }| {
µ (V ∩ (K ∩ E)) + µ (V \ K) ≥ µ (V ∩ E)
Since ε is arbitrary,
µ(V ) = µ(V \ E) + µ(V ∩ E).
Now let S ⊆ Ω. If µ(S) = ∞, then µ(S) = µ(S ∩ E) + µ(S \ E). If µ(S) < ∞, let
V ⊇ S, µ(S) + ε ≥ µ(V ).
Then
µ(S) + ε ≥ µ(V ) = µ(V \ E) + µ(V ∩ E) ≥ µ(S \ E) + µ(S ∩ E).
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows that E ∈ S and so S1 = S. Thus S ⊇ Borel sets as

claimed.
From Lemma 9.26 and the definition of µ it follows µ is inner regular on all
open sets. It remains to show that µ(F ) = sup{µ(K) : K ⊆ F } for all F ∈ S with
µ(F ) < ∞. It might help to refer to the following crude picture to keep things
straight.
K K ∩VC F U
In this picture the shaded area is V.

Let U be an open set, U ⊇ F, µ(U ) < ∞. Let V be open, V ⊇ U \ F , and
µ(V \ (U \ F )) < ε. This can be obtained because µ is a measure on S. Thus from
outer regularity there exists V ⊇ U \ F such that µ (U \ F ) + ε > µ (V ) . Then
µ (V \ (U \ F )) + µ (U \ F ) = µ (V )
and so
µ (V \ (U \ F )) = µ (V ) − µ (U \ F ) < ε.
Also,
¡ ¢C
V \ (U \ F ) = V ∩ U ∩ FC
£ ¤
= V ∩ UC ∪ F
¡ ¢
= (V ∩ F ) ∪ V ∩ U C
⊇ V ∩F
and so
µ(V ∩ F ) ≤ µ (V \ (U \ F )) < ε.
Since V ⊇ U ∩ F , V ⊆ U C ∪ F so U ∩ V C ⊆ U ∩ F = F . Hence U ∩ V C is a
C C
subset of F . Now let K ⊆ U, µ(U \ K) < ε. Thus K ∩ V C is a compact subset of

F and
µ(F ) = µ(V ∩ F ) + µ(F \ V )

< ε + µ(F \ V ) ≤ ε + µ(U ∩ V C ) ≤ 2ε + µ(K ∩ V C ).
Since ε is arbitrary, this proves the second part of the lemma. Formula 9.11 of this
theorem was established earlier.
It remains to show µ satisfies 9.12.
R
Lemma 9.29 f dµ = Lf for all f ∈ Cc (Ω).
Proof: Let f ∈ Cc (Ω), f real-valued, and suppose f (Ω) ⊆ [a, b]. Choose t0 < a
and let t0 < t1 < · · · < tn = b, ti − ti−1 < ε. Let
Ei = f −1 ((ti−1 , ti ]) ∩ spt(f ). (9.14)
Note that ∪ni=1 Ei is a closed set and in fact
∪ni=1 Ei = spt(f ) (9.15)
since Ω = ∪ni=1 f −1 ((ti−1 , ti ]). Let Vi ⊇ Ei , Vi is open and let Vi satisfy
f (x) < ti + ε for all x ∈ Vi , (9.16)
µ(Vi \ Ei ) < ε/n.

By Theorem 9.18 there exists hi ∈ Cc (Ω) such that
n
X
h i ≺ Vi , hi (x) = 1 on spt(f ).
i=1
Now note that for each i,
f (x)hi (x) ≤ hi (x)(ti + ε).

(If x ∈ Vi , this follows from 9.16. If x ∈

/ Vi both sides equal 0.) Therefore,
Xn n
X
Lf = L( f hi ) ≤ L( hi (ti + ε))
i=1 i=1
n
X
= (ti + ε)L(hi )
i=1
n
Ã n
!
X X
= (|t0 | + ti + ε)L(hi ) − |t0 |L hi .
i=1 i=1
Now note that |t0 | + ti + ε ≥ 0 and so from the definition of µ and Lemma 9.24,
this is no larger than
n
X
(|t0 | + ti + ε)µ(Vi ) − |t0 |µ(spt(f ))
i=1
n
X
≤ (|t0 | + ti + ε)(µ(Ei ) + ε/n) − |t0 |µ(spt(f ))
i=1
n
X n
X
≤ |t0 | µ(Ei ) + |t0 |ε + ti µ(Ei ) + ε(|t0 | + |b|)
i=1 i=1
n
X
+ε µ(Ei ) + ε2 − |t0 |µ(spt(f )).
i=1
From 9.15 and 9.14, the first and last terms cancel. Therefore this is no larger than
n
X
(2|t0 | + |b| + µ(spt(f )) + ε)ε + ti−1 µ(Ei ) + εµ(spt(f ))
i=1
Z
≤ f dµ + (2|t0 | + |b| + 2µ(spt(f )) + ε)ε.
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, Z

Lf ≤ f dµ (9.17)
R
for all f ∈ RCc (Ω), f real. Hence
R equality holds in 9.17 because L(−f ) ≤ − f dµ
so L(f ) ≥ f dµ. Thus Lf = f dµ for all f ∈ Cc (Ω). Just apply the result for
real functions to the real and imaginary parts of f . This proves the Lemma.
This gives the existence part of the Riesz representation theorem.
It only remains to prove uniqueness. Suppose both µ1 and µ2 are measures on
S satisfying the conclusions of the theorem. Then if K is compact and V ⊇ K, let
K ≺ f ≺ V . Then
Z Z
µ1 (K) ≤ f dµ1 = Lf = f dµ2 ≤ µ2 (V ).
Thus µ1 (K) ≤ µ2 (K) for all K. Similarly, the inequality can be reversed and so it
follows the two measures are equal on compact sets. By the assumption of inner
regularity on open sets, the two measures are also equal on all open sets. By outer
regularity, they are equal on all sets of S. This proves the theorem.
An important example of a locally compact Hausdorff space is any metric space
in which the closures of balls are compact. For example, Rn with the usual metric
is an example of this. Not surprisingly, more can be said in this important special
case.
Theorem 9.30 Let (Ω, τ ) be a metric space in which the closures of the balls are
compact and let L be a positive linear functional defined on Cc (Ω) . Then there
exists a measure representing the positive linear functional which satisfies all the
conclusions of Theorem 9.15 and in addition the property that µ is regular. The
same conclusion follows if (Ω, τ ) is a compact Hausdorff space.
Theorem 9.31 Let (Ω, τ ) be a metric space in which the closures of the balls are
compact and let L be a positive linear functional defined on Cc (Ω) . Then there
exists a measure representing the positive linear functional which satisfies all the
conclusions of Theorem 9.15 and in addition the property that µ is regular. The
same conclusion follows if (Ω, τ ) is a compact Hausdorff space.
Proof: Let µ and S be as described in Theorem 9.21. The outer regularity

comes automatically as a conclusion of Theorem 9.21. It remains to verify inner
regularity. Let F ∈ S and let l < k < µ (F ) . Now let z ∈ Ω and Ωn = B (z, n) for
n ∈ N. Thus F ∩ Ωn ↑ F. It follows that for n large enough,
k < µ (F ∩ Ωn ) ≤ µ (F ) .
Since µ (F ∩ Ωn ) < ∞ it follows there exists a compact set, K such that K ⊆

F ∩ Ωn ⊆ F and
l < µ (K) ≤ µ (F ) .
This proves inner regularity. In case (Ω, τ ) is a compact Hausdorff space, the con-
clusion of inner regularity follows from Theorem 9.21. This proves the theorem.
The proof of the above yields the following corollary.
Corollary 9.32 Let (Ω, τ ) be a locally compact Hausdorff space and suppose µ
defined on a σ algebra, S represents the positive linear functional L where L is
defined on Cc (Ω) in the sense of Theorem 9.15. Suppose also that there exist Ωn ∈ S
such that Ω = ∪∞n=1 Ωn and µ (Ωn ) < ∞. Then µ is regular.
The following is on the uniqueness of the σ algebra in some cases.
Definition 9.33 Let (Ω, τ ) be a locally compact Hausdorff space and let L be a
positive linear functional defined on Cc (Ω) such that the complete measure defined
by the Riesz representation theorem for positive linear functionals is inner regular.
Then this is called a Radon measure. Thus a Radon measure is complete, and
regular.
Corollary 9.34 Let (Ω, τ ) be a locally compact Hausdorff space which is also σ
compact meaning
Ω = ∪∞n=1 Ωn , Ωn is compact,
and let L be a positive linear functional defined on Cc (Ω) . Then if (µ1 , S1 ) , and
(µ2 , S2 ) are two Radon measures, together with their σ algebras which represent L
then the two σ algebras are equal and the two measures are equal.
Proof: Suppose (µ1 , S1 ) and (µ2 , S2 ) both work. It will be shown the two
measures are equal on every compact set. Let K be compact and let V be an open
set containing K. Then let K ≺ f ≺ V. Then
Z Z Z
µ1 (K) = dµ1 ≤ f dµ1 = L (f ) = f dµ2 ≤ µ2 (V ) .
K
Therefore, taking the infimum over all V containing K implies µ1 (K) ≤ µ2 (K) .
Reversing the argument shows µ1 (K) = µ2 (K) . This also implies the two measures
are equal on all open sets because they are both inner regular on open sets. It is
being assumed the two measures are regular. Now let F ∈ S1 with µ1 (F ) < ∞.
Then there exist sets, H, G such that H ⊆ F ⊆ G such that H is the countable
union of compact sets and G is a countable intersection of open sets such that
µ1 (G) = µ1 (H) which implies µ1 (G \ H) = 0. Now G \ H can be written as the
countable intersection of sets of the form Vk \Kk where Vk is open, µ1 (Vk ) < ∞ and
Kk is compact. From what was just shown, µ2 (Vk \ Kk ) = µ1 (Vk \ Kk ) so it follows
µ2 (G \ H) = 0 also. Since µ2 is complete, and G and H are in S2 , it follows F ∈ S2
and µ2 (F ) = µ1 (F ) . Now for arbitrary F possibly having µ1 (F ) = ∞, consider
F ∩ Ωn . From what was just shown, this set is in S2 and µ2 (F ∩ Ωn ) = µ1 (F ∩ Ωn ).
Taking the union of these F ∩Ωn gives F ∈ S2 and also µ1 (F ) = µ2 (F ) . This shows
S1 ⊆ S2 . Similarly, S2 ⊆ S1 .
The following lemma is often useful.
Lemma 9.35 Let (Ω, F, µ) be a measure space where Ω is a metric space having
closed balls compact or more generally a topological space. Suppose µ is a Radon
measure and f is measurable with respect to F. Then there exists a Borel measurable
function, g, such that g = f a.e.
Proof: Assume without loss of generality that f ≥ 0. Then let sn ↑ f pointwise.

Say
Pn
X
sn (ω) = cnk XEkn (ω)
k=1
where Ekn ∈ F. By the outer regularity of µ, there exists a Borel set, Fkn ⊇ Ekn such
that µ (Fkn ) = µ (Ekn ). In fact Fkn can be assumed to be a Gδ set. Let
Pn
X
tn (ω) ≡ cnk XFkn (ω) .
k=1
9.5. ONE DIMENSIONAL LEBESGUE MEASURE 231
Then tn is Borel measurable and tn (ω) = sn (ω) for all ω ∈ / Nn where Nn ∈ F is

a set of measure zero. Now let N ≡ ∪∞ n=1 Nn . Then N is a set of measure zero
and if ω ∈ / N , then tn (ω) → f (ω). Let N 0 ⊇ N where N 0 is a Borel set and
µ (N 0 ) = 0. Then tn X(N 0 )C converges pointwise to a Borel measurable function, g,
and g (ω) = f (ω) for all ω ∈ / N 0 . Therefore, g = f a.e. and this proves the lemma.
9.5 One Dimensional Lebesgue Measure

To obtain one dimensional Lebesgue measure, you use the positive linear functional
L given by Z
Lf = f (x) dx
whenever f ∈ Cc (R) . Lebesgue measure, denoted by m is the measure obtained

from the Riesz representation theorem such that
Z Z
f dm = Lf = f (x) dx.
From this it is easy to verify that
m ([a, b]) = m ((a, b)) = b − a. (9.18)
This will be done in general a little later but for now, consider the following picture
of functions, f k and g k converging pointwise as k → ∞ to X[a,b] .
1 fk 1 gk
a + 1/k £ B b − 1/k a − 1/k £ B b + 1/k
£ B ¡ £ B
@£ @ £ ¡
@
R B
ª
¡ @ B ¡ª
£ B R£
@ B
a b a b
Then
µ ¶ Z Z
2
b−a− ≤ f k dx = f k dm ≤ m ((a, b)) ≤ m ([a, b])
k
Z Z Z µ ¶
k k 2
= X[a,b] dm ≤ g dm = g dx ≤ b − a + .
k
From this the claim in 9.18 follows.
9.6 The Distribution Function

There is an interesting connection between the Lebesgue integral of a nonnegative
function with something called the distribution function.
Definition 9.36 Let f ≥ 0 and suppose f is measurable. The distribution function

is the function defined by
t → µ ([t < f ]) .
Lemma 9.37 If {fn } is an increasing sequence of functions converging pointwise
to f then
µ ([f > t]) = lim µ ([fn > t])
n→∞
Proof: The sets, [fn > t] are increasing and their union is [f > t] because if
f (ω) > t, then for all n large enough, fn (ω) > t also. Therefore, from Theorem 8.5
on Page 172 the desired conclusion follows.
Lemma 9.38 Suppose s ≥ 0 is a measurable simple function,
n
X
s (ω) ≡ ak XEk (ω)
k=1
where the ak are the distinct nonzero values of s, a1 < a2 < · · · < an . Suppose φ is
a C 1 function defined on [0, ∞) which has the property that φ (0) = 0, φ0 (t) > 0 for
all t. Then Z ∞ Z
φ0 (t) µ ([s > t]) dm = φ (s) dµ.
0
Proof: First note that if µ (Ek ) = ∞ for any k then both sides equal ∞ and
so without loss of generality, assume µ (Ek ) < ∞ for all k. Letting a0 ≡ 0, the left
side equals
Xn Z ak X n Z ak Xn
0
φ (t) µ ([s > t]) dm = φ0 (t) µ (Ei ) dm
k=1 ak−1 k=1 ak−1 i=k
Xn Xn Z ak
= µ (Ei ) φ0 (t) dm
k=1 i=k ak−1
Xn X n
= µ (Ei ) (φ (ak ) − φ (ak−1 ))
k=1 i=k
n
X i
X
= µ (Ei ) (φ (ak ) − φ (ak−1 ))
i=1 k=1
Xn Z
= µ (Ei ) φ (ai ) = φ (s) dµ.
i=1

With this lemma the next theorem which is the main result follows easily.
Theorem 9.39 Let f ≥ 0 be measurable and let φ be a C 1 function defined on
[0, ∞) which satisfies φ0 (t) > 0 for all t > 0 and φ (0) = 0. Then
Z Z ∞
φ (f ) dµ = φ0 (t) µ ([f > t]) dt.
0
9.7. PRODUCT MEASURES 233
Proof: By Theorem 8.27 on Page 190 there exists an increasing sequence of

nonnegative simple functions, {sn } which converges pointwise to f. By the monotone
convergence theorem and Lemma 9.37,
Z Z Z ∞
φ (f ) dµ = lim φ (sn ) dµ = lim φ0 (t) µ ([sn > t]) dm
n→∞ n→∞ 0
Z ∞
= φ0 (t) µ ([f > t]) dm
0
9.7 Product Measures

Let (X, S, µ) and (Y, T , ν) be two complete measure spaces. In this section consider
the problem of defining a product measure, µ × ν which is defined on a σ algebra of
sets of X × Y such that (µ × ν) (E × F ) = µ (E) ν (F ) whenever E ∈ S and F ∈ T .
I found the following approach to product measures in [20] and they say they got
it from [22].
Definition 9.40 Let R denote the set of countable unions of sets of the form A×B,
where A ∈ S and B ∈ T (Sets of the form A × B are referred to as measurable
rectangles) and also let
ρ (A × B) = µ (A) ν (B) (9.19)
More generally, define Z Z
ρ (E) ≡ XE (x, y) dµdν (9.20)
whenever E is such that
x → XE (x, y) is µ measurable for all y (9.21)
and Z
y→ XE (x, y) dµ is ν measurable. (9.22)
Note that if E = A × B as above, then

Z Z Z Z
XE (x, y) dµdν = XA×B (x, y) dµdν
Z Z
= XA (x) XB (y) dµdν = µ (A) ν (B) = ρ (E)
and so there is no contradiction between 9.20 and 9.19.

The first goal is to show that for Q ∈ R, 9.21R and 9.22 both hold. That is,
x → XQ (x, y) is µ measurable for all y and y → XQ (x, y) dµ is ν measurable.
This is done so that it is possible to speak of ρ (Q) . The following lemma will be
the fundamental result which will make this possible. First here is a picture.
B
D
n
Lemma 9.41 Given C × D and {Ai × Bi }i=1 , there exist finitely many disjoint
p
rectangles, {Ci0 × Di0 }i=1 such that none of these sets intersect any of the Ai × Bi ,
each set is contained in C × D and
(∪ni=1 Ai × Bi ) ∪ (∪pk=1 Ck0 × Dk0 ) = (C × D) ∪ (∪ni=1 Ai × Bi ) .
Proof: From the above picture, you see that
(C × D) \ (A1 × B1 ) = C × (D \ B1 ) ∪ (C \ A1 ) × (D ∩ B1 )
and these last two sets are disjoint, have empty intersection with A1 × B1 , and
(C × (D \ B1 ) ∪ (C \ A1 ) × (D ∩ B1 )) ∪ (∪ni=1 Ai × Bi ) = (C × D) ∪ (∪ni=1 Ai × Bi )
n om
Now suppose disjoint sets, C ei × D
ei have been obtained, each being a subset
i=1
of C × D such that
³ ´
(∪ni=1 Ai × Bi ) ∪ ∪m e e n
k=1 Ck × Dk = (∪i=1 Ai × Bi ) ∪ (C × D)
and for all k, Cek × D

e k has empty intersection with each set of {Ai × Bi }p . Then
i=1
using the same procedure, replace each of C ek × De k with finitely many disjoint
rectangles such that none of these intersect Ap+1 × Bp+1 while preserving the union
of all the sets involved. The process stops when you have gotten to n. This proves
the lemma.
Lemma 9.42 If Q = ∪∞ i=1 Ai × Bi ∈ R, then there exist disjoint sets, of the form
A0i × Bi0 such that Q = ∪∞ 0 0 0 0
i=1 Ai × Bi , each Ai × Bi is a subset of some Ai × Bi , and
0 0
Ai ∈ S while Bi ∈ T . Also, the intersection of finitely many sets of R is a set of
R. For ρ defined in 9.20, it follows that 9.21 and 9.22 hold for any element of R.
Furthermore, X X
ρ (Q) = µ (A0i ) ν (Bi0 ) = ρ (A0i × Bi0 ) .
i i
Proof: Let Q be given as above. Let A01

× B10 = A1 × B1 . By Lemma 9.41, it
m2
is possible to replace A2 × B2 with finitely many disjoint rectangles, {A0i × Bi0 }i=2
0 0
such that none of these rectangles intersect A1 × B1 , each is a subset of A2 × B2 ,
and
m2 0
∪∞ 0 ∞
i=1 Ai × Bi = (∪i=1 Ai × Bi ) ∪ (∪k=3 Ak × Bk )
m
Now suppose disjoint rectangles, {A0i × Bi0 }i=1p
have been obtained such that each
rectangle is a subset of Ak × Bk for some k ≤ p and
¡ mp 0 ¢ ¡ ∞ ¢
∪∞ 0
i=1 Ai × Bi = ∪i=1 Ai × Bi ∪ ∪k=p+1 Ak × Bk .
m
By Lemma 9.41 again, there exist disjoint rectangles {A0i × Bi0 }i=m
p+1
p +1
such that
mp
each is contained in Ap+1 × Bp+1 , none have intersection with any of {Ai × Bi0 }i=1
0
and ¡ mp+1 0 ¢ ¡ ∞ ¢
∪∞ 0
i=1 Ai × Bi = ∪i=1 Ai × Bi ∪ ∪k=p+2 Ak × Bk .
m
Note that no change is made in {A0i × Bi0 }i=1 p
. Continuing this way proves the
existence of the desired sequence of disjoint rectangles, each of which is a subset of
at least one of the original rectangles and such that
Q = ∪∞ 0 0
i=1 Ai × Bi .
It remains to verify x → XQ (x, y) is µ measurable for all y and

Z
y → XQ (x, y) dµ
is ν measurable whenever Q ∈ R. Let Q ≡ ∪∞ i=1 Ai × Bi ∈ R. Then by the first

∞
part of this lemma, there exists {A0i × Bi0 }i=1 such that the sets are disjoint and
∪∞ 0 0
i=1 Ai × Bi = Q. Therefore, since the sets are disjoint,
∞
X ∞
X
XQ (x, y) = XA0i ×Bi0 (x, y) = XA0i (x) XBi0 (y) .
i=1 i=1
It follows x → XQ (x, y) is measurable. Now by the monotone convergence theorem,

Z Z X∞
XQ (x, y) dµ = XA0i (x) XBi0 (y) dµ
i=1
∞
X Z
= XBi0 (y) XA0i (x) dµ
i=1
X∞
= XBi0 (y) µ (A0i ) .
i=1
R
It follows y → XQ (x, y) dµ is measurable and so by the monotone convergence
theorem again,
Z Z Z X
∞
XQ (x, y) dµdν = XBi0 (y) µ (A0i ) dν
i=1
∞ Z
X
= XBi0 (y) µ (A0i ) dν
i=1
∞
X
= ν (Bi0 ) µ (A0i ) . (9.23)
i=1
This shows the measurability conditions, 9.21 and 9.22 hold for Q ∈ R and also
establishes the formula for ρ (Q) , 9.23.
If ∪i Ai × Bi and ∪j Cj × Dj are two sets of R, then their intersection is
∪i ∪j (Ai ∩ Cj ) × (Bi ∩ Dj )
a countable union of measurable rectangles. Thus finite intersections of sets of R

are in R. This proves the lemma.
Now note that from the definition of R if you have a sequence of elements of R
then their union is also in R. The next lemma will enable the definition of an outer
measure.
∞
Lemma 9.43 Suppose {Ri }i=1 is a sequence of sets of R then
∞
X
ρ (∪∞
i=1 Ri ) ≤ ρ (Ri ) .
i=1
∞
Proof: Let Ri = ∪∞ i i 0 0
j=1 Aj × Bj . Using Lemma 9.42, let {Am × Bm }m=1 be a
sequence of disjoint rectangles each of which is contained in some Aij × Bji for some
i, j such that
∪∞ ∞ 0 0
i=1 Ri = ∪m=1 Am × Bm .
Now define © ª
Si ≡ m : A0m × Bm
0
⊆ Aij × Bji for some j .
It is not important to consider whether some m might be in more than one Si . The
important thing to notice is that
0
∪m∈Si A0m × Bm ⊆ ∪∞ i i
j=1 Aj × Bj = Ri .
Then by Lemma 9.42,

X
ρ (∪∞
i=1 Ri ) =
0
ρ (A0m × Bm )
m
∞ X
X
≤ ρ (A0m × Bm
0
)
i=1 m∈Si
∞
X ∞
X
≤ ρ (∪m∈Si A0m × Bm
0
)≤ ρ (Ri ) .
i=1 i=1

So far, there is no measure and no σ algebra. However, the next step is to define
an outer measure which will lead to a measure on a σ algebra of measurable sets
from the Caratheodory procedure. When this is done, it will be shown that this
measure can be computed using ρ which implies the important Fubini theorem.
Now it is possible to define an outer measure.
Definition 9.44 For S ⊆ X × Y, define
(µ × ν) (S) ≡ inf {ρ (R) : S ⊆ R, R ∈ R} . (9.24)
The following proposition is interesting but is not needed in the development

which follows. It gives a different description of (µ × ν) .
P∞
Proposition 9.45 (µ × ν) (S) = inf { i=1 µ (Ai ) ν (Bi ) : S ⊆ ∪∞
i=1 Ai × Bi }
P∞
Proof: Let λ (S) ≡ inf { i=1 µ (Ai ) ν (Bi ) : S ⊆ ∪∞ i=1 Ai × Bi } . Suppose S ⊆
∪∞i=1 A i × B i ≡ Q ∈ R. Then by Lemma 9.42, Q 0
P∞ i ×0 Bi where
= ∪ i A 0
these rectan-
gles are disjoint. Thus by this lemma, ρ (Q) = i=1 µ (Ai ) ν (Bi0 ) ≥ λ (S) and so
λ (S) ≤ (µ × ν) (S) . If λ (S) = ∞, P∞ this shows λ (S) = (µ × ν) (S) . Suppose then
that λ (S) < ∞ and λ (S) + ε > i=1 µ (Ai ) ν (Bi ) where Q = ∪∞ i=1 Ai × Bi ⊇ S.
Then by Lemma 9.42 again, ∪∞ i=1 A i ×B i = ∪ ∞
A
i=1 i
0
×B 0
i where the primed rectangles
are disjoint, each is a subset of some Ai × Bi and so
∞
X ∞
X
λ (S) + ε ≥ µ (Ai ) ν (Bi ) ≥ µ (A0i ) ν (Bi0 ) = ρ (Q) ≥ (µ × ν) (S) .
i=1 i=1
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows λ (S) ≥ (µ × ν) (S) and this proves the proposition.
Lemma 9.46 µ × ν is an outer measure on X × Y and for R ∈ R
(µ × ν) (R) = ρ (R) . (9.25)
Proof: First consider 9.25. Since R ⊇ R, it follows ρ (R) ≥ (µ × ν) (R) . On the

other hand, if Q ∈ R and Q ⊇ R, then ρ (Q) ≥ ρ (R) and so, taking the infimum
on the left yields (µ × ν) (R) ≥ ρ (R) . This shows 9.25.
It is necessary to show that if S ⊆ T, then
(µ × ν) (S) ≤ (µ × ν) (T ) , (9.26)
∞
X
(µ × ν) (∪∞
i=1 Si ) ≤ (µ × ν) (Si ) . (9.27)
i=1
To do this, note that 9.26 is obvious. To verify 9.27, note that it is obvious if
(µ × ν) (Si ) = ∞ for any i. Therefore, assume (µ × ν) (Si ) < ∞. Then letting ε > 0
be given, there exist Ri ∈ R such that
ε
(µ × ν) (Si ) + > ρ (Ri ) , Ri ⊇ Si .
2i
Then by Lemma 9.43, 9.25, and the observation that ∪∞

i=1 Ri ∈ R,
(µ × ν) (∪∞
i=1 Si ) ≤ (µ × ν) (∪∞ i=1 Ri )
X∞
= ρ (∪∞
i=1 Ri ) ≤ ρ (Ri )
i=1
∞ ³
X ε´
≤ (µ × ν) (Si ) +
i=1
2i
Ã∞ !
X
= (µ × ν) (Si ) + ε.
i=1
Since ε is arbitrary, this proves the lemma.

By Caratheodory’s procedure, it follows there is a σ algebra of subsets of X × Y,
denoted here by S × T such that (µ × ν) is a complete measure on this σ algebra.
The first thing to note is that every rectangle is in this σ algebra.
Lemma 9.47 Every rectangle is (µ × ν) measurable.
Proof: Let S ⊆ X × Y. The following inequality must be established.
(µ × ν) (S) ≥ (µ × ν) (S ∩ (A × B)) + (µ × ν) (S \ (A × B)) . (9.28)
The following claim will be used to establish this inequality.

Claim: Let P, A × B ∈ R. Then
ρ (P ∩ (A × B)) + ρ (P \ (A × B)) = ρ (P ) .
Proof of the claim: From Lemma 9.42, P = ∪∞ 0 0 0 0

i=1 Ai × Bi where the Ai × Bi
are disjoint. Therefore,
∞
[
P ∩ (A × B) = (A ∩ A0i ) × (B ∩ Bi0 )
i=1
while
∞
[ ∞
[
P \ (A × B) = (A0i \ A) × Bi0 ∪ (A ∩ A0i ) × (Bi0 \ B) .
i=1 i=1
Since all of the sets in the above unions are disjoint,
ρ (P ∩ (A × B)) + ρ (P \ (A × B)) =
Z Z X
∞ Z Z X
∞
X(A∩A0 ) (x) XB∩Bi0 (y) dµdν + X(A0 \A) (x) XBi0 (y) dµdν
i i
i=1 i=1
Z Z X
∞
+ XA∩A0i (x) XBi0 \B (y) dµdν
i=1
∞
X
= µ (A ∩ A0i ) ν (B ∩ Bi0 ) + µ (A0i \ A) ν (Bi0 ) + µ (A ∩ A0i ) ν (Bi0 \ B)
i=1
∞
X ∞
X
= µ (A ∩ A0i ) ν (Bi0 ) + µ (A0i \ A) ν (Bi0 ) = µ (A0i ) ν (Bi0 ) = ρ (P ) .
i=1 i=1
This proves the claim.

Now continuing to verify 9.28, without loss of generality, (µ × ν) (S) can be
assumed finite. Let P ⊇ S for P ∈ R and
(µ × ν) (S) + ε > ρ (P ) .
(µ × ν) (S) + ε > ρ (P ) = ρ (P ∩ (A × B)) + ρ (P \ (A × B))

≥ (µ × ν) (S ∩ (A × B)) + (µ × ν) (S \ (A × B)) .
Since ε > 0 this shows A × B is µ × ν measurable as claimed.
Lemma 9.48 Let R1 be defined as the set of all countable intersections of sets of
R. Then if S ⊆ X × Y, there exists R ∈ R1 for which it makes sense to write ρ (R)
because 9.21 and 9.22 hold such that
(µ × ν) (S) = ρ (R) . (9.29)
Also, every element of R1 is µ × ν measurable.
Proof: Consider 9.29. Let S ⊆ X × Y. If (µ × ν) (S) = ∞, let R = X × Y and

it follows ρ (X × Y ) = ∞ = (µ × ν) (S) . Assume then that (µ × ν) (S) < ∞.
Therefore, there exists Pn ∈ R such that Pn ⊇ S and
(µ × ν) (S) ≤ ρ (Pn ) < (µ × ν) (S) + 1/n. (9.30)
Let Qn = ∩ni=1 Pi ∈ R. Define
P ≡ ∩∞
i=1 Qi ⊇ S.
Then 9.30 holds with Qn in place of Pn . It is clear that
x → XP (x, y) is µ measurable
because this function is the pointwiseR limit of functions for which this is so. It
remains to consider whether y → XP (x, y) dµ is ν measurable. First observe
Qn ⊇ Qn+1 , XQi ≤ XPi , and
Z Z
ρ (Q1 ) = ρ (P1 ) = XP1 (x, y) dµdν < ∞. (9.31)
Therefore, there exists a set of ν measure 0, N, such that if y ∈

/ N, then
Z
XP1 (x, y) dµ < ∞.
It follows from the dominated convergence theorem that

Z Z
lim XN C (y) XQn (x, y) dµ = XN C (y) XP (x, y) dµ
n→∞
and so Z
y → XN C (y) XP (x, y) dµ
is also measurable. By completeness of ν,

Z
y → XP (x, y) dµ
must also be ν measurable and so it makes sense to write

Z Z
XP (x, y) dµdν
for every P ∈ R1 . Also, by the dominated convergence theorem,

Z Z Z Z
XP (x, y) dµdν = XN C (y) XP (x, y) dµdν
Z Z
= lim XN C (y) XQn (x, y) dµdν
n→∞
Z Z
= lim XQn (x, y) dµdν
n→∞
= lim ρ (Qn ) ∈ [(µ × ν) (S) , (µ × ν) (S) + 1/n]

n→∞
for all n. Therefore,

Z Z
ρ (P ) ≡ XP (x, y) dµdν = (µ × ν) (S) .
The sets of R1 are µ × ν measurable because these sets are countable intersec-
tions of countable unions of rectangles and Lemma 9.47 verifies the rectangles are
µ × ν measurable. This proves the Lemma.
The following theorem is the main result.
Theorem 9.49 Let E ⊆ X ×Y be µ × ν measurable and suppose (µ × ν) (E) < ∞.

Then
x → XE (x, y) is µ measurable a.e. y.
Modifying XE on a set of measure zero, it is possible to write
Z
XE (x, y) dµ.
The function, Z
y→ XE (x, y) dµ
is ν measurable and
Z Z
(µ × ν) (E) = XE (x, y) dµdν.
Similarly, Z Z
(µ × ν) (E) = XE (x, y) dνdµ.
Proof: By Lemma 9.48, there exists R ∈ R1 such that
ρ (R) = (µ × ν) (E) , R ⊇ E.
Therefore, since R is µ × ν measurable and ρ (R) = (µ × ν) (R), it follows
(µ × ν) (R \ E) = 0.
By Lemma 9.48 again, there exists P ⊇ R \ E with P ∈ R1 and
ρ (P ) = (µ × ν) (R \ E) = 0.
Thus Z Z
XP (x, y) dµdν = 0. (9.32)
Since P ∈ R1 Lemma 9.48 implies x → XP (x, y) is µ measurable and it follows

from
R the above there exists a set of ν measure zero, N such that if y ∈
/ N, then
XP (x, y) dµ = 0. Therefore, by completeness of ν,
x → XN C (y) XR\E (x, y)
is µ measurable and Z
XN C (y) XR\E (x, y) dµ = 0. (9.33)
Now also
XN C (y) XR (x, y) = XN C (y) XR\E (x, y) + XN C (y) XE (x, y) (9.34)
and this shows that

x → XN C (y) XE (x, y)
is µ measurable because it is the difference of two functions with this property.
Then by 9.33 it follows
Z Z
XN C (y) XE (x, y) dµ = XN C (y) XR (x, y) dµ.
The right side of this equation equals a ν measurable function and so the left side
R it is also a ν measurable function. It follows from completeness of ν
which equals
that y → XE (x,Ry) dµ is ν measurable because for y outside of a set of ν measure
zero, N it equals XR (x, y) dµ. Therefore,
Z Z Z Z
XE (x, y) dµdν = XN C (y) XE (x, y) dµdν
Z Z
= XN C (y) XR (x, y) dµdν
Z Z
= XR (x, y) dµdν
= ρ (R) = (µ × ν) (E) .
In all the above there would be no change in writing dνdµ instead of dµdν. The
same result would be obtained. This proves the theorem.
Now let f : X × Y → [0, ∞] be µ × ν measurable and
Z
f d (µ × ν) < ∞. (9.35)
Pm
Let s (x, y) ≡ i=1 ci XEi (x, y) be a nonnegative simple function with ci being the
nonzero values of s and suppose
0 ≤ s ≤ f.
Then from the above theorem,

Z Z Z
sd (µ × ν) = sdµdν
In which Z Z
sdµ = XN C (y) sdµ
R
for N a set of ν measure zero such that y → XN C (y) sdµ is ν measurable. This
follows because 9.35 implies (µ × ν) (Ei ) < ∞. Now let sn ↑ f where sn is a non-
negative simple function and
Z Z Z
sn d (µ × ν) = XNnC (y) sn (x, y) dµdν
where Z
y→ XNnC (y) sn (x, y) dµ
is ν measurable. Then let N ≡ ∪∞ n=1 Nn . It follows N is a set of ν measure zero.

Thus Z Z Z
sn d (µ × ν) = XN C (y) sn (x, y) dµdν
and letting n → ∞, the monotone convergence theorem implies

Z Z Z
f d (µ × ν) = XN C (y) f (x, y) dµdν
Z Z
= f (x, y) dµdν
because of completeness of the measures, µ and ν. This proves Fubini’s theorem.
Theorem 9.50 (Fubini) Let (X, S, µ) and (Y, T , ν) be complete measure spaces
and let ½Z Z ¾
(µ × ν) (E) ≡ inf XR (x, y) dµdν : E ⊆ R ∈ R 2
where Ai ∈ S and Bi ∈ T . Then µ × ν is an outer measure on the subsets of

X × Y and the σ algebra of µ × ν measurable sets, S × T , contains all measurable
rectangles. If f ≥ 0 is a µ × ν measurable function satisfying
Z
f d (µ × ν) < ∞, (9.36)
X×Y
then Z Z Z
f d (µ × ν) = f dµdν,
X×Y Y X
where the iterated integral Ron the right makes sense because for ν a.e. y, x → f (x, y)
is µ measurable and y → f (x, y) dµ is ν measurable. Similarly,
Z Z Z
f d (µ × ν) = f dνdµ.
X×Y X Y
In the case where (X, S, µ) and (Y, T , ν) are both σ finite, it is not necessary to
assume 9.36.
Corollary 9.51 (Fubini) Let (X, S, µ) and (Y, T , ν) be complete measure spaces
such that (X, S, µ) and (Y, T , ν) are both σ finite and let
½Z Z ¾
(µ × ν) (E) ≡ inf XR (x, y) dµdν : E ⊆ R ∈ R
where Ai ∈ S and Bi ∈ T . Then µ × ν is an outer measure. If f ≥ 0 is a µ × ν

measurable function then
Z Z Z
f d (µ × ν) = f dµdν,
X×Y Y X
2 Recall this is the same as
(∞ )
X
inf µ (Ai ) ν (Bi ) : E ⊆ ∪∞
i=1 Ai × Bi
i=1
in which the Ai and Bi are measurable.

where the iterated integral Ron the right makes sense because for ν a.e. y, x → f (x, y)
is µ measurable and y → f (x, y) dµ is ν measurable. Similarly,
Z Z Z
f d (µ × ν) = f dνdµ.
X×Y X Y
Proof: Let ∪∞ ∞
n=1 Xn = X and ∪n=1 Yn = Y where Xn ∈ S, Yn ∈ T , Xn ⊆
Xn+1 , Yn ⊆ Yn+1 for all n and µ (Xn ) < ∞, ν (Yn ) < ∞. From Theorem 9.50
applied to Xn , Yn and fm ≡ min (f, m) ,
Z Z Z
fm d (µ × ν) = fm dµdν
Xn ×Yn Yn Xn
Now take m → ∞ and use the monotone convergence theorem to obtain

Z Z Z
f d (µ × ν) = f dµdν.
Xn ×Yn Yn Xn
Then use the monotone convergence theorem again letting n → ∞ to obtain the
desired conclusion. The argument for the other order of integration is similar.
Corollary 9.52 If f ∈ L1 (X × Y ) , then

Z Z Z Z Z
f d (µ × ν) = f (x, y) dµdν = f (x, y) dνdµ.
If µ and
R Rν are σ finite, thenRifR f is µ × ν measurableR having complex values and
either |f | dµdν < ∞ or |f | dνdµ < ∞, then |f | d (µ × ν) < ∞ so f ∈
L1 (X × Y ) .
Proof: Without loss of generality, it can be assumed that f has real values.
Then
|f | + f − (|f | − f )
f=
2
and both
R f + ≡ |f |+f
2 and f − ≡ |f |−f
2 are nonnegative and are less than |f |. There-
fore, gd (µ × ν) < ∞ for g = f + and g = f − so the above theorem applies and
Z Z Z
f d (µ × ν) ≡ f + d (µ × ν) − f − d (µ × ν)
Z Z Z Z
= f + dµdν − f − dµdν
Z Z
= f dµdν.
It remains to verify the last claim. Suppose s is a simple function,

m
X
s (x, y) ≡ ci XEi ≤ |f | (x, y)
i=1
9.8. ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT OF PRODUCT MEASURE 245
where the ci are the nonzero values of s. Then
sXRn ≤ |f | XRn
where Rn ≡ Xn × Yn where Xn ↑ X and Yn ↑ Y with µ (Xn ) < ∞ and ν (Yn ) < ∞.

It follows, since the nonzero values of sXRn are achieved on sets of finite measure,
Z Z Z
sXRn d (µ × ν) = sXRn dµdν.
Letting n → ∞ and applying the monotone convergence theorem, this yields

Z Z Z
sd (µ × ν) = sdµdν. (9.37)
Now let sn ↑ |f | where sn is a nonnegative simple function. From 9.37,

Z Z Z
sn d (µ × ν) = sn dµdν.
Letting n → ∞ and using the monotone convergence theorem, yields

Z Z Z
|f | d (µ × ν) = |f | dµdν < ∞
9.8 Alternative Treatment Of Product Measure

9.8.1 Monotone Classes And Algebras
Measures are defined on σ algebras which are closed under countable unions. It is
for this reason that the theory of measure and integration is so useful in dealing
with limits of sequences. However, there is a more basic notion which involves only
finite unions and differences.
Definition 9.53 A is said to be an algebra of subsets of a set, Z if Z ∈ A, ∅ ∈ A,

and when E, F ∈ A, E ∪ F and E \ F are both in A.
It is important to note that if A is an algebra, then it is also closed under finite

intersections. This is because E ∩ F = (E C ∪ F C )C ∈ A since E C = Z \ E ∈ A and
F C = Z \ F ∈ A. Note that every σ algebra is an algebra but not the other way
around.
Something satisfying the above definition is called an algebra because union is
like addition, the set difference is like subtraction and intersection is like multipli-
cation. Furthermore, only finitely many operations are done at a time and so there
is nothing like a limit involved.
How can you recognize an algebra when you see one? The answer to this question
is the purpose of the following lemma.
Lemma 9.54 Suppose R and E are subsets of P(Z)3 such that E is defined as the
set of all finite disjoint unions of sets of R. Suppose also
∅, Z ∈ R
A ∩ B ∈ R whenever A, B ∈ R,
A \ B ∈ E whenever A, B ∈ R.
Then E is an algebra of sets of Z.
Proof: Note first that if A ∈ R, then AC ∈ E because AC = Z \ A.

Now suppose that E1 and E2 are in E,
E1 = ∪m n
i=1 Ri , E2 = ∪j=1 Rj
where the Ri are disjoint sets in R and the Rj are disjoint sets in R. Then
E1 ∩ E2 = ∪m n
i=1 ∪j=1 Ri ∩ Rj
which is clearly an element of E because no two of the sets in the union can intersect
and by assumption they are all in R. Thus by induction, finite intersections of sets
of E are in E. Consider the difference of two elements of E next.
If E = ∪ni=1 Ri ∈ E,
E C = ∩ni=1 RiC = finite intersection of sets of E
which was just shown to be in E. Now, if E1 , E2 ∈ E,
E1 \ E2 = E1 ∩ E2C ∈ E
from what was just shown about finite intersections.

Finally consider finite unions of sets of E. Let E1 and E2 be sets of E. Then
E1 ∪ E2 = (E1 \ E2 ) ∪ E2 ∈ E
because E1 \ E2 consists of a finite disjoint union of sets of R and these sets must
be disjoint from the sets of R whose union yields E2 because (E1 \ E2 ) ∩ E2 = ∅.
The following corollary is particularly helpful in verifying the conditions of the
above lemma.
Corollary 9.55 Let (Z1 , R1 , E1 ) and (Z2 , R2 , E2 ) be as described in Lemma 9.54.

Then (Z1 × Z2 , R, E) also satisfies the conditions of Lemma 9.54 if R is defined as
R ≡ {R1 × R2 : Ri ∈ Ri }
and
E ≡ { finite disjoint unions of sets of R}.
Consequently, E is an algebra of sets.
3 Set of all subsets of Z
Proof: It is clear ∅, Z1 × Z2 ∈ R. Let A × B and C × D be two elements of R.
A×B∩C ×D =A∩C ×B∩D ∈R
by assumption.
A × B \ (C × D) =
∈E2 ∈E1 ∈R2
z }| { z }| { z }| {
A × (B \ D) ∪ (A \ C) × (D ∩ B)
= (A × Q) ∪ (P × R)
where Q ∈ E2 , P ∈ E1 , and R ∈ R2 .
C
D
B
Since A × Q and P × R do not intersect, it follows the above expression is in E

because each of these terms are. This proves the corollary.
Definition 9.56 M ⊆ P(Z) is called a monotone class if

a.) · · ·En ⊇ En+1 · ··, E = ∩∞
n=1 En, and En ∈ M, then E ∈ M.
b.) · · ·En ⊆ En+1 · ··, E = ∪∞
n=1 En , and En ∈ M, then E ∈ M.
(In simpler notation, En ↓ E and En ∈ M implies E ∈ M. En ↑ E and En ∈ M
implies E ∈ M.)
Theorem 9.57 (Monotone Class theorem) Let A be an algebra of subsets of Z and

let M be a monotone class containing A. Then M ⊇ σ(A), the smallest σ-algebra
containing A.
Proof: Consider all monotone classes which contain A, and take their inter-
section. The result is still a monotone class which contains A and is therefore the
smallest monotone class containing A. Therefore, assume without loss of general-
ity that M is the smallest monotone class containing A because if it is shown the
smallest monotone class containing A contains σ (A), then the given monotone class
does also. To avoid more notation, let M denote this smallest monotone class.
The plan is to show M is a σ-algebra. It will then follow M ⊇ σ(A) because
σ (A) is defined as the intersection of all σ algebras which contain A. For A ∈ A,
define
MA ≡ {B ∈ M such that A ∪ B ∈ M}.
Clearly MA is a monotone class containing A. Hence MA ⊇ M because M is
the smallest such monotone class. But by construction, MA ⊆ M. Therefore,
M = MA . This shows that A ∪ B ∈ M whenever A ∈ A and B ∈ M. Now pick

B ∈ M and define
MB ≡ {D ∈ M such that D ∪ B ∈ M}.
It was just shown that A ⊆ MB . It is clear that MB is a monotone class. Thus

by a similar argument, MB = M and it follows that D ∪ B ∈ M whenever D ∈ M
and B ∈ M. This shows M is closed under finite unions.
Next consider the diference of two sets. Let A ∈ A
MA ≡ {B ∈ M such that B \ A and A \ B ∈ M}.
Then MA , is a monotone class containing A. As before, M = MA . Thus B \ A

and A \ B are both in M whenever A ∈ A and B ∈ M. Now pick A ∈ M and
consider
MA ≡ {B ∈ M such that B \ A and A \ B ∈ M}.
It was just shown MA contains A. Now MA is a monotone class and so MA = M

as before.
Thus M is both a monotone class and an algebra. Hence, if E ∈ M then
Z \ E ∈ M. Next consider the question of whether M is a σ-algebra. If Ei ∈ M
and Fn = ∪ni=1 Ei , then Fn ∈ M and Fn ↑ ∪∞ i=1 Ei . Since M is a monotone class,
∪∞ E
i=1 i ∈ M and so M is a σ-algebra. This proves the theorem.
9.8.2 Product Measure

Definition 9.58 Let (X, S, µ) and (Y, F, λ) be two measure spaces. A measurable
rectangle is a set A×B ⊆ X ×Y where A ∈ S and B ∈ F. An elementary set will be
any subset of X × Y which is a finite union of disjoint measurable rectangles. S × F
will denote the smallest σ algebra of sets in P(X × Y ) containing all elementary
sets.
Example 9.59 It follows from Lemma 9.54 or more easily from Corollary 9.55
that the elementary sets form an algebra.
Definition 9.60 Let E ⊆ X × Y,
Ex = {y ∈ Y : (x, y) ∈ E},
E y = {x ∈ X : (x, y) ∈ E}.
These are called the x and y sections.

Ex
X
x
Theorem 9.61 If E ∈ S × F, then Ex ∈ F and E y ∈ S for all x ∈ X and y ∈ Y .
Proof: Let
M = {E ⊆ S × F such that for all x ∈ X, Ex ∈ F,
and for all y ∈ Y, E y ∈ S.}

Then M contains all measurable rectangles. If Ei ∈ M,
(∪∞ ∞
i=1 Ei )x = ∪i=1 (Ei )x ∈ F.
Similarly,
y y
(∪∞ ∞
i=1 Ei ) = ∪i=1 Ei ∈ S.
It follows M is closed under countable unions.

If E ∈ M,
¡ C¢ C
E x = (Ex ) ∈ F.
¡ ¢y
Similarly, E C ∈ S. Thus M is closed under complementation. Therefore M is a
σ-algebra containing the elementary sets. Hence, M ⊇ S × Fbecause S × F is the
smallest σ algebra containing these elementary sets. But M ⊆ S × Fby definition
and so M = S × F. This proves the theorem.
It follows from Lemma 9.54 that the elementary sets form an algebra because
clearly the intersection of two measurable rectangles is a measurable rectangle and
(A × B) \ (A0 × B0 ) = (A \ A0 ) × B ∪ (A ∩ A0 ) × (B \ B0 ),
an elementary set.
Theorem 9.62 If (X, S, µ) and (Y, F, λ) are both finite measure spaces (µ(X),
λ(Y ) < ∞), then for every E ∈ S × F,
a.) Rx → λ(Ex ) is µR measurable, y → µ(E y ) is λ measurable
b.) X λ(Ex )dµ = Y µ(E y )dλ.
Proof: Let
M = {E ∈ S × F such that both a.) and b.) hold} .
Since µ and λ are both finite, the monotone convergence and dominated convergence
theorems imply M is a monotone class.
Next I will argue M contains the elementary sets. Let
E = ∪ni=1 Ai × Bi
where the measurable rectangles, Ai × Bi are disjoint. Then

Z Z X n
λ (Ex ) = XE (x, y) dλ = XAi ×Bi (x, y) dλ
Y Y i=1
n Z
X n
X
= XAi ×Bi (x, y) dλ = XAi (x) λ (Bi )
i=1 Y i=1
which is clearly µ measurable. Furthermore,

Z Z X
n n
X
λ (Ex ) dµ = XAi (x) λ (Bi ) dµ = µ (Ai ) λ (Bi ) .
X X i=1 i=1
Similarly,
Z n
X
µ (E y ) dλ = µ (Ai ) λ (Bi )
Y i=1
and y → µ (E y ) is λ measurable and this shows M contains the algebra of elemen-

tary sets. By the monotone class theorem, M = S × F. This proves the theorem.
One can easily extend this theorem to the case where the measure spaces are σ
finite.
Theorem 9.63 If (X, S, µ) and (Y, F, λ) are both σ finite measure spaces, then for
every E ∈ S × F,
a.) Rx → λ(Ex ) is µR measurable, y → µ(E y ) is λ measurable.
b.) X λ(Ex )dµ = Y µ(E y )dλ.
Proof: Let X = ∪∞ ∞
n=1 Xn , Y = ∪n=1 Yn where,
Xn ⊆ Xn+1 , Yn ⊆ Yn+1 , µ (Xn ) < ∞, λ(Yn ) < ∞.
Let
Sn = {A ∩ Xn : A ∈ S}, Fn = {B ∩ Yn : B ∈ F}.
Thus (Xn , Sn , µ) and (Yn , Fn , λ) are both finite measure spaces.
Claim: If E ∈ S × F, then E ∩ (Xn × Yn ) ∈ Sn × Fn .
Proof: Let
Mn = {E ∈ S × F : E ∩ (Xn × Yn ) ∈ Sn × Fn } .
Clearly Mn contains the algebra of elementary sets. It is also clear that Mn is a

monotone class. Thus Mn = S × F.
Now let E ∈ S × F. By Theorem 9.62,
Z Z
λ((E ∩ (Xn × Yn ))x )dµ = µ((E ∩ (Xn × Yn ))y )dλ (9.38)
Xn Yn
where the integrands are measurable. Also
(E ∩ (Xn × Yn ))x = ∅
if x ∈
/ Xn and a similar observation holds for the second integrand in 9.38 if y ∈
/ Yn .
Therefore,
Z Z
λ((E ∩ (Xn × Yn ))x )dµ = λ((E ∩ (Xn × Yn ))x )dµ
X Xn
Z
= µ((E ∩ (Xn × Yn ))y )dλ
ZYn
= µ((E ∩ (Xn × Yn ))y )dλ.
Y
Then letting n → ∞, the monotone convergence theorem implies b.) and the
measurability assertions of a.) are valid because
λ (Ex ) = lim λ((E ∩ (Xn × Yn ))x )

n→∞
µ (E y ) = lim µ((E ∩ (Xn × Yn ))y ).
n→∞

This theorem makes it possible to define product measure.
RDefinition 9.64R For yE ∈ S × F and (X, S, µ), (Y, F, λ) σ finite, (µ × λ)(E) ≡

X
λ(E x )dµ = Y
µ(E )dλ.
This definition is well defined because of Theorem 9.63.
Theorem 9.65 If A ∈ S, B ∈ F, then (µ × λ)(A × B) = µ(A)λ(B), and µ × λ is

a measure on S × F called product measure.
Proof: The first assertion about the measure of a measurable rectangle was
∞
established above. Now suppose {Ei }i=1 is a disjoint collection of sets of S × F.
Then using the monotone convergence theorem along with the observation that
(Ei )x ∩ (Ej )x = ∅,
Z
(µ × λ) (∪∞
i=1 Ei ) = λ((∪∞
i=1 Ei )x )dµ
X
Z Z X
∞
= λ (∪∞
i=1 (Ei )x ) dµ = λ ((Ei )x ) dµ
X X i=1
∞ Z
X
= λ ((Ei )x ) dµ
i=1 X
X∞
= (µ × λ) (Ei )
i=1

The next theorem is one of several theorems due to Fubini and Tonelli. These
theorems all have to do with interchanging the order of integration in a multiple
integral.
Theorem 9.66 Let f : X × Y → [0, ∞] be measurable with respect to S × F and
suppose µ and λ are σ finite. Then
Z Z Z Z Z
f d(µ × λ) = f (x, y)dλdµ = f (x, y)dµdλ (9.39)
X×Y X Y Y X
and all integrals make sense.

Proof: For E ∈ S × F,
Z Z
XE (x, y)dλ = λ(Ex ), XE (x, y)dµ = µ(E y ).
Y X
Thus from Definition 9.64, 9.39 holds if f = XE . It follows that 9.39 holds for
every nonnegative simple function. By Theorem 8.27 on Page 190, there exists an
increasing sequence, {fn }, of simple functions converging pointwise to f . Then
Z Z
f (x, y)dλ = lim fn (x, y)dλ,
Y n→∞ Y
Z Z
f (x, y)dµ = lim fn (x, y)dµ.
X n→∞ X
This follows from the monotone convergence theorem. Since
Z
x→ fn (x, y)dλ
Y
R
is measurable with respect to S, it follows that x → Y f (x, y)dλR is also measurable
with respect to S. A similar conclusion can be drawn about y → X f (x, y)dµ. Thus
the two iterated integrals make sense. Since 9.39 holds for fn, another application
of the Monotone Convergence theorem shows 9.39 holds for f . This proves the
theorem.
9.9. COMPLETION OF MEASURES 253
R R
Corollary
R R 9.67 Let f : X×Y → C be S × F measurable. Suppose either X Y
|f | dλdµ
or Y X |f | dµdλ < ∞. Then f ∈ L1 (X × Y, µ × λ) and
Z Z Z Z Z
f d(µ × λ) = f dλdµ = f dµdλ (9.40)
X×Y X Y Y X
with all integrals making sense.
Proof : Suppose first that f is real valued. Apply Theorem 9.66 to f + and
f . 9.40 follows from observing that f = f + − f − ; and that all integrals are finite.
−
If f is complex valued, consider real and imaginary parts. This proves the corollary.
Suppose f is product measurable. From the above discussion, and breaking f
down into a sum of positive and negative parts of real and imaginary parts and then
using Theorem 8.27 on Page 190 on approximation by simple functions, it follows
that whenever f is S × F measurable, x → f (x, y) is µ measurable, y → f (x, y) is
λ measurable.
9.9 Completion Of Measures

Suppose (Ω, F, µ) is a measure space. Then it is always possible to enlarge
¡ the¢ σ
algebra and define a new measure µ on this larger σ algebra such that Ω, F, µ is
a complete measure space. Recall this means that if N ⊆ N 0 ∈ F and µ (N 0 ) = 0,
then N ∈ F. The following theorem is the main result. The new measure space is
called the completion of the measure space.
Theorem 9.68 Let (Ω, ¡ F, µ) ¢be a σ finite measure space. Then there exists a
unique measure space, Ω, F, µ satisfying
¡ ¢
1. Ω, F, µ is a complete measure space.
2. µ = µ on F
3. F ⊇ F
4. For every E ∈ F there exists G ∈ F such that G ⊇ E and µ (G) = µ (E) .
5. For every E ∈ F there exists F ∈ F such that F ⊆ E and µ (F ) = µ (E) .
Also for every E ∈ F there exist sets G, F ∈ F such that G ⊇ E ⊇ F and
µ (G \ F ) = µ (G \ F ) = 0 (9.41)
Proof: First consider the claim about uniqueness. Suppose (Ω, F1 , ν 1 ) and
(Ω, F2 , ν 2 ) both work and let E ∈ F1 . Also let µ (Ωn ) < ∞, · · ·Ωn ⊆ Ωn+1 · ··, and
∪∞
n=1 Ωn = Ω. Define En ≡ E ∩ Ωn . Then pick Gn ⊇ En ⊇ Fn such that µ (Gn ) =
µ (Fn ) = ν 1 (En ). It follows µ (Gn \ Fn ) = 0. Then letting G = ∪n Gn , F ≡ ∪n Fn ,

it follows G ⊇ E ⊇ F and
µ (G \ F ) ≤ µ (∪n (Gn \ Fn ))
X
≤ µ (Gn \ Fn ) = 0.
n
It follows that ν 2 (G \ F ) = 0 also. Now E \ F ⊆ G \ F and since (Ω, F2 , ν 2 ) is

complete, it follows E \ F ∈ F2 . Since F ∈ F2 , it follows E = (E \ F ) ∪ F ∈ F2 .
Thus F1 ⊆ F2 . Similarly F2 ⊆ F1 . Now it only remains to verify ν 1 = ν 2 . Thus let
E ∈ F1 = F2 and let G and F be as just described. Since ν i = µ on F,
µ (F ) ≤ ν 1 (E)
= ν 1 (E \ F ) + ν 1 (F )
≤ ν 1 (G \ F ) + ν 1 (F )
= ν 1 (F ) = µ (F )
Similarly ν 2 (E) = µ (F ) . This proves uniqueness. The construction has also verified
9.41.
Next define an outer measure, µ on P (Ω) as follows. For S ⊆ Ω,
µ (S) ≡ inf {µ (E) : E ∈ F} .
Then it is clear µ is increasing. It only remains to verify µ is subadditive. Then let
S = ∪∞i=1 Si . If any µ (Si ) = ∞, there is nothing to prove so suppose µ (Si ) < ∞ for
each i. Then there exist Ei ∈ F such that Ei ⊇ Si and
µ (Si ) + ε/2i > µ (Ei ) .
Then
µ (S) = µ (∪i Si )
X
≤ µ (∪i Ei ) ≤ µ (Ei )
i
X¡ ¢ X
≤ µ (Si ) + ε/2i = µ (Si ) + ε.
i i
Since ε is arbitrary, this verifies µ is subadditive and is an outer measure as claimed.

Denote by F the σ algebra of measurable sets in the sense of Caratheodory.
Then
¡ it ¢follows from the Caratheodory procedure, Theorem 9.4, on Page 210 that
Ω, F, µ is a complete measure space. This verifies 1.
Now let E ∈ F . Then from the definition of µ, it follows
µ (E) ≡ inf {µ (F ) : F ∈ F and F ⊇ E} ≤ µ (E) .
If F ⊇ E and F ∈ F, then µ (F ) ≥ µ (E) and so µ (E) is a lower bound for all such
µ (F ) which shows that
µ (E) ≡ inf {µ (F ) : F ∈ F and F ⊇ E} ≥ µ (E) .
9.9. COMPLETION OF MEASURES 255
This verifies 2.
Next consider 3. Let E ∈ F and let S be a set. I must show
µ (S) ≥ µ (S \ E) + µ (S ∩ E) .
If µ (S) = ∞ there is nothing to show. Therefore, suppose µ (S) < ∞. Then from
the definition of µ there exists G ⊇ S such that G ∈ F and µ (G) = µ (S) . Then
from the definition of µ,
µ (S) ≤ µ (S \ E) + µ (S ∩ E)
≤ µ (G \ E) + µ (G ∩ E)
= µ (G) = µ (S)
This verifies 3.
Claim 4 comes by the definition of µ as used above. The only other case is when
µ (S) = ∞. However, in this case, you can let G = Ω.
It only remains to verify 5. Let the Ωn be as described above and let E ∈ F
such that E ⊆ Ωn . By 4 there exists H ∈ F such that H ⊆ Ωn , H ⊇ Ωn \ E, and
µ (H) = µ (Ωn \ E) . (9.42)
Then let F ≡ Ωn ∩ H C . It follows F ⊆ E and

¡ ¢
E\F = E ∩ F C = E ∩ H ∪ ΩC n
= E ∩ H = H \ (Ωn \ E)
Hence from 9.42

µ (E \ F ) = µ (H \ (Ωn \ E)) = 0.
It follows
µ (E) = µ (F ) = µ (F ) .
In the case where E ∈ F is arbitrary, not necessarily contained in some Ωn , it
follows from what was just shown that there exists Fn ∈ F such that Fn ⊆ E ∩ Ωn
and
µ (Fn ) = µ (E ∩ Ωn ) .
Letting F ≡ ∪n Fn
X
µ (E \ F ) ≤ µ (∪n (E ∩ Ωn \ Fn )) ≤ µ (E ∩ Ωn \ Fn ) = 0.
n
Therefore, µ (E) = µ (F ) and this proves 5. This proves the theorem.

Now here is an interesting theorem about complete measure spaces.
Theorem 9.69 Let (Ω, F, µ) be a complete measure space and let f ≤ g ≤ h be

functions having values in [0, ∞] . Suppose also that f (ω)
¡ = h (ω)
¢ a.e. ω and that
f and h are measurable. Then g is also measurable. If Ω, F, µ is the completion
of a σ finite measure space (Ω, F, µ) as described above in Theorem 9.68 then if f

is measurable with respect to F having values in [0, ∞] , it follows there exists g
measurable with respect to F , g ≤ f, and a set N ∈ F with µ (N ) = 0 and g = f
on N C . There also exists h measurable with respect to F such that h ≥ f, and a
set of measure zero, M ∈ F such that f = h on M C .
Proof: Let α ∈ R.
[f > α] ⊆ [g > α] ⊆ [h > α]
Thus
[g > α] = [f > α] ∪ ([g > α] \ [f > α])
and [g > α] \ [f > α] is a measurable set because it is a subset of the set of measure
zero,
[h > α] \ [f > α] .
Now consider the last assertion. By Theorem 8.27 on Page 190 there exists an
increasing sequence of nonnegative simple functions, {sn } measurable with respect
to F which converges pointwise to f . Letting
mn
X
sn (ω) = cnk XEkn (ω) (9.43)
k=1
be one of these simple functions, it follows from Theorem 9.68 there exist sets,
Fkn ∈ F such that Fkn ⊆ Ekn and µ (Fkn ) = µ (Ekn ) . Then let
mn
X
k=1
Thus tn = sn off a set of measure zero, Nn ∈ F, tn ≤ sn . Let N 0 ≡ ∪n Nn . Then by

Theorem 9.68 again, there exists N ∈ F such that N ⊇ N 0 and µ (N ) = 0. Consider
the simple functions,
s0n (ω) ≡ tn (ω) XN C (ω) .
It is an increasing sequence so let g (ω) = limn→∞ sn0 (ω) . It follows g is mesurable
with respect to F and equals f off N .
Finally, to obtain the function, h ≥ f, in 9.43 use Theorem 9.68 to obtain the
existence of Fkn ∈ F such that Fkn ⊇ Ekn and µ (Fkn ) = µ (Ekn ). Then let
mn
X
k=1
Thus tn = sn off a set of measure zero, Mn ∈ F, tn ≥ sn , and tn is measurable with

respect to F. Then define
s0n = max tn .
k≤n
It follows s0n is an increasing sequence of F measurable nonnegative simple functions.
Since each s0n ≥ sn , it follows that if h (ω) = limn→∞ s0n (ω) ,then h (ω) ≥ f (ω) .
Also if h (ω) > f (ω) , then ω ∈ ∪n Mn ≡ M 0 , a set of F having measure zero. By
Theorem 9.68, there exists M ⊇ M 0 such that M ∈ F and µ (M ) = 0. It follows
h = f off M. This proves the theorem.
9.10. ANOTHER VERSION OF PRODUCT MEASURES 257
9.10 Another Version Of Product Measures

9.10.1 General Theory
Given two finite measure spaces, (X, F, µ) and (Y, S, ν) , there is a way to define a
σ algebra of subsets of X × Y , denoted by F × S and a measure, denoted by µ × ν
defined on this σ algebra such that
µ × ν (A × B) = µ (A) λ (B)
whenever A ∈ F and B ∈ S. This is naturally related to the concept of iterated

integrals similar to what is used in calculus to evaluate a multiple integral. The
approach is based on something called a π system, [15].
Definition 9.70 Let (X, F, µ) and (Y, S, ν) be two measure spaces. A measurable
rectangle is a set of the form A × B where A ∈ F and B ∈ S.
Definition 9.71 Let Ω be a set and let K be a collection of subsets of Ω. Then K

is called a π system if ∅ ∈ K and whenever A, B ∈ K, it follows A ∩ B ∈ K.
Obviously an example of a π system is the set of measurable rectangles because
A × B ∩ A0 × B 0 = (A ∩ A0 ) × (B ∩ B 0 ) .
The following is the fundamental lemma which shows these π systems are useful.
Lemma 9.72 Let K be a π system of subsets of Ω, a set. Also let G be a collection

of subsets of Ω which satisfies the following three properties.
1. K ⊆ G
2. If A ∈ G, then AC ∈ G
∞
3. If {Ai }i=1 is a sequence of disjoint sets from G then ∪∞
i=1 Ai ∈ G.
Then G ⊇ σ (K) , where σ (K) is the smallest σ algebra which contains K.
Proof: First note that if
H ≡ {G : 1 - 3 all hold}
then ∩H yields a collection of sets which also satisfies 1 - 3. Therefore, I will assume
in the argument that G is the smallest collection satisfying 1 - 3. Let A ∈ K and
define
GA ≡ {B ∈ G : A ∩ B ∈ G} .
I want to show GA satisfies 1 - 3 because then it must equal G since G is the smallest
collection of subsets of Ω which satisfies 1 - 3. This will give the conclusion that for
A ∈ K and B ∈ G, A ∩ B ∈ G. This information will then be used to show that if
A, B ∈ G then A ∩ B ∈ G. From this it will follow very easily that G is a σ algebra

which will imply it contains σ (K). Now here are the details of the argument.
Since K is given to be a π system, K ⊆ G A . Property 3 is obvious because if
{Bi } is a sequence of disjoint sets in GA , then
A ∩ ∪∞ ∞
i=1 Bi = ∪i=1 A ∩ Bi ∈ G
because A ∩ Bi ∈ G and the property 3 of G.

It remains to verify Property 2 so let B ∈ GA . I need to verify that B C ∈ GA .
In other words, I need to show that A ∩ B C ∈ G. However,
¡ ¢C
A ∩ B C = AC ∪ (A ∩ B) ∈ G
Here is why. Since B ∈ GA , A ∩ B ∈ G and since A ∈ K ⊆ G it follows AC ∈ G. It

follows the union of the disjoint sets, AC and (A ∩ B) is in G and then from 2 the
complement of their union is in G. Thus GA satisfies 1 - 3 and this implies since G is
the smallest such, that GA ⊇ G. However, GA is constructed as a subset of G. This
proves that for every B ∈ G and A ∈ K, A ∩ B ∈ G. Now pick B ∈ G and consider
GB ≡ {A ∈ G : A ∩ B ∈ G} .
I just proved K ⊆ GB . The other arguments are identical to show GB satisfies 1 - 3

and is therefore equal to G. This shows that whenever A, B ∈ G it follows A∩B ∈ G.
This implies G is a σ algebra. To show this, all that is left is to verify G is closed
under countable unions because then it follows G is a σ algebra. Let {Ai } ⊆ G.
Then let A01 = A1 and
A0n+1 ≡ An+1 \ (∪ni=1 Ai )

¡ ¢
= An+1 ∩ ∩ni=1 AC i
¡ ¢
= ∩ni=1 An+1 ∩ AC i ∈G
because finite intersections of sets of G are in G. Since the A0i are disjoint, it follows
∪∞ ∞ 0
i=1 Ai = ∪i=1 Ai ∈ G
Therefore, G ⊇ σ (K) and this proves the Lemma.

With this lemma, it is easy to define product measure.
Let (X, F, µ) and (Y, S, ν) be two finite measure spaces. Define K to be the set
of measurable rectangles, A × B, A ∈ F and B ∈ S. Let
½ Z Z Z Z ¾
G ≡ E ⊆X ×Y : XE dµdν = XE dνdµ (9.44)
Y X X Y
where in the above, part of the requirement is for all integrals to make sense.
Then K ⊆ G. This is obvious.
Next I want to show that if E ∈ G then E C ∈ G. Observe XE C = 1 − XE and so

Z Z Z Z
XE C dµdν = (1 − XE ) dµdν
Y X
ZY ZX
= (1 − XE ) dνdµ
ZX ZY
= XE C dνdµ
X Y
C
which shows that if E ∈ G, then E ∈ G.
Next I want to show G is closed under countable unions of disjoint sets of G. Let
{Ai } be a sequence of disjoint sets from G. Then
Z Z Z Z X ∞
X∪∞i=1 Ai
dµdν = XAi dµdν
Y X Y X i=1
Z X
∞ Z
= XAi dµdν
Y i=1 X
XZ
∞ Z
= XAi dµdν
i=1 Y X
X∞ Z Z
= XAi dνdµ
i=1 X Y
Z X
∞ Z
= XAi dνdµ
X i=1 Y
Z Z X
∞
= XAi dνdµ
X Y i=1
Z Z
= X∪∞
i=1 Ai
dνdµ, (9.45)
X Y
the interchanges between the summation and the integral depending on the mono-
tone convergence theorem. Thus G is closed with respect to countable disjoint
unions.
From Lemma 9.72, G ⊇ σ (K) . Also the computation in 9.45 implies that on
σ (K) one can define a measure, denoted by µ × ν and that for every E ∈ σ (K) ,
Z Z Z Z
(µ × ν) (E) = XE dµdν = XE dνdµ. (9.46)
Y X X Y
Now here is Fubini’s theorem.
Theorem 9.73 Let f : X × Y → [0, ∞] be measurable with respect to the σ algebra,
σ (K) just defined and let µ × ν be the product measure of 9.46 where µ and ν are
finite measures on (X, F) and (Y, S) respectively. Then
Z Z Z Z Z
f d (µ × ν) = f dµdν = f dνdµ.
X×Y Y X X Y
Proof: Let {sn } be an increasing sequence of σ (K) measurable simple functions

which converges pointwise to f. The above equation holds for sn in place of f from
what was shown above. The final result follows from passing to the limit and using
the monotone convergence theorem. This proves the theorem.
The symbol, F × S denotes σ (K).
Of course one can generalize right away to measures which are only σ finite.
Theorem 9.74 Let f : X × Y → [0, ∞] be measurable with respect to the σ algebra,

σ (K) just defined and let µ × ν be the product measure of 9.46 where µ and ν are
σ finite measures on (X, F) and (Y, S) respectively. Then
Z Z Z Z Z
f d (µ × ν) = f dµdν = f dνdµ.
X×Y Y X X Y
Proof: Since the measures are σ finite, there exist increasing sequences of sets,
{Xn } and {Yn } such that µ (Xn ) < ∞ and µ (Yn ) < ∞. Then µ and ν restricted
to Xn and Yn respectively are finite. Then from Theorem 9.73,
Z Z Z Z
f dµdν = f dνdµ
Yn Xn Xn Yn
Passing to the limit yields

Z Z Z Z
f dµdν = f dνdµ
Y X X Y
whenever f is as above. In particular, you could take f = XE where E ∈ F × S

and define Z Z Z Z
(µ × ν) (E) ≡ XE dµdν = XE dνdµ.
Y X X Y
Then just as in the proof of Theorem 9.73, the conclusion of this theorem is obtained.
Qn
It is also useful to note that all the above holds for i=1 Xi in place of X × Y.
You would simply modify the definition of G in 9.44 including allQpermutations for
n
the iterated integrals and for K you would use sets of the form i=1 Ai where Ai
is measurable. Everything goes through exactly as above. Thus the following is
obtained.
n Qn
Theorem 9.75 Let {(Xi , Fi , µi )}i=1 be σ finite measure spaces and let i=1 QF i de-
n
note the smallest σ algebra which contains the measurable boxesQof the form i=1 Ai
n
Qn Ai ∈ Fi . Then there
where Qn exists a measure, λ defined on i=1 Fi such that if
f : i=1 Xi → [0, ∞] is i=1 Fi measurable, and (i1 , · · ·, in ) is any permutation of
(1, · · ·, n) , then
Z Z Z
f dλ = ··· f dµi1 · · · dµin
Xin Xi1
9.10.2 Completion Of Product Measure Spaces

Using Theorem 9.69 it is easy to give a generalization to yield a theorem for the
completion of product spaces.
n Qn
Theorem 9.76 Let {(Xi , Fi , µi )}i=1 be σ finite measure spaces and let i=1 QF i de-
n
note the smallest σ algebra which contains the measurable boxesQof the form i=1 Ai
n
Qn Ai ∈ Fi . Then there
where Qn exists a measure, λ defined on i=1 Fi such that if
f : i=1 Xi → [0, ∞] is i=1 Fi measurable, and (i1 , · · ·, in ) is any permutation of
(1, · · ·, n) , then Z Z Z
f dλ = ··· f dµi1 · · · dµin
Xin Xi1
³Q Qn ´
n
Let i=1 Xi , i=1 F i , λ denote the completion of this product measure space and
let
n
Y
f: Xi → [0, ∞]
i=1
Qn Qn
be i=1 Fi measurable. Then there exists N ∈ i=1 Q Fi such that λ (N ) = 0 and a
n
nonnegative function, f1 measurable with respect to i=1 Fi such that f1 = f off
N and if (i1 , · · ·, in ) is any permutation of (1, · · ·, n) , then
Z Z Z
f dλ = ··· f1 dµi1 · · · dµin .
Xin Xi1
Furthermore, f1 may be chosen to satisfy either f1 ≤ f or f1 ≥ f.
Proof: This follows immediately from Theorem 9.75 and Theorem 9.69. By the
second theorem,
Qn there exists a function f1 ≥ f such that f1 = f for all (x1 , · · ·, xn ) ∈
/
N, a set of i=1 Fi having measure zero. Then by Theorem 9.68 and Theorem 9.75
Z Z Z Z
f dλ = f1 dλ = ··· f1 dµi1 · · · dµin .
Xin Xi1
To get f1 ≤ f, just use that part of Theorem 9.69.

Since f1 = f off a set of measure zero, I will dispense with the subscript. Also
it is customary to write
λ = µ1 × · · · × µn
and
λ = µ1 × · · · × µn .
Thus in more standard notation, one writes
Z Z Z
f d (µ1 × · · · × µn ) = ··· f dµi1 · · · dµin
Xin Xi1
This theorem is often referred to as Fubini’s theorem. The next theorem is also
called this.
³Q Qn ´
n
Corollary 9.77 Suppose f ∈ L1 i=1 Xi , i=1 F i , µ 1 × · · · × µ n where each Xi
is a σ finite measure space. Then if (i1 , · · ·, in ) is any permutation of (1, · · ·, n) , it
follows Z Z Z
f d (µ1 × · · · × µn ) = ··· f dµi1 · · · dµin .
Xin Xi1
Proof: Just apply Theorem 9.76 to the positive and negative parts of the real
and imaginary parts of f. This proves the theorem.
Here is another easy corollary.
Corollary
Qn 9.78 Suppose in the situation of Corollary 9.77, f = f1 off N, a set of
i=1 F i having µ1 × · · · × µnQmeasure zero and that f1 is a complex valued function
n
measurable with respect to i=1 Fi . Suppose also that for some permutation of
(1, 2, · · ·, n) , (j1 , · · ·, jn )
Z Z
··· |f1 | dµj1 · · · dµjn < ∞.
Xjn Xj1
Then Ã !
n
Y n
Y
1
f ∈L Xi , Fi , µ1 × · · · × µn
i=1 i=1
and the conclusion of Corollary 9.77 holds.
Qn
Proof: Since |f1 | is i=1 Fi measurable, it follows from Theorem 9.75 that
Z Z
∞ > ··· |f1 | dµj1 · · · dµjn
Xjn Xj1
Z
= |f1 | d (µ1 × · · · × µn )
Z
= |f1 | d (µ1 × · · · × µn )
Z
= |f | d (µ1 × · · · × µn ) .
³Q Qn ´
n
Thus f ∈ L1 i=1 Xi , i=1 F i , µ1 × · · · × µn as claimed and the rest follows from
Corollary 9.77. This proves the corollary.
The following lemma is also useful.
Lemma 9.79 Let (X, F, µ) and (Y, S, ν) be σ finite complete measure spaces and
suppose f ≥ 0 is F × S measurable. Then for a.e. x,
y → f (x, y)
is S measurable. Similarly for a.e. y,
x → f (x, y)
is F measurable.
9.11. DISTURBING EXAMPLES 263
Proof: By Theorem 9.69, there exist F × S measurable functions, g and h and

a set, N ∈ F × S of µ × λ measure zero such that g ≤ f ≤ h and for (x, y) ∈
/ N, it
follows that g (x, y) = h (x, y) . Then
Z Z Z Z
gdνdµ = hdνdµ
X Y X Y
and so for a.e. x, Z Z

gdν = hdν.
Y Y
Then it follows that for these values of x, g (x, y) = h (x, y) and so by Theorem 9.69
again and the assumption that (Y, S, ν) is complete, y → f (x, y) is S measurable.
The other claim is similar. This proves the lemma.
9.11 Disturbing Examples

There are examples which help to define what can be expected of product measures
and Fubini type theorems. Three such examples are given in Rudin [45]. The
theorems given above are more general than those in this reference but the same
examples are still useful for showing that the hypotheses of the above theorems are
all necessary.
Example 9.80 Let {an } be an increasing sequence R of numbers in (0, 1) which

converges to 1. Let gn ∈ Cc (an , an+1 ) such that gn dx = 1. Now for (x, y) ∈
[0, 1) × [0, 1) define
∞
X
f (x, y) ≡ gn (y) (gn (x) − gn+1 (x)) .
k=1
Note this is actually a finite sum for each such (x, y) . Therefore, this is a continuous
function on [0, 1) × [0, 1). Now for a fixed y,
Z 1 ∞
X Z 1
f (x, y) dx = gn (y) (gn (x) − gn+1 (x)) dx = 0
0 k=1 0
R1R1 R1
showing that 0 0
f (x, y) dxdy = 0
0dy = 0. Next fix x.
Z 1 ∞
X Z 1
f (x, y) dy = (gn (x) − gn+1 (x)) gn (y) dy = g1 (x) .
0 k=1 0
R1R1 R1
Hence 0 0 f (x, y) dydx = 0 g1 (x) dx = 1. The iterated integrals are not equal.
Note theR function, g is not nonnegative
R 1 R 1 even though it is measurable. In addition,
1R1
neither 0 0 |f (x, y)| dxdy nor 0 0 |f (x, y)| dydx is finite and so you can’t apply
Corollary 9.52. The problem here is the function is not nonnegative and is not
absolutely integrable.
Example 9.81 This time let µ = m, Lebesgue measure on [0, 1] and let ν be count-
ing measure on [0, 1] , in this case, the σ algebra is P ([0, 1]) . Let l denote the line
segment in [0, 1] × [0, 1] which goes from (0, 0) to (1, 1). Thus l = (x, x) where
x ∈ [0, 1] . Consider the outer measure of l in m × ν. Let l ⊆ ∪k Ak × Bk where Ak
is Lebesgue measurable and Bk is a subset of [0, 1] . Let B ≡ {k ∈ N : ν (Bk ) = ∞} .
If m (∪k∈B Ak ) has measure zero, then there are uncountably many points of [0, 1]
outside of ∪k∈B Ak . For p one of these points, (p, p) ∈ Ai × Bi and i ∈ / B. Thus each
of these points is in ∪i∈B/ B i , a countable set because these B i are each finite. But
this is a contradiction because there need to be uncountably many of these points as
just indicated. Thus m (Ak ) > 0 for some k ∈ B and so mR× ν (Ak × Bk ) = ∞. It
follows m × ν (l) = ∞ and so l is m × ν measurable. Thus Xl (x, y) d m × ν = ∞
and so you cannot apply Fubini’s theorem, Theorem 9.50. Since ν is not σ finite,
you cannot apply the corollary to this theorem either. Thus there is no contradiction
to the above theorems in the following observation.
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Xl (x, y) dνdm = 1dm = 1, Xl (x, y) dmdν = 0dν = 0.
R
The problem here is that you have neither f d m × ν < ∞ not σ finite measure
spaces.
The next example is far more exotic. It concerns the case where both iterated
integrals make perfect sense but are unequal. In 1877 Cantor conjectured that the
cardinality of the real numbers is the next size of infinity after countable infinity.
This hypothesis is called the continuum hypothesis and it has never been proved
or disproved4 . Assuming this continuum hypothesis will provide the basis for the
following example. It is due to Sierpinski.
Example 9.82 Let X be an uncountable set. It follows from the well ordering
theorem which says every set can be well ordered which is presented in the ap-
pendix that X can be well ordered. Let ω ∈ X be the first element of X which is
preceded by uncountably many points of X. Let Ω denote {x ∈ X : x < ω} . Then
Ω is uncountable but there is no smaller uncountable set. Thus by the contin-
uum hypothesis, there exists a one to one and onto mapping, j which maps [0, 1]
onto nΩ. Thus, for x ∈ [0, 1] , j (x)
o is preceeded by countably many points. Let
2
Q ≡ (x, y) ∈ [0, 1] : j (x) < j (y) and let f (x, y) = XQ (x, y) . Then
Z 1 Z 1
f (x, y) dy = 1, f (x, y) dx = 0
0 0
In each case, the integrals make sense. In the first, for fixed x, f (x, y) = 1 for all
but countably many y so the function of y is Borel measurable. In the second where
4 In 1940 it was shown by Godel that the continuum hypothesis cannot be disproved. In 1963 it
was shown by Cohen that the continuum hypothesis cannot be proved. These assertions are based
on the axiom of choice and the Zermelo Frankel axioms of set theory. This topic is far outside the
scope of this book and this is only a hopefully interesting historical observation.
9.12. EXERCISES 265
y is fixed, f (x, y) = 0 for all but countably many x. Thus

Z 1Z 1 Z 1Z 1
f (x, y) dydx = 1, f (x, y) dxdy = 0.
0 0 0 0
The problem here must be that f is not m × m measurable.
9.12 Exercises
1. Let Ω = N, the natural numbers and let d (p, q) = |p − q|, the usual dis-
tance in
P∞ R. Show that (Ω, d) the closures of the balls are compact. Now let
Λf ≡ k=1 f (k) whenever f ∈ Cc (Ω). Show this is a well defined positive
linear functional on the space Cc (Ω). Describe the measure of the Riesz rep-
resentation theorem which results from this positive linear functional. What
if Λ (f ) = f (1)? What measure would result from this functional? Which
functions are measurable?
2. Verify that µ defined in Lemma 9.7 is an outer measure.
R
3. Let F : R → R be increasing and right continuous. Let Λf ≡ f dF where
the integral is the Riemann Stieltjes integral of f . Show the measure µ from
the Riesz representation theorem satisfies
µ ([a, b]) = F (b) − F (a−) , µ ((a, b]) = F (b) − F (a) ,

µ ([a, a]) = F (a) − F (a−) .
4. Let Ω be a metric space with the closed balls compact and suppose µ is a
measure defined on the Borel sets of Ω which is finite on compact sets. Show
there exists a unique Radon measure, µ which equals µ on the Borel sets.
5. ↑ Random vectors are measurable functions, X, mapping a probability space,
(Ω, P, F) to Rn . Thus X (ω) ∈ Rn for each ω ∈ Ω and P is a probability
measure defined on the sets of F, a σ algebra of subsets of Ω. For E a Borel
set in Rn , define
¡ ¢
µ (E) ≡ P X−1 (E) ≡ probability that X ∈ E.
Show this is a well defined measure on the Borel sets of Rn and use Problem 4
to obtain a Radon measure, λX defined on a σ algebra of sets of Rn including
the Borel sets such that for E a Borel set, λX (E) =Probability that (X ∈E).
6. Suppose X and Y are metric spaces having compact closed balls. Show
(X × Y, dX×Y )
is also a metric space which has the closures of balls compact. Here
dX×Y ((x1 , y1 ) , (x2 , y2 )) ≡ max (d (x1 , x2 ) , d (y1 , y2 )) .

Let
A ≡ {E × F : E is a Borel set in X, F is a Borel set in Y } .
Show σ (A), the smallest σ algebra containing A contains the Borel sets. Hint:
Show every open set in a metric space which has closed balls compact can be
obtained as a countable union of compact sets. Next show this implies every
open set can be obtained as a countable union of open sets of the form U × V
where U is open in X and V is open in Y .
7. Suppose (Ω, S, µ) is a measure space

¡ which¢may not be complete. Could you
obtain a complete measure space, Ω, S, µ1 by simply letting S consist of all
sets of the form E where there exists F ∈ S such that (F \ E) ∪ (E \ F ) ⊆ N
for some N ∈ S which has measure zero and then let µ (E) = µ1 (F )?
8. If µ and ν are Radon measures defined on Rn and Rm respectively, show
µ × ν is also a radon measure on Rn+m . Hint: Show the µ × ν measurable
sets include the open sets using the observation that every open set in Rn+m
is the countable union of sets of the form U × V where U and V are open in
Rn and Rm respectively. Next verify outer regularity by considering A × B
for A, B measurable. Argue sets of R defined above have the property that
they can be approximated in measure from above by open sets. Then verify
the same is true of sets of R1 . Finally conclude using an appropriate lemma
that µ × ν is inner regular as well.
9. Let (Ω, S, µ) be a σ finite measure space and let f : Ω → [0, ∞) be measurable.
Define
A ≡ {(x, y) : y < f (x)}
Verify that A is µ × m measurable. Show that
Z Z Z Z
f dµ = XA (x, y) dµdm = XA dµ × m.
Lebesgue Measure
10.1 Basic Properties

Definition 10.1 Define the following positive linear functional for f ∈ Cc (Rn ) .
Z ∞ Z ∞
Λf ≡ ··· f (x) dx1 · · · dxn .
−∞ −∞
Then the measure representing this functional is Lebesgue measure.
The following lemma will help in understanding Lebesgue measure.
Lemma 10.2 Every open set in Rn is the countable disjoint union of half open
boxes of the form
Yn
(ai , ai + 2−k ]
i=1
−k
where ai = l2 for some integers, l, k. The sides of these boxes are of equal length.
One could also have half open boxes of the form
n
Y
[ai , ai + 2−k )
i=1
and the conclusion would be unchanged.
Proof: Let
n
Y
Ck = {All half open boxes (ai , ai + 2−k ] where
i=1
ai = l2−k for some integer l.}

Thus Ck consists of a countable disjoint collection of boxes whose union is Rn . This
is sometimes called a tiling of Rn . Think of tiles on the floor of a bathroom and
267
268 LEBESGUE MEASURE
√
you will get the idea. Note that each box has diameter no larger than 2−k n. This
is because if
Yn
x, y ∈ (ai , ai + 2−k ],
i=1
−k
then |xi − yi | ≤ 2 . Therefore,
Ã n !1/2
X¡ ¢ 2 √
|x − y| ≤ 2−k = 2−k n.
i=1
Let U be open and let B1 ≡ all sets of C1 which are contained in U . If B1 , · · ·, Bk

have been chosen, Bk+1 ≡ all sets of Ck+1 contained in
¡ ¢
U \ ∪ ∪ki=1 Bi .
Let B∞ = ∪∞ i=1 Bi . In fact ∪B∞ = U . Clearly ∪B∞ ⊆ U because every box of every
Bi is contained in U . If p ∈ U , let k be the smallest integer such that p is contained
in a box from Ck which is also a subset of U . Thus
p ∈ ∪Bk ⊆ ∪B∞ .
Hence B∞ is the desired countable disjoint collection of half open boxes whose union
is U . The last assertion about the other type of half open rectangle is obvious. This
proves the lemma. Qn
Now what does Lebesgue measure do to a rectangle, i=1 (ai , bi ]?
Qn Qn
Lemma 10.3 Let R = i=1 [ai , bi ], R0 = i=1 (ai , bi ). Then
n
Y
mn (R0 ) = mn (R) = (bi − ai ).
i=1
Proof: Let k be large enough that
ai + 1/k < bi − 1/k
for i = 1, · · ·, n and consider functions gik and fik having the following graphs.
1 fik 1 gik
ai + ££
1 B bi − 1 ai − k1 £ B bi + 1
k
B ¡ k £ B k
@£ @ £ ¡
R
@ B
ª
¡ B ¡
£ B @
R£
@ B ª
ai bi ai bi
Let
n
Y n
Y
g k (x) = gik (xi ), f k (x) = fik (xi ).
i=1 i=1
10.1. BASIC PROPERTIES 269
Then by elementary calculus along with the definition of Λ,

n
Y Z
(bi − ai + 2/k) ≥ Λg k = g k dmn ≥ mn (R) ≥ mn (R0 )
i=1
Z n
Y
≥ f k dmn = Λf k ≥ (bi − ai − 2/k).
i=1
Letting k → ∞, it follows that

n
Y
mn (R) = mn (R0 ) = (bi − ai ).
i=1
Lemma 10.4 Let U be an open or closed set. Then mn (U ) = mn (x + U ) .
Proof: By Lemma 10.2 there is a sequence of disjoint half open rectangles,

{Ri } such that ∪i Ri = U. Therefore, x + U = ∪i (x + Ri ) and the x + Ri are also
disjoint rectangles
P which Pare identical to the Ri but translated. From Lemma 10.3,
mn (U ) = i mn (Ri ) = i mn (x + Ri ) = mn (x + U ) .
It remains to verify the lemma for a closed set. Let H be a closed bounded set
first. Then H ⊆ B (0,R) for some R large enough. First note that x + H is a closed
set. Thus
mn (B (x, R)) = mn (x + H) + mn ((B (0, R) + x) \ (x + H))

= mn (x + H) + mn ((B (0, R) \ H) + x)
= mn (x + H) + mn ((B (0, R) \ H))
= mn (B (0, R)) − mn (H) + mn (x + H)
= mn (B (x, R)) − mn (H) + mn (x + H)
the last equality because of the first part of the lemma which implies mn (B (x, R)) =
mn (B (0, R)) . Therefore, mn (x + H) = mn (H) as claimed. If H is not bounded,
consider Hm ≡ B (0, m) ∩ H. Then mn (x + Hm ) = mn (Hm ) . Passing to the limit
as m → ∞ yields the result in general.
Theorem 10.5 Lebesgue measure is translation invariant. That is
mn (E) = mn (x + E)
for all E Lebesgue measurable.
Proof: Suppose mn (E) < ∞. By regularity of the measure, there exist sets
G, H such that G is a countable intersection of open sets, H is a countable union
of compact sets, mn (G \ H) = 0, and G ⊇ E ⊇ H. Now mn (G) = mn (G + x) and
mn (H) = mn (H + x) which follows from Lemma 10.4 applied to the sets which
are either intersected to form G or unioned to form H. Now
x+H ⊆x+E ⊆x+G
and both x + H and x + G are measurable because they are either countable unions
or countable intersections of measurable sets. Furthermore,
mn (x + G \ x + H) = mn (x + G) − mn (x + H) = mn (G) − mn (H) = 0
and so by completeness of the measure, x + E is measurable. It follows
mn (E) = mn (H) = mn (x + H) ≤ mn (x + E)
≤ mn (x + G) = mn (G) = mn (E) .
If mn (E) is not necessarily less than ∞, consider Em ≡ B (0, m) ∩ E. Then

mn (Em ) = mn (Em + x) by the above. Letting m → ∞ it follows mn (Em ) =
mn (Em + x). This proves the theorem.
Corollary 10.6 Let D be an n × n diagonal matrix and let U be an open set. Then
mn (DU ) = |det (D)| mn (U ) .
Proof: If any of the diagonal entries of D equals 0 there is nothing to prove

because then both sides equal zero. Therefore, it can be assumed none are equal
to zero. Suppose these diagonal entries are k1 , · · ·, kn . From Lemma 10.2 there
exist half open boxes, Qn{Ri } having all sides equal such that U = ∪ Qi R i . Suppose
n
one of these is Ri = j=1 (aj , bj ], where bj − aj = li . Then DRi = j=1 Ij where
Ij = (kj aj , kj bj ] if kj > 0 and Ij = [kj bj , kj aj ) if kj < 0. Then the rectangles, DRi
are disjoint because D is one to one and their union is DU. Also,
n
Y
mn (DRi ) = |kj | li = |det D| mn (Ri ) .
j=1
Therefore,
∞
X ∞
X
mn (DU ) = mn (DRi ) = |det (D)| mn (Ri ) = |det (D)| mn (U ) .
i=1 i=1
and this proves the corollary.

From this the following corollary is obtained.
Corollary 10.7 Let M > 0. Then mn (B (a, M r)) = M n mn (B (0, r)) .
Proof: By Lemma 10.4 there is no loss of generality in taking a = 0. Let D be

the diagonal matrix which has M in every entry of the main diagonal so |det (D)| =
M n . Note that DB (0, r) = B (0, M r) . By Corollary 10.6 mn (B (0, M r)) =
mn (DB (0, r)) = M n mn (B (0, r)) .
10.2. THE VITALI COVERING THEOREM 271
There are many norms on Rn . Other common examples are

||x||∞ ≡ max {|xk | : x = (x1 , · · ·, xn )}
or Ã n !1/p
X p
||x||p ≡ |xi | .
i=1
With ||·|| any norm for Rn you can define a corresponding ball in terms of this
norm.
B (a, r) ≡ {x ∈ Rn such that ||x − a|| < r}
It follows from general considerations involving metric spaces presented earlier that
these balls are open sets. Therefore, Corollary 10.7 has an obvious generalization.
Corollary 10.8 Let ||·|| be a norm on Rn . Then for M > 0, mn (B (a, M r)) =
M n mn (B (0, r)) where these balls are defined in terms of the norm ||·||.
10.2 The Vitali Covering Theorem

The Vitali covering theorem is concerned with the situation in which a set is con-
tained in the union of balls. You can imagine that it might be very hard to get
disjoint balls from this collection of balls which would cover the given set. How-
ever, it is possible to get disjoint balls from this collection of balls which have the
property that if each ball is enlarged appropriately, the resulting enlarged balls do
cover the set. When this result is established, it is used to prove another form of
this theorem in which the disjoint balls do not cover the set but they only miss a
set of measure zero.
Recall the Hausdorff maximal principle, Theorem 1.13 on Page 24 which is
proved to be equivalent to the axiom of choice in the appendix. For convenience,
here it is:
I will use this Hausdorff maximal principle to give a very short and elegant proof
of the Vitali covering theorem. This follows the treatment in Evans and Gariepy
[20] which they got from another book. I am not sure who first did it this way but
it is very nice because it is so short. In the following lemma and theorem, the balls
will be either open or closed and determined by some norm on Rn . When pictures
are drawn, I shall draw them as though the norm is the usual norm but the results
are unchanged for any norm. Also, I will write (in this section only) B (a, r) to
indicate a set which satisfies
{x ∈ Rn : ||x − a|| < r} ⊆ B (a, r) ⊆ {x ∈ Rn : ||x − a|| ≤ r}
b (a, r) to indicate the usual ball but with radius 5 times as large,
and B
{x ∈ Rn : ||x − a|| < 5r} .
Lemma 10.10 Let ||·|| be a norm on Rn and let F be a collection of balls deter-
mined by this norm. Suppose
∞ > M ≡ sup{r : B(p, r) ∈ F} > 0
and k ∈ (0, ∞) . Then there exists G ⊆ F such that
if B(p, r) ∈ G then r > k, (10.1)
if B1 , B2 ∈ G then B1 ∩ B2 = ∅, (10.2)
G is maximal with respect to 10.1 and 10.2.
Note that if there is no ball of F which has radius larger than k then G = ∅.
Proof: Let H = {B ⊆ F such that 10.1 and 10.2 hold}. If there are no balls
with radius larger than k then H = ∅ and you let G =∅. In the other case, H 6= ∅
because there exists B(p, r) ∈ F with r > k. In this case, partially order H by set
inclusion and use the Hausdorff maximal principle (see the appendix on set theory)
to let C be a maximal chain in H. Clearly ∪C satisfies 10.1 and 10.2 because if B1
and B2 are two balls from ∪C then since C is a chain, it follows there is some
element of C, B such that both B1 and B2 are elements of B and B satisfies 10.1 and
10.2. If ∪C is not maximal with respect to these two properties, then C was not a
maximal chain because then there would exist B ! ∪C, that is, B contains C as a
proper subset and {C, B} would be a strictly larger chain in H. Let G = ∪C.
Theorem 10.11 (Vitali) Let F be a collection of balls and let
A ≡ ∪{B : B ∈ F}.
Suppose
∞ > M ≡ sup{r : B(p, r) ∈ F } > 0.
Then there exists G ⊆ F such that G consists of disjoint balls and
b : B ∈ G}.
A ⊆ ∪{B
Proof: Using Lemma 10.10, there exists G1 ⊆ F ≡ F0 which satisfies
M
B(p, r) ∈ G1 implies r > , (10.3)
2
B1 , B2 ∈ G1 implies B1 ∩ B2 = ∅, (10.4)
G1 is maximal with respect to 10.3, and 10.4.
Suppose G1 , · · ·, Gm have been chosen, m ≥ 1. Let
Fm ≡ {B ∈ F : B ⊆ Rn \ ∪{G1 ∪ · · · ∪ Gm }}.
10.3. THE VITALI COVERING THEOREM (ELEMENTARY VERSION) 273
Using Lemma 10.10, there exists Gm+1 ⊆ Fm such that

M
B(p, r) ∈ Gm+1 implies r > , (10.5)
2m+1
B1 , B2 ∈ Gm+1 implies B1 ∩ B2 = ∅, (10.6)
Gm+1 is a maximal subset of Fm with respect to 10.5 and 10.6.
Note it might be the case that Gm+1 = ∅ which happens if Fm = ∅. Define
G ≡ ∪∞
k=1 Gk .
b : B ∈ G} covers A.
Thus G is a collection of disjoint balls in F. I must show {B
Let x ∈ B(p, r) ∈ F and let
M M
< r ≤ m−1 .
2m 2
Then B (p, r) must intersect some set, B (p0 , r0 ) ∈ G1 ∪ · · · ∪ Gm since otherwise,
Gm would fail to be maximal. Then r0 > 2Mm because all balls in G1 ∪ · · · ∪ Gm satisfy
this inequality.
r0 .x
¾ p
p0 r
?
M
Then for x ∈ B (p, r) , the following chain of inequalities holds because r ≤ 2m−1
and r0 > 2Mm
|x − p0 | ≤ |x − p| + |p − p0 | ≤ r + r0 + r
2M 4M
≤ + r0 = m + r0 < 5r0 .
2m−1 2
b (p0 , r0 ) and this proves the theorem.
Thus B (p, r) ⊆ B
10.3 The Vitali Covering Theorem (Elementary

Version)
The proof given here is from Basic Analysis [35]. It first considers the case of open
balls and then generalizes to balls which may be neither open nor closed or closed.
Lemma 10.12 Let F be a countable collection of balls satisfying
∞ > M ≡ sup{r : B(p, r) ∈ F} > 0
and let k ∈ (0, ∞) . Then there exists G ⊆ F such that
If B(p, r) ∈ G then r > k, (10.7)
If B1 , B2 ∈ G then B1 ∩ B2 = ∅, (10.8)
G is maximal with respect to 10.7 and 10.8. (10.9)
Proof: If no ball of F has radius larger than k, let G = ∅. Assume therefore, that
∞
some balls have radius larger than k. Let F ≡ {Bi }i=1 . Now let Bn1 be the first ball
in the list which has radius greater than k. If every ball having radius larger than k
intersects this one, then stop. The maximal set is just Bn1 . Otherwise, let Bn2 be
the next ball having radius larger than k which is disjoint from Bn1 . Continue this
∞
way obtaining {Bni }i=1 , a finite or infinite sequence of disjoint balls having radius
larger than k. Then let G ≡ {Bni }. To see that G is maximal with respect to 10.7
and 10.8, suppose B ∈ F , B has radius larger than k, and G ∪ {B} satisfies 10.7
and 10.8. Then at some point in the process, B would have been chosen because it
would be the ball of radius larger than k which has the smallest index. Therefore,
B ∈ G and this shows G is maximal with respect to 10.7 and 10.8.
For the next lemma, for an open ball, B = B (x, r) , denote by B e the open ball,
B (x, 4r) .
Lemma 10.13 Let F be a collection of open balls, and let
A ≡ ∪ {B : B ∈ F} .
Suppose
∞ > M ≡ sup {r : B(p, r) ∈ F } > 0.
e : B ∈ G}.
A ⊆ ∪{B
Proof: Without loss of generality assume F is countable. This is because there

is a countable subset of F, F 0 such that ∪F 0 = A. To see this, consider the set
of balls having rational radii and centers having all components rational. This is a
countable set of balls and you should verify that every open set is the union of balls
of this form. Therefore, you can consider the subset of this set of balls consisting of
those which are contained in some open set of F, G so ∪G = A and use the axiom
of choice to define a subset of F consisting of a single set from F containing each
set of G. Then this is F 0 . The union of these sets equals A . Then consider F 0
instead of F. Therefore, assume at the outset F is countable. By Lemma 10.12,
there exists G1 ⊆ F which satisfies 10.7, 10.8, and 10.9 with k = 2M 3 .
Suppose G1 , · · ·, Gm−1 have been chosen for m ≥ 2. Let
union of the balls in these Gj
z }| {
Fm = {B ∈ F : B ⊆ Rn \ ∪{G1 ∪ · · · ∪ Gm−1 } }
and using Lemma 10.12, let Gm be a maximal collection¡ of¢ disjoint balls from Fm
m
with the property that each ball has radius larger than 23 M. Let G ≡ ∪∞ k=1 Gk .
Let x ∈ B (p, r) ∈ F. Choose m such that
µ ¶m µ ¶m−1
2 2
M <r≤ M
3 3
10.3. THE VITALI COVERING THEOREM (ELEMENTARY VERSION) 275
Then B (p, r) must have nonempty intersection with some ball from G1 ∪ · · · ∪ Gm
because if it didn’t, then Gm would fail to be maximal. Denote by B (p0 , r0 ) a ball
in G1 ∪ · · · ∪ Gm which has nonempty intersection with B (p, r) . Thus
µ ¶m
2
r0 > M.
3
Consider the picture, in which w ∈ B (p0 , r0 ) ∩ B (p, r) .
r0 ·x
¾ w
· p
p0 r
?
Then
<r0
z }| {
|x − p0 | ≤ |x − p| + |p − w| + |w − p0 |
< 32 r0
z }| {
µ ¶m−1
2
< r + r + r0 ≤ 2 M + r0
3
µ ¶
3
< 2 r0 + r0 = 4r0 .
2
This proves the lemma since it shows B (p, r) ⊆ B (p0 , 4r0 ) .
With this Lemma consider a version of the Vitali covering theorem in which
the balls do not have to be open. A ball centered at x of radius r will denote
something which contains the open ball, B (x, r) and is contained in the closed ball,
B (x, r). Thus the balls could be open or they could contain some but not all of
their boundary points.
b the
Definition 10.14 Let B be a ball centered at x having radius r. Denote by B
open ball, B (x, 5r).
Theorem 10.15 (Vitali) Let F be a collection of balls, and let
A ≡ ∪ {B : B ∈ F} .
Suppose
∞ > M ≡ sup {r : B(p, r) ∈ F } > 0.
b : B ∈ G}.
A ⊆ ∪{B
Proof:
¡ For
¢ B one of these balls, say B (x, r) ⊇ B ⊇ B (x, r), denote by B1 , the
ball B x, 5r
4 . Let F1 ≡ {B1 : B ∈ F } and let A1 denote the union of the balls in
F1 . Apply Lemma 10.13 to F1 to obtain
f1 : B1 ∈ G1 }
A1 ⊆ ∪{B
where G1 consists of disjoint balls from F1 . Now let G ≡ {B ∈ F : B1 ∈ G1 }. Thus

G consists of disjoint balls from F because they are contained in the disjoint open
balls, G1 . Then
A ⊆ A1 ⊆ ∪{B f1 : B1 ∈ G1 } = ∪{B
b : B ∈ G}
¡ ¢
because for B1 = B x, 5r f b
4 , it follows B1 = B (x, 5r) = B. This proves the theorem.
10.4 Vitali Coverings

There is another version of the Vitali covering theorem which is also of great impor-
tance. In this one, balls from the original set of balls almost cover the set,leaving
out only a set of measure zero. It is like packing a truck with stuff. You keep trying
to fill in the holes with smaller and smaller things so as to not waste space. It is
remarkable that you can avoid wasting any space at all when you are dealing with
balls of any sort provided you can use arbitrarily small balls.
Definition 10.16 Let F be a collection of balls that cover a set, E, which have
the property that if x ∈ E and ε > 0, then there exists B ∈ F, diameter of B < ε
and x ∈ B. Such a collection covers E in the sense of Vitali.
In the following covering theorem, mn denotes the outer measure determined by

n dimensional Lebesgue measure.
Theorem 10.17 Let E ⊆ Rn and suppose 0 < mn (E) < ∞ where mn is the
outer measure determined by mn , n dimensional Lebesgue measure, and let F be
a collection of closed balls of bounded radii such that F covers E in the sense of
Vitali. Then there exists a countable collection of disjoint balls from F, {Bj }∞
j=1 ,
such that mn (E \ ∪∞ B
j=1 j ) = 0.
Proof: From the definition of outer measure there exists a Lebesgue measurable
set, E1 ⊇ E such that mn (E1 ) = mn (E). Now by outer regularity of Lebesgue
measure, there exists U , an open set which satisfies
mn (E1 ) > (1 − 10−n )mn (U ), U ⊇ E1 .
E1
10.4. VITALI COVERINGS 277
Each point of E is contained in balls of F of arbitrarily small radii and so

there exists a covering of E with balls of F which are themselves contained in U .
∞
Therefore, by the Vitali covering theorem, there exist disjoint balls, {Bi }i=1 ⊆ F
such that
E ⊆ ∪∞ b
j=1 Bj , Bj ⊆ U.
Therefore,
³ ´ X ³ ´
mn (E1 ) = mn (E) ≤ mn ∪∞
j=1
b
B j ≤ mn
bj
B
j
X ¡ ¢
n
= 5 mn (Bj ) = 5 mn ∪∞
n
j=1 Bj
j
Then
mn (E1 ) > (1 − 10−n )mn (U )
≥ (1 − 10−n )[mn (E1 \ ∪∞ ∞
j=1 Bj ) + mn (∪j=1 Bj )]
=mn (E1 )
z }| {
−n
≥ (1 − 10 )[mn (E1 \ ∪∞
j=1 Bj ) +5 −n
mn (E) ].
and so
¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
1 − 1 − 10−n 5−n mn (E1 ) ≥ (1 − 10−n )mn (E1 \ ∪∞
j=1 Bj )
which implies
(1 − (1 − 10−n ) 5−n )
mn (E1 \ ∪∞
j=1 Bj ) ≤ mn (E1 )
(1 − 10−n )
Now a short computation shows
(1 − (1 − 10−n ) 5−n )
0< <1
(1 − 10−n )
Hence, denoting by θn a number such that
(1 − (1 − 10−n ) 5−n )
< θn < 1,
(1 − 10−n )
¡ ¢
mn E \ ∪∞ ∞
j=1 Bj ≤ mn (E1 \ ∪j=1 Bj ) < θ n mn (E1 ) = θ n mn (E)
Now pick N1 large enough that
θn mn (E) ≥ mn (E1 \ ∪N N1
j=1 Bj ) ≥ mn (E \ ∪j=1 Bj )
1
(10.10)
Let F1 = {B ∈ F : Bj ∩ B = ∅, j = 1, · · ·, N1 }. If E \ ∪N
j=1 Bj = ∅, then F1 = ∅
1
and ³ ´
mn E \ ∪ Nj=1 Bj = 0
1
Therefore, in this case let Bk = ∅ for all k > N1 . Consider the case where
E \ ∪N
j=1 Bj 6= ∅.
1
In this case, F1 6= ∅ and covers E \ ∪N

j=1 Bj in the sense of Vitali. Repeat the same
1
argument, letting E \ ∪j=1 Bj play the role of E and letting U \ ∪N

N1
j=1 Bj play the
1
role of U . (You pick a different E1 whose measure equals the outer measure of
E \ ∪Nj=1 Bj .) Then choosing Bj for j = N1 + 1, · · ·, N2 as in the above argument,
1
θn mn (E \ ∪N N2
j=1 Bj ) ≥ mn (E \ ∪j=1 Bj )
1
and so from 10.10,

θ2n mn (E) ≥ mn (E \ ∪N
j=1 Bj ).
2
Continuing this way ³ ´

θkn mn (E) ≥ mn E \ ∪N
j=1 Bj .
k
If it is ever the case that E \ ∪N

j=1 Bj = ∅, then, as in the above argument,
k
³ ´
mn E \ ∪N j=1 j = 0.
k
B
Otherwise, the process continues and

¡ ¢ ³ ´
Nk
mn E \ ∪ ∞
j=1 Bj ≤ mn E \ ∪j=1 B j ≤ θkn mn (E)
for every k ∈ N. Therefore, the conclusion holds in this case also. This proves the
Theorem.
There is an obvious corollary which removes the assumption that 0 < mn (E).
Corollary 10.18 Let E ⊆ Rn and suppose mn (E) < ∞ where mn is the outer
measure determined by mn , n dimensional Lebesgue measure, and let F, be a col-
lection of closed balls of bounded radii such that F covers E in the sense of Vitali.
Then there exists a countable collection of disjoint balls from F, {Bj }∞
j=1 , such that
mn (E \ ∪∞ j=1 Bj ) = 0.
Proof: If 0 = mn (E) you simply pick any ball from F for your collection of
disjoint balls.
It is also not hard to remove the assumption that mn (E) < ∞.
Corollary 10.19 Let E ⊆ Rn and let F, be a collection of closed balls of bounded

radii such that F covers E in the sense of Vitali. Then there exists a countable
collection of disjoint balls from F, {Bj }∞ ∞
j=1 , such that mn (E \ ∪j=1 Bj ) = 0.
n
Proof: Let Rm ≡ (−m, m) be the open rectangle having sides of length 2m
which is centered at 0 and let R0 = ∅. Let Hm ≡ Rm \ Rm . Since both Rm
n
and Rm have the same measure, (2m) , it follows mn (Hm ) = 0. Now for all
k ∈ N, Rk ⊆ Rk ⊆ Rk+1 . Consider the disjoint open sets, Uk ≡ Rk+1 \ Rk . Thus
10.5. CHANGE OF VARIABLES FOR LINEAR MAPS 279
Rn = ∪∞ k=0 Uk ∪ N where N is a set of measure zero equal to the union of the Hk .

Let Fk denote those balls of F which are contained in Uk and let Ek ≡ ©Uk ∩ ª∞E.
Then from Theorem 10.17, there exists a sequence of disjoint balls, Dk ≡ Bik i=1
∞
of Fk such that mn (Ek \ ∪∞ k
j=1 Bj ) = 0. Letting {Bi }i=1 be an enumeration of all
the balls of ∪k Dk , it follows that
∞
X
mn (E \ ∪∞
j=1 Bj ) ≤ mn (N ) + mn (Ek \ ∪∞ k
j=1 Bj ) = 0.
k=1
Also, you don’t have to assume the balls are closed.
Corollary 10.20 Let E ⊆ Rn and let F, be a collection of open balls of bounded

Proof: Let F be the collection of closures of balls in F. Then F covers E in

the sense of Vitali and so from Corollary
¡ 10.19¢ there exists a sequence of disjoint
closed balls from F satisfying mn E \ ∪∞ i=1 Bi = 0. Now boundaries of the balls,
Bi have measure zero and so {Bi } is a sequence of disjoint open balls satisfying
mn (E \ ∪∞i=1 Bi ) = 0. The reason for this is that
¡ ¢
(E \ ∪∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
i=1 Bi ) \ E \ ∪i=1 Bi ⊆ ∪i=1 Bi \ ∪i=1 Bi ⊆ ∪i=1 Bi \ Bi ,
a set of measure zero. Therefore,

¡ ¢ ¡ ∞ ¢
E \ ∪∞ ∞
i=1 Bi ⊆ E \ ∪i=1 Bi ∪ ∪i=1 Bi \ Bi
and so
¡ ¢ ¡ ∞ ¢
mn (E \ ∪∞
i=1 Bi ) ≤ mn E \ ∪∞
i=1 Bi + mn ∪i=1 Bi \ Bi
¡ ¢
= mn E \ ∪∞
i=1 Bi = 0.
This implies you can fill up an open set with balls which cover the open set in
the sense of Vitali.
Corollary 10.21 Let U ⊆ Rn be an open set and let F be a collection of closed or

even open balls of bounded radii contained in U such that F covers U in the sense
of Vitali. Then there exists a countable collection of disjoint balls from F, {Bj }∞
j=1 ,
such that mn (U \ ∪∞ B
j=1 j ) = 0.
10.5 Change Of Variables For Linear Maps

To begin with certain kinds of functions map measurable sets to measurable sets.
It will be assumed that U is an open set in Rn and that h : U → Rn satisfies
Dh (x) exists for all x ∈ U, (10.11)

Lemma 10.22 Let h satisfy 10.11. If T ⊆ U and mn (T ) = 0, then mn (h (T )) =

0.
Proof: Let
Tk ≡ {x ∈ T : ||Dh (x)|| < k}
and let ε > 0 be given. Now by outer regularity, there exists an open set, V ,
containing Tk which is contained in U such that mn (V ) < ε. Let x ∈ Tk . Then by
differentiability,
h (x + v) = h (x) + Dh (x) v + o (v)
and so there exist arbitrarily small rx < 1 such that B (x,5rx ) ⊆ V and whenever
|v| ≤ rx , |o (v)| < k |v| . Thus
h (B (x, rx )) ⊆ B (h (x) , 2krx ) .
From the Vitali covering theorem there exists a countable n o∞disjoint sequence of
∞ ∞
these sets, {B (xi , ri )}i=1 such that {B (xi , 5ri )}i=1 = B ci covers Tk Then
i=1
letting mn denote the outer measure determined by mn ,
³ ³ ´´
mn (h (Tk )) ≤ mn h ∪∞ b
i=1 Bi
∞
X ³ ³ ´´ X∞
≤ bi
mn h B ≤ mn (B (h (xi ) , 2krxi ))
i=1 i=1
∞
X ∞
X
n
= mn (B (xi , 2krxi )) = (2k) mn (B (xi , rxi ))
i=1 i=1
n n
≤ (2k) mn (V ) ≤ (2k) ε.
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this shows mn (h (Tk )) = 0. Now
mn (h (T )) = lim mn (h (Tk )) = 0.
k→∞

Lemma 10.23 Let h satisfy 10.11. If S is a Lebesgue measurable subset of U , then
h (S) is Lebesgue measurable.
Proof: Let Sk = S ∩ B (0, k) , k ∈ N. By inner regularity of Lebesgue measure,
there exists a set, F , which is the countable union of compact sets and a set T with
mn (T ) = 0 such that
F ∪ T = Sk .
Then h (F ) ⊆ h (Sk ) ⊆ h (F ) ∪ h (T ). By continuity of h, h (F ) is a countable
union of compact sets and so it is Borel. By Lemma 10.22, mn (h (T )) = 0 and so
h (Sk ) is Lebesgue measurable because of completeness of Lebesgue measure. Now
h (S) = ∪∞ k=1 h (Sk ) and so it is also true that h (S) is Lebesgue measurable. This
proves the lemma.
In particular, this proves the following corollary.
10.5. CHANGE OF VARIABLES FOR LINEAR MAPS 281
Corollary 10.24 Suppose A is an n×n matrix. Then if S is a Lebesgue measurable

set, it follows AS is also a Lebesgue measurable set.
Lemma 10.25 Let R be unitary (R∗ R = RR∗ = I) and let V be a an open or

closed set. Then mn (RV ) = mn (V ) .
Proof: First assume V is a bounded open set. By Corollary 10.21 there is a

disjoint sequence of closed balls, {Bi } such that U = ∪∞ i=1 Bi ∪N where mn (N ) = 0.
Denote by xP i the center of Bi and let ri be the radius of Bi . Then by Lemma 10.22
∞
mn (RV ) = P i=1 mn (RBi ) . Now by invariance
P∞ of translation of Lebesgue measure,
∞
this equals i=1 mn (RBi − Rxi ) = i=1 mn (RB (0, ri )) . Since R is unitary, it
preserves all distances and so RB (0, ri ) = B (0, ri ) and therefore,
∞
X ∞
X
mn (RV ) = mn (B (0, ri )) = mn (Bi ) = mn (V ) .
i=1 i=1
This proves the lemma in the case that V is bounded. Suppose now that V is just
an open set. Let Vk = V ∩ B (0, k) . Then mn (RVk ) = mn (Vk ) . Letting k → ∞,
this yields the desired conclusion. This proves the lemma in the case that V is open.
Suppose now that H is a closed and bounded set. Let B (0,R) ⊇ H. Then letting
B = B (0, R) for short,
mn (RH) = mn (RB) − mn (R (B \ H))

= mn (B) − mn (B \ H) = mn (H) .
In general, let Hm = H ∩ B (0,m). Then from what was just shown, mn (RHm ) =
mn (Hm ) . Now let m → ∞ to get the conclusion of the lemma in general. This
proves the lemma.
Lemma 10.26 Let E be Lebesgue measurable set in Rn and let R be unitary. Then
mn (RE) = mn (E) .
Proof: First suppose E is bounded. Then there exist sets, G and H such that
H ⊆ E ⊆ G and H is the countable union of closed sets while G is the countable
intersection of open sets such that mn (G \ H) = 0. By Lemma 10.25 applied to
these sets whose union or intersection equals H or G respectively, it follows
mn (RG) = mn (G) = mn (H) = mn (RH) .
Therefore,
mn (H) = mn (RH) ≤ mn (RE) ≤ mn (RG) = mn (G) = mn (E) = mn (H) .
In the general case, let Em = E ∩ B (0, m) and apply what was just shown and let
m → ∞.
Lemma 10.27 Let V be an open or closed set in Rn and let A be an n × n matrix.

Then mn (AV ) = |det (A)| mn (V ).
Proof: Let RU be the right polar decomposition (Theorem 4.59 on Page 87) of
A and let V be an open set. Then from Lemma 10.26,
mn (AV ) = mn (RU V ) = mn (U V ) .
Now U = Q∗ DQ where D is a diagonal matrix such that |det (D)| = |det (A)| and
Q is unitary. Therefore,
mn (AV ) = mn (Q∗ DQV ) = mn (DQV ) .
Now QV is an open set and so by Corollary 10.6 on Page 270 and Lemma 10.25,
mn (AV ) = |det (D)| mn (QV ) = |det (D)| mn (V ) = |det (A)| mn (V ) .
This proves the lemma in case V is open.

Now let H be a closed set which is also bounded. First suppose det (A) = 0.
Then letting V be an open set containing H,
mn (AH) ≤ mn (AV ) = |det (A)| mn (V ) = 0
which shows the desired equation is obvious in the case where det (A) = 0. Therefore,
assume A is one to one. Since H is bounded, H ⊆ B (0, R) for some R > 0. Then
letting B = B (0, R) for short,
mn (AH) = mn (AB) − mn (A (B \ H))

= |det (A)| mn (B) − |det (A)| mn (B \ H) = |det (A)| mn (H) .
If H is not bounded, apply the result just obtained to Hm ≡ H ∩ B (0, m) and then
let m → ∞.
With this preparation, the main result is the following theorem.
Theorem 10.28 Let E be Lebesgue measurable set in Rn and let A be an n × n

matrix. Then mn (AE) = |det (A)| mn (E) .
Proof: First suppose E is bounded. Then there exist sets, G and H such that
H ⊆ E ⊆ G and H is the countable union of closed sets while G is the countable
intersection of open sets such that mn (G \ H) = 0. By Lemma 10.27 applied to
these sets whose union or intersection equals H or G respectively, it follows
mn (AG) = |det (A)| mn (G) = |det (A)| mn (H) = mn (AH) .
Therefore,
|det (A)| mn (E) = |det (A)| mn (H) = mn (AH) ≤ mn (AE)

≤ mn (AG) = |det (A)| mn (G) = |det (A)| mn (E) .
In the general case, let Em = E ∩ B (0, m) and apply what was just shown and let
m → ∞.
10.6. CHANGE OF VARIABLES FOR C 1 FUNCTIONS 283
10.6 Change Of Variables For C 1 Functions

In this section theorems are proved which generalize the above to C 1 functions.
More general versions can be seen in Kuttler [35], Kuttler [36], and Rudin [45].
There is also a very different approach to this theorem given in [35]. The more
general version in [35] follows [45] and both are based on the Brouwer fixed point
theorem and a very clever lemma presented in Rudin [45]. This same approach will
be used later in this book to prove a different sort of change of variables theorem
in which the functions are only Lipschitz. The proof will be based on a sequence of
easy lemmas.
Lemma 10.29 Let U and V be bounded open sets in Rn and let h, h−1 be C 1
functions such that h (U ) = V. Also let f ∈ Cc (V ) . Then
Z Z
f (y) dy = f (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx
V U
Proof: Let x ∈ U. By the assumption that h and h−1 are C 1 ,
h (x + v) − h (x) = Dh (x) v + o (v)

¡ ¢
= Dh (x) v + Dh−1 (h (x)) o (v)
= Dh (x) (v + o (v))
and so if r > 0 is small enough then B (x, r) is contained in U and
h (B (x, r)) − h (x) = h (x+B (0,r)) − h (x) ⊆ Dh (x) (B (0, (1 + ε) r)) . (10.12)
Making r still smaller if necessary, one can also obtain
|f (y) − f (h (x))| < ε (10.13)
for any y ∈ h (B (x, r)) and
|f (h (x1 )) |det (Dh (x1 ))| − f (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))|| < ε (10.14)
whenever x1 ∈ B (x, r) . The collection of such balls is a Vitali cover of U. By

Corollary 10.21 there is a sequence of disjoint closed balls {Bi } such that U =
∪∞
i=1 Bi ∪ N where mn (N ) = 0. Denote by xi the center of Bi and ri the radius.
Then by Lemma 10.22, the monotone convergence theorem, and 10.12 - 10.14,
R P∞ R
f (y) dy = i=1 h(Bi ) f (y) dy
V P∞ R
≤ εmn (V ) + i=1 h(Bi ) f (h (xi )) dy
P∞
≤ εm Pn∞(V ) + i=1 f (h (xi )) mn (h (Bi ))
≤ εmn (V ) + i=1 f (hP(xi ))Rmn (Dh (xi ) (B (0, (1 + ε) ri )))
n ∞
= εmn (V ) + (1 + ε) ³ i=1 Bi f (h (xi )) |det (Dh (xi ))| dx ´
n P∞ R
≤ εmn (V ) + (1 + ε) i=1 B
f (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx + εm n (Bi )
n P∞ R
i
n
≤ εmn (V ) + (1 + ε) R
i=1 Bi
f (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx + (1 + ε) εmn (U )
n n
= εmn (V ) + (1 + ε) U f (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx + (1 + ε) εmn (U )

Z Z
f (y) dy ≤ f (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx (10.15)
V U
whenever f ∈ Cc (V ) . Now x →f (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| is in Cc (U ) and so using the

same argument with U and V switching roles and replacing h with h−1 ,
Z
f (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx
ZU
¡ ¡ ¢¢ ¯ ¡ ¡ ¢¢¯ ¯ ¡ ¢¯
≤ f h h−1 (y) ¯det Dh h−1 (y) ¯ ¯det Dh−1 (y) ¯ dy
ZV
= f (y) dy
V
by the chain rule. This with 10.15 proves the lemma.

Corollary 10.30 Let U and V be open sets in Rn and let h, h−1 be C 1 functions
such that h (U ) = V. Also let f ∈ Cc (V ) . Then
Z Z
f (y) dy = f (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx
V U
Proof: Choose m large enough that spt (f ) ⊆ B (0,m) ∩ V ≡ Vm . Then let

h−1 (Vm ) = Um . From Lemma 10.29,
Z Z Z
f (y) dy = f (y) dy = f (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx
V Vm Um
Z
= f (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx.
U
This proves the corollary.

Corollary 10.31 Let U and V be open sets in Rn and let h, h−1 be C 1 functions
such that h (U ) = V. Also let E ⊆ V be measurable. Then
Z Z
XE (y) dy = XE (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx.
V U
Proof: Let Em = E ∩ Vm where Vm and Um are as in Corollary 10.30. By

regularity of the measure there exist sets, Kk , Gk such that Kk ⊆ Em ⊆ Gk , Gk
is open, Kk is compact, and mn (Gk \ Kk ) < 2−k . Let Kk ≺ fk ≺ Gk . Then
fk (y) → XEm (y) a.e. because if y is such that convergence
P fails, it must be
the case that y is in Gk \ Kk infinitely often and k mn (Gk \ Kk ) < ∞. Let
N = ∩m ∪∞ k=m Gk \ Kk , the set of y which is in infinitely many of the Gk \ Kk .
Then fk (h (x)) must converge to XE (h (x)) for all x ∈ / h−1 (N ) , a set of measure
zero by Lemma 10.22. By Corollary 10.30
Z Z
fk (y) dy = fk (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx.
Vm Um
By the dominated convergence theorem using a dominating function, XVm in the

integral on the left and XUm |det (Dh)| on the right,
Z Z
XEm (y) dy = XEm (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx.
Vm Um
Therefore,
Z Z Z
XEm (y) dy = XEm (y) dy = XEm (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx
V Vm Um
Z
= XEm (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx
U
Let m → ∞ and use the monotone convergence theorem to obtain the conclusion
of the corollary.
With this corollary, the main theorem follows.
Theorem 10.32 Let U and V be open sets in Rn and let h, h−1 be C 1 functions
such that h (U ) = V. Then if g is a nonnegative Lebesgue measurable function,
Z Z
g (y) dy = g (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx. (10.16)
V U
Proof: From Corollary 10.31, 10.16 holds for any nonnegative simple function
in place of g. In general, let {sk } be an increasing sequence of simple functions
which converges to g pointwise. Then from the monotone convergence theorem
Z Z Z
g (y) dy = lim sk dy = lim sk (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx
V k→∞ V k→∞ U
Z
= g (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx.
U

This is a pretty good theorem but it isn’t too hard to generalize it. In particular,
it is not necessary to assume h−1 is C 1 .
Lemma 10.33 Suppose V is an n − 1 dimensional subspace of Rn and K is a

compact subset of V . Then letting
Kε ≡ ∪x∈K B (x,ε) = K + B (0, ε) ,
it follows that
n−1
mn (Kε ) ≤ 2n ε (diam (K) + ε) .
Proof: Let an orthonormal basis for V be {v1 , · · ·, vn−1 } and let
{v1 , · · ·, vn−1 , vn }
be an orthonormal basis for Rn . Now define a linear transformation, Q by Qvi = ei .

Thus QQ∗ = Q∗ Q = I and Q preserves all distances because
¯ ¯2 ¯ ¯2 ¯ ¯2
¯ X ¯ ¯X ¯ X ¯X ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ 2 ¯ ¯
¯Q a i ei ¯ = ¯ ai vi ¯ = |ai | = ¯ ai ei ¯ .
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
i i i i
Letting k0 ∈ K, it follows K ⊆ B (k0 , diam (K)) and so,

QK ⊆ B n−1 (Qk0 , diam (QK)) = B n−1 (Qk0 , diam (K))
where B n−1 refers to the ball taken with respect to the usual norm in Rn−1 . Every
point of Kε is within ε of some point of K and so it follows that every point of QKε
is within ε of some point of QK. Therefore,
QKε ⊆ B n−1 (Qk0 , diam (QK) + ε) × (−ε, ε) ,
To see this, let x ∈ QKε . Then there exists k ∈ QK such that |k − x| < ε. There-
fore, |(x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) − (k1 , · · ·, kn−1 )| < ε and |xn − kn | < ε and so x is contained
in the set on the right in the above inclusion because kn = 0. However, the measure
of the set on the right is smaller than
n−1 n−1
[2 (diam (QK) + ε)] (2ε) = 2n [(diam (K) + ε)] ε.
Note this is a very sloppy estimate. You can certainly do much better but this
estimate is sufficient to prove Sard’s lemma which follows.
Definition 10.34 In any metric space, if x is a point of the metric space and S is
a nonempty subset,
dist (x,S) ≡ inf {d (x, s) : s ∈ S} .
More generally, if T, S are two nonempty sets,
dist (S, T ) ≡ inf {d (t, s) : s ∈ S, t ∈ T } .
Lemma 10.35 The function x → dist (x,S) is continuous.
Proof: Let x, y be given. Suppose dist (x, S) ≥ dist (y, S) and pick s ∈ S such
that dist (y, S) + ε ≥ d (y, s) . Then
0 ≤ dist (x, S) − dist (y, S) ≤ dist (x, S) − (d (y, s) − ε)
≤ d (x, s) − d (y, s) + ε ≤ d (x, y) + d (y, s) − d (y, s) + ε = d (x, y) + ε.
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this shows |dist (x, S) − dist (y, S)| ≤ d (x, y) . This proves
the lemma.
Lemma 10.36 Let h be a C 1 function defined on an open set, U and let K be a
compact subset of U. Then if ε > 0 is given, there exits r1 > 0 such that if |v| ≤ r1 ,
then for all x ∈ K,
|h (x + v) − h (x) − Dh (x) v| < ε |v| .
¡ ¢
Proof: Let 0 < δ < dist K, U C . Such a positive number exists because if there
exists a sequence of points in K, {kk } and points in U C , {sk } such that |kk − sk | →
0, then you could take a subsequence, still denoted by k such that kk → k ∈ K and
then sk → k also. But U C is closed so k ∈ K ∩ U C , a contradiction. Then
¯R ¯
¯ 1 ¯
|h (x + v) − h (x) − Dh (x) v| ¯ 0
Dh (x + tv) vdt − Dh (x) v ¯
≤
|v| |v|
R1
0
|Dh (x + tv) v − Dh (x) v| dt
≤ .
|v|
Now from uniform continuity of Dh on the compact set, {x : dist (x,K) ≤ δ} it
follows there exists r1 < δ such that if |v| ≤ r1 , then ||Dh (x + tv) − Dh (x)|| < ε
for every x ∈ K. From the above formula, it follows that if |v| ≤ r1 ,
R1
|h (x + v) − h (x) − Dh (x) v| 0
|Dh (x + tv) v − Dh (x) v| dt
≤
|v| |v|
R1
0
ε |v| dt
< = ε.
|v|
A different proof of the following is in [35]. See also [36].
Lemma 10.37 (Sard) Let U be an open set in Rn and let h : U → Rn be C 1 . Let
Z ≡ {x ∈ U : det Dh (x) = 0} .
Then mn (h (Z)) = 0.
∞
Proof: Let {Uk }k=1 be an increasing sequence of open sets whose closures are
compact and
© whose union
¡ equals
¢ U and
ª let Zk ≡ Z ∩Uk . To obtain such a sequence,
let Uk = x ∈ U : dist x,U C < k1 ∩ B (0, k) . First it is shown that h (Zk ) has
measure zero. Let W be an open set contained in Uk+1 which contains Zk and
satisfies
mn (Zk ) + ε > mn (W )
where here and elsewhere, ε < 1. Let
¡ C
¢
r = dist Uk , Uk+1
and let r1 > 0 be a constant as in Lemma 10.36 such that whenever x ∈ Uk and
0 < |v| ≤ r1 ,
|h (x + v) − h (x) − Dh (x) v| < ε |v| . (10.17)
Now the closures of balls which are contained in W and which have the property
that their diameters are less than r1 yield a Vitali covering of n W. Therefore,
o by
e
Corollary 10.21 there is a disjoint sequence of these closed balls, Bi such that
W = ∪∞ e
i=1 Bi ∪ N
where N is a set of measure zero. Denote by {Bi } those closed balls in this sequence
which have nonempty intersection with Zk , let di be the diameter of Bi , and let zi
be a point in Bi ∩ Zk . Since zi ∈ Zk , it follows Dh (zi ) B (0,di ) = Di where Di is
contained in a subspace, V which has dimension n − 1 and the diameter of Di is no
larger than 2Ck di where
Ck ≥ max {||Dh (x)|| : x ∈ Zk }
Then by 10.17, if z ∈ Bi ,
h (z) − h (zi ) ∈ Di + B (0, εdi ) ⊆ Di + B (0,εdi ) .
Thus
h (Bi ) ⊆ h (zi ) + Di + B (0,εdi )
By Lemma 10.33
n−1
mn (h (Bi )) ≤ 2n (2Ck di + εdi ) εdi
³ ´
n n n−1
≤ di 2 [2Ck + ε] ε
≤ Cn,k mn (Bi ) ε.
Therefore, by Lemma 10.22
X X
mn (h (Zk )) ≤ mn (W ) = mn (h (Bi )) ≤ Cn,k ε mn (Bi )
i i
≤ εCn,k mn (W ) ≤ εCn,k (mn (Zk ) + ε)
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows mn (h (Zk )) = 0 and so 0 = limk→∞ mn (h (Zk )) =
mn (h (Z)).
With this important lemma, here is a generalization of Theorem 10.32.
Theorem 10.38 Let U be an open set and let h be a 1 − 1, C 1 function with values
in Rn . Then if g is a nonnegative Lebesgue measurable function,
Z Z
g (y) dy = g (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx. (10.18)
h(U ) U
Proof: Let Z = {x : det (Dh (x)) = 0} . Then by the inverse function theorem,
h−1 is C 1 on h (U \ Z) and h (U \ Z) is an open set. Therefore, from Lemma 10.37
and Theorem 10.32,
Z Z Z
g (y) dy = g (y) dy = g (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx
h(U ) h(U \Z) U \Z
Z
= g (h (x)) |det (Dh (x))| dx.
U

Of course the next generalization considers the case when h is not even one to
one.
10.7. MAPPINGS WHICH ARE NOT ONE TO ONE 289
10.7 Mappings Which Are Not One To One

Now suppose h is only C 1 , not necessarily one to one. For
U+ ≡ {x ∈ U : |det Dh (x)| > 0}
and Z the set where |det Dh (x)| = 0, Lemma 10.37 implies mn (h(Z)) = 0. For
x ∈ U+ , the inverse function theorem implies there exists an open set Bx such that
x ∈ Bx ⊆ U+ , h is one to one on Bx .
Let {Bi } be a countable subset of {Bx }x∈U+ such that U+ = ∪∞ i=1 Bi . Let
E1 = B1 . If E1 , · · ·, Ek have been chosen, Ek+1 = Bk+1 \ ∪ki=1 Ei . Thus
∪∞
i=1 Ei = U+ , h is one to one on Ei , Ei ∩ Ej = ∅,
and each Ei is a Borel set contained in the open set Bi . Now define
∞
X
n(y) ≡ Xh(Ei ) (y) + Xh(Z) (y).
i=1
The set, h (Ei ) , h (Z) are measurable by Lemma 10.23. Thus n (·) is measurable.
Lemma 10.39 Let F ⊆ h(U ) be measurable. Then

Z Z
n(y)XF (y)dy = XF (h(x))| det Dh(x)|dx.
h(U ) U
Proof: Using Lemma 10.37 and the Monotone Convergence Theorem or Fubini’s
Theorem,
 
mn (h(Z))=0
Z Z ∞ z }| { 
X
n(y)XF (y)dy =  Xh(Ei ) (y) + Xh(Z) (y)  XF (y)dy
h(U ) h(U ) i=1
∞ Z
X
= Xh(Ei ) (y)XF (y)dy
i=1 h(U )
X∞ Z
= Xh(Ei ) (y)XF (y)dy
i=1 h(Bi )
X∞ Z
= XEi (x)XF (h(x))| det Dh(x)|dx
i=1 Bi
X∞ Z
i=1 U
Z X
∞
U i=1
Z Z
= XF (h(x))| det Dh(x)|dx = XF (h(x))| det Dh(x)|dx.
U+ U
Definition 10.40 For y ∈ h(U ), define a function, #, according to the formula
#(y) ≡ number of elements in h−1 (y).
Observe that
#(y) = n(y) a.e. (10.19)
because n(y) = #(y) if y ∈
/ h(Z), a set of measure 0. Therefore, # is a measurable
function.
Theorem 10.41 Let g ≥ 0, g measurable, and let h be C 1 (U ). Then
Z Z
#(y)g(y)dy = g(h(x))| det Dh(x)|dx. (10.20)
h(U ) U
Proof: From 10.19 and Lemma 10.39, 10.20 holds for all g, a nonnegative simple
function. Approximating an arbitrary measurable nonnegative function, g, with an
increasing pointwise convergent sequence of simple functions and using the mono-
tone convergence theorem, yields 10.20 for an arbitrary nonnegative measurable
function, g. This proves the theorem.
10.8 Lebesgue Measure And Iterated Integrals

The following is the main result.
Theorem 10.42R Let f ≥ 0 and suppose f is a Lebesgue measurable function de-
fined on Rn and Rn f dmn < ∞. Then
Z Z Z
f dmn = f dmn−k dmk .
Rn Rk Rn−k
This will be accomplished by Fubini’s theorem, Theorem 9.50 and the following
lemma.
Lemma 10.43 mk × mn−k = mn on the mn measurable sets.
Qn
Proof: First of all, let R = i=1 (ai , bi ] be a measurable rectangle and let
Qk Qn
Rk = i=1 (ai , bi ], Rn−k = i=k+1 (ai , bi ]. Then by Fubini’s theorem,
Z Z Z
XR d (mk × mn−k ) = XRk XRn−k dmk dmn−k
k n−k
ZR R Z
= XRk dmk XRn−k dmn−k
Rk Rn−k
Z
= XR dmn
10.8. LEBESGUE MEASURE AND ITERATED INTEGRALS 291
and so mk × mn−k and mn agree on every half open rectangle. By Lemma 10.2
these two measures agree on every open set. ¡Now¢ if K is a compact set, then
1
K = ∩∞ © Uk where Uk is the
k=1 ª open set, K + B 0, k . Another way of saying this
1
is Uk ≡ x : dist (x,K) < k which is obviously open because x → dist (x,K) is a
continuous function. Since K is the countable intersection of these decreasing open
sets, each of which has finite measure with respect to either of the two measures,
it follows that mk × mn−k and mn agree on all the compact sets. Now let E be
a bounded Lebesgue measurable set. Then there are sets, H and G such that
H is a countable union of compact sets, G a countable intersection of open sets,
H ⊆ E ⊆ G, and mn (G \ H) = 0. Then from what was just shown about compact
and open sets, the two measures agree on G and on H. Therefore,
mn (H) = mk × mn−k (H) ≤ mk × mn−k (E)

≤ mk × mn−k (G) = mn (E) = mn (H)
By completeness of the measure space for mk × mn−k , it follows E is mk × mn−k

measurable and
mk × mn−k (E) = mn (E) .
You could also show that the two σ algebras are the same. However, this is not
needed for the lemma or the theorem.
Proof of Theorem 10.42: By the lemma and Fubini’s theorem, Theorem 9.50,
Z Z Z Z
f dmn = f d (mk × mn−k ) = f dmn−k dmk .
Rn Rn Rk Rn−k
Corollary 10.44 Let f be a nonnegative real valued measurable function. Then

Z Z Z
Rn Rk Rn−k
R
Proof: Let Sp ≡ {x ∈ Rn : 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ p} ∩ B (0, p) . Then Rn f XSp dmn < ∞.
Therefore, from Theorem 10.42,
Z Z Z
f XSp dmn = XSp f dmn−k dmk .
Rn Rk Rn−k
Now let p → ∞ and use the Monotone convergence theorem and the Fubini Theorem
9.50 on Page 243.
Not surprisingly, the following corollary follows from this.
Corollary 10.45 Let f ∈ L1 (Rn ) where the measure is mn . Then

Z Z Z
Rn Rk Rn−k
Proof: Apply Corollary 10.44 to the postive and negative parts of the real and
imaginary parts of f .
10.9 Spherical Coordinates In Many Dimensions

Sometimes there is a need to deal with spherical coordinates in more than three
dimensions. In this section, this concept is defined and formulas are derived for
these coordinate systems. Recall polar coordinates are of the form
y1 = ρ cos θ
y2 = ρ sin θ
where ρ > 0 and θ ∈ [0, 2π). Here I am writing ρ in place of r to emphasize a pattern
which is about to emerge. I will consider polar coordinates as spherical coordinates
in two dimensions. I will also simply refer to such coordinate systems as polar
coordinates regardless of the dimension. This is also the reason I am writing y1 and
y2 instead of the more usual x and y. Now consider what happens when you go to
three dimensions. The situation is depicted in the following picture.
r(x1 , x2 , x3 )
R
¶¶
φ1 ¶
¶ρ
¶
¶ R2
From this picture, you see that y3 = ρ cos φ1 . Also the distance between (y1 , y2 )
and (0, 0) is ρ sin (φ1 ) . Therefore, using polar coordinates to write (y1 , y2 ) in terms
of θ and this distance,
y1 = ρ sin φ1 cos θ,
y2 = ρ sin φ1 sin θ,
y3 = ρ cos φ1 .
where φ1 ∈ [0, π] . What was done is to replace ρ with ρ sin φ1 and then to add in
y3 = ρ cos φ1 . Having done this, there is no reason to stop with three dimensions.
Consider the following picture:
r(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )
R ¶¶
φ2 ¶
¶ρ
¶
¶ R3
From this picture, you see that y4 = ρ cos φ2 . Also the distance between (y1 , y2 , y3 )
and (0, 0, 0) is ρ sin (φ2 ) . Therefore, using polar coordinates to write (y1 , y2 , y3 ) in
10.9. SPHERICAL COORDINATES IN MANY DIMENSIONS 293
terms of θ, φ1 , and this distance,
y1 = ρ sin φ2 sin φ1 cos θ,

y2 = ρ sin φ2 sin φ1 sin θ,
y3 = ρ sin φ2 cos φ1 ,
y4 = ρ cos φ2
where φ2 ∈ [0, π] .
Continuing this way, given spherical coordinates in Rn , to get the spherical
coordinates in Rn+1 , you let yn+1 = ρ cos φn−1 and then replace every occurance of
ρ with ρ sin φn−1 to obtain y1 · · · yn in terms of φ1 , φ2 , · · ·, φn−1 ,θ, and ρ.
It is always the case that ρ measures the distance from the point in Rn to the
origin in Rn , 0. Each φi ∈ [0, π] , and θ ∈ [0, 2π). It can be shown using math
Qn−2
induction that these coordinates map i=1 [0, π] × [0, 2π) × (0, ∞) one to one onto
Rn \ {0} .
Theorem 10.46 Let y = h (φ, θ, ρ) be the spherical coordinate transformations in

Qn−2
Rn . Then letting A = i=1 [0, π] × [0, 2π), it follows h maps A × (0, ∞) one to one
onto Rn \ {0} . Also |det Dh (φ, θ, ρ)| will always be of the form
|det Dh (φ, θ, ρ)| = ρn−1 Φ (φ, θ) . (10.21)
where Φ is a continuous function of φ and θ.1 Furthermore whenever f is Lebesgue

measurable and nonnegative,
Z Z ∞ Z
n−1
f (y) dy = ρ f (h (φ, θ, ρ)) Φ (φ, θ) dφ dθdρ (10.22)
Rn 0 A
where here dφ dθ denotes dmn−1 on A. The same formula holds if f ∈ L1 (Rn ) .
Proof: Formula 10.21 is obvious from the definition of the spherical coordinates.
The first claim is also Q
clear from the definition and math induction. It remains to
n−2
verify 10.22. Let A0 ≡ i=1 (0, π)×(0, 2π) . Then it is clear that (A \ A0 )×(0, ∞) ≡
N is a set of measure zero in Rn . Therefore, from Lemma 10.22 it follows h (N )
is also a set of measure zero. Therefore, using the change of variables theorem,
Corollary 10.44, and Sard’s lemma,
Z Z Z
f (y) dy = f (y) dy = f (y) dy
Rn Rn \{0} Rn \({0}∪h(N ))
Z
= f (h (φ, θ, ρ)) ρn−1 Φ (φ, θ) dmn
A0 ×(0,∞)
Z
= XA×(0,∞) (φ, θ, ρ) f (h (φ, θ, ρ)) ρn−1 Φ (φ, θ) dmn
Z ∞ µZ ¶
n−1
= ρ f (h (φ, θ, ρ)) Φ (φ, θ) dφ dθ dρ.
0 A
1 Actually it is only a function of the first but this is not important in what follows.
Now the claim about f ∈ L1 follows routinely from considering the positive and
negative parts of the real and imaginary parts of f in the usual way. This proves
the theorem.
Notation 10.47 Often this is written differently. Note that from the spherical co-
ordinate formulas, f (h (φ, θ, ρ)) = f (ρω) where |ω| = 1. Letting S n−1 denote the
unit sphere, {ω ∈ Rn : |ω| = 1} , the inside integral in the above formula is some-
times written as Z
f (ρω) dσ
S n−1
where σ is a measure on S n−1 . See [35] for another description of this measure.
It isn’t an important issue here. Later in the book when integration on manifolds
is discussed, more general considerations will be dealt with. Either 10.22 or the
formula Z µZ ¶
∞
ρn−1 f (ρω) dσ dρ
0 S n−1
will be referred
¡ ¢ toRas polar coordinates and is very useful in establishing estimates.
Here σ S n−1 ≡ A Φ (φ, θ) dφ dθ.
R ³ ´s
2
Example 10.48 For what values of s is the integral B(0,R) 1 + |x| dy bounded
independent of R? Here B (0, R) is the ball, {x ∈ Rn : |x| ≤ R} .
I think you can see immediately that s must be negative but exactly how neg-
ative? It turns out it depends on n and using polar coordinates, you can find just
exactly what is needed. From the polar coordinats formula above,
Z ³ ´s Z R Z
2 ¡ ¢s
1 + |x| dy = 1 + ρ2 ρn−1 dσdρ
B(0,R) 0 S n−1
Z R ¡ ¢s
= Cn 1 + ρ2 ρn−1 dρ
0
Now the very hard problem has been reduced to considering an easy one variable
problem of finding when
Z R
¡ ¢s
ρn−1 1 + ρ2 dρ
0
is bounded independent of R. You need 2s + (n − 1) < −1 so you need s < −n/2.
10.10 The Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem

This seems to be a good place to present a short proof of one of the most important
of all fixed point theorems. There are many approaches to this but one of the
easiest and shortest I have ever seen is the one in Dunford and Schwartz [18]. This
is what is presented here. In Evans [21] there is a different proof which depends on
10.10. THE BROUWER FIXED POINT THEOREM 295
integration theory. A good reference for an introduction to various kinds of fixed

point theorems is the book by Smart [48]. This book also gives an entirely different
approach to the Brouwer fixed point theorem.
The proof given here is based on the following lemma. Recall that the mixed
partial derivatives of a C 2 function are equal. In the following lemma, and elsewhere,
a comma followed by an index indicates the partial derivative with respect to the
∂f
indicated variable. Thus, f,j will mean ∂x j
. Also, write Dg for the Jacobian matrix
which is the matrix of Dg taken with respect to the usual basis vectors in Rn . Recall
that for A an n × n matrix, cof (A)ij is the determinant of the matrix which results
i+j
from deleting the ith row and the j th column and multiplying by (−1) .
Lemma 10.49 Let g : U → Rn be C 2 where U is an open subset of Rn . Then
n
X
cof (Dg)ij,j = 0,
j=1
∂gi ∂ det(Dg)
where here (Dg)ij ≡ gi,j ≡ ∂xj . Also, cof (Dg)ij = ∂gi,j .
Proof: From the cofactor expansion theorem,

n
X
det (Dg) = gi,j cof (Dg)ij
i=1
and so
∂ det (Dg)
= cof (Dg)ij (10.23)
∂gi,j
which shows the last claim of the lemma. Also
X
δ kj det (Dg) = gi,k (cof (Dg))ij (10.24)
i
because if k 6= j this is just the cofactor expansion of the determinant of a matrix

in which the k th and j th columns are equal. Differentiate 10.24 with respect to xj
and sum on j. This yields
X ∂ (det Dg) X X
δ kj gr,sj = gi,kj (cof (Dg))ij + gi,k cof (Dg)ij,j .
r,s,j
∂gr,s ij ij
Hence, using δ kj = 0 if j 6= k and 10.23,

X X X
(cof (Dg))rs gr,sk = gr,ks (cof (Dg))rs + gi,k cof (Dg)ij,j .
rs rs ij
Subtracting the first sum on the right from both sides and using the equality of
mixed partials,  
X X
gi,k  (cof (Dg))ij,j  = 0.
i j
P
If det (gi,k ) 6= 0 so that (gi,k ) is invertible, this shows j (cof (Dg))ij,j = 0. If
det (Dg) = 0, let
gk = g + εk I
where εk → 0 and det (Dg + εk I) ≡ det (Dgk ) 6= 0. Then
X X
(cof (Dg))ij,j = lim (cof (Dgk ))ij,j = 0
k→∞
j j

To prove the Brouwer fixed point theorem, first consider a version of it valid for
C 2 mappings. This is the following lemma.
Lemma 10.50 Let Br = B (0,r) and suppose g is a C 2 function defined on Rn

which maps Br to Br . Then g (x) = x for some x ∈ Br .
Proof: Suppose not. Then |g (x) − x| must be bounded away from zero on Br .
Let a (x) be the larger of the two roots of the equation,
2
|x+a (x) (x − g (x))| = r2 . (10.25)
Thus
r ³ ´
2 2 2
− (x, (x − g (x))) + (x, (x − g (x))) + r2 − |x| |x − g (x)|
a (x) = 2 (10.26)
|x − g (x)|
The expression under the square root sign is always nonnegative and it follows
from the formula that a (x) ≥ 0. Therefore, (x, (x − g (x))) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ Br .
The reason for this is that a (x) is the larger zero of a polynomial of the form
2 2
p (z) = |x| + z 2 |x − g (x)| − 2z (x, x − g (x)) and from the formula above, it is
nonnegative. −2 (x, x − g (x)) is the slope of the tangent line to p (z) at z = 0. If
2
x 6= 0, then |x| > 0 and so this slope needs to be negative for the larger of the two
zeros to be positive. If x = 0, then (x, x − g (x)) = 0.
Now define for t ∈ [0, 1],
f (t, x) ≡ x+ta (x) (x − g (x)) .
The important properties of f (t, x) and a (x) are that
a (x) = 0 if |x| = r. (10.27)
and
|f (t, x)| = r for all |x| = r (10.28)
These properties follow immediately from 10.26 and the above observation that for
x ∈ Br , it follows (x, (x − g (x))) ≥ 0.
Also from 10.26, a is a C 2 function near Br . This is obvious from 10.26 as long
as |x| < r. However, even if |x| = r it is still true. To show this, it suffices to verify
10.10. THE BROUWER FIXED POINT THEOREM 297
the expression under the square root sign is positive. If this expression were not
positive for some |x| = r, then (x, (x − g (x))) = 0. Then also, since g (x) 6= x,
¯ ¯
¯ g (x) + x ¯
¯ ¯<r
¯ 2 ¯
and so µ ¶ 2
g (x) + x 1 r2 |x| r2
r2 > x, = (x, g (x)) + = + = r2 ,
2 2 2 2 2
a contradiction. Therefore, the expression under the square root in 10.26 is always
positive near Br and so a is a C 2 function near Br as claimed because the square
root function is C 2 away from zero.
Now define Z
I (t) ≡ det (D2 f (t, x)) dx.
Br
Then Z
I (0) = dx = mn (Br ) > 0. (10.29)
Br
Using the dominated convergence theorem one can differentiate I (t) as follows.
Z X
∂ det (D2 f (t, x)) ∂fi,j
I 0 (t) = dx
Br ij ∂fi,j ∂t
Z X
∂ (a (x) (xi − gi (x)))
= cof (D2 f )ij dx.
Br ij ∂xj
Now from 10.27 a (x) = 0 when |x| = r and so integration by parts and Lemma
10.49 yields
Z X
0 ∂ (a (x) (xi − gi (x)))
I (t) = cof (D2 f )ij dx
Br ij ∂xj
Z X
= − cof (D2 f )ij,j a (x) (xi − gi (x)) dx = 0.
Br ij
Therefore, I (1) = I (0). However, from 10.25 it follows that for t = 1,

X
fi fi = r2
i
P
and so, i fi,j fi = 0 which implies since |f (1, x)| = r by 10.25, that det (fi,j ) =
det (D2 f (1, x)) = 0 and so I (1) = 0, a contradiction to 10.29 since I (1) = I (0).
The following theorem is the Brouwer fixed point theorem for a ball.
Theorem 10.51 Let Br be the above closed ball and let f : Br → Br be continuous.
Then there exists x ∈ Br such that f (x) = x.
f (x) r
Proof: Let fk (x) ≡ 1+k−1 . Thus ||fk − f || < 1+k where
||h|| ≡ max {|h (x)| : x ∈ Br } .
Using the Weierstrass approximation theorem, there exists a polynomial gk such

r
that ||gk − fk || < k+1 . Then if x ∈ Br , it follows
|gk (x)| ≤ |gk (x) − fk (x)| + |fk (x)|

r kr
< + =r
1+k 1+k
and so gk maps Br to Br . By Lemma 10.50 each of these gk has a fixed point, xk
such that gk (xk ) = xk . The sequence of points, {xk } is contained in the compact
set, Br and so there exists a convergent subsequence still denoted by {xk } which
converges to a point, x ∈ Br . Then
¯ ¯
¯ z }| {¯¯
=xk
¯
|f (x) − x| ≤ |f (x) − fk (x)| + |fk (x) − fk (xk )| + ¯¯fk (xk ) − gk (xk )¯¯ + |xk − x|
¯ ¯
r r
≤ + |f (x) − f (xk )| + + |xk − x| .
1+k 1+k
Now let k → ∞ in the right side to conclude f (x) = x. This proves the theorem.
It is not surprising that the ball does not need to be centered at 0.
Corollary 10.52 Let f : B (a, r) → B (a, r) be continuous. Then there exists x ∈

B (a, r) such that f (x) = x.
Proof: Let g : Br → Br be defined by g (y) ≡ f (y + a) − a. Then g is a

continuous map from Br to Br . Therefore, there exists y ∈ Br such that g (y) = y.
Therefore, f (y + a) − a = y and so letting x = y + a, f also has a fixed point as
claimed.
10.11 The Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem Another

Proof
This proof is also based on Lemma 10.49. I found this proof of the Brouwer fixed
point theorem or one close to it in Evans [21]. It is even shorter than the proof just
presented. I think it might be easier to remember also. It is also based on Lemma
10.49 which is stated next for convenience.
Lemma 10.53 Let g : U → Rn be C 2 where U is an open subset of Rn . Then

n
X
cof (Dg)ij,j = 0,
j=1
∂gi ∂ det(Dg)
where here (Dg)ij ≡ gi,j ≡ ∂xj . Also, cof (Dg)ij = ∂gi,j .
10.11. THE BROUWER FIXED POINT THEOREM ANOTHER PROOF 299
n
Definition
¡ ¢ 10.54 Let h be a function defined on an open set, U ⊆ R . Then
k
h ∈ C U if there exists a function g defined on an open set, W containng U such
that g = h on U and g is C k (W ) .
³ ´
Lemma 10.55 There does not exist h ∈ C 2 B (0, R) such that h :B (0, R) →
∂B (0, R) which also has the property that h (x) = x for all x ∈ ∂B (0, R) . Such a
function is called a retraction.
Proof: Suppose such an h exists. Let λ ∈ [0, 1] and let pλ (x) ≡ x+λ (h (x) − x) .
This function, pλ is a homotopy of the identity map and the retraction, h. Let
Z
I (λ) ≡ det (Dpλ (x)) dx.
B(0,R)
Then using the dominated convergence theorem,

Z X ∂ det (Dpλ (x)) ∂pλij (x)
I 0 (λ) =
B(0,R) i.j ∂pλi,j ∂λ
Z X X ∂ det (Dpλ (x))
= (hi (x) − xi ),j dx
B(0,R) i j
∂pλi,j
Z XX
= cof (Dpλ (x))ij (hi (x) − xi ),j dx
B(0,R) i j
Now by assumption, hi (x) = xi on ∂B (0, R) and so one can integrate by parts and
write
XZ X
I 0 (λ) = − cof (Dpλ (x))ij,j (hi (x) − xi ) dx = 0.
i B(0,R) j
Therefore, I (λ) equals a constant. However,
I (0) = mn (B (0, R)) > 0
but Z Z
I (1) = det (Dh (x)) dmn = # (y) dmn = 0
B(0,1) ∂B(0,1)
because from polar coordinates or other elementary reasoning, mn (∂B (0, 1)) = 0.
The following is the Brouwer fixed point theorem for C 2 maps.
³ ´
Lemma 10.56 If h ∈ C 2 B (0, R) and h : B (0, R) → B (0, R), then h has a
fixed point, x such that h (x) = x.
Proof: Suppose the lemma is not true. Then for all x, |x − h (x)| =
6 0. Then
define
x − h (x)
g (x) = h (x) + t (x)
|x − h (x)|
where t (x) is nonnegative and is chosen such that g (x) ∈ ∂B (0, R) . This mapping
is illustrated in the following picture.
tf (x)
xt ¡
¡
¡
t¡
g(x)
If x →t (x) is C 2 near B (0, R), it will follow g is a C 2 retraction onto ∂B (0, R)

contrary to Lemma 10.55. Thus t (x) is the nonnegative solution to
µ ¶
2 x − h (x)
H (x, t) = |h (x)| + 2 h (x) , t + t2 = R 2 (10.30)
|x − h (x)|
Then µ ¶
x − h (x)
Ht (x, t) = 2 h (x) , + 2t.
|x − h (x)|
If this is nonzero for all x near B (0, R), it follows from the implicit function theorem
that t is a C 2 function of x. Then from 10.30
µ ¶
x − h (x)
2t = −2 h (x) ,
|x − h (x)|
s µ ¶2
x − h (x) ³ ´
2
± 4 h (x) , − 4 |h (x)| − R2
|x − h (x)|
and so
µ ¶
x − h (x)
Ht (x, t) = 2t + 2 h (x) ,
|x − h (x)|
s µ ¶2
³ ´ x − h (x)
2 2
= ± 4 R − |h (x)| + 4 h (x) ,
|x − h (x)|
If |h (x)| < R, this is nonzero. If |h (x)| = R, then it is still nonzero unless
(h (x) , x − h (x)) = 0.
But this cannot happen because the angle between h (x) and x − h (x) cannot be
π/2. Alternatively, if the above equals zero, you would need
2
(h (x) , x) = |h (x)| = R2
which cannot happen unless x = h (x) which is assumed not to happen. Therefore,
x → t (x) is C 2 near B (0, R) and so g (x) given above contradicts Lemma 10.55.
Now it is easy to prove the Brouwer fixed point theorem.
10.11. THE BROUWER FIXED POINT THEOREM ANOTHER PROOF 301
Theorem 10.57 Let f : B (0, R) → B (0, R) be continuous. Then f has a fixed

point.
Proof: If this is not so, there exists ε > 0 such that for all x ∈ B (0, R),
|x − f (x)| > ε.
By the Weierstrass approximation theorem, there exists h, a polynomial such that

n o ε
max |h (x) − f (x)| : x ∈ B (0, R) < .
2
Then for all x ∈ B (0, R),

ε ε
|x − h (x)| ≥ |x − f (x)| − |h (x) − f (x)| > ε − =
2 2
contradicting Lemma 10.56. This proves the theorem.
Some Extension Theorems
11.1 Caratheodory Extension Theorem

The Caratheodory extension theorem is a fundamental result which makes possible
the consideration of measures on infinite products among other things. The idea is
that if a finite measure defined only on an algebra is trying to be a measure, then
in fact it can be extended to a measure.
Definition 11.1 Let E be an algebra of sets of Ω and let µ0 be a finite measure on

E. This means µ0 is finitely additive and if Ei , E are sets of E with the Ei disjoint
and
E = ∪∞i=1 Ei ,
then
∞
X
µ0 (E) = µ (Ei )
i=1
while µ0 (Ω) < ∞.
In this definition, µ0 is trying to be a measure and acts like one whenever pos-
sible. Under these conditions, µ0 can be extended uniquely to a complete measure,
µ, defined on a σ algebra of sets containing E such that µ agrees with µ0 on E. The
following is the main result.
Theorem 11.2 Let µ0 be a measure on an algebra of sets, E, which satisfies

µ0 (Ω) < ∞. Then there exists a complete measure space (Ω, S, µ) such that
µ (E) = µ0 (E)
for all E ∈ E. Also if ν is any such measure which agrees with µ0 on E, then ν = µ
on σ (E), the σ algebra generated by E.
Proof: Define an outer measure as follows.

(∞ )
X
∞
µ (S) ≡ inf µ0 (Ei ) : S ⊆ ∪i=1 Ei , Ei ∈ E
i=1
303
304 SOME EXTENSION THEOREMS
Claim 1: µ is an outer measure.

Proof of Claim 1: Let S ⊆ ∪∞ ∞
i=1 Si and let Si ⊆ ∪j=1 Eij , where
X ∞
ε
µ (Si ) + i ≥ µ (Eij ) .
2 j=1
Then X³
XX ε´ X
µ (S) ≤ µ (Eij ) = µ (Si ) + = µ (Si ) + ε.
i j i
2i i
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows µ is an outer measure as claimed.

By the Caratheodory procedure, there exists a unique σ algebra, S, consisting
of the µ measurable sets such that
(Ω, S, µ)
is a complete measure space. It remains to show µ extends µ0 .
Claim 2: If S is the σ algebra of µ measurable sets, S ⊇ E and µ = µ0 on E.
Proof of Claim 2: First observe that if A ∈ E, then µ (A) ≤ µ0 (A) by
definition. Letting
∞
X
µ (A) + ε > µ0 (Ei ) , ∪∞
i=1 Ei ⊇A, Ei ∈ E,
i=1
it follows
∞
X
µ (A) + ε > µ0 (Ei ∩ A) ≥ µ0 (A)
i=1
since A = ∪∞ i=1 Ei ∩ A. Therefore, µ = µ0 on E.
Consider the assertion that E ⊆ S. Let A ∈ E and let S ⊆ Ω be any set. There
exist sets {Ei } ⊆ E such that ∪∞i=1 Ei ⊇ S but
∞
X
µ (S) + ε > µ (Ei ) .
i=1
Then
µ (S) ≤ µ (S ∩ A) + µ (S \ A)
≤ µ (∪∞ ∞
i=1 Ei \ A) + µ (∪i=1 (Ei ∩ A))
∞
X X∞ X∞
≤ µ (Ei \A) + µ (Ei ∩ A) = µ (Ei ) < µ (S) + ε.
i=1 i=1 i=1
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows A ∈ S.
This has proved the existence part of the theorem. To verify uniqueness, Let
M ≡ {E ∈ σ (E) : µ (E) = ν (E)} .
Then M is given to contain E and is obviously a monotone class. Therefore by
Theorem 9.57 on monotone classes, M = σ (E) and this proves the lemma.
The following lemma is also very significant.
11.2. THE TYCHONOFF THEOREM 305
Lemma 11.3 Let M be a metric space with the closed balls compact and suppose
µ is a measure defined on the Borel sets of M which is finite on compact sets.
Then there exists a unique Radon measure, µ which equals µ on the Borel sets. In
particular µ must be both inner and outer regular on all Borel sets.
R
Proof: Define a positive linear functional, Λ (f ) = f dµ. Let µ be the Radon
measure which comes from the Riesz representation theorem for positive linear
functionals. Thus for all f continuous,
Z Z
f dµ = f dµ.
If V is an open set, let {fn } be a sequence of continuous functions which is increasing

and converges to XV pointwise. Then applying the monotone convergence theorem,
Z Z
XV dµ = µ (V ) = XV dµ = µ (V )
and so the two measures coincide on all open sets. Every compact set is a countable
intersection of open sets and so the two measures coincide on all compact sets. Now
let B (a, n) be a ball of radius n and let E be a Borel set contained in this ball.
Then by regularity of µ there exist sets F, G such that G is a countable intersection
of open sets and F is a countable union of compact sets such that F ⊆ E ⊆ G and
µ (G \ F ) = 0. Now µ (G) = µ (G) and µ (F ) = µ (F ) . Thus
µ (G \ F ) + µ (F ) = µ (G)
= µ (G) = µ (G \ F ) + µ (F )
and so µ (G \ F ) = µ (G \ F ) . It follows
µ (E) = µ (F ) = µ (F ) = µ (G) = µ (E) .
If E is an arbitrary Borel set, then
µ (E ∩ B (a, n)) = µ (E ∩ B (a, n))
and letting n → ∞, this yields µ (E) = µ (E) .
11.2 The Tychonoff Theorem

Sometimes it is necessary to consider infinite Cartesian products of topological
spaces. When you have finitely many topological spaces in the product and each is
compact, it can be shown that the Cartesian product is compact with the product
topology. It turns out that the same thing holds for infinite products but you have
to be careful how you define the topology. The first thing likely to come to mind
by analogy with finite products is not the right way to do it.
First recall the Hausdorff maximal principle.
Theorem 11.4 (Hausdorff maximal principle) Let F be a nonempty partially or-

dered set. Then there exists a maximal chain.
The main tool in the study of products of compact topological spaces is the
Alexander subbasis theorem which is presented next. Recall a set is compact if
every basic open cover admits a finite subcover. This was pretty easy to prove.
However, there is a much smaller set of open sets called a subbasis which has this
property. The proof of this result is much harder.
Definition 11.5 S ⊆ τ is called a subbasis for the topology τ if the set B of finite
intersections of sets of S is a basis for the topology, τ .
Theorem 11.6 Let (X, τ ) be a topological space and let S ⊆ τ be a subbasis for
τ . Then if H ⊆ X, H is compact if and only if every open cover of H consisting
entirely of sets of S admits a finite subcover.
Proof: The only if part is obvious because the subasic sets are themselves open.
By Lemma 6.56 on Page 6.56, if every basic open cover admits a finite subcover
then the set in question is compact. Suppose then that H is a subset of X having
the property that subbasic open covers admit finite subcovers. Is H compact?
Assume this is not so. Then what was just observed about basic covers implies
there exists a basic open cover of H, O, which admits no finite subcover. Let F be
defined as
{O : O is a basic open cover of H which admits no finite subcover}.
The assumption is that F is nonempty. Partially order F by set inclusion and use
the Hausdorff maximal principle to obtain a maximal chain, C, of such open covers
and let
D = ∪C.
If D admits a finite subcover, then since C is a chain and the finite subcover has only
finitely many sets, some element of C would also admit a finite subcover, contrary
to the definition of F. Therefore, D admits no finite subcover. If D0 % D and D0
is a basic open cover of H, then D0 has a finite subcover of H since otherwise, C
would fail to be a maximal chain, being properly contained in C∪ {D0 }. Every set
of D is of the form
U = ∩mi=1 Bi , Bi ∈ S
because they are all basic open sets. If it is the case that for all U ∈ D one of the
Bi is found in D, then replace each such U with the subbasic set from D containing
it. But then this would be a subbasic open cover of H which by assumption would
admit a finite subcover contrary to the properties of D. Therefore, one of the sets
of D, denoted by U , has the property that
U = ∩m
i=1 Bi , Bi ∈ S
11.2. THE TYCHONOFF THEOREM 307
and no Bi is in D. Thus D ∪ {Bi } admits a finite subcover, for each of the above
Bi because it is strictly larger than D. Let this finite subcover corresponding to Bi
be denoted by
V1i , · · ·, Vmi i , Bi
Consider
{U, Vji , j = 1, · · ·, mi , i = 1, · · ·, m}.
If p ∈ H \ ∪{Vji }, then p ∈ Bi for each i and so p ∈ U . This is therefore a finite
subcover of D contradicting the properties of D. Therefore, F must be empty and
by Lemma 6.56, this proves the theorem.
Let I be a set and suppose for each i ∈ I, (Xi , τ i )Qis a nonempty topological
space. The Cartesian product of the Xi , denoted by i∈I Xi , consists of the set
of allQchoice functions defined on I which select a single element of each XQ
i . Thus
f ∈ i∈I Xi means for every i ∈ I, f (i) ∈ Xi . The axiom of choice says i∈I Xi
is nonempty. Let Y
Pj (A) = Bi
i∈I
where Bi = Xi if i 6= j and Bj = A. A subbasis for a topology on the product

space consists of all sets Pj (A) where A ∈ τ j . (These sets have an open set from
the topology of Xj in the j th slot and the whole space in the other slots.) Thus a
basis consists of finite intersections of these sets. Note that theQintersection of two
of these basic sets is another basic set and their union yields i∈I Xi . Therefore,
they satisfy the condition needed for a collection of sets to serve as a basis Q for a
topology. This topology is called the product topology and is denoted by Qτ i .
It is tempting to define a basis for a topology to be sets of the form i∈I Ai
where Ai is open in Xi . This is not the same thing at all. Note that the basis just
described has at most finitely many slots filled with an open set which is not the
whole space. The thing just mentioned in which every slot may be filled by a proper
open set is called the box topology and there exist people who are interested in it.
The Alexander subbasis theorem is used to prove the Tychonoff theorem which
says
Q that if each Xi is a compact topological space, then in the product topology,
i∈I Xi is also compact.
Q Q
Theorem 11.7 If (Xi τ i ) is compact, then so is ( i∈I Xi , τ i ).
Proof: By the Alexander subbasis theorem, the theorem will be proved if every
subbasic Q
open cover admits a finite subcover. Therefore, let O be a subbasic open
cover of i∈I Xi . Let
Oj = {Q ∈ O : Q = Pj (A) for some A ∈ τ j }.
Thus Oj consists of those sets of O which have a possibly proper subset of Xi only
in the slot i = j. Let
π j Oj = {A : Pj (A) ∈ Oj }.
Thus π j Oj picks out those proper open subsets of Xj which occur in Oj .
If no π j Oj covers Xj , then by the axiom of choice, there exists

Y
f∈ Xi \ ∪π i Oi
i∈I
Q
Therefore, f (j) ∈
/ ∪π j Oj for each j ∈ I. Now f is a point of i∈I Xi and so
f ∈ Pk (A) ∈ O for some k. However, this is a contradiction it was shown that f (k)
is not an element of A. (A is one of the sets whose union makes up ∪π k Ok .) This
contradiction shows that for some j, π j Oj covers Xj . Thus
Xj = ∪π j Oj
and so by compactness of Xj , there exist A1 , · · ·, Am , Q sets in τ j such that Xj ⊆

∪m
i=1 Ai and Pj (Ai ) ∈ O. Therefore,
Q {P j (A i )} m
i=1 covers i∈I Xi . By the Alexander
subbasis theorem this proves i∈I Xi is compact.
11.3 Kolmogorov Extension Theorem

Here Mt will be a metric space in which the closed balls are compact. (The case
of interest is Rn but it is easier to write M .) Thus it is also a locally compact
Hausdorff space. I will denote a totally ordered Qindex set, and the interest will
be in building a measure on the product space, t∈I Mt . The example of interest
for I is [0, ∞) but all that I will use is that I is totally ordered. By well ordering
principle, you can always put an order on the index set. Also, I will denote Mt0 as
the one point compactification of Mt .
Q
Let J ⊆ I. Then if E ≡ t∈I Et , define
Y
γJ E ≡ Ft
t∈I
where ½
Et if t ∈ J
Ft =
Mt0 if t ∈
/J
Thus γ J E leaves alone Et for t ∈ J and changes the other Et into Mt0 . If γ J E = E,
then this means Et = Mt0 for all t ∈/ J. Also define for J a subset of I,
Y
πJ x ≡ xt
t∈J
Q Q
so π J is a continuous mapping from t∈I Mt0 to t∈J Mt0 .
Y
πJ E ≡ Et .
t∈J
11.3. KOLMOGOROV EXTENSION THEOREM 309
Definition 11.8 Now define for J a finite subset of I,

( )
Y
0
RJ ≡ E= Et : γ J E = E, Et a Borel set in Mt
t∈I
R ≡ ∪ {RJ : J ⊆ I, and J finite}
Q
Thus R consists of those sets of t∈I Mt0 for which every slot is filled with M 0
except for a finite set, J ⊆ I where the slots are filled with a Borel set, Et . Define
E as finite disjoint unions of sets of R.
In fact E is an algebra of sets.

Q
Lemma 11.9 The sets, E defined above form an algebra of sets of t∈I Mt0 .
Q
Proof: Clearly ∅ and t∈I Mt0 are both in E. Suppose A, B ∈ R. Then for
some finite set, J,
γ J A = A, γ J B = B.
Then
γ J (A \ B) = A \ B ∈ E,γ J (A ∩ B) = A ∩ B ∈ R.
By Lemma 9.54 on Page 246 this shows E is an algebra.
Here is a lemma which is useful although fussy.
Q
Lemma 11.10 Let J be a finite subset ofQ I. Then U is a Borel set in Qt∈J Mt if
and only if there exists a Borel set, U0 in t∈J Mt0 such that U = U0 ∩ t∈J Mt .
Q Proof: First suppose Q Borel is replaced with open. If U is an open

0
Q set in0
t∈J M t , then it is open in M
Qt∈J t from the definition of the open sets of t∈J Mt
which consist of open sets of t∈J Mt along with complements of compact sets which
have the point
Q ∞ added in. Thus youQcan let U0 = U in this case. NextQsuppose
U = U ∩ t∈J Mt where U0 is open in t∈J Mt0 . I need show U is open in Qt∈J Mt .
0
Letting x ∈ U, it follows xt 6= ∞ for each t. It follows from U0 open in t∈J Mt0

that xt ∈ Vt0 where Vt0 is open in Mt0 and
Y
x∈ Vt0 ⊆ U0
t∈J
Letting Vt = Vt0 \ {∞} , it follows Vt is open in Mt and

Y Y
x∈ Vt ⊆ U0 ∩ Mt .
t∈J t∈J
Q
This shows that U is an open set in t∈J Mt . Now let
( )
Y Y Y
0
G ≡ F Borel in Mt such that F ∩ Mt is Borel in Mt
t∈J t∈J t∈J
then from what was just shown G contains Q the open sets. It is also clearly a σ
algebra. Hence G equals the Borel sets of t∈J Mt0Q .
It only remains
Q to verify
Q that any Borel set in t∈J Mt is the intersection of a
Borel set of t∈J Mt0 with t∈J Mt . Let
( )
Y Y Y
0 0
H≡ F Borel in Mt such that F = F ∩ Mt , F Borel in Mt0
t∈J t∈J t∈J
From the first part of the argument, HQcontains the open sets. Now Q let {Fn }
0 0 0
be a sequence in H. Thus Q F n = F n ∩ t∈J M t where
Q F n is Borel in t∈J Mt .
0 0 0
Then ∪n Fn = ∪n Fn ∩ t∈J Mt and ∪n Fn is Borel in t∈J Mt . Thus Q H is closed
0
under countable intersections. Next let F ∈ H ¡Q and F = F ¢ ∩ Mt . Then
0C
Q 0 0
Q 0
t∈J
0C
Q
F ≡ t∈J Mt \ F is Borel in t∈J Mt and t∈J Mt \ F = F ∩ t∈J Mt .
Thus H is a σ algebra containing the open sets and so H equals the Borel sets in
Q
t∈J Mt . This proves this wretched little lemma.
With this preparation here is the Kolmogorov extension theorem. In the state-
ment and proof of the theorem, Fi , Gi , and Ei will denote Borel sets. Any list of
indices from I will always be assumed to be taken in order. Thus, if J ⊆ I and
J = (t1 , · · ·, tn ) , it will always be assumed t1 < t2 < · · · < tn .
Theorem 11.11 (Kolmogorov extension theorem) For each finite set
J = (t1 , · · ·, tn ) ⊆ I,
supposeQthere exists a Borel probability measure, ν J = ν t1 ···tn defined on the Borel

sets of t∈J Mt such that if
(t1 , · · ·, tn ) ⊆ (s1 , · · ·, sp ) ,
then ¡ ¢
ν t1 ···tn (Ft1 × · · · × Ftn ) = ν s1 ···sp Gs1 × · · · × Gsp (11.1)
where if si = tj , then Gsi = Ftj and if si is not equal to any of the indices, tk ,
then Gsi = Msi . Then there exists a probability space, (Ω, P, F) and measurable
functions, Xt : Ω → Mt for each t ∈ I such that for each (t1 · · · tn ) ⊆ I,
ν t1 ···tn (Ft1 × · · · × Ftn ) = P ([Xt1 ∈ Ft1 ] ∩ · · · ∩ [Xtn ∈ Ftn ]) . (11.2)

Q
Proof: First of all, note that for J finite, t∈J Mt is a metric space in which
the closures of the balls are compact. Therefore, by Lemma 11.3 ν t1 ···tn is both
inner and
Q outer regular. Also, it is convenient to extend each ν t1 ···tn to the Borel
sets of t∈J Mt0 Q where Mt0 is the one point compactification of Mt as follows. For
F a Borel set of t∈J Mt0 ,
Ã !
Y
ν t1 ···tn (F) ≡ ν t1 ···tn F∩ Mt .
t∈J
11.3. KOLMOGOROV EXTENSION THEOREM 311
By Lemma 11.10 this is well defined.

Letting E be the algebra of sets defined in Definition
¡ 11.8 and ¢ suppose E = E1 ∪
E2 ∪ · · · ∪ Em where γ Jk Ek = Ek . Thus E ∈ E. Let tk1 · · · tkmk = Jk . Then letting
J = (s1 , · · ·, sp ) ⊇ ∪m
k=1 Jk
define
m
X ³ ´
P0 (E) ≡ ν s1 ···sp Gks1 × · · · × Gksp
k=1
where Gksi = Etkk in case si = tkj and Ms0 i otherwise. By 11.1 this is well defined
j
and equals
m
X ³ ´
ν tk1 ···tkm Etkk × · · · × Etkkm .
k 1 k
k=1
P0 is clearly finitely additive because the ν J are measures and one can pick J as
large as desired. Also, from the definition,
Ã !
Y ¡ ¢
P0 Mt = ν t1 Mt01 = 1.
0
t∈I
Next I will show P0 is a finite measure on E. From this it is only a matter of using
the Caratheodory extension theorem.
Claim: If En ↓ ∅, then P0 (En ) ↓ 0.
Proof of the claim: If not, there exists a sequence such that although En ↓
∅, P0 (En ) ↓ ε > 0. Since each of the ν s1 ···sm is inner regular, Q there exists a compact
set, Kn ⊆ π J (En ) for suitably large J such that if Kn0 ⊆ t∈I Mt0 is defined by
γ J (Kn0 ) = Kn0 and π J (Kn0 ) = Kn and P0 (En \ Kn0 ) < ε/2n+1 . (Less precisely,
you get Kn0 by filling in all the slots other than in J with the appropriate Mt0 .)
Thus by Tychonoff’s theorem, Kn0 is compact. The interesting thing about these
Kn0 is they have the finite intersection property. Here is why.
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
ε ≤ P0 ∩m k=1 K
k0
+ P0 Em \ ∩m k=1 K
k0
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
≤ P0 ∩m k=1 K
k0
+ P0 ∪m k
k=1 E \ K
k0
∞
¡ ¢ X ε ¡ ¢
< P0 ∩m k=1 K k0
+ k+1
< P0 ∩m k=1 K
k0
+ε
2
k=1
¡ ¢
and so P0 ∩m k=1 K
k0
> 0. Now this yields a contradiction because this finite inter-
section property implies the intersection of all the Kn0 is nonempty contradicting
En ↓ ∅ since each Kn0 is contained in En .
∞
With the claim, it follows P0 is a measure on E. Here is why: If E = ∪k=1 Ek
k n
where E, E ∈ E, then (E \ ∪k=1 Ek ) ↓ ∅ and so
P0 (∪nk=1 Ek ) → P0 (E) .
Pn
Hence if the Ek are disjoint, P0 (∪nk=1 Ek ) = k=1 P0 (Ek ) → P0 (E) .
Now to conclude the proof, apply the Caratheodory extension theorem to obtain
P a probability © measure
Q which extends ª P0 to σ (E)¡theQ sigma algebra ¢ generated by
E. Let S ≡ E ∩ t∈I Mt : E ∈ σ (E) . It follows t∈I Mt , S, P is a probability
measure space with the property that when γ J (E) = E for J = (t1 · · · tn ) a finite
subset of I, P (E) = P0 (E)¡Q = ν t1 ···tn (Et1 ¢× · · · × Etn ) .
For the last part, let t∈I Mt , S, P be the probability space and for x ∈
Q th
t∈I Mt let Xt (x) = xt , the t entry of x. (xt = π t x). It follows Xt is measurable
because if U is open in Mt , then Xt−1 (U ) has a U in the tth slot and Ms everywhere
else for s 6= t so this is actually in E. Also, letting (t1 · · · tn ) be a finite subset of I
and Ft1 , · · ·, Ftn be Borel sets in Mt1 · · · Mtn respectively,
P ([Xt1 ∈ Ft1 ] ∩ [Xt2 ∈ Ft2 ] ∩ · · · ∩ [Xtn ∈ Ftn ]) =
P ((Xt1 , Xt2 , · · ·, Xtn ) ∈ Ft1 × · · · × Ftn ) = P (Ft1 × · · · × Ftn )

= ν t1 ···tn (Ft1 × · · · × Ftn )
As a special case, you can obtain a version of product measure for possibly
infinitely many factors. Suppose in the context of the above theorem that ν t is a
probability measure defined onQ the Borel sets of Mt and let the measures, ν t1 ···tn
n
be defined on the Borel sets of i=1 Mti by
ν t1 ···tn (E) ≡ (ν t1 × · · · × ν tn ) (E) .
Then these measures satisfy the necessary consistency condition and so the Kol-
mogorov extension
¡Q theorem ¢ given above can be applied Q to obtain a measure, P
defined on a t∈I M t , F and measurable functions X s : t∈I Mt → Ms such that
for Fti a Borel set in Mti ,
Ã n
!
Y
P (Xt1 , · · ·, Xtn ) ∈ Fti = ν t1 ···tn (Ft1 × · · · × Ftn )
i=1
= ν t1 (Ft1 ) · · · ν tn (Ftn ) . (11.3)

In particular, P (Xt ∈ Ft ) = ν t (Ft ) . Then P in the resulting probability space,
Ã !
Y
Mt , F, P
t∈I
Q
will be denoted as t∈I ν t . This proves the following theorem which describes an
infinite product measure.
Theorem 11.12 Let Mt for t ∈ I be given as in Theorem 11.11 and let ν t be a

Borel probability measure definedQon the Borel sets of Mt . Then there exists a mea-
sure, P and a σ algebra
Q F ⊆ P ( t Mt ) containing the algebra defined in Definition
11.8 such that ( t Mt , F, P ) is a probability space satisfying 11.3 wheneverQeach
Fti is a Borel set of Mti . This probability measure is sometimes denoted as t ν t .
11.4. EXERCISES 313
11.4 Exercises
1. Let (X, S, µ) and (Y, F, λ) be two finite measure spaces. A subset of X × Y
is called a measurable rectangle if it is of the form A × B where A ∈ S and
B ∈ F. A subset of X × Y is called an elementary set if it is a finite disjoint
union of measurable rectangles. Denote this set of functions by E. Show that
E is an algebra of sets.
2. ↑For A ∈ σ (E) , the smallest σ algebra containing E, show that x → XA (x, y)

is µ measurable and that
Z
y → XA (x, y) dµ
is λ measurable. Show similar assertions hold for y → XA (x, y) and

Z
x → XA (x, y) dλ
and that Z Z Z Z
XA (x, y) dµdλ = XA (x, y) dλdµ. (11.4)
Hint: Let M ≡ {A ∈ σ (E) : 11.4 holds} along with all relevant measurability
assertions. Show M contains E and is a monotone class. Then apply the
Theorem 9.57.
RR
3. ↑For A ∈ σ (E) define (µ × λ) (A) ≡ XA (x, y) dµdλ. Show that (µ × λ) is
a measur on σ (E) and that whenever f ≥ 0 is measurable with respect to
σ (E) ,
Z Z Z Z Z
f d (µ × λ) = f (x, y) dµdλ = f (x, y) dλdµ.
X×Y
This is a common approach to Fubini’s theorem.
4. ↑Generalize the above version of Fubini’s theorem to the case where the mea-
sure spaces are only σ finite.
5. ↑Suppose now that µ and λ are both complete σ finite measures. Let (µ × λ)
denote
³ the completion´ of this measure. Let the larger measure space be
X × Y, σ (E), (µ × λ) . Thus if E ∈ σ (E), it follows there exists a set A ∈
σ (E) such that E ∪ N = A where (µ × λ) (N ) = 0. Now argue that for λ
a.e. y, x → XN (x, y) is measurable because it is equal to zero µ a.e. and µ is
complete. Therefore, Z Z
XN (x, y) dµdλ
makes sense and equals zero.R Use to argue that for λ a.e. y, x → XE (x, y)
R µ measurable and equals XA (x, y) dµ. Then by completeness of λ, y →
is
XE (x, y) dµ is λ measurable and
Z Z Z Z
XA (x, y) dµdλ = XE (x, y) dµdλ = (µ × λ) (E) .
Similarly Z Z
XE (x, y) dλdµ = (µ × λ) (E) .
Use this to give a generalization of the above Fubini theorem. Prove that if f
is measurable with respect to the σ algebra, σ (E) and nonnegative, then
Z Z Z Z Z
f d(µ × λ) = f (x, y) dµdλ = f (x, y) dλdµ
X×Y
where the iterated integrals make sense.

The Lp Spaces
12.1 Basic Inequalities And Properties

One of the main applications of the Lebesgue integral is to the study of various
sorts of functions space. These are vector spaces whose elements are functions of
various types. One of the most important examples of a function space is the space
of measurable functions whose absolute values are pth power integrable where p ≥ 1.
These spaces, referred to as Lp spaces, are very useful in applications. In the chapter
(Ω, S, µ) will be a measure space.
Definition 12.1 Let 1 ≤ p < ∞. Define

Z
Lp (Ω) ≡ {f : f is measurable and |f (ω)|p dµ < ∞}
Ω
In terms of the distribution function,

Z ∞
Lp (Ω) = {f : f is measurable and ptp−1 µ ([|f | > t]) dt < ∞}
0
For each p > 1 define q by

1 1
+ = 1.
p q
Often one uses p0 instead of q in this context.
Lp (Ω) is a vector space and has a norm. This is similar to the situation for Rn
but the proof requires the following fundamental inequality. .
Theorem 12.2 (Holder’s inequality) If f and g are measurable functions, then if

p > 1,
Z µZ ¶ p1 µZ ¶ q1
p q
|f | |g| dµ ≤ |f | dµ |g| dµ . (12.1)
Proof: First here is a proof of Young’s inequality .

ap bq
Lemma 12.3 If p > 1, and 0 ≤ a, b then ab ≤ p + q .
315
316 THE LP SPACES
Proof: Consider the following picture:
x
b
x = tp−1
t = xq−1
t
a
From this picture, the sum of the area between the x axis and the curve added to
the area between the t axis and the curve is at least as large as ab. Using beginning
calculus, this is equivalent to the following inequality.
Z a Z b
ap bq
ab ≤ tp−1 dt + xq−1 dx = + .
0 0 p q
The above picture represents the situation which occurs when p > 2 because the
graph of the function is concave up. If 2 ≥ p > 1 the graph would be concave down
or a straight line. You should verify that the same argument holds in these cases
just as well. In fact, the only thing which matters in the above inequality is that
the function x = tp−1 be strictly increasing.
Note equality occurs when ap = bq .
Here is an alternate proof.
Lemma 12.4 For a, b ≥ 0,

ap bq
ab ≤ +
p q
and equality occurs when if and only if ap = bq .
Proof: If b = 0, the inequality is obvious. Fix b > 0 and consider

ap bq
f (a) ≡ + − ab.
p q
Then f 0 (a) = ap−1 − b. This is negative when a < b1/(p−1) and is positive when
a > b1/(p−1) . Therefore, f has a minimum when a = b1/(p−1) . In other words, when
ap = bp/(p−1) = bq since 1/p + 1/q = 1. Thus the minimum value of f is
bq bq
+ − b1/(p−1) b = bq − bq = 0.
p q
It follows f ≥ 0 and this yields the desired inequality.
R R
Proof of Holder’s inequality: If either |f |p dµ or |g|p dµ equals
R ∞, the
inequality 12.1 is obviously valid because ∞ ≥ anything. If either |f |p dµ or
12.1. BASIC INEQUALITIES AND PROPERTIES 317
R
|g|p dµ equals 0, then f = 0 a.e. or that g = 0 a.e. and so in this case the left side
of theRinequality equals
R 0 and so the inequality is therefore true. Therefore assume
both |f |p dµ and |g|p dµ are less than ∞ and not equal to 0. Let
µZ ¶1/p
p
|f | dµ = I (f )
¡R ¢1/q
and let |g|p dµ = I (g). Then using the lemma,
Z Z Z
|f | |g| 1 |f |p 1 |g|q
dµ ≤ p dµ + q dµ = 1.
I (f ) I (g) p I (f ) q I (g)
Hence,
Z µZ ¶1/p µZ ¶1/q
p q
|f | |g| dµ ≤ I (f ) I (g) = |f | dµ |g| dµ .
This proves Holder’s inequality.

The following lemma will be needed.
Lemma 12.5 Suppose x, y ∈ C. Then

p p p
|x + y| ≤ 2p−1 (|x| + |y| ) .
Proof: The function f (t) = tp is concave up for t ≥ 0 because p > 1. Therefore,

the secant line joining two points on the graph of this function must lie above the
graph of the function. This is illustrated in the following picture.
¡
¡
¡
¡
¡ (|x| + |y|)/2 = m
¡
|x| m |y|
Now as shown above,
µ ¶p p p
|x| + |y| |x| + |y|
≤
2 2
which implies
p p p p
|x + y| ≤ (|x| + |y|) ≤ 2p−1 (|x| + |y| )
Note that if y = φ (x) is any function for which the graph of φ is concave up,
you could get a similar inequality by the same argument.
318 THE LP SPACES
Corollary 12.6 (Minkowski inequality) Let 1 ≤ p < ∞. Then

µZ ¶1/p µZ ¶1/p µZ ¶1/p
p p p
|f + g| dµ ≤ |f | dµ + |g| dµ . (12.2)
Proof: If p = 1, this is obvious because it is just the triangle inequality. Let

p > 1. Without loss of generality, assume
µZ ¶1/p µZ ¶1/p
p p
|f | dµ + |g| dµ <∞
¡R p ¢1/p
and |f + g| dµ 6= 0 or there is nothing to prove. Therefore, using the above
lemma, Z µZ ¶
p p−1 p p
|f + g| dµ ≤ 2 |f | + |g| dµ < ∞.
p p−1
Now |f (ω) + g (ω)| ≤ |f (ω) + g (ω)| (|f (ω)| + |g (ω)|). Also, it follows from the
definition of p and q that p − 1 = pq . Therefore, using this and Holder’s inequality,
Z
|f + g|p dµ ≤
Z Z
|f + g|p−1 |f |dµ + |f + g|p−1 |g|dµ
Z Z
p p
= |f + g| |f |dµ + |f + g| q |g|dµ
q
Z Z Z Z
1 1 1 1
≤ ( |f + g|p dµ) q ( |f |p dµ) p + ( |f + g|p dµ) q ( |g|p dµ) p.
R 1
Dividing both sides by ( |f + g|p dµ) q yields 12.2. This proves the corollary.
The following follows immediately from the above.
Corollary 12.7 Let fi ∈ Lp (Ω) for i = 1, 2, · · ·, n. Then

ÃZ ¯ n ¯p !1/p n µZ ¶1/p
¯X ¯ X
¯ ¯ p
¯ fi ¯ dµ ≤ |fi | .
¯ ¯
i=1 i=1
This shows that if f, g ∈ L , then f + g ∈ Lp . Also, it is clear that if a is a

p
constant and f ∈ Lp , then af ∈ Lp because

Z Z
p p p
|af | dµ = |a| |f | dµ < ∞.
Thus Lp is a vector space and

¡R p ¢1/p ¡R p ¢1/p
a.) |f | dµ ≥ 0, |f | dµ = 0 if and only if f = 0 a.e.
¡R p ¢1/p ¡R p ¢1/p
b.) |af | dµ = |a| |f | dµ if a is a scalar.
¡R p ¢1/p ¡R p ¢1/p ¡R p ¢1/p
c.) |f + g| dµ ≤ |f | dµ + |g| dµ .
¡R p ¢1/p ¡R p ¢1/p
f → |f | dµ would define a norm if |f | dµ = 0 implied f = 0.
Unfortunately, this is not so because if f = 0 a.e. but is nonzero on a set of
¡R p ¢1/p
measure zero, |f | dµ = 0 and this is not allowed. However, all the other
properties of a norm are available and so a little thing like a set of measure zero
will not prevent the consideration of Lp as a normed vector space if two functions
in Lp which differ only on a set of measure zero are considered the same. That is,
an element of Lp is really an equivalence class of functions where two functions are
equivalent if they are equal a.e. With this convention, here is a definition.
Definition 12.8 Let f ∈ Lp (Ω). Define

µZ ¶1/p
p
||f ||p ≡ ||f ||Lp ≡ |f | dµ .
Then with this definition and using the convention that elements in Lp are
considered to be the same if they differ only on a set of measure zero, || ||p is a
norm on Lp (Ω) because if ||f ||p = 0 then f = 0 a.e. and so f is considered to be
the zero function because it differs from 0 only on a set of measure zero.
The following is an important definition.
Definition 12.9 A complete normed linear space is called a Banach1 space.
Lp is a Banach space. This is the next big theorem.
Theorem 12.10 The following hold for Lp (Ω)

a.) Lp (Ω) is complete.
b.) If {fn } is a Cauchy sequence in Lp (Ω), then there exists f ∈ Lp (Ω) and a
subsequence which converges a.e. to f ∈ Lp (Ω), and ||fn − f ||p → 0.
Proof: Let {fn } be a Cauchy sequence in Lp (Ω). This means that for every
ε > 0 there exists N such that if n, m ≥ N , then ||fn − fm ||p < ε. Now select a
subsequence as follows. Let n1 be such that ||fn − fm ||p < 2−1 whenever n, m ≥ n1 .
1 These spaces are named after Stefan Banach, 1892-1945. Banach spaces are the basic item of
study in the subject of functional analysis and will be considered later in this book.
There is a recent biography of Banach, R. Katuża, The Life of Stefan Banach, (A. Kostant and
W. Woyczyński, translators and editors) Birkhauser, Boston (1996). More information on Banach
can also be found in a recent short article written by Douglas Henderson who is in the department
of chemistry and biochemistry at BYU.
Banach was born in Austria, worked in Poland and died in the Ukraine but never moved. This
is because borders kept changing. There is a rumor that he died in a German concentration camp
which is apparently not true. It seems he died after the war of lung cancer.
He was an interesting character. He hated taking examinations so much that he did not receive
his undergraduate university degree. Nevertheless, he did become a professor of mathematics due
to his important research. He and some friends would meet in a cafe called the Scottish cafe where
they wrote on the marble table tops until Banach’s wife supplied them with a notebook which
became the ”Scotish notebook” and was eventually published.
320 THE LP SPACES
Let n2 be such that n2 > n1 and ||fn −fm ||p < 2−2 whenever n, m ≥ n2 . If n1 , ···, nk
have been chosen, let nk+1 > nk and whenever n, m ≥ nk+1 , ||fn − fm ||p < 2−(k+1) .
The subsequence just mentioned is {fnk }. Thus, ||fnk − fnk+1 ||p < 2−k . Let
gk+1 = fnk+1 − fnk .
Then by the corollary to Minkowski’s inequality,

¯¯ m ¯¯
∞
X m
X ¯¯ X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
∞> ||gk+1 ||p ≥ ||gk+1 ||p ≥ ¯¯ |gk+1 |¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
k=1 k=1 k=1 p
for all m. It follows that

Z ÃX m
!p Ã ∞
X
!p
|gk+1 | dµ ≤ ||gk+1 ||p <∞ (12.3)
k=1 k=1
for all m and so the monotone convergence theorem implies that the sum up to m
in 12.3 can be replaced by a sum up to ∞. Thus,
Z ÃX∞
!p
|gk+1 | dµ < ∞
k=1
which requires
∞
X
|gk+1 (x)| < ∞ a.e. x.
k=1
P∞
Therefore, k=1 gk+1 (x) converges for a.e. x because the functions have values in
a complete space, C, and this shows the partial sums form a Cauchy sequence. Now
let x be such that this sum is finite. Then define
∞
X
f (x) ≡ fn1 (x) + gk+1 (x) = lim fnm (x)
m→∞
k=1
Pm
since k=1 gk+1 (x) = fnm+1 (x) − fn1 (x). Therefore there exists a set, E having
measure zero such that
lim fnk (x) = f (x)
k→∞
for all x ∈
/ E. Redefine fnk to equal 0 on E and let f (x) = 0 for x ∈ E. It then
follows that limk→∞ fnk (x) = f (x) for all x. By Fatou’s lemma, and the Minkowski
inequality,
µZ ¶1/p
p
||f − fnk ||p = |f − fnk | dµ ≤
µZ ¶1/p
p
lim inf |fnm − fnk | dµ = lim inf ||fnm − fnk ||p ≤
m→∞ m→∞
m−1
X ∞
X
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
lim inf ¯¯fnj+1 − fnj ¯¯ ≤ ¯¯fni+1 − fni ¯¯ ≤ 2−(k−1). (12.4)
m→∞ p p
j=k i=k
Therefore, f ∈ Lp (Ω) because
||f ||p ≤ ||f − fnk ||p + ||fnk ||p < ∞,
and limk→∞ ||fnk − f ||p = 0. This proves b.).

This has shown fnk converges to f in Lp (Ω). It follows the original Cauchy
sequence also converges to f in Lp (Ω). This is a general fact that if a subsequence
of a Cauchy sequence converges, then so does the original Cauchy sequence. You
should give a proof of this. This proves the theorem.
In working with the Lp spaces, the following inequality also known as Minkowski’s
inequality is very useful. RIt is similar to the Minkowski inequality for sums. To see
this, replace the integral, X with a finite summation sign and you will see the usual
Minkowski inequality or rather the version of it given in Corollary 12.7.
To prove this theorem first consider a special case of it in which technical con-
siderations which shed no light on the proof are excluded.
Lemma 12.11 Let (X, S, µ) and (Y, F, λ) be finite complete measure spaces and
let f be µ × λ measurable and uniformly bounded. Then the following inequality is
valid for p ≥ 1.
Z µZ ¶ p1 µZ Z ¶ p1
p
|f (x, y)| dλ dµ ≥ ( |f (x, y)| dµ)p dλ . (12.5)
X Y Y X
Proof: Since f is bounded and µ (X) , λ (X) < ∞,
µZ Z ¶ p1
p
( |f (x, y)|dµ) dλ < ∞.
Y X
Let
Z
J(y) = |f (x, y)|dµ.
X
Note there is no problem in writing this for a.e. y because f is product measurable.
Then by Fubini’s theorem,
Z µZ ¶p Z Z
|f (x, y)|dµ dλ = J(y)p−1 |f (x, y)|dµ dλ
Y X Y X
Z Z
= J(y)p−1 |f (x, y)|dλ dµ
X Y
322 THE LP SPACES
Now apply Holder’s inequality in the last integral above and recall p − 1 = pq . This
yields
Z µZ ¶p
|f (x, y)|dµ dλ
Y X
Z µZ ¶ q1 µZ ¶ p1
≤ J(y)p dλ |f (x, y)|p dλ dµ
X Y Y
µZ ¶ q1 Z µZ ¶ p1
= J(y)p dλ |f (x, y)|p dλ dµ
Y X Y
µZ Z ¶ q1 Z µZ ¶ p1
= ( |f (x, y)|dµ)p dλ |f (x, y)|p dλ dµ. (12.6)
Y X X Y
Therefore, dividing both sides by the first factor in the above expression,
µZ µZ ¶p ¶ p1 Z µZ ¶ p1
|f (x, y)|dµ dλ ≤ |f (x, y)|p dλ dµ. (12.7)
Y X X Y
Note that 12.7 holds even if the first factor of 12.6 equals zero. This proves the
lemma.
Now consider the case where f is not assumed to be bounded and where the
measure spaces are σ finite.
Theorem 12.12 Let (X, S, µ) and (Y, F, λ) be σ-finite measure spaces and let f
be product measurable. Then the following inequality is valid for p ≥ 1.
p p
|f (x, y)| dλ dµ ≥ ( |f (x, y)| dµ) dλ . (12.8)
X Y Y X
Proof: Since the two measure spaces are σ finite, there exist measurable sets,
Xm and Yk such that Xm ⊆ Xm+1 for all m, Yk ⊆ Yk+1 for all k, and µ (Xm ) , λ (Yk ) <
∞. Now define ½
f (x, y) if |f (x, y)| ≤ n
fn (x, y) ≡
n if |f (x, y)| > n.
Thus fn is uniformly bounded and product measurable. By the above lemma,
p p
|fn (x, y)| dλ dµ ≥ ( |fn (x, y)| dµ) dλ . (12.9)
Xm Yk Yk Xm
Now observe that |fn (x, y)| increases in n and the pointwise limit is |f (x, y)|. There-
fore, using the monotone convergence theorem in 12.9 yields the same inequality
with f replacing fn . Next let k → ∞ and use the monotone convergence theorem
again to replace Yk with Y . Finally let m → ∞ in what is left to obtain 12.8. This
proves the theorem.
12.2. DENSITY CONSIDERATIONS 323
Note that the proof of this theorem depends on two manipulations, the inter-
change of the order of integration and Holder’s inequality. Note that there is nothing
to check in the case of double sums. Thus if aij ≥ 0, it is always the case that
 Ã !p 1/p  1/p
X X X X p
 aij  ≤  aij 
j i i j
because the integrals in this case are just sums and (i, j) → aij is measurable.
The Lp spaces have many important properties.
12.2 Density Considerations

Theorem 12.13 Let p ≥ 1 and let (Ω, S, µ) be a measure space. Then the simple
functions are dense in Lp (Ω).
Proof: Recall that a function, f , having values in R can be written in the form
f = f + − f − where
f + = max (0, f ) , f − = max (0, −f ) .
Therefore, an arbitrary complex valued function, f is of the form

¡ ¢
f = Re f + − Re f − + i Im f + − Im f − .
If each of these nonnegative functions is approximated by a simple function, it

follows f is also approximated by a simple function. Therefore, there is no loss of
generality in assuming at the outset that f ≥ 0.
Since f is measurable, Theorem 8.27 implies there is an increasing sequence of
simple functions, {sn }, converging pointwise to f (x). Now
|f (x) − sn (x)| ≤ |f (x)|.
By the Dominated Convergence theorem,

Z
0 = lim |f (x) − sn (x)|p dµ.
n→∞
Thus simple functions are dense in Lp .

Recall that for Ω a topological space, Cc (Ω) is the space of continuous functions
with compact support in Ω. Also recall the following definition.
Definition 12.14 Let (Ω, S, µ) be a measure space and suppose (Ω, τ ) is also a
topological space. Then (Ω, S, µ) is called a regular measure space if the σ algebra
of Borel sets is contained in S and for all E ∈ S,
µ(E) = inf{µ(V ) : V ⊇ E and V open}

324 THE LP SPACES
and if µ (E) < ∞,
µ(E) = sup{µ(K) : K ⊆ E and K is compact }
and µ (K) < ∞ for any compact set, K.
For example Lebesgue measure is an example of such a measure.
Lemma 12.15 Let Ω be a metric space in which the closed balls are compact and
let K be a compact subset of V , an open set. Then there exists a continuous function
f : Ω → [0, 1] such that f (x) = 1 for all x ∈ K and spt(f ) is a compact subset of
V . That is, K ≺ f ≺ V.
Proof: Let K ⊆ W ⊆ W ⊆ V and W is compact. To obtain this list of

inclusions consider a point in K, x, and take B (x, rx ) a ball containing x such that
B (x, rx ) is a compact subset of V . Next use the fact that K is compact to obtain
m
the existence of a list, {B (xi , rxi /2)}i=1 which covers K. Then let
³ r ´
xi
W ≡ ∪m i=1 B xi , .
2
It follows since this is a finite union that
³ r ´
x
W = ∪m
i=1 B xi , i
2
and so W , being a finite union of compact sets is itself a compact set. Also, from
the construction
W ⊆ ∪m i=1 B (xi , rxi ) .
Define f by
dist(x, W C )
f (x) = .
dist(x, K) + dist(x, W C )
It is clear that f is continuous if the denominator is always nonzero. But this is
clear because if x ∈ W C there must be a ball B (x, r) such that this ball does not
intersect K. Otherwise, x would be a limit point of K and since K is closed, x ∈ K.
However, x ∈ / K because K ⊆ W .
It is not necessary to be in a metric space to do this. You can accomplish the
same thing using Urysohn’s lemma.
Theorem 12.16 Let (Ω, S, µ) be a regular measure space as in Definition 12.14

where the conclusion of Lemma 12.15 holds. Then Cc (Ω) is dense in Lp (Ω).
Proof: First consider a measurable set, E where µ (E) < ∞. Let K ⊆ E ⊆ V

where µ (V \ K) < ε. Now let K ≺ h ≺ V. Then
Z Z
p
|h − XE | dµ ≤ XVp \K dµ = µ (V \ K) < ε.
12.3. SEPARABILITY 325
It follows that for each s a simple function in Lp (Ω) , there exists h ∈ Cc (Ω) such
that ||s − h||p < ε. This is because if
m
X
s(x) = ci XEi (x)
i=1
is a simple function in Lp where the ci are the distinct nonzero values of s each
/ Lp due to the inequality
µ (Ei ) < ∞ since otherwise s ∈
Z
p p
|s| dµ ≥ |ci | µ (Ei ) .
By Theorem 12.13, simple functions are dense in Lp (Ω) ,and so this proves the
Theorem.
12.3 Separability
Theorem 12.17 For p ≥ 1 and µ a Radon measure, Lp (Rn , µ) is separable. Recall
this means there exists a countable set, D, such that if f ∈ Lp (Rn , µ) and ε > 0,
there exists g ∈ D such that ||f − g||p < ε.
Proof: Let Q be all functions of the form cX[a,b) where
[a, b) ≡ [a1 , b1 ) × [a2 , b2 ) × · · · × [an , bn ),
and both ai , bi are rational, while c has rational real and imaginary parts. Let D be
the set of all finite sums of functions in Q. Thus, D is countable. In fact D is dense in
Lp (Rn , µ). To prove this it is necessary to show that for every f ∈ Lp (Rn , µ), there
exists an element of D, s such that ||s − f ||p < ε. If it can be shown that for every
g ∈ Cc (Rn ) there exists h ∈ D such that ||g − h||p < ε, then this will suffice because
if f ∈ Lp (Rn ) is arbitrary, Theorem 12.16 implies there exists g ∈ Cc (Rn ) such
that ||f − g||p ≤ 2ε and then there would exist h ∈ Cc (Rn ) such that ||h − g||p < 2ε .
By the triangle inequality,
||f − h||p ≤ ||h − g||p + ||g − f ||p < ε.
Therefore, assume at the outset that f ∈ Cc (Rn ).Q

n
Let Pm consist of all sets of the form [a, b) ≡ i=1 [ai , bi ) where ai = j2−m and
−m
bi = (j + 1)2 for j an integer. Thus Pm consists of a tiling of Rn into half open
1
rectangles having diameters 2−m n 2 . There are countably many of these rectangles;
so, let Pm = {[ai , bi )}∞ n ∞ m
i=1 and R = ∪i=1 [ai , bi ). Let ci be complex numbers with
rational real and imaginary parts satisfying
|f (ai ) − cm
i |<2
−m
,
|cm
i | ≤ |f (ai )|. (12.10)
326 THE LP SPACES
Let
∞
X
sm (x) = cm
i X[ai ,bi ) (x) .
i=1
Since f (ai ) = 0 except for finitely many values of i, the above is a finite sum. Then
12.10 implies sm ∈ D. If sm converges uniformly to f then it follows ||sm − f ||p → 0
because |sm | ≤ |f | and so
µZ ¶1/p
p
||sm − f ||p = |sm − f | dµ
ÃZ !1/p
p
= |sm − f | dµ
spt(f )
1/p
≤ [εmn (spt (f ))]
whenever m is large enough.
Since f ∈ Cc (Rn ) it follows that f is uniformly continuous and so given ε > 0
there exists δ > 0 such that if |x − y| < δ, |f (x) − f (y)| < ε/2. Now let m be large
enough that every box in Pm has diameter less than δ and also that 2−m < ε/2.
Then if [ai , bi ) is one of these boxes of Pm , and x ∈ [ai , bi ),
|f (x) − f (ai )| < ε/2
and
|f (ai ) − cm
i |<2
−m
< ε/2.
Therefore, using the triangle inequality, it follows that
|f (x) − cm
i | = |sm (x) − f (x)| < ε
and since x is arbitrary, this establishes uniform convergence. This proves the
theorem.
Here is an easier proof if you know the Weierstrass approximation theorem.
Theorem 12.18 For p ≥ 1 and µ a Radon measure, Lp (Rn , µ) is separable. Recall
this means there exists a countable set, D, such that if f ∈ Lp (Rn , µ) and ε > 0,
there exists g ∈ D such that ||f − g||p < ε.
Proof: Let P denote the set of all polynomials which have rational coefficients.
n n
Then P is countable. Let τ k ∈ Cc ((− (k + 1) , (k + 1)) ) such that [−k, k] ≺ τ k ≺
n
(− (k + 1) , (k + 1)) . Let Dk denote the functions which are of the form, pτ k where
p ∈ P. Thus Dk is also countable. Let D ≡ ∪∞ k=1 Dk . It follows each function in D is
in Cc (Rn ) and so it in Lp (Rn , µ). Let f ∈ Lp (Rn , µ). By regularity of µ there exists
n
g ∈ Cc (Rn ) such that ||f − g||Lp (Rn ,µ) < 3ε . Let k be such that spt (g) ⊆ (−k, k) .
Now by the Weierstrass approximation theorem there exists a polynomial q such
that
n
||g − q||[−(k+1),k+1]n ≡ sup {|g (x) − q (x)| : x ∈ [− (k + 1) , (k + 1)] }
ε
< n .
3µ ((− (k + 1) , k + 1) )
12.4. CONTINUITY OF TRANSLATION 327
It follows
||g − τ k q||[−(k+1),k+1]n = ||τ k g − τ k q||[−(k+1),k+1]n

ε
< n .
3µ ((− (k + 1) , k + 1) )
Without loss of generality, it can be assumed this polynomial has all rational coef-
ficients. Therefore, τ k q ∈ D.
Z
p p
||g − τ k q||Lp (Rn ) = |g (x) − τ k (x) q (x)| dµ
(−(k+1),k+1)n
µ ¶p
ε n
≤ n µ ((− (k + 1) , k + 1) )
3µ ((− (k + 1) , k + 1) )
³ ε ´p
< .
3
It follows
p ε ε
||f − τ k q||Lp (Rn ,µ) ≤ ||f − g||Lp (Rn ,µ) + ||g − τ k q||Lp (Rn ,µ) < + < ε.
3 3
Corollary 12.19 Let Ω be any µ measurable subset of Rn and let µ be a Radon

measure. Then Lp (Ω, µ) is separable. Here the σ algebra of measurable sets will
consist of all intersections of measurable sets with Ω and the measure will be µ
restricted to these sets.
Proof: Let D e be the restrictions of D to Ω. If f ∈ Lp (Ω), let F be the zero

extension of f to all of Rn . Let ε > 0 be given. By Theorem 12.17 or 12.18 there
exists s ∈ D such that ||F − s||p < ε. Thus
||s − f ||Lp (Ω,µ) ≤ ||s − F ||Lp (Rn ,µ) < ε
e is dense in Lp (Ω).
and so the countable set D
12.4 Continuity Of Translation

Definition 12.20 Let f be a function defined on U ⊆ Rn and let w ∈ Rn . Then
fw will be the function defined on w + U by
fw (x) = f (x − w).
Theorem 12.21 (Continuity of translation in Lp ) Let f ∈ Lp (Rn ) with the mea-

sure being Lebesgue measure. Then
lim ||fw − f ||p = 0.

||w||→0
328 THE LP SPACES
ε
Proof: Let ε > 0 be given and let g ∈ Cc (Rn ) with ||g − f ||p < 3. Since
Lebesgue measure is translation invariant (mn (w + E) = mn (E)),
ε
||gw − fw ||p = ||g − f ||p < .
3
You can see this from looking at simple functions and passing to the limit or you
could use the change of variables formula to verify it.
Therefore
||f − fw ||p ≤ ||f − g||p + ||g − gw ||p + ||gw − fw ||

2ε
< + ||g − gw ||p . (12.11)
3
But lim|w|→0 gw (x) = g(x) uniformly in x because g is uniformly continuous. Now
let B be a large ball containing spt (g) and let δ 1 be small enough that B (x, δ) ⊆ B
whenever x ∈ spt (g). If ε > 0 is given ³ there exists δ´< δ 1 such that if |w| < δ, it
1/p
follows that |g (x − w) − g (x)| < ε/3 1 + mn (B) . Therefore,
µZ ¶1/p
p
||g − gw ||p = |g (x) − g (x − w)| dmn
B
1/p
mn (B) ε
≤ ε ³ ´< .
3 1 + mn (B)
1/p 3
Therefore, whenever |w| < δ, it follows ||g−gw ||p < 3ε and so from 12.11 ||f −fw ||p <
ε. This proves the theorem.
Part of the argument of this theorem is significant enough to be stated as a
corollary.
Corollary 12.22 Suppose g ∈ Cc (Rn ) and µ is a Radon measure on Rn . Then
lim ||g − gw ||p = 0.

w→0
Proof: The proof of this follows from the last part of the above argument simply
replacing mn with µ. Translation invariance of the measure is not needed to draw
this conclusion because of uniform continuity of g.
12.5 Mollifiers And Density Of Smooth Functions

Definition 12.23 Let U be an open subset of Rn . Cc∞ (U ) is the vector space of all
infinitely differentiable functions which equal zero for all x outside of some compact
set contained in U . Similarly, Ccm (U ) is the vector space of all functions which are
m times continuously differentiable and whose support is a compact subset of U .
12.5. MOLLIFIERS AND DENSITY OF SMOOTH FUNCTIONS 329
Example 12.24 Let U = B (z, 2r)

 ·³ ´−1 ¸
 2
exp |x − z| − r2 if |x − z| < r,
ψ (x) =

0 if |x − z| ≥ r.
Then a little work shows ψ ∈ Cc∞ (U ). The following also is easily obtained.
Lemma 12.25 Let U be any open set. Then Cc∞ (U ) 6= ∅.
Proof: Pick z ∈ U and let r be small enough that B (z, 2r) ⊆ U . Then let
ψ ∈ Cc∞ (B (z, 2r)) ⊆ Cc∞ (U ) be the function of the above example.
Definition 12.26 Let U = {x ∈ Rn : |x| < 1}. A sequence {ψ m } ⊆ Cc∞ (U ) is

called a mollifier (sometimes an approximate identity) if
1
ψ m (x) ≥ 0, ψ m (x) = 0, if |x| ≥ ,
m
R
and ψ m (x) = 1. Sometimes it may be written as {ψ ε } where ψ ε satisfies the above
conditions except ψ ε (x) = 0 if |x| ≥ ε. In other words, ε takes the place of 1/m
and in everything that follows ε → 0 instead of m → ∞.
R
As before, f (x, y)dµ(y) will mean x is fixed and the function y → f (x, y)
is being integrated. To make the notation more familiar, dx is written instead of
dmn (x).
Example 12.27 Let
ψ ∈ Cc∞ (B(0, 1)) (B(0, 1) = {x : |x| < 1})

R
with ψ(x) ≥R 0 and ψdm = 1. Let ψ m (x) = cm ψ(mx) where cm is chosen in such
a way that ψ m dm = 1. By the change of variables theorem cm = mn .
Definition 12.28 A function, f , is said to be in L1loc (Rn , µ) if f is µ measurable

and if |f |XK ∈ L1 (Rn , µ) for every compact set, K. Here µ is a Radon measure
on Rn . Usually µ = mn , Lebesgue measure. When this is so, write L1loc (Rn ) or
Lp (Rn ), etc. If f ∈ L1loc (Rn , µ), and g ∈ Cc (Rn ),
Z
f ∗ g(x) ≡ f (y)g(x − y)dµ.
The following lemma will be useful in what follows. It says that one of these very
unregular functions in L1loc (Rn , µ) is smoothed out by convolving with a mollifier.
Lemma 12.29 Let f ∈ L1loc (Rn , µ), and g ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ). Then f ∗ g is an infinitely
differentiable function. Here µ is a Radon measure on Rn .
330 THE LP SPACES
Proof: Consider the difference quotient for calculating a partial derivative of

f ∗ g.
Z
f ∗ g (x + tej ) − f ∗ g (x) g(x + tej − y) − g (x − y)
= f (y) dµ (y) .
t t
Using the fact that g ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ), the quotient,
g(x + tej − y) − g (x − y)
,
t
is uniformly bounded. To see this easily, use Theorem 5.53 on Page 119 to get the
existence of a constant, M depending on
max {||Dg (x)|| : x ∈ Rn }
such that
|g(x + tej − y) − g (x − y)| ≤ M |t|
for any choice of x and y. Therefore, there exists a dominating function for the
integrand of the above integral which is of the form C |f (y)| XK where K is a
compact set containing the support of g. It follows the limit of the difference
quotient above passes inside the integral as t → 0 and
Z
∂ ∂
(f ∗ g) (x) = f (y) g (x − y) dµ (y) .
∂xj ∂xj
∂
Now letting ∂x j
g play the role of g in the above argument, partial derivatives of all
orders exist. This proves the lemma.
Theorem 12.30 Let K be a compact subset of an open set, U . Then there exists
a function, h ∈ Cc∞ (U ), such that h(x) = 1 for all x ∈ K and h(x) ∈ [0, 1] for all
x.
Proof: Let r > 0 be small enough that K + B(0, 3r) ⊆ U. The symbol,
K + B(0, 3r) means
{k + x : k ∈ K and x ∈ B (0, 3r)} .
Thus this is simply a way to write
∪ {B (k, 3r) : k ∈ K} .
Think of it as fattening up the set, K. Let Kr = K + B(0, r). A picture of what is
happening follows.
K Kr U
1
Consider XKr ∗ ψ m where ψ m is a mollifier. Let m be so large that m < r.
Then from the definition of what is meant by a convolution, and using that ψ m has
12.5. MOLLIFIERS AND DENSITY OF SMOOTH FUNCTIONS 331
¡ 1¢
support in B 0, m , XKr ∗ ψ m = 1 on K and that its support is in K + B (0, 3r).
Now using Lemma 12.29, XKr ∗ ψ m is also infinitely differentiable. Therefore, let
h = XKr ∗ ψ m .
The following corollary will be used later.
∞
Corollary 12.31 Let K be a compact set in Rn and let {Ui }i=1 be an open cover
of K. Then there exist functions, ψ k ∈ Cc∞ (Ui ) such that ψ i ≺ Ui and
∞
X
ψ i (x) = 1.
i=1
If K1 is a compact subset of U1 there exist such functions such that also ψ 1 (x) = 1
for all x ∈ K1 .
Proof: This follows from a repeat of the proof of Theorem 9.18 on Page 220,
replacing the lemma used in that proof with Theorem 12.30.
Theorem 12.32 For each p ≥ 1, Cc∞ (Rn ) is dense in Lp (Rn ). Here the measure
is Lebesgue measure.
Proof: Let f ∈ Lp (Rn ) and let ε > 0 be given. Choose g ∈ Cc (Rn ) such that
||f − g||p < 2ε . This can be done by using Theorem 12.16. Now let
Z Z
gm (x) = g ∗ ψ m (x) ≡ g (x − y) ψ m (y) dmn (y) = g (y) ψ m (x − y) dmn (y)
where {ψ m } is a mollifier. It follows from Lemma 12.29 gm ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ). It vanishes

1
if x ∈
/ spt(g) + B(0, m ).
µZ Z ¶ p1
p
||g − gm ||p = |g(x) − g(x − y)ψ m (y)dmn (y)| dmn (x)
µZ Z ¶ p1
p
≤ ( |g(x) − g(x − y)|ψ m (y)dmn (y)) dmn (x)
Z µZ ¶ p1
p
≤ |g(x) − g(x − y)| dmn (x) ψ m (y)dmn (y)
Z
ε
= ||g − gy ||p ψ m (y)dmn (y) <
1
B(0, m ) 2
whenever m is large enough. This follows from Corollary 12.22. Theorem 12.12 was
used to obtain the third inequality. There is no measurability problem because the
function
(x, y) → |g(x) − g(x − y)|ψ m (y)
is continuous. Thus when m is large enough,
ε ε
||f − gm ||p ≤ ||f − g||p + ||g − gm ||p < + = ε.
2 2
332 THE LP SPACES

This is a very remarkable result. Functions in Lp (Rn ) don’t need to be continu-
ous anywhere and yet every such function is very close in the Lp norm to one which
is infinitely differentiable having compact support.
Another thing should probably be mentioned. If you have had a course in com-
plex analysis, you may be wondering whether these infinitely differentiable functions
having compact support have anything to do with analytic functions which also have
infinitely many derivatives. The answer is no! Recall that if an analytic function
has a limit point in the set of zeros then it is identically equal to zero. Thus these
functions in Cc∞ (Rn ) are not analytic. This is a strictly real analysis phenomenon
and has absolutely nothing to do with the theory of functions of a complex variable.
12.6 Exercises
1. Let E be a Lebesgue measurable set in R. Suppose m(E) > 0. Consider the
set
E − E = {x − y : x ∈ E, y ∈ E}.
Show that E − E contains an interval. Hint: Let
Z
f (x) = XE (t)XE (x + t)dt.
Note f is continuous at 0 and f (0) > 0 and use continuity of translation in

Lp .
1 1
2. Establish the inequality ||f g||r ≤ ||f ||p ||g||q whenever r = p + 1q .
3. Let (Ω, S, µ) be counting measure on N. Thus Ω = N and S = P (N) with

µ (S) = number of things in S. Let 1 ≤ p ≤ q. Show that in this case,
L1 (N) ⊆ Lp (N) ⊆ Lq (N) .

R
Hint: This is real easy if you consider what Ω f dµ equals. How are the
norms related?
q−1
xp−1
4. Consider the function, f (x, y) = py + yqx for x, y > 0 and 1
p + 1q = 1. Show
q
xp
directly that f (x, y) ≥ 1 for all such x, y and show this implies xy ≤ p + yq .
5. Give an example of a sequence of functions in Lp (R) which converges to zero

in Lp but does not converge pointwise to 0. Does this contradict the proof of
the theorem that Lp is complete?
6. Let K be a bounded subset of Lp (Rn ) and suppose that there exists G such
that G is compact with
Z
p
|u (x)| dx < εp
Rn \G
12.6. EXERCISES 333
and for all ε > 0, there exist a δ > 0 and such that if |h| < δ, then
Z
p
|u (x + h) − u (x)| dx < εp
for all u ∈ K. Show that K is precompact in Lp (Rn ). Hint: Let φk be a

mollifier and consider
Kk ≡ {u ∗ φk : u ∈ K} .
Verify the conditions of the Ascoli Arzela theorem for these functions defined
on G and show there is an ε net for each ε > 0. Can you modify this to let
an arbitrary open set take the place of Rn ?
7. Let (Ω, d) be a metric space and suppose also that (Ω, S, µ) is a regular mea-
sure space such that µ (Ω) < ∞ and let f ∈ L1 (Ω) where f has complex
values. Show that for every ε > 0, there exists an open set of measure less
than ε, denoted here by V and a continuous function, g defined on Ω such
that f = g on V C . Thus, aside from a set of small measure, f is continuous.
If |f (ω)| ≤ M , show that it can be assumed that |g (ω)| ≤ M . This is called
Lusin’s theorem. Hint: Use Theorems 12.16 and 12.10 to obtain a sequence
of functions in Cc (Ω) , {gn } which converges pointwise a.e. to f and then use
Egoroff’s theorem to obtain a small set, W of measure less than ε/2 such that
convergence
¡ C is uniform
¢ on W C . Now let F be a closed subset of W C such
that µ W \ F < ε/2. Let V = F C . Thus µ (V ) < ε and on F = V C ,
the convergence of {gn } is uniform showing that the restriction of f to V C is
continuous. Now use the Tietze extension theorem.
R
8. Let φm ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ), φm (x) ≥ 0,and Rn φm (y)dy = 1 with
lim sup {|x| : x ∈ spt (φm )} = 0.
m→∞
Show if f ∈ Lp (Rn ), limm→∞ f ∗ φm = f in Lp (Rn ).

9. Let φ : R → R be convex. This means
φ(λx + (1 − λ)y) ≤ λφ(x) + (1 − λ)φ(y)
φ(y)−φ(x) φ(z)−φ(y)
whenever λ ∈ [0, 1]. Verify that if x < y < z, then y−x ≤ z−y
and that φ(z)−φ(x)
z−x ≤ φ(z)−φ(y)
z−y . Show if s ∈ R there exists λ such that
φ(s) ≤ φ(t) + λ(s − t) for all t. Show that if φ is convex, then φ is continuous.
10. ↑ Prove Jensen’s inequality.

R If φ R: R → R is convex, µ(Ω) = 1,R and f : Ω → R
is in L1 (Ω), then φ( Ω f du) ≤ Ω φ(f )dµ. Hint: Let s = Ω f dµ and use
Problem 9.
0
11. Let p1 + p10 = 1, p > 1, let f ∈ Lp (R), g ∈ Lp (R). Show f ∗ g is uniformly
continuous on R and |(f ∗ g)(x)| ≤ ||f ||Lp ||g||Lp0 . Hint: You need to consider
why f ∗ g exists and then this follows from the definition of convolution and
continuity of translation in Lp .
334 THE LP SPACES
R1 R∞
12. B(p, q) = 0 xp−1 (1 − x)q−1 dx, Γ(p) = 0 e−t tp−1 dt for p, q > 0. The first
of these is called the beta function, while the second is the gamma function.
Show a.) Γ(p + 1) = pΓ(p); b.) Γ(p)Γ(q) = B(p, q)Γ(p + q).
Rx
13. Let f ∈ Cc (0, ∞) and define F (x) = x1 0 f (t)dt. Show
p
||F ||Lp (0,∞) ≤ ||f ||Lp (0,∞) whenever p > 1.
p−1
Hint: Argue there isR no loss of generality in assuming f ≥ 0 and then assume
∞
this is so. Integrate 0 |F (x)|p dx by parts as follows:
Z show = 0 Z
∞ z }| { ∞
F dx = xF p |∞
p
0 − p xF p−1 F 0 dx.
0 0
0
Now show xF = f − F and use this in the last integral. Complete the
argument by using Holder’s inequality and p − 1 = p/q.
14. ↑ Now supposeRf ∈ Lp (0, ∞), p > 1, and f not necessarily in Cc (0, ∞). Show
x
that F (x) = x1 0 f (t)dt still makes sense for each x > 0. Show the inequality
of Problem 13 is still valid. This inequality is called Hardy’s inequality. Hint:
To show this, use the above inequality along with the density of Cc (0, ∞) in
Lp (0, ∞).
15. Suppose f, g ≥ 0. When does equality hold in Holder’s inequality?
16. Prove Vitali’s Convergence theorem: Let {fn } be uniformly integrable and
complex valued, µ(Ω)R < ∞, fn (x) → f (x) a.e. where f is measurable. Then
f ∈ L1 and limn→∞ Ω |fn − f |dµ = 0. Hint: Use Egoroff’s theorem to show
{fn } is a Cauchy sequence in L1 (Ω). This yields a different and easier proof
than what was done earlier. See Theorem 8.50 on Page 204.
17. ↑ Show the Vitali Convergence theorem implies the Dominated Convergence
theorem for finite measure spaces but there exist examples where the Vitali
convergence theorem works and the dominated convergence theorem does not.
18. ↑ Suppose µ(Ω) < ∞, {fn } ⊆ L1 (Ω), and

Z
h (|fn |) dµ < C
Ω
for all n where h is a continuous, nonnegative function satisfying
h (t)
lim = ∞.
t→∞ t
Show {fn } is uniformly integrable. In applications, this often occurs in the
form of a bound on ||fn ||p .
12.6. EXERCISES 335
19. ↑ Sometimes, especially in books on probability, a different definition of uni-

form integrability is used than that presented here. A set of functions, S,
defined on a finite measure space, (Ω, S, µ) is said to be uniformly integrable
if for all ε > 0 there exists α > 0 such that for all f ∈ S,
Z
|f | dµ ≤ ε.
[|f |≥α]
Show that this definition is equivalent to the definition of uniform integrability

given earlier in Definition 8.48 on Page 203 with the addition of the condition
that there is a constant, C < ∞ such that
Z
|f | dµ ≤ C
for all f ∈ S.
20. f ∈ L∞ (Ω, µ) if there exists a set of measure zero, E, and a constant C < ∞
such that |f (x)| ≤ C for all x ∈
/ E.
||f ||∞ ≡ inf{C : |f (x)| ≤ C a.e.}.
Show || ||∞ is a norm on L∞ (Ω, µ) provided f and g are identified if f (x) =

g(x) a.e. Show L∞ (Ω, µ) is complete. Hint: You might want to show that
[|f | > ||f ||∞ ] has measure zero so ||f ||∞ is the smallest number at least as
large as |f (x)| for a.e. x. Thus ||f ||∞ is one of the constants, C in the above.
21. Suppose f ∈ L∞ ∩ L1 . Show limp→∞ ||f ||Lp = ||f ||∞ . Hint:

Z
p p
(||f ||∞ − ε) µ ([|f | > ||f ||∞ − ε]) ≤ |f | dµ ≤
[ |f |>||f || ∞ −ε]
Z Z Z
p p−1 p−1
|f | dµ = |f | |f | dµ ≤ ||f ||∞ |f | dµ.
Now raise both ends to the 1/p power and take lim inf and lim sup as p → ∞.
You should get ||f ||∞ − ε ≤ lim inf ||f ||p ≤ lim sup ||f ||p ≤ ||f ||∞
22. Suppose µ(Ω) < ∞. Show that if 1 ≤ p < q, then Lq (Ω) ⊆ Lp (Ω). Hint Use
Holder’s inequality.
23. Show L1 (R)√* L2 (R) and L2 (R) * L1 (R) if Lebesgue measure is used. Hint:
Consider 1/ x and 1/x.
24. Suppose that θ ∈ [0, 1] and r, s, q > 0 with
1 θ 1−θ
= + .
q r s
336 THE LP SPACES
show that
Z Z Z
q 1/q
( |f | dµ) ≤ (( |f | dµ) ) (( |f |s dµ)1/s )1−θ.
r 1/r θ
If q, r, s ≥ 1 this says that
||f ||q ≤ ||f ||θr ||f ||1−θ

s .
Using this, show that

³ ´
ln ||f ||q ≤ θ ln (||f ||r ) + (1 − θ) ln (||f ||s ) .
Hint: Z Z
|f |q dµ = |f |qθ |f |q(1−θ) dµ.
θq q(1−θ)
Now note that 1 = r + s and use Holder’s inequality.
25. Suppose f is a function in L1 (R) and f is infinitely differentiable. Is f 0 ∈

L1 (R)? Hint: What if φ ∈ Cc∞ (0, 1) and f (x) = φ (2n (x − n)) for x ∈
(n, n + 1) , f (x) = 0 if x < 0?
Banach Spaces
13.1 Theorems Based On Baire Category

13.1.1 Baire Category Theorem
Some examples of Banach spaces that have been discussed up to now are Rn , Cn ,
and Lp (Ω). Theorems about general Banach spaces are proved in this chapter.
The main theorems to be presented here are the uniform boundedness theorem, the
open mapping theorem, the closed graph theorem, and the Hahn Banach Theorem.
The first three of these theorems come from the Baire category theorem which is
about to be presented. They are topological in nature. The Hahn Banach theorem
has nothing to do with topology. Banach spaces are all normed linear spaces and as
such, they are all metric spaces because a normed linear space may be considered
as a metric space with d (x, y) ≡ ||x − y||. You can check that this satisfies all the
axioms of a metric. As usual, if every Cauchy sequence converges, the metric space
is called complete.
Definition 13.1 A complete normed linear space is called a Banach space.
The following remarkable result is called the Baire category theorem. To get an
idea of its meaning, imagine you draw a line in the plane. The complement of this
line is an open set and is dense because every point, even those on the line, are limit
points of this open set. Now draw another line. The complement of the two lines
is still open and dense. Keep drawing lines and looking at the complements of the
union of these lines. You always have an open set which is dense. Now what if there
were countably many lines? The Baire category theorem implies the complement
of the union of these lines is dense. In particular it is nonempty. Thus you cannot
write the plane as a countable union of lines. This is a rather rough description of
this very important theorem. The precise statement and proof follow.
Theorem 13.2 Let (X, d) be a complete metric space and let {Un }∞ n=1 be a se-
quence of open subsets of X satisfying Un = X (Un is dense). Then D ≡ ∩∞n=1 Un
is a dense subset of X.
337
338 BANACH SPACES
Proof: Let p ∈ X and let r0 > 0. I need to show D ∩ B(p, r0 ) 6= ∅. Since U1 is

dense, there exists p1 ∈ U1 ∩ B(p, r0 ), an open set. Let p1 ∈ B(p1 , r1 ) ⊆ B(p1 , r1 ) ⊆
U1 ∩ B(p, r0 ) and r1 < 2−1 . This is possible because U1 ∩ B (p, r0 ) is an open set
and so there exists r1 such that B (p1 , 2r1 ) ⊆ U1 ∩ B (p, r0 ). But
B (p1 , r1 ) ⊆ B (p1 , r1 ) ⊆ B (p1 , 2r1 )
because B (p1 , r1 ) = {x ∈ X : d (x, p) ≤ r1 }. (Why?)
¾ r0 p
p· 1
There exists p2 ∈ U2 ∩ B(p1 , r1 ) because U2 is dense. Let
p2 ∈ B(p2 , r2 ) ⊆ B(p2 , r2 ) ⊆ U2 ∩ B(p1 , r1 ) ⊆ U1 ∩ U2 ∩ B(p, r0 ).
and let r2 < 2−2 . Continue in this way. Thus
rn < 2−n,
B(pn , rn ) ⊆ U1 ∩ U2 ∩ ... ∩ Un ∩ B(p, r0 ),

B(pn , rn ) ⊆ B(pn−1 , rn−1 ).
The sequence, {pn } is a Cauchy sequence because all terms of {pk } for k ≥ n
are contained in B (pn , rn ), a set whose diameter is no larger than 2−n . Since X is
complete, there exists p∞ such that
lim pn = p∞ .
n→∞
Since all but finitely many terms of {pn } are in B(pm , rm ), it follows that p∞ ∈
B(pm , rm ) for each m. Therefore,
p∞ ∈ ∩∞ ∞
m=1 B(pm , rm ) ⊆ ∩i=1 Ui ∩ B(p, r0 ).

The following corollary is also called the Baire category theorem.
Corollary 13.3 Let X be a complete metric space and suppose X = ∪∞

i=1 Fi where
each Fi is a closed set. Then for some i, interior Fi 6= ∅.
Proof: If all Fi has empty interior, then FiC would be a dense open set. There-
fore, from Theorem 13.2, it would follow that
C
∅ = (∪∞ ∞ C
i=1 Fi ) = ∩i=1 Fi 6= ∅.
13.1. THEOREMS BASED ON BAIRE CATEGORY 339
The set D of Theorem 13.2 is called a Gδ set because it is the countable inter-
section of open sets. Thus D is a dense Gδ set.
Recall that a norm satisfies:
a.) ||x|| ≥ 0, ||x|| = 0 if and only if x = 0.
b.) ||x + y|| ≤ ||x|| + ||y||.
c.) ||cx|| = |c| ||x|| if c is a scalar and x ∈ X.
From the definition of continuity, it follows easily that a function is continuous
if
lim xn = x
n→∞
implies
lim f (xn ) = f (x).
n→∞
Theorem 13.4 Let X and Y be two normed linear spaces and let L : X → Y be
linear (L(ax + by) = aL(x) + bL(y) for a, b scalars and x, y ∈ X). The following
are equivalent
a.) L is continuous at 0
b.) L is continuous
c.) There exists K > 0 such that ||Lx||Y ≤ K ||x||X for all x ∈ X (L is
bounded).
Proof: a.)⇒b.) Let xn → x. It is necessary to show that Lxn → Lx. But

(xn − x) → 0 and so from continuity at 0, it follows
L (xn − x) = Lxn − Lx → 0
so Lxn → Lx. This shows a.) implies b.).

b.)⇒c.) Since L is continuous, L is continuous at 0. Hence ||Lx||Y < 1 whenever
||x||X ≤ δ for some δ. Therefore, suppressing the subscript on the || ||,
µ ¶
δx
||L || ≤ 1.
||x||
Hence
1
||Lx|| ≤ ||x||.
δ
c.)⇒a.) follows from the inequality given in c.).
Definition 13.5 Let L : X → Y be linear and continuous where X and Y are

normed linear spaces. Denote the set of all such continuous linear maps by L(X, Y )
and define
||L|| = sup{||Lx|| : ||x|| ≤ 1}. (13.1)
This is called the operator norm.
340 BANACH SPACES
Note that from Theorem 13.4 ||L|| is well defined because of part c.) of that
Theorem.
The next lemma follows immediately from the definition of the norm and the
assumption that L is linear.
Lemma 13.6 With ||L|| defined in 13.1, L(X, Y ) is a normed linear space. Also
||Lx|| ≤ ||L|| ||x||.
Proof: Let x 6= 0 then x/ ||x|| has norm equal to 1 and so

¯¯ µ ¶¯¯
¯¯ x ¯¯¯¯
¯¯L ≤ ||L|| .
¯¯ ||x|| ¯¯
Therefore, multiplying both sides by ||x||, ||Lx|| ≤ ||L|| ||x||. This is obviously a
linear space. It remains to verify the operator norm really is a norm. First ³of all, ´
x
if ||L|| = 0, then Lx = 0 for all ||x|| ≤ 1. It follows that for any x 6= 0, 0 = L ||x||
and so Lx = 0. Therefore, L = 0. Also, if c is a scalar,
||cL|| = sup ||cL (x)|| = |c| sup ||Lx|| = |c| ||L|| .

||x||≤1 ||x||≤1
It remains to verify the triangle inequality. Let L, M ∈ L (X, Y ) .
||L + M || ≡ sup ||(L + M ) (x)|| ≤ sup (||Lx|| + ||M x||)

||x||≤1 ||x||≤1
≤ sup ||Lx|| + sup ||M x|| = ||L|| + ||M || .

||x||≤1 ||x||≤1
This shows the operator norm is really a norm as hoped. This proves the lemma.
For example, consider the space of linear transformations defined on Rn having
values in Rm . The fact the transformation is linear automatically imparts conti-
nuity to it. You should give a proof of this fact. Recall that every such linear
transformation can be realized in terms of matrix multiplication.
Thus, in finite dimensions the algebraic condition that an operator is linear is
sufficient to imply the topological condition that the operator is continuous. The
situation is not so simple in infinite dimensional spaces such as C (X; Rn ). This
explains the imposition of the topological condition of continuity as a criterion for
membership in L (X, Y ) in addition to the algebraic condition of linearity.
Theorem 13.7 If Y is a Banach space, then L(X, Y ) is also a Banach space.
Proof: Let {Ln } be a Cauchy sequence in L(X, Y ) and let x ∈ X.
||Ln x − Lm x|| ≤ ||x|| ||Ln − Lm ||.
Thus {Ln x} is a Cauchy sequence. Let
Lx = lim Ln x.
n→∞
Then, clearly, L is linear because if x1 , x2 are in X, and a, b are scalars, then
L (ax1 + bx2 ) = lim Ln (ax1 + bx2 )

n→∞
= lim (aLn x1 + bLn x2 )
n→∞
= aLx1 + bLx2 .
Also L is continuous. To see this, note that {||Ln ||} is a Cauchy sequence of real
numbers because |||Ln || − ||Lm ||| ≤ ||Ln −Lm ||. Hence there exists K > sup{||Ln || :
n ∈ N}. Thus, if x ∈ X,
||Lx|| = lim ||Ln x|| ≤ K||x||.

n→∞
13.1.2 Uniform Boundedness Theorem

The next big result is sometimes called the Uniform Boundedness theorem, or the
Banach-Steinhaus theorem. This is a very surprising theorem which implies that for
a collection of bounded linear operators, if they are bounded pointwise, then they are
also bounded uniformly. As an example of a situation in which pointwise bounded
does not imply uniformly bounded, consider the functions fα (x) ≡ X(α,1) (x) x−1
for α ∈ (0, 1). Clearly each function is bounded and the collection of functions is
bounded at each point of (0, 1), but there is no bound for all these functions taken
together. One problem is that (0, 1) is not a Banach space. Therefore, the functions
cannot be linear.
Theorem 13.8 Let X be a Banach space and let Y be a normed linear space. Let
{Lα }α∈Λ be a collection of elements of L(X, Y ). Then one of the following happens.
a.) sup{||Lα || : α ∈ Λ} < ∞
b.) There exists a dense Gδ set, D, such that for all x ∈ D,
sup{||Lα x|| α ∈ Λ} = ∞.
Proof: For each n ∈ N, define
Un = {x ∈ X : sup{||Lα x|| : α ∈ Λ} > n}.
Then Un is an open set because if x ∈ Un , then there exists α ∈ Λ such that
||Lα x|| > n
But then, since Lα is continuous, this situation persists for all y sufficiently close
to x, say for all y ∈ B (x, δ). Then B (x, δ) ⊆ Un which shows Un is open.
Case b.) is obtained from Theorem 13.2 if each Un is dense.
The other case is that for some n, Un is not dense. If this occurs, there exists
x0 and r > 0 such that for all x ∈ B(x0 , r), ||Lα x|| ≤ n for all α. Now if y ∈
342 BANACH SPACES
B(0, r), x0 + y ∈ B(x0 , r). Consequently, for all such y, ||Lα (x0 + y)|| ≤ n. This
implies that for all α ∈ Λ and ||y|| < r,
||Lα y|| ≤ n + ||Lα (x0 )|| ≤ 2n.

¯¯ r ¯¯
Therefore, if ||y|| ≤ 1, ¯¯ 2 y ¯¯ < r and so for all α,
³r ´
||Lα y || ≤ 2n.
2
Now multiplying by r/2 it follows that whenever ||y|| ≤ 1, ||Lα (y)|| ≤ 4n/r. Hence
case a.) holds.
13.1.3 Open Mapping Theorem

Another remarkable theorem which depends on the Baire category theorem is the
open mapping theorem. Unlike Theorem 13.8 it requires both X and Y to be
Banach spaces.
Theorem 13.9 Let X and Y be Banach spaces, let L ∈ L(X, Y ), and suppose L
is onto. Then L maps open sets onto open sets.
To aid in the proof, here is a lemma.
Lemma 13.10 Let a and b be positive constants and suppose
B(0, a) ⊆ L(B(0, b)).
Then
L(B(0, b)) ⊆ L(B(0, 2b)).
Proof of Lemma 13.10: Let y ∈ L(B(0, b)). There exists x1 ∈ B(0, b) such
that ||y − Lx1 || < a2 . Now this implies
2y − 2Lx1 ∈ B(0, a) ⊆ L(B(0, b)).
Thus 2y − 2Lx1 ∈ L(B(0, b)) just like y was. Therefore, there exists x2 ∈ B(0, b)
such that ||2y − 2Lx1 − Lx2 || < a/2. Hence ||4y − 4Lx1 − 2Lx2 || < a, and there
exists x3 ∈ B (0, b) such that ||4y − 4Lx1 − 2Lx2 − Lx3 || < a/2. Continuing in this
way, there exist x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , ... in B(0, b) such that
n
X
||2n y − 2n−(i−1) L(xi )|| < a
i=1
which implies
n
Ã n
!
X X
−(i−1) −(i−1)
||y − 2 L(xi )|| = ||y − L 2 (xi ) || < 2−n a (13.2)
i=1 i=1
P∞
Now consider the partial sums of the series, i=1 2−(i−1) xi .
n
X ∞
X
|| 2−(i−1) xi || ≤ b 2−(i−1) = b 2−m+2 .
i=m i=m
Therefore, these P
partial sums form a Cauchy sequence and so since X is complete,
∞
there exists x = i=1 2−(i−1) xi . Letting n → ∞ in 13.2 yields ||y − Lx|| = 0. Now
n
X
||x|| = lim || 2−(i−1) xi ||
n→∞
i=1
n
X n
X
≤ lim 2−(i−1) ||xi || < lim 2−(i−1) b = 2b.
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1

Proof of Theorem 13.9: Y = ∪∞ n=1 L(B(0, n)). By Corollary 13.3, the set,
L(B(0, n0 )) has nonempty interior for some n0 . Thus B(y, r) ⊆ L(B(0, n0 )) for
some y and some r > 0. Since L is linear B(−y, r) ⊆ L(B(0, n0 )) also. Here is
why. If z ∈ B(−y, r), then −z ∈ B(y, r) and so there exists xn ∈ B (0, n0 ) such
that Lxn → −z. Therefore, L (−xn ) → z and −xn ∈ B (0, n0 ) also. Therefore
z ∈ L(B(0, n0 )). Then it follows that
B(0, r) ⊆ B(y, r) + B(−y, r)

≡ {y1 + y2 : y1 ∈ B (y, r) and y2 ∈ B (−y, r)}
⊆ L(B(0, 2n0 ))
The reason for the last inclusion is that from the above, if y1 ∈ B (y, r) and y2 ∈
B (−y, r), there exists xn , zn ∈ B (0, n0 ) such that
Lxn → y1 , Lzn → y2 .
Therefore,
||xn + zn || ≤ 2n0
and so (y1 + y2 ) ∈ L(B(0, 2n0 )).
By Lemma 13.10, L(B(0, 2n0 )) ⊆ L(B(0, 4n0 )) which shows
B(0, r) ⊆ L(B(0, 4n0 )).
Letting a = r(4n0 )−1 , it follows, since L is linear, that B(0, a) ⊆ L(B(0, 1)). It
follows since L is linear,
L(B(0, r)) ⊇ B(0, ar). (13.3)
Now let U be open in X and let x + B(0, r) = B(x, r) ⊆ U . Using 13.3,
L(U ) ⊇ L(x + B(0, r))
= Lx + L(B(0, r)) ⊇ Lx + B(0, ar) = B(Lx, ar).

344 BANACH SPACES
Hence
Lx ∈ B(Lx, ar) ⊆ L(U ).
which shows that every point, Lx ∈ LU , is an interior point of LU and so LU is
open. This proves the theorem.
This theorem is surprising because it implies that if |·| and ||·|| are two norms
with respect to which a vector space X is a Banach space such that |·| ≤ K ||·||,
then there exists a constant k, such that ||·|| ≤ k |·| . This can be useful because
sometimes it is not clear how to compute k when all that is needed is its existence.
To see the open mapping theorem implies this, consider the identity map id x = x.
Then id : (X, ||·||) → (X, |·|) is continuous and onto. Hence id is an open map which
implies id−1 is continuous. Theorem 13.4 gives the existence of the constant k.
13.1.4 Closed Graph Theorem

Definition 13.11 Let f : D → E. The set of all ordered pairs of the form
{(x, f (x)) : x ∈ D} is called the graph of f .
Definition 13.12 If X and Y are normed linear spaces, make X×Y into a normed
linear space by using the norm ||(x, y)|| = max (||x||, ||y||) along with component-
wise addition and scalar multiplication. Thus a(x, y) + b(z, w) ≡ (ax + bz, ay + bw).
There are other ways to give a norm for X × Y . For example, you could define
||(x, y)|| = ||x|| + ||y||
Lemma 13.13 The norm defined in Definition 13.12 on X × Y along with the
definition of addition and scalar multiplication given there make X × Y into a
normed linear space.
Proof: The only axiom for a norm which is not obvious is the triangle inequality.
Therefore, consider
||(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 )|| = ||(x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )||

= max (||x1 + x2 || , ||y1 + y2 ||)
≤ max (||x1 || + ||x2 || , ||y1 || + ||y2 ||)
≤ max (||x1 || , ||y1 ||) + max (||x2 || , ||y2 ||)

= ||(x1 , y1 )|| + ||(x2 , y2 )|| .
It is obvious X × Y is a vector space from the above definition. This proves the
lemma.
Lemma 13.14 If X and Y are Banach spaces, then X × Y with the norm and
vector space operations defined in Definition 13.12 is also a Banach space.
Proof: The only thing left to check is that the space is complete. But this
follows from the simple observation that {(xn , yn )} is a Cauchy sequence in X × Y
if and only if {xn } and {yn } are Cauchy sequences in X and Y respectively. Thus
if {(xn , yn )} is a Cauchy sequence in X × Y , it follows there exist x and y such that
xn → x and yn → y. But then from the definition of the norm, (xn , yn ) → (x, y).
Lemma 13.15 Every closed subspace of a Banach space is a Banach space.
Proof: If F ⊆ X where X is a Banach space and {xn } is a Cauchy sequence

in F , then since X is complete, there exists a unique x ∈ X such that xn → x.
However this means x ∈ F = F since F is closed.
Definition 13.16 Let X and Y be Banach spaces and let D ⊆ X be a subspace. A

linear map L : D → Y is said to be closed if its graph is a closed subspace of X × Y .
Equivalently, L is closed if xn → x and Lxn → y implies x ∈ D and y = Lx.
Note the distinction between closed and continuous. If the operator is closed
the assertion that y = Lx only follows if it is known that the sequence {Lxn }
converges. In the case of a continuous operator, the convergence of {Lxn } follows
from the assumption that xn → x. It is not always the case that a mapping which
is closed is necessarily continuous. Consider the function f (x) = tan (x) if x is not
an odd multiple of π2 and f (x) ≡ 0 at every odd multiple of π2 . Then the graph
is closed and the function is defined on R but it clearly fails to be continuous. Of
course this function is not linear. You could also consider the map,
d © ª
: y ∈ C 1 ([0, 1]) : y (0) = 0 ≡ D → C ([0, 1]) .
dx
where the norm is the uniform norm on C ([0, 1]) , ||y||∞ . If y ∈ D, then
Z x
y (x) = y 0 (t) dt.
0
dyn
Therefore, if dx → f ∈ C ([0, 1]) and if yn → y in C ([0, 1]) it follows that
Rx dyn (t)
yn (x) = 0 dx dt
↓ Rx ↓
y (x) = 0
f (t) dt
and so by the fundamental theorem of calculus f (x) = y 0 (x) and so the mapping
is closed. It is obviously not continuous because it takes y (x) and y (x) + n1 sin (nx)
to two functions which are far from each other even though these two functions are
very close in C ([0, 1]). Furthermore, it is not defined on the whole space, C ([0, 1]).
The next theorem, the closed graph theorem, gives conditions under which closed
implies continuous.
Theorem 13.17 Let X and Y be Banach spaces and suppose L : X → Y is closed

and linear. Then L is continuous.
346 BANACH SPACES
Proof: Let G be the graph of L. G = {(x, Lx) : x ∈ X}. By Lemma 13.15

it follows that G is a Banach space. Define P : G → X by P (x, Lx) = x. P maps
the Banach space G onto the Banach space X and is continuous and linear. By the
open mapping theorem, P maps open sets onto open sets. Since P is also one to
one, this says that P −1 is continuous. Thus ||P −1 x|| ≤ K||x||. Hence
||Lx|| ≤ max (||x||, ||Lx||) ≤ K||x||
By Theorem 13.4 on Page 339, this shows L is continuous and proves the theorem.
The following corollary is quite useful. It shows how to obtain a new norm on
the domain of a closed operator such that the domain with this new norm becomes
a Banach space.
Corollary 13.18 Let L : D ⊆ X → Y where X, Y are a Banach spaces, and L is

a closed operator. Then define a new norm on D by
||x||D ≡ ||x||X + ||Lx||Y .
Then D with this new norm is a Banach space.
Proof: If {xn } is a Cauchy sequence in D with this new norm, it follows both
{xn } and {Lxn } are Cauchy sequences and therefore, they converge. Since L is
closed, xn → x and Lxn → Lx for some x ∈ D. Thus ||xn − x||D → 0.
13.2 Hahn Banach Theorem

The closed graph, open mapping, and uniform boundedness theorems are the three
major topological theorems in functional analysis. The other major theorem is the
Hahn-Banach theorem which has nothing to do with topology. Before presenting
this theorem, here are some preliminaries about partially ordered sets.
Definition 13.19 Let F be a nonempty set. F is called a partially ordered set if

there is a relation, denoted here by ≤, such that
x ≤ x for all x ∈ F.
If x ≤ y and y ≤ z then x ≤ z.
C ⊆ F is said to be a chain if every two elements of C are related. This means that
if x, y ∈ C, then either x ≤ y or y ≤ x. Sometimes a chain is called a totally ordered
set. C is said to be a maximal chain if whenever D is a chain containing C, D = C.
The most common example of a partially ordered set is the power set of a given
set with ⊆ being the relation. It is also helpful to visualize partially ordered sets
as trees. Two points on the tree are related if they are on the same branch of
the tree and one is higher than the other. Thus two points on different branches
would not be related although they might both be larger than some point on the
13.2. HAHN BANACH THEOREM 347
trunk. You might think of many other things which are best considered as partially
ordered sets. Think of food for example. You might find it difficult to determine
which of two favorite pies you like better although you may be able to say very
easily that you would prefer either pie to a dish of lard topped with whipped cream
and mustard. The following theorem is equivalent to the axiom of choice. For a
discussion of this, see the appendix on the subject.

Definition 13.21 Let X be a real vector space ρ : X → R is called a gauge function

if
ρ(x + y) ≤ ρ(x) + ρ(y),
ρ(ax) = aρ(x) if a ≥ 0. (13.4)
Suppose M is a subspace of X and z ∈ / M . Suppose also that f is a linear

real-valued function having the property that f (x) ≤ ρ(x) for all x ∈ M . Consider
the problem of extending f to M ⊕ Rz such that if F is the extended function,
F (y) ≤ ρ(y) for all y ∈ M ⊕ Rz and F is linear. Since F is to be linear, it suffices
to determine how to define F (z). Letting a > 0, it is required to define F (z) such
that the following hold for all x, y ∈ M .
f (x)
z }| {
F (x) + aF (z) = F (x + az) ≤ ρ(x + az),
f (y)
z }| {
F (y) − aF (z) = F (y − az) ≤ ρ(y − az). (13.5)
Now if these inequalities hold for all y/a, they hold for all y because M is given to
be a subspace. Therefore, multiplying by a−1 13.4 implies that what is needed is
to choose F (z) such that for all x, y ∈ M ,
f (x) + F (z) ≤ ρ(x + z), f (y) − ρ(y − z) ≤ F (z)
and that if F (z) can be chosen in this way, this will satisfy 13.5 for all x, y and the
problem of extending f will be solved. Hence it is necessary to choose F (z) such
that for all x, y ∈ M
f (y) − ρ(y − z) ≤ F (z) ≤ ρ(x + z) − f (x). (13.6)
Is there any such number between f (y) − ρ(y − z) and ρ(x + z) − f (x) for every
pair x, y ∈ M ? This is where f (x) ≤ ρ(x) on M and that f is linear is used.
For x, y ∈ M ,
ρ(x + z) − f (x) − [f (y) − ρ(y − z)]
= ρ(x + z) + ρ(y − z) − (f (x) + f (y))
≥ ρ(x + y) − f (x + y) ≥ 0.
348 BANACH SPACES
Therefore there exists a number between
sup {f (y) − ρ(y − z) : y ∈ M }
and
inf {ρ(x + z) − f (x) : x ∈ M }
Choose F (z) to satisfy 13.6. This has proved the following lemma.
Lemma 13.22 Let M be a subspace of X, a real linear space, and let ρ be a gauge
function on X. Suppose f : M → R is linear, z ∈ / M , and f (x) ≤ ρ (x) for all
x ∈ M . Then f can be extended to M ⊕ Rz such that, if F is the extended function,
F is linear and F (x) ≤ ρ(x) for all x ∈ M ⊕ Rz.
With this lemma, the Hahn Banach theorem can be proved.
Theorem 13.23 (Hahn Banach theorem) Let X be a real vector space, let M be a
subspace of X, let f : M → R be linear, let ρ be a gauge function on X, and suppose
f (x) ≤ ρ(x) for all x ∈ M . Then there exists a linear function, F : X → R, such
that
a.) F (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ M
b.) F (x) ≤ ρ(x) for all x ∈ X.
Proof: Let F = {(V, g) : V ⊇ M, V is a subspace of X, g : V → R is linear,

g(x) = f (x) for all x ∈ M , and g(x) ≤ ρ(x) for x ∈ V }. Then (M, f ) ∈ F so F 6= ∅.
Define a partial order by the following rule.
(V, g) ≤ (W, h)
means
V ⊆ W and h(x) = g(x) if x ∈ V.
By Theorem 13.20, there exists a maximal chain, C ⊆ F. Let Y = ∪{V : (V, g) ∈ C}
and let h : Y → R be defined by h(x) = g(x) where x ∈ V and (V, g) ∈ C. This
is well defined because if x ∈ V1 and V2 where (V1 , g1 ) and (V2 , g2 ) are both in the
chain, then since C is a chain, the two element related. Therefore, g1 (x) = g2 (x).
Also h is linear because if ax + by ∈ Y , then x ∈ V1 and y ∈ V2 where (V1 , g1 )
and (V2 , g2 ) are elements of C. Therefore, letting V denote the larger of the two Vi ,
and g be the function that goes with V , it follows ax + by ∈ V where (V, g) ∈ C.
Therefore,
h (ax + by) = g (ax + by)

= ag (x) + bg (y)
= ah (x) + bh (y) .
Also, h(x) = g (x) ≤ ρ(x) for any x ∈ Y because for such x, x ∈ V where (V, g) ∈ C.
Is Y = X? If not, there exists z ∈ X \ Y and there exists an extension of h to
Y ⊕ Rz using Lemma 13.22. Letting h denote this extended function, contradicts
¡ ¢
the maximality of C. Indeed, C ∪ { Y ⊕ Rz, h } would be a longer chain. This
proves the Hahn Banach theorem.
This is the original version of the theorem. There is also a version of this theorem
for complex vector spaces which is based on a trick.
Corollary 13.24 (Hahn Banach) Let M be a subspace of a complex normed linear

space, X, and suppose f : M → C is linear and satisfies |f (x)| ≤ K||x|| for all
x ∈ M . Then there exists a linear function, F , defined on all of X such that
F (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ M and |F (x)| ≤ K||x|| for all x.
Proof: First note f (x) = Re f (x) + i Im f (x) and so
Re f (ix) + i Im f (ix) = f (ix) = if (x) = i Re f (x) − Im f (x).
Therefore, Im f (x) = − Re f (ix), and
f (x) = Re f (x) − i Re f (ix).
This is important because it shows it is only necessary to consider Re f in under-

standing f . Now it happens that Re f is linear with respect to real scalars so the
above version of the Hahn Banach theorem applies. This is shown next.
If c is a real scalar
Re f (cx) − i Re f (icx) = cf (x) = c Re f (x) − ic Re f (ix).
Thus Re f (cx) = c Re f (x). Also,
Re f (x + y) − i Re f (i (x + y)) = f (x + y)
= f (x) + f (y)
= Re f (x) − i Re f (ix) + Re f (y) − i Re f (iy).

Equating real parts, Re f (x + y) = Re f (x) + Re f (y). Thus Re f is linear with
respect to real scalars as hoped.
Consider X as a real vector space and let ρ(x) ≡ K||x||. Then for all x ∈ M ,
| Re f (x)| ≤ |f (x)| ≤ K||x|| = ρ(x).
From Theorem 13.23, Re f may be extended to a function, h which satisfies
h(ax + by) = ah(x) + bh(y) if a, b ∈ R

h(x) ≤ K||x|| for all x ∈ X.
Actually, |h (x)| ≤ K ||x|| . The reason for this is that h (−x) = −h (x) ≤ K ||−x|| =
K ||x|| and therefore, h (x) ≥ −K ||x||. Let
F (x) ≡ h(x) − ih(ix).

350 BANACH SPACES
By arguments similar to the above, F is linear.
F (ix) = h (ix) − ih (−x)

= ih (x) + h (ix)
= i (h (x) − ih (ix)) = iF (x) .
If c is a real scalar,
F (cx) = h(cx) − ih(icx)

= ch (x) − cih (ix) = cF (x)
Now
F (x + y) = h(x + y) − ih(i (x + y))

= h (x) + h (y) − ih (ix) − ih (iy)
= F (x) + F (y) .
Thus
F ((a + ib) x) = F (ax) + F (ibx)

= aF (x) + ibF (x)
= (a + ib) F (x) .
This shows F is linear as claimed.

Now wF (x) = |F (x)| for some |w| = 1. Therefore
must equal zero
z }| {
|F (x)| = wF (x) = h(wx) − ih(iwx) = h(wx)
= |h(wx)| ≤ K||wx|| = K ||x|| .
Definition 13.25 Let X be a Banach space. Denote by X 0 the space of continuous

linear functions which map X to the field of scalars. Thus X 0 = L(X, F). By
Theorem 13.7 on Page 340, X 0 is a Banach space. Remember with the norm defined
on L (X, F),
||f || = sup{|f (x)| : ||x|| ≤ 1}
X 0 is called the dual space.
Definition 13.26 Let X and Y be Banach spaces and suppose L ∈ L(X, Y ). Then
define the adjoint map in L(Y 0 , X 0 ), denoted by L∗ , by
L∗ y ∗ (x) ≡ y ∗ (Lx)
for all y ∗ ∈ Y 0 .
The following diagram is a good one to help remember this definition.

L∗
0
X ← Y0
→
X Y
L
This is a generalization of the adjoint of a linear transformation on an inner
product space. Recall
(Ax, y) = (x, A∗ y)
What is being done here is to generalize this algebraic concept to arbitrary Banach
spaces. There are some issues which need to be discussed relative to the above
definition. First of all, it must be shown that L∗ y ∗ ∈ X 0 . Also, it will be useful to
have the following lemma which is a useful application of the Hahn Banach theorem.
Lemma 13.27 Let X be a normed linear space and let x ∈ X. Then there exists
x∗ ∈ X 0 such that ||x∗ || = 1 and x∗ (x) = ||x||.
Proof: Let f : Fx → F be defined by f (αx) = α||x||. Then for y = αx ∈ Fx,
|f (y)| = |f (αx)| = |α| ||x|| = |y| .
By the Hahn Banach theorem, there exists x∗ ∈ X 0 such that x∗ (αx) = f (αx) and
||x∗ || ≤ 1. Since x∗ (x) = ||x|| it follows that ||x∗ || = 1 because
¯ µ ¶¯
¯ ∗ x ¯¯ ||x||
∗ ¯
||x || ≥ ¯x = = 1.
||x|| ¯ ||x||
Theorem 13.28 Let L ∈ L(X, Y ) where X and Y are Banach spaces. Then
a.) L∗ ∈ L(Y 0 , X 0 ) as claimed and ||L∗ || = ||L||.
b.) If L maps one to one onto a closed subspace of Y , then L∗ is onto.
c.) If L maps onto a dense subset of Y , then L∗ is one to one.
Proof: It is routine to verify L∗ y ∗ and L∗ are both linear. This follows imme-
diately from the definition. As usual, the interesting thing concerns continuity.
||L∗ y ∗ || = sup |L∗ y ∗ (x)| = sup |y ∗ (Lx)| ≤ ||y ∗ || ||L|| .
||x||≤1 ||x||≤1
Thus L∗ is continuous as claimed and ||L∗ || ≤ ||L|| .

By Lemma 13.27, there exists yx∗ ∈ Y 0 such that ||yx∗ || = 1 and yx∗ (Lx) =
||Lx|| .Therefore,
||L∗ || = sup ||L∗ y ∗ || = sup sup |L∗ y ∗ (x)|
||y ∗ ||≤1 ||y ∗ ||≤1 ||x||≤1
= sup sup |y ∗ (Lx)| = sup sup |y ∗ (Lx)|

||y ∗ ||≤1 ||x||≤1 ||x||≤1 ||y ∗ ||≤1
≥ sup |yx∗ (Lx)| = sup ||Lx|| = ||L||

||x||≤1 ||x||≤1
352 BANACH SPACES
showing that ||L∗ || ≥ ||L|| and this shows part a.).

If L is one to one and onto a closed subset of Y , then L (X) being a closed
subspace of a Banach space, is itself a Banach space and so the open mapping
theorem implies L−1 : L(X) → X is continuous. Hence
¯¯ ¯¯
||x|| = ||L−1 Lx|| ≤ ¯¯L−1 ¯¯ ||Lx||
Now let x∗ ∈ X 0 be given. Define f ∈ L(L(X), C) by f (Lx) = x∗ (x). The function,
f is well defined because if Lx1 = Lx2 , then since L is one to one, it follows x1 = x2
and so f (L (x1 )) = x∗ (x1 ) = x∗ (x2 ) = f (L (x1 )). Also, f is linear because
f (aL (x1 ) + bL (x2 )) = f (L (ax1 + bx2 ))
≡ x∗ (ax1 + bx2 )
= ax∗ (x1 ) + bx∗ (x2 )
= af (L (x1 )) + bf (L (x2 )) .
In addition to this,
¯¯ ¯¯
|f (Lx)| = |x∗ (x)| ≤ ||x∗ || ||x|| ≤ ||x∗ || ¯¯L−1 ¯¯ ||Lx||
¯¯ ¯¯
and so the norm of f on L (X) is no larger than ||x∗ || ¯¯L−1 ¯¯. By the Hahn Banach
∗ 0 ∗
theorem,
¯¯ there
¯¯ exists an extension of f to an element y ∈ Y such that ||y || ≤
∗ ¯¯ −1 ¯¯
||x || L . Then
L∗ y ∗ (x) = y ∗ (Lx) = f (Lx) = x∗ (x)
so L∗ y ∗ = x∗ because this holds for all x. Since x∗ was arbitrary, this shows L∗ is
onto and proves b.).
Consider the last assertion. Suppose L∗ y ∗ = 0. Is y ∗ = 0? In other words
is y ∗ (y) = 0 for all y ∈ Y ? Pick y ∈ Y . Since L (X) is dense in Y, there exists
a sequence, {Lxn } such that Lxn → y. But then by continuity of y ∗ , y ∗ (y) =
limn→∞ y ∗ (Lxn ) = limn→∞ L∗ y ∗ (xn ) = 0. Since y ∗ (y) = 0 for all y, this implies
y ∗ = 0 and so L∗ is one to one.
Corollary 13.29 Suppose X and Y are Banach spaces, L ∈ L(X, Y ), and L is one
to one and onto. Then L∗ is also one to one and onto.
There exists a natural mapping, called the James map from a normed linear
space, X, to the dual of the dual space which is described in the following definition.
Definition 13.30 Define J : X → X 00 by J(x)(x∗ ) = x∗ (x).
Theorem 13.31 The map, J, has the following properties.
a.) J is one to one and linear.
b.) ||Jx|| = ||x|| and ||J|| = 1.
c.) J(X) is a closed subspace of X 00 if X is complete.
Also if x∗ ∈ X 0 ,
||x∗ || = sup {|x∗∗ (x∗ )| : ||x∗∗ || ≤ 1, x∗∗ ∈ X 00 } .
Proof:
J (ax + by) (x∗ ) ≡ x∗ (ax + by)

= ax∗ (x) + bx∗ (y)
= (aJ (x) + bJ (y)) (x∗ ) .
Since this holds for all x∗ ∈ X 0 , it follows that
J (ax + by) = aJ (x) + bJ (y)
and so J is linear. If Jx = 0, then by Lemma 13.27 there exists x∗ such that

x∗ (x) = ||x|| and ||x∗ || = 1. Then
0 = J(x)(x∗ ) = x∗ (x) = ||x||.
This shows a.).

To show b.), let x ∈ X and use Lemma 13.27 to obtain x∗ ∈ X 0 such that
x (x) = ||x|| with ||x∗ || = 1. Then
∗
||x|| ≥ sup{|y ∗ (x)| : ||y ∗ || ≤ 1}

= sup{|J(x)(y ∗ )| : ||y ∗ || ≤ 1} = ||Jx||
≥ |J(x)(x∗ )| = |x∗ (x)| = ||x||
Therefore, ||Jx|| = ||x|| as claimed. Therefore,
||J|| = sup{||Jx|| : ||x|| ≤ 1} = sup{||x|| : ||x|| ≤ 1} = 1.
This shows b.).

To verify c.), use b.). If Jxn → y ∗∗ ∈ X 00 then by b.), xn is a Cauchy sequence
converging to some x ∈ X because
||xn − xm || = ||Jxn − Jxm ||
and {Jxn } is a Cauchy sequence. Then Jx = limn→∞ Jxn = y ∗∗ .

Finally, to show the assertion about the norm of x∗ , use what was just shown
applied to the James map from X 0 to X 000 still referred to as J.
||x∗ || = sup {|x∗ (x)| : ||x|| ≤ 1} = sup {|J (x) (x∗ )| : ||Jx|| ≤ 1}
≤ sup {|x∗∗ (x∗ )| : ||x∗∗ || ≤ 1} = sup {|J (x∗ ) (x∗∗ )| : ||x∗∗ || ≤ 1}

≡ ||Jx∗ || = ||x∗ ||.
Definition 13.32 When J maps X onto X 00 , X is called reflexive.
It happens the Lp spaces are reflexive whenever p > 1. This is shown later.
354 BANACH SPACES
13.3 Weak And Weak ∗ Topologies

13.3.1 Basic Definitions
Let X be a Banach space and let X 0 be its dual space.1 For A0 a finite subset of
X 0 , denote by ρA0 the function defined on X
ρA0 (x) ≡ max

∗ 0
|x∗ (x)| (13.7)
x ∈A
and also let BA0 (x, r) be defined by
BA0 (x, r) ≡ {y ∈ X : ρA0 (y − x) < r} (13.8)
Then certain things are obvious. First of all, if a ∈ F and x, y ∈ X,
ρA0 (x + y) ≤ ρA0 (x) + ρA0 (y) ,

ρA0 (ax) = |a| ρA0 (x) .
Similarly, letting A be a finite subset of X, denote by ρA the function defined

on X 0
ρA (x∗ ) ≡ max |x∗ (x)| (13.9)
x∈A
∗
and let BA (x , r) be defined by
BA (x∗ , r) ≡ {y ∗ ∈ X 0 : ρA (y ∗ − x∗ ) < r} . (13.10)
It is also clear that
ρA (x∗ + y ∗ ) ≤ ρ (x∗ ) + ρA (y ∗ ) ,
ρA (ax∗ ) = |a| ρA (x∗ ) .
Lemma 13.33 The sets, BA0 (x, r) where A0 is a finite subset of X 0 and x ∈ X
form a basis for a topology on X known as the weak topology. The sets BA (x∗ , r)
where A is a finite subset of X and x∗ ∈ X 0 form a basis for a topology on X 0
known as the weak ∗ topology.
Proof: The two assertions are very similar. I will verify the one for the weak
topology. The union of these sets, BA0 (x, r) for x ∈ X and r > 0 is all of X. Now
suppose z is contained in the intersection of two of these sets. Say
z ∈ BA0 (x, r) ∩ BA01 (x1 , r1 )
Then let C 0 = A0 ∪ A01 and let

³ ´
0 < δ ≤ min r − ρA0 (z − x) , r1 − ρA01 (z − x1 ) .
1 Actually, all this works in much more general settings than this.
13.3. WEAK AND WEAK ∗ TOPOLOGIES 355
Consider y ∈ BC 0 (z, δ) . Then
r − ρA0 (z − x) ≥ δ > ρC 0 (y − z) ≥ ρA0 (y − z)
and so
r > ρA0 (y − z) + ρA0 (z − x) ≥ ρA0 (y − x)
which shows y ∈ BA0 (x, r) . Similar reasoning shows y ∈ BA01 (x1 , r1 ) and so
BC 0 (z, δ) ⊆ BA0 (x, r) ∩ BA01 (x1 , r1 ) .
Therefore, the weak topology consists of the union of all sets of the form BA (x, r).
13.3.2 Banach Alaoglu Theorem

Why does anyone care about these topologies? The short answer is that in the
weak ∗ topology, closed unit ball in X 0 is compact. This is not true in the normal
topology. This wonderful result is the Banach Alaoglu theorem. First recall the
notion of the product topology, and the Tychonoff theorem, Theorem 11.7 on Page
307 which are stated here for convenience.
Definition 13.34 Let I be a set and suppose for each i ∈ I, (Xi , τQi ) is a nonempty
topological space. The Cartesian product of the Xi , denoted by i∈I Xi , consists
of the set of allQchoice functions defined on I which select a single element of each
Qi . Thus f ∈ i∈I Xi means for every i ∈ I, f (i) ∈ Xi . The axiom of choice says
X
i∈I Xi is nonempty. Let Y
Pj (A) = Bi
i∈I
where Bi = Xi if i 6= j and Bj = A. A subbasis for a topology on the product

space consists of all sets Pj (A) where A ∈ τ j . (These sets have an open set from
the topology of Xj in the j th slot and the whole space in the other slots.) Thus a
basis consists of finite intersections of these sets. Note that theQintersection of two
of these basic sets is another basic set and their union yields i∈I Xi . Therefore,
they satisfy the condition needed for a collection of sets to serve as a Q basis for a
topology. This topology is called the product topology and is denoted by τ i .
Q Q
Theorem 13.35 If (Xi , τ i ) is compact, then so is ( i∈I Xi , τ i ).
The Banach Alaoglu theorem is as follows.
Theorem 13.36 Let B 0 be the closed unit ball in X 0 . Then B 0 is compact in the
weak ∗ topology.
Proof: By the Tychonoff theorem, Theorem 13.35

Y
P ≡ B (0, ||x||)
x∈X
356 BANACH SPACES
is compact in the product topology where the topology on B (0, ||x||) is the usual
topology of F. Recall P is the set of functions which map a point, x ∈ X to a point
in B (0, ||x||). Therefore, B 0 ⊆ P. Also the basic open sets in the weak ∗ topology
on B 0 are obtained as the intersection of basic open sets in the product topology
of P to B 0 and so it suffices to show B 0 is a closed subset of P. Suppose then that
f ∈ P \ B 0 . It follows f cannot be linear. There are two ways this can happen. One
way is that for some x, y
f (x + y) 6= f (x) + f (y)
for some x, y ∈ X. However, if g is close enough to f at the three points, x + y, x,
and y, the above inequality will hold for g in place of f. In other words there is a
basic open set containing f such that for all g in this basic open set, g ∈ / B0. A
similar consideration applies in case f (λx) 6= λf (x) for some scalar, λ and x. Since
P \ B 0 is open, it follows B 0 is a closed subset of P and is therefore, compact. This
proves the theorem.
Sometimes one can consider the weak ∗ topology in terms of a metric space.
Theorem 13.37 If K ⊆ X 0 is compact in the weak ∗ topology and X is separable

then there exists a metric, d, on K such that if τ d is the topology on K induced by
d and if τ is the topology on K induced by the weak ∗ topology of X 0 , then τ = τ d .
Thus one can consider K with the weak ∗ topology as a metric space.
Proof: Let D = {xn } be the dense countable subset. The metric is

∞
X ρxn (f − g)
d (f, g) ≡ 2−n
n=1
1 + ρxn (f − g)
where ρxn (f ) = |f (xn )|. Clearly d (f, g) = d (g, f ) ≥ 0. If d (f, g) = 0, then this
requires f (xn ) = g (xn ) for all xn ∈ D. Since f and g are continuous and D is
dense, this requires that f (x) = g (x) for all x. It is routine to verify the triangle
inequality from the easy to establish inequality,
x y x+y
+ ≥ ,
1+x 1+y 1+x+y
valid whenever x, y ≥ 0. Therefore this is a metric. Now for each n
ρxn (f − g)
g→
1 + ρxn (f − g)
is a continuous function from (K, τ ) to [0, ∞) and also the above sum defining d
converges uniformly. It follows
g → d (f, g)
is continuous. Therefore, the ball with respect to d,
Bd (f, r) ≡ {g ∈ K : d (g, f ) < r}

is open in τ which implies τ d ⊆ τ .

Now suppose U ∈ τ . Then K \ U is closed in K. Hence, K \ U is compact in τ
because it is a closed subset of the compact set K. It follows that K \ U is compact
with respect to τ d because τ d ⊆ τ . But (K, τ d ) is a Hausdorff space and so K \ U
must be closed with respect to τ d . This implies U ∈ τ d . Thus τ ⊆ τ d and this
proves τ = τ d . This proves the theorem.
The fact that this set with the weak ∗ topology can be considered a metric
space is very significant because if a point is a limit point in a metric space, one
can extract a convergent sequence.
Corollary 13.38 If X is separable and K ⊆ X 0 is compact in the weak ∗ topology,

then K is sequentially compact. That is, if {fn }∞n=1 ⊆ K, then there exists a
subsequence fnk and f ∈ K such that for all x ∈ X,
lim fnk (x) = f (x).
k→∞
Proof: By Theorem 13.37, K is a metric space for the metric described there
and it is compact. Therefore by the characterization of compact metric spaces,
Proposition 6.12 on Page 136, K is sequentially compact. This proves the corollary.
13.3.3 Eberlein Smulian Theorem

Next consider the weak topology. The most interesting results have to do with a
reflexive Banach space. The following lemma ties together the weak and weak ∗
topologies in the case of a reflexive Banach space.
Lemma 13.39 Let J : X → X 00 be the James map
Jx (f ) ≡ f (x)
and let X be reflexive so that J is onto. Then J is a homeomorphism of (X, weak topology)
and (X 00 , weak ∗ topology).This means J is one to one, onto, and both J and J −1
are continuous.
Proof: Let f ∈ X 0 and let
Bf (x, r) ≡ {y : |f (x) − f (y)| < r}.

Thus Bf (x, r) is a subbasic set for the weak topology on X. Now by the definition
of J,
y ∈ Bf (x, r) if and only if |Jy (f ) − Jx (f )| < r
if and only if Jy ∈ Bf (Jx, r) ≡
∗∗
{y ∈ X 00 : |y ∗∗ (f ) − J (x) (f )| < r},
a subbasic set for the weak ∗ topology on X 00 . Since J −1 and J are one to one and
onto and map subbasic sets to subbasic sets, it follows that J is a homeomorphism.
This proves the Lemma.
The following is an easy corollary.
358 BANACH SPACES
Corollary 13.40 If X is a reflexive Banach space, then the closed unit ball is
weakly compact.
Proof: Let B be the closed unit ball. Then B = J −1 (B ∗∗ ) where B ∗∗ is the

unit ball in X 00 which is compact in the weak ∗ topology. Therefore B is weakly
compact because J −1 is continuous.
Corollary 13.41 Let X be a reflexive Banach space. If K ⊆ X is compact in the

weak topology and X 0 is separable then there exists a metric d, on K such that if
τ d is the topology on K induced by d and if τ is the topology on K induced by the
weak topology of X, then τ = τ d . Thus one can consider K with the weak topology
as a metric space.
Proof: This follows from Theorem 13.37 and Lemma 13.39. Lemma 13.39
implies J (K) is compact in X 00 . Then since X 0 is separable, there is a metric, d00
on J (K) which delivers the weak ∗ topology. Let d (x, y) ≡ d00 (Jx, Jy) . Then
J id J −1
(K, τ d ) → (J (K) , τ d00 ) → (J (K) , τ weak ∗ ) → (K, τ weak )
and all the maps are homeomorphisms.

Next is the Eberlein Smulian theorem which states that a Banach space is re-
flexive if and only if the closed unit ball is weakly sequentially compact. Actually,
only half the theorem is proved here, the more useful only if part. The book by
Yoshida [52] has the complete theorem discussed. First here is an interesting lemma
for its own sake.
Lemma 13.42 A closed subspace of a reflexive Banach space is reflexive.
Proof: Let Y be the closed subspace of the reflexive space, X. Consider the
following diagram
i∗∗ 1-1
Y 00 → X 00
i∗ onto
Y0 ← X0
i
Y → X
This diagram follows from Theorem 13.28 on Page 351, the theorem on adjoints.
Now let y ∗∗ ∈ Y 00 . Then i∗∗ y ∗∗ = JX (y) because X is reflexive. I want to show
that y ∈ Y . If it is not in Y then since Y is closed, there exists x∗ ∈ X 0 such that
x∗ (y) 6= 0 but x∗ (Y ) = 0. Then i∗ x∗ = 0. Hence
0 = y ∗∗ (i∗ x∗ ) = i∗∗ y ∗∗ (x∗ ) = J (y) (x∗ ) = x∗ (y) 6= 0,
a contradiction. Hence y ∈ Y . Letting JY denote the James map from Y to Y 00

and x∗ ∈ X 0 ,
y ∗∗ (i∗ x∗ ) = i∗∗ y ∗∗ (x∗ ) = JX (y) (x∗ )

= x∗ (y) = x∗ (iy) = i∗ x∗ (y) = JY (y) (i∗ x∗ )
Since i∗ is onto, this shows y ∗∗ = JY (y) and this proves the lemma.
Theorem 13.43 (Eberlein Smulian) The closed unit ball in a reflexive Banach
space X, is weakly sequentially compact. By this is meant that if {xn } is con-
tained in the closed unit ball, there exists a subsequence, {xnk } and x ∈ X such that
for all x∗ ∈ X 0 ,
x∗ (xnk ) → x∗ (x) .
Proof: Let {xn } ⊆ B ≡ B (0, 1). Let Y be the closure of the linear span of
{xn }. Thus Y is a separable. It is reflexive because it is a closed subspace of a
reflexive space so the above lemma applies. By the Banach Alaoglu theorem, the
closed unit ball B ∗ in Y 0 is weak ∗ compact. Also by Theorem 13.37, B ∗ is a metric
space with a suitable metric. Thus B ∗ is complete and totally bounded with respect
to this metric and it follows that B ∗ with the weak ∗ topology is separable. This
implies Y 0 is also separable in the weak ∗ topology. To see this, let {yn∗ } ≡ D be a
weak ∗ dense set in B ∗ and let y ∗ ∈ Y 0 . Let p be a large enough positive rational
number that y ∗ /p ∈ B ∗ . Then if A is any finite set from Y, there exists yn∗ ∈ D such
that ρA (y ∗ /p − yn∗ ) < pε . It follows pyn∗ ∈ BA (y ∗ , ε) showing that rational multiples
of D are weak ∗ dense in Y 0 . Since Y is reflexive, the weak and weak ∗ topologies on
Y 0 coincide and so Y 0 is weakly separable. Since Y 0 is separable, Corollary 13.38
implies B ∗∗ , the closed unit ball in Y 00 is weak ∗ sequentially compact. Then by
Lemma 13.39 B, the unit ball in Y , is weakly sequentially compact. It follows there
exists a subsequence xnk , of the sequence {xn } and a point x ∈ Y , such that for all
f ∈ Y 0,
f (xnk ) → f (x).
Now if x∗ ∈ X 0 , and i is the inclusion map of Y into X,
x∗ (xnk ) = i∗ x∗ (xnk ) → i∗ x∗ (x) = x∗ (x).
which shows xnk converges weakly and this shows the unit ball in X is weakly
sequentially compact.
Corollary 13.44 Let {xn } be any bounded sequence in a reflexive Banach space,
X. Then there exists x ∈ X and a subsequence, {xnk } such that for all x∗ ∈ X 0 ,
lim x∗ (xnk ) = x∗ (x)

k→∞
Proof: If a subsequence, xnk has ||xnk || → 0, then the conclusion follows.

Simply let x = 0. Suppose then that ||xn || is bounded away from 0. That is,
||xn || ∈ [δ, C]. Take a subsequence such that ||xnk || → a. Then consider xnk / ||xnk ||.
By the ¯¯ Eberlein
¯¯ Smulian theorem, this subsequence has a further subsequence,
¯¯ ¯¯
xnkj / ¯¯xnkj ¯¯ which converges weakly to x ∈ B where B is the closed unit ball.
It follows from routine considerations that xnkj → ax weakly. This proves the
corollary.
360 BANACH SPACES
13.4 Exercises
1. Is N a Gδ set? What about Q? What about a countable dense subset of a
complete metric space?
2. ↑ Let f : R → C be a function. Define the oscillation of a function in B (x, r)
by ω r f (x) = sup{|f (z) − f (y)| : y, z ∈ B(x, r)}. Define the oscillation of the
function at the point, x by ωf (x) = limr→0 ω r f (x). Show f is continuous
at x if and only if ωf (x) = 0. Then show the set of points where f is
continuous is a Gδ set (try Un = {x : ωf (x) < n1 }). Does there exist a
function continuous at only the rational numbers? Does there exist a function
continuous at every irrational and discontinuous elsewhere? Hint: Suppose
∞
D is any countable set, D = {di }i=1 , and define the function, fn (x) to equal
zero for P / {d1 , · · ·, dn } and 2−n for x in this finite set. Then consider
every x ∈
∞
g (x) ≡ n=1 fn (x). Show that this series converges uniformly.
3. Let f ∈ C([0, 1]) and suppose f 0 (x) exists. Show there exists a constant, K,
such that |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ K|x − y| for all y ∈ [0, 1]. Let Un = {f ∈ C([0, 1])
such that for each x ∈ [0, 1] there exists y ∈ [0, 1] such that |f (x) − f (y)| >
n|x − y|}. Show that Un is open and dense in C([0, 1]) where for f ∈ C ([0, 1]),
||f || ≡ sup {|f (x)| : x ∈ [0, 1]} .
Show that ∩n Un is a dense Gδ set of nowhere differentiable continuous func-
tions. Thus every continuous function is uniformly close to one which is
nowhere differentiable.
P∞
4. ↑Suppose f (x) = k=1 uk (x) where the convergence is uniformP∞ and each uk
is a polynomial. Is it reasonable to conclude that f 0 (x) = k=1 u0k (x)? The
answer is no. Use Problem 3 and the Weierstrass approximation theorem do
show this.
5. Let X be a normed linear space. We say A ⊆ X is “weakly bounded” if for
each x∗ ∈ X 0 , sup{|x∗ (x)| : x ∈ A} < ∞, while A is bounded if sup{||x|| : x ∈
A} < ∞. Show A is weakly bounded if and only if it is bounded.
6. Let X and Y be two Banach spaces. Define the norm
|||(x, y)||| ≡ ||x||X + ||y||Y .
Show this is a norm on X × Y which is equivalent to the norm given in the
chapter for X × Y . Can you do the same for the norm defined for p > 1 by
p p 1/p
|(x, y)| ≡ (||x||X + ||y||Y ) ?
7. Let f be a 2π periodic locally integrable function on R. The Fourier series for

f is given by
∞
X n
X
ak eikx ≡ lim ak eikx ≡ lim Sn f (x)
n→∞ n→∞
k=−∞ k=−n
13.4. EXERCISES 361
where Z π
1
ak = e−ikx f (x) dx.
2π −π
Show Z π
Sn f (x) = Dn (x − y) f (y) dy
−π
where
sin((n + 12 )t)
Dn (t) = .
2π sin( 2t )
Rπ
Verify that −π
Dn (t) dt = 1. Also show that if g ∈ L1 (R) , then
Z
lim g (x) sin (ax) dx = 0.
a→∞ R
This last is called the Riemann Lebesgue lemma. Hint: For the last part,
assume first that g ∈ Cc∞ (R) and integrate by parts. Then exploit density of
the set of functions in L1 (R).
8. ↑It turns out that the Fourier series sometimes converges to the function point-
wise. Suppose f is 2π periodic and Holder continuous. That is |f (x) − f (y)| ≤
θ
K |x − y| where θ ∈ (0, 1]. Show that if f is like this, then the Fourier series
converges to f at every point. Next modify your argument to show that if
θ
at every point, x, |f (x+) − f (y)| ≤ K |x − y| for y close enough to x and
θ
larger than x and |f (x−) − f (y)| ≤ K |x − y| for every y close enough to x
and smaller than x, then Sn f (x) → f (x+)+f 2
(x−)
, the midpoint of the jump
of the function. Hint: Use Problem 7.
9. ↑ Let Y = {f such that f is continuous, defined on R, and 2π periodic}. Define

||f ||Y = sup{|f (x)| : x ∈ [−π, π]}. Show that (Y, || ||Y ) is a Banach space. Let
x ∈ R and define Ln (f ) = Sn f (x). Show Ln ∈ Y 0 but limn→∞ ||Ln || = ∞.
Show that for each x ∈ R, there exists a dense Gδ subset of Y such that for f
in this set, |Sn f (x)| is unbounded. Finally, show there is a dense Gδ subset of
Y having the property that |Sn f (x)| is unbounded on the rational numbers.
Hint: To do the first part, let f (y) approximate sgn(Dn (x−y)). Here sgn r =
1 if r > 0, −1 if r < 0 and 0 if r = 0. This rules out one possibility of the
uniform boundedness principle. After this, show the countable intersection of
dense Gδ sets must also be a dense Gδ set.
10. Let α ∈ (0, 1]. Define, for X a compact subset of Rp ,
C α (X; Rn ) ≡ {f ∈ C (X; Rn ) : ρα (f ) + ||f || ≡ ||f ||α < ∞}
where
||f || ≡ sup{|f (x)| : x ∈ X}
362 BANACH SPACES
and
|f (x) − f (y)|
ρα (f ) ≡ sup{ α : x, y ∈ X, x 6= y}.
|x − y|
Show that (C α (X; Rn ) , ||·||α ) is a complete normed linear space. This is
called a Holder space. What would this space consist of if α > 1?
11. ↑Now recall Problem 10 about the Holder spaces. Let X be the Holder
functions which are periodic of period 2π. Define Ln f (x) = Sn f (x) where
Ln : X → Y for Y given in Problem 9. Show ||Ln || is bounded independent
of n. Conclude that Ln f → f in Y for all f ∈ X. In other words, for the
Holder continuous and 2π periodic functions, the Fourier series converges to
the function uniformly. Hint: Ln f (x) is given by
Z π
Ln f (x) = Dn (y) f (x − y) dy
−π
α
where f (x − y) = f (x) + g (x, y) where |g (x, y)| ≤ C |y| . Use the fact the
Dirichlet kernel integrates to one to write
=|f (x)|
¯Z π ¯ ¯zZ π
}| {¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ Dn (y) f (x − y) dy ¯¯ ≤ ¯¯ Dn (y) f (x) dy ¯¯
¯
−π −π
¯Z π µµ ¶ ¶ ¯
¯ 1 ¯
+C ¯¯ sin n+ y (g (x, y) / sin (y/2)) dy ¯¯
−π 2
Show the functions, y → g (x, y) / sin (y/2) are bounded in L1 independent of
x and get a uniform bound on ||Ln ||. Now use a similar argument to show
{Ln f } is equicontinuous in addition to being uniformly bounded. If Ln f
fails to converge to f uniformly, then there exists ε > 0 and a subsequence,
nk such that ||Lnk f − f ||∞ ≥ ε where this is the norm in Y or equivalently
the sup norm on [−π, π]. By the Arzela Ascoli theorem, there is a further
subsequence, Lnkl f which converges uniformly on [−π, π]. But by Problem 8
Ln f (x) → f (x).
12. Let X be a normed linear space and let M be a convex open set containing
0. Define
x
ρ(x) = inf{t > 0 : ∈ M }.
t
Show ρ is a gauge function defined on X. This particular example is called a
Minkowski functional. It is of fundamental importance in the study of locally
convex topological vector spaces. A set, M , is convex if λx + (1 − λ)y ∈ M
whenever λ ∈ [0, 1] and x, y ∈ M .
13. ↑ The Hahn Banach theorem can be used to establish separation theorems. Let
M be an open convex set containing 0. Let x ∈/ M . Show there exists x∗ ∈ X 0
∗ ∗
such that Re x (x) ≥ 1 > Re x (y) for all y ∈ M . Hint: If y ∈ M, ρ(y) < 1.
13.4. EXERCISES 363
Show this. If x ∈
/ M, ρ(x) ≥ 1. Try f (αx) = αρ(x) for α ∈ R. Then extend
f to the whole space using the Hahn Banach theorem and call the result F ,
show F is continuous, then fix it so F is the real part of x∗ ∈ X 0 .
14. A Banach space is said to be strictly convex if whenever ||x|| = ||y|| and x 6= y,
then ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ x + y ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ 2 ¯¯ < ||x||.
F : X → X 0 is said to be a duality map if it satisfies the following: a.)

||F (x)|| = ||x||. b.) F (x)(x) = ||x||2 . Show that if X 0 is strictly convex, then
such a duality map exists. The duality map is an attempt to duplicate some
of the features of the Riesz map in Hilbert space which is discussed in the
chapter on Hilbert space. Hint: For an arbitrary Banach space, let
n o
2
F (x) ≡ x∗ : ||x∗ || ≤ ||x|| and x∗ (x) = ||x||
Show F (x) 6= ∅ by using the Hahn Banach theorem on f (αx) = α||x||2 .

Next show F (x) is closed and convex. Finally show that you can replace
the inequality in the definition of F (x) with an equal sign. Now use strict
convexity to show there is only one element in F (x).
15. Prove the following theorem which is an improved version of the open mapping
theorem, [17]. Let X and Y be Banach spaces and let A ∈ L (X, Y ). Then
the following are equivalent.
AX = Y,
A is an open map.
There exists a constant M such that for every y ∈ Y , there exists x ∈ X with
y = Ax and
||x|| ≤ M ||y||.
Note this gives the equivalence between A being onto and A being an open
map. The open mapping theorem says that if A is onto then it is open.
16. Suppose D ⊆ X and D is dense in X. Suppose L : D → Y is linear and
e defined
||Lx|| ≤ K||x|| for all x ∈ D. Show there is a unique extension of L, L,
e
on all of X with ||Lx|| ≤ K||x|| and Le is linear. You do not get uniqueness
when you use the Hahn Banach theorem. Therefore, in the situation of this
problem, it is better to use this result.
17. ↑ A Banach space is uniformly convex if whenever ||xn ||, ||yn || ≤ 1 and
||xn + yn || → 2, it follows that ||xn − yn || → 0. Show uniform convexity
implies strict convexity (See Problem 14). Hint: Suppose it ¯is
¯ not strictly
¯¯
convex. Then there exist ||x|| and ||y|| both equal to 1 and ¯¯ xn +y
2
n ¯¯
= 1
consider xn ≡ x and yn ≡ y, and use the conditions for uniform convexity to
get a contradiction. It can be shown that Lp is uniformly convex whenever
∞ > p > 1. See Hewitt and Stromberg [26] or Ray [43].
364 BANACH SPACES
18. Show that a closed subspace of a reflexive Banach space is reflexive. Hint:
The proof of this is an exercise in the use of the Hahn Banach theorem. Let
Y be the closed subspace of the reflexive space X and let y ∗∗ ∈ Y 00 . Then
i∗∗ y ∗∗ ∈ X 00 and so i∗∗ y ∗∗ = Jx for some x ∈ X because X is reflexive.
Now argue that x ∈ Y as follows. If x ∈ / Y , then there exists x∗ such that
x∗ (Y ) = 0 but x∗ (x) 6= 0. Thus, i∗ x∗ = 0. Use this to get a contradiction.
When you know that x = y ∈ Y , the Hahn Banach theorem implies i∗ is onto
Y 0 and for all x∗ ∈ X 0 ,
y ∗∗ (i∗ x∗ ) = i∗∗ y ∗∗ (x∗ ) = Jx (x∗ ) = x∗ (x) = x∗ (iy) = i∗ x∗ (y).
19. We say that xn converges weakly to x if for every x∗ ∈ X 0 , x∗ (xn ) → x∗ (x).

xn * x denotes weak convergence. Show that if ||xn − x|| → 0, then xn * x.
20. ↑ Show that if X is uniformly convex, then if xn * x and ||xn || → ||x||, it

follows ||xn −x|| → 0. Hint: Use Lemma 13.27 to obtain f ∈ X 0 with ||f || = 1
and f (x) = ||x||. See Problem 17 for the definition of uniform convexity.
Now by the weak convergence, you can argue that if x 6= 0, f (xn / ||xn ||) →
f (x/ ||x||). You also might try to show this in the special case where ||xn || =
||x|| = 1.
21. Suppose L ∈ L (X, Y ) and M ∈ L (Y, Z). Show M L ∈ L (X, Z) and that
∗
(M L) = L∗ M ∗ .
22. Let X and Y be Banach spaces and suppose f ∈ L (X, Y ) is compact. Recall
this means that if B is a bounded set in X, then f (B) has compact closure
in Y. Show that f ∗ is also a compact map. Hint: Take a bounded subset of
Y 0 , S. You need to show f ∗ (S) is totally bounded. You might consider using
the Ascoli Arzela theorem on the functions of S applied to f (B) where B is
the closed unit ball in X.
Hilbert Spaces
14.1 Basic Theory

Definition 14.1 Let X be a vector space. An inner product is a mapping from
X × X to C if X is complex and from X × X to R if X is real, denoted by (x, y)
which satisfies the following.
(x, x) ≥ 0, (x, x) = 0 if and only if x = 0, (14.1)
(x, y) = (y, x). (14.2)

For a, b ∈ C and x, y, z ∈ X,
(ax + by, z) = a(x, z) + b(y, z). (14.3)
Note that 14.2 and 14.3 imply (x, ay + bz) = a(x, y) + b(x, z). Such a vector space
is called an inner product space.
The Cauchy Schwarz inequality is fundamental for the study of inner product
spaces.
Theorem 14.2 (Cauchy Schwarz) In any inner product space
|(x, y)| ≤ ||x|| ||y||.
Proof: Let ω ∈ C, |ω| = 1, and ω(x, y) = |(x, y)| = Re(x, yω). Let
F (t) = (x + tyω, x + tωy).
If y = 0 there is nothing to prove because
(x, 0) = (x, 0 + 0) = (x, 0) + (x, 0)
and so (x, 0) = 0. Thus, it can be assumed y 6= 0. Then from the axioms of the
inner product,
F (t) = ||x||2 + 2t Re(x, ωy) + t2 ||y||2 ≥ 0.
365
366 HILBERT SPACES
This yields
||x||2 + 2t|(x, y)| + t2 ||y||2 ≥ 0.
Since this inequality holds for all t ∈ R, it follows from the quadratic formula that
4|(x, y)|2 − 4||x||2 ||y||2 ≤ 0.
This yields the conclusion and proves the theorem.

1/2
Proposition 14.3 For an inner product space, ||x|| ≡ (x, x) does specify a
norm.
Proof: All the axioms are obvious except the triangle inequality. To verify this,
2 2 2
||x + y|| ≡ (x + y, x + y) ≡ ||x|| + ||y|| + 2 Re (x, y)
2 2
≤ ||x|| + ||y|| + 2 |(x, y)|
2 2 2
≤ ||x|| + ||y|| + 2 ||x|| ||y|| = (||x|| + ||y||) .
The following lemma is called the parallelogram identity.
Lemma 14.4 In an inner product space,
||x + y||2 + ||x − y||2 = 2||x||2 + 2||y||2.
The proof, a straightforward application of the inner product axioms, is left to

the reader.
Lemma 14.5 For x ∈ H, an inner product space,
||x|| = sup |(x, y)| (14.4)

||y||≤1
Proof: By the Cauchy Schwarz inequality, if x 6= 0,

µ ¶
x
||x|| ≥ sup |(x, y)| ≥ x, = ||x|| .
||y||≤1 ||x||
It is obvious that 14.4 holds in the case that x = 0.
Definition 14.6 A Hilbert space is an inner product space which is complete. Thus
a Hilbert space is a Banach space in which the norm comes from an inner product
as described above.
In Hilbert space, one can define a projection map onto closed convex nonempty
sets.
Definition 14.7 A set, K, is convex if whenever λ ∈ [0, 1] and x, y ∈ K, λx + (1 −

λ)y ∈ K.
14.1. BASIC THEORY 367
Theorem 14.8 Let K be a closed convex nonempty subset of a Hilbert space, H,

and let x ∈ H. Then there exists a unique point P x ∈ K such that ||P x − x|| ≤
||y − x|| for all y ∈ K.
Proof: Consider uniqueness. Suppose that z1 and z2 are two elements of K

such that for i = 1, 2,
||zi − x|| ≤ ||y − x|| (14.5)
for all y ∈ K. Also, note that since K is convex,
z1 + z2
∈ K.
2
Therefore, by the parallelogram identity,
z1 + z2 z1 − x z2 − x 2
||z1 − x||2 ≤ || − x||2 = || + ||
2 2 2
z1 − x 2 z2 − x 2 z1 − z2 2
= 2(|| || + || || ) − || ||
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 z1 − z2 2
= ||z1 − x|| + ||z2 − x|| − || ||
2 2 2
z1 − z2 2
≤ ||z1 − x||2 − || || ,
2
where the last inequality holds because of 14.5 letting zi = z2 and y = z1 . Hence
z1 = z2 and this shows uniqueness.
Now let λ = inf{||x − y|| : y ∈ K} and let yn be a minimizing sequence. This
means {yn } ⊆ K satisfies limn→∞ ||x − yn || = λ. Now the following follows from
properties of the norm.
2 yn + ym
||yn − x + ym − x|| = 4(|| − x||2 )
2
yn +ym
Then by the parallelogram identity, and convexity of K, 2 ∈ K, and so
=||yn −x+ym −x||2

z }| {
2 2 2 yn + ym 2
|| (yn − x) − (ym − x) || = 2(||yn − x|| + ||ym − x|| ) − 4(|| − x|| )
2
≤ 2(||yn − x||2 + ||ym − x||2 ) − 4λ2.
Since ||x − yn || → λ, this shows {yn − x} is a Cauchy sequence. Thus also {yn } is
a Cauchy sequence. Since H is complete, yn → y for some y ∈ H which must be in
K because K is closed. Therefore
||x − y|| = lim ||x − yn || = λ.

n→∞
Let P x = y.
368 HILBERT SPACES
Corollary 14.9 Let K be a closed, convex, nonempty subset of a Hilbert space, H,

and let x ∈ H. Then for z ∈ K, z = P x if and only if
Re(x − z, y − z) ≤ 0 (14.6)
for all y ∈ K.
Before proving this, consider what it says in the case where the Hilbert space is
Rn.
yX
yX θ
K X - x
z
Condition 14.6 says the angle, θ, shown in the diagram is always obtuse. Re-
member from calculus, the sign of x · y is the same as the sign of the cosine of the
included angle between x and y. Thus, in finite dimensions, the conclusion of this
corollary says that z = P x exactly when the angle of the indicated angle is obtuse.
Surely the picture suggests this is reasonable.
The inequality 14.6 is an example of a variational inequality and this corollary
characterizes the projection of x onto K as the solution of this variational inequality.
Proof of Corollary: Let z ∈ K and let y ∈ K also. Since K is convex, it
follows that if t ∈ [0, 1],
z + t(y − z) = (1 − t) z + ty ∈ K.
Furthermore, every point of K can be written in this way. (Let t = 1 and y ∈ K.)
Therefore, z = P x if and only if for all y ∈ K and t ∈ [0, 1],
||x − (z + t(y − z))||2 = ||(x − z) − t(y − z)||2 ≥ ||x − z||2
for all t ∈ [0, 1] and y ∈ K if and only if for all t ∈ [0, 1] and y ∈ K
2 2 2
||x − z|| + t2 ||y − z|| − 2t Re (x − z, y − z) ≥ ||x − z||
If and only if for all t ∈ [0, 1],

2
t2 ||y − z|| − 2t Re (x − z, y − z) ≥ 0. (14.7)
Now this is equivalent to 14.7 holding for all t ∈ (0, 1). Therefore, dividing by
t ∈ (0, 1) , 14.7 is equivalent to
2
t ||y − z|| − 2 Re (x − z, y − z) ≥ 0
for all t ∈ (0, 1) which is equivalent to 14.6. This proves the corollary.
14.1. BASIC THEORY 369
Corollary 14.10 Let K be a nonempty convex closed subset of a Hilbert space, H.

Then the projection map, P is continuous. In fact,
|P x − P y| ≤ |x − y| .
Proof: Let x, x0 ∈ H. Then by Corollary 14.9,
Re (x0 − P x0 , P x − P x0 ) ≤ 0, Re (x − P x, P x0 − P x) ≤ 0
Hence
0 ≤ Re (x − P x, P x − P x0 ) − Re (x0 − P x0 , P x − P x0 )
2
= Re (x − x0 , P x − P x0 ) − |P x − P x0 |
and so
2
|P x − P x0 | ≤ |x − x0 | |P x − P x0 | .
The next corollary is a more general form for the Brouwer fixed point theorem.
Corollary 14.11 Let f : K → K where K is a convex compact subset of Rn . Then

f has a fixed point.
Proof: Let K ⊆ B (0, R) and let P be the projection map onto K. Then
consider the map f ◦ P which maps B (0, R) to B (0, R) and is continuous. By the
Brouwer fixed point theorem for balls, this map has a fixed point. Thus there exists
x such that
f ◦ P (x) = x
Now the equation also requires x ∈ K and so P (x) = x. Hence f (x) = x.
Definition 14.12 Let H be a vector space and let U and V be subspaces. U ⊕ V =

H if every element of H can be written as a sum of an element of U and an element
of V in a unique way.
The case where the closed convex set is a closed subspace is of special importance
and in this case the above corollary implies the following.
Corollary 14.13 Let K be a closed subspace of a Hilbert space, H, and let x ∈ H.

Then for z ∈ K, z = P x if and only if
(x − z, y) = 0 (14.8)
for all y ∈ K. Furthermore, H = K ⊕ K ⊥ where
K ⊥ ≡ {x ∈ H : (x, k) = 0 for all k ∈ K}
and
2 2 2
||x|| = ||x − P x|| + ||P x|| . (14.9)
370 HILBERT SPACES
Proof: Since K is a subspace, the condition 14.6 implies Re(x − z, y) ≤ 0

for all y ∈ K. Replacing y with −y, it follows Re(x − z, −y) ≤ 0 which implies
Re(x − z, y) ≥ 0 for all y. Therefore, Re(x − z, y) = 0 for all y ∈ K. Now let
|α| = 1 and α (x − z, y) = |(x − z, y)|. Since K is a subspace, it follows αy ∈ K for
all y ∈ K. Therefore,
0 = Re(x − z, αy) = (x − z, αy) = α (x − z, y) = |(x − z, y)|.
This shows that z = P x, if and only if 14.8.

For x ∈ H, x = x − P x + P x and from what was just shown, x − P x ∈ K ⊥
and P x ∈ K. This shows that K ⊥ + K = H. Is there only one way to write
a given element of H as a sum of a vector in K with a vector in K ⊥ ? Suppose
y + z = y1 + z1 where z, z1 ∈ K ⊥ and y, y1 ∈ K. Then (y − y1 ) = (z1 − z) and
so from what was just shown, (y − y1 , y − y1 ) = (y − y1 , z1 − z) = 0 which shows
y1 = y and consequently z1 = z. Finally, letting z = P x,
2 2 2
||x|| = (x − z + z, x − z + z) = ||x − z|| + (x − z, z) + (z, x − z) + ||z||
2 2
= ||x − z|| + ||z||

The following theorem is called the Riesz representation theorem for the dual of
a Hilbert space. If z ∈ H then define an element f ∈ H 0 by the rule (x, z) ≡ f (x). It
follows from the Cauchy Schwarz inequality and the properties of the inner product
that f ∈ H 0 . The Riesz representation theorem says that all elements of H 0 are of
this form.
Theorem 14.14 Let H be a Hilbert space and let f ∈ H 0 . Then there exists a
unique z ∈ H such that
f (x) = (x, z) (14.10)
for all x ∈ H.
Proof: Letting y, w ∈ H the assumption that f is linear implies
f (yf (w) − f (y)w) = f (w) f (y) − f (y) f (w) = 0
which shows that yf (w)−f (y)w ∈ f −1 (0), which is a closed subspace of H since f is
continuous. If f −1 (0) = H, then f is the zero map and z = 0 is the unique element
of H which satisfies 14.10. If f −1 (0) 6= H, pick u ∈
/ f −1 (0) and let w ≡ u − P u 6= 0.
Thus Corollary 14.13 implies (y, w) = 0 for all y ∈ f −1 (0). In particular, let y =
xf (w) − f (x)w where x ∈ H is arbitrary. Therefore,
0 = (f (w)x − f (x)w, w) = f (w)(x, w) − f (x)||w||2.
Thus, solving for f (x) and using the properties of the inner product,
f (w)w
f (x) = (x, )
||w||2
14.2. APPROXIMATIONS IN HILBERT SPACE 371
Let z = f (w)w/||w||2 . This proves the existence of z. If f (x) = (x, zi ) i = 1, 2,

for all x ∈ H, then for all x ∈ H, then (x, z1 − z2 ) = 0 which implies, upon taking
x = z1 − z2 that z1 = z2 . This proves the theorem.
If R : H → H 0 is defined by Rx (y) ≡ (y, x) , the Riesz representation theorem
above states this map is onto. This map is called the Riesz map. It is routine to
show R is linear and |Rx| = |x|.
14.2 Approximations In Hilbert Space

The Gram Schmidt process applies in any Hilbert space.
Theorem 14.15 Let {x1 , · · ·, xn } be a basis for M a subspace of H a Hilbert space.
Then there exists an orthonormal basis for M, {u1 , · · ·, un } which has the property
that for each k ≤ n, span(x1 , · · ·, xk ) = span (u1 , · · ·, uk ) . Also if {x1 , · · ·, xn } ⊆ H,
then
span (x1 , · · ·, xn )
is a closed subspace.
Proof: Let {x1 , · · ·, xn } be a basis for M. Let u1 ≡ x1 / |x1 | . Thus for k = 1,
span (u1 ) = span (x1 ) and {u1 } is an orthonormal set. Now suppose for some
k < n, u1 , · · ·, uk have been chosen such that (uj · ul ) = δ jl and span (x1 , · · ·, xk ) =
span (u1 , · · ·, uk ). Then define
Pk
xk+1 − j=1 (xk+1 · uj ) uj
uk+1 ≡ ¯¯ Pk ¯,
¯ (14.11)
¯xk+1 − j=1 (xk+1 · uj ) uj ¯
where the denominator is not equal to zero because the xj form a basis and so
xk+1 ∈
/ span (x1 , · · ·, xk ) = span (u1 , · · ·, uk )
Thus by induction,
uk+1 ∈ span (u1 , · · ·, uk , xk+1 ) = span (x1 , · · ·, xk , xk+1 ) .
Also, xk+1 ∈ span (u1 , · · ·, uk , uk+1 ) which is seen easily by solving 14.11 for xk+1
and it follows
span (x1 , · · ·, xk , xk+1 ) = span (u1 , · · ·, uk , uk+1 ) .
If l ≤ k,
 
k
X
(uk+1 · ul ) = C (xk+1 · ul ) − (xk+1 · uj ) (uj · ul )
j=1
 
k
X
= C (xk+1 · ul ) − (xk+1 · uj ) δ lj 
j=1
= C ((xk+1 · ul ) − (xk+1 · ul )) = 0.
372 HILBERT SPACES
n
The vectors, {uj }j=1 , generated in this way are therefore an orthonormal basis
because each vector has unit length.
Consider the second claim about finite dimensional subspaces. Without loss of
generality, assume {x1 , · · ·, xn } is linearly independent. If it is not, delete vectors un-
til a linearly independent set is obtained. Then by the first part, span (x1 , · · ·, xn ) =
span (u1 , · · ·, un ) ≡ M where the ui are an orthonormal set of vectors. Suppose
{yk } ⊆ M and yk → y ∈ H. Is y ∈ M ? Let
n
X
yk ≡ ckj uj
j=1
¡ ¢T
Then let ck ≡ ck1 , · · ·, ckn . Then
 
n
X Xn n
X
¯ k ¯ ¯ k ¯ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
¯c − cl ¯2 ≡
2
¯cj − clj ¯ =  ckj − clj uj , ckj − clj uj 
j=1 j=1 j=1
2
= ||yk − yl ||
© ª
which shows ck is a Cauchy sequence in Fn and so it converges to c ∈ Fn . Thus
n
X n
X
y = lim yk = lim ckj uj = cj uj ∈ M.
k→∞ k→∞
j=1 j=1
This completes the proof.
Theorem 14.16 Let M be the span of {u1 , · · ·, un } in a Hilbert space, H and let
y ∈ H. Then P y is given by
n
X
Py = (y, uk ) uk (14.12)
k=1
and the distance is given by

v
u n
u 2 X
t|y| − 2
|(y, uk )| . (14.13)
k=1
Proof:
Ã n
! n
X X
y− (y, uk ) uk , up = (y, up ) − (y, uk ) (uk , up )
k=1 k=1
= (y, up ) − (y, up ) = 0
It follows that Ã !
n
X
y− (y, uk ) uk , u =0
k=1
14.2. APPROXIMATIONS IN HILBERT SPACE 373
for all u ∈ M and so by Corollary 14.13 this verifies 14.12.

The square of the distance, d is given by
Ã n n
!
X X
2
d = y− (y, uk ) uk , y − (y, uk ) uk
k=1 k=1
Xn n
X
2 2 2
= |y| − 2 |(y, uk )| + |(y, uk )|
k=1 k=1
and this shows 14.13.

What if the subspace is the span of vectors which are not orthonormal? There
is a very interesting formula for the distance between a point of a Hilbert space and
a finite dimensional subspace spanned by an arbitrary basis.
Definition 14.17 Let {x1 , · · ·, xn } ⊆ H, a Hilbert space. Define

 
(x1 , x1 ) · · · (x1 , xn )
 .. .. 
G (x1 , · · ·, xn ) ≡  . .  (14.14)
(xn , x1 ) · · · (xn , xn )
Thus the ij th entry of this matrix is (xi , xj ). This is sometimes called the Gram
matrix. Also define G (x1 , · · ·, xn ) as the determinant of this matrix, also called the
Gram determinant.
¯ ¯
¯ (x1 , x1 ) · · · (x1 , xn ) ¯
¯ ¯
¯ .. .. ¯
G (x1 , · · ·, xn ) ≡ ¯ . . ¯ (14.15)
¯ ¯
¯ (xn , x1 ) · · · (xn , xn ) ¯
The theorem is the following.
Theorem 14.18 Let M = span (x1 , · · ·, xn ) ⊆ H, a Real Hilbert space where

{x1 , · · ·, xn } is a basis and let y ∈ H. Then letting d be the distance from y to
M,
G (x1 , · · ·, xn , y)
d2 = . (14.16)
G (x1 , · · ·, xn )
Pn
Proof: By Theorem 14.15 M is a closed subspace of H. Let k=1 αk xk be the
element of M which is closest to y. Then by Corollary 14.13,
Ã n
!
X
y− αk xk , xp = 0
k=1
for each p = 1, 2, · · ·, n. This yields the system of equations,

n
X
(y, xp ) = (xp , xk ) αk , p = 1, 2, · · ·, n (14.17)
k=1
374 HILBERT SPACES
Also by Corollary 14.13,

d2
z }| {
¯¯ ¯¯2 ¯¯ n ¯¯2
¯¯ n
X ¯¯ ¯¯ X ¯¯
2 ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
||y|| = ¯¯y − αk xk ¯¯ + ¯¯ αk xk ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
k=1 k=1
and so, using 14.17,

Ã !
2
X X
2
||y|| = d + αk (xk , xj ) αj
j k
X
= d2 + (y, xj ) αj (14.18)
j
≡ d2 + yxT α (14.19)
in which
yxT ≡ ((y, x1 ) , · · ·, (y, xn )) , αT ≡ (α1 , · · ·, αn ) .
Then 14.17 and 14.18 imply the following system
µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
G (x1 , · · ·, xn ) 0 α yx
= 2
yxT 1 d2 ||y||
By Cramer’s rule,
µ ¶
G (x1 , · · ·, xn ) yx
det 2
yxT ||y||
d2 = µ ¶
G (x1 , · · ·, xn ) 0
det
yxT 1
µ ¶
G (x1 , · · ·, xn ) yx
det 2
yxT ||y||
=
det (G (x1 , · · ·, xn ))
det (G (x1 , · · ·, xn , y)) G (x1 , · · ·, xn , y)
= =
det (G (x1 , · · ·, xn )) G (x1 , · · ·, xn )
14.3 The Müntz Theorem

Recall the polynomials are dense in C ([0, 1]) . This is a consequence of the Weier-
strass approximation theorem. Now consider finite linear combinations of the func-
tions, tpk where {p0 , p1 , p2 , · · ·} is a sequence of nonnegative real numbers, p0 ≡ 0.
P∞ says this set, S of finite linear combinations is dense in C ([0, 1])
The Müntz theorem
exactly when k=1 p1k = ∞. There are two versions of this theorem, one for density
of S in L2 (0, 1) and one for C ([0, 1]) . The presentation follows Cheney [14].
14.3. THE MÜNTZ THEOREM 375
Recall the Cauchy identity presented earlier, Theorem 4.46 on Page 76 which is
stated here for convenience.
Theorem 14.19 The following identity holds.
¯ 1 1 ¯
¯ a +b ¯
Y ¯ 1 1 · · · a1 +bn ¯ Y
¯ .
.. .
.. ¯
(ai + bj ) ¯ ¯= (ai − aj ) (bi − bj ) . (14.20)
¯ ¯
i,j ¯ 1
· · · an +bn ¯
1 j<i
an +b1
Lemma 14.20 Let m, p1 , ···, pn be distinct real numbers larger than −1/2. Thus the
functions, fm (x) ≡ xm , fpj (x) ≡ xpj are all in L2 (0, 1). Let M = span (fp1 , · · ·, fpn ) .
Then the L2 distance, d between fm and M is
Yn
1 |m − pj |
d= √
2m + 1 j=1 m + pj + 1
Proof: By Theorem 14.18

G (fp1 , · · ·, fpn , fm )
d2 = .
G (fp1 , · · ·, fpn )
Z 1
¡ ¢ 1
fpi , fpj = xpi xpj dx =
0 1 + p i + pj
Therefore,
¯ ¯
¯ 1 1
··· 1 1 ¯
¯ 1+p1 +p1 1+p1 +p2 1+p1 +pn 1+m+p1 ¯
¯ 1 1
··· 1 1 ¯
¯ 1+p2 +p1 1+p2 +p2 1+p2 +pn 1+m+p2 ¯
¯ .. .. .. .. ¯
¯ ¯
¯ . . . . ¯
¯ 1 1 1 1 ¯
¯ 1+pn +p1 1+pn +p2 ··· 1+pn +pn 1+pn +m ¯
¯ 1 1 1 1 ¯
¯ 1+m+p1 1+m+p2 ··· 1+m+pn 1+m+m
¯
d2 = ¯ 1 1 1 ¯
¯ ··· ¯
¯ 1+p1 +p1 1+p1 +p2 1+p1 +pn ¯
¯ 1 1
··· 1 ¯
¯ 1+p2 +p1 1+p2 +p2 1+p2 +pn ¯
¯ .. .. .. ¯
¯ . . . ¯
¯ ¯
¯ 1 1
··· 1 ¯
1+pn +p1 1+pn +p2 1+pn +pn
Now from the Cauchy identity, letting ai = pi + 12 and bj = 1

2 + pj with pn+1 = m,
the numerator of the above equals
Q
j<i≤n+1 (pi − pj ) (pi − pj )
Q
i,j≤n+1 (pi + pj + 1)
Qn 2Q 2
k=1 (m − pk ) j<i≤n (pi − pj )
= Qn Qn Q
i=1 (m + pi + 1) j=1 (m + pj + 1) i,j≤n (pi + pj + 1) (2m + 1)
Qn 2Q 2
k=1 (m − pk ) j<i≤n (pi − pj )
= Qn 2 Q
i=1 (m + pi + 1) i,j≤n (pi + pj + 1) (2m + 1)
376 HILBERT SPACES
while the denominator equals

Q 2
j<i≤n (pi − pj )
Q
i,j≤n (pi + pj + 1)
Therefore,
µ Qn 2Q 2
¶
k=1 (m−pk ) j<i≤n (pi −pj )
Qn 2Q
i=1 (m+pi +1) i,j≤n (pi +pj +1)(2m+1)
d2 = ³Q (pi −pj )2
´
Q j<i≤n
i,j≤n (pi +pj +1)
Qn 2
k=1 (m − pk )
= Qn 2
i=1 (m + pi + 1) (2m + 1)
which shows
Yn
1 |m − pk |
d= √ .
2m + 1 k=1 m + pk + 1
The following lemma relates
£ ¤an infinite sum to a product. First consider the
graph of ln (1 − x) for x ∈ 0, 12 . Here is a rough sketch with two lines, y = −x
which lies above the graph of ln (1 − x) and y = −2x which lies below.
1
2
A@
A@
A @
A @
A @
A
A
A
A
A
Lemma 14.21 Let an =
6 1, an > 0, and limn→∞ an = 0. Then
∞
Y n
Y
(1 − an ) ≡ lim (1 − an ) = 0
n→∞
k=1 k=1
if and only if
∞
X
an = +∞.
n=1
Proof:Without loss of generality, you can assume an < 1/2 because the two
conditions are determined by the values of an for n large. By the above sketch the
14.3. THE MÜNTZ THEOREM 377
following is obtained.
n n
" n n
#
Y X X X
ln (1 − ak ) = ln (1 − ak ) ∈ −2 ak , − ak .
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
Therefore,
Pn n
Y Pn
e−2 k=1 ak
≤ (1 − ak ) ≤ e− k=1 ak
k=1
The conclusion follows.

The following is Müntz’s first theorem.
Theorem 14.22 Let {pn } be a sequence of real numbers larger than −1/2 such that
limn→∞ pn = ∞. Let S denote the set of finite linear combinations of the functions,
{xp1 , xp2 , · · ·} . Then S is dense in L2 (0, 1) if and only if
X∞
1
= ∞.
p
i=1 i
Proof: The polynomials are dense in L2 (0, 1) and so S is dense in L2 (0, 1) if

and only if for every ε > 0 there exists a function f from S such that for each
³R ´1/2
1 m 2
integer m ≥ 0, 0
|f (x) − x | dx < ε. This happens if and only if for
all n large enough, the distance in L2 (0, 1) between the function, x → xm and
span (xp1 , xp2 , · · ·, xpn ) is less than ε. However, from Lemma 14.20 this distance
equals
Yn
1 |m − pk |
√
2m + 1 k=1 + pk + 1
m
Yn µ ¶
1 |m − pk |
= √ 1− 1−
2m + 1 m + pk + 1
k=1
Thus S is dense if and only if

Y∞ µ µ ¶¶
|m − pk |
1− 1− =0
m + pk + 1
k=1
which, by Lemma 14.21, happens if and only if

X∞ µ ¶
|m − pk |
1− = +∞
m + pk + 1
k=1
But this sum equals

∞ µ
X ¶
m + pk + 1 − |m − pk |
m + pk + 1
k=1
378 HILBERT SPACES
P 1
which has the same convergence properties as pk by the limit comparison test.
The following is Müntz’s second theorem.
Theorem 14.23 Let S be finite linear combinations of {1, xp1 , xp2 , ·P
· ·} where pj ≥
∞
1 and limn→∞ pn = ∞. Then S is dense in C ([0, 1]) if and only if k=1 p1k = ∞.
Proof: If S is Pdense in C ([0, 1]) then S must also be dense in L2 (0, 1) and so
∞
by Theorem 14.22 k=1 p1k = ∞.
P∞ 1
Suppose then that k=1 pk = ∞ so that by Theorem 14.22, S is dense in
L2 (0, 1) . The theorem will be proved if it is shown that for all m a nonnegative
integer,
max {|xm − f (x)| : x ∈ [0, 1]} < ε
for some f ∈ S. This is true if m = 0 because 1 ∈ S. Suppose then that m > 0. Let
S 0 denote finite linear combinations of the functions
© p1 −1 p2 −1 ª
x ,x ,· · · .
P 1
These functions are also dense in L2 (0, 1) because pk −1 = ∞ by the limit com-
parison test. Then by Theorem 14.22 there exists f ∈ S 0 such that
µZ 1 ¶1/2
¯ ¯
¯f (x) − mxm−1 ¯2 dx < ε.
0
Rx
Thus F (x) ≡ 0
f (t) dt ∈ S and
¯Z x ¯
¯ ¡ ¢ ¯
|F (x) − xm | = ¯¯ f (t) − mtm−1 dt¯¯
Z 0x
¯ ¯
≤ ¯f (t) − mtm−1 ¯ dt
0
µZ 1 ¶1/2 µZ 1 ¶1/2
¯ ¯
≤ ¯f (t) − mtm−1 ¯2 dt dx
0 0
< ε
14.4 Orthonormal Sets

The concept of an orthonormal set of vectors is a generalization of the notion of the
standard basis vectors of Rn or Cn .
Definition 14.24 Let H be a Hilbert space. S ⊆ H is called an orthonormal set if
||x|| = 1 for all x ∈ S and (x, y) = 0 if x, y ∈ S and x 6= y. For any set, D,
D⊥ ≡ {x ∈ H : (x, d) = 0 for all d ∈ D} .
If S is a set, span (S) is the set of all finite linear combinations of vectors from S.
14.4. ORTHONORMAL SETS 379
You should verify that D⊥ is always a closed subspace of H.
Theorem 14.25 In any separable Hilbert space, H, there exists a countable or-
thonormal set, S = {xi } such that the span of these vectors is dense in H. Further-
more, if span (S) is dense, then for x ∈ H,
∞
X n
X
x= (x, xi ) xi ≡ lim (x, xi ) xi . (14.21)
n→∞
i=1 i=1
Proof: Let F denote the collection of all orthonormal subsets of H. F is

nonempty because {x} ∈ F where ||x|| = 1. The set, F is a partially ordered set
with the order given by set inclusion. By the Hausdorff maximal theorem, there
exists a maximal chain, C in F. Then let S ≡ ∪C. It follows S must be a maximal
orthonormal set of vectors. Why? It remains to verify that S is countable span (S)
is dense, and the condition, 14.21 holds. To see S is countable note that if x, y ∈ S,
then
2 2 2 2 2
||x − y|| = ||x|| + ||y|| − 2 Re (x, y) = ||x|| + ||y|| = 2.
¡ 1¢
Therefore, the open sets, B x, 2 for x ∈ S are disjoint and cover S. Since H is
assumed to be separable, there exists a point from a countable dense set in each of
these disjoint balls showing there can only be countably many of the balls and that
consequently, S is countable as claimed.
It remains to verify 14.21 and that span (S) is dense. If span (S) is not dense,
then span (S) is a closed proper subspace of H and letting y ∈ / span (S),
y − Py ⊥
z≡ ∈ span (S) .
||y − P y||
But then S ∪ {z} would be a larger orthonormal set of vectors contradicting the
maximality of S.
∞
It remains to verify 14.21. Let S = {xi }i=1 and consider the problem of choosing
the constants, ck in such a way as to minimize the expression
¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ n
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯x − ck xk ¯¯ =
¯¯ ¯¯
k=1
n
X n
X n
X
2 2
||x|| + |ck | − ck (x, xk ) − ck (x, xk ).
k=1 k=1 k=1
This equals
n
X n
X
2 2 2
||x|| + |ck − (x, xk )| − |(x, xk )|
k=1 k=1
and therefore, this minimum is achieved when ck = (x, xk ) and equals

n
X
2 2
||x|| − |(x, xk )|
k=1
380 HILBERT SPACES
Now since span (S) is dense, there exists n large enough that for some choice of
constants, ck ,
¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ n
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯x − ck xk ¯¯ < ε.
¯¯ ¯¯
k=1
However, from what was just shown,

¯¯ ¯¯2 ¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ n
X ¯¯ ¯¯ n
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯x − (x, xi ) xi ¯¯ ≤ ¯¯x − ck xk ¯¯ < ε
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
i=1 k=1
Pn
showing that limn→∞ i=1 (x, xi ) xi = x as claimed. This proves the theorem.
The proof of this theorem contains the following corollary.
Corollary 14.26 Let S be any orthonormal set of vectors and let
{x1 , · · ·, xn } ⊆ S.
Then if x ∈ H
¯¯ ¯¯2 ¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ n
X ¯¯ ¯¯ n
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯x − ck xk ¯¯ ≥ ¯¯x − (x, xi ) xi ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
k=1 i=1
for all choices of constants, ck . In addition to this, Bessel’s inequality

n
X
2 2
||x|| ≥ |(x, xk )| .
k=1
∞
If S is countable and span (S) is dense, then letting {xi }i=1 = S, 14.21 follows.
14.5 Fourier Series, An Example

In this section consider the Hilbert space, L2 (0, 2π) with the inner product,
Z 2π
(f, g) ≡ f gdm.
0
This is a Hilbert space because of the theorem which states the Lp spaces are com-
plete, Theorem 12.10 on Page 319. An example of an orthonormal set of functions
in L2 (0, 2π) is
1
φn (x) ≡ √ einx
2π
for n an integer. Is it true that the span of these functions is dense in L2 (0, 2π)?
Theorem 14.27 Let S = {φn }n∈Z . Then span (S) is dense in L2 (0, 2π).
14.5. FOURIER SERIES, AN EXAMPLE 381
Proof: By regularity of Lebesgue measure, it follows from Theorem 12.16 that

Cc (0, 2π) is dense in L2 (0, 2π) . Therefore, it suffices to show that for g ∈ Cc (0, 2π) ,
then for every ε > 0 there exists h ∈ span (S) such that ||g − h||L2 (0,2π) < ε.
Let T denote the points of C which are of the form eit for t ∈ R. Let A denote
the algebra of functions consisting of polynomials in z and 1/z for z ∈ T. Thus a
typical such function would be one of the form
m
X
ck z k
k=−m
for m chosen large enough. This algebra separates the points of T because it
contains the function, p (z) = z. It annihilates no point of t because it contains
the constant function 1. Furthermore, it has the property that for f ∈ A, f ∈ A.
By the Stone Weierstrass approximation theorem, Theorem 7.16 on Page 165, A is
dense in C¡ (T¢) . Now for g ∈ Cc (0, 2π) , extend g to all of R to be 2π periodic. Then
letting G eit ≡ g (t) , it follows G is well defined and continuous on T. Therefore,
there exists H ∈ A such that for all t ∈ R,
¯ ¡ it ¢ ¡ ¢¯
¯H e − G eit ¯ < ε2 /2π.
¡ ¢
Thus H eit is of the form
m
X m
X
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢k
H eit = ck eit = ck eikt ∈ span (S) .
k=−m k=−m
Pm ikt
Let h (t) = k=−m ck e . Then
µZ 2π ¶1/2 µZ 2π ¶1/2
2
|g − h| dx ≤ max {|g (t) − h (t)| : t ∈ [0, 2π]} dx
0 0
µZ 2π ¶1/2
©¯ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¯ ª
= max ¯G eit − H eit ¯ : t ∈ [0, 2π] dx
0
µZ 2π ¶1/2
ε2
< = ε.
0 2π
Corollary 14.28 For f ∈ L2 (0, 2π) ,

¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ X m ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
lim ¯¯f − (f, φk ) φk ¯¯
m→∞ ¯¯ ¯¯
k=−m L2 (0,2π)
Proof: This follows from Theorem 14.25 on Page 379.

382 HILBERT SPACES
14.6 Compact Operators

14.6.1 Compact Operators In Hilbert Space
Definition 14.29 Let A ∈ L (H, H) where H is a Hilbert space. Then |(Ax, y)| ≤
||A|| ||x|| ||y|| and so the map, x → (Ax, y) is continuous and linear. By the Riesz
representation theorem, there exists a unique element of H, denoted by A∗ y such
that
(Ax, y) = (x, A∗ y) .
It is clear y → A∗ y is linear and continuous. A∗ is called the adjoint of A. A is a
self adjoint operator if A = A∗ . Thus for a self adjoint operator, (Ax, y) = (x, Ay)
for all x, y ∈ H. A is a compact operator if whenever {xk } is a bounded sequence,
there exists a convergent subsequence of {Axk }. Equivalently, A maps bounded sets
to sets whose closures are compact.
The big result is called the Hilbert Schmidt theorem. It is a generalization to

arbitrary Hilbert spaces of standard finite dimensional results having to do with
diagonalizing a symmetric matrix. There is another statement and proof of this
theorem around Page 598.
Theorem 14.30 Let A be a compact self adjoint operator defined on a Hilbert

space, H. Then there exists a countable set of eigenvalues, {λi } and an orthonormal
set of eigenvectors, ui satisfying
λi is real, |λn | ≥ |λn+1 | , Aui = λi ui , (14.22)
and either
lim λn = 0, (14.23)
n→∞
or for some n,
span (u1 , · · ·, un ) = H. (14.24)
In any case,
∞
span ({ui }i=1 ) is dense in A (H) . (14.25)
and for all x ∈ H,
∞
X
Ax = λk (x, uk ) uk . (14.26)
k=1
This sequence of eigenvectors and eigenvalues also satisfies
|λn | = ||An || , (14.27)
and
An : Hn → Hn . (14.28)
⊥
where H ≡ H1 and Hn ≡ {u1 , · · ·, un−1 } and An is the restriction of A to Hn .
14.6. COMPACT OPERATORS 383
Proof: If A = 0 then pick u ∈ H with ||u|| = 1 and let λ1 = 0. Since

A (H) = 0 it follows the span of u is dense in A (H) and this proves the theorem in
this uninteresting case.
2
Assume from now on A 6= 0. Let λ1 be real and λ21 ≡ ||A|| . From the definition
of ||A|| there exists xn , ||xn || = 1, and ||Axn || → ||A|| = |λ1 |. Now it is clear that
A2 is also a compact self adjoint operator. Consider
¡¡ 2 ¢ ¢ 2
λ1 − A2 xn , xn = λ21 − ||Axn || → 0.
Since A is compact, there exists a subsequence of {xn } still denoted by {xn } such
that Axn converges to some element of H. Thus since λ21 − A2 satisfies
¡¡ 2 ¢ ¢
λ1 − A2 y, y ≥ 0
¡¡ ¢ ¢
in addition to being self adjoint, it follows x, y → λ21 − A2 x, y satisfies all the
axioms for an inner product except for the one which says that (z, z) = 0 only if
z = 0. Therefore, the Cauchy Schwarz inequality may be used to write
¯¡¡ 2 ¢ ¢¯ ¡¡ 2 ¢ ¢1/2 ¡¡ 2 ¢ ¢1/2
¯ λ1 − A2 xn , y ¯ ≤ λ1 − A2 y, y λ1 − A2 xn , xn
≤ en ||y|| .
where en → 0 as n → ∞. Therefore, taking the sup over all ||y|| ≤ 1,

¯¯¡ ¢ ¯¯
lim ¯¯ λ21 − A2 xn ¯¯ = 0.
n→∞
Since A2 xn converges, it follows since λ1 6= 0 that {xn } is a Cauchy sequence

converging to x with ||x|| = 1. Therefore, A2 xn → A2 x and so
¯¯¡ 2 ¢ ¯¯
¯¯ λ1 − A2 x¯¯ = 0.
Now
(λ1 I − A) (λ1 I + A) x = (λ1 I + A) (λ1 I − A) x = 0.
y
If (λ1 I − A) x = 0, let u1 ≡ x. If (λ1 I − A) x = y 6= 0, let u1 ≡ ||y|| .
Suppose {u1 , · · ·, un } is such that Auk = λk uk and |λk | ≥ |λk+1 |, |λk | = ||Ak ||
and Ak : Hk → Hk for k ≤ n. If
span (u1 , · · ·, un ) = H
this yields the conclusion of the theorem in the situation of 14.24. Therefore, assume
the span of these vectors is always a proper subspace of H. It is shown next that
An+1 : Hn+1 → Hn+1 . Let
⊥
y ∈ Hn+1 ≡ {u1 , · · ·, un }
Then for k ≤ n
(Ay, uk ) = (y, Auk ) = λk (y, uk ) = 0,
384 HILBERT SPACES
showing An+1 : Hn+1 → Hn+1 as claimed. There are two cases. Either λn = 0 or it
is not. In the case where λn = 0 it follows An = 0. Every element of H is the sum
⊥
of one in span (u1 , · · ·, un ) and one in span (u1 , · · ·, un ) . (note span (u1 , · · ·, un )
is a closed subspace.) Thus, if x ∈ H, x = y + z where y ∈ span (u1 , · · ·, un ) and
⊥ Pn
z ∈ span (u1 , · · ·, un ) and Az = 0. Say y = j=1 cj uj . Then
n
X
Ax = Ay = cj Auj
j=1
n
X
= cj λj uj ∈ span (u1 , · · ·, un ) .
j=1
The conclusion of the theorem holds in this case because the above equation holds
if with ci = (x, ui ).
Now consider the case where λn 6= 0. In this case repeat the above argument
used to find un+1 and λn+1 for the operator, An+1 . This yields un+1 ∈ Hn+1 ≡
⊥
{u1 , · · ·, un } such that
||un+1 || = 1, ||Aun+1 || = |λn+1 | = ||An+1 || ≤ ||An || = |λn |
and if it is ever the case that λn = 0, it follows from the above argument that the
conclusion of the theorem is obtained.
I claim limn→∞ λn = 0. If this were not so, then for some ε > 0, 0 < ε =
limn→∞ |λn | but then
2 2
||Aun − Aum || = ||λn un − λm um ||
2 2
= |λn | + |λm | ≥ 2ε2
∞
and so there would not exist a convergent subsequence of {Auk }k=1 contrary to the
assumption that A is compact. This verifies the claim that limn→∞ λn = 0.
⊥
It remains to verify that span ({ui }) is dense in A (H). If w ∈ span ({ui }) then
w ∈ Hn for all n and so for all n,
||Aw|| ≤ ||An || ||w|| ≤ |λn | ||w|| .
Therefore, Aw = 0. Now every vector from H can be written as a sum of one from
⊥ ⊥
span ({ui }) = span ({ui })
and one from span ({ui }). Therefore, if x ∈ H, x = y + w where y ∈ span ({ui })
⊥
and w ∈ span ({ui }) . It follows Aw = 0. Also, since y ∈ span ({ui }), there exist
constants, ck and n such that
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ n
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯y − ck uk ¯¯ < ε.
¯¯ ¯¯
k=1
Therefore, from Corollary 14.26,

¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ n
X ¯¯ ¯¯ n
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯y − (y, uk ) uk ¯¯ = ¯¯y − (x, uk ) uk ¯¯ < ε.
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
k=1 k=1
Therefore,
¯¯ Ã !¯¯
¯¯ Xn ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
||A|| ε > ¯¯A y − (x, uk ) uk ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
k=1
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ n
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
= ¯¯Ax − (x, uk ) λk uk ¯¯ .
¯¯ ¯¯
k=1
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows span ({ui }) is dense in A (H) and also implies 14.26.
Define v ⊗ u ∈ L (H, H) by
v ⊗ u (x) = (x, u) v,
then 14.26 is of the form
∞
X
A= λk uk ⊗ uk
k=1
This is the content of the following corollary.
Corollary 14.31 The main conclusion of the above theorem can be written as
∞
X
A= λk uk ⊗ uk
k=1
where the convergence of the partial sums takes place in the operator norm.
Proof: Using 14.26
¯ÃÃ ! !¯
¯ Xn ¯
¯ ¯
¯ A− λk uk ⊗ uk x, y ¯
¯ ¯
k=1
¯Ã !¯
¯ Xn ¯
¯ ¯
= ¯ Ax − λk (x, uk ) uk , y ¯
¯ ¯
k=1
¯Ã !¯
¯ X ∞ ¯
¯ ¯
= ¯ λk (x, uk ) uk , y ¯
¯ ¯
k=n
¯ ¯
¯X ∞ ¯
¯ ¯
= ¯ λk (x, uk ) (uk , y)¯
¯ ¯
k=n
Ã∞ !1/2 Ã ∞ !1/2
X 2
X 2
≤ |λn | |(x, uk )| |(y, uk )|
k=n k=n
≤ |λn | ||x|| ||y||
386 HILBERT SPACES
It follows ¯¯Ã ! ¯¯
¯¯ n
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ A − λk uk ⊗ uk (x)¯¯ ≤ |λn | ||x||
¯¯ ¯¯
k=1
Corollary 14.32 Let A be a compact self adjoint operator defined on a separable
Hilbert space, H. Then there exists a countable set of eigenvalues, {λi } and an
orthonormal set of eigenvectors, vi satisfying
Avi = λi vi , ||vi || = 1, (14.29)
∞
span ({vi }i=1 ) is dense in H. (14.30)
Furthermore, if λi 6= 0, the space, Vλi ≡ {x ∈ H : Ax = λi x} is finite dimensional.
⊥
Proof: In the proof of the above theorem, let W ≡ span ({ui }) . By Theorem
∞
14.25, there is an orthonormal set of vectors, {wi }i=1 whose span is dense in W .
∞
As shown in the proof of the above theorem, Aw = 0 for all w ∈ W . Let {vi }i=1 =
∞ ∞
{ui }i=1 ∪ {wi }i=1 .
It remains to verify the space, Vλi , is finite dimensional. First observe that
A : Vλi → Vλi . Since A is continuous, it follows that A : Vλi → Vλi . Thus A is a
compact self adjoint operator on Vλi and by Theorem 14.30, 14.24 holds because
the only eigenvalue is λi . This proves the corollary.
Note the last claim of this corollary holds independent of the separability of H.
Suppose λ ∈ / {λn } and λ 6= 0. Then the above formula for A, 14.26, yields an
−1
interesting formula for (A − λI) . Note first that since limn→∞ λn = 0, it follows
2 2
that λn / (λn − λ) must be bounded, say by a positive constant, M .
∞
Corollary 14.33 Let A be a compact self adjoint operator and let λ ∈
/ {λn }n=1
and λ 6= 0 where the λn are the eigenvalues of A. Then
∞
−1 1 1 X λk
(A − λI) x=− x+ (x, uk ) uk . (14.31)
λ λ λk − λ
k=1
Proof: Let m < n. Then since the {uk } form an orthonormal set,
¯ ¯ Ã n µ ¶2 !1/2
¯X n
λk ¯ X λk
¯ ¯ 2
¯ (x, uk ) uk ¯ = |(x, uk )| (14.32)
¯ λk − λ ¯ λk − λ
k=m k=m
Ã n !1/2
X 2
≤ M |(x, uk )| .
k=m
But from Bessel’s inequality,

∞
X 2 2
|(x, uk )| ≤ ||x||
k=1
and so for m large enough, the first term in 14.32 is smaller than ε. This shows
the infinite series in 14.31 converges. It is now routine to verify that the formula in
14.31 is the inverse.
14.6.2 Nuclear Operators

Definition 14.34 A self adjoint operator A ∈ L (H, H) for H a separable Hilbert
space is called a nuclear operator if for some complete orthonormal set, {ek } ,
∞
X
|(Aek , ek )| < ∞
k=1
To begin with here is an interesting lemma.
Lemma 14.35 Suppose {An } is a sequence of compact operators in L (X, Y ) for

two Banach spaces, X and Y and suppose A ∈ L (X, Y ) and
lim ||A − An || = 0.
n→∞
Then A is also compact.
Proof: Let B be a bounded set in X such that ||b|| ≤ C for all b ∈ B. I need to
verify AB is totally bounded. Suppose then it is not. Then there exists ε > 0 and
a sequence, {Abi } where bi ∈ B and
||Abi − Abj || ≥ ε
whenever i 6= j. Then let n be large enough that

ε
||A − An || ≤ .
4C
Then
||An bi − An bj || = ||Abi − Abj + (An − A) bi − (An − A) bj ||

≥ ||Abi − Abj || − ||(An − A) bi || − ||(An − A) bj ||
ε ε ε
≥ ||Abi − Abj || − C− C≥ ,
4C 4C 2
a contradiction to An being compact. This proves the lemma.
Then one can prove the following lemma. In this lemma, A ≥ 0 will mean
(Ax, x) ≥ 0.
Lemma 14.36 Let A ≥ 0 be a nuclear operator defined on a separable Hilbert

space, H. Then A is compact and also, whenever {ek } is a complete orthonormal
set,
X∞ X∞
A= (Aei , ej ) ei ⊗ ej .
j=1 i=1
388 HILBERT SPACES
Proof: First consider the formula. Since A is given to be continuous,

 
X∞ ∞
X
Ax = A  (x, ej ) ej  = (x, ej ) Aej ,
j=1 j=1
the series converging because
∞
X
x= (x, ej ) ej
j=1
Then also since A is self adjoint,
∞ X
X ∞ ∞ X
X ∞
(Aei , ej ) ei ⊗ ej (x) ≡ (Aei , ej ) (x, ej ) ei
j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1
X∞ ∞
X
= (x, ej ) (Aei , ej ) ei
j=1 i=1
X∞ X∞
= (x, ej ) (Aej , ei ) ei
j=1 i=1
X∞
= (x, ej ) Aej
j=1
³P ´1/2
∞
Next consider the claim that A is compact. Let CA ≡ j=1 |(Aej , ej )| .
Let An be defined by
∞ X
X n
An ≡ (Aei , ej ) (ei ⊗ ej ) .
j=1 i=1
Then An has values in span (e1 , · · ·, en ) and so it must be a compact operator

because bounded sets in a finite dimensional space must be precompact. Then
¯ ¯
¯∞ ∞ ¯
¯X X ¯
|(Ax − An x, y)| = ¯¯ (Aei ej ) (y, ej ) (ei , x)¯¯
¯ j=1 i=n+1 ¯
¯ ¯
¯∞ ∞ ¯
¯X X ¯
= ¯¯ (y, ej ) (Aei ej ) (ei , x)¯¯
¯ j=1 i=n+1 ¯
¯ ¯
¯X ¯
¯∞ X∞
¯
≤ ¯¯ (Aei ei ) |(ei , x)|¯¯
1/2 1/2
|(y, ej )| (Aej , ej )
¯ j=1 i=n+1 ¯
 1/2  1/2
X∞ ∞
X
2
≤  |(y, ej )|   |(Aej , ej )|
j=1 j=1
Ã ∞
!1/2 Ã ∞
!1/2
X 2
X
· |(x, ei )| |(Aei ei )|
i=n+1 i=n+1
Ã ∞
!1/2
X
≤ |y| |x| CA |(Aei , ei )|
i=n+1
and this shows that if n is sufficiently large,
|((A − An ) x, y)| ≤ ε |x| |y| .
Therefore,
lim ||A − An || = 0
n→∞
and so A is the limit in operator norm of finite rank bounded linear operators, each
of which is compact. Therefore, A is also compact.
Definition 14.37 The trace of a nuclear operator A ∈ L (H, H) such that A ≥ 0

is defined to equal
X∞
(Aek , ek )
k=1
where {ek } is an orthonormal basis for the Hilbert space, H.

P∞
Theorem 14.38 Definition 14.37 is well defined and equals j=1 λj where the λj
are the eigenvalues of A.
Proof: Suppose {uk } is some other orthonormal basis. Then

∞
X
ek = uj (ek , uj )
j=1
By Lemma 14.36 A is compact and so

∞
X
A= λk uk ⊗ uk
k=1
390 HILBERT SPACES
where the uk are the orthonormal eigenvectors of A which form a complete or-
thonormal set. Then
   
X∞ X∞ X∞ ∞
X
(Aek , ek ) = A  uj (ek , uj ) , uj (ek , uj )
k=1 k=1 j=1 j=1
∞ X
X
= (Auj , ui ) (ek , uj ) (ui , ek )
k=1 ij
X∞ X∞
2
= (Auj , uj ) |(ek , uj )|
k=1 j=1
X∞ ∞
X ∞
X
2 2
= (Auj , uj ) |(ek , uj )| = (Auj , uj ) |uj |
j=1 k=1 j=1
∞
X ∞
X
= (Auj , uj ) = λj
j=1 j=1

This is just like it is for a matrix. Recall the trace of a matrix is the sum of the
eigenvalues.
It is also easy
P∞ to see that in any separable Hilbert space, there exist nuclear
operators. Let k=1 |λk | < ∞. Then let {ek } be a complete orthonormal set of
vectors. Let
X∞
A≡ λk e k ⊗ e k .
k=1
It is not too hard to verify this works.

Much more can be said about nuclear operators.
14.6.3 Hilbert Schmidt Operators

Definition 14.39 Let H and G be two separable Hilbert spaces and let T map H
to G be linear. Then T is called a Hilbert Schmidt operator if there exists some
orthonormal basis for H, {ej } such that
X 2
||T ej || < ∞.
j
The collection of all such linear maps will be denoted by L2 (H, G) .
Theorem 14.40 L2 (H, G) ⊆ L (H, G) and L2 (H, G) is a separable Hilbert space

with norm given by
Ã !1/2
X 2
||T ||L2 ≡ ||T ek ||
k
where {ek } is some orthonormal basis for H. Also L2 (H, G) ⊆ L (H, G) and
||T || ≤ ||T ||L2 . (14.33)
All Hilbert Schmidt opearators are compact. Also for X ∈ H and Y ∈ G, X ⊗ Y ∈

L2 (H, G) and
||X ⊗ Y ||L2 = ||X||H ||Y ||G (14.34)
Proof: First consider the norm. I need to verify the norm does not depend on
the choice of orthonormal basis. Let {fk } be an orthonormal basis for G. Then for
{ek } an orthonormal basis for H,
X 2
XX 2
XX 2
||T ek || = |(T ek , fj )| = |(ek , T ∗ fj )|
k k j k j
XX 2
X 2
∗
= |(ek , T fj )| = ||T ∗ fj || .
j k j
© ª
The same result would be obtained for any other orthonormal basis e0j and this
shows the norm is at least well defined. It is clear this does indeed satisfy the axioms
of a norm.
Next I want to show L2 (H, G) ⊆ L (H, G) and ||T || ≤ ||T ||L2 . Pick an orthonor-
mal basis for H, {ek } and an orthonormal basis for G, {fk }. Then letting
n
X
x= xk ek ,
k=1
Ã n
! n
X X
Tx = T xk ek = xk T (ek )
k=1 k=1
392 HILBERT SPACES
where xk ≡ (x, ek ). Therefore using Minkowski’s inequality,

Ã ∞
!1/2
X 2
||T x|| = |(T x, fk )|
k=1
¯ ¯2 1/2
n∞ ¯
X
¯
 ¯ X ¯ 
=  ¯  xj T ej , fk ¯¯ 

¯
k=1 ¯ j=1 ¯
¯ ¯2 1/2
∞ ¯X
X n ¯
 ¯ ¯ 
=  ¯ (xj T ej , ek )¯¯ 
¯
k=1 ¯ j=1 ¯
n
Ã∞ !1/2
X X 2
≤ |(xj T ej , ek )|
j=1 k=1
Ã !1/2
X X 2
≤ |xj | |(T ej , ek )|
j k
 1/2
X Xn
2
= |xj | ||T ej || ≤  |xj |  ||T ||L2
j j=1
= ||x|| ||T ||L2

Pn
Therefore, since finite sums of the form k=1 xk ek are dense in H, it follows T ∈
L (H, G) and ||T || ≤ ||T ||L2 and this proves the above claims.
It only remains to verify L2 (H, G) is a separable Hilbert space. It is clear it is
an inner product space because you only have to pick an orthonormal basis, {ek }
and define the inner product as
X
(S, T ) ≡ (Sek , T ek ) .
k
The only remaining issue is the completeness. Suppose then that {Tn } is a Cauchy
sequence in L2 (H, G) . Then from 14.33 {Tn } is a Cauchy sequence in L (H, G) and
so there exists a unique T such that limn→∞ ||Tn − T || = 0. Then it only remains
to verify T ∈ L2 (H, G) . But by Fatou’s lemma,
X 2
X 2
||T ek || ≤ lim inf ||Tn ek ||
n→∞
k k
2
= lim inf ||Tn ||L2 < ∞.
n→∞
All that remains is to verify L2 (H, G) is separable and these Hilbert Schmidt
operators are compact. I will show an orthonormal basis for L2 (H, G) is {fj ⊗ ek }
where {fk } is an orthonormal basis for G and {ek } is an orthonormal basis for H.
Here, for f ∈ G and e ∈ H,
f ⊗ e (x) ≡ (x, e) f.
I need to show fj ⊗ ek ∈ L2 (H, G) and that it is an orthonormal basis for

L2 (H, G) as claimed.
X 2
X 2 2
||fj ⊗ ei (ek )|| = ||fj δ ik || = ||fj || = 1 < ∞
k k
so each of these operators is in L2 (H, G). Next I show they are orthonormal.
X
(fj ⊗ ek , fs ⊗ er ) = (fj ⊗ ek (ep ) , fs ⊗ er (ep ))
p
X X
= δ rp δ kp (fj , fs ) = δ rp δ kp δ js
p p
If j = s and k = r this reduces to 1. Otherwise, this gives 0. Thus these operators

are orthonormal. Now let T ∈ L2 (H, G). Consider
n X
X n
Tn ≡ (T ei , fj ) fj ⊗ ei
i=1 j=1
Then
n X
X n
Tn ek = (T ei , fj ) (ek , ei ) fj
i=1 j=1
Xn
= (T ek , fj ) fj
j=1
It follows
||Tn ek || ≤ ||T ek ||
and
lim Tn ek = T ek .
n→∞
Therefore, from the dominated convergence theorem,

2
X 2
lim ||T − Tn ||L2 ≡ lim ||(T − Tn ) ek || = 0.
n→∞ n→∞
k
Therefore, the linear combinations of the fj ⊗ ei are dense in L2 (H, G) and this
proves completeness.
This also shows L2 (H, G) is separable. From 14.33 it also shows that every
T ∈ L2 (H, G) is the limit in the operator norm of a sequence of compact operators.
This follows because each of the fj ⊗ ei is easily seen to be a compact operator.
394 HILBERT SPACES
(This follows because each of the fj ⊗ ei is easily seen to be a compact operator

because if xm → x weakly, then
fj ⊗ ei (xm ) = (xm , ei ) fj → (x, ei ) fj = fj ⊗ ei (x)
and since if {xm } is any bounded sequence, there exists a subsequence, {xnk } which
converges weakly and by the above, fj ⊗ ei (xnk ) → fj ⊗ ei (x) showing bounded
sets are mapped to precompact sets.) Therefore, each T ∈ L2 (H, G) must also be
a compact operator. Here is why.
Let B be a bounded set in which ||x|| < M for all x ∈ B and consider T B. I
ε
need to show T B is totally bounded. Let ε > 0 be given. Then let ||Tm − T || < 3M
N
where Tm is a compact operator like those described above and let {Tm xj }j=1 be
an ε/3 net for Tm (B) . Then
ε
||T xj − Tm xj || <
3
and so letting x ∈ B, pick xj such that ||Tm x − Tm xj || < ε/3. Then
||T x − T xj || ≤ ||T x − Tm x|| + ||Tm x − Tm xj || + ||Tm xj − T xj ||

ε ε ε
< + + =ε
3 3 3
N
showing {T xj }j=1 is an ε net for T B.
Finally, consider 14.34. Let {ek } be an orthonormal basis for H and consider
the following computation which establishes which establishes this equation.
∞
X
2 2
||Y ⊗ X||L2 ≡ ||Y ⊗ X (ek )||
k=1
X∞
2
= ||(ek , X) Y ||
k=1
∞
X
2 2
= ||Y ||G |(ek , X)|
k=1
2 2
= ||Y ||G ||X||H < ∞. (14.35)
14.7 Compact Operators In Banach Space

In general for A ∈ L (X, Y ) the following definition holds.
Definition 14.41 Let A ∈ L (X, Y ) . Then A is compact if whenever B ⊆ X is a

bounded set, AB is precompact. Equivalently, if {xn } is a bounded sequence in X,
then {Axn } has a subsequence which converges in Y.
14.7. COMPACT OPERATORS IN BANACH SPACE 395
An important result is the following theorem about the adjoint of a compact

operator.
Theorem 14.42 Let A ∈ L (X, Y ) be compact. Then the adjoint operator, A∗ ∈
L (Y 0 , X 0 ) is also compact.
Proof: Let {yn∗ } be a bounded sequence in Y 0 . Let B be the closure of the
unit ball in X. Then AB is precompact. Then it is clear that the functions {yn∗ }
are equicontinuous and uniformly bounded on © theª compact set, A (B). By the As-
coli Arzela theorem, there is a subsequence yn∗ k which converges uniformly to a
continuous function, f on A (B). Now define g on AX by
µ µ ¶¶
x
g (Ax) = ||x|| f A , g (A0) = 0.
||x||
Thus for x1 , x2 6= 0, and a, b scalars,
µ ¶
A (ax1 + bx2 )
g (aAx1 + bAx2 ) ≡ ||ax1 + bx2 || f
||ax1 + bx2 ||
µ ¶
A (ax1 + bx2 )
≡ lim ||ax1 + bx2 || yn∗ k
k→∞ ||ax1 + bx2 ||
= lim ayn∗ k (Ax1 ) + byn∗ k (Ax2 )
k→∞
µ ¶ µ ¶
∗ Ax1 ∗ Ax2
= a lim ||x1 || ynk + b lim ||x2 || ynk
k→∞ ||x1 || k→∞ ||x2 ||
µ ¶ µ ¶
Ax1 Ax2
= a ||x1 || f + b ||x2 || f
||x1 || ||x2 ||
≡ ag (Ax1 ) + bg (Ax2 )
showing that g is linear on AX. Also
¯ µ µ ¶¶¯ ¯¯ µ ¶¯¯
¯ x ¯ ¯¯ x ¯¯¯¯
¯ ∗
|g (Ax)| = lim ¯||x|| ynk A ¯ ¯ ¯
k→∞ ||x|| ¯ ≤ C ||x|| ¯¯A ||x|| ¯¯ = C ||Ax||
and so by the Hahn Banach theorem, there exists y ∗ extending g to all of Y having
the same operator norm.
µ µ ¶¶
x
y ∗ (Ax) = lim ||x|| yn∗ k A = lim yn∗ k (Ax)
k→∞ ||x|| k→∞
Thus A∗ yn∗ k (x) → A∗ y ∗ (x) for every x. In addition to this, for x ∈ B,

¯¯ ∗ ∗ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯A y (x) − A∗ yn∗ (x)¯¯ = ¯¯y ∗ (Ax) − yn∗ (Ax)¯¯
k
¯¯ k
¯¯
= ¯¯g (Ax) − yn∗ k (Ax)¯¯
¯¯ µ µ ¶¶ µ ¶¯¯
¯¯ x Ax ¯¯¯¯
¯ ¯
= ¯¯||x|| f A ∗
− ||x|| ynk
||x|| ||x|| ¯¯
¯¯ µ µ ¶¶ µ ¶¯¯
¯¯ x Ax ¯¯¯¯
≤ ¯¯¯¯f A − yn∗ k
||x|| ||x|| ¯¯
396 HILBERT SPACES
and this is uniformly small for large k due to the uniform convergence of yn∗ k to f
¯¯ ¯¯
on A (B). Therefore, ¯¯A∗ y ∗ − A∗ yn∗ k ¯¯ → 0.
14.8 The Fredholm Alternative

Recall that if A is an n × n matrix and if the only solution to the system, Ax = 0
is x = 0 then for any y ∈ Rn it follows that there exists a unique solution to the
system Ax = y. This holds because the first condition implies A is one to one and
therefore, A−1 exists. Of course things are much harder in a general Banach space.
Here is a simple example for a Hilbert space.
Example 14.43 Let L2 (N; µ) = H where µ is counting measure. Thus an element

∞
of H is a sequence, a = {ai }i=1 having the property that
Ã ∞
!1/2
X 2
||a||H ≡ |ak | < ∞.
k=1
Define A : H → H by
Aa ≡ b ≡ {0, a1 , a2 , · · ·} .
Thus A slides the sequence to the right and puts a zero in the first slot. Clearly A is
one to one and linear but it cannot be onto because it fails to yield e1 ≡ {1, 0, 0, · · ·}.
Notwithstanding the above example, there are theorems which are like the linear
algebra theorem mentioned above which hold in an arbitrary Banach spaces in the
case where the operator is compact. To begin with here is an interesting lemma.
Lemma 14.44 Suppose A ∈ L (X, X) is compact for X a Banach space. Then

(I − A) (X) is a closed subspace of X.
Proof: Suppose (I − A) xn → y. Let
αn ≡ dist (xn , ker (I − A))
and let zn ∈ ker (I − A) be such that

µ ¶
1
αn ≤ ||xn − zn || ≤ 1+ αn .
n
Thus (I − A) (xn − zn ) → y because (I − A) zn = 0.

Case 1: {xn − zn } has a bounded subsequence.
If this is so, the compactness of A implies there exists a subsequence, still denoted
∞
by n such that {A (xn − zn )}n=1 is a Cauchy sequence. Since (I − A) (xn − zn ) → y,
this implies {(xn − zn )} is also a Cauchy sequence converging to a point, x ∈ X.
Then, taking the limit as n → ∞, (I − A) x = y and so y ∈ (I − A) (X).
Case 2: limn→∞ ||xn − zn || = ∞. I will show this case cannot occur.
14.8. THE FREDHOLM ALTERNATIVE 397
In this case, let wn ≡ ||xxnn −z

−zn || . Thus (I − A) wn → 0 and wn is bounded.
n
Therefore, there exists a subsequence, still denoted by n such that {Awn } is a

Cauchy sequence. Now it follows
Awn − Awm + en − em = wn − wm
where ek → 0 as k → ∞. This implies {wn } is a Cauchy sequence which must

converge to some w∞ ∈ X. Therefore, (I − A) w∞ = 0 and so w∞ ∈ ker (I − A).
However, this is impossible because of the following argument. If z ∈ ker (I − A),
1
||wn − z|| = ||xn − zn − ||xn − zn || z||
||xn − zn ||
1 αn n
≥ αn ≥ ¡ ¢ = .
||xn − zn || 1 + n1 αn n+1
Taking the limit, ||w∞ − z|| ≥ 1. Since z ∈ ker (I − A) is arbitrary, this shows
dist (w∞ , ker (I − A)) ≥ 1.
Since Case 2 does not occur, this proves the lemma.
Theorem 14.45 Let A ∈ L (X, X) be a compact operator and let f ∈ X. Then

there exists a solution, x, to
x − Ax = f (14.36)
if and only if
x∗ (f ) = 0 (14.37)
for all x∗ ∈ ker (I − A∗ ) .
Proof: Suppose x is a solution to 14.36 and let x∗ ∈ ker (I − A∗ ). Then
x∗ (f ) = x∗ ((I − A) (x)) = ((I − A∗ ) x∗ ) (x) = 0.
Next suppose x∗ (f ) = 0 for all x∗ ∈ ker (I − A∗ ) . I will show there exists x

solving 14.36. By Lemma 14.44, (I − A) (X) is a closed subspace of X. Is f ∈
(I − A) (X)? If not, then by the Hahn Banach theorem, there exists x∗ ∈ X 0 such
that x∗ (f ) 6= 0 but x∗ ((I − A) (x)) = 0 for all x ∈ X. However last statement says
nothing more nor less than (I − A∗ ) x∗ = 0. This is a contradiction because for such
x∗ , it is given that x∗ (f ) = 0. This proves the theorem.
The following corollary is called the Fredholm alternative.
Corollary 14.46 Let A ∈ L (X, X) be a compact operator. Then there exists a

solution to the equation
x − Ax = f (14.38)
for all f ∈ X if and only if (I − A∗ ) is one to one on X 0 .

398 HILBERT SPACES
Proof: Suppose (I − A∗ ) is one to one first. Then if x∗ − A∗ x∗ = 0 it follows

x = 0 and so for any f ∈ X, x∗ (f ) = 0 for all x∗ ∈ ker (I − A∗ ) . By 14.45 there
∗
exists a solution to (I − A) x = f .
Now suppose there exists a solution, x, to (I − A) x = f for every f ∈ X. If
(I − A∗ ) x∗ = 0, then for every x ∈ X,
(I − A∗ ) x∗ (x) = x∗ ((I − A) (x)) = 0
Since (I − A) is onto, this shows x∗ = 0 and so (I − A∗ ) is one to one as claimed.

The following is just an easier version of the above.
Corollary 14.47 In the case where X is a Hilbert space, the conclusions of Corol-
lary 14.46, Theorem 14.45, and Lemma 14.44 remain true if H 0 is replaced by H
and the adjoint is understood in the usual manner for Hilbert space. That is
(Ax, y)H = (x, A∗ y)H

Representation Theorems
15.1 Radon Nikodym Theorem

This chapter is on various representation theorems. The first theorem, the Radon
Nikodym Theorem, is a representation theorem for one measure in terms of an-
other. The approach given here is due to Von Neumann and depends on the Riesz
representation theorem for Hilbert space, Theorem 14.14 on Page 370.
Definition 15.1 Let µ and λ be two measures defined on a σ-algebra, S, of subsets
of a set, Ω. λ is absolutely continuous with respect to µ,written as λ ¿ µ, if
λ(E) = 0 whenever µ(E) = 0.
It is not hard to think of examples which should be like this. For example,
suppose one measure is volume and the other is mass. If the volume of something
is zero, it is reasonable to expect the mass of it should also be equal to zero. In
this case, there is a function called the density which is integrated over volume to
obtain mass. The Radon Nikodym theorem is an abstract version of this notion.
Essentially, it gives the existence of the density function.
Theorem 15.2 (Radon Nikodym) Let λ and µ be finite measures defined on a σ-
algebra, S, of subsets of Ω. Suppose λ ¿ µ. Then there exists a unique f ∈ L1 (Ω, µ)
such that f (x) ≥ 0 and Z
λ(E) = f dµ.
E
If it is not necessarily the case that λ ¿ µ, there are two measures, λ⊥ and λ|| such
that λ = λ⊥ + λ|| , λ|| ¿ µ and there exists a set of µ measure zero, N such that for
all E measurable, λ⊥ (E) = λ (E ∩ N ) = λ⊥ (E ∩ N ) . In this case the two mesures,
λ⊥ and λ|| are unique and the representation of λ = λ⊥ + λ|| is called the Lebesgue
decomposition of λ. The measure λ|| is the absolutely continuous part of λ and λ⊥
is called the singular part of λ.
Proof: Let Λ : L2 (Ω, µ + λ) → C be defined by
Z
Λg = g dλ.
Ω
399
400 REPRESENTATION THEOREMS
By Holder’s inequality,
µZ ¶1/2 µZ ¶1/2
2 2 1/2
|Λg| ≤ 1 dλ |g| d (λ + µ) = λ (Ω) ||g||2
Ω Ω
where ||g||2 is the L2 norm of g taken with respect to µ + λ. Therefore, since Λ

is bounded, it follows from Theorem 13.4 on Page 339 that Λ ∈ (L2 (Ω, µ + λ))0 ,
the dual space L2 (Ω, µ + λ). By the Riesz representation theorem in Hilbert space,
Theorem 14.14, there exists a unique h ∈ L2 (Ω, µ + λ) with
Z Z
Λg = g dλ = hgd(µ + λ). (15.1)
Ω Ω
The plan is to show h is real and nonnegative at least a.e. Therefore, consider the
set where Im h is positive.
E = {x ∈ Ω : Im h(x) > 0} ,
Now let g = XE and use 15.1 to get

Z
λ(E) = (Re h + i Im h)d(µ + λ). (15.2)
E
Since the left side of 15.2 is real, this shows

Z
0 = (Im h) d(µ + λ)
E
Z
≥ (Im h) d(µ + λ)
En
1
≥ (µ + λ) (En )
n
where ½ ¾
1
En ≡ x : Im h (x) ≥
n
Thus (µ + λ) (En ) = 0 and since E = ∪∞
n=1 En , it follows (µ + λ) (E) = 0. A similar
argument shows that for
E = {x ∈ Ω : Im h (x) < 0},
(µ + λ)(E) = 0. Thus there is no loss of generality in assuming h is real-valued.

The next task is to show h is nonnegative. This is done in the same manner as
above. Define the set where it is negative and then show this set has measure zero.
Let E ≡ {x : h(x) < 0} and let En ≡ {x : h(x) < − n1 }. Then let g = XEn . Since
E = ∪n En , it follows that if (µ + λ) (E) > 0 then this is also true for (µ + λ) (En )
for all n large enough. Then from 15.2
Z
λ(En ) = h d(µ + λ) ≤ − (1/n) (µ + λ) (En ) < 0,
En
15.1. RADON NIKODYM THEOREM 401
a contradiction. Thus it can be assumed h ≥ 0.

At this point the argument splits into two cases.
Case Where λ ¿ µ.
In this case, h < 1. Let E = [h ≥ 1] and let g = XE . Then
Z
λ(E) = h d(µ + λ) ≥ µ(E) + λ(E).
E
Therefore µ(E) = 0. Since λ ¿ µ, it follows that λ(E) = 0 also. Thus it can be

assumed
0 ≤ h(x) < 1
for all x.
From 15.1, whenever g ∈ L2 (Ω, µ + λ),
Z Z
g(1 − h)dλ = hgdµ. (15.3)
Ω Ω
Now let E be a measurable set and define

n
X
g(x) ≡ hi (x)XE (x)
i=0
in 15.3. This yields

Z Z n+1
X
(1 − hn+1 (x))dλ = hi (x)dµ. (15.4)
E E i=1
P∞
Let f (x) = i=1 hi (x) and use the Monotone Convergence theorem in 15.4 to let
n → ∞ and conclude Z
λ(E) = f dµ.
E
1
f ∈ L (Ω, µ) because λ is finite.
The function, f is unique µ a.e. because, if g is another function which also
serves to represent λ, consider for each n ∈ N the set,
· ¸
1
En ≡ f − g >
n
and conclude that Z

1
0= (f − g) dµ ≥ µ (En ) .
En n
Therefore, µ (En ) = 0. It follows that
∞
X
µ ([f − g > 0]) ≤ µ (En ) = 0
n=1
Similarly, the set where g is larger than f has measure zero. This proves the
theorem.
Case where it is not necessarily true that λ ¿ µ.
In this case, let N = [h ≥ 1] and let g = XN . Then
Z
λ(N ) = h d(µ + λ) ≥ µ(N ) + λ(N ).
N
¡ ¢
and so µ (N ) = 0 and so µ (E) = µ E ∩ N C . Now define a measure, λ⊥ by
λ⊥ (E) ≡ λ (E ∩ N )
so
λ⊥ (E ∩ N ) ≡ λ (E ∩ N ∩ N ) = λ (E ∩ N ) ≡ λ⊥ (E)
and let λ|| ≡ λ − λ⊥ . Thus,
¡ ¢
λ|| (E) = λ (E) − λ⊥ (E) ≡ λ (E) − λ (E ∩ N ) = λ E ∩ N C .
Suppose now that λ|| (E) > 0. It follows from the first part of the proof that since
h < 1 on N C
Z
¡ ¢
0 < λ|| (E) = λ E ∩ N C = h d(µ + λ)
E∩N C
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
< µ E ∩ N C + λ E ∩ N C = µ (E) + λ|| (E)
which shows that µ (E) > 0. Thus if µ (E) = 0 it follows λ|| (E) = 0 and so λ|| ¿ µ.
It only remains to verify the two measures λ⊥ and λ|| are unique. Suppose then
that ν 1 and ν 2 play the roles of λ⊥ and λ|| respectively. Let N1 play the role of N
in the definition of ν 1 and let g1 play the role of g for ν 2 . I will show that g = g1 µ
a.e. Let Ek ≡ [g1 − g > 1/k] for k ∈ N. Then on observing that λ⊥ − ν 1 = ν 2 − λ||
³ ´ Z
C
0 = (λ⊥ − ν 1 ) En ∩ (N1 ∪ N ) = (g1 − g) dµ
En ∩(N1 ∪N )C
1 ³ C
´ 1
≥ µ Ek ∩ (N1 ∪ N ) = µ (Ek ) .
k k
and so µ (Ek ) = 0. Therefore, µ ([g1 − g > 0]) = 0 because [g1 − g > 0] = ∪∞ k=1 Ek .
It follows g1 ≤ g µ a.e. Similarly, g ≥ g1 µ a.e. Therefore, ν 2 = λ|| and so λ⊥ = ν 1
also. This proves the theorem.
The f in the theorem for the absolutely continuous case is sometimes denoted
dλ
by dµ and is called the Radon Nikodym derivative.
The next corollary is a useful generalization to σ finite measure spaces.
Corollary 15.3 Suppose λ ¿ µ and there exist sets Sn ∈ S with
Sn ∩ Sm = ∅, ∪∞
n=1 Sn = Ω,
15.1. RADON NIKODYM THEOREM 403
and λ(Sn ), µ(Sn ) < ∞. Then there exists f ≥ 0, where f is µ measurable, and
Z
λ(E) = f dµ
E
for all E ∈ S. The function f is µ + λ a.e. unique.
Proof: Define the σ algebra of subsets of Sn ,
Sn ≡ {E ∩ Sn : E ∈ S}.
Then both λ, and µ are finite measures on Sn , and λ ¿ µ. Thus, by RTheorem 15.2,
there exists a nonnegative Sn measurable function fn ,with λ(E) = E fn dµ for all
E ∈ Sn . Define f (x) = fn (x) for x ∈ Sn . Since the Sn are disjoint and their union
is all of Ω, this defines f on all of Ω. The function, f is measurable because
f −1 ((a, ∞]) = ∪∞ −1
n=1 fn ((a, ∞]) ∈ S.
Also, for E ∈ S,
∞
X ∞ Z
X
λ(E) = λ(E ∩ Sn ) = XE∩Sn (x)fn (x)dµ
n=1 n=1
X∞ Z
= XE∩Sn (x)f (x)dµ
n=1
By the monotone convergence theorem

∞ Z
X N Z
X
XE∩Sn (x)f (x)dµ = lim XE∩Sn (x)f (x)dµ
N →∞
n=1 n=1
Z X
N
= lim XE∩Sn (x)f (x)dµ
N →∞
n=1
Z X
∞ Z
= XE∩Sn (x)f (x)dµ = f dµ.
n=1 E
This proves the existence part of the corollary.

To see f is unique, suppose f1 and f2 both work and consider for n ∈ N
· ¸
1
E k ≡ f1 − f2 > .
k
Then Z
0 = λ(Ek ∩ Sn ) − λ(Ek ∩ Sn ) = f1 (x) − f2 (x)dµ.
Ek ∩Sn
Hence µ(Ek ∩ Sn ) = 0 for all n so
µ(Ek ) = lim µ(E ∩ Sn ) = 0.

n→∞
P∞
Hence µ([f1 − f2 > 0]) ≤ k=1 µ (Ek ) = 0. Therefore, λ ([f1 − f2 > 0]) = 0 also.
Similarly
(µ + λ) ([f1 − f2 < 0]) = 0.
This version of the Radon Nikodym theorem will suffice for most applications,
but more general versions are available. To see one of these, one can read the
treatment in Hewitt and Stromberg [26]. This involves the notion of decomposable
measure spaces, a generalization of σ finite.
Not surprisingly, there is a simple generalization of the Lebesgue decomposition
part of Theorem 15.2.
Corollary 15.4 Let (Ω, S) be a set with a σ algebra of sets. Suppose λ and µ are
two measures defined on the sets of S and suppose there exists a sequence of disjoint
∞
sets of S, {Ωi }i=1 such that λ (Ωi ) , µ (Ωi ) < ∞. Then there is a set of µ measure
zero, N and measures λ⊥ and λ|| such that
λ⊥ + λ|| = λ, λ|| ¿ µ, λ⊥ (E) = λ (E ∩ N ) = λ⊥ (E ∩ N ) .
Proof: Let Si ≡ {E ∩ Ωi : E ∈ S} and for E ∈ Si , let λi (E) = λ (E) and

µ (E) = µ (E) . Then by Theorem 15.2 there exist unique measures λi⊥ and λi||
i
such that λi = λi⊥ + λi|| , a set of µi measure zero, Ni ∈ Si such that for all E ∈ Si ,
λi⊥ (E) = λi (E ∩ Ni ) and λi|| ¿ µi . Define for E ∈ S
X X
λ⊥ (E) ≡ λi⊥ (E ∩ Ωi ) , λ|| (E) ≡ λi|| (E ∩ Ωi ) , N ≡ ∪i Ni .
i i
First observe that λ⊥ and λ|| are measures.

¡ ¢ X ¡ ¢ XX i
λ⊥ ∪∞
j=1 Ej ≡ λi⊥ ∪∞
j=1 Ej ∩ Ωi = λ⊥ (Ej ∩ Ωi )
i i j
XX XX
= λi⊥ (Ej ∩ Ωi ) = λ (Ej ∩ Ωi ∩ Ni )
j i j i
XX X
= λi⊥ (Ej ∩ Ωi ) = λ⊥ (Ej ) .
j i j
The argument for λ|| is similar. Now

X X
µ (N ) = µ (N ∩ Ωi ) = µi (Ni ) = 0
i i
and
X X
λ⊥ (E) ≡ λi⊥ (E ∩ Ωi ) = λi (E ∩ Ωi ∩ Ni )
i i
X
= λ (E ∩ Ωi ∩ N ) = λ (E ∩ N ) .
i
15.2. VECTOR MEASURES 405
Also if µ (E) = 0, then µi (E ∩ Ωi ) = 0 and so λi|| (E ∩ Ωi ) = 0. Therefore,

X
λ|| (E) = λi|| (E ∩ Ωi ) = 0.
i
The decomposition is unique because of the uniqueness of the λi|| and λi⊥ and the
observation that some other decomposition must coincide with the given one on the
Ωi .
15.2 Vector Measures

The next topic will use the Radon Nikodym theorem. It is the topic of vector and
complex measures. The main interest is in complex measures although a vector
measure can have values in any topological vector space. Whole books have been
written on this subject. See for example the book by Diestal and Uhl [16] titled
Vector measures.
Definition 15.5 Let (V, || · ||) be a normed linear space and let (Ω, S) be a measure
space. A function µ : S → V is a vector measure if µ is countably additive. That
is, if {Ei }∞
i=1 is a sequence of disjoint sets of S,
∞
X
µ(∪∞
i=1 Ei ) = µ(Ei ).
i=1
Note that it makes sense to take finite sums because it is given that µ has
values in a vector space in which vectors can be summed. In the above, µ (Ei ) is a
vector. It might be a point in Rn or in any other vector space. In many of the most
important applications, it is a vector in some sort of function space which may be
infinite dimensional. The infinite sum has the usual meaning. That is
∞
X n
X
µ(Ei ) = lim µ(Ei )
n→∞
i=1 i=1
where the limit takes place relative to the norm on V .
Definition 15.6 Let (Ω, S) be a measure space and let µ be a vector measure defined
on S. A subset, π(E), of S is called a partition of E if π(E) consists of finitely
many disjoint sets of S and ∪π(E) = E. Let
X
|µ|(E) = sup{ ||µ(F )|| : π(E) is a partition of E}.
F ∈π(E)
|µ| is called the total variation of µ.
The next theorem may seem a little surprising. It states that, if finite, the total
variation is a nonnegative measure.
Theorem 15.7 If P |µ|(Ω) < ∞, then |µ| is a measure on S. Even if |µ| (Ω) =
∞
∞, |µ| (∪∞
i=1 Ei ) ≤ i=1 |µ| (Ei ) . That is |µ| is subadditive and |µ| (A) ≤ |µ| (B)
whenever A, B ∈ S with A ⊆ B.
Proof: Consider the last claim. Let a < |µ| (A) and let π (A) be a partition of
A such that X
a< ||µ (F )|| .
F ∈π(A)
Then π (A) ∪ {B \ A} is a partition of B and

X
|µ| (B) ≥ ||µ (F )|| + ||µ (B \ A)|| > a.
F ∈π(A)
Since this is true for all such a, it follows |µ| (B) ≥ |µ| (A) as claimed.
∞
Let {Ej }j=1 be a sequence of disjoint sets of S and let E∞ = ∪∞ j=1 Ej . Then
letting a < |µ| (E∞ ) , it follows from the definition of total variation there exists a
partition of E∞ , π(E∞ ) = {A1 , · · ·, An } such that
n
X
a< ||µ(Ai )||.
i=1
Also,
Ai = ∪∞ j=1 Ai ∩ Ej
P∞
and so by the triangle inequality, ||µ(Ai )|| ≤ j=1 ||µ(Ai ∩ Ej )||. Therefore, by the
above, and either Fubini’s theorem or Lemma 8.21 on Page 184
≥||µ(Ai )||
z }| {
n X
X ∞
a < ||µ(Ai ∩ Ej )||
i=1 j=1
X∞ X n
= ||µ(Ai ∩ Ej )||
j=1 i=1
X∞
≤ |µ|(Ej )
j=1
n
because {Ai ∩ Ej }i=1 is a partition of Ej .
Since a is arbitrary, this shows
∞
X
|µ|(∪∞
j=1 Ej ) ≤ |µ|(Ej ).
j=1
If the sets, Ej are not disjoint, let F1 = E1 and if Fn has been chosen, let Fn+1 ≡
En+1 \ ∪ni=1 Ei . Thus the sets, Fi are disjoint and ∪∞ ∞
i=1 Fi = ∪i=1 Ei . Therefore,
∞ ∞
¡ ¢ ¡ ∞ ¢ X X
|µ| ∪∞
j=1 Ej = |µ| ∪j=1 Fj ≤ |µ| (Fj ) ≤ |µ| (Ej )
j=1 j=1
and proves |µ| is always subadditive as claimed regarless of whether |µ| (Ω) < ∞.
Now suppose |µ| (Ω) < ∞ and let E1 and E2 be sets of S such that E1 ∩ E2 = ∅
and let {Ai1 · · · Aini } = π(Ei ), a partition of Ei which is chosen such that
ni
X
|µ| (Ei ) − ε < ||µ(Aij )|| i = 1, 2.
j=1
Such a partition exists because of the definition of the total variation. Consider the
sets which are contained in either of π (E1 ) or π (E2 ) , it follows this collection of
sets is a partition of E1 ∪ E2 denoted by π(E1 ∪ E2 ). Then by the above inequality
and the definition of total variation,
X
|µ|(E1 ∪ E2 ) ≥ ||µ(F )|| > |µ| (E1 ) + |µ| (E2 ) − 2ε,
F ∈π(E1 ∪E2 )
which shows that since ε > 0 was arbitrary,
|µ|(E1 ∪ E2 ) ≥ |µ|(E1 ) + |µ|(E2 ). (15.5)

Pn
Then 15.5 implies that whenever the Ei are disjoint, |µ|(∪nj=1 Ej ) ≥ j=1 |µ|(Ej ).
Therefore,
∞
X n
X
|µ|(Ej ) ≥ |µ|(∪∞
j=1 Ej ) ≥ |µ|(∪nj=1 Ej ) ≥ |µ|(Ej ).
j=1 j=1
Since n is arbitrary,
∞
X
|µ|(∪∞
j=1 Ej ) = |µ|(Ej )
j=1
which shows that |µ| is a measure as claimed. This proves the theorem.
In the case that µ is a complex measure, it is always the case that |µ| (Ω) < ∞.
Theorem 15.8 Suppose µ is a complex measure on (Ω, S) where S is a σ algebra

of subsets of Ω. That is, whenever, {Ei } is a sequence of disjoint sets of S,
∞
X
µ (∪∞
i=1 Ei ) = µ (Ei ) .
i=1
Then |µ| (Ω) < ∞.
Proof: First here is a claim.

Claim: Suppose |µ| (E) = ∞. Then there are subsets of E, A and B such that
E = A ∪ B, |µ (A)| , |µ (B)| > 1 and |µ| (B) = ∞.
Proof of the claim: From the definition of |µ| , there exists a partition of
E, π (E) such that X
|µ (F )| > 20 (1 + |µ (E)|) . (15.6)
F ∈π(E)
Here 20 is just a nice sized number. No effort is made to be delicate in this argument.
Also note that µ (E) ∈ C because it is given that µ is a complex measure. Consider
the following picture consisting of two lines in the complex plane having slopes 1
and -1 which intersect at the origin, dividing the complex plane into four closed
sets, R1 , R2 , R3 , and R4 as shown.
@ ¡
@ R2 ¡
@ ¡
@ ¡
R3 @¡ R1
¡@
¡ @
¡ R4 @
¡ @
¡ @
Let π i consist of those sets, A of π (E) for which µ (A) ∈ Ri . Thus, some sets,
A of π (E) could be in two of the π i if µ (A) is on one of the intersecting lines. This
is
√
not important. The thing which is important is that √
if µ (A) ∈ R1 or R3 , then
2 2
2 |µ (A)| ≤ |Re (µ (A))| and if µ (A) ∈ R2 or R4 then 2 |µ (A)| ≤ |Im (µ (A))| and
Re (z) has the same sign for z in R1 and R3 while Im (z) has the same sign for z in
R2 or R4 . Then by 15.6, it follows that for some i,
X
|µ (F )| > 5 (1 + |µ (E)|) . (15.7)
F ∈π i
Suppose i equals 1 or 3. A similar argument using the imaginary part applies if i

equals 2 or 4. Then,
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯X ¯ ¯X ¯ X
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ µ (F )¯ ≥ ¯ Re (µ (F ))¯ = |Re (µ (F ))|
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
F ∈π i F ∈π i F ∈π i
√ √
2 X 2
≥ |µ (F )| > 5 (1 + |µ (E)|) .
2 2
F ∈π i
Now letting C be the union of the sets in π i ,
¯ ¯
¯X ¯ 5
¯ ¯
|µ (C)| = ¯ µ (F )¯ > (1 + |µ (E)|) > 1. (15.8)
¯ ¯ 2
F ∈π i
Define D ≡ E \ C.
Then µ (C) + µ (E \ C) = µ (E) and so
5
(1 + |µ (E)|) < |µ (C)| = |µ (E) − µ (E \ C)|
2
= |µ (E) − µ (D)| ≤ |µ (E)| + |µ (D)|
and so
5 3
1< + |µ (E)| < |µ (D)| .
2 2
Now since |µ| (E) = ∞, it follows from Theorem 15.8 that ∞ = |µ| (E) ≤ |µ| (C) +
|µ| (D) and so either |µ| (C) = ∞ or |µ| (D) = ∞. If |µ| (C) = ∞, let B = C and
A = D. Otherwise, let B = D and A = C. This proves the claim.
Now suppose |µ| (Ω) = ∞. Then from the claim, there exist A1 and B1 such that
|µ| (B1 ) = ∞, |µ (B1 )| , |µ (A1 )| > 1, and A1 ∪ B1 = Ω. Let B1 ≡ Ω \ A play the same
role as Ω and obtain A2 , B2 ⊆ B1 such that |µ| (B2 ) = ∞, |µ (B2 )| , |µ (A2 )| > 1,
and A2 ∪ B2 = B1 . Continue in this way to obtain a sequence of disjoint sets, {Ai }
such that |µ (Ai )| > 1. Then since µ is a measure,
∞
X
µ (∪∞
i=1 Ai ) = µ (Ai )
i=1
but this is impossible because limi→∞ µ (Ai ) 6= 0. This proves the theorem.
Theorem 15.9 Let (Ω, S) be a measure space and let λ : S → C be a complex

vector measure. Thus |λ|(Ω) < ∞. Let µ : S → [0, µ(Ω)] be a finite measure such
that λ ¿ µ. Then there exists a unique f ∈ L1 (Ω) such that for all E ∈ S,
Z
f dµ = λ(E).
E
Proof: It is clear that Re λ and Im λ are real-valued vector measures on S.

Since |λ|(Ω) < ∞, it follows easily that | Re λ|(Ω) and | Im λ|(Ω) < ∞. This is clear
because
|λ (E)| ≥ |Re λ (E)| , |Im λ (E)| .
Therefore, each of
| Re λ| + Re λ | Re λ| − Re(λ) | Im λ| + Im λ | Im λ| − Im(λ)
, , , and
2 2 2 2
are finite measures on S. It is also clear that each of these finite measures are abso-
lutely continuous with respect to µ and so there exist unique nonnegative functions
in L1 (Ω), f1, f2 , g1 , g2 such that for all E ∈ S,
Z
1
(| Re λ| + Re λ)(E) = f1 dµ,
2 E
Z
1
(| Re λ| − Re λ)(E) = f2 dµ,
2
ZE
1
(| Im λ| + Im λ)(E) = g1 dµ,
2
ZE
1
(| Im λ| − Im λ)(E) = g2 dµ.
2 E
Now let f = f1 − f2 + i(g1 − g2 ).

The following corollary is about representing a vector measure in terms of its
total variation. It is like representing a complex number in the form reiθ . The proof
requires the following lemma.
Lemma 15.10 Suppose (Ω, S, µ) is a measure space and f is a function in L1 (Ω, µ)
with the property that Z
| f dµ| ≤ µ(E)
E
for all E ∈ S. Then |f | ≤ 1 a.e.
Proof of the lemma: Consider the following picture.
B(p, r)
(0, 0)
¾ p.
1
where B(p, r) ∩ B(0, 1) = ∅. Let E = f −1 (B(p, r)). In fact µ (E) = 0. If µ(E) 6= 0

then
¯ Z ¯ ¯ Z ¯
¯ 1 ¯ ¯ 1 ¯
¯ ¯
f dµ − p¯ = ¯ ¯ (f − p)dµ¯¯
¯ µ(E) µ(E) E
E
Z
1
≤ |f − p|dµ < r
µ(E) E
because on E, |f (x) − p| < r. Hence
Z
1
| f dµ| > 1
µ(E) E
because it is closer to p than r. (Refer to the picture.) However, this contradicts the
assumption of the lemma. It follows µ(E) = 0. Since the set of complex numbers,
z such that |z| > 1 is an open set, it equals the union of countably many balls,
∞
{Bi }i=1 . Therefore,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
µ f −1 ({z ∈ C : |z| > 1} = µ ∪∞k=1 f
−1
(Bk )
X∞
¡ ¢
≤ µ f −1 (Bk ) = 0.
k=1
Thus |f (x)| ≤ 1 a.e. as claimed. This proves the lemma.
Corollary 15.11 Let λ be a complex vector Rmeasure with |λ|(Ω) < ∞1 Then there
exists a unique f ∈ L1 (Ω) such that λ(E) = E f d|λ|. Furthermore, |f | = 1 for |λ|
a.e. This is called the polar decomposition of λ.
Proof: First note that λ ¿ |λ| and so such an L1 function exists and is unique.
It is required to show |f | = 1 a.e. If |λ|(E) 6= 0,
¯ ¯ ¯ Z ¯
¯ λ(E) ¯ ¯ 1 ¯
¯ ¯=¯ f d|λ|¯¯ ≤ 1.
¯ |λ|(E) ¯ ¯ |λ|(E)
E
Therefore by Lemma 15.10, |f | ≤ 1, |λ| a.e. Now let

· ¸
1
En = |f | ≤ 1 − .
n
Let {F1 , · · ·, Fm } be a partition of En . Then

m
X m ¯Z
X ¯ m Z
¯ ¯ X
|λ (Fi )| = ¯ f d |λ|¯¯ ≤ |f | d |λ|
¯
i=1 i=1 Fi i=1 Fi
Xm Z µ ¶ Xm µ ¶
1 1
≤ 1− d |λ| = 1− |λ| (Fi )
i=1 Fi
n i=1
n
µ ¶
1
= |λ| (En ) 1 − .
n
Then taking the supremum over all partitions,

µ ¶
1
|λ| (En ) ≤ 1 − |λ| (En )
n
which shows |λ| (En ) = 0. Hence |λ| ([|f | < 1]) = 0 because [|f | < 1] = ∪∞
n=1 En .This
proves Corollary 15.11.
1 As proved above, the assumption that |λ| (Ω) < ∞ is redundant.
Corollary 15.12 Suppose (Ω, S) is a measure space and µ is a finite nonnegative

measure on S. Then for h ∈ L1 (µ) , define a complex measure, λ by
Z
λ (E) ≡ hdµ.
E
Then Z
|λ| (E) = |h| dµ.
E
Furthermore, |h| = gh where gd |λ| is the polar decomposition of λ,
Z
λ (E) = gd |λ|
E
Proof: From Corollary 15.11 there exists g such that |g| = 1, |λ| a.e. and for
all E ∈ S Z Z
λ (E) = gd |λ| = hdµ.
E E
Let sn be a sequence of simple functions converging pointwise to g. Then from the
above, Z Z
gsn d |λ| = sn hdµ.
E E
Passing to the limit using the dominated convergence theorem,
Z Z
d |λ| = ghdµ.
E E
It follows gh ≥ 0 a.e. and |g| = 1. Therefore, |h| = |gh| = gh. It follows from the
above, that Z Z Z Z
|λ| (E) = d |λ| = ghdµ = d |λ| = |h| dµ
E E E E
15.3 Representation Theorems For The Dual Space

Of Lp
Recall the concept of the dual space of a Banach space in the Chapter on Banach
space starting on Page 337. The next topic deals with the dual space of Lp for p ≥ 1
in the case where the measure space is σ finite or finite. In what follows q = ∞ if
p = 1 and otherwise, p1 + 1q = 1.
Theorem 15.13 (Riesz representation theorem) Let p > 1 and let (Ω, S, µ) be a
finite measure space. If Λ ∈ (Lp (Ω))0 , then there exists a unique h ∈ Lq (Ω) ( p1 + 1q =
1) such that Z
Λf = hf dµ.
Ω
This function satisfies ||h||q = ||Λ|| where ||Λ|| is the operator norm of Λ.
15.3. REPRESENTATION THEOREMS FOR THE DUAL SPACE OF LP 413
Proof: (Uniqueness) If h1 and h2 both represent Λ, consider
f = |h1 − h2 |q−2 (h1 − h2 ),
where h denotes complex conjugation. By Holder’s inequality, it is easy to see that

f ∈ Lp (Ω). Thus
0 = Λf − Λf =
Z
h1 |h1 − h2 |q−2 (h1 − h2 ) − h2 |h1 − h2 |q−2 (h1 − h2 )dµ
Z
= |h1 − h2 |q dµ.
Therefore h1 = h2 and this proves uniqueness.

Now let λ(E) = Λ(XE ). Since this is a finite measure space XE is an element
of Lp (Ω) and so it makes sense to write Λ (XE ). In fact λ is a complex measure
having finite total variation. Let A1 , · · ·, An be a partition of Ω.
|ΛXAi | = wi (ΛXAi ) = Λ(wi XAi )
for some wi ∈ C, |wi | = 1. Thus

n
X n
X n
X
|λ(Ai )| = |Λ(XAi )| = Λ( wi XAi )
i=1 i=1 i=1
Z Xn Z
1 1 1
p
≤ ||Λ||( | wi XAi | dµ) = ||Λ||( dµ) p = ||Λ||µ(Ω) p.
p
i=1 Ω
This is because if x ∈ Ω, x is contained in exactly one of the Ai and so the absolute

value of the sum in the first integral above is equal to 1. Therefore |λ|(Ω) < ∞
because this was an arbitrary partition. Also, if {Ei }∞ i=1 is a sequence of disjoint
sets of S, let
Fn = ∪ni=1 Ei , F = ∪∞i=1 Ei .
Then by the Dominated Convergence theorem,
||XFn − XF ||p → 0.
Therefore, by continuity of Λ,
n
X ∞
X
λ(F ) = Λ(XF ) = lim Λ(XFn ) = lim Λ(XEk ) = λ(Ek ).
n→∞ n→∞
k=1 k=1
This shows λ is a complex measure with |λ| finite.

It is also clear from the definition of λ that λ ¿ µ. Therefore, by the Radon
Nikodym theorem, there exists h ∈ L1 (Ω) with
Z
λ(E) = hdµ = Λ(XE ).
E
Pm
Actually h ∈ Lq and satisfies the other conditions above. Let s = i=1 ci XEi be a
simple function. Then since Λ is linear,
m
X m
X Z Z
Λ(s) = ci Λ(XEi ) = ci hdµ = hsdµ. (15.9)
i=1 i=1 Ei
Claim: If f is uniformly bounded and measurable, then

Z
Λ (f ) = hf dµ.
Proof of claim: Since f is bounded and measurable, there exists a sequence of

simple functions, {sn } which converges to f pointwise and in Lp (Ω). This follows
from Theorem 8.27 on Page 190 upon breaking f up into positive and negative parts
of real and complex parts. In fact this theorem gives uniform convergence. Then
Z Z
Λ (f ) = lim Λ (sn ) = lim hsn dµ = hf dµ,
n→∞ n→∞
the first equality holding because of continuity of Λ, the second following from 15.9
and the third holding by the dominated convergence theorem.
This is a very nice formula but it still has not been shown that h ∈ Lq (Ω).
Let En = {x : |h(x)| ≤ n}. Thus |hXEn | ≤ n. Then
|hXEn |q−2 (hXEn ) ∈ Lp (Ω).
By the claim, it follows that

Z
||hXEn ||qq = h|hXEn |q−2 (hXEn )dµ = Λ(|hXEn |q−2 (hXEn ))
¯¯ ¯¯ q
≤ ||Λ|| ¯¯|hXEn |q−2 (hXEn )¯¯p = ||Λ|| ||hXEn ||qp,
the last equality holding because q − 1 = q/p and so

µZ ¶1/p µZ ³ ´p ¶1/p
¯ ¯
¯|hXEn |q−2 (hXEn )¯p dµ = |hXEn | q/p
dµ
q
= ||hXEn ||qp
q
Therefore, since q − p = 1, it follows that
||hXEn ||q ≤ ||Λ||.
Letting n → ∞, the Monotone Convergence theorem implies
||h||q ≤ ||Λ||. (15.10)

Now that h has been shown to be in Lq (Ω), it follows from 15.9 and the density
of the simple functions, Theorem 12.13 on Page 323, that
Z
Λf = hf dµ
for all f ∈ Lp (Ω).

It only remains to verify the last claim.
Z
||Λ|| = sup{ hf : ||f ||p ≤ 1} ≤ ||h||q ≤ ||Λ||
by 15.10, and Holder’s inequality. This proves the theorem.

To represent elements of the dual space of L1 (Ω), another Banach space is
needed.
Definition 15.14 Let (Ω, S, µ) be a measure space. L∞ (Ω) is the vector space of
measurable functions such that for some M > 0, |f (x)| ≤ M for all x outside of
some set of measure zero (|f (x)| ≤ M a.e.). Define f = g when f (x) = g(x) a.e.
and ||f ||∞ ≡ inf{M : |f (x)| ≤ M a.e.}.
Theorem 15.15 L∞ (Ω) is a Banach space.
Proof: It is clear that L∞ (Ω) is a vector space. Is || ||∞ a norm?

Claim: If f ∈ L∞ (Ω),© then |f (x)| ≤ ||f ||∞ a.e. ª
Proof of the claim: x : |f (x)| ≥ ||f ||∞ + n−1 ≡ En is a set of measure zero
according to the definition of ||f ||∞ . Furthermore, {x : |f (x)| > ||f ||∞ } = ∪n En
and so it is also a set of measure zero. This verifies the claim.
Now if ||f ||∞ = 0 it follows that f (x) = 0 a.e. Also if f, g ∈ L∞ (Ω),
|f (x) + g (x)| ≤ |f (x)| + |g (x)| ≤ ||f ||∞ + ||g||∞
a.e. and so ||f ||∞ + ||g||∞ serves as one of the constants, M in the definition of
||f + g||∞ . Therefore,
||f + g||∞ ≤ ||f ||∞ + ||g||∞ .
Next let c be a number. Then |cf (x)| = |c| |f (x)| ≤ |c| ||f ||∞ and ¯ ¯ so ||cf ||∞ ≤
|c| ||f ||∞ . Therefore since c is arbitrary, ||f ||∞ = ||c (1/c) f ||∞ ≤ ¯ 1c ¯ ||cf ||∞ which
implies |c| ||f ||∞ ≤ ||cf ||∞ . Thus || ||∞ is a norm as claimed.
To verify completeness, let {fn } be a Cauchy sequence in L∞ (Ω) and use the
above claim to get the existence of a set of measure zero, Enm such that for all
x∈ / Enm ,
|fn (x) − fm (x)| ≤ ||fn − fm ||∞
Let E = ∪n,m Enm . Thus µ(E) = 0 and for each x ∈/ E, {fn (x)}∞n=1 is a Cauchy
sequence in C. Let
½
0 if x ∈ E
f (x) = = lim XE C (x)fn (x).
limn→∞ fn (x) if x ∈
/E n→∞
Then f is clearly measurable because it is the limit of measurable functions. If
Fn = {x : |fn (x)| > ||fn ||∞ }
and F = ∪∞
n=1 Fn , it follows µ(F ) = 0 and that for x ∈
/ F ∪ E,
|f (x)| ≤ lim inf |fn (x)| ≤ lim inf ||fn ||∞ < ∞
n→∞ n→∞
because {||fn ||∞ } is a Cauchy sequence. (|||fn ||∞ − ||fm ||∞ | ≤ ||fn − fm ||∞ by the
triangle inequality.) Thus f ∈ L∞ (Ω). Let n be large enough that whenever m > n,
||fm − fn ||∞ < ε.
Then, if x ∈
/ E,
|f (x) − fn (x)| = lim |fm (x) − fn (x)|

m→∞
≤ lim inf ||fm − fn ||∞ < ε.
m→∞
Hence ||f − fn ||∞ < ε for all n large enough. This proves the theorem.
¡ ¢0
The next theorem is the Riesz representation theorem for L1 (Ω) .
Theorem 15.16 (Riesz representation theorem) Let (Ω, S, µ) be a finite measure

space. If Λ ∈ (L1 (Ω))0 , then there exists a unique h ∈ L∞ (Ω) such that
Z
Λ(f ) = hf dµ
Ω
for all f ∈ L1 (Ω). If h is the function in L∞ (Ω) representing Λ ∈ (L1 (Ω))0 , then
||h||∞ = ||Λ||.
Proof: Just as in the proof of Theorem 15.13, there exists a unique h ∈ L1 (Ω)
such that for all simple functions, s,
Z
Λ(s) = hs dµ. (15.11)
To show h ∈ L∞ (Ω), let ε > 0 be given and let
E = {x : |h(x)| ≥ ||Λ|| + ε}.
Let |k| = 1 and hk = |h|. Since the measure space is finite, k ∈ L1 (Ω). As in
Theorem 15.13 let {sn } be a sequence of simple functions converging to k in L1 (Ω),
and pointwise. It follows from the construction in Theorem 8.27 on Page 190 that
it can be assumed |sn | ≤ 1. Therefore
Z Z
Λ(kXE ) = lim Λ(sn XE ) = lim hsn dµ = hkdµ
n→∞ n→∞ E E
where the last equality holds by the Dominated Convergence theorem. Therefore,
Z Z
||Λ||µ(E) ≥ |Λ(kXE )| = | hkXE dµ| = |h|dµ
Ω E
≥ (||Λ|| + ε)µ(E).
It follows that µ(E) = 0. Since ε > 0 was arbitrary, ||Λ|| ≥ ||h||∞ . It was shown
that h ∈ L∞ (Ω), the density of the simple functions in L1 (Ω) and 15.11 imply
Z
Λf = hf dµ , ||Λ|| ≥ ||h||∞ . (15.12)
Ω
This proves the existence part of the theorem. To verify uniqueness, suppose h1
and h2 both represent Λ and let f ∈ L1 (Ω) be such that |f | ≤ 1 and f (h1 − h2 ) =
|h1 − h2 |. Then
Z Z
0 = Λf − Λf = (h1 − h2 )f dµ = |h1 − h2 |dµ.
Thus h1 = h2 . Finally,
Z
||Λ|| = sup{| hf dµ| : ||f ||1 ≤ 1} ≤ ||h||∞ ≤ ||Λ||
by 15.12.
Next these results are extended to the σ finite case.
Lemma 15.17 Let (Ω, S, µ) be a measure space and suppose there exists a measur-
able function, Rr such that r (x) > 0 for all x, there exists M such that |r (x)| < M
for all x, and rdµ < ∞. Then for
Λ ∈ (Lp (Ω, µ))0 , p ≥ 1,

0
there exists a unique h ∈ Lp (Ω, µ), L∞ (Ω, µ) if p = 1 such that
Z
Λf = hf dµ.
Also ||h|| = ||Λ||. (||h|| = ||h||p0 if p > 1, ||h||∞ if p = 1). Here

1 1
+ 0 = 1.
p p
Proof: Define a new measure µ
e, according to the rule
Z
µ
e (E) ≡ rdµ. (15.13)
E
e is a finite measure on S. Now define a mapping, η : Lp (Ω, µ) → Lp (Ω, µ

Thus µ e) by
1
ηf = r− p f.
Then Z ¯ ¯
p ¯ − p1 ¯p p
||ηf ||Lp (eµ) = ¯r f ¯ rdµ = ||f ||Lp (µ)
and so η is one to one and in fact preserves norms. I claim that also η is onto. To
1
see this, let g ∈ Lp (Ω, µ
e) and consider the function, r p g. Then
Z ¯ ¯ Z Z
¯ p1 ¯p p p
¯r g ¯ dµ = |g| rdµ = |g| de µ<∞
1
³ 1 ´
Thus r p g ∈ Lp (Ω, µ) and η r p g = g showing that η is onto as claimed. Thus
η is one to one, onto, and preserves norms. Consider the diagram below which is
descriptive of the situation in which η ∗ must be one to one and onto.
η∗
p0 e0 0
h, L (e
µ) L (e p
µ) , Λ → Lp (µ) , Λ
η
Lp (e
µ) ← Lp (µ)
¯¯ ¯¯
0 e ∈ Lp (e
Then for Λ ∈ Lp (µ) , there exists a unique Λ
0 e = Λ, ¯¯¯¯Λ
µ) such that η ∗ Λ e ¯¯¯¯ =
||Λ|| . By the Riesz representation theorem for finite measure spaces, there exists
a unique h ∈ Lp (e
0
µ) which represents Λ e in the manner described in the Riesz
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ e ¯¯
representation theorem. Thus ||h||Lp0 (eµ) = ¯¯Λ ¯¯ = ||Λ|| and for all f ∈ Lp (µ) ,
Z Z ³ 1 ´
∗e e (ηf ) =
Λ (f ) = η Λ (f ) ≡ Λ h (ηf ) de
µ= rh f − p f dµ
Z
1
= r p0 hf dµ.
Now Z ¯ ¯ 0 Z
¯ p10 ¯p p0 p0
¯r h¯ dµ = |h| rdµ = ||h||Lp0 (eµ) < ∞.
¯¯ 1 ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ e ¯¯
Thus ¯¯r p0 h¯¯ = ||h||Lp0 (eµ) = ¯¯Λ ¯¯ = ||Λ|| and represents Λ in the appropriate
Lp0 (µ)
way. If p = 1, then 1/p0 ≡ 0. This proves the Lemma.
A situation in which the conditions of the lemma are satisfied is the case where
the measure space is σ finite. In fact, you should show this is the only case in which
the conditions of the above lemma hold.
Theorem 15.18 (Riesz representation theorem) Let (Ω, S, µ) be σ finite and let
Λ ∈ (Lp (Ω, µ))0 , p ≥ 1.
Then there exists a unique h ∈ Lq (Ω, µ), L∞ (Ω, µ) if p = 1 such that

Z
Λf = hf dµ.
Also ||h|| = ||Λ||. (||h|| = ||h||q if p > 1, ||h||∞ if p = 1). Here

1 1
+ = 1.
p q
Proof: Let {Ωn } be a sequence of disjoint elements of S having the property
that
0 < µ(Ωn ) < ∞, ∪∞ n=1 Ωn = Ω.
Define Z
X∞
1 −1
r(x) = XΩ (x) µ(Ωn ) , µ
e (E) = rdµ.
n=1
n2 n E
Thus Z X∞
1
rdµ = µ
e(Ω) = <∞
Ω n=1
n2
so µ
e is a finite measure. The above lemma gives the existence part of the conclusion
of the theorem. Uniqueness is done as before.
With the Riesz representation theorem, it is easy to show that
Lp (Ω), p > 1
is a reflexive Banach space. Recall Definition 13.32 on Page 353 for the definition.
Theorem 15.19 For (Ω, S, µ) a σ finite measure space and p > 1, Lp (Ω) is reflex-
ive.
0
1 1
Proof: Let δ r : (Lr (Ω))0 → Lr (Ω) be defined for r + r0
= 1 by
Z
(δ r Λ)g dµ = Λg
for all g ∈ Lr (Ω). From Theorem 15.18 δ r is one to one, onto, continuous and linear.
By the open map theorem, δ −1r is also one to one, onto, and continuous (δ r Λ equals
the representor of Λ). Thus δ ∗r is also one to one, onto, and continuous by Corollary
13.29. Now observe that J = δ ∗p ◦ δ −1 ∗ q 0 ∗ p 0
q . To see this, let z ∈ (L ) , y ∈ (L ) ,
δ ∗p ◦ δ −1 ∗ ∗
q (δ q z )(y ) = (δ ∗p z ∗ )(y ∗ )
= z ∗ (δ p y ∗ )
Z
= (δ q z ∗ )(δ p y ∗ )dµ,
J(δ q z ∗ )(y ∗ ) = y ∗ (δ q z ∗ )
Z
= (δ p y ∗ )(δ q z ∗ )dµ.
Therefore δ ∗p ◦ δ −1 q 0 p
q = J on δ q (L ) = L . But the two δ maps are onto and so J is
also onto.
15.4 The Dual Space Of C (X)

Consider the dual space of C(X) where X is a compact Hausdorff space. It will
turn out to be a space of measures. To show this, the following lemma will be
convenient.
Lemma 15.20 Suppose λ is a mapping which is defined on the positive continuous

functions defined on X, some topological space which satisfies
λ (af + bg) = aλ (f ) + bλ (g) (15.14)
whenever a, b ≥ 0 and f, g ≥ 0. Then there exists a unique extension of λ to all of

C (X), Λ such that whenever f, g ∈ C (X) and a, b ∈ C, it follows
Λ (af + bg) = aΛ (f ) + bΛ (g) .
Proof: Let C(X; R) be the real-valued functions in C(X) and define
ΛR (f ) = λf + − λf −
for f ∈ C(X; R). Use the identity
(f1 + f2 )+ + f1− + f2− = f1+ + f2+ + (f1 + f2 )−
and 15.14 to write
λ(f1 + f2 )+ − λ(f1 + f2 )− = λf1+ − λf1− + λf2+ − λf2− ,
it follows that ΛR (f1 + f2 ) = ΛR (f1 ) + ΛR (f2 ). To show that ΛR is linear, it is

necessary to verify that ΛR (cf ) = cΛR (f ) for all c ∈ R. But
(cf )± = cf ±,
if c ≥ 0 while
(cf )+ = −c(f )−,
if c < 0 and
(cf )− = (−c)f +,
if c < 0. Thus, if c < 0,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
ΛR (cf ) = λ(cf )+ − λ(cf )− = λ (−c) f − − λ (−c)f +
= −cλ(f − ) + cλ(f + ) = c(λ(f + ) − λ(f − )) = cΛR (f ) .

A similar formula holds more easily if c ≥ 0. Now let
Λf = ΛR (Re f ) + iΛR (Im f )

15.4. THE DUAL SPACE OF C (X) 421
for arbitrary f ∈ C(X). This is linear as desired. It is obvious that Λ (f + g) =

Λ (f ) + Λ (g) from the fact that taking the real and imaginary parts are linear
operations. The only thing to check is whether you can factor out a complex scalar.
Λ ((a + ib) f ) = Λ (af ) + Λ (ibf )
≡ ΛR (a Re f ) + iΛR (a Im f ) + ΛR (−b Im f ) + iΛR (b Re f )

because ibf = ib Re f − b Im f and so Re (ibf ) = −b Im f and Im (ibf ) = b Re f .
Therefore, the above equals
= (a + ib) ΛR (Re f ) + i (a + ib) ΛR (Im f )

= (a + ib) (ΛR (Re f ) + iΛR (Im f )) = (a + ib) Λf
The extension is obviously unique. This proves the lemma.

Let L ∈ C(X)0 . Also denote by C + (X) the set of nonnegative continuous
functions defined on X. Define for f ∈ C + (X)
λ(f ) = sup{|Lg| : |g| ≤ f }.
Note that λ(f ) < ∞ because |Lg| ≤ ||L|| ||g|| ≤ ||L|| ||f || for |g| ≤ f . Then the
following lemma is important.
Lemma 15.21 If c ≥ 0, λ(cf ) = cλ(f ), f1 ≤ f2 implies λf1 ≤ λf2 , and
λ(f1 + f2 ) = λ(f1 ) + λ(f2 ).
Proof: The first two assertions are easy to see so consider the third. Let
|gj | ≤ fj and let gej = eiθj gj where θj is chosen such that eiθj Lgj = |Lgj |. Thus
Legj = |Lgj |. Then
|e
g1 + ge2 | ≤ f1 + f2.
Hence
|Lg1 | + |Lg2 | = Le
g1 + Le
g2 =
L(e
g1 + ge2 ) = |L(e
g1 + ge2 )| ≤ λ(f1 + f2 ). (15.15)
Choose g1 and g2 such that |Lgi | + ε > λ(fi ). Then 15.15 shows
λ(f1 ) + λ(f2 ) − 2ε ≤ λ(f1 + f2 ).
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, it follows that
λ(f1 ) + λ(f2 ) ≤ λ(f1 + f2 ). (15.16)
Now let |g| ≤ f1 + f2 , |Lg| ≥ λ(f1 + f2 ) − ε. Let

(
fi (x)g(x)
hi (x) = f1 (x)+f2 (x) if f1 (x) + f2 (x) > 0,
0 if f1 (x) + f2 (x) = 0.
Then hi is continuous and h1 (x) + h2 (x) = g(x), |hi | ≤ fi . Therefore,
−ε + λ(f1 + f2 ) ≤ |Lg| ≤ |Lh1 + Lh2 | ≤ |Lh1 | + |Lh2 |

≤ λ(f1 ) + λ(f2 ).
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this shows with 15.16 that
λ(f1 + f2 ) ≤ λ(f1 ) + λ(f2 ) ≤ λ(f1 + f2 )
which proves the lemma.

Let Λ be defined in Lemma 15.20. Then Λ is linear by this lemma. Also, if
f ≥ 0,
Λf = ΛR f = λ (f ) ≥ 0.
Therefore, Λ is a positive linear functional on C(X) (= Cc (X) since X is compact).
By Theorem 9.21 on Page 221, there exists a unique Radon measure µ such that
Z
Λf = f dµ
X
for all f ∈ C(X). Thus Λ(1) = µ(X). What follows is the Riesz representation
theorem for C(X)0 .
Theorem 15.22 Let L ∈ (C(X))0 . Then there exists a Radon measure µ and a
function σ ∈ L∞ (X, µ) such that
Z
L(f ) = f σ dµ.
X
Proof: Let f ∈ C(X). Then there exists a unique Radon measure µ such that
Z
|Lf | ≤ Λ(|f |) = |f |dµ = ||f ||1 .
X
Since µ is a Radon measure, C(X) is dense in L1 (X, µ). Therefore L extends

uniquely to an element of (L1 (X, µ))0 . By the Riesz representation theorem for L1 ,
there exists a unique σ ∈ L∞ (X, µ) such that
Z
Lf = f σ dµ
X
for all f ∈ C(X).
15.5 The Dual Space Of C0 (X)

It is possible to give a simple generalization of the above theorem. For X a locally
compact Hausdorff space, X e denotes the one point compactification of X. Thus,
e
X = X ∪ {∞} and the topology of X e consists of the usual topology of X along
15.5. THE DUAL SPACE OF C0 (X) 423
with all complements of compact sets which are defined as the open sets containing
∞. Also C0 (X) will denote the space of continuous functions, f , defined on X
such that in the topology of X, e limx→∞ f (x) = 0. For this space of functions,
||f ||0 ≡ sup {|f (x)| : x ∈ X} is a norm which makes this into a Banach space.
Then the generalization is the following corollary.
0
Corollary 15.23 Let L ∈ (C0 (X)) where X is a locally compact Hausdorff space.
Then there exists σ ∈ L∞ (X, µ) for µ a finite Radon measure such that for all
f ∈ C0 (X),
Z
L (f ) = f σdµ.
X
Proof: Let n ³ ´ o
e ≡ f ∈C X
D e : f (∞) = 0 .
³ ´
Thus De is a closed subspace of the Banach space C X e . Let θ : C0 (X) → D
e be
defined by
½
f (x) if x ∈ X,
θf (x) =
0 if x = ∞.
e (||θu|| = ||u|| .)The following diagram is
Then θ is an isometry of C0 (X) and D.
obtained. ³ ´0 ∗ ³ ´0
0 θ∗ e i e
C0 (X) ← D ← C X
³ ´
C0 (X) → e
D → e
C X
θ i
³ ´0
By the Hahn Banach theorem, there exists L1 ∈ C X e such that θ∗ i∗ L1 = L.
Now apply Theorem 15.22 e
³ to get
´ the existence of a finite Radon measure, µ1 , on X
and a function σ ∈ L ∞ e µ1 , such that
X,
Z
L1 g = gσdµ1 .
e
X
Letting the σ algebra of µ1 measurable sets be denoted by S1 , define
S ≡ {E \ {∞} : E ∈ S1 }
and let µ be the restriction of µ1 to S. If f ∈ C0 (X),

Z Z
Lf = θ∗ i∗ L1 f ≡ L1 iθf = L1 θf = θf σdµ1 = f σdµ.
e
X X

15.6 More Attractive Formulations

In this section, Corollary 15.23 will be refined and placed in an arguably more
attractive form. The measures involved will always be complex Borel measures
defined on a σ algebra of subsets of X, a locally compact Hausdorff space.
R R
Definition 15.24 Let λ be a complex measure. Then f dλ ≡ f hd |λ| where
hd |λ| is the polar decomposition of λ described above. The complex measure, λ is
called regular if |λ| is regular.
The following lemma says that the difference of regular complex measures is also
regular.
Lemma 15.25 Suppose λi , i = 1, 2 is a complex Borel measure with total variation

finite2 defined on X, a locally compact Hausdorf space. Then λ1 − λ2 is also a
regular measure on the Borel sets.
Proof: Let E be a Borel set. That way it is in the σ algebras associated

with both λi . Then by regularity of λi , there exist K and V compact and open
respectively such that K ⊆ E ⊆ V and |λi | (V \ K) < ε/2. Therefore,
X X
|(λ1 − λ2 ) (A)| = |λ1 (A) − λ2 (A)|
A∈π(V \K) A∈π(V \K)
X
≤ |λ1 (A)| + |λ2 (A)|
A∈π(V \K)
≤ |λ1 | (V \ K) + |λ2 | (V \ K) < ε.
Therefore, |λ1 − λ2 | (V \ K) ≤ ε and this shows λ1 − λ2 is regular as claimed.

0
Theorem 15.26 Let L ∈ C0 (X) Then there exists a unique complex measure, λ
with |λ| regular and Borel, such that for all f ∈ C0 (X) ,
Z
L (f ) = f dλ.
X
Furthermore, ||L|| = |λ| (X) .
Proof: By Corollary 15.23 there exists σ ∈ L∞ (X, µ) where µ is a Radon

measure such that for all f ∈ C0 (X) ,
Z
L (f ) = f σdµ.
X
Let a complex Borel measure, λ be given by

Z
λ (E) ≡ σdµ.
E
2 Recall this is automatic for a complex measure.
15.7. EXERCISES 425
This is a well defined complex measure because µ is a finite measure. By Corollary

15.12 Z
|λ| (E) = |σ| dµ (15.17)
E
and σ = g |σ| where gd |λ| is the polar decomposition for λ. Therefore, for f ∈
C0 (X) ,
Z Z Z Z
L (f ) = f σdµ = f g |σ| dµ = f gd |λ| ≡ f dλ. (15.18)
X X X X
From 15.17 and the regularity of µ, it follows that |λ| is also regular.
What of the claim about ||L||? By the regularity of |λ| , it follows that C0 (X) (In
fact, Cc (X)) is dense in L1 (X, |λ|). Since |λ| is finite, g ∈ L1 (X, |λ|). Therefore,
there exists a sequence of functions in C0 (X) , {fn } such that fn → g in L1 (X, |λ|).
Therefore, there exists a subsequence, still denoted by {fn } such that fn (x) → g (x)
|λ| a.e. also. But since |g (x)| = 1 a.e. it follows that hn (x) ≡ |f f(x)|+ n (x)
1 also
n n
converges pointwise |λ| a.e. Then from the dominated convergence theorem and
15.18 Z
||L|| ≥ lim hn gd |λ| = |λ| (X) .
n→∞ X
Also, if ||f ||C0 (X) ≤ 1, then
¯Z ¯ Z
¯ ¯
¯
|L (f )| = ¯ f gd |λ|¯¯ ≤ |f | d |λ| ≤ |λ| (X) ||f ||C0 (X)
X X
and so ||L|| ≤ |λ| (X) . This proves everything but uniqueness.

Suppose λ and λ1 both work. Then for all f ∈ C0 (X) ,
Z Z
0= f d (λ − λ1 ) = f hd |λ − λ1 |
X X
where hd |λ − λ1 | is the polar decomposition for λ − λ1 . By Lemma 15.25 λ − λ1 is

regular andRso, as above, there exists {fn } such that |fn | ≤ 1 and fn → h pointwise.
Therefore, X d |λ − λ1 | = 0 so λ = λ1 . This proves the theorem.
15.7 Exercises
1. Suppose µ is a vector measure having values in Rn or Cn . Can you show that
|µ| must be finite? Hint: You might define for each ei , one of the standard ba-
sis vectors, the real or complex measure, µei given by µei (E) ≡ ei ·µ (E) . Why
would this approach not yield anything for an infinite dimensional normed lin-
ear space in place of Rn ?
2. The Riesz representation theorem of the Lp spaces can be used to prove a
very interesting inequality. Let r, p, q ∈ (1, ∞) satisfy
1 1 1
= + − 1.
r p q
Then
1 1 1 1
=1+ − >
q r p r
and so r > q. Let θ ∈ (0, 1) be chosen so that θr = q. Then also we have
 
1/p+1/p0 =1
z }| {
1 
 1  1
 1 1
= 1− 0 + −1= − 0
r  p  q q p
and so
θ 1 1
= − 0
q q p
which implies p0 (1 − θ) = q. Now let f ∈ Lp (Rn ) , g ∈ Lq (Rn ) , f, g ≥ 0.
Justify the steps in the following argument using what was just shown that
θr = q and p0 (1 − θ) = q. Let
µ ¶
0 1 1
h ∈ Lr (Rn ) . + 0 =1
r r
Z Z Z
f ∗ g (x) |h (x)| dx = f (y) g (x − y) |h (x)| dxdy.
Z Z
θ 1−θ
≤ |f (y)| |g (x − y)| |g (x − y)| |h (x)| dydx
Z µZ ³ ´r 0 ¶1/r0
1−θ
≤ |g (x − y)| |h (x)| dx ·
µZ ³ ´r ¶1/r
θ
|f (y)| |g (x − y)| dx dy
"Z µZ ¶p0 /r0 #1/p0

³ ´r0
1−θ
≤ |g (x − y)| |h (x)| dx dy ·
"Z µZ ¶p/r #1/p

³ ´r
θ
|f (y)| |g (x − y)| dx dy
"Z µZ ¶r0 /p0 #1/r0

³ ´p0
1−θ
≤ |g (x − y)| |h (x)| dy dx ·
"Z µZ ¶p/r #1/p

p θr
|f (y)| |g (x − y)| dx dy
15.7. EXERCISES 427
"Z µZ ¶r0 /p0 #1/r0

r0 (1−θ)p0 q/r
= |h (x)| |g (x − y)| dy dx ||g||q ||f ||p
q/r q/p0
= ||g||q ||g||q ||f ||p ||h||r0 = ||g||q ||f ||p ||h||r0 . (15.19)
Young’s inequality says that
||f ∗ g||r ≤ ||g||q ||f ||p . (15.20)
Therefore ||f ∗ g||r ≤ ||g||q ||f ||p . How does this inequality follow from the
above computation? Does 15.19 continue to hold if r, p, q are only assumed to
be in [1, ∞]? Explain. Does 15.20 hold even if r, p, and q are only assumed to
lie in [1, ∞]?
3. Show that in a reflexive Banach space, weak and weak ∗ convergence are the
same.
4. Suppose (Ω, µ, S) is a finite measure space and that {fn } is a sequence of

functions which converge weakly to 0 in Lp (Ω). Suppose also that fn (x) → 0
a.e. Show that then fn → 0 in Lp−ε (Ω) for every p > ε > 0.
5. Give an example of a sequence of functions in L∞ (−π, π) which converges
weak ∗ to zero but which does not converge pointwise a.e. to zero.
Integrals And Derivatives
16.1 The Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus

The version of the fundamental theorem of calculus found in Calculus has already
been referred to frequently. It says that if f is a Riemann integrable function, the
function Z x
x→ f (t) dt,
a
has a derivative at every point where f is continuous. It is natural to ask what occurs
for f in L1 . It is an amazing fact that the same result is obtained asside from a set of
measure zero even though f , being only in L1 may fail to be continuous anywhere.
Proofs of this result are based on some form of the Vitali covering theorem presented
above. In what follows, the measure space is (Rn , S, m) where m is n-dimensional
Lebesgue measure although the same theorems can be proved for arbitrary Radon
measures [36]. To save notation, m is written in place of mn .
By Lemma 9.7 on Page 214 and the completeness of m, the Lebesgue measurable
sets are exactly those measurable in the sense of Caratheodory. Also, to save on
notation m is also the name of the outer measure defined on all of P(Rn ) which is
determined by mn . Recall
B(p, r) = {x : |x − p| < r}. (16.1)
Also define the following.
b = B(p, 5r).
If B = B(p, r), then B (16.2)
The first version of the Vitali covering theorem presented above will now be used
to establish the fundamental theorem of calculus. The space of locally integrable
functions is the most general one for which the maximal function defined below
makes sense.
Definition 16.1 f ∈ L1loc (Rn ) means f XB(0,R) ∈ L1 (Rn ) for all R > 0. For
f ∈ L1loc (Rn ), the Hardy Littlewood Maximal Function, M f , is defined by
Z
1
M f (x) ≡ sup |f (y)|dy.
r>0 m(B(x, r)) B(x,r)
429
430 INTEGRALS AND DERIVATIVES
Theorem 16.2 If f ∈ L1 (Rn ), then for α > 0,
5n
m([M f > α]) ≤ ||f ||1 .
α
(Here and elsewhere, [M f > α] ≡ {x ∈ Rn : M f (x) > α} with other occurrences of
[ ] being defined similarly.)
Proof: Let S ≡ [M f > α]. For x ∈ S, choose rx > 0 with

Z
1
|f | dm > α.
m(B(x, rx )) B(x,rx )
The rx are all bounded because

Z
1 1
m(B(x, rx )) < |f | dm < ||f ||1 .
α B(x,rx ) α
By the Vitali covering theorem, there are disjoint balls B(xi , ri ) such that
S ⊆ ∪∞
i=1 B(xi , 5ri )
and Z
1
|f | dm > α.
m(B(xi , ri )) B(xi ,ri )
Therefore
∞
X ∞
X
m(S) ≤ m(B(xi , 5ri )) = 5n m(B(xi , ri ))
i=1 i=1
∞ Z
5n X
≤ |f | dm
α i=1 B(xi ,ri )
Z
5n
≤ |f | dm,
α Rn
the last inequality being valid because the balls B(xi , ri ) are disjoint. This proves
the theorem.
Note that at this point it is unknown whether S is measurable. This is why
m(S) and not m (S) is written.
The following is the fundamental theorem of calculus from elementary calculus.
Lemma 16.3 Suppose g is a continuous function. Then for all x,

Z
1
lim g(y)dy = g(x).
r→0 m(B(x, r)) B(x,r)
16.1. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 431
Proof: Note that

Z
1
g (x) = g (x) dy
m(B(x, r)) B(x,r)
and so ¯ Z ¯
¯ 1 ¯
¯ ¯
¯g (x) − g(y)dy ¯
¯ m(B(x, r)) B(x,r) ¯
¯ Z ¯
¯ 1 ¯
¯ ¯
= ¯ (g(y) − g (x)) dy ¯
¯ m(B(x, r)) B(x,r) ¯
Z
1
≤ |g(y) − g (x)| dy.
m(B(x, r)) B(x,r)
Now by continuity of g at x, there exists r > 0 such that if |x − y| < r, |g (y) − g (x)| <
ε. For such r, the last expression is less than
Z
1
εdy < ε.
m(B(x, r)) B(x,r)
¡ ¢
Definition 16.4 Let f ∈ L1 Rk , m . A point, x ∈ Rk is said to be a Lebesgue
point if Z
1
lim sup |f (y) − f (x)| dm = 0.
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
Note that if x is a Lebesgue point, then

Z
1
lim f (y) dm = f (x) .
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
and so the symmetric derivative exists at all Lebesgue points.

Theorem 16.5 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus) Let f ∈ L1 (Rk ). Then there
exists a set of measure 0, N , such that if x ∈/ N , then
Z
1
lim |f (y) − f (x)|dy = 0.
r→0 m(B(x, r)) B(x,r)
¡ k¢ 1
¡ k ¢
Proof:
¡ k ¢Let λ > 0 and let ε > 0. By density of Cc R in L R , m there exists
g ∈ Cc R such that ||g − f ||L1 (Rk ) < ε. Now since g is continuous,
Z
1
lim sup |f (y) − f (x)| dm
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
Z
1
= lim sup |f (y) − f (x)| dm
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
Z
1
− lim |g (y) − g (x)| dm
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
Ã Z !
1
= lim sup |f (y) − f (x)| − |g (y) − g (x)| dm
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
Ã Z !
1
≤ lim sup ||f (y) − f (x)| − |g (y) − g (x)|| dm
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
Ã Z !
1
≤ lim sup |f (y) − g (y) − (f (x) − g (x))| dm
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
Ã Z !
1
≤ lim sup |f (y) − g (y)| dm + |f (x) − g (x)|
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
≤ M ([f − g]) (x) + |f (x) − g (x)| .
Therefore,
" Z #
1
x : lim sup |f (y) − f (x)| dm > λ
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
· ¸ · ¸
λ λ
⊆ M ([f − g]) > ∪ |f − g| >
2 2
Now
Z Z
ε > |f − g| dm ≥ |f − g| dm
[|f −g|> λ2 ]
µ· ¸¶
λ λ
≥ m |f − g| >
2 2
This along with the weak estimate of Theorem 16.2 implies
Ã" Z #!
1
m x : lim sup |f (y) − f (x)| dm > λ
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
µ ¶
2 k 2
< 5 + ||f − g||L1 (Rk )
λ λ
µ ¶
2 k 2
< 5 + ε.
λ λ
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, it follows
Ã" Z #!
1
mn x : lim sup |f (y) − f (x)| dm > λ = 0.
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
Now let
" Z #
1
N = x : lim sup |f (y) − f (x)| dm > 0
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
16.1. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 433
and " Z #
1 1
Nn = x : lim sup |f (y) − f (x)| dm >
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r) n
It was just shown that m (Nn ) = 0. Also, N = ∪∞ n=1 Nn . Therefore, m (N ) = 0 also.
It follows that for x ∈
/ N,
Z
1
lim sup |f (y) − f (x)| dm = 0
r→0 m (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
and this proves a.e. point is a Lebesgue point. ¡ ¢

Of course it is sufficient to assume f is only in L1loc Rk .
Corollary 16.6 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus) Let f ∈ L1loc (Rk ). Then there
exists a set of measure 0, N , such that if x ∈
/ N , then
Z
1
lim |f (y) − f (x)|dy = 0.
r→0 m(B(x, r)) B(x,r)
¡Proof:
¢ Consider B (0, n) where n is a positive integer. Then fn ≡ f XB(0,n) ∈
L1 Rk and so there exists a set of measure 0, Nn such that if x ∈ B (0, n) \ Nn ,
then
Z
1
lim |fn (y) − fn (x)|dy
r→0 m(B(x, r)) B(x,r)
Z
1
= lim |f (y) − f (x)|dy = 0.
r→0 m(B(x, r)) B(x,r)
Let N = ∪∞
n=1 Nn . Then if x ∈
/ N, the above equation holds.
Corollary 16.7 If f ∈ L1loc (Rn ), then

Z
1
lim f (y)dy = f (x) a.e. x. (16.3)
r→0 m(B(x, r)) B(x,r)
Proof:
¯ Z ¯
¯ 1 ¯
¯ ¯
¯ f (y)dy − f (x)¯
¯ m(B(x, r)) B(x,r) ¯
Z
1
≤ |f (y) − f (x)| dy
m(B(x, r)) B(x,r)
and the last integral converges to 0 a.e. x.
Definition 16.8 For N the set of Theorem 16.5 or Corollary 16.6, N C is called
the Lebesgue set or the set of Lebesgue points.
The next corollary is a one dimensional version of what was just presented.
Corollary 16.9 Let f ∈ L1 (R) and let

Z x
F (x) = f (t)dt.
−∞
Then for a.e. x, F 0 (x) = f (x).
Proof: For h > 0

Z Z x+h
1 x+h 1
|f (y) − f (x)|dy ≤ 2( ) |f (y) − f (x)|dy
h x 2h x−h
By Theorem 16.5, this converges to 0 a.e. Similarly
Z
1 x
|f (y) − f (x)|dy
h x−h
converges to 0 a.e. x.
¯ ¯ Z
¯ F (x + h) − F (x) ¯ 1 x+h
¯ ¯
− f (x)¯ ≤ |f (y) − f (x)|dy (16.4)
¯ h h x
and ¯ ¯ Z
¯ F (x) − F (x − h) ¯ 1 x
¯ ¯
− f (x)¯ ≤ |f (y) − f (x)|dy. (16.5)
¯ h h x−h
Now the expression on the right in 16.4 and 16.5 converges to zero for a.e. x.
Therefore, by 16.4, for a.e. x the derivative from the right exists and equals f (x)
while from 16.5 the derivative from the left exists and equals f (x) a.e. It follows
F (x + h) − F (x)
lim = f (x) a.e. x
h→0 h
16.2 Absolutely Continuous Functions

Definition 16.10 Let [a, b] be a closed and bounded interval and let f : [a, b] → R.
Then fP is said to be absolutely continuous
Pm if for every ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such
m
that if i=1 |yi − xi | < δ, then i=1 |f (yi ) − f (xi )| < ε.
Definition 16.11 A finite subset, P of [a, b] is called a partition of [x, y] ⊆ [a, b] if

P = {x0 , x1 , · · ·, xn } where
x = x0 < x1 < · · ·, < xn = y.
For f : [a, b] → R and P = {x0 , x1 , · · ·, xn } define

n
X
VP [x, y] ≡ |f (xi ) − f (xi−1 )| .
i=1
16.2. ABSOLUTELY CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 435
Denoting by P [x, y] the set of all partitions of [x, y] define
V [x, y] ≡ sup VP [x, y] .

P ∈P[x,y]
For simplicity, V [a, x] will be denoted by V (x) . It is called the total variation of
the function, f.
There are some simple facts about the total variation of an absolutely continuous
function, f which are contained in the next lemma.
Lemma 16.12 Let f be an absolutely continuous function defined on [a, b] and

let V be its total variation function as described above. Then V is an increasing
bounded function. Also if P and Q are two partitions of [x, y] with P ⊆ Q, then
VP [x, y] ≤ VQ [x, y] and if [x, y] ⊆ [z, w] ,
V [x, y] ≤ V [z, w] (16.6)
If P = {x0 , x1 , · · ·, xn } is a partition of [x, y] , then

n
X
V [x, y] = V [xi , xi−1 ] . (16.7)
i=1
Also if y > x,
V (y) − V (x) ≥ |f (y) − f (x)| (16.8)
and the function, x → V (x) − f (x) is increasing. The total variation function, V
is absolutely continuous.
Proof: The claim that V is increasing is obvious as is the next claim about
P ⊆ Q leading to VP [x, y] ≤ VQ [x, y] . To verify this, simply add in one point
at a time and verify that from the triangle inequality, the sum involved gets no
smaller. The claim that V is increasing consistent with set inclusion of intervals is
also clearly true and follows directly from the definition.
Now let t < V [x, y] where P0 = {x0 , x1 , · · ·, xn } is a partition of [x, y] . There
exists a partition, P of [x, y] such that t < VP [x, y] . Without loss of generality it
can be assumed that {x0 , x1 , · · ·, xn } ⊆ P since if not, you can simply add in the
points of P0 and the resulting sum for the total variation will get no smaller. Let
Pi be those points of P which are contained in [xi−1 , xi ] . Then
n
X n
X
t < Vp [x, y] = VPi [xi−1 , xi ] ≤ V [xi−1 , xi ] .
i=1 i=1
Since t < V [x, y] is arbitrary,

n
X
V [x, y] ≤ V [xi , xi−1 ] (16.9)
i=1
Note that 16.9 does not depend on f being absolutely continuous. Suppose now
that f is absolutely continuous. Let δ correspond to ε = 1. Then if [x, y] is an
interval of length no larger than δ, the definition of absolute continuity implies
V [x, y] < 1.
Then from 16.9

n
X n
X
V [a, nδ] ≤ V [a + (i − 1) δ, a + iδ] < 1 = n.
i=1 i=1
Thus V is bounded on [a, b]. Now let Pi be a partition of [xi−1 , xi ] such that
ε
VPi [xi−1 , xi ] > V [xi−1 , xi ] −
n
Then letting P = ∪Pi ,
n
X n
X
−ε + V [xi−1 , xi ] < VPi [xi−1 , xi ] = VP [x, y] ≤ V [x, y] .
i=1 i=1
Since ε is arbitrary, 16.7 follows from this and 16.9.

Now let x < y
V (y) − f (y) − (V (x) − f (x)) = V (y) − V (x) − (f (y) − f (x))

≥ V (y) − V (x) − |f (y) − f (x)| ≥ 0.
It only remains to verify that V is absolutely continuous.

Let ε > 0 be given and letP δ correspond to ε/2 in the definition
Pn of absolute conti-
n
nuity applied to f . SupposePn i=1 |yi − x i | < δ and consider i=1 |V (yi ) − V (xi )|.
By 16.9 this last equals i=1 V [xi , yi ] . Now let Pi be a partition of [xi , yi ] such
ε
that VPi [xi , yi ] + 2n > V [xi , yi ] . Then by the definition of absolute continuity,
n
X n
X
|V (yi ) − V (xi )| = V [xi , yi ]
i=1 i=1
Xn
≤ VPi [xi , yi ] + η < ε/2 + ε/2 = ε.
i=1
and shows V is absolutely continuous as claimed.
Lemma 16.13 Suppose f : [a, b] → R is absolutely continuous and increasing.

Then f 0 exists a.e., is in L1 ([a, b]) , and
Z x
f (x) = f (a) + f 0 (t) dt.
a
16.2. ABSOLUTELY CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 437
Proof: Define L, a positive linear functional on C ([a, b]) by

Z b
Lg ≡ gdf
a
where this integral is the Riemann Stieltjes integral with respect to the integrating
function, f. By the Riesz representation theorem for positiveR linear functionals,
there exists a unique Radon measure, µ such that Lg = gdµ. Now consider the
following picture for gn ∈ C ([a, b]) in which gn equals 1 for x between x + 1/n and
y.
¥ D
¥ D
¥ D
¥ D
¥ D
¥ D
¥ D
¥ D
x x + 1/n y y + 1/n
Then gn (t) → X(x,y] (t) pointwise. Therefore, by the dominated convergence
theorem, Z
µ ((x, y]) = lim gn dµ.
n→∞
However,
µ µ ¶¶
1
f (y) − f x +
n
Z Z b µ µ ¶ ¶
1
≤ gn dµ = gn df ≤ f y + − f (y)
a n
µ µ ¶¶ µ µ ¶ ¶
1 1
+ f (y) − f x + + f x+ − f (x)
n n
and so as n → ∞ the continuity of f implies
µ ((x, y]) = f (y) − f (x) .
Similarly, µ (x, y) = f (y) − f (y) and µ ([x, y]) = f (y) − f (x) , the argument used
to establish this being very similar to the above. It follows in particular that
Z
f (x) − f (a) = dµ.
[a,x]
Note that up till now, no referrence has been made to the absolute continuity of f.
Any increasing continuous function would be fine.
Now if E is a Borel set such that m (E) = 0, Then the outer regularity of m
implies there exists an open set, V containing E such that m (V ) < δ where δ
corresponds to ε in the definition of absolute continuity of P f. Then letting {Ik } be
the connected components of V it follows E ⊆ ∪∞ k=1 Ik with k m (Ik ) = m (V ) < δ.
Therefore, from absolute continuity of f, it follows that for Ik = (ak , bk ) and each
n
n
X n
X
µ (∪nk=1 Ik ) = µ (Ik ) = |f (bk ) − f (ak )| < ε
k=1 k=1
and so letting n → ∞,
∞
X
µ (E) ≤ µ (V ) = |f (bk ) − f (ak )| ≤ ε.
k=1
Since ε is arbitrary, it follows µ (E) = 0. Therefore, µ ¿ m and so by the Radon

Nikodym theorem there exists a unique h ∈ L1 ([a, b]) such that
Z
µ (E) = hdm.
E
In particular, Z
µ ([a, x]) = f (x) − f (a) = hdm.
[a,x]
From the fundamental theorem of calculus f 0 (x) = h (x) at every Lebesgue point
of h. Therefore, writing in usual notation,
Z x
f (x) = f (a) + f 0 (t) dt
a
as claimed. This proves the lemma.

With the above lemmas, the following is the main theorem about absolutely
continuous functions.
Theorem 16.14 Let f : [a, b] → R be absolutely continuous if and only if f 0 (x)

exists a.e., f 0 ∈ L1 ([a, b]) and
Z x
f (x) = f (a) + f 0 (t) dt.
a
Proof: Suppose first that f is absolutely continuous. By Lemma 16.12 the total
variation function, V is absolutely continuous and f (x) = V (x) − (V (x) − f (x))
where both V and V −f are increasing and absolutely continuous. By Lemma 16.13
f (x) − f (a) = V (x) − V (a) − [(V (x) − f (x)) − (V (a) − f (a))]

Z x Z x
0
= V 0 (t) dt − (V − f ) (t) dt.
a a
16.3. DIFFERENTIATION OF MEASURES WITH RESPECT TO LEBESGUE MEASURE439
Now f 0 exists and is in L1 becasue f = V −(V − f ) and V and V −f have derivatives

0
in L1 . Therefore, (V − f ) = V 0 − f 0 and so the above reduces to
Z x
f (x) − f (a) = f 0 (t) dt.
a
This proves one half of the theorem. Rx

Now suppose f 0 ∈ L1 and f (x) = f (a) + a f 0 (t) dt. It is necessary to verify
that f is absolutely continuous. But this follows easily from Lemma 8.49 on Page
0
203 which implies
P that a single function, f is uniformly integrable. This lemma
implies that if i |yi − xi | is sufficiently small then
X ¯¯Z yi ¯ X
¯
¯ f 0
(t) dt¯= |f (yi ) − f (xi )| < ε.
¯ ¯
i xi i
16.3 Differentiation Of Measures With Respect To

Lebesgue Measure
Recall the Vitali covering theorem in Corollary 10.20 on Page 279.
Corollary 16.15 Let E ⊆ Rn and let F, be a collection of open balls of bounded

j=1 , such that m(E \ ∪j=1 Bj ) = 0.
Definition 16.16 Let µ be a Radon mesure defined on Rn . Then

dµ µ (B (x, r))
(x) ≡ lim
dm r→0 m (B (x, r))
whenever this limit exists.
It turns out this limit exists for m a.e. x. To verify this here is another definition.
Definition 16.17 Let f (r) be a function having values in [−∞, ∞] . Then
lim sup f (r) ≡ lim (sup {f (t) : t ∈ [0, r]})

r→0+ r→0
lim inf f (r) ≡ lim (inf {f (t) : t ∈ [0, r]})

r→0+ r→0
This is well defined because the function r → inf {f (t) : t ∈ [0, r]} is increasing and
r → sup {f (t) : t ∈ [0, r]} is decreasing. Also note that limr→0+ f (r) exists if and
only if
lim sup f (r) = lim inf f (r)
r→0+ r→0+
and if this happens
lim f (r) = lim inf f (r) = lim sup f (r) .

r→0+ r→0+ r→0+
The claims made in the above definition follow immediately from the definition
of what is meant by a limit in [−∞, ∞] and are left for the reader.
dµ
Theorem 16.18 Let µ be a Borel measure on Rn then dm (x) exists in [−∞, ∞]
m a.e.
Proof:Let p < q and let p, q be rational numbers. Define
½
µ (B (x, r))
Npq (M ) ≡ x ∈ Rn such that lim sup >q
r→0+ m (B (x, r))
¾
µ (B (x, r))
> p > lim inf ∩ B (0, M ) ,
r→0+ m (B (x, r))
½
µ (B (x, r))
Npq ≡ x ∈ Rn such that lim sup >q
r→0+ m (B (x, r))
¾
µ (B (x, r))
> p > lim inf ,
r→0+ m (B (x, r))
½
µ (B (x, r))
N ≡ x ∈ Rn such that lim sup >
r→0+ m (B (x, r))
¾
µ (B (x, r))
lim inf .
r→0+ m (B (x, r))
I will show m (Npq (M )) = 0. Use outer regularity to obtain an open set, V con-
taining Npq (M ) such that
m (Npq (M )) + ε > m (V ) .
From the definition of Npq (M ) , it follows that for each x ∈ Npq (M ) there exist
arbitrarily small r > 0 such that
µ (B (x, r))
< p.
m (B (x, r))
Only consider those r which are small enough to be contained in B (0, M ) so that
the collection of such balls has bounded radii. This is a Vitali cover of Npq (M ) and
∞
so by Corollary 16.15 there exists a sequence of disjoint balls of this sort, {Bi }i=1
such that
µ (Bi ) < pm (Bi ) , m (Npq (M ) \ ∪∞
i=1 Bi ) = 0. (16.10)
Now for x ∈ Npq (M ) ∩ (∪∞ i=1 Bi ) (most of Npq (M )), there exist arbitrarily small
∞
balls, B (x, r) , such that B (x, r) is contained in some set of {Bi }i=1 and
µ (B (x, r))
> q.
m (B (x, r))
This is a Vitali cover Npq (M )∩(∪∞
© 0ofª∞ i=1 Bi ) and so there exists a sequence of disjoint
balls of this sort, Bj j=1 such that
¡ ¢ ¡ 0¢ ¡ 0¢
m (Npq (M ) ∩ (∪∞ ∞ 0
i=1 Bi )) \ ∪j=1 Bj = 0, µ Bj > qm Bj . (16.11)
It follows from 16.10 and 16.11 that

¡ ∞ 0¢
m (Npq (M )) ≤ m ((Npq (M ) ∩ (∪∞
i=1 Bi ))) ≤ m ∪j=1 Bj (16.12)
Therefore,
X ¡ ¢ X ¡ ¢
µ Bj0 > q m Bj0 ≥ qm (Npq (M ) ∩ (∪i Bi )) = qm (Npq (M ))
j j
X
≥ pm (Npq (M )) ≥ p (m (V ) − ε) ≥ p m (Bi ) − pε
i
X X ¡ ¢
≥ µ (Bi ) − pε ≥ µ Bj0 − pε.
i j
It follows
pε ≥ (q − p) m (Npq (M ))
Since ε is arbitrary, m (Npq (M )) = 0. Now Npq ⊆ ∪∞
M =1 Npq (M ) and so m (Npq ) =
0. Now
N = ∪p.q∈Q Npq
and since this is a countable union of sets of measure zero, m (N ) = 0 also. This
proves the theorem.
From Theorem 15.8 on Page 407 it follows that if µ is a complex measure then
|µ| is a finite measure. This makes possible the following definition.
Definition 16.19 Let µ be a real measure. Define the following measures. For E
a measurable set,
1
µ+ (E) ≡ (|µ| + µ) (E) ,
2
1
µ− (E) ≡ (|µ| − µ) (E) .
2
These are measures thanks to Theorem 15.7 on Page 406 and µ+ − µ− = µ. These
measures have values in [0, ∞). They are called the positive and negative parts of µ
respectively. For µ a complex measure, define Re µ and Im µ by
1³ ´
Re µ (E) ≡ µ (E) + µ (E)
2
1 ³ ´
Im µ (E) ≡ µ (E) − µ (E)
2i
Then Re µ and Im µ are both real measures. Thus for µ a complex measure,
¡ ¢
µ = Re µ+ − Re µ− + i Im µ+ − Im µ−
= ν 1 − ν 1 + i (ν 3 − ν 4 )
where each ν i is a real measure having values in [0, ∞).

Then there is an obvious corollary to Theorem 16.18.

dµ
Corollary 16.20 Let µ be a complex Borel measure on Rn . Then dm (x) exists
a.e.
Proof: Letting ν i be defined in Definition 16.19. By Theorem 16.18, for m a.e.

x, dν
dm (x) exists. This proves the corollary because µ is just a finite sum of these
i
νi.
Theorem 15.2 on Page 399, the Radon Nikodym theorem, implies that if you have
two finite measures, µ and λ, you can write λ as the sum of a measure absolutely
continuous with respect to µ and one which is singular to µ in a unique way. The
next topic is related to this. It has to do with the differentiation of a measure which
is singular with respect to Lebesgue measure.
Theorem 16.21 Let µ be a Radon measure on Rn and suppose there exists a µ

measurable set, N such that for all Borel sets, E, µ (E) = µ (E ∩ N ) where m (N ) =
0. Then
dµ
(x) = 0 m a.e.
dm
Proof: For k ∈ N, let
½ ¾
C µ (B (x, r)) 1
Bk (M ) ≡ x ∈ N : lim sup > ∩ B (0,M ) ,
r→0+ m (B (x, r)) k
½ ¾
µ (B (x, r)) 1
Bk ≡ x ∈ N C : lim sup > ,
r→0+ m (B (x, r)) k
½ ¾
µ (B (x, r))
B ≡ x ∈ N C : lim sup >0 .
r→0+ m (B (x, r))
Let ε > 0. Since µ is regular, there exists H, a compact set such that H ⊆
N ∩ B (0, M ) and
µ (N ∩ B (0, M ) \ H) < ε.
B(0, M )
N ∩ B(0, M )
H
Bi
Bk (M )
For each x ∈ Bk (M ) , there exist arbitrarily small r > 0 such that B (x, r) ⊆
B (0, M ) \ H and
µ (B (x, r)) 1
> . (16.13)
m (B (x, r)) k
Two such balls are illustrated in the above picture. This is a Vitali cover of Bk (M )
∞
and so there exists a sequence of disjoint balls of this sort, {Bi }i=1 such that
m (Bk (M ) \ ∪i Bi ) = 0. Therefore,
X X
m (Bk (M )) ≤ m (Bk (M ) ∩ (∪i Bi )) ≤ m (Bi ) ≤ k µ (Bi )
i i
X X
= k µ (Bi ∩ N ) = k µ (Bi ∩ N ∩ B (0, M ))
i i
≤ kµ (N ∩ B (0, M ) \ H) < εk
Since ε was arbitrary, this shows m (Bk (M )) = 0.

Therefore,
∞
X
m (Bk ) ≤ m (Bk (M )) = 0
M =1
P
and m (B) ≤ k m (Bk ) = 0. Since m (N ) = 0, this proves the theorem.
It is easy to obtain a different version of the above theorem. This is done with
the aid of the following lemma.
Lemma 16.22 Suppose µ is a Borel measure on Rn having values in [0, ∞). Then
there exists a Radon measure, µ1 such that µ1 = µ on all Borel sets.
Proof: By assumption, µ (Rn ) < ∞ and so it is possible to define a positive

linear functional, L on Cc (Rn ) by
Z
Lf ≡ f dµ.
By the Riesz representation theorem for positive linear functionals of this sort, there
exists a unique Radon measure, µ1 such that for all f ∈ Cc (Rn ) ,
Z Z
f dµ1 = Lf = f dµ.
© ¡ ¢ ª
Now let V be an open set and let Kk ≡ x ∈ V : dist x, V C ≤ 1/k ∩ B (0,k).
Then {Kk } is an incresing sequence of compact sets whose union is V. Let Kk ≺ fk
≺ V. Then fk (x) → XV (x) for every x. Therefore,
Z Z
µ1 (V ) = lim fk dµ1 = lim fk dµ = µ (V )
k→∞ k→∞
and so µ = µ1 on open sets. Now if K is a compact set, let
Vk ≡ {x ∈ Rn : dist (x, K) < 1/k} .

Then Vk is an open set and ∩k Vk = K. Letting K ≺ fk ≺ Vk , it follows that

fk (x) → XK (x) for all x ∈ Rn . Therefore, by the dominated convergence theorem
with a dominating function, XRn
Z Z
µ1 (K) = lim fk dµ1 = lim fk dµ = µ (K)
k→∞ k→∞
and so µ and µ1 are equal on all compact sets. It follows µ = µ1 on all countable
unions of compact sets and countable intersections of open sets.
Now let E be a Borel set. By regularity of µ1 , there exist sets, H and G such
that H is the countable union of an increasing sequence of compact sets, G is the
countable intersection of a decreasing sequence of open sets, H ⊆ E ⊆ G, and
µ1 (H) = µ1 (G) = µ1 (E) . Therefore,
µ1 (H) = µ (H) ≤ µ (E) ≤ µ (G) = µ1 (G) = µ1 (E) = µ1 (H) .
therefore, µ (E) = µ1 (E) and this proves the lemma.
Corollary 16.23 Suppose µ is a complex Borel measure defined on Rn for which

there exists a µ measurable set, N such that for all Borel sets, E, µ (E) = µ (E ∩ N )
where m (N ) = 0. Then
dµ
(x) = 0 m a.e.
dm
Proof: Each of Re µ+ , Re µ− , Im µ+ , and Im µ− are real measures having values
in [0, ∞) and so by Lemma 16.22 each is a Radon measure having the same property
that µ has in terms of being supported on a set of m measure zero. Therefore, for
dν
ν equal to any of these, dm (x) = 0 m a.e. This proves the corollary.
16.4 Exercises
1. Suppose A and B are sets of positive Lebesgue measure in Rn . Show that
A − B must contain B (c, ε) for some c ∈ Rn and ε > 0.
A − B ≡ {a − b : a ∈ A and b ∈ B} .
Hint: First assume both sets are bounded. This creates no loss of generality.
Next there exist a0 ∈ A, b0 ∈ B and δ > 0 such that
Z Z
3 3
XA (t) dt > m (B (a0 , δ)) , XB (t) dt > m (B (b0 , δ)) .
B(a0 ,δ) 4 B(b0 ,δ) 4
Now explain why this implies

3
m (A − a0 ∩ B (0,δ)) > m (B (0, δ))
4
and
3
m (B − b0 ∩ B (0,δ)) > m (B (0, δ)) .
4
16.4. EXERCISES 445
Explain why
1
m ((A − a0 ) ∩ (B − b0 )) > m (B (0, δ)) > 0.
2
Let Z
f (x) ≡ XA−a0 (x + t) XB−b0 (t) dt.
Explain why f (0) > 0. Next explain why f is continuous and why f (x) > 0
for all x ∈ B (0, ε) for some ε > 0. Thus if |x| < ε, there exists t such that
x + t ∈ A − a0 and t ∈ B − b0 . Subtract these.
2. Show M f is Borel measurable by verifying that R [M f > λ] ≡ Eλ is actually
an open set. Hint: If x ∈ Eλ then for some r, B(x,r) |f | dm > λm (B (x, r)) .
R
Then for δ a small enough positive number, B(x,r) |f | dm > λm (B (x, r + 2δ)) .
Now pick y ∈ B (x, δ) and argue that B (y, δ + r) ⊇ B (x, r) . Therefore show
that,
Z Z
|f | dm > |f | dm > λB (x, r + 2δ) ≥ λm (B (y, r + δ)) .
B(y,δ+r) B(x,r)
Thus B (x, δ) ⊆ Eλ .
3. Consider£ the
¤ following
£ ¤ nested sequence of compact sets, {Pn }.Let P1 = [0, 1],
P2 = 0, 31 ∪ 23 , 1 , etc. To go from Pn to Pn+1 , delete the open interval
which is the middle third of each closed interval in Pn . Let P = ∩∞ n=1 Pn .
By the finite intersection property of compact sets, P 6= ∅. Show m(P ) = 0.
If you feel ambitious also show there is a one to one onto mapping of [0, 1]
to P . The set P is called the Cantor set. Thus, although P has measure
zero, it has the same number of points in it as [0, 1] in the sense that there
is a one to one and onto mapping from one to the other. Hint: There are
various ways of doing this last part but the most enlightenment is obtained
by exploiting the topological properties of the Cantor set rather than some
silly representation in terms of sums of powers of two and three. All you need
to do is use the Schroder Bernstein theorem and show there is an onto map
from the Cantor set to [0, 1]. If you do this right and remember the theorems
about characterizations of compact metric spaces, Proposition 6.12 on Page
136, you may get a pretty good idea why every compact metric space is the
continuous image of the Cantor set.
4. Consider the sequence of functions defined in the following way. Let f1 (x) = x
on [0, 1]. To get from fn to fn+1 , let fn+1 = fn on all intervals where fn is
constant. If fn is nonconstant on [a, b], let fn+1 (a) = fn (a), fn+1 (b) =
fn (b), fn+1 is piecewise linear and equal to 12 (fn (a) + fn (b)) on the middle
third of [a, b]. Sketch a few of these and you will see the pattern. The process
of modifying a nonconstant section of the graph of this function is illustrated
in the following picture.
¡
¡
¡
Show {fn } converges uniformly on [0, 1]. If f (x) = limn→∞ fn (x), show that
f (0) = 0, f (1) = 1, f is continuous, and f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈
/ P where P is
the Cantor set of Problem 3. This function is called the Cantor function.It is
a very important example to remember. Note it has derivative equal to zero
a.e. and yet it succeeds in climbing from 0 to 1. Explain why this interesting
function is not absolutely continuous although it is continuous. Hint: This
isn’t too hard if you focus on getting a careful estimate on the difference
between two successive functions in the list considering only a typical small
interval in which the change takes place. The above picture should be helpful.
5. A function, f : [a, b] → R is Lipschitz if |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ K |x − y| . Show
that every Lipschitz function is absolutely continuous. Thus R y every Lipschitz
function is differentiable a.e., f 0 ∈ L1 , and f (y) − f (x) = x f 0 (t) dt.
6. Suppose f, g are both absolutely continuous on [a, b] . Show the product of
0
these functions is also absolutely continuous. Explain why (f g) = f 0 g + g 0 f
and show the usual integration by parts formula
Z b Z b
0
f (b) g (b) − f (a) g (a) − f g dt = f 0 gdt.
a a
Rb
7. In Problem 4 f 0 failed to give the expected result for a f 0 dx 1 but at least
f 0 ∈ L1 . Suppose f 0 exists for f a continuous function defined on [a, b] . Does
it follow that f 0 is measurable? Can you conclude f 0 ∈ L1 ([a, b])?
8. A sequence of sets, {Ei } containing the point x is said to shrink to x nicely
if there exists a sequence of positive numbers, {ri } and a positive constant, α
such that ri → 0 and
m (Ei ) ≥ αm (B (x, ri )) , Ei ⊆ B (x, ri ) .
Show the above theorems about differentiation of measures with respect to
Lebesgue measure all have a version valid for Ei replacing B (x, r) .
Rx
9. Suppose F (x) = a f (t) dt. Using the concept of nicely shrinking sets in
Problem 8 show F 0 (x) = f (x) a.e.
10. A random variable, X is a measurable real valued function defined on a mea-
sure space, (Ω, S, P ) where P is just a measure with P (Ω) = 1 called a
probability measure. The distribution function for X is the function, F (x) ≡
P ([X ≤ x]) in words, F (x) is the probability that X has values no larger than
x. Show that F is a right continuous increasing function with the property
that limx→−∞ F (x) = 0 and limx→∞ F (x) = 1.
1 In this example, you only know that f 0 exists a.e.
16.4. EXERCISES 447
11. Suppose F is an increasing right continuous function.

Rb
(a) Show that Lf ≡ a f dF is a well defined positive linear functional on
Cc (R) where here [a, b] is a closed interval containing the support of
f ∈ Cc (R) .
(b) Using the Riesz representation theorem for positive linear functionals on
Cc (R) , let µ denote the Radon measure determined by L. Show that
µ ((a, b]) = F (b) − F (a) and µ ({b}) = F (b) − F (b−) where F (b−) ≡
limx→b− F (x) .
(c) Review Corollary 15.4 on Page 404 at this point. Show that the condi-
tions of this corollary hold for µ and m. Consider µ⊥ + µ|| , the Lebesgue
decomposition of µ where µ|| ¿ m and there exists a set of m measure
zero,
R x N such that µ⊥ (E)1 = µ⊥ (E ∩ N ) . Show µ ((0, x]) = µ⊥ ((0, x]) +
0
h (t) dt for some h ∈ L (m) . Using Theorem 16.21 show h (x) = F (x)
0 Rx
m a.e. Explain why F (x) = F (0) + S (x) + 0 F 0 (t) dt for some func-
tion, S (x) which is increasing but has S 0 (x) = 0 a.e. Note this shows
in particular that a right continuous increasing function has a derivative
a.e.
12. Suppose now that G is just an increasing function defined on R. Show that
G0 (x) exists a.e. Hint: You can mimic the proof of Theorem 16.18. The Dini
derivates are defined as
G (x + h) − G (x)
D+ G (x) ≡ lim inf ,
h→0+ h
G (x + h) − G (x)
D+ G (x) ≡ lim sup
h→0+ h
G (x) − G (x − h)
D− G (x) ≡ lim inf ,
h→0+ h
G (x) − G (x − h)
D− G (x) ≡ lim sup .
h→0+ h
When D+ G (x) = D+ G (x) the derivative from the right exists and when
D− G (x) = D− G (x) , then the derivative from the left exists. Let (a, b) be an
open interval and let
© ª
Npq ≡ x ∈ (a, b) : D+ G (x) > q > p > D+ G (x) .
Let V ⊆ (a, b) be an open set containing Npq such that n (V ) < m (Npq ) + ε.
Show using a Vitali covering theorem there is a disjoint sequence of intervals
∞
contained in V , {(xi , xi + hi )}i=1 such that
G (xi + hi ) − G (xi )
< p.
hi
©¡ ¢ª∞
Next show there is a disjoint sequence of intervals x0i , x0j + h0j j=1 such
that each of these is contained in one of the former intervals and
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
G x0j + h0j − G x0j X
> q, h0j ≥ m (Npq ) .
h0j j
Then
X X ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ X
qm (Npq ) ≤ q h0j ≤ G x0j + h0j − G x0j ≤ G (xi + hi ) − G (xi )
j j i
X
≤ p hi ≤ pm (V ) ≤ p (m (Npq ) + ε) .
i
Since ε was arbitrary, this shows m (Npq ) = 0. Taking a union of all Npq
for p, q rational, shows the derivative from the right exists a.e. Do a similar
argument to show the derivative from the left exists a.e. and then show the
derivative from the left equals the derivative from the right a.e. using a simlar
argument. Thus G0 (x) exists on (a, b) a.e. and so it exists a.e. on R because
(a, b) was arbitrary.
Hausdorff Measure
17.1 Definition Of Hausdorff Measures

This chapter is on Hausdorff measures. First I will discuss some outer measures. In
all that is done here, α (n) will be the volume of the ball in Rn which has radius 1.
Definition 17.1 For a set, E, denote by r (E) the number which is half the diam-
eter of E. Thus
1 1
r (E) ≡ sup {|x − y| : x, y ∈ E} ≡ diam (E)
2 2
Let E ⊆ Rn .
X∞
Hδs (E) ≡ inf{ β(s)(r (Cj ))s : E ⊆ ∪∞
j=1 Cj , diam(Cj ) ≤ δ}
j=1
Hs (E) ≡ lim Hδs (E).

δ→0
In the above definition, β (s) is an appropriate positive constant depending on

s. Later I will tell what this constant is but it is not important for now.
Lemma 17.2 Hs and Hδs are outer measures.
Proof: It is clear that Hs (∅) = 0 and if A ⊆ B, then Hs (A) ≤ Hs (B) with

similar assertions valid for Hδs . Suppose E = ∪∞ s
i=1 Ei and Hδ (Ei ) < ∞ for each i.
i ∞
Let {Cj }j=1 be a covering of Ei with
∞
X
β(s)(r(Cji ))s − ε/2i < Hδs (Ei )
j=1
449
450 HAUSDORFF MEASURE
and diam(Cji ) ≤ δ. Then

∞ X
X ∞
Hδs (E) ≤ β(s)(r(Cji ))s
i=1 j=1
∞
X
≤ Hδs (Ei ) + ε/2i
i=1
∞
X
≤ ε+ Hδs (Ei ).
i=1
It follows that since ε > 0 is arbitrary,

∞
X
Hδs (E) ≤ Hδs (Ei )
i=1
which shows Hδsis an outer measure. Now notice that Hδs (E) is increasing as δ → 0.
Picking a sequence δ k decreasing to 0, the monotone convergence theorem implies
∞
X
Hs (E) ≤ Hs (Ei ).
i=1

The outer measure Hs is called s dimensional Hausdorff measure when restricted
to the σ algebra of Hs measurable sets.
Next I will show the σ algebra of Hs measurable sets includes the Borel sets.
This is done by the following very interesting condition known as Caratheodory’s
criterion.
17.1.1 Properties Of Hausdorff Measure

Definition 17.3 For two sets, A, B in a metric space, we define
dist (A, B) ≡ inf {d (x, y) : x ∈ A, y ∈ B} .
Theorem 17.4 Let µ be an outer measure on the subsets of (X, d), a metric space.
If
µ(A ∪ B) = µ(A) + µ(B)
whenever dist(A, B) > 0, then the σ algebra of measurable sets contains the Borel
sets.
Proof: It suffices to show that closed sets are in S, the σ-algebra of measurable
sets, because then the open sets are also in S and consequently S contains the Borel
sets. Let K be closed and let S be a subset of Ω. Is µ(S) ≥ µ(S ∩ K) + µ(S \ K)?
It suffices to assume µ(S) < ∞. Let
1
Kn ≡ {x : dist(x, K) ≤ }
n
17.1. DEFINITION OF HAUSDORFF MEASURES 451
By Lemma 6.7 on Page 135, x → dist (x, K) is continuous and so Kn is closed. By

the assumption of the theorem,
µ(S) ≥ µ((S ∩ K) ∪ (S \ Kn )) = µ(S ∩ K) + µ(S \ Kn ) (17.1)

since S ∩ K and S \ Kn are a positive distance apart. Now
µ(S \ Kn ) ≤ µ(S \ K) ≤ µ(S \ Kn ) + µ((Kn \ K) ∩ S). (17.2)
If limn→∞ µ((Kn \ K) ∩ S) = 0 then the theorem will be proved because this limit
along with 17.2 implies limn→∞ µ (S \ Kn ) = µ (S \ K) and then taking a limit in
17.1, µ(S) ≥ µ(S ∩ K) + µ(S \ K) as desired. Therefore, it suffices to establish this
limit.
Since K is closed, a point, x ∈
/ K must be at a positive distance from K and so
Kn \ K = ∪∞
k=n Kk \ Kk+1 .
Therefore
∞
X
µ(S ∩ (Kn \ K)) ≤ µ(S ∩ (Kk \ Kk+1 )). (17.3)
k=n
If
∞
X
µ(S ∩ (Kk \ Kk+1 )) < ∞, (17.4)
k=1
then µ(S ∩ (Kn \ K)) → 0 because it is dominated by the tail of a convergent series
so it suffices to show 17.4.
M
X
µ(S ∩ (Kk \ Kk+1 )) =
k=1
X X
µ(S ∩ (Kk \ Kk+1 )) + µ(S ∩ (Kk \ Kk+1 )). (17.5)
k even, k≤M k odd, k≤M
By the construction, the distance between any pair of sets, S ∩ (Kk \ Kk+1 ) for
different even values of k is positive and the distance between any pair of sets,
S ∩ (Kk \ Kk+1 ) for different odd values of k is positive. Therefore,
X X
µ(S ∩ (Kk \ Kk+1 )) + µ(S ∩ (Kk \ Kk+1 )) ≤
k even, k≤M k odd, k≤M
[ [
µ( S ∩ (Kk \ Kk+1 )) + µ( S ∩ (Kk \ Kk+1 )) ≤ 2µ (S) < ∞
k even k odd
PM
and so for all M, k=1 µ(S ∩ (Kk \ Kk+1 )) ≤ 2µ (S) showing 17.4 and proving the
theorem.
With the above theorem, the following theorem is easy to obtain. This property
is sometimes called Borel regularity.
Theorem 17.5 The σ algebra of Hs measurable sets contains the Borel sets and
Hs has the property that for all E ⊆ Rn , there exists a Borel set F ⊇ E such that
Hs (F ) = Hs (E).
Proof: Let dist(A, B) = 2δ 0 > 0. Is it the case that
Hs (A) + Hs (B) = Hs (A ∪ B)?
This is what is needed to use Caratheodory’s criterion.

Let {Cj }∞
j=1 be a covering of A ∪ B such that diam(Cj ) ≤ δ < δ 0 for each j and
∞
X
Hδs (A ∪ B) + ε > β(s)(r (Cj ))s.
j=1
Thus X X
Hδs (A ∪ B )˙ + ε > β(s)(r (Cj ))s + β(s)(r (Cj ))s
j∈J1 j∈J2
where
J1 = {j : Cj ∩ A 6= ∅}, J2 = {j : Cj ∩ B 6= ∅}.
Recall dist(A, B) = 2δ 0 , J1 ∩ J2 = ∅. It follows
Hδs (A ∪ B) + ε > Hδs (A) + Hδs (B).
Letting δ → 0, and noting ε > 0 was arbitrary, yields
Hs (A ∪ B) ≥ Hs (A) + Hs (B).
Equality holds because Hs is an outer measure. By Caratheodory’s criterion, Hs is

a Borel measure.
To verify the second assertion, note first there is no loss of generality in letting
Hs (E) < ∞. Let
E ⊆ ∪∞ j=1 Cj , diam(Cj ) < δ,
and
∞
X
Hδs (E) + δ > β(s)(r (Cj ))s.
j=1
Let
Fδ = ∪∞
j=1 Cj .
Thus Fδ ⊇ E and
∞
X ¡ ¢
Hδs (E) ≤ Hδs (Fδ ) ≤ β(s)(r Cj )s
j=1
∞
X
= β(s)(r (Cj ))s < δ + Hδs (E).
j=1
Let δ k → 0 and let F = ∩∞

k=1 Fδ k . Then F ⊇ E and
Hδsk (E) ≤ Hδsk (F ) ≤ Hδsk (Fδ ) ≤ δ k + Hδsk (E).
Letting k → ∞,
Hs (E) ≤ Hs (F ) ≤ Hs (E)
A measure satisfying the conclusion of Theorem 17.5 is sometimes called a Borel
regular measure.
17.1.2 Hn And mn
Next I will compare Hn and mn . To do this, recall the following covering theorem
which is a summary of Corollaries 10.20 and 10.19 found on Page 279.
Theorem 17.6 Let E ⊆ Rn and let F, be a collection of balls of bounded radii

such that F covers E in the sense of Vitali. Then there exists a countable collection
of disjoint balls from F, {Bj }∞ ∞
Lemma 17.7 There exists a constant, k such that Hn (E) ≤ kmn (E) for all E
Borel. Also, if Q0 ≡ [0, 1)n , the unit cube, then Hn ([0, 1)n ) > 0.
Proof: First let U be an open set and letting δ > 0, consider all balls, B
contained in U which have diameters less than δ. This is a Vitali covering of U and
therefore by Theorem 17.6, there exists {Bi } , a sequence of disjoint balls of radii
less than δ contained in U such that ∪∞i=1 Bi differs from U by a set of Lebesgue
measure zero. Let α (n) be the Lebesgue measure of the unit ball in Rn . Then
∞
X ∞
n β (n) X n
Hδn (U ) ≤ β (n) r (Bi ) = α (n) r (Bi )
i=1
α (n) i=1
∞
β (n) X β (n)
= mn (Bi ) = mn (U ) ≡ kmn (U ) .
α (n) i=1 α (n)
Now letting E be Borel, it follows from the outer regularity of mn there exists
a decreasing sequence of open sets, {Vi } containing E such such that mn (Vi ) →
mn (E) . Then from the above,
Hδn (E) ≤ lim Hδn (Vi ) ≤ lim kmn (Vi ) = kmn (E) .
i→∞ i→∞
Since δ > 0 is arbitrary, it follows that also
Hn (E) ≤ kmn (E) .
This proves the first part of the lemma.

To verify the second part, note that it is obvious Hδn and Hn are translation
invariant because diameters of sets do not change when translated. Therefore, if
Hn ([0, 1)n ) = 0, it follows Hn (Rn ) = 0 because Rn is the countable union of

translates of Q0 ≡ [0, 1)n . Since each Hδn is no larger than Hn , the same must hold
for Hδn . Therefore, there exists a sequence of sets, {Ci } each having diameter less
than δ such that
∞
X n
1> β (n) r (Ci ) .
i=1
Now let Bi be a ball having radius equal to diam (Ci ) = 2r (Ci ) which contains Ci .
It follows
n α (n) 2n n
mn (Bi ) = α (n) 2n r (Ci ) = β (n) r (Ci )
β (n)
which implies
∞
X X∞
n β (n)
1> β (n) r (Ci ) = mn (Bi ) = ∞,
i=1 i=1
α (n) 2n
a contradiction. This proves the lemma.
Theorem 17.8 If β (n) ≡ α (n) , then Hn = mn on all Lebesgue measurable sets.
Proof: First I will show Hn is a positive multiple of mn . Let

mn (Q0 )
k=
Hn (Q0 )
I will show kHn (E) = mn (E). When this is done, it will follow that by adjusting
β (n) the multiple can be taken to be 1. I will only need to show that the right
value for β (n) is α (n). Recall Lemma 10.2 on Page 267 which is listed here for
convenience.
Lemma 17.9 Every open set in Rn is the countable disjoint union of half open
boxes of the form
Yn
(ai , ai + 2−k ]
i=1
where ai = l2−k for some integers, l, k. The sides of these boxes are of equal length.
One could also have half open boxes of the form
n
Y
[ai , ai + 2−k )
i=1
and the conclusion would be unchanged.

Qn
Let Q = i=1 [ai , ai + 2−k ) be one of the half open boxes just mentioned in the
above lemma. By translation invariance, of Hn and mn
¡ k ¢n n 1 1 ¡ k ¢n
2 H (Q) = Hn (Q0 ) = mn (Q0 ) = 2 mn (Q) .
k k
Therefore, kHn (Q) = mn (Q) . It follows from Lemma 10.2 on Page 267 stated
above that kHn (U ) = mn (U ) for all open sets. It follows immediately, since
every compact set is the countable intersection of open sets that kHn = mn on
compact sets. Therefore, they are also equal on all closed sets because every closed
set is the countable union of compact sets. Now let F be an arbitrary Lebesgue
measurable set. I will show that F is Hn measurable and that kHn (F ) = mn (F ).
Let Fl = B (0, l) ∩ F. Then there exists H a countable union of compact sets and
G a countable intersection of open sets such that
H ⊆ Fl ⊆ G (17.6)
and
mn (G \ H) = kHn (G \ H) = 0. (17.7)
To do this, let {Gi } be a decreasing sequence of bounded open sets containing Fl

and let {Hi } be an increasing sequence of compact sets contained in Fl such that
kHn (Gi \ Hi ) = mn (Gi \ Hi ) < 2−i
Then letting G = ∩i Gi and H = ∪i Hi this establishes 17.6 and 17.7. Then by

completeness of Hn it follows Fl is Hn measurable and
kHn (Fl ) = kHn (H) = mn (H) = mn (Fl ) .
Now taking l → ∞, it follows F is Hn measurable and kHn (F ) = mn (F ). There-

fore, adjusting β (n) it can be assumed the constant, k is 1.
It only remains to show that the proper determination of β (n) is α (n). By the
Vitali covering theorem, there exists a sequence of disjoint balls, {Bi } such that
B (0, 1) = (∪∞ n
i=1 Bi ) ∪ N where mn (N ) = 0. Then Hδ (N ) = 0 can be concluded
n n n
because Hδ ≤ H and H (N ) = 0. Therefore,
∞
X n
Hδn (B (0, 1)) = Hδn (∪i Bi ) ≤ β (n) r (Bi )
i=1
∞ ∞
β (n) X n β (n) X
= α (n) r (Bi ) = mn (Bi )
α (n) i=1
α (n) i=1
β (n) β (n) β (n) n
= mn (∪i Bi ) = mn (B (0, 1)) = H (B (0, 1))
α (n) α (n) α (n)
Taking the limit as δ → 0,
β (n) n
Hn (B (0, 1)) ≤ H (B (0, 1))
α (n)
and so α (n) ≤ β (n) .

Also
∞
X
Hn (B (0, 1)) ≥ Hδn (B (0, 1)) = Hδn (∪i Bi ) = Hδn (Bi )
i=1
∞
X ∞
n β (n) X n
≥ β (n) r (Bi ) = α (n) r (Bi )
i=1
α (n) i=1
∞
β (n) X β (n)
= mn (Bi ) = mn (B (0, 1))
α (n) i=1 α (n)
β (n) n
= H (B (0, 1))
α (n)
which shows α (n) ≥ β (n) and so the two are equal. This proves the theorem.
This gives another way to think of Lebesgue measure which is a particularly nice
way because it is coordinate free, depending only on the notion of distance.
For s < n, note that Hs is not a Radon measure because it will not generally be
finite on compact sets. For example, let n = 2 and consider H1 (L) where L is a line
segment joining (0, 0) to (1, 0). Then H1 (L) is no smaller than H1 (L) when L is
considered a subset of R1 , n = 1. Thus by what was just shown, H1 (L) ≥ 1. Hence
H1 ([0, 1] × [0, 1]) = ∞. The situation is this: L is a one-dimensional object inside
R2 and H1 is giving a one-dimensional measure of this object. In fact, Hausdorff
measures can make such heuristic remarks as these precise. Define the Hausdorff
dimension of a set, A, as
dim(A) = inf{s : Hs (A) = 0}
17.1.3 A Formula For α (n)

What is α(n)? Recall the gamma function which makes sense for all p > 0.
Z ∞
Γ (p) ≡ e−t tp−1 dt.
0
Lemma 17.10 The following identities hold.

pΓ(p) = Γ(p + 1),
µZ 1 ¶
Γ(p)Γ(q) = xp−1 (1 − x)q−1 dx Γ(p + q),
0
µ ¶
1 √
Γ = π
2
Proof: Using integration by parts,
Z ∞ Z ∞
Γ (p + 1) = e−t tp dt = −e−t tp |∞
0 + p e−t tp−1 dt
0 0
= pΓ (p)
Next
Z ∞ Z ∞
Γ (p) Γ (q) = e−t tp−1 dt e−s sq−1 ds
0 0
Z ∞Z ∞
= e−(t+s) tp−1 sq−1 dtds
0 0
Z ∞Z ∞
p−1 q−1
= e−u (u − s) s duds
Z0 ∞ Zs u
p−1 q−1
= e−u (u − s) s dsdu
0 0
Z ∞ Z 1
p−1 q−1
= e−u (u − ux) (ux) udxdu
0 0
Z ∞Z 1
p−1
= e−u up+q−1 (1 − x) xq−1 dxdu
0 0
µZ 1 ¶
p−1 q−1
= Γ (p + q) x (1 − x) dx .
0
¡1¢
It remains to find Γ 2 .
µ ¶ Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
1 −t −1/2 −u2 1 2
Γ = e t dt = e 2udu = 2 e−u du
2 0 0 u 0
Now
µZ ∞ ¶2 Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
e−(x +y 2 )
2
−x2 −x2 −y 2
e dx = e dx e dy = dxdy
0 0 0 0 0
Z ∞ Z π/2
2 1
= e−r rdθdr = π
0 0 4
and so µ ¶ Z ∞
1 2 √
Γ =2 e−u du = π
2 0

Next let n be a positive integer.
Theorem 17.11 α(n) = π n/2 (Γ(n/2 + 1))−1 where Γ(s) is the gamma function
Z ∞
Γ(s) = e−t ts−1 dt.
0
Proof: First let n = 1.

µ ¶ √
3 1 1 π
Γ( ) = Γ = .
2 2 2 2
Thus
2 √
π 1/2 (Γ(1/2 + 1))−1 = √ π = 2 = α (1) .
π
and this shows the theorem is true if n = 1.
Assume the theorem is true for n and let Bn+1 be the unit ball in Rn+1 . Then
by the result in Rn ,
Z 1
mn+1 (Bn+1 ) = α(n)(1 − x2n+1 )n/2 dxn+1
−1
Z 1
= 2α(n) (1 − t2 )n/2 dt.
0
Doing an integration by parts and using Lemma 17.10
Z 1
= 2α(n)n t2 (1 − t2 )(n−2)/2 dt
0
Z
1 1 1/2
= 2α(n)n u (1 − u)n/2−1 du
2 0
Z 1
= nα(n) u3/2−1 (1 − u)n/2−1 du
0
= nα(n)Γ(3/2)Γ(n/2)(Γ((n + 3)/2))−1
= nπ n/2 (Γ(n/2 + 1))−1 (Γ((n + 3)/2))−1 Γ(3/2)Γ(n/2)
= nπ n/2 (Γ(n/2)(n/2))−1 (Γ((n + 1)/2 + 1))−1 Γ(3/2)Γ(n/2)
= 2π n/2 Γ(3/2)(Γ((n + 1)/2 + 1))−1
= π (n+1)/2 (Γ((n + 1)/2 + 1))−1 .

From now on, in the definition of Hausdorff measure, it will always be the case
that β (s) = α (s) . As shown above, this is the right thing to have β (s) equal to if s
is a positive integer because this yields the important result that Hausdorff measure
is the same as Lebesgue measure. Note the formula, π s/2 (Γ(s/2+1))−1 makes sense
for any s ≥ 0.
17.1.4 Hausdorff Measure And Linear Transformations

Hausdorff measure makes possible a unified development of n dimensional area.
As in the case of Lebesgue measure, the first step in this is to understand
¡ ¢basic
considerations related to linear transformations. Recall that for L ∈ L Rk , Rl , L∗
is defined by
(Lu, v) = (u, L∗ v) .
Also recall Theorem 4.59 on Page 87 which is stated here for convenience. This
theorem says you can write a linear transformation as the composition of two linear
transformations, one which preserves length and the other which distorts. The one
which distorts is the one which will have a nontrivial interaction with Hausdorff
measure while the one which preserves lengths does not change Hausdorff measure.
These ideas are behind the following theorems and lemmas.
Theorem 17.12 Let F be an n × m matrix where m ≥ n. Then there exists an
m × n matrix R and a n × n matrix U such that
F = RU, U = U ∗ ,
all eigenvalues of U are non negative,
U 2 = F ∗ F, R∗ R = I,
and |Rx| = |x|.
Lemma 17.13 Let R ∈ L(Rn , Rm ), n ≤ m, and R∗ R = I. Then if A ⊆ Rn ,
Hn (RA) = Hn (A).
In fact, if P : Rn → Rm satisfies |P x − P y| = |x − y| , then
Hn (P A) = Hn (A) .
Proof: Note that
2 2
|R(x − y)| = (R (x − y) , R (x − y)) = (R∗ R (x − y) , x − y) = |x − y|
Thus R preserves lengths.
Now let P be an arbitrary mapping which preserves lengths and let A be
bounded, P (A) ⊆ ∪∞j=1 Cj , diam(Cj ) ≤ δ, and
∞
X
Hδn (P A) +ε> α(n)(r(Cj ))n .
j=1
Since P preserves lengths, it follows P is one to one on P (Rn ) and P −1 also preserves
lengths on P (Rn ) . Replacing each Cj with Cj ∩ (P A),
∞
X
Hδn (P A) + ε > α(n)r(Cj ∩ (P A))n
j=1
X∞
¡ ¢n
= α(n)r P −1 (Cj ∩ (P A))
j=1
≥ Hδn (A).
Thus Hδn (P A) ≥ Hδn (A).
Now let A ⊆ ∪∞ j=1 Cj , diam(Cj ) ≤ δ, and
∞
X n
Hδn (A) + ε ≥ α(n) (r (Cj ))
j=1
Then
∞
X n
Hδn (A) + ε ≥ α(n) (r (Cj ))
j=1
X∞
n
= α(n) (r (P Cj ))
j=1
≥ Hδn (P A).
Hence Hδn (P A) = Hδn (A). Letting δ → 0 yields the desired conclusion in the
case where A is bounded. For the general case, let Ar = A ∩ B (0, r). Then
Hn (P Ar ) = Hn (Ar ). Now let r → ∞. This proves the lemma.
Lemma 17.14 Let F ∈ L(Rn , Rm ), n ≤ m, and let F = RU where R and U are

described in Theorem 4.59 on Page 87. Then if A ⊆ Rn is Lebesgue measurable,
Hn (F A) = det(U )mn (A).
Proof: Using Theorem 10.28 on Page 282 and Theorem 17.8,
Hn (F A) = Hn (RU A)
= Hn (U A) = mn (U A) = det(U )mn (A).
Definition 17.15 Define J to equal det(U ). Thus
J = det((F ∗ F )1/2 ) = (det(F ∗ F ))1/2.
17.2 The Area Formula

17.2.1 Preliminary Results
It was shown in Lemma 17.14 that
Hn (F A) = det(U )mn (A)
where F = RU with R preserving distances and U a symmetric matrix having

all positive eigenvalues. The area formula gives a generalization of this simple
relationship to the case where F is replaced by a nonlinear mapping, h. It contains
as a special case the earlier change of variables formula. There are two parts to this
development. The first part is to generalize Lemma 17.14 to the case of nonlinear
maps. When this is done, the area formula can be presented.
In this section, U will be an open set in Rn on which h is defined and A ⊆ U
will be a Lebesgue measurable set. Assume m ≥ n and
h : U → Rm is continuous, (17.8)
17.2. THE AREA FORMULA 461
Dh (x) exists for all x ∈ A, (17.9)

Also assume that for every x ∈ A, there exists Rx and Lx such that for all y, z ∈
B (x, Rx ) ,
|h (z) − h (y)| ≤ Lx |x − y| (17.10)
This last condition is weaker than saying h is Lipschitz. Instead, it is an assumption
that h is locally Lipshitz, the Lipschitz constant depending on the point considered.
An interesting case in which this would hold would be when h is differentiable on
U and ||Dh (x)|| is uniformly bounded near each point x. Actually, it is the case
that 17.10 will suffice to obtain 17.9 on all but a subset of measure zero of A but
this has not been shown yet. Also, the condition 17.8 is redundant because you
can simply replace U with the union of the sets B (x, Rx ) for x ∈ A. I think it
is easiest to retain this condition because differentiability is defined for functions
whose domains are open sets. To make this more formal, here is a definition.
Definition 17.16 Let h be defined in some open set containing a set, A. Then h
is locally Lipschitz on A if for every x ∈ A there exits Rx > 0 and a constant, Lx
such that whenever y, z ∈ B (x, Rx ) ,
|h (z) − h (y)| ≤ Lx |z − y| .
Lemma 17.17 If T ⊆ A and mn (T ) = 0, then Hn (h (T )) = 0.
Proof: Let
Tk ≡ {x ∈ T : ||Dh (x)|| < k} .
Thus T = ∪k Tk . I will show h (Tk ) has Hn measure zero and then it will follow
that
h (T ) = ∪∞k=1 h (Tk )
must also have measure zero.
Let ε > 0 be given. By outer regularity, there exists an open set, V , containing
Tk which is contained in U such that mn (V ) < knε6n . For x ∈ Tk it follows from
differentiability,
h (x + v) = h (x) + Dh (x) v + o (v)
and so whenever rx is small enough, B (x,5rx ) ⊆ V and whenever |v| < 5rx , |o (v)| <
krx . Therefore, if |v| < 5rx ,
Dh (x) v + o (v) ∈ B (0, 5krx ) + B (0,krx ) ⊆ B (0, 6krx )
and so
h (B (x, 5rx )) ⊆ B (h (x) , 6krx ).
Letting δ > 0 be given, the Vitali covering theorem implies there exists a sequence
of disjoint balls {Bi }, Bi =n B o(xi , rxi ), which are contained in V such that the
sequence of enlarged balls, B bi , having the same center but 5 times the radius,
covers Tk and 6krxi < δ. Then
³ ³ ´´
Hδn (h (Tk )) ≤ Hδn h ∪∞ b
i=1 Bi
∞
X ³ ³ ´´ X∞
≤ bi
Hδn h B ≤ Hδn (B (h (xi ) , 6krxi ))
i=1 i=1
∞
X ∞
X
n n
≤ α (n) (6krxi ) = (6k) α (n) rxni
i=1 i=1
∞
X
n
= (6k) mn (B (xi , rxi ))
i=1
n n ε
≤ (6k) mn (V ) ≤ (6k) = ε.
k n 6n
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this shows Hδn (h (Tk )) = 0. Since δ is arbitrary, this implies
Hn (h (Tk )) = 0. Now
Hn (h (T )) = lim Hn (h (Tk )) = 0.
k→∞
Lemma 17.18 If S is a Lebesgue measurable subset of A, then h (S) is Hn mea-

surable.

F ∪ T = Sk .
Then h (F ) ⊆ h (Sk ) ⊆ h (F )∪h (T ). By continuity of h, h (F ) is a countable union
of compact sets and so it is Borel. By Lemma 17.17, Hn (h (T )) = 0 and so h (Sk )
is Hn measurable because of completeness of Hausdorff measure, which comes from
Hn being obtained from an outer measure. Now h (S) = ∪∞ k=1 h (Sk ) and so it is
also true that h (S) is Hn measurable. This proves the lemma.
The following lemma, depending on the Brouwer fixed point theorem and found
in Rudin [45], will be important for the following arguments. The idea is that if a
continuous function mapping a ball in Rk to Rk doesn’t move any point very much,
then the image of the ball must contain a slightly smaller ball.
Lemma 17.19 Let B = B (0, r), a ball in Rk and let F : B → Rk be continuous

and suppose for some ε < 1,
|F (v) −v| < εr (17.11)
for all v ∈ B. Then
F (B) ⊇ B (0, r (1 − ε)) .
Proof: Suppose a ∈ B (0, r (1 − ε)) \ F (B) .

I claim that a 6= F (v) for all v ∈ B. Here is why. By assumption, if F (v) = a,
then |v| = r and so
|F (v) − v| = |a − v| ≥ |v| − |a| > r − r (1 − ε) = rε,

a contradiction to 17.11.
Now letting G :B → B, be defined by
r (a − F (v))
G (v) ≡ ,
|a − F (v)|
it follows G is continuous. Then by the Brouwer fixed point theorem, G (v) = v for
some v ∈ B. Using the formula for G, it follows |v| = r. Taking the inner product
with v,
2 r
(G (v) , v) = |v| = r2 = (a − F (v) , v)
|a − F (v)|
r
= (a − v + v − F (v) , v)
|a − F (v)|
r
= [(a − v, v) + (v − F (v) , v)]
|a − F (v)|
r h i
2
= (a, v) − |v| + (v − F (v) , v)
|a − F (v)|
r £ 2 ¤
≤ r (1 − ε) − r2 +r2 ε = 0,
|a − F (v)|
a contradiction to |v| = r. Therefore, B (0, r (1 − ε)) \ F (B) = ∅ and this proves

the lemma.
By Theorem 4.59 on Page 87, when Dh (x) exists,
Dh (x) = R (x) U (x)
where (U (x) u, v) = (U (x) v, u) , (U (x) u, u) ≥ 0 and R∗ R = I.
Lemma 17.20 In this situation, |R∗ u| ≤ |u|.
Proof: First note that

2
(u−RR∗ u,RR∗ u) = (u,RR∗ u) − |RR∗ u|
2 2
= |R∗ u| − |R∗ u| = 0,
and so
2 2
|u| = |u−RR∗ u+RR∗ u|
2 2
= |u−RR∗ u| + |RR∗ u|
2 2
= |u−RR∗ u| + |R∗ u| .
Lemma 17.21 If |P x − P y| ≤ L |x − y| , then for E a set,
Hn (P E) ≤ Ln Hn (E) .
Proof: Without loss of generality, assume Hn (E) < ∞. Let δ > 0 and let
∞
{Ci }i=1 be a covering of E such that diam (Ci ) ≤ δ for each i and
∞
X n
α (n) r (Ci ) ≤ Hδn (E) + ε.
i=1
∞
Then {P Ci }i=1 is a covering of P E such that diam (P Ci ) ≤ Lδ. Therefore,
∞
X
n n
HLδ (P E) ≤ α (n) r (P Ci )
i=1
∞
X n
≤ Ln α (n) r (Ci ) ≤ Ln Hδn (E) + Ln ε
i=1
≤ Hn (E) + ε.
Letting δ → 0,
Hn (P E) ≤ Ln Hn (E) + Ln ε
and since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this proves the Lemma.
Then the following corollary follows from Lemma 17.20.
Corollary 17.22 Let T ⊆ Rm . Then
Hn (T ) ≥ Hn (RR∗ T ) = Hn (R∗ T ).
Definition 17.23 Let E be a Lebesgue measurable set. x ∈ E is a point of density

if
mn (E ∩ B(x, r))
lim = 1.
r→0 mn (B(x, r))
Recall that from the fundamental theorem of calculus applied to XE almost

every point of E is a point of density.
−1
Lemma 17.24 Let x ∈ A be a point where U (x) exists. Then if ε ∈ (0, 1) the
following hold for all r small enough.
h (B (x, r)) ⊆ h (x) + R (x) U (x) B (0, r (1 + ε)), (17.12)
Hn (h (B (x,r))) ≤ mn (U (x) B (0, r (1 + ε))). (17.13)

R∗ (x) h (B (x, r)) ⊇ R∗ (x) h (x) + U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε)), (17.14)
n
H (h (B (x,r))) ≥ mn (U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε))), (17.15)
If x is also a point of density of A, then
Hn (h (B (x, r) ∩ A))
lim = 1. (17.16)
r→0 Hn (h (B (x, r)))
Proof: Since Dh (x) exists,
h (x + v) = h (x) + Dh (x) v+o (|v|). (17.17)
Consequently, when r is small enough, 17.12 holds.

Using the fact R (x) preserves all distances, and Theorem 17.8 which says Hn =
mn on the Borel sets of Rn implies,
Hn (h (B (x,r))) ≤ Hn (R (x) U (x) B (0, r (1 + ε)))
= Hn (U (x) B (0, r (1 + ε))) = mn (U (x) B (0, r (1 + ε)))

which shows 17.13.
From 17.17,
R∗ (x) h (x + v) = R∗ (x) h (x) + U (x) (v+o (|v|)).

−1
Thus, from the assumption that U (x) exists and letting F (v) be given by
−1 −1
F (v) ≡ U (x) R∗ (x) h (x + v) − U (x) R∗ (x) h (x) (17.18)
It follows
F (v) − v = o (|v|)
and so Lemma 17.19 implies that for all r small enough,
−1 −1
F (B (0, r)) ≡ U (x) R∗ (x) h (x+B (0,r)) − U (x) R∗ (x) h (x)
⊇ B (0, (1 − ε) r).
Therefore,
R∗ (x) h (B (x,r)) ⊇ R∗ (x) h (x) + U (x) B (0, (1 − ε) r)
which proves 17.14. Therefore,
R (x) R∗ (x) h (B (x, r)) ⊇
R (x) R∗ (x) h (x) + R (x) U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε)).

From Lemma 17.22, this implies
Hn (h (B (x,r))) ≥ Hn (R∗ (x) h (B (x, r)))

= Hn (R (x) R∗ (x) h (B (x, r)))
≥ Hn (R (x) U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε)))

= Hn (U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε))) = mn (U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε)))
which shows 17.15.
Now suppose that x is also a point of density of A. Then whenever r is small

enough,
mn (A ∩ B (x, r))
> 1 − ε.
mn (B (x, r))
Consequently, for such r,
mn (A ∩ B (x, r)) mn (B (x,r) \ A)
1 = +
mn (B (x, r)) mn (B (x, r))
mn (B (x,r) \ A)
> 1−ε+
α (n) rn
and so
mn (B (x,r) \ A) < εα (n) rn. (17.19)
Also,
h (B (x, r) ∩ A) ∪ h (B (x, r) \ A) = h (B (x, r))
and so
Hn (h (B (x, r) ∩ A)) + Hn (h (B (x, r) \ A))
≥ Hn (h (B (x, r)))
Then also letting r also be smaller than Rx mentioned in 17.10, it follows from
Lemmas 17.21, 17.18, and 17.19, 17.14 that
Hn (h (B (x, r) ∩ A))
1 ≥
Hn (h (B (x, r)))
Hn (h (B (x, r))) − Hn (h (B (x,r) \ A))
≥
Hn (h (B (x, r)))
Ln mn (B (x,r) \ A)
≥ 1− nx ∗
H (R (x) h (B (x, r)))
Lnx mn (B (x,r) \ A)
≥ 1−
mn (U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε)))
Lnx εα (n) rn
≥ 1− n
det (U (x)) α (n) rn (1 − ε)
= 1 − g (ε)
where limε→0 g (ε) = 0. Since ε is arbitrary, this proves 17.16.
The next theorem is the generalization of Lemma 17.14 to nonlinear maps.
Theorem 17.25 Let h : U → Rm where U is an open set in Rn for n ≤ m and
suppose h is locally Lipschitz at every point of a Lebesgue measurable subset, A of
U. Also suppose that for every x ∈ A, Dh (x) exists. Then for x ∈ A,
Hn (h (B (x, r)))
J (x) = lim , (17.20)
r→0 mn (B (x,r))
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
where J (x) ≡ det (U (x)) = det Dh (x) Dh (x) .
−1
Proof: Suppose first that U (x) exists. Using 17.15, 17.13 and the change
of variables formula for linear maps,
n
J (x) (1 − ε)
mn (U (x) B (0,r (1 − ε))) Hn (h(B (x, r)))
= ≤
mn (B (x, r)) mn (B (x, r))
mn (U (x) B (0,r (1 + ε))) n
≤ = J (x) (1 + ε)
mn (B (x, r))
whenever r is small enough. It follows that since ε > 0 is arbitrary, 17.20 holds.
−1
Now suppose U (x) does not exist. The first part shows that the conclusion
of the theorem holds when J (x) 6= 0. I will apply this to a modified function. Let
k : Rn → Rm × Rn
be defined as µ ¶
h (x)
k (x) ≡ .
εx
Then
∗ ∗
Dk (x) Dk (x) = Dh (x) Dh (x) + ε2 In
and so
2 ¡ ∗ ¢
Jk (x) ≡ det Dh (x) Dh (x) + ε2 In
¡ ¢
= det Q∗ DQ + ε2 In
∗
where D is a diagonal matrix having the nonnegative eigenvalues of Dh (x) Dh (x)
down the main diagonal. Thus, since one of these eigenvalues equals 0, letting λ2i
denote the ith eigenvalue, there exists a constant, C independent of ε such that
n
Y
2 ¡ ¢
0 < Jk (x) = λ2i + ε2 ≤ C 2 ε2. (17.21)
i=1
Therefore, what was just shown applies to k.

Let n o
T
T ≡ (h (w) , 0) : w ∈ B (x,r) ,
n o
T
Tε ≡ (h (w) , εw) : w ∈ B (x,r)
≡ k (B (x,r)),
then
T = P Tε
where P is the projection map defined by
µ ¶ µ ¶
x x
P ≡ .
y 0
Since P decreases distances, it follows from Lemma 17.21

Hn (h (B (x,r))) = Hn (T ) = Hn (P Tε )
≤ Hn (Tε ) = Hn (k (B (x,r))) .
It follows from 17.21 and the first part of the proof applied to k that
Hn (k (B (x, r)))
Cε ≥ Jk (x) = lim
r→0 mn (B (x,r))
Hn (h (B (x, r)))
≥ lim sup .
r→0 mn (B (x,r))
−1
Since ε is arbitrary, this establishes 17.20 in the case where U (x) does not exist
and completes the proof of the theorem.
Define the following set for future reference.
−1
S ≡ {x ∈ A : U (x) does not exist} (17.22)
17.2.2 The Area Formula

Assume h : A → Rm is one to one in addition to 17.8 - 17.10. Since h is one to one,
Lemma 17.18 implies one can define a measure, ν, on the σ− algebra of Lebesgue
measurable sets as follows.
ν (E) ≡ Hn (h (E ∩ A)).
By Lemma 17.18, this is a measure and ν ¿ m. Therefore by the corollary
to the Radon Nikodym theorem, Corollary 15.3 on Page 402, there exists f ∈
L1loc (Rn ) , f ≥ 0, f (x) = 0 if x ∈
/ A, and
Z Z
ν (E) = f dm = f dm.
E A∩E
What is f ? I will show that f (x) = J (x) = det (U (x)) a.e. Define
E ≡ {x ∈ A : x is not a point of density of A} ∪
{x ∈ A : x is not a Lebesgue point of f }.
Then E is a set of measure zero and if x ∈ (A \ E), Lemma 17.24 and Theorem
17.25 imply
Z
1
f (x) = lim f (y) dm
r→0 mn (B (x,r)) B(x,r)
Hn (h (B (x,r) ∩ A))
= lim
r→0 mn (B (x,r))
Hn (h (B (x,r) ∩ A)) Hn (h (B (x,r)))
= lim
r→0 Hn (h (B (x,r))) mn (B (x,r))
= J (x).
Therefore, f (x) = J (x) a.e., whenever x ∈ A \ E.

Now let F be a Borel set in Rm . Recall this implies F is Hn measurable. Then
Z Z
n
XF (y) dH = XF ∩h(A) (y) dHn
h(A)
¡ ¡ ¢¢
= Hn h h−1 (F ) ∩ A
Z
¡ ¢
= ν h−1 (F ) = XA∩h−1 (F ) (x) J (x) dm
Z
= XF (h (x)) J (x) dm. (17.23)
A
Note there are no measurability questions in the above formula because h−1 (F ) is
a Borel set due to the continuity of h. The Borel measurability of J (x) also follows
from the observation that h is continuous and therefore, the partial derivatives are
Borel measurable, being the limit of continuous functions. Then J (x) is just a
continuous function of these partial derivatives. However, things are not so clear
if E is only assumed Hn measurable. Is there a similar formula for F only Hn
measurable?
First consider the case where E is only Hn measurable but
Hn (E ∩ h (A)) = 0.
By Theorem 17.5 on Page 452, there exists a Borel set F ⊇ E ∩ h (A) such that
Hn (F ) = Hn (E ∩ h (A)) = 0.
Then from 17.23,

XA∩h−1 (F ) (x) J (x) = 0 a.e.
But
0 ≤ XA∩h−1 (E) (x) J (x) ≤ XA∩h−1 (F ) (x) J (x) (17.24)
which shows the two functions in 17.24 are equal a.e. Therefore XA∩h−1 (E) (x) J (x)
is Lebesgue measurable and so from 17.23,
Z Z
0 = XE∩h(A) (y) dHn = XF ∩h(A) (y) dHn
Z Z
= XA∩h−1 (F ) (x) J (x) dmn = XA∩h−1 (E) (x) J (x) dmn , (17.25)
which shows 17.23 holds in this case where
Hn (E ∩ h (A)) = 0.
Now let AR ≡ A ∩ B (0,R) where R is large enough that AR 6= ∅ and let E

be Hn measurable. By Theorem 17.5, there exists F ⊇ E ∩ h (AR ) such that F is
Borel and
Hn (F \ (E ∩ h (AR ))) = 0. (17.26)
Then
(E ∩ h (AR )) ∪ (F \ (E ∩ h (AR )) ∩ h (AR )) = F ∩ h (AR )
and so
XAR ∩h−1 (F ) J = XAR ∩h−1 (E) J + XAR ∩h−1 (F \(E∩h(AR ))) J
where from 17.26 and 17.25, the second function on the right of the equal sign is
Lebesgue measurable and equals zero a.e. Therefore, the first function on the right
of the equal sign is also Lebesgue measurable and equals the function on the left
a.e. Thus, Z Z
XE∩h(AR ) (y) dH = XF ∩h(AR ) (y) dHn
n
Z Z
= XAR ∩h−1 (F ) (x) J (x) dmn = XAR ∩h−1 (E) (x) J (x) dmn . (17.27)
Letting R → ∞ yields 17.27 with A replacing AR and the function

x → XAR ∩h−1 (E) (x) J (x)
is Lebesgue measurable. Writing this in a more familiar form yields
Z Z
XE (y) dHn = XE (h (x)) J (x) dmn . (17.28)
h(A) A
From this, it follows that if s is a nonnegative Hn measurable simple function, 17.28

continues to be valid with s in place of XE . Then approximating an arbitrary non-
negative Hn measurable function, g, by an increasing sequence of simple functions,
it follows that 17.28 holds with g in place of XE and there are no measurability
problems because x → g (h (x)) J (x) is Lebesgue measurable. This proves the area
formula.
Theorem 17.26 Let g : h (A) → [0, ∞] be Hn measurable where h is a continuous
function and A is a Lebesgue measurable set which satisfies 17.8 - 17.10. That is,
U is an open set in Rn on which h is defined and A ⊆ U is a Lebesgue measurable
set, m ≥ n, and
h : A → Rm is continuous, (17.29)
Also assume that for every x ∈ A, there exists Rx and Lx such that for all y, z ∈
B (x, Rx ) ,
|h (z) − h (y)| ≤ Lx |x − y| (17.31)
Then
x → (g ◦ h) (x) J (x)
is Lebesgue measurable and
Z Z
n
g (y) dH = g (h (x)) J (x) dm
h(A) A
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
where J (x) = det (U (x)) = det Dh (x) Dh (x) .
17.3. THE AREA FORMULA ALTERNATE VERSION 471
17.3 The Area Formula Alternate Version

17.3.1 Preliminary Results
It was shown in Lemma 17.14 that
Hn (F A) = det(U )mn (A)
where F = RU with R preserving distances and U a symmetric matrix having

all positive eigenvalues. The area formula gives a generalization of this simple
relationship to the case where F is replaced by a nonlinear mapping, h. It contains
as a special case the earlier change of variables formula. There are two parts to this
development. The first part is to generalize Lemma 17.14 to the case of nonlinear
maps. When this is done, the area formula can be presented.
In this section, U will be an open set in Rn on which h is defined and A ⊆ U
will be a Lebesgue measurable set. Assume m ≥ n and

Hn (h (U \ A)) = 0 (17.34)
These conditions are different than the ones considered earlier. Here no Lipschitz
assumption is needed on h. In this sense, these conditions are more general than
those considered earlier. However, they are not really more general because of 17.34
which says that A is essentially an open set. This was not necessary earlier. The area
formula which results from the above conditions is a generalization of the change
of variables formula given in Rudin [45] and the proof is essentially the same as the
proof given in this book with modifications to account for the Hausdorff measure.
Lemma 17.27 If T ⊆ A and mn (T ) = 0, then Hn (h (T )) = 0.
Proof: Let
Tk ≡ {x ∈ T : ||Dh (x)|| < k} .
Thus T = ∪k Tk . I will show h (Tk ) has Hn measure zero and then it will follow
that
h (T ) = ∪∞k=1 h (Tk )
must also have measure zero.

Let ε > 0 be given. By outer regularity, there exists an open set, V , containing
Tk which is contained in U such that mn (V ) < knε6n . For x ∈ Tk it follows from
differentiability,
h (x + v) = h (x) + Dh (x) v + o (v)
and so whenever rx is small enough, B (x,5rx ) ⊆ V and whenever |v| < 5rx , |o (v)| <
krx . Therefore, if |v| < 5rx ,
Dh (x) v + o (v) ∈ B (0, 5krx ) + B (0,krx ) ⊆ B (0, 6krx )

and so
h (B (x, 5rx )) ⊆ B (h (x) , 6krx ).
Letting δ > 0 be given, the Vitali covering theorem implies there exists a sequence
of disjoint balls {Bi }, Bi =n B o(xi , rxi ), which are contained in V such that the
b
sequence of enlarged balls, Bi , having the same center but 5 times the radius,
covers Tk and 6krxi < δ. Then
³ ³ ´´
Hδn (h (Tk )) ≤ Hδn h ∪∞ b
i=1 Bi
∞
X ³ ³ ´´ X∞
≤ bi
Hδn h B ≤ Hδn (B (h (xi ) , 6krxi ))
i=1 i=1
∞
X ∞
X
n n
≤ α (n) (6krxi ) = (6k) α (n) rxni
i=1 i=1
∞
X
n
= (6k) mn (B (xi , rxi ))
i=1
n n ε
≤ (6k) mn (V ) ≤ (6k) = ε.
k n 6n
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this shows Hδn (h (Tk )) = 0. Since δ is arbitrary, this implies
Hn (h (Tk )) = 0. Now
Hn (h (T )) = lim Hn (h (Tk )) = 0.
k→∞
Lemma 17.28 If S is a Lebesgue measurable subset of A, then h (S) is Hn mea-

surable.

F ∪ T = Sk .
Then h (F ) ⊆ h (Sk ) ⊆ h (F )∪h (T ). By continuity of h, h (F ) is a countable union
of compact sets and so it is Borel. By Lemma 17.27, Hn (h (T )) = 0 and so h (Sk )
is Hn measurable because of completeness of Hausdorff measure, which comes from
Hn being obtained from an outer measure. Now h (S) = ∪∞ k=1 h (Sk ) and so it is
also true that h (S) is Hn measurable. This proves the lemma.
in Rudin [45], will be important for the following arguments. The idea is that if a
continuous function mapping a ball in Rk to Rk doesn’t move any point very much,
then the image of the ball must contain a slightly smaller ball.

|F (v) −v| < εr (17.35)
F (B) ⊇ B (0, r (1 − ε)) .
Proof: Suppose a ∈ B (0, r (1 − ε)) \ F (B) .

I claim that a 6= F (v) for all v ∈ B. Here is why. By assumption, if F (v) = a,
then |v| = r and so
|F (v) − v| = |a − v| ≥ |v| − |a| > r − r (1 − ε) = rε,
a contradiction to 17.35.
Now letting G :B → B, be defined by
r (a − F (v))
G (v) ≡ ,
|a − F (v)|
it follows G is continuous. Then by the Brouwer fixed point theorem, G (v) = v for
some v ∈ B. Using the formula for G, it follows |v| = r. Taking the inner product
with v,
2 r
(G (v) , v) = |v| = r2 = (a − F (v) , v)
|a − F (v)|
r
= (a − v + v − F (v) , v)
|a − F (v)|
r
= [(a − v, v) + (v − F (v) , v)]
|a − F (v)|
r h i
2
= (a, v) − |v| + (v − F (v) , v)
|a − F (v)|
r £ 2 ¤
≤ r (1 − ε) − r2 +r2 ε = 0,
|a − F (v)|
a contradiction to |v| = r. Therefore, B (0, r (1 − ε)) \ F (B) = ∅ and this proves

the lemma.
By Theorem 4.59 on Page 87, when Dh (x) exists,
Dh (x) = R (x) U (x)
where (U (x) u, v) = (U (x) v, u) , (U (x) u, u) ≥ 0 and R∗ R = I.
Lemma 17.30 In this situation, |R∗ u| ≤ |u|.
Proof: First note that

2
(u−RR∗ u,RR∗ u) = (u,RR∗ u) − |RR∗ u|
2 2
= |R∗ u| − |R∗ u| = 0,
and so
2 2
|u| = |u−RR∗ u+RR∗ u|
2 2
= |u−RR∗ u| + |RR∗ u|
2 2
= |u−RR∗ u| + |R∗ u| .
Lemma 17.31 If |P x − P y| ≤ L |x − y| , then for E a set,
Hn (P E) ≤ Ln Hn (E) .
Proof: Without loss of generality, assume Hn (E) < ∞. Let δ > 0 and let
∞
{Ci }i=1 be a covering of E such that diam (Ci ) ≤ δ for each i and
∞
X n
α (n) r (Ci ) ≤ Hδn (E) + ε.
i=1
∞
Then {P Ci }i=1 is a covering of P E such that diam (P Ci ) ≤ Lδ. Therefore,
∞
X
n n
HLδ (P E) ≤ α (n) r (P Ci )
i=1
∞
X n
≤ Ln α (n) r (Ci ) ≤ Ln Hδn (E) + Ln ε
i=1
n
≤ H (E) + ε.
Letting δ → 0,
Hn (P E) ≤ Ln Hn (E) + Ln ε
and since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this proves the Lemma.
Then the following corollary follows from Lemma 17.30.
Corollary 17.32 Let T ⊆ Rm . Then
Hn (T ) ≥ Hn (RR∗ T ) = Hn (R∗ T ).
Definition 17.33 Let E be a Lebesgue measurable set. x ∈ E is a point of density

if
mn (E ∩ B(x, r))
lim = 1.
r→0 mn (B(x, r))
Recall that from the fundamental theorem of calculus applied to XE almost

every point of E is a point of density.
−1
Lemma 17.34 Let x ∈ A be a point where U (x) exists. Then if ε ∈ (0, 1) the
following hold for all r small enough.
h (B (x, r)) ⊆ h (x) + R (x) U (x) B (0, r (1 + ε)), (17.36)
Hn (h (B (x,r))) ≤ mn (U (x) B (0, r (1 + ε))). (17.37)

∗ ∗
R (x) h (B (x, r)) ⊇ R (x) h (x) + U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε)), (17.38)
Hn (h (B (x,r))) ≥ mn (U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε))), (17.39)
If x is a point of A, then
Hn (h (B (x, r) ∩ A))
lim = 1. (17.40)
r→0 Hn (h (B (x, r)))
h (x + v) = h (x) + Dh (x) v+o (|v|). (17.41)
Consequently, when r is small enough, 17.36 holds.

Using the fact R (x) preserves all distances, and Theorem 17.8 which says Hn =
mn on the Borel sets of Rn ,this implies,
Hn (h (B (x,r))) ≤ Hn (R (x) U (x) B (0, r (1 + ε)))
= Hn (U (x) B (0, r (1 + ε))) = mn (U (x) B (0, r (1 + ε)))

which shows 17.37.
From 17.41,
R∗ (x) h (x + v) = R∗ (x) h (x) + U (x) (v+o (|v|)).

−1
Thus, from the assumption that U (x) exists and letting F (v) be given by
−1 −1
F (v) ≡ U (x) R∗ (x) h (x + v) − U (x) R∗ (x) h (x) (17.42)
Since h is continuous near A, it follows
F (v) − v = o (|v|)
and so Lemma 17.29 implies that for all r small enough,

−1 −1
F (B (0, r)) ≡ U (x) R∗ (x) h (x+B (0,r)) − U (x) R∗ (x) h (x)
⊇ B (0, (1 − ε) r).
Therefore,
R∗ (x) h (B (x,r)) ⊇ R∗ (x) h (x) + U (x) B (0, (1 − ε) r)

which proves 17.38. Therefore,
R (x) R∗ (x) h (B (x, r)) ⊇
R (x) R∗ (x) h (x) + R (x) U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε)).

From Lemma 17.32, this implies
Hn (h (B (x,r))) ≥ Hn (R∗ (x) h (B (x, r)))

= Hn (R (x) R∗ (x) h (B (x, r)))
≥ Hn (R (x) U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε)))

= Hn (U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε))) = mn (U (x) B (0, r (1 − ε)))
which shows 17.39.
Let x ∈ A. Choosing r small enough that B (x, r) ⊆ U,
h (B (x, r) ∩ A) ∪ h (B (x, r) \ A) = h (B (x, r))
and so
Hn (h (B (x, r) ∩ A)) + Hn (h (B (x, r) \ A))

≥ Hn (h (B (x, r)))
Now by assumption 17.34, Hn (h (B (x, r) \ A)) = 0 and so for all r small enough,
Hn (h (B (x, r) ∩ A)) = Hn (h (B (x, r))) .
This establishes 17.40.

The next theorem is the generalization of Lemma 17.14 to nonlinear maps.
Theorem 17.35 Let h : U → Rm where U is an open set in Rn , n ≤ m, h is

continuous on U, h is differentiable on A ⊆ U, and Hn (U \ A) = 0. Then for
x ∈ A,
Hn (h (B (x, r)))
J (x) = lim , (17.43)
r→0 mn (B (x,r))
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
−1
Proof: Suppose first that U (x) exists. Using 17.39, 17.37 and the change
of variables formula for linear maps,
n
J (x) (1 − ε)
mn (U (x) B (0,r (1 − ε))) Hn (h(B (x, r)))
= ≤
mn (B (x, r)) mn (B (x, r))
mn (U (x) B (0,r (1 + ε))) n
≤ = J (x) (1 + ε)
mn (B (x, r))
whenever r is small enough. It follows that since ε > 0 is arbitrary, 17.43 holds.
−1
Now suppose U (x) does not exist. The first part shows that the conclusion
of the theorem holds when J (x) 6= 0. I will apply this to a modified function. Let
k : Rn → Rm × Rn
be defined as µ ¶
h (x)
k (x) ≡ .
εx
Then
∗ ∗
Dk (x) Dk (x) = Dh (x) Dh (x) + ε2 In
and so
2 ¡ ∗ ¢
Jk (x) ≡ det Dh (x) Dh (x) + ε2 In
¡ ¢
= det Q∗ DQ + ε2 In
∗
where D is a diagonal matrix having the nonnegative eigenvalues of Dh (x) Dh (x)
down the main diagonal. Thus, since one of these eigenvalues equals 0, letting λ2i
denote the ith eigenvalue, there exists a constant, C independent of ε such that
n
Y
2 ¡ ¢
0 < Jk (x) = λ2i + ε2 ≤ C 2 ε2. (17.44)
i=1
Therefore, what was just shown applies to k.

Let n o
T
T ≡ (h (w) , 0) : w ∈ B (x,r) ,
n o
T
Tε ≡ (h (w) , εw) : w ∈ B (x,r)
≡ k (B (x,r)),
then
T = P Tε
where P is the projection map defined by
µ ¶ µ ¶
x x
P ≡ .
y 0
Since P decreases distances, it follows from Lemma 17.31
Hn (h (B (x,r))) = Hn (T ) = Hn (P Tε )
≤ Hn (Tε ) = Hn (k (B (x,r))) .
It follows from 17.44 and the first part of the proof applied to k that
Hn (k (B (x, r)))
Cε ≥ Jk (x) = lim
r→0 mn (B (x,r))
Hn (h (B (x, r)))
≥ lim sup .
r→0 mn (B (x,r))
−1
Since ε is arbitrary, this establishes 17.43 in the case where U (x) does not exist
and completes the proof of the theorem.
17.3.2 The Area Formula

Assume h : A → Rm is one to one in addition to 17.32 - 17.34. Since h is one to
one on A, Lemma 17.28 implies one can define a measure, ν, on the σ− algebra of
Lebesgue measurable sets as follows.
ν (E) ≡ Hn (h (E ∩ A)).
By Lemma 17.28, this is a measure and ν ¿ m. Therefore by the corollary

to the Radon Nikodym theorem, Corollary 15.3 on Page 402, there exists f ∈
L1loc (Rn ) , f ≥ 0, f (x) = 0 if x ∈
/ A, and
Z Z
ν (E) = f dmn = f dmn .
E A∩E
What is f ? I will show that f (x) = J (x) = det (U (x)) a.e. Let x be a Lebesgue
point of f. Then by Lemma 17.34 and Theorem 17.35
Z
1
f (x) = lim f (y) dm
r→0 mn (B (x,r)) B(x,r)
Hn (h (B (x,r) ∩ A))
= lim
r→0 mn (B (x,r))
H (h (B (x,r) ∩ A)) Hn (h (B (x,r)))
n
= lim
r→0 Hn (h (B (x,r))) mn (B (x,r))
= J (x).
Therefore, f (x) = J (x) a.e., whenever x is a Lebesgue point of f .

Now let F be a Borel set in Rm . Recall this implies F is Hn measurable. Then
Z Z
XF (y) dHn = XF ∩h(A) (y) dHn
h(A)
¡ ¡ ¢¢
= Hn h h−1 (F ) ∩ A
Z
¡ ¢
= ν h−1 (F ) = XA∩h−1 (F ) (x) J (x) dmn
Z
= XF (h (x)) J (x) dmn . (17.45)
A
Note there are no measurability questions in the above formula because h−1 (F ) is
a Borel set due to the continuity of h. The Borel measurability of J (x) also follows
from the observation that h is continuous and therefore, the partial derivatives are
Borel measurable, being the limit of continuous functions. Then J (x) is just a
continuous function of these partial derivatives. However, things are not so clear
if E is only assumed Hn measurable. Is there a similar formula for F only Hn
measurable?
First consider the case where E is only Hn measurable but
Hn (E ∩ h (A)) = 0.
By Theorem 17.5 on Page 452, there exists a Borel set F ⊇ E ∩ h (A) such that
Hn (F ) = Hn (E ∩ h (A)) = 0.
Then from 17.45,

XA∩h−1 (F ) (x) J (x) = 0 a.e.
But
0 ≤ XA∩h−1 (E) (x) J (x) ≤ XA∩h−1 (F ) (x) J (x) (17.46)
which shows the two functions in 17.46 are equal a.e. Therefore XA∩h−1 (E) (x) J (x)
is Lebesgue measurable and so from 17.45,
Z Z
0 = XE∩h(A) (y) dH = XF ∩h(A) (y) dHn
n
Z Z
= XA∩h−1 (F ) (x) J (x) dmn = XA∩h−1 (E) (x) J (x) dmn , (17.47)
which shows 17.45 holds in this case where
Hn (E ∩ h (A)) = 0.
Now let AR ≡ A ∩ B (0,R) where R is large enough that AR 6= ∅ and let E

be Hn measurable. By Theorem 17.5, there exists F ⊇ E ∩ h (AR ) such that F is
Borel and
Hn (F \ (E ∩ h (AR ))) = 0. (17.48)
Then
(E ∩ h (AR )) ∪ (F \ (E ∩ h (AR )) ∩ h (AR )) = F ∩ h (AR )
and so
XAR ∩h−1 (F ) J = XAR ∩h−1 (E) J + XAR ∩h−1 (F \(E∩h(AR ))) J
where from 17.48 and 17.47, the second function on the right of the equal sign is
Lebesgue measurable and equals zero a.e. Therefore, the first function on the right
of the equal sign is also Lebesgue measurable and equals the function on the left
a.e. Thus, Z Z
XE∩h(AR ) (y) dHn = XF ∩h(AR ) (y) dHn
Z Z
= XAR ∩h−1 (F ) (x) J (x) dmn = XAR ∩h−1 (E) (x) J (x) dmn . (17.49)
Letting R → ∞ yields 17.49 with A replacing AR and the function

x → XAR ∩h−1 (E) (x) J (x)
is Lebesgue measurable. Writing this in a more familiar form yields
Z Z
XE (y) dHn = XE (h (x)) J (x) dmn . (17.50)
h(A) A
From this, it follows that if s is a nonnegative Hn measurable simple function, 17.50

continues to be valid with s in place of XE . Then approximating an arbitrary non-
negative Hn measurable function, g, by an increasing sequence of simple functions,
it follows that 17.50 holds with g in place of XE and there are no measurability
problems because x → g (h (x)) J (x) is Lebesgue measurable. This proves the area
formula.
function and A is a Lebesgue measurable set which satisfies 17.32 - 17.34. That
is, U is an open set in Rn on which h is defined and continuous and A ⊆ U is a
Lebesgue measurable set, m ≥ n, and
h : U → Rm is continuous, h one to one on A, (17.51)
n
H (U \ A) = 0, (17.53)
Then
x → (g ◦ h) (x) J (x)
Z Z
g (y) dHn = g (h (x)) J (x) dm
h(A) A
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
17.4 The Divergence Theorem

As an important application of the area formula I will give a general version of the
divergence theorem. It will always be assumed n ≥ 2. Actually it is not necessary to
make this assumption but what results in the case where n = 1 is nothing more than
the fundamental theorem of calculus and the considerations necessary to draw this
conclusion seem unneccessarily tedious. You have to consider H0 , zero dimensional
Hausdorff measure. It is left as an exercise but I will not present it.
It will be convenient to have some lemmas and theorems in hand before beginning
the proof. First recall the Tietze extension theorem on Page 146. It is stated next
for convenience.
17.4. THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM 481
Theorem 17.37 Let M be a closed nonempty subset of a metric space (X, d) and
let f : M → [a, b] be continuous at every point of M. Then there exists a function,
g continuous on all of X which coincides with f on M such that g (X) ⊆ [a, b] .
The next topic needed is the concept of an infinitely differentiable partition of
unity.
Definition 17.38 Let C be a set whose elements are subsets of Rn .1 Then C is
said to be locally finite if for every x ∈ Rn , there exists an open set, Ux containing
x such that Ux has nonempty intersection with only finitely many sets of C.
Lemma 17.39 Let C be a set whose elements are open subsets of Rn and suppose
∞
∪C ⊇ H, a closed set. Then there exists a countable list of open sets, {Ui }i=1 such
∞
that each Ui is bounded, each Ui is a subset of some set of C, and ∪i=1 Ui ⊇ H.
Proof: Let Wk ≡ B (0, k) , W0 = W−1 = ∅. For each x ∈ H ∩ Wk there exists
an open set, Ux such that Ux is a subset of some set of C and Ux ⊆ Wk+1 \ Wk−1 .
© ªm(k)
Then since H ∩ Wk is compact, there exist finitely many of these sets, Uik i=1
whose union contains H ∩ Wk . If H ∩ Wk = ∅, let m (k) = 0 and there are no such
© k ªm(k)
sets obtained.The desired countable list of open sets is ∪∞ k=1 Ui i=1 . Each open
set in this list is bounded. Furthermore, if x ∈ Rn , then x ∈ Wk where k is the
first positive integer with x ∈ Wk . Then Wk \ Wk−1 is an open set containing x and
© ªm(k)
this open set can have nonempty intersection only with with a set of Uik i=1 ∪
© k−1 ªm(k−1) © k ªm(k)
Ui i=1
, a finite list of sets. Therefore, ∪∞
k=1 Ui i=1 is locally finite.
∞
The set, {Ui }i=1 is said to be a locally finite cover of H. The following lemma
gives some important reasons why a locally finite list of sets is so significant. First
∞
of all consider the rational numbers, {ri }i=1 each rational number is a closed set.
∞
Q = {ri }i=1 = ∪∞ ∞
i=1 {ri } 6= ∪i=1 {ri } = R
The set of rational numbers is definitely not locally finite.

Lemma 17.40 Let C be locally finite. Then
© ª
∪C = ∪ H : H ∈ C .
Next suppose the elements of C are open sets and that for each U ∈ C, there exists a
differentiable function, ψ U having spt (ψ U ) ⊆ U. Then you can define the following
finite sum for each x ∈ Rn
X
f (x) ≡ {ψ U (x) : x ∈ U ∈ C} .
Furthermore, f is also a differentiable function2 and

X
Df (x) = {Dψ U (x) : x ∈ U ∈ C} .
1 The definition applies with no change to a general topological space in place of Rn .
2 If each ψ U were only continuous, one could conclude f is continuous. Here the main interest
is differentiable.
Proof: Let p be a limit point of ∪C and let W be an open set which intersects
only finitely many
© sets ofªC. Then p must©be a limit ª point of one of these sets. It
follows p ∈ ∪ H : H ∈ C and so ∪C ⊆ ∪ H : H ∈ C . The inclusion in the other
direction is obvious.
Now consider the second assertion. Letting x ∈ Rn , there exists an open set, W
intersecting only finitely many open sets of C, U1 , U2 , · · ·, Um . Then for all y ∈ W,
m
X
f (y) = ψ Ui (y)
i=1
and so the desired result is obvious. It merely says that a finite sum of differentiable
functions is differentiable. Recall the following definition.
Definition 17.41 Let K be a closed subset of an open set, U. K ≺ f ≺ U if f is

continuous, has values in [0, 1] , equals 1 on K, and has compact support contained
in U .
Lemma 17.42 Let U be a bounded open set and let K be a closed subset of U. Then
there exist an open set, W, such that W ⊆ W ⊆ U and a function, f ∈ Cc∞ (U )
such that K ≺ f ≺ U .
Proof: The set, K is compact so is at a positive distance from U C . Let

© ¡ ¢ª
W ≡ x : dist (x, K) < 3−1 dist K, U C .
Also let
© ¡ ¢ª
W1 ≡ x : dist (x, K) < 2−1 dist K, U C
Then it is clear
K ⊆ W ⊆ W ⊆ W1 ⊆ W1 ⊆ U
Now consider the function,

¡ ¢
dist x, W1C
h (x) ≡ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
dist x, W1C + dist x, W
Since W is compact it is at a positive distance from W1C and so h is a well defined

continuous function which has compact support contained in W 1 , equals 1 on W,
and has values in [0, 1] . Now let φk be a mollifier. Letting
¡ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¢
k −1 < min dist K, W C , 2−1 dist W 1 , U C ,
it follows that for such k,the function, h ∗ φk ∈ Cc∞ (U ) , has values in [0, 1] , and
equals 1 on K. Let f = h ∗ φk .
The above lemma is used repeatedly in the following.
∞
Lemma 17.43 Let K be a closed set and let {Vi }i=1 be a locally finite list of
bounded open sets whose union contains K. Then there exist functions, ψ i ∈
Cc∞ (Vi ) such that for all x ∈ K,
∞
X
1= ψ i (x)
i=1
and the function f (x) given by

∞
X
f (x) = ψ i (x)
i=1
is in C ∞ (Rn ) .
Proof: Let K1 = K \ ∪∞
i=2 Vi . Thus K1 is compact because K1 ⊆ V1 . Let
K 1 ⊆ W 1 ⊆ W 1 ⊆ V1
Thus W1 , V2 , · · ·, Vn covers K and W 1 ⊆ V1 . Suppose W1 , · · ·, Wr have been defined

such that Wi ⊆ Vi for each i, and W1 , · · ·, Wr , Vr+1 , · · ·, Vn covers K. Then let
¡ ¢ ¡ r ¢
Kr+1 ≡ K \ ( ∪∞i=r+2 Vi ∪ ∪j=1 Wj ).
It follows Kr+1 is compact because Kr+1 ⊆ Vr+1 . Let Wr+1 satisfy
Kr+1 ⊆ Wr+1 ⊆ W r+1 ⊆ Vr+1

∞
Continuing this way defines a sequence of open sets, {Wi }i=1 with the property
W i ⊆ Vi , K ⊆ ∪ ∞
i=1 Wi .
∞ ∞
Note {Wi }i=1 is locally finite because the original list, {Vi }i=1 was locally finite.
Now let Ui be open sets which satisfy
W i ⊆ Ui ⊆ U i ⊆ Vi .
∞
Similarly, {Ui }i=1 is locally finite.
Wi Ui Vi
∞ ∞
Since the set, {Wi }i=1 is locally finite, it follows ∪∞
i=1 Wi = ∪i=1 Wi and so it
is possible to define φi and γ, infinitely differentiable functions having compact
support such that
U i ≺ φi ≺ Vi , ∪∞ ∞
i=1 W i ≺ γ ≺ ∪i=1 Ui .
Now define
½ P∞ P∞
ψ i (x) = P∞
0 if j=1 φj (x) = 0.
P∞
If x is such that j=1 φj (x) = 0, then x ∈ / ∪∞i=1 Ui because φi equals one on Ui .
Consequently γ (y) = 0 for all y near x thanks to the fact that ∪∞ i=1 Ui is closed
and
P∞ so ψ i (y) = 0 for all y near x. Hence ψ i is infinitely differentiable at such x. If
j=1 φj (x) 6= 0, this situation persists near x because each φj is continuous and so
ψ i is infinitely differentiable at such points also thanks to LemmaP 17.40. Therefore
∞
ψ i is infinitely differentiable. If x ∈ K, then γ (x) = 1 and so j=1 ψ j (x) = 1.
The functions, {ψ i } are called a C ∞ partition of unity.
The method of proof of this lemma easily implies the following useful corollary.
Corollary 17.44 If H is a compact subset of Vi for some Vi there exists a partition
of unity such that ψ i (x) = 1 for all x ∈ H in addition to the conclusion of Lemma
39.6.
Lemma 17.45 Let Ω be a metric space with the closed balls compact and suppose
µ is a measure defined on the Borel sets of Ω which is finite on compact sets.
Then there exists a unique Radon measure, µ which equals µ on the Borel sets. In
particular µ must be both inner and outer regular on all Borel sets.
R
Proof: Define a positive linear functional, Λ (f ) = f dµ. Let µ be the Radon
measure which comes from the Riesz representation theorem for positive linear
functionals. Thus for all f continuous,
Z Z
f dµ = f dµ.
If V is an open set, let {fn } be a sequence of continuous functions which is increasing

and converges to XV pointwise. Then applying the monotone convergence theorem,
Z Z
XV dµ = µ (V ) = XV dµ = µ (V )
and so the two measures coincide on all open sets. Every compact set is a countable
intersection of open sets and so the two measures coincide on all compact sets. Now
let B (a, n) be a ball of radius n and let E be a Borel set contained in this ball.
Then by regularity of µ there exist sets F, G such that G is a countable intersection
of open sets and F is a countable union of compact sets such that F ⊆ E ⊆ G and
µ (G \ F ) = 0. Now µ (G) = µ (G) and µ (F ) = µ (F ) . Thus
µ (G \ F ) + µ (F ) = µ (G)
= µ (G) = µ (G \ F ) + µ (F )
and so µ (G \ F ) = µ (G \ F ) . Thus
µ (E) = µ (F ) = µ (F ) = µ (G) = µ (E) .
If E is an arbitrary Borel set, then
µ (E ∩ B (a, n)) = µ (E ∩ B (a, n))
and letting n → ∞, this yields µ (E) = µ (E) .

One more lemma will be useful.
Lemma
¡ ¢ 17.46 Let V be a bounded open set and let X be the closed subspace of
C V , the space of continuous functions defined on V , which is given by the fol-
lowing.
¡ ¢
X = {u ∈ C V : u (x) = 0 on ∂V }.
Then Cc∞ (V ) is dense in X with respect to the norm given by
© ª
||u|| = max |u (x)| : x ∈ V
¡ ¢
Proof: Let O ⊆ O ⊆ W ⊆ W ⊆ V be such that dist O, V C < η and let
ψ δ (·) be a mollifier. Let u ∈ X and consider XW u ∗ ψ δ . Let ε > 0 be given and
let η be small enough that |u (x) | < ε/2 whenever x ∈ V \ O. Then if δ is small
enough |XW u ∗ ψ δ (x) − u (x) | < ε for all x ∈ O and XW u ∗ ψ δ is in Cc∞ (V ). For
x ∈ V \ O, |XW u ∗ ψ δ (x) | ≤ ε/2 and so for such x,
|XW u ∗ ψ δ (x) − u (x) | ≤ ε.
This proves the lemma since ε was arbitrary.
Definition 17.47 A bounded open set, U ⊆ Rn is said to have a Lipschitz boundary

and to lie on one side of its boundary if the following conditions hold. There exist
open boxes, Q1 , · · ·, QN ,
Yn
¡ i i¢
Qi = aj , bj
j=1
such that ∂U ≡ U \ U is contained in their union. Also, for each Qi , there exists k
and a Lipschitz function, gi such that U ∩ Qi is of the form

 k−1
Y¡ ¢
x : (x1 , · · ·, xk−1 , xk+1 , · · ·, xn ) ∈ aij , bij ×

j=1

Yn
¡ i i¢ 
aj , bj and aik < xk < gi (x1 , · · ·, xk−1 , xk+1 , · · ·, xn ) (17.54)

j=k+1
or else of the form


 k−1
Y¡ ¢
x : (x1 , · · ·, xk−1 , xk+1 , · · ·, xn ) ∈ aij , bij ×

j=1

n
Y ¡ ¢ 
aij , bj
i
and gi (x1 , · · ·, xk−1 , xk+1 , · · ·, xn ) < xk < bij . (17.55)

j=k+1
Qk−1 ¡ i i ¢ Qn ¡ i i¢
The function, gi has a derivative on Ai ⊆ j=1 aj , bj × j=k+1 aj , bj where
 
k−1
Y n
Y
¡ i i¢ ¡ i i¢
mn−1  aj , bj × aj , bj \ Ai  = 0.
j=1 j=k+1
Also, there exists an open set, Q0 such that Q0 ⊆ Q0 ⊆ U and U ⊆ Q0 ∪Q1 ∪···∪QN .
Note that since there are only finitely many Qi and each gi is Lipschitz, it follows
from an application of Lemma 17.21 that Hn−1 (∂U ) < ∞. Also from Lemma 17.45
Hn−1 is inner and outer regular on ∂U .
Lemma 17.48 Suppose U is a¡ bounded ¢open set as described above. Then there
n
exists a unique function in L∞ ∂U, Hn−1 , n (y) for y ∈ ∂U such that |n (y)| =
n−1
1, n is H measurable, (meaning each component of n is Hn−1 measurable) and
for every w ∈Rn satisfying |w| = 1, and for every f ∈ Cc1 (Rn ) ,
Z Z
f (x + tw) − f (x)
lim dx = f (n · w) dHn−1
t→0 U t ∂U
N
Proof: Let U ⊆ V ⊆ V ⊆ ∪N i=0 Qi and let {ψ i }i=0 be a C
∞
partition of unity
on V such that spt (ψ i ) ⊆ Qi . Then for all t small enough and x ∈ U ,
N
f (x + tw) − f (x) 1X
= ψ f (x + tw) − ψ i f (x) .
t t i=0 i
Thus using the dominated convergence theorem,

Z
f (x + tw) − f (x)
lim dx
t→0 U t
Z Ã X N
!
1
= lim ψ f (x + tw) − ψ i f (x) dx
t→0 U t i=0 i
Z X
N X
n
= Dj (ψ i f (x)) wj dx
U i=0 j=1
Z X
n N Z X
X n
= Dj (ψ 0 f (x)) wj dx + Dj (ψ i f (x)) wj dx (17.56)
U j=1 i=1 U j=1
Since spt (ψ 0 ) ⊆ Q0 , it follows the first term in the above equals zero. In the second
term, fix i. Without loss of generality, suppose the k in the above definition equals
n and 17.54 holds. This just makes things a little easier to write. Thus gi is a
function of
n−1
Y¡ ¢
(x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) ∈ aij , bij ≡ Bi
j=1
Then
Z X
n
Dj (ψ i f (x)) wj dx
U j=1
Z Z n
gi (x1 ,···,xn−1 ) X
= Dj (ψ i f (x)) wj dxn dx1 · · · dxn−1
Bi ain j=1
Z Z n
gi (x1 ,···,xn−1 ) X
= Dj (ψ i f (x)) wj dxn dx1 · · · dxn−1
Bi −∞ j=1
Letting xn = y + gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) and changing the variable, this equals

Z Z 0 X n
= Dj (ψ i f (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , y + gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ))) ·
Bi −∞ j=1
wj dydx1 · · · dxn−1
Z Z 0 X n
= Dj (ψ i f (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , y + gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ))) ·
Ai −∞ j=1
wj dydx1 · · · dxn−1
Z Z 0 n−1
X ∂
= (ψ f (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , y + gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ))) wj −
Ai −∞ j=1 ∂xj i
Dn (ψ i f ) (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , y + gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 )) ·
gi,j (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) wj dydx1 · · · dxn−1
Z Z 0
+ Dn (ψ i f (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , y + gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ))) · (17.57)
Ai −∞
wn dydx1 · · · dxn−1
Consider the term
Z Z 0 n−1
X ∂
(ψ f (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , y + gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ))) ·
Ai −∞ j=1 ∂xj i
wj dydx1 · · · dxn−1 .
This equals
Z Z 0 n−1
X ∂
(ψ f (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , y + gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ))) ·
Bi −∞ j=1 ∂xj i
wj dydx1 · · · dxn−1 ,
and now interchanging the order of integration and using the fact that spt (ψ i ) ⊆ Qi ,
it follows this term equals zero. (The reason this is valid is that
xj → ψ i f (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , y + gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ))
is the composition of Lipschitz functions and is therefore Lipschitz. Therefore, this

function is absolutely continuous and can be recovered by integrating its derivative.)
Then, changing the variable back to xn it follows 17.57 reduces to
Z Z gi (x1 ,···,xn−1 )
= −Dn (ψ i f ) (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , xn ) ·
Ai −∞
gi,j (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) wj dxn dx1 · · · dxn−1 (17.58)
Z Z gi (x1 ,···,xn−1 )
+ Dn (ψ i f (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , xn )) wn dxn dx1 · · · dxn−1
(17.59)
Ai −∞
Doing the integrals, this reduces further to

Z
(ψ i f ) (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , xn ) Ni (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 )) · wdmn−1 (17.60)
Ai
where Ni (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 )) is given by
(−gi,1 (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) , −gi,2 (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) , · · ·, −gi,n−1 (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) , 1) . (17.61)
At this point I need a technical lemma which will allow the use of the area formula.
The part of the boundary of U which is contained in Qi is the image of the map,
hi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) given by (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 )) for (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) ∈ Ai .
I need a formula for
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
det Dhi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) Dhi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) .
To avoid interupting the argument, I will state the lemma here and prove it later.
Lemma 17.49
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
det Dhi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) Dhi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 )
v
u n−1
u X
= t1 + 2
gi,j (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) ≡ Ji (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) .
j−1
For
y = (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 )) ∈ ∂U ∩ Qi
define It follows if n is defined by
1
ni (y) = Ni (y)
Ji (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 )
it follows from the description of Ji (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) given in the above lemma, that
ni is a unit vector. All components of ni are continuous functions of limits of con-
tinuous functions. Therefore, ni is Borel measurable and so it is Hn−1 measurable.
Now 17.60 reduces to
Z
(ψ i f ) (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 )) ×
Ai
ni (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 )) · wJi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) dmn−1 .
By the area formula this equals

Z
ψ i f (y) ni (y) · wdHn−1 .
h(Ai )
Now by Lemma 17.21 and the equality of mn−1 and Hn−1 on Rn−1 , the above
integral equals
Z Z
n−1
ψ i f (y) ni (y) · wdH = ψ i f (y) ni (y) · wdHn−1 .
∂U ∩Qi ∂U
Returning to 17.56 similar arguments apply to the other terms and therefore,
Z
f (x + tw) − f (x)
lim dmn
t→0 U t
X N Z
= ψ i f (y) ni (y) · wdHn−1
i=1 ∂U
Z N
X
= f (y) ψ i (y) ni (y) · wdHn−1
∂U i=1
Z
= f (y) n (y) · wdHn−1 (17.62)
∂U
PN
Then let n (y) ≡ i=1 ψ i (y) ni (y) .
I need to show first there is no other n which satisfies 17.62 and then I need
to show that |n (y)| = 1. Note that it is clear |n (y)| ≤ 1 because each ni is a
unit vector
¡ and this¢ is just a convex combination of these. Suppose then that
n1 ∈ L∞ ∂U, Hn−1 also works in 17.62. Then for all f ∈ Cc1 (Rn ) ,
Z Z
f (y) n (y) · wdHn−1 = f (y) n1 (y) · wdHn−1 .
∂U ∂U
Suppose h ∈ C (∂U ) . Then by the Tietze extension theorem, there exists f ∈

Cc (Rn ) such that the restriction of f to ∂U equals h. Now by Lemma 17.46 applied
to a bounded open set containing the support of f, there exists a sequence {fm } of
functions in Cc1 (Rn ) converging uniformly to f . Therefore,
Z
h (y) n (y) · wdHn−1
∂U
Z
= lim fm (y) n (y) · wdHn−1
m→∞ ∂U
Z
= lim fm (y) ni (y) · wdHn−1
m→∞ ∂U
Z
= h (y) ni (y) · wdHn−1 .
∂U
Now Hn−1 is a ¡Radon measure ¢ on ∂U and so the continuous functions on ∂U

∞
are dense in L1 ∂U, Hn−1 . It follows n · w = ni · w a.e. Now let {wm }m=1
be a countable dense subset of the unit sphere. From what was just shown,
n · wm = ni · wm except for a set of measure zero, Nm . Letting N = ∪m Nm , it
follows that for y ∈/ N, n (y) ·wm = ni (y) · wm for all m. Since the set is dense, it
follows n (y) ·w = ni (y) · w for all y ∈ / N and for all w a unit vector. Therefore,
n (y) = ni (y) for all y ∈/ N and this shows n is unique. In particular, although it
appears to depend on the partition of unity {ψ i } from its definition, this is not the
case.
It only remains to verify |n (y)| = 1 a.e. I will do this by showing how to compute
n. In particular, I will show that n = ni a.e. on ∂U ∩ Qi . Let W ⊆ W ⊆ Qi ∩ ∂U
where W is open in ∂U. Let O be an open set such that O ∩ ∂U = W and O ⊆ Qi .
Using Corollary 17.44 there exists a C ∞ partition of unity {ψ m } such that ψ i = 1
on O. Therefore, if m 6= i, ψ m = 0 on O. Then if f ∈ Cc1 (O) ,
Z
f w · ndHn−1
W
Z Z
n−1
= f w · ndH = ∇f · wdmn
Z∂U U
= ∇ (ψ i f ) · wdmn
U
which by the first part of the argument given above equals

Z Z
n−1
ψ i f ni · wdH = f w · ni dHn−1 .
W W
Thus for all f ∈ Cc1 (O) ,

Z Z
f w · ndHn−1 = f w · ni dHn−1 (17.63)
W W
Since Cc1 (O) is dense in Cc (O) , the above equation is also true for all f ∈ Cc (O).
¡ ¢letting h ∈ Cc (W ) , the Tietze extension theorem implies there exists f1 ∈
Now
C O whose restriction to W equals h. Let f be defined by
¡ ¢
dist x, OC
f1 (x) = f (x) .
dist (x, spt (h)) + dist (x, OC )
Then f = h on W and so this has shown that for all h ∈ Cc (W ) , 17.63 holds
n−1
for h in place of f. But as observed
¡ earlier,¢H is outer and inner regular on
1 n−1
∂U and so Cc (W ) is dense in L W, H which implies w · n (y) = w · ni (y)
for a.e. y. Considering a countable dense subset of the unit sphere as above, this
implies n (y) = ni (y) a.e. y. This proves |n (y)| = 1 a.e. and in fact n (y) can be
computed by using the formula for ni (y). This proves the lemma.
It remains to prove Lemma 17.49.
T
Proof of Lemma 17.49: Let h (x) = (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , g (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ))
 
1 0
 .. .. .. 
 . 
Dh (x) =  . . 
 0 1 
g,x1 ··· g,xn−1
Therefore,
¡ ¡ ∗ ¢¢1/2
J (x) = det Dh (x) Dh (x) .
Therefore, J (x) is the square root of the determinant of the following n × n matrix.
 
1 + (g,x1 )2 g,x1 g,x2 ··· g,x1 g,xn−1
 g,x2 g,x1 1 + (g,x2 )2 ··· g,x2 g,xn−1 
 
 .. .. .. . (17.64)
 . . . 
g,xn−1 g,x1 g,xn−1 g,x2 ··· 1 + (g,xn−1 )2
I need to show the determinant of the above matrix equals
n−1
X 2
1+ (g,xi (x)) .
i=1
This is implied by the following claim. To simplify the notation I will replace n − 1
with n.
Claim: Let a1 , · · ·, an be real numbers and let A (a1 , · · ·, an ) be the matrix
which has 1 + a2i in the iith slot and ai aj in the ij th slot when i 6= j. Then
n
X
det A = 1 + a2i.
i=1
Proof of the claim: The matrix, A (a1 , · · ·, an ) is of the form

 
1 + a21 a1 a2 · · · a1 an
 a1 a2 1 + a22 a2 an 
 
A (a1 , · · ·, an ) =  .. . .. 
 . . . . 
2
a1 an a2 an · · · 1 + an
Now consider the product of a matrix and its transpose, B T B below.

  
1 0 ··· 0 a1 1 0 · · · 0 −a1
 0 1 0 a2   0 1 0 −a2 
  
 .. .. ..  
.  .. .. .. 
 . .  . . .  (17.65)
  
 0 1 an   0 1 −an 
−a1 −a2 · · · −an 1 a1 a2 · · · an 1
This product equals a matrix of the form

µ ¶
A (a1 , · · ·, an ) P0n
0 1 + i=1 a2i
¡ Pn ¢ 2 ¡ ¢2
Therefore, 1 + i=1 a2i det (A (a1 , · · ·, an )) = det (B) = det B T . However,
using row operations,
 
1 0 ··· 0 a1
 0 1 0 a2 
 
 
det B T = det  ... ..
.
..
. 
 
 0 1 a n

Pn 2
0 0 · · · 0 1 + i=1 ai
Xn
= 1+ a2i
i=1
and therefore,
Ã n
! Ã n
!2
X X
1+ a2i det (A (a1 , · · ·, an )) = 1+ a2i
i=1 i=1
¡ Pn ¢
which shows det (A (a1 , · · ·, an )) = 1 + i=1 a2i . This proves the claim.
Now the above lemma implies the divergence theorem.
Theorem 17.50 Let U be a bounded open set with a Lipschitz boundary which lies
on one side of its boundary. Then if f ∈ Cc1 (Rn ) ,
Z Z
f,k (x) dmn = f nk dHn−1 (17.66)
U ∂U
where n = (n1 , · · ·, nn ) is the Hn−1 measurable unit vector of Lemma 17.48. Also,
if F is a vector field such that each component is in Cc1 (Rn ) , then
Z Z
∇ · F (x) dmn = F · ndHn−1 . (17.67)
U ∂U
Proof: To obtain 17.66 apply Lemma 17.48 to w = ek . Then to obtain 17.67

from this,
Z
∇ · F (x) dmn
U
n Z
X n Z
X
= Fj,j dmn = Fj nj dHn−1
j=1 U j=1 ∂U
Z n
X Z
n−1
= Fj nj dH = F · ndHn−1 .
∂U j=1 ∂U

What is the geometric significance of the vector, n? Recall that in the part of
the boundary contained in Qi , this vector points in the same direction as the vector
Ni (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 , gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ))
given by
(−gi,1 (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) , −gi,2 (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) , · · ·, −gi,n−1 (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) , 1) (17.68)
in the case where k = n. This vector is the gradient of the function,
xn − gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 )
and so is perpendicular to the level surface given by
xn − gi (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) = 0
in the case where gi is C 1 . It also points away from U so the vector n is the unit
outer normal. The other cases work similarly.
The divergence theorem is valid in situations more general than for Lipschitz
boundaries. What you need is essentially the ability to say that the functions, gi
above can be differentiated a.e. and more importantly that these functions can be
recovered by integrating their partial derivatives. In other words, you need absolute
continuity in each variable. Later in the chapter on weak derivatives, examples of
such functions which are more general than Lipschitz functions will be discussed.
However, the Lipschitz functions are pretty general and will suffice for now.
Differentiation With Respect
To General Radon Measures
This is a brief chapter on certain important topics on the differentiation theory

for general Radon measures. For different proofs and some results which are not
discussed here, a good source is [20] which is where I first read some of these things.
18.1 Besicovitch Covering Theorem
The fundamental theorem of calculus presented above for Lebesgue measures can
be generalized to arbitrary Radon measures. It turns out that the same approach
works if a different covering theorem is employed instead of the Vitali theorem. This
covering theorem is the Besicovitch covering theorem of this section. It is necessary
because for a general Radon measure µ, it is no longer the case that ³ ´the measure
is translation invariant. This implies there is no way to estimate µ B b in terms of
µ (B) and thus the Vitali covering theorem is of no use. In the Besicovitch covering
theorem the balls in the covering are not enlarged as they are in the Vitali theorem.
In this theorem they can also be either open or closed or neither open nor closed.
The balls can also be taken with respect to any norm on Rn . The notation, B (x,r)
in the above argument will denote any set which satisfies
{y : ||y − x|| < r} ⊆ B (x, r) ⊆ {y : ||y − x|| < r}
and the norm, ||·|| is just some norm on Rn . The following picture is a distorted
picture of the situation described in the following lemma.
495
496 DIFFERENTIATION WITH RESPECT TO GENERAL RADON MEASURES
ry
0r
rx
Lemma 18.1 Let 10 ≤ rx ≤ ry and suppose B (x, rx ) and B (y, ry ) both have
nonempty intersection with B (0, 1) but neither of these balls contains 0. Suppose
also that
||x − y|| ≥ ry
so that neither ball contains both centers in its interior. Then

¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ x y ¯¯¯¯ 4
¯¯
¯¯ ||x|| ||y|| ¯¯ ≥ 5 .
−
Proof: By hypothesis,
||x|| ≥ rx ≥ ||x|| − 1, ||y|| ≥ ry ≥ ||y|| − 1.
Then ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ x y ¯¯¯¯ ¯¯¯¯ x ||y|| − ||x|| y ¯¯¯¯
¯¯
¯¯ ||x|| − ||y|| ¯¯ = ¯¯ ||x|| ||y|| ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ x ||y|| − y ||y|| + y ||y|| − ||x|| y ¯¯
¯
= ¯¯¯ ¯¯
||x|| ||y|| ¯¯
||x − y|| |||y|| − ||x|||

≥ − (18.1)
||x|| ||x||
Now there are two cases.
First suppose ||y|| ≥ ||x|| . Then the above is larger than
ry ||y|| ry (ry + 1)
≥ − +1≥ − +1
||x|| ||x|| ||x|| ||x||
1 1 1 9
= 1− ≥1− ≥1− = .
||x|| rx 10 10
18.1. BESICOVITCH COVERING THEOREM 497
Next suppose ||x|| ≥ ||y|| . Then 18.1 is at least as large as

ry ||x|| − ||y||
−
||x|| ||x||
ry ||y||
= −1+
||x|| ||x||
2ry 2ry
≥ −1≥ −1
||x|| rx + 1
2rx 20
≥ −1≥ −1
rx + 1 10 + 1
= . 818 18
m
Lemma 18.2 There exists Ln depending on dimension, n, such that for {xk }k=1
distinct points on ∂B (0, 1) , if m ≥ Ln , then the distance between some pair of
m
points of {xk }k=1 is less than 4/5.
L −1 m
Proof: Let {zj }j=1 n
be a 1/3 net on ∂B (0, 1) . Then for m ≥ Ln , if {xk }k=1
is a set of m distinct points on ∂B (0, 1) , there must exist xi and xj for i 6= j such
that both xi and xj are contained in some B (zk , 1/3) . This follows from the pigeon
hole principle. There are more xi than there are B (zk , 1/3) and so one of these
must have more than one xk in it. But then
2 4
||xi − xj || ≤ ||xi − zk || + ||zk − xj || ≤ <
3 5
Corollary 18.3 Let B0 = B (0,1) and let Bj = B (xj , rj ) for j = 1, · · ·, K such
that rj ≥ 10, 0 ∈
/ Bj for all j > 0, Bj ∩ B0 6= ∅, and for all i 6= j,
||xi − xj || ≥ max (ri , rj ) .
That is, no Bj contains two centers in its interior. Then K ≤ Ln , the constant of
the above lemma.
Proof:¯¯ By Lemma ¯18.2, ¯ if K > Ln , there exist two of the centers, xi and xj
¯¯ x i x j ¯¯
such that ¯¯ ||xi || − ||xj || ¯¯ < 4/5. By Lemma 18.1, ||xi − xj || < max (ri , rj ) contrary
to the assumptions of the corollary. Hence K ≤ Ln as claimed.
Theorem 18.4 There exists a constant Nn , depending only on n with the following
property. If F is any collection of nonempty balls in Rn with
sup {diam (B) : B ∈ F} < D < ∞
and if A is the set of centers of the balls in F, then there exist subsets of F, G1 , · · ·,
GNn , such that each Gi is a countable collection of disjoint balls from F and
A ⊆ ∪N
i=1 {B : B ∈ Gi }.
n
Lemma 18.5 In the situation of Theorem 18.4, suppose the set of centers A is
J
bounded. Then there exists a sequence of balls from F, {Bj }j=1 where J ≤ ∞ such
that
3
r (B1 ) ≥ sup {r (B) : B ∈ F} (18.2)
4
and if
Am ≡ A \ (∪m i=1 Bi ) 6= ∅, (18.3)
then
3
r (Bm+1 ) ≥ sup {r : B (a, r) ∈ F , a ∈ Am } . (18.4)
4
Letting Bj = B (aj , rj ) , this sequence satisfies
4 J
A ⊆ ∪Ji=1 Bi , r (Bk ) ≤ r (Bj ) for j < k, {B (aj , rj /3)}j=1 are disjoint. (18.5)
3
Proof: Pick B1 satisfying 18.2. If B1 , · · ·, Bm have been chosen, and Am is
given in 18.3, then if it equals ∅, it follows A ⊆ ∪m
i=1 Bi . Set J = m. If Am 6= ∅,
pick Bm+1 to satisfy 18.4. This defines the desired sequence. It remains to verify
the claims in 18.5. Consider the second claim. Letting A0 ≡ A, Ak ⊆ Aj−1 and so
sup {r : B (a, r) ∈ F , a ∈ Aj−1 } ≥ rk .
Hence rj ≥ (3/4) rk . This proves the second claim of 18.5.

Consider the third claim of 18.5. Suppose to the contrary that x ∈ B (aj , rj /3)∩
B (ai , ri /3) where i < j. Then
||ai − aj || ≤ ||ai − x|| + ||x − aj ||

µ ¶
1 1 4
< (ri + rj ) ≤ ri + ri
3 3 3
7
= ri < ri
9
contrary to the construction which requires aj ∈ / B (ai , ri ).
Finally consider the first claim of 18.5. It is true if J < ∞. This follows from
the construction. If J = ∞, then since A is bounded and the balls, B (aj , rj /3) are
disjoint, it must be the case that limi→∞ ri = 0. Suppose J = ∞ so that Am 6= ∅
for all m. If a0 fails to be covered, then a0 ∈ Ak for all k. Let a0 ∈ B (a0 , r0 ) ∈ F
1
for some ball B (a0 , r0 ) . Then for i large enough, ri < 10 r0 and so since a0 ∈ Ai−1 ,
3 3 1
r0 ≤ sup {r : B (a, r) ∈ F, a ∈ Ai−1 } ≤ ri < r0 ,
4 4 10
a contradiction. This proves the lemma.
Lemma 18.6 There exists a constant Mn depending only on n such that for each
1 ≤ k ≤ J, Mn exceeds the number of sets Bj for j < k which have nonempty
intersection with Bk .
18.1. BESICOVITCH COVERING THEOREM 499
Proof: These sets Bj which intersect Bk are of two types. Either they have
large radius, rj > 10rk , or they have small radius, rj ≤ 10rk . In this argument let
card (S) denote the number of elements in the set S. Define for fixed k,
I ≡ {j : 1 ≤ j < k, Bj ∩ Bk 6= ∅, rj ≤ 10rk },
K ≡ {j : 1 ≤ j < k, Bj ∩ Bk 6= ∅, rj > 10rk }.

¡ r ¢
Claim 1: B aj , 3j ⊆ B (ak , 15rk ) for j ∈ I.
Proof: Let j ∈ I. Then Bj ∩ Bk 6= ∅ and rj ≤ 10rk . Now if
³ rj ´
x ∈ B aj , ,
3
then since rj ≤ 10rk ,
rj
||x − ak || ≤ ||x − aj || + ||aj − ak || ≤ + rj + rk =
3
4 4 43
rj + rk ≤ (10rk ) + rk = rk < 15rk .
3 3 3
¡ r ¢
Therefore, B aj , 3j ⊆ B (ak , 15rk ).
Claim 2: card (I) ≤ 60n .
Proof: Recall r (Bk ) ≤ 34 r (Bj ) . Then letting α (n) rn be the Lebesgue measure
of the n dimensional ball of radius r, (Note this α (n) depends on the norm used.)
X ³ ³ rj ´´
α (n) 15n rkn ≡ mn (B (ak , 15rk )) ≥ m n B aj ,
3
j∈I
X ³ r ń X ³ r ń µ ¶
j k 4
= α (n) ≥ α (n) since rk ≤ rj
3 4 3
j∈I j∈I
³ r ń
k
= card (I) α (n)
4
and so it follows card (I) ≤ 60n as claimed.
Claim 3: card (K) ≤ Ln where Ln is the constant of Corollary 18.3.
Proof: Consider {Bj : j ∈ K} and Bk . Let f (x) ≡ rk−1 (x − xk ) . Then f (Bk ) =
B (0, 1) and
µ ¶
xj − xk
f (Bj ) = rk−1 B (xj − xk , rj ) = B , rj /rk .
rk
Then rj /rk ≥ 10 because j ∈ K. None of the balls, f (Bj ) contain 0 but all these
balls intersect B (0, 1) and as just noted, each of these balls has radius ≥ 10 and
none of them contains two centers on its interior. By Corollary 18.3, it follows there
are no more than Ln of them. This proves the claim. A constant which will satisfy
the desired conditions is
Mn ≡ Ln + 60n + 1.
This completes the proof of Lemma 18.6.
J
Next subdivide the balls {Bi }i=1 into Mn subsets G1 , · · ·, GMn each of which
consists of disjoint balls. This is done in the following way. Let B1 ∈ G1 . If
B1 , · · ·, Bk have each been assigned to one of the sets G1 , · · ·, GMn , let Bk+1 ∈ Gr
where r is the smallest index having the property that Bk+1 does not intersect any
of the balls already in Gr . There must exist such an index r ∈ {1, · · ·, Mn } because
otherwise Bk+1 ∩ Bj 6= ∅ for at least Mn values of j < k + 1 contradicting Lemma
18.6. By Lemma 18.5
A ⊆ ∪M J
i=1 {B : B ∈ Gi } = ∪j=1 Bj .
n
This proves Theorem 18.4 in the case where A is bounded.

To complete the proof of this theorem, the restriction that A is bounded must
be removed. Define
Al ≡ A ∩ {x ∈ Rn : 10 (l − 1) D ≤ ||x|| < 10lD} , l = 1, 2, · · ·
and
Fl = {B (a,r) : B (a,r) ∈ F and a ∈ Al }.
Then since D is an upper bound for all the diameters of these balls,
(∪Fl ) ∩ (∪Fm ) = ∅ (18.6)
whenever m ≥ l + 2. Therefore, applying what was just shown to the pair (Al , Fl ),
l
there exist subsets of Fl , G1l · · · GM n
such that each Gil is a countable collection of
disjoint balls of Fl ⊆ F and
© ª
Al ⊆ ∪M l
i=1 B : B ∈ Gi .
n
2l−1
Now let Gj ≡ ∪∞l=1 Gj for 1 ≤ j ≤ Mn and for 1 ≤ j ≤ Mn , let Gj+Mn ≡ ∪∞ 2l
l=1 Gj .
Thus, letting Nn ≡ 2Mn ,
Nn
A = ∪∞ ∞
l=1 A2l ∪ ∪l=1 A2l−1 ⊆ ∪j=1 {B : B ∈ Gj }
and by 18.6, each Gj is a countable set of disjoint balls of F. This proves the
Besicovitch covering theorem.
18.2 Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus For Radon

Measures
In this section the Besicovitch covering theorem will be used to give a generalization
of the Lebesgue differentiation theorem to general Radon measures. In what follows,
µ will be a Radon measure,
Z ≡ {x ∈ Rn : µ (B (x,r)) = 0 for some r > 0},

Z ½
0 if x ∈ Z,
R
− f dµ ≡ 1
B(x,r) µ(B(x,r)) B(x,r) f dµ if x ∈Z,
/
18.2. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS FOR RADON MEASURES 501
and the maximal function M f : Rn → [0, ∞] is given by

Z
M f (x) ≡ sup − |f | dµ.
r≤1 B(x,r)
Lemma 18.7 Z is measurable and µ (Z) = 0.
Proof: For each x ∈ Z, there exists a ball B (x,r) with µ (B (x,r)) = 0. Let C
be the collection of these balls. Since Rn has a countable basis, a countable subset,
e of C also covers Z. Let
C,
Ce = {Bi }i=1 .
∞
Then letting µ denote the outer measure determined by µ,

∞
X ∞
X
µ (Z) ≤ µ (Bi ) = µ (Bi ) = 0
i=1 i=1
Therefore, Z is measurable and has measure zero as claimed.
Theorem 18.8 Let µ be a Radon measure and let f ∈ L1 (Rn , µ). Then
Z
lim − |f (y) − f (x)| dµ (y) = 0
r→0 B(x,r)
for µ a.e. x ∈ Rn .
Proof: First consider the following claim which is a weak type estimate of the
same sort used when differentiating with respect to Lebesgue measure.
Claim 1:
µ ([M f > ε]) ≤ Nn ε−1 ||f ||1
Proof: First note A ∩ Z = ∅. For each x ∈ A there exists a ball Bx = B (x,rx )
with rx ≤ 1 and Z
−1
µ (Bx ) |f | dµ > ε.
B(x,rx )
Let F be this collection of balls so that A is the set of centers of balls of F. By the
Besicovitch covering theorem,
A ⊆ ∪N
i=1 {B : B ∈ Gi }
n
where Gi is a collection of disjoint balls of F. Now for some i,
µ (A) /Nn ≤ µ (∪ {B : B ∈ Gi })
because if this is not so, then

Nn
X Nn
X µ (A)
µ (A) ≤ µ (∪ {B : B ∈ Gi }) < = µ (A),
i=1 i=1
Nn
a contradiction. Therefore for this i,

X X Z
µ (A)
≤ µ (∪ {B : B ∈ Gi }) = µ (B) ≤ ε−1 |f | dµ
Nn B
B∈Gi B∈Gi
Z
≤ ε−1 |f | dµ = ε−1 ||f ||1 .
Rn
This shows Claim 1.

Claim 2: If g is any continuous function defined on Rn , then
Z
lim − |g (y) − g (x)| dµ (y) = 0
r→0 B(x,r)
and if x ∈
/ Z, Z
1
lim g (y) dµ (y) = g (x). (18.7)
r→0 µ (B (x,r)) B(x,r)
Proof: If x ∈ Z there is nothing to prove. If x ∈ / Z, then since g is continuous

at x, whenever r is small enough,
Z
− |g (y) − g (x)| dµ (y)
B(x,r)
Z
1
= |g (y) − g (x)| dµ (y)
µ (B (x,r)) B(x,r)
Z
1
≤ ε dµ (y) = ε.
µ (B (x,r)) B(x,r)
18.7 follows from the above and the triangle inequality. This proves the claim.
Now let g ∈ Cc (Rn ) and x ∈ / Z. Then from the above observations about
continuous functions,
Ã" Z #!
µ x : lim sup − |f (y) − f (x)| dµ (y) > ε (18.8)
r→0 B(x,r)
Ã" Z #!
ε
≤ µ x : lim sup − |f (y) − g (y)| dµ (y) >
r→0 B(x,r) 2
³h ε i´
+µ x : |g (x) − f (x)| > .
2
³h ε i´ ³h ε i´
≤ µ M (f − g) > + µ |f − g| > (18.9)
2 2
Now Z
ε ³h ε i´
|f − g| dµ ≥ µ |f − g| >
[|f −g|> 2ε ] 2 2
18.2. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS FOR RADON MEASURES 503
and so from Claim 1 18.9 and hence 18.8 is dominated by

µ ¶
2 Nn
+ ||f − g||L1 (Rn ,µ) .
ε ε
But by regularity of Radon measures, Cc (Rn ) is dense in L1 (Rn , µ) and so since g
in the above is arbitrary, this shows 18.8 equals 0. Now
Ã" Z #!
µ x : lim sup − |f (y) − f (x)| dµ (y) > 0
r→0 B(x,r)
Ã Ã" Z #!!
1
= µ ∪∞ m=1 x : lim sup − |f (y) − f (x)| dµ (y) >
r→0 B(x,r) m
∞
Ã" Z #!
X 1
≤ µ x : lim sup − |f (y) − f (x)| dµ (y) > = 0.
m=1
r→0 B(x,r) m
By Lemma 18.7 the set Z is a set of measure zero and so if

" Z #
x∈/ lim sup − |f (y) − f (·)| dµ (y) > 0 ∪ Z
r→0 B(·,r)
the above has shown

Z
0 ≤ lim inf − |f (y) − f (x)| dµ (y)
r→0 B(x,r)
Z
≤ lim sup − |f (y) − f (x)| dµ (y) = 0
r→0 B(x,r)

The following corollary is the main result referred to as the Lebesgue Besicovitch
Differentiation theorem.
Corollary 18.9 If f ∈ L1loc (Rn , µ),
Z
lim − |f (y) − f (x)| dµ (y) = 0 µ a.e. x. (18.10)
r→0 B(x,r)
Proof: If f is replaced by f XB(0,k) then the conclusion 18.10 holds for all x ∈F / k
where Fk is a set of µ measure 0. Letting k = 1, 2, · · ·, and F ≡ ∪∞ k=1 Fk , it follows
that F is a set of measure zero and for any x ∈ / F , and k ∈ {1, 2, · · ·}, 18.10 holds
if f is replaced by f XB(0,k) . Picking any such x, and letting k > |x| + 1, this shows
Z
lim − |f (y) − f (x)| dµ (y)
r→0 B(x,r)
Z
¯ ¯
= lim − ¯f XB(0,k) (y) − f XB(0,k) (x)¯ dµ (y) = 0.
r→0 B(x,r)

18.3 Slicing Measures

Let µ be a finite Radon measure. I will show here that a formula of the following
form holds. Z Z Z
µ (F ) = dµ = XF (x, y) dν x (y) dα (x)
F Rn Rm
m
where α (E) = µ (E × R ). When this is done, the measures, ν x , are called slicing
measures and this shows that an integral with respect to µ can be written as an
iterated integral in terms of the measure α and the slicing measures, ν x . This is
like going backwards in the construction of product measure. One starts with a
measure, µ, defined on the Cartesian product and produces α and an infinite family
of slicing measures from it whereas in the construction of product measure, one
starts with two measures and obtains a new measure on a σ algebra of subsets of
the Cartesian product of two spaces. First here are two technical lemmas.
Lemma 18.10 The space Cc (Rm ) with the norm
||f || ≡ sup {|f (y)| : y ∈ Rm }
is separable.
Proof: Let Dl consist of all functions which are of the form
X ³ ³ ´ńα
C
aα yα dist y,B (0,l + 1)
|α|≤N
where aα ∈ Q, α is a multi-index, and nα is a positive integer. Then Dl is countable,

separates the points of B (0,l) and annihilates ³no point´ of B (0,l). By the Stone
Weierstrass theorem Dl is dense in the space C B (0,l) and so ∪ {Dl : l ∈ N} is a
countable dense subset of Cc (Rm ).
From the regularity of Radon measures, the following lemma follows.
Lemma 18.11 If µ and ν are two Radon measures defined on σ algebras, Sµ and
Sν , of subsets of Rn and if µ (V ) = ν (V ) for all V open, then µ = ν and Sµ = Sν .
Proof: Every compact set is a countable intersection of open sets so the two
measures agree on every compact set. Hence it is routine that the two measures
agree on every Gδ and Fσ set. (Recall Gδ sets are countable intersections of open
sets and Fσ sets are countable unions of closed sets.) Now suppose E ∈ Sν is a
bounded set. Then by regularity of ν there exists G a Gδ set and F, an Fσ set
such that F ⊆ E ⊆ G and ν (G \ F ) = 0. Then it is also true that µ (G \ F ) = 0.
Hence E = F ∪ (E \ F ) and E \ F is a subset of G \ F, a set of µ measure zero. By
completeness of µ, it follows E ∈ Sµ and
µ (E) = µ (F ) = ν (F ) = ν (E) .
If E ∈ Sν not necessarily bounded, let Em = E ∩ B (0, m) and then Em ∈ Sµ and
µ (Em ) = ν (Em ) . Letting m → ∞, E ∈ Sµ and µ (E) = ν (E) . Similarly, Sµ ⊆ Sν
and the two measures are equal on Sµ .
The main result in the section is the following theorem.
18.3. SLICING MEASURES 505
Theorem 18.12 Let µ be a finite Radon measure on Rn+m defined on a σ algebra,

F. Then there exists a unique finite Radon measure, α, defined on a σ algebra, S,
of sets of Rn which satisfies
α (E) = µ (E × Rm ) (18.11)
for all E Borel. There also exists a Borel set of α measure zero, N , such that
/ N , there exists a Radon probability measure ν x such that if f is a
for each x ∈
nonnegative µ measurable function or a µ measurable function in L1 (µ),
y → f (x, y) is ν x measurable α a.e.

Z
x→ f (x, y) dν x (y) is α measurable (18.12)
Rm
and Z Z µZ ¶
f (x, y) dµ = f (x, y) dν x (y) dα (x). (18.13)
Rn+m Rn Rm
If νbx is any other collection of Radon measures satisfying 18.12 and 18.13, then
νbx = ν x for α a.e. x.
Proof: First consider the uniqueness of α. Suppose α1 is another Radon measure

satisfying 18.11. Then in particular, α1 and α agree on open sets and so the two
measures are the same by Lemma 18.11.
To establish the existence of α, define α0 on Borel sets by
α0 (E) = µ (E × Rm ).
Thus α0 is a finite Borel measure and so it is finite on compact sets. Lemma 11.3
on Page 11.3 implies the existence of the Radon measure α extending α0 .
Next consider the uniqueness of ν x . Suppose ν x and νbx satisfy all conclusions
of the theorem with exceptional sets denoted by N and N b respectively. Then,
b
enlarging N and N , one may also assume, using Lemma 18.7, that for x ∈ / N ∪N b,
α (B (x,r)) > 0 whenever r > 0. Now let
m
Y
A= (ai , bi ]
i=1
where ai and bi are rational. Thus there are countably many such sets. Then from
the conclusion of the theorem, if x0 ∈
/ N ∪N b,
Z Z
1
XA (y) dν x (y) dα
α (B (x0 , r)) B(x0 ,r) Rm
Z Z
1
= XA (y) db
ν x (y) dα,
α (B (x0 , r)) B(x0 ,r) Rm
and by the Lebesgue Besicovitch Differentiation theorem, there exists a set of α

measure zero, EA , such that if x0 ∈/ EA ∪ N ∪ N b , then the limit in the above exists
as r → 0 and yields
ν x0 (A) = νbx0 (A).
Letting E denote the union of all the sets EA for A as described above, it follows
that E is a set of measure zero and if x0 ∈ / E∪N ∪N b then ν x (A) = νbx (A) for
0 0
all such sets A. But every open set can be written as a disjoint union of sets of this
form and so for all such x0 , ν x0 (V ) = νbx0 (V ) for all V open. By Lemma 18.11
this shows the two measures are equal and proves the uniqueness assertion for ν x .
It remains to show the existence of the measures ν x . This will be done with the aid
of the following lemma. The idea is to define a positive linear functional which will
yield the desired measure, ν x and this lemma will help in making this definition.
Lemma 18.13 There exists a set N of α measure 0, independent of f ∈ Cc (Rn+m )
such that if x ∈
/ N , α (B (x,r)) > 0 for all r > 0 and
Z
1
lim f dµ = gf (x)
r→0 α (B (x,r)) B(x,r)×Rm
where gf is a α measurable function with the property that

Z Z
gf (x) dα = f dµ.
Rn Rn ×Rm
Proof: Let f ∈ Cc (Rn+m ) and let

Z
η f (E) ≡ f dµ.
E×Rm
Then η f is a finite measure defined on the Borel sets with η f ¿ α. By the Radon
Nikodym theorem, there exists a Borel measurable function gef such that for all
Borel E, Z Z
η f (E) ≡ f dµ = gef dα. (18.14)
E×Rm E
By the theory of differentiation for Radon measures, there exists a set of α measure
zero, Nf such that if x ∈N
/ f , then α (B (x,r)) > 0 for all r > 0 and
Z Z
1
lim f dµ = lim − gef dα = gef (x).
r→0 α (B (x,r)) B(x,r)×Rm r→0 B(x,r)
Let D be a countable dense subset of Cc (Rn+m ) and let

N ≡ ∪ {Nf : f ∈ D}.
Then if f ∈ Cc (Rn+m ) is arbitrary, and x ∈N / , referring to 18.14, it follows there
exists g ∈ D close enough to f such that for all r1 , r2 ,
¯ Z Z ¯
¯ 1 1 ¯
¯ ¯
¯ f dµ − f dµ¯ <
¯ α (B (x,r1 )) B(x,r1 )×Rm α (B (x,r2 )) B(x,r2 )×Rm ¯
18.3. SLICING MEASURES 507
¯ Z Z ¯
ε ¯¯ 1 1 ¯
¯
+¯ gdµ − gdµ¯
2 ¯ α (B (x,r1 )) B(x,r1 )×Rm α (B (x,r2 )) B(x,r2 )×Rm ¯
Therefore, taking ri small enough, the right side is less than ε. Since ε is arbitrary,
this shows the limit as r → 0 exists. Define this limit which exists for all f ∈
Cc (Rn+m ) and x ∈ / N as gf (x). By the first part of the argument, gf (x) = gef (x)
a.e. Thus, gf (x) is α measurable because it equals a Borel measurable function α
a.e. The final formula follows from
Z Z Z
gf (x) dα = gef (x) dα ≡ η f (Rn ) ≡ f dµ.
Rn Rn Rn ×Rm

Continuing with the proof of the theorem, let x ∈
/ N and let f (z, y) ≡ ψ (z) φ (y)
where ψ and φ are continuous functions with compact support in Rn and Rm re-
spectively. Suppose first that ψ (x) = 1. Then define a positive linear functional
Z
1
Lx φ ≡ lim ψ (z) φ (y) dµ (z, y).
This functional may appear to depend on the choice of ψ satisfying ψ (x) = 1 but
this is not the case because all such ψ 0 s used in the definition of Lx are continuous.
Let ν x be the Radon measure representing Lx . Thus replacing an arbitrary
ψ
ψ ∈ Cc (Rn ) with ψ(x) , in the case when ψ (x) 6= 0,
Z
ψ (x) Lx (φ) = ψ (x) φ (y) dν x (y)
Rm
Z
ψ (x) ψ
= lim φdµ
r→0 α (B (x,r)) B(x,r)×Rm ψ (x)
Z
1
= lim ψφdµ
By Lemma 18.13,
Z Z Z Z
ψφdν x dα = gψφ dα = ψφdµ.
Rn Rm Rn Rn ×Rm
Letting ψ k , φk increase to 1 pointwise, the monotone convergence theorem implies

Z Z
ν x (Rm ) dα = dµ = µ (Rn × Rm ) < ∞ (18.15)
Rn Rn ×Rm
showing that x →ν x (Rm ) is a function in L1 (α). In particular, this function is

finite α a.e. Summarizing, the above has shown that whenever ψ ∈ Cc (Rn ) and
φ ∈ Cc (Rm ) Z Z Z
ψφdν x dα = ψφdµ. (18.16)
Rn Rm Rn ×Rm
Also ν x is a finite measure α a.e. and ν x and α are Radon measures.

Next it is shown that ψφ can be replaced by XE where E is an arbitrary µ
measurable set. To do so, let
n
Y m
Y
R1 ≡ (ai , bi ], R2 ≡ (ci , di ] (18.17)
i=1 i=1
and let ψ k be a sequence of functions in Cc (Rn ) which is bounded, piecewise linear

in each variable, and converging pointwise to XR1 . Also let φk be a similar sequence
converging pointwise to XR2 . Then by the dominated convergence theorem,
Z Z
XR1 (x) XR2 (y) dµ = lim ψ k (x) φk (y) dµ
Rn ×Rm k→∞ Rn ×Rm
Z µZ ¶
= lim ψ k (x) φk (y) dν x dα. (18.18)
k→∞ Rn Rm
Since ν x is finite α a.e., it follows that for α a.e. x,

Z Z
lim φk (y) dν x = XR2 (y) dν x .
k→∞ Rm Rm
Since the φk are uniformly bounded, 18.15 implies the existence of a dominating
function for the integrand in 18.18. Therefore, one can take the limit inside the
integrals and obtain
Z Z Z
XR1 (x) XR2 (y) dµ = XR1 (x) XR2 (y) dν x dα
Rn ×Rm Rn Rm
Every open set, V in Rn+m is a countable disjoint union of such half open rectangles
and so the monotone convergence theorem implies for all V open in Rn+m ,
Z Z Z
XV dµ = XV dν x dα. (18.19)
Rn ×Rm Rn Rm
Since every compact set is the countable intersection of open sets, the above for-
mula holds for V replaced with K where K is compact. Then it follows from the
dominated convergence and monotone convergence theorems that whenever H is
either a Gδ (countable intersection of open sets) or a Fσ (countable union of closed
sets) Z Z Z
XH dµ = XH dν x dα.
Rn ×Rm Rn Rm
Now let E be µ measurable. Using the regularity of µ there exists F, G such that
F is Fσ , G is Gδ , µ (G \ F ) = 0, and F ⊆ E ⊆ G. Also a routine application of the
dominated convergence theorem and 18.19 shows
Z Z Z
X(G\F ) dµ = X(G\F ) dν x dα
Rn ×Rm Rn Rm
and (G \ F )x ≡ {y : (x, y) ∈ G \ F } is ν x measurable for α a.e. x, wherever ν x is a

finite measure, and for α a.e. x, ν x (G \ F )x = 0. Therefore, for α a.e. x, Ex is ν x
measurable because Ex = Fx + Sx where Sx ⊆ (G \ F )x , a set of ν x measure zero
and Fx is an Fσ set which is measurable because ν x is a Radon measure coming as
it does from a positive linear functional. Therefore,
Z Z Z Z
XE dµ = XF dµ = XF dν x dα
Rn ×Rm n m Rn Rm
ZR ×RZ
= XE dν x dα. (18.20)
Rn Rm
It follows from 18.20 that one can replace XE with an arbitrary nonnegative µ
measurable simple function, s. Letting f be a nonnegative µ measurable function,
it follows there is an increasing sequence of nonnegative simple functions converging
to f pointwise and so by the monotone convergence theorem,
Z Z Z
f dµ = f dν x dα
Rn ×Rm Rn Rm
R
where y → f (x, y) is ν x measurable for α a.e. x and x → Rm f dν x is α measurable
so the iterated integral makes sense.
To see ν x is a probability measure for a.e. x,
Z Z
1
dν x dα
α (B (x, r)) B(x,r) Rm
1
= µ (B (x, r) × Rm ) = 1
α (B (x, r))
and so, using the fundamental theorem of calculus it follows that upon passing to
a limit as r → 0, it follows that for α a.e. x
Z
m
ν x (R ) = dν x = 1
Rm
Due to the regularity of the measures, all sets of measure zero may be taken to be
Borel. In the case of f ∈ L1 (µ) , one applies the above to the positive and negative
parts of the real and imaginary parts. This proves the theorem.
18.4 Vitali Coverings

There is another covering theorem which may also be referred to as the Besicovitch
covering theorem. As before, the balls can be taken with respect to any norm on
Rn . At first, the balls will be closed but this assumption will be removed.
Definition 18.14 A collection of balls, F covers a set, E in the sense of Vitali if

whenever x ∈ E and ε > 0, there exists a ball B ∈ F whose center is x having
diameter less than ε.
I will give a proof of the following theorem.

Theorem 18.15 Let µ be a Radon measure on Rn and let E be a set with µ (E) <
∞. Where µ is the outer measure determined by µ. Suppose F is a collection of
closed balls which cover E in the sense of Vitali. Then there exists a sequence of
disjoint balls, {Bi } ⊆ F such that
¡ ¢
µ E \ ∪∞
j=1 Bj = 0.
Proof: Let Nn be the constant of the Besicovitch covering theorem. Choose

r > 0 such that µ ¶
−1 1
(1 − r) 1− ≡ λ < 1.
2Nn + 2
If µ (E) = 0, there is nothing to prove so assume µ (E) > 0. Let U1 be an open
set containing E with (1 − r) µ (U1 ) < µ (E) and 2µ (E) > µ (U1 ) , and let F1 be
those sets of F which are contained in U1 whose centers are in E. Thus F1 is also
a Vitali cover of E. Now by the Besicovitch covering theorem proved earlier, there
exist balls, B, of F1 such that
E ⊆ ∪N
i=1 {B : B ∈ Gi }
n
where Gi consists of a collection of disjoint balls of F1 . Therefore,

Nn X
X
µ (E) ≤ µ (B)
i=1 B∈Gi
and so, for some i ≤ Nn ,

X
(Nn + 1) µ (B) > µ (E) .
B∈Gi
It follows there exists a finite set of balls of Gi , {B1 , · · ·, Bm1 } such that
m1
X
(Nn + 1) µ (Bi ) > µ (E) (18.21)
i=1
and so
m1
X
(2Nn + 2) µ (Bi ) > 2µ (E) > µ (U1 ) .
i=1
Since 2µ (E) ≥ µ (U1 ) , 18.21 implies

X 1 m
µ (U1 ) 2µ (E) µ (E)
≤ = < µ (Bi ) .
2N2 + 2 2N2 + 2 N2 + 1 i=1
Also U1 was chosen such that (1 − r) µ (U1 ) < µ (E) , and so

µ ¶
1
λµ (E) ≥ λ (1 − r) µ (U1 ) = 1 − µ (U1 )
2Nn + 2
m1
X ¡ 1 ¢
≥ µ (U1 ) − µ (Bi ) = µ (U1 ) − µ ∪m
j=1 Bj
i=1
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= µ U1 \ ∪m m1
j=1 Bj ≥ µ E \ ∪j=1 Bj .
1
Since the balls are closed, you can consider the sets of F which have empty intersec-
tion with ∪m m1
j=1 Bj and this new collection of sets will be a Vitali cover of E \∪j=1 Bj .
1
Letting this collection of balls play the role of F in the above argument and letting
E \ ∪mj=1 Bj play the role of E, repeat the above argument and obtain disjoint sets
1
of F,
{Bm1 +1 , · · ·, Bm2 } ,
such that
¡ ¢ ¡¡ ¢ ¢ ¡ ¢
λµ E \ ∪m
j=1 Bj > µ
1
E \ ∪m m2 m2
j=1 Bj \ ∪j=m1 +1 Bj = µ E \ ∪j=1 Bj ,
1
and so ¡ ¢
λ2 µ (E) > µ E \ ∪m
j=1 Bj .
2
Continuing in this way, yields a sequence of disjoint balls {Bi } contained in F and
¡ ¢ ¡ mk
¢ k
µ E \ ∪∞ j=1 Bj ≤ µ E \ ∪j=1 Bj < λ µ (E )
¡ ¢
for all k. Therefore, µ E \ ∪∞ j=1 Bj = 0 and this proves the Theorem.
It is not necessary to assume µ (E) < ∞.
Corollary 18.16 Let µ be a Radon measure on Rn . Letting µ be the outer measure

determined by µ, suppose F is a collection of closed balls which cover E in the sense
of Vitali. Then there exists a sequence of disjoint balls, {Bi } ⊆ F such that
¡ ¢
µ E \ ∪∞j=1 Bj = 0.
Proof: Since µ is a Radon measure it is finite on compact sets. Therefore,

∞
there are at most countably many numbers, {bi }i=1 such that µ (∂B (0, bi )) > 0. It
∞
follows there exists an increasing sequence of positive numbers, {ri }i=1 such that
limi→∞ ri = ∞ and µ (∂B (0, ri )) = 0. Now let
D1 ≡ {x : ||x|| < r1 } , D2 ≡ {x : r1 < ||x|| < r2 } ,

· · ·, Dm ≡ {x : rm−1 < ||x|| < rm } , · · ·.
Let Fm denote those closed balls of F which are contained in Dm . Then letting
Em denote E ∩ Dm , Fm is a Vitali cover of Em , µ (Em ) < ∞,© andªso by Theorem
∞
18.15, there exists a countable sequence of balls from Fm Bjm j=1 , such that
¡ ¢ © ª∞
µ Em \ ∪∞ m
j=1 Bj = 0. Then consider the countable collection of balls, Bjm j,m=1 .
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
µ E \ ∪∞ ∞
m=1 ∪j=1 Bj
m
≤ µ ∪∞
j=1 ∂B (0, ri ) +
∞
X ¡ ¢
+ µ Em \ ∪∞ m
j=1 Bj = 0
m=1

You don’t need to assume the balls are closed. In fact, the balls can be open
closed or anything in between and the same conclusion can be drawn.
Corollary 18.17 Let µ be a Radon measure on Rn . Letting µ be the outer measure

determined by µ, suppose F is a collection of balls which cover E in the sense
of Vitali, open closed or neither. Then there exists a sequence of disjoint balls,
{Bi } ⊆ F such that
¡ ¢
µ E \ ∪∞
j=1 Bj = 0.
Proof: Let x ∈ E. Thus x is the center of arbitrarily small balls from F. Since
µ is a Radon measure, at most countably many radii, r of these balls can have
the property that µ (∂B (0, r)) = 0. Let F 0 denote the closures of the balls of F,
B (x, r) with the property that µ (∂B (x, r)) = 0. Since for each x ∈ E there are only
countably many exceptions, F 0 is still a Vitali cover of© E.ªTherefore, by Corollary
∞
18.16 there is a disjoint sequence of these balls of F 0 , Bi i=1 for which
¡ ¢
µ E \ ∪∞
j=1 Bj = 0
However, since their boundaries have µ measure zero, it follows

¡ ¢
µ E \ ∪∞
j=1 Bj = 0.
18.5 Differentiation Of Radon Measures

This section is a generalization of earlier material in which a measure was differ-
entiated with respect to Lebesgue measure. Here an arbitrary Radon measure will
be differentiated with respect to another arbitrary Radon measure. In this sec-
tion, B (x, r) will denote a ball with center x and radius r. Also, let λ and µ be
Radon measures and as above, Z will denote a µ measure zero set off of which
µ (B (x, r)) > 0 for all r > 0.
Definition 18.18 For x ∈Z,

/ define the upper and lower symmetric derivatives as
λ (B (x, r)) λ (B (x, r))

Dµ λ (x) ≡ lim sup , Dµ λ (x) ≡ lim inf .
r→0 µ (B (x, r)) r→0 µ (B (x, r))
respectively. Also define
Dµ λ (x) ≡ Dµ λ (x) = Dµ λ (x)
in the case when both the upper and lower derivatives are equal.
18.5. DIFFERENTIATION OF RADON MEASURES 513
Lemma 18.19 Let λª and µ be Radon measures. If A is a bounded subset of

©
x∈/ Z : Dµ λ (x) ≥ a , then
λ (A) ≥ aµ (A)
© ª
and if A is a bounded subset of x ∈
/ Z : Dµ λ (x) ≤ a , then
λ (A) ≤ aµ (A)
© ª
Proof: Suppose first that A is a bounded subset of x ∈/ Z : Dµ λ (x) ≥ a , let
ε > 0, and let V be a bounded open set with V ⊇ A and λ (V ) − ε < λ (A) , µ (V ) −
ε < µ (A) . Then if x ∈ A,
λ (B (x, r))
> a − ε, B (x, r) ⊆ V,
µ (B (x, r))
for infinitely many values of r which are arbitrarily small. Thus the collection of
such balls constitutes a Vitali cover for A. By Corollary 18.17 there is a disjoint
sequence of these balls {Bi } such that
µ (A \ ∪∞
i=1 Bi ) = 0. (18.22)
Therefore,
∞
X ∞
X
(a − ε) µ (Bi ) < λ (Bi ) ≤ λ (V ) < ε + λ (A)
i=1 i=1
and so
∞
X
a µ (Bi ) ≤ ε + εµ (V ) + λ (A)
i=1
≤ ε + ε (µ (A) + ε) + λ (A) (18.23)
Now
µ (A \ ∪∞ ∞
i=1 Bi ) + µ (∪i=1 Bi ) ≥ µ (A)
and so by 18.22 and the fact the Bi are disjoint,

∞
X
aµ (A) ≤ aµ (∪∞
i=1 Bi ) = a µ (Bi )
i=1
≤ ε + ε (µ (A) + ε) + λ (A) . (18.24)
Hence aµ (A) ≤ λ (A) since ε > 0 was arbitrary.

© ª
Now suppose A is a bounded subset of x ∈ / Z : Dµ λ (x) ≤ a and let V be a
bounded open set containing A with µ (V ) − ε < µ (A) . Then if x ∈ A,
λ (B (x, r))
< a + ε, B (x, r) ⊆ V
µ (B (x, r))
for values of r which are arbitrarily small. Therefore, by Corollary 18.17 again,
there exists a disjoint sequence of these balls, {Bi } satisfying this time,
λ (A \ ∪∞
i=1 Bi ) = 0.
Then by arguments similar to the above,

∞
X
λ (A) ≤ λ (Bi ) < (a + ε) µ (V ) < (a + ε) (µ (A) + ε) .
i=1
Since ε was arbitrary, this proves the lemma.
Theorem 18.20 There exists a set of measure zero, N containing Z such that
for x ∈
/ N, Dµ λ (x) exists and also XN C (·) Dµ λ (·) is a µ measurable function.
Furthermore, Dµ λ (x) < ∞ µ a.e.
Proof: First I show Dµ λ (x) exists a.e. Let 0 ≤ a b > a > Dµ λ (x) .
By Lemma 18.19,
aµ (A) ≥ λ (A) ≥ bµ (A)
and so µ (A) = 0 and A is µ measurable. It follows µ (N (a, b)) = 0 because
∞
X
µ (N (a, b)) ≤ µ (N (a, b) ∩ B (0, m)) = 0.
m=1
Define © ª
N0 ≡ x ∈
/ Z : Dµ λ (x) > Dµ λ (x) .
Thus µ (N0 ) = 0 because
N0 ⊆ ∪ {N (a, b) : 0 ≤ a < b, and a, b ∈ Q}
Therefore, N0 is also µ measurable and has µ measure zero. Letting N ≡ N0 ∪ Z, it

follows Dµ λ (x) exists on N C . It remains to verify XN C (·) Dµ λ (·) is finite a.e. and
is µ measurable.
Let
I = {x : Dµ λ (x) = ∞} .
Then by Lemma 18.19
λ (I ∩ B (0, m)) ≥ aµ (I ∩ B (0, m))
for all a and since λ is finite on bounded sets, the above implies µ (I ∩ B (0, m)) = 0
for each m which implies that I is µ measurable and has µ measure zero since
I = ∪∞
m=1 Im .
18.6. THE RADON NIKODYM THEOREM FOR RADON MEASURES 515
Letting η be an arbitrary Radon measure, let r > 0, and suppose η (∂B (x, r)) =
0. (Since η is finite on every ball, there are only countably many r such that
η (∂B (x, r)) > 0.) and let V be an open set containing B (x, r). Then whenever
y is close enough to x, it follows that B (y, r) is also a subset of V. Since V is an
arbitrary open set containing B (x, r), it follows
³ ´
η (B (x, r)) = η B (x, r) ≥ lim sup η (B (y, r))
y→x
and so y → η (B (y, r)) an upper semicontinuous real valued function of x, one

which satisfies
f (x) ≥ lim sup f (xn )
n→∞
whenever xn → x. Now it is routine to verify that a function f is upper semicon-

tinuous if and only if f −1 ([−∞, a)) is open for all a ∈ R. Therefore, f −1 ([−∞, a))
is a Borel set for all a ∈ R and so f is Borel measurable by Lemma 8.6. Now the
measurability of XN C (·) Dµ λ (·) follows from
λ (B (x, ri ))
XN C (x) Dµ λ (x) = lim XN C (x)
ri →0 µ (B (x, ri ))
where ri is such that ∂B (x, ri ) has µ and λ measure zero.
18.6 The Radon Nikodym Theorem For Radon Mea-

sures
The above theory can be used to give an alternate treatment of the Radon Nikodym
theorem which exhibits the Radon Nikodym derivative as a specific limit.
Theorem 18.21 Let λ and µ be Radon measures and suppose λ ¿ µ. Then for all
E a µ measurable set, Z
λ (E) = (Dµ λ) dµ.
E
Proof: Let t > 1 and let E be a µ measurable set which is bounded and a
subset of N C where N is the exceptional set of µ measure zero in Theorem 18.20
off of which µ (B (x,r)) > 0 for all r > 0 and Dµ λ (x) exists. Consider
© ª
Em ≡ E ∩ x ∈ N C : tm ≤ Dµ λ (x) < tm+1
for m ∈ Z, the integers. First note that

© ª
E ∩ x ∈ N C : Dµ λ (x) = 0
has λ measure zero because by Lemma 18.19,

¡ © ª¢
λ E ∩ x ∈ N C : Dµ λ (x) = 0 ≤ aµ (E )
for all a > 0 and µ (E ) is finite due to the assumption that E is bounded and µ is
a Radon measure. Therefore, by Lemma 18.19,
X X X
λ (E) = λ (Em ) ≤ tm+1 µ (Em ) = t tm µ (Em )
m∈Z m∈Z m∈Z
XZ Z
≤t Dµ λ (x) dµ = t Dµ λ (x) dµ.
m∈Z Em E
Also by this same lemma,

X X X
λ (E) = λ (Em ) ≥ tm µ (Em ) = t−1 tm+1 µ (Em )
m∈Z m∈Z m∈Z
XZ Z
≥ t−1 Dµ λ (x) dµ = t−1 Dµ λ (x) dµ.
m∈Z Em E
Thus, Z Z
t Dµ λ (x) dµ ≥ λ (E) ≥ t−1 Dµ λ (x) dµ
E E
and letting t → 1, it follows
Z
λ (E) = Dµ λ (x) dµ. (18.25)
E
Now if E is an arbitrary measurable set, contained in N C , this formula holds with

E replaced with E ∩ B (0,k) . Letting k → ∞ and using the monotone convergence
theorem, the above formula holds for all E ⊆ N C . Since N is a set of µ measure
zero, it follows N is also a set of λ measure zero due to the assumption of absolute
continuity. Therefore 18.25 continues to hold for arbitrary µ measurable sets, E.
Fourier Transforms
19.1 An Algebra Of Special Functions

First recall the following definition of a polynomial.
Definition 19.1 α = (α1 , · · ·, αn ) for α1 · · · αn positive integers is called a multi-

index. For α a multi-index, |α| ≡ α1 + · · · + αn and if x ∈ Rn ,
x = (x1 , · · ·, xn ) ,

1 x2 · · · xn .
A polynomial in n variables of degree m is a function of the form

X
p (x) = aα xα .
|α|≤m
Here α is a multi-index as just described and aα ∈ C. Also define for α = (α1 , ···, αn )
a multi-index
∂ |α| f
Dα f (x) ≡ αn .
∂x1 ∂xα
α1
2 · · · ∂xn
2
2
Definition 19.2 Define G1 to be the functions of the form p (x) e−a|x| where a > 0
and p (x) is a polynomial. Let G be all finite sums of functions in G1 . Thus G is an
algebra of functions which has the property that if f ∈ G then f ∈ G.
It is always assumed, unless stated otherwise that the measure will be Lebesgue
measure.
Lemma 19.3 G is dense in C0 (Rn ) with respect to the norm,
||f ||∞ ≡ sup {|f (x)| : x ∈ Rn }
517
518 FOURIER TRANSFORMS
Proof: By the Weierstrass approximation theorem, it suffices to show G sep-

arates the points and annihilates no point. It was already observed in the above
definition that f ∈ G whenever f ∈ G. If y1 6= y2 suppose first that |y1 | 6= |y2 | .
2
Then in this case, you can let f (x) ≡ e−|x| and f ∈ G and f (y1 ) 6= f (y2 ). If
|y1 | = |y2 | , then suppose y1k 6= y2k . This must happen for some k because y1 6= y2 .
2 2
Then let f (x) ≡ xk e−|x| . Thus G separates points. Now e−|x| is never equal to
zero and so G annihilates no point of Rn . This proves the lemma.
These functions are clearly quite specialized. Therefore, the following theorem
is somewhat surprising.
Theorem 19.4 For each p ≥ 1, p < ∞, G is dense in Lp (Rn ).
Proof: Let f ∈ Lp (Rn ) . Then there exists g ∈ Cc (Rn ) such that ||f − g||p < ε.
Now let b > 0 be large enough that
Z ³ ´
2 p
e−b|x| dx < εp .
Rn
2
Then x → g (x) eb|x| is in Cc (Rn ) ⊆ C0 (Rn ) . Therefore, from Lemma 19.3 there
exists ψ ∈ G such that ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ b|·|2 ¯¯
¯¯ge − ψ ¯¯ < 1
∞
−b|x|2
Therefore, letting φ (x) ≡ e ψ (x) it follows that φ ∈ G and for all x ∈ Rn ,
2
|g (x) − φ (x)| < e−b|x|
Therefore,
µZ ¶1/p µZ ³ ´p ¶1/p
p −b|x|2
|g (x) − φ (x)| dx ≤ e dx < ε.
Rn Rn
It follows
||f − φ||p ≤ ||f − g||p + ||g − φ||p < 2ε.
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this proves the theorem.
The following lemma is also interesting even if it is obvious.
Lemma 19.5 For ψ ∈ G , p a polynomial, and α, β multiindices, Dα ψ ∈ G and

pψ ∈ G. Also
sup{|xβ Dα ψ(x)| : x ∈ Rn } < ∞
19.2 Fourier Transforms Of Functions In G

Definition 19.6 For ψ ∈ G Define the Fourier transform, F and the inverse
Fourier transform, F −1 by
Z
F ψ(t) ≡ (2π)−n/2 e−it·x ψ(x)dx,
Rn
19.2. FOURIER TRANSFORMS OF FUNCTIONS IN G 519
Z
F −1 ψ(t) ≡ (2π)−n/2 eit·x ψ(x)dx.
Rn
Pn
where t · x ≡ i=1 ti xi .Note there is no problem with this definition because ψ is in
L1 (Rn ) and therefore, ¯ it·x ¯
¯e ψ(x)¯ ≤ |ψ(x)| ,
an integrable function.
One reason for using the functions, G is that it is very easy to compute the
Fourier transform of these functions. The first thing to do is to verify F and F −1
map G to G and that F −1 ◦ F (ψ) = ψ.
Lemma 19.7 The following formulas are true

Z Z √
−c(x+it)2 −c(x−it)2 π
e dx = e dx = √ , (19.1)
R R c
Z Z µ √ ¶n
π
e−c(x+it)·(x+it) dx = e−c(x−it)·(x−it) dx = √ , (19.2)
Rn Rn c
Z Z √
−ct2 −ist −ct2 ist π − s4c
2
e e dt = e e dt = e √ , (19.3)
R R c
Z Z µ √ ¶n
−c|t|2 −is·t −c|t|2 is·t
|s|2
− 4c π
e e dt = e e dt = e √ . (19.4)
Rn Rn c
Proof: Consider the first one. Simple manipulations yield

Z Z
2 2 2
H (t) ≡ e−c(x+it) dx = ect e−cx cos (2cxt) dx.
R R
Now using the dominated convergence theorem to justify passing derivatives inside
the integral where necessary and using integration by parts,
Z Z
0 ct2 −cx2 ct2 2
H (t) = 2cte e cos (2cxt) dx − e e−cx sin (2cxt) 2xcdx
R R
Z
ct2 −cx2
= 2ctH (t) − e 2ct e cos (2cxt) dx = 2ct (H (t) − H (t)) = 0
R
R 2
and so H (t) = H (0) = R
e−cx dx ≡ I. Thus
Z Z ∞ Z 2π
2 −c(x2 +y 2 ) 2 π
I = e dxdy = e−cr rdθdr = .
R2 0 0 c
√ √
Therefore, I = π/ c. Since the sign of t is unimportant, this proves 19.1. This
also proves 19.2 after writing as iterated integrals.
Consider 19.3.
Z Z ³ ´
is 2
c +( 2c )
2
2 −c t2 − ist − s4c
e−ct eist dt = e e dt
R R
Z √
2
− s4c −c(t− 2c
is
)
2 2
− s4c π
= e e dt = e √ .
R c
Changing the variable t → −t gives the other part of 19.3.

Finally 19.4 follows from using iterated integrals.
With these formulas, it is easy to verify F, F −1 map G to G and F ◦ F −1 =
−1
F ◦ F = id.
Theorem 19.8 Each of F and F −1 map G to G. Also F −1 ◦ F (ψ) = ψ and

F ◦ F −1 (ψ) = ψ.
Proof: The first claim will be shown if it is shown that F ψ ∈ G for ψ (x) =
α −b|x|2
x e because an arbitrary function of G is a finite sum of scalar multiples of
functions such as ψ. Using Lemma 19.7,
µ ¶n/2 Z
1 2
F ψ (t) ≡ e−it·x xα e−b|x| dx
2π Rn
µ ¶n/2 µZ ¶
1 −|α| 2
= (i) Dtα e−it·x e−b|x| dx
2π Rn
µ ¶n/2 µ µ √ ¶n ¶
1 −|α| α
|t|2
− 2b π
= (i) Dt e √
2π b
|t|2
and this is clearly in G because it equals a polynomial times e− 2b . It remains
to verify the other assertion. As in the first case, it suffices to consider ψ (x) =
2
xα e−b|x| . Using Lemma 19.7 and³ ordinary integration by parts on the iterated
R 2 |s|2
√ ń
integrals, Rn e−c|t| eis·t dt = e− 2c √πc ,
F −1 ◦ F (ψ) (s)
µ ¶n/2 Z µ ¶n/2 Z
1 1 2
≡ eis·t e−it·x xα e−b|x| dxdt
2π Rn 2π Rn
µ ¶n Z µZ ¶
1 −|α| 2
= eis·t (−i) Dtα e−it·x e−b|x| dxdt
2π Rn Rn
µ ¶n/2 Z µ ¶n/2 µ µ √ ¶n ¶
1 is·t 1 −|α| α
|t|2
− 4b π
= e (−i) Dt e √ dt
2π Rn 2π b
19.3. FOURIER TRANSFORMS OF JUST ABOUT ANYTHING 521
µ ¶n µ √ ¶n Z µ ¶
1 π −|α| is·t α
|t|2
− 4b
= √ (−i) e Dt e dt
2π b Rn
µ ¶n µ √ ¶n Z
1 π −|α| |α| |α| |t|2
= √ (−i) (−1) sα (i) eis·t e− 4b dt
2π b Rn
µ ¶n µ √ ¶n Z
1 π |t|2
= √ sα eis·t e− 4b dt
2π b Rn
µ ¶n µ √ ¶n Ã √ !n
1 π |s|2
α − 4(1/(4b)) π
= √ s e p
2π b 1/ (4b)
µ ¶n µ √ ¶n ³
1 π 2 √ √ ń 2
= √ sα e−b|s| π2 b = sα e−b|s| = ψ (s) .
2π b
This little computation proves the theorem. The other case is entirely similar.
19.3 Fourier Transforms Of Just About Anything

Definition 19.9 Let G ∗ denote the vector space of linear functions defined on G
which have values in C. Thus T ∈ G ∗ means T : G →C and T is linear,
T (aψ + bφ) = aT (ψ) + bT (φ) for all a, b ∈ C, ψ, φ ∈ G
Let ψ ∈ G. Then define Tψ ∈ G ∗ by

Z
Tψ (φ) ≡ ψ (x) φ (x) dx
Rn
Lemma 19.10 The following is obtained for all φ, ψ ∈ G.

¡ ¢
TF ψ (φ) = Tψ (F φ) , TF −1 ψ (φ) = Tψ F −1 φ
Also if ψ ∈ G and Tψ = 0, then ψ = 0.
Proof:
Z
TF ψ (φ) ≡ F ψ (t) φ (t) dt
Rn
Z µ ¶n/2 Z
1
= e−it·x ψ(x)dxφ (t) dt
Rn 2π Rn
Z µ ¶n/2 Z
1
= ψ(x) e−it·x φ (t) dtdx
Rn 2π Rn
Z
= ψ(x)F φ (x) dx ≡ Tψ (F φ)
Rn
The other claim is similar.

Suppose now Tψ = 0. Then

Z
ψφdx = 0
Rn
for all φ ∈ G. Therefore, this is true for φ = ψ and so ψ = 0. This proves the lemma.
From now on regard G ⊆ G ∗ and for ψ ∈ G write ψ (φ) instead of Tψ (φ) . It was
just shown that with this interpretation1 ,
¡ ¢
F ψ (φ) = ψ (F (φ)) , F −1 ψ (φ) = ψ F −1 φ .
This lemma suggests a way to define the Fourier transform of something in G ∗ .
Definition 19.11 For T ∈ G ∗ , define F T, F −1 T ∈ G ∗ by

¡ ¢
F T (φ) ≡ T (F φ) , F −1 T (φ) ≡ T F −1 φ
Lemma 19.12 F and F −1 are both one to one, onto, and are inverses of each
other.
Proof: First note F and F −1 are both linear. This follows directly from the
definition. Suppose now F T = 0. Then F T (φ) = T (F¡φ) = 0 for¢ all φ ∈ G. But F
and F −1 map G onto G because if ψ ∈ G, then ψ = F F −1 (ψ) . Therefore, T = 0
and so F is one to one. Similarly F −1 is one to one. Now
¡ ¢ ¡ ¡ ¢¢
F −1 (F T ) (φ) ≡ (F T ) F −1 φ ≡ T F F −1 (φ) = T φ.
Therefore, F −1 ◦ F (T ) = T. Similarly, F ◦ F −1 (T ) = T. Thus both F and F −1 are

one to one and onto and are inverses of each other as suggested by the notation.
Probably the most interesting things in G ∗ are functions of various kinds. The
following lemma has to do with this situation.
R
Lemma 19.13 If f ∈ L1loc (Rn ) and Rn f φdx = 0 for all φ ∈ Cc (Rn ), then f =
0 a.e.
Proof: First suppose f ≥ 0. Let
E ≡ {x :f (x) ≥ r}, ER ≡ E ∩ B (0,R).
Let Km be an increasing sequence of compact sets and let Vm be a decreasing

sequence of open sets satisfying
Km ⊆ ER ⊆ Vm , mn (Vm ) ≤ mn (Km ) + 2−m , V1 ⊆ B (0,R) .

1 This is not all that different from what was done with the derivative. Remember when you
consider the derivative of a function of one variable, in elementary courses you think of it as a
number but thinking of it as a linear transformation acting on R is better because this leads to
the concept of a derivative which generalizes to functions of many variables. So it is here. You
can think of ψ ∈ G as simply an element of G but it is better to think of it as an element of G ∗ as
just described.
Therefore,
mn (Vm \ Km ) ≤ 2−m .
Let
φm ∈ Cc (Vm ) , Km ≺ φm ≺ Vm .
Then φm (x) → XER (x) a.e. because the set where φm (x) fails to converge to this
set is contained in the set of all x which are in infinitely many of the sets Vm \ Km .
This set has measure zero because
∞
X
mn (Vm \ Km ) < ∞
m=1
and so, by the dominated convergence theorem,

Z Z Z
0 = lim f φm dx = lim f φm dx = f dx ≥ rm (ER ).
m→∞ Rn m→∞ V1 ER
Thus, mn (ER ) = 0 and therefore mn (E) = limR→∞ mn (ER ) = 0. Since r > 0 is

arbitrary, it follows
¡£ ¤¢
mn ([f > 0]) = ∪∞
k=1 mn f > k −1 = 0.
Now suppose f has values in R. Let E+ = [f ≥ 0] and E− = [f < 0] . Thus
these are two measurable sets. As in the first part, let Km and Vm be sequences
of compact and open sets such that Km ⊆ E+ ∩ B (0, R) ⊆ Vm ⊆ B (0, R) and let
Km ≺ φm ≺ Vm with mn (Vm \ Km ) < 2−m . Thus φm ∈ Cc (Rn ) and the sequence
converges pointwise to XE+ ∩B(0,R) . Then by the dominated convergence theorem,
if ψ is any function in Cc (Rn )
Z Z
0 = f φm ψdmn → f ψXE+ ∩B(0,R) dmn .
Hence, letting R → ∞,
Z Z
f ψXE+ dmn = f+ ψdmn = 0
Since ψ is arbitrary, the first part of the argument applies to f+ and implies f+ = 0.
Similarly f− = 0. Finally, if f is complcx valued, the assumptions mean
Z Z
Re (f ) φdmn = 0, Im (f ) φdmn = 0
for all φ ∈ Cc (Rn ) and so both Re (f ) , Im (f ) equal zero a.e. This proves the
lemma.
Corollary 19.14 Let f ∈ L1 (Rn ) and suppose
Z
f (x) φ (x) dx = 0
Rn
for all φ ∈ G. Then f = 0 a.e.

Proof: Let ψ ∈ Cc (Rn ) . Then by the Stone Weierstrass approximation theo-

rem, there exists a sequence of functions, {φk } ⊆ G such that φk → ψ uniformly.
Then by the dominated convergence theorem,
Z Z
f ψdx = lim f φk dx = 0.
k→∞
By Lemma 19.13 f = 0.
The next theorem is the main result of this sort.
Theorem 19.15 Let f ∈ Lp (Rn ) , p ≥ 1, or suppose f is measurable and has

polynomial growth, ³ ´m
2
|f (x)| ≤ K 1 + |x|
for some m ∈ N. Then if Z

f ψdx = 0
for all ψ ∈ G then it follows f = 0.
Proof: The case where f ∈ L1 (Rn ) was dealt with in Corollary 19.14. Suppose
0
f ∈ Lp (Rn ) forR p > 1. Then by Holder’s inequality and the density of G in Lp (Rn ) ,
p0 n
it follows that f gdx = 0 for all g ∈ L (R ) . By the Riesz representation theorem,
f = 0.
It remains to consider the case where f has polynomial growth. Thus x →
2
f (x) e−|x| ∈ L1 (Rn ) . Therefore, for all ψ ∈ G,
Z
2
0 = f (x) e−|x| ψ (x) dx
2 2
because e−|x| ψ (x) ∈ G. Therefore, by the first part, f (x) e−|x| = 0 a.e.
The following theorem shows that you can consider most functions you are likely
to encounter as elements of G ∗ .
Theorem 19.16 Let f be a measurable function with polynomial growth,

³ Ń
2
|f (x)| ≤ C 1 + |x| for some N,
or let f ∈ Lp (Rn ) for some p ∈ [1, ∞]. Then f ∈ G ∗ if

Z
f (φ) ≡ f φdx.
Proof: Let f have polynomial growth first. Then the above integral is clearly
well defined and so in this case, f ∈ G ∗ .
Next suppose f ∈ Lp (Rn ) with ∞ > p ≥ 1. Then it is clear again that the
above integral is well defined because of the fact that φ is a sum of polynomials
2 0
times exponentials of the form e−c|x| and these are in Lp (Rn ). Also φ → f (φ) is
clearly linear in both cases. This proves the theorem.
This has shown that for nearly any reasonable function, you can define its Fourier
0
transform as described above. Also you should note that G ∗ includes C0 (Rn ) , the
space of complex measures whose total variation are Radon measures. It is especially
interesting when the Fourier transform yields another function of some sort.
19.3.1 Fourier Transforms Of Functions In L1 (Rn )

First suppose f ∈ L1 (Rn ) .
R
Theorem 19.17 Let f ∈ L1 (Rn ) . Then F f (φ) = Rn
gφdt where
µ ¶n/2 Z
1
g (t) = e−it·x f (x) dx
2π Rn
R ¡ ¢
1 n/2
R
and F −1 f (φ) = Rn
gφdt where g (t) = 2π Rn
eit·x f (x) dx. In short,
Z
−n/2
F f (t) ≡ (2π) e−it·x f (x)dx,
Rn
Z
F −1 f (t) ≡ (2π)−n/2 eit·x f (x)dx.
Rn
Proof: From the definition and Fubini’s theorem,

Z Z µ ¶n/2 Z
1
F f (φ) ≡ f (t) F φ (t) dt = f (t) e−it·x φ (x) dxdt
Rn Rn Rn 2π
Z Ãµ ¶n/2 Z !
1
= f (t) e−it·x dt φ (x) dx.
Rn 2π Rn
Since φ ∈ G is arbitrary, it follows from Theorem 19.15 that F f (x) is given by the
claimed formula. The case of F −1 is identical.
Here are interesting properties of these Fourier transforms of functions in L1 .
Theorem 19.18 If f ∈ L1 (Rn ) and ||fk − f ||1 → 0, then F fk and F −1 fk converge

uniformly to F f and F −1 f respectively. If f ∈ L1 (Rn ), then F −1 f and F f are
both continuous and bounded. Also,
lim F −1 f (x) = lim F f (x) = 0. (19.5)

|x|→∞ |x|→∞
Furthermore, for f ∈ L1 (Rn ) both F f and F −1 f are uniformly continuous.

Proof: The first claim follows from the following inequality.

Z
¯ −it·x ¯
|F fk (t) − F f (t)| ≤ (2π)−n/2 ¯e fk (x) − e−it·x f (x)¯ dx
n
ZR
= (2π)−n/2 |fk (x) − f (x)| dx
Rn
−n/2
= (2π) ||f − fk ||1 .
which a similar argument holding for F −1 .

Now consider the second claim of the theorem.
Z ¯ ¯
¯ −it·x 0 ¯
|F f (t) − F f (t0 )| ≤ (2π)−n/2 ¯e − e−it ·x ¯ |f (x)| dx
Rn
The integrand is bounded by 2 |f (x)|, a function in L1 (Rn ) and converges to 0 as

t0 → t and so the dominated convergence theorem implies F f is continuous. To see
F f (t) is uniformly bounded,
Z
−n/2
|F f (t)| ≤ (2π) |f (x)| dx < ∞.
Rn
A similar argument gives the same conclusions for F −1 .

It remains to verify 19.5 and the claim that F f and F −1 f are uniformly contin-
uous. ¯ Z ¯
¯ ¯
|F f (t)| ≤ ¯¯(2π)−n/2 e−it·x f (x)dx¯¯
Rn
−n/2
Now let ε > 0 be given and let g ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) such that (2π) ||g − f ||1 < ε/2.
Then
Z
−n/2
|F f (t)| ≤ (2π) |f (x) − g (x)| dx
Rn
¯ Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯
+ ¯(2π) −n/2
e −it·x
g(x)dx¯¯
R n
¯ Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯
≤ ε/2 + ¯(2π) −n/2
e −it·x
g(x)dx¯¯ .
Rn
Now integrating by parts, it follows that for ||t||∞ ≡ max {|tj | : j = 1, · · ·, n} > 0
¯ ¯
¯ Z X n ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ 1 ¯ ∂g (x) ¯ ¯
|F f (t)| ≤ ε/2 + (2π)−n/2 ¯¯ ¯
¯
¯ dx¯
¯ ¯ (19.6)
¯ ||t||∞ Rn j=1 ∂xj ¯
and this last expression converges to zero as ||t||∞ → ∞. The reason for this is that
if tj 6= 0, integration by parts with respect to xj gives
Z Z
−n/2 −it·x −n/2 1 ∂g (x)
(2π) e g(x)dx = (2π) e−it·x dx.
Rn −itj Rn ∂xj
Therefore, choose the j for which ||t||∞ = |tj | and the result of 19.6 holds. There-
fore, from 19.6, if ||t||∞ is large enough, |F f (t)| < ε. Similarly, lim||t||→∞ F −1 (t) =
0. Consider the claim about uniform continuity. Let ε > 0 be given. Then there
exists R such that if ||t||∞ > R, then |F f (t)| < 2ε . Since F f is continuous, it is
n
uniformly continuous on the compact set, [−R − 1, R + 1] . Therefore, there exists
n
δ 1 such that if ||t − t0 ||∞ < δ 1 for t0 , t ∈ [−R − 1, R + 1] , then
|F f (t) − F f (t0 )| < ε/2. (19.7)
Now let 0 < δ < min (δ 1 , 1) and suppose ||t − t0 ||∞ < δ. If both t, t0 are contained
n n n
in [−R, R] , then 19.7 holds. If t ∈ [−R, R] and t0 ∈ / [−R, R] , then both are
n
contained in [−R − 1, R + 1] and so this verifies 19.7 in this case. The other case
n
is that neither point is in [−R, R] and in this case,
|F f (t) − F f (t0 )| ≤ |F f (t)| + |F f (t0 )|
ε ε
< + = ε.
2 2
There is a very interesting relation between the Fourier transform and convolu-
tions.
n/2
Theorem 19.19 Let f, g ∈ L1 (Rn ). Then f ∗g ∈ L1 and F (f ∗g) = (2π) F f F g.
Proof: Consider Z Z
|f (x − y) g (y)| dydx.
Rn Rn
The function, (x, y) → |f (x − y) g (y)| is Lebesgue measurable and so by Fubini’s
theorem,
Z Z Z Z
|f (x − y) g (y)| dydx = |f (x − y) g (y)| dxdy
Rn Rn Rn Rn
= ||f ||1 ||g||1 < ∞.
R
It follows that for a.e.
R x, Rn |f (x − y) g (y)| dy < ∞ and for each of these values
of x, it follows that Rn f (x − y) g (y) dy exists and equals a function of x which is
in L1 (Rn ) , f ∗ g (x). Now
F (f ∗ g) (t)
Z
−n/2
≡ (2π) e−it·x f ∗ g (x) dx
n
ZR Z
−n/2
= (2π) e−it·x f (x − y) g (y) dydx
n Rn
ZR Z
−n/2 −it·y
= (2π) e g (y) e−it·(x−y) f (x − y) dxdy
Rn Rn
n/2
= (2π) F f (t) F g (t) .
There are many other considerations involving Fourier transforms of functions
in L1 (Rn ).
19.3.2 Fourier Transforms Of Functions In L2 (Rn )

Consider F f and F −1 f for f ∈ L2 (Rn ). First note that the formula given for F f
and F −1 f when f ∈ L1 (Rn ) will not work for f ∈ L2 (Rn ) unless f is also in L1 (Rn ).
Recall that a + ib = a − ib.
Theorem 19.20 For φ ∈ G, ||F φ||2 = ||F −1 φ||2 = ||φ||2 .
Proof: First note that for ψ ∈ G,
F (ψ) = F −1 (ψ) , F −1 (ψ) = F (ψ). (19.8)
This follows from the definition. For example,

Z
F ψ (t) = (2π)−n/2 e−it·x ψ (x) dx
Rn
Z
= (2π)−n/2 eit·x ψ (x) dx
Rn
Let φ, ψ ∈ G. It was shown above that

Z Z
(F φ)ψ(t)dt = φ(F ψ)dx.
Rn Rn
Similarly, Z Z
φ(F −1 ψ)dx = (F −1 φ)ψdt. (19.9)
Rn Rn
Now, 19.8 - 19.9 imply
Z Z
|φ|2 dx = φF −1 (F φ)dx
Rn Rn
Z
= φF (F φ)dx
n
ZR
= F φ(F φ)dx
Rn
Z
= |F φ|2 dx.
Rn
Similarly
||φ||2 = ||F −1 φ||2 .
Lemma 19.21 Let f ∈ L2 (Rn ) and let φk → f in L2 (Rn ) where φk ∈ G. (Such

a sequence exists because of density of G in L2 (Rn ).) Then F f and F −1 f are both
in L2 (Rn ) and the following limits take place in L2 .
lim F (φk ) = F (f ) , lim F −1 (φk ) = F −1 (f ) .

k→∞ k→∞
Proof: Let ψ ∈ G be given. Then

Z
F f (ψ) ≡ f (F ψ) ≡ f (x) F ψ (x) dx
Rn
Z Z
= lim φk (x) F ψ (x) dx = lim F φk (x) ψ (x) dx.
k→∞ Rn k→∞ Rn
∞
Also by Theorem 19.20 {F φk }k=1 is Cauchy in L2 (Rn ) and so it converges to some
h ∈ L2 (Rn ). Therefore, from the above,
Z
F f (ψ) = h (x) ψ (x)
Rn
which shows that F (f ) ∈ L2 (Rn ) and h = F (f ) . The case of F −1 is entirely

similar. This proves the lemma.
Since F f and F −1 f are in L2 (Rn ) , this also proves the following theorem.
Theorem 19.22 If f ∈ L2 (Rn ), F f and F −1 f are the unique elements of L2 (Rn )

such that for all φ ∈ G,
Z Z
F f (x)φ(x)dx = f (x)F φ(x)dx, (19.10)
Rn Rn
Z Z
F −1 f (x)φ(x)dx = f (x)F −1 φ(x)dx. (19.11)
Rn Rn
Theorem 19.23 (Plancherel)
||f ||2 = ||F f ||2 = ||F −1 f ||2 . (19.12)
Proof: Use the density of G in L2 (Rn ) to obtain a sequence, {φk } converging

to f in L2 (Rn ). Then by Lemma 19.21
||F f ||2 = lim ||F φk ||2 = lim ||φk ||2 = ||f ||2 .
k→∞ k→∞
Similarly,
||f ||2 = ||F −1 f ||2.
The following corollary is a simple generalization of this. To prove this corollary,
use the following simple lemma which comes as a consequence of the Cauchy Schwarz
inequality.
Lemma 19.24 Suppose fk → f in L2 (Rn ) and gk → g in L2 (Rn ). Then

Z Z
lim fk gk dx = f gdx
k→∞ Rn Rn
Proof:
¯Z Z ¯ ¯Z Z ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ fk gk dx − f gdx¯¯ ≤ ¯¯ fk gk dx − fk gdx¯¯ +
¯
Rn Rn Rn Rn
¯Z Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ fk gdx − f gdx¯¯
¯
Rn R n
≤ ||fk ||2 ||g − gk ||2 + ||g||2 ||fk − f ||2 .

Now ||fk ||2 is a Cauchy sequence and so it is bounded independent of k. Therefore,
the above expression is smaller than ε whenever k is large enough. This proves the
lemma.
Corollary 19.25 For f, g ∈ L2 (Rn ),

Z Z Z
f gdx = F f F gdx = F −1 f F −1 gdx.
Rn Rn Rn
Proof: First note the above formula is obvious if f, g ∈ G. To see this, note
Z Z Z
1
F f F gdx = F f (x) n/2
e−ix·t g (t) dtdx
Rn Rn (2π) Rn
Z Z
1
= n/2
eix·t F f (x) dxg (t)dt
R (2π)
n R n
Z
¡ −1 ¢
= F ◦ F f (t) g (t)dt
n
ZR
= f (t) g (t)dt.
Rn
The formula with F −1 is exactly similar.

Now to verify the corollary, let φk → f in L2 (Rn ) and let ψ k → g in L2 (Rn ).
Then by Lemma 19.21
Z Z
F f F gdx = lim F φk F ψ k dx
Rn k→∞ Rn
Z
= lim φk ψ k dx
k→∞ Rn
Z
= f gdx
Rn
A similar argument holds for F −1 .This proves the corollary.

How does one compute F f and F −1 f ?
Theorem 19.26 For f ∈ L2 (Rn ), let fr = f XEr where Er is a bounded measurable

set with Er ↑ Rn . Then the following limits hold in L2 (Rn ) .
F f = lim F fr , F −1 f = lim F −1 fr .
r→∞ r→∞
Proof: ||f − fr ||2 → 0 and so ||F f − F fr ||2 → 0 and ||F −1 f − F −1 fr ||2 → 0 by

Plancherel’s Theorem. This proves the theorem.
What are F fr and F −1 fr ? Let φ ∈ G
Z Z
F fr φdx = fr F φdx
Rn Rn
Z Z
−n
= (2π) 2 fr (x)e−ix·y φ(y)dydx
Rn Rn
Z Z
n
= [(2π)− 2 fr (x)e−ix·y dx]φ(y)dy.
Rn Rn
Since this holds for all φ ∈ G, a dense subset of L2 (Rn ), it follows that
Z
−n
F fr (y) = (2π) 2 fr (x)e−ix·y dx.
Rn
Similarly Z
−1 −n
F fr (y) = (2π) 2 fr (x)eix·y dx.
Rn
This shows that to take the Fourier transform of a function

R in L2 (Rn ), it suffices
2 n −n
to take the limit as r → ∞ in L (R ) of (2π) 2 f (x)e−ix·y dx. A similar
Rn r
procedure works for the inverse Fourier transform.
Note this reduces to the earlier definition in case f ∈ L1 (Rn ). Now consider the
convolution of a function in L2 with one in L1 .
Theorem 19.27 Let h ∈ L2 (Rn ) and let f ∈ L1 (Rn ). Then h ∗ f ∈ L2 (Rn ),

n/2
F −1 (h ∗ f ) = (2π) F −1 hF −1 f,
n/2
F (h ∗ f ) = (2π) F hF f,
and
||h ∗ f ||2 ≤ ||h||2 ||f ||1 . (19.13)
Proof: An application of Minkowski’s inequality yields

ÃZ µZ ¶2 !1/2
|h (x − y)| |f (y)| dy dx ≤ ||f ||1 ||h||2 . (19.14)
Rn Rn
R
Hence |h (x − y)| |f (y)| dy < ∞ a.e. x and
Z
x → h (x − y) f (y) dy
is in L2 (Rn ). Let Er ↑ Rn , m (Er ) < ∞. Thus,
hr ≡ XEr h ∈ L2 (Rn ) ∩ L1 (Rn ),

and letting φ ∈ G, Z
F (hr ∗ f ) (φ) dx
Z
≡ (hr ∗ f ) (F φ) dx
Z Z Z
−n/2
= (2π) hr (x − y) f (y) e−ix·t φ (t) dtdydx
Z Z µZ ¶
−n/2
= (2π) hr (x − y) e−i(x−y)·t dx f (y) e−iy·t dyφ (t) dt
Z
n/2
= (2π) F hr (t) F f (t) φ (t) dt.
Since φ is arbitrary and G is dense in L2 (Rn ),

n/2
F (hr ∗ f ) = (2π) F hr F f.
Now by Minkowski’s Inequality, hr ∗ f → h ∗ f in L2 (Rn ) and also it is clear that

hr → h in L2 (Rn ) ; so, by Plancherel’s theorem, you may take the limit in the above
and conclude
n/2
F (h ∗ f ) = (2π) F hF f.
The assertion for F −1 is similar and 19.13 follows from 19.14.
19.3.3 The Schwartz Class

The problem with G is that it does not contain Cc∞ (Rn ). I have used it in presenting
the Fourier transform because the functions in G have a very specific form which
made some technical details work out easier than in any other approach I have
seen. The Schwartz class is a larger class of functions which does contain Cc∞ (Rn )
and also has the same nice properties as G. The functions in the Schwartz class
are infinitely differentiable and they vanish very rapidly as |x| → ∞ along with all
their partial derivatives. This is the description of these functions, not a specific
2
form involving polynomials times e−α|x| . To describe this precisely requires some
notation.
Definition 19.28 f ∈ S, the Schwartz class, if f ∈ C ∞ (Rn ) and for all positive
integers N ,
ρN (f ) < ∞
where
2
ρN (f ) = sup{(1 + |x| )N |Dα f (x)| : x ∈ Rn , |α| ≤ N }.
Thus f ∈ S if and only if f ∈ C ∞ (Rn ) and
sup{|xβ Dα f (x)| : x ∈ Rn } < ∞ (19.15)
for all multi indices α and β.

Also note that if f ∈ S, then p(f ) ∈ S for any polynomial, p with p(0) = 0 and
that
S ⊆ Lp (Rn ) ∩ L∞ (Rn )
for any p ≥ 1. To see this assertion about the p (f ), it suffices to consider the case
of the product of two elements of the Schwartz class. If f, g ∈ S, then Dα (f g) is
a finite sum of derivatives of f times derivatives of g. Therefore, ρN (f g) < ∞ for
all N . You may wonder about examples of things in S. Clearly any function in
2
Cc∞ (Rn ) is in S. However there are other functions in S. For example e−|x| is in
S as you can verify for yourself and so is any function from G. Note also that the
density of Cc (Rn ) in Lp (Rn ) shows that S is dense in Lp (Rn ) for every p.
Recall the Fourier transform of a function in L1 (Rn ) is given by
Z
−n/2
F f (t) ≡ (2π) e−it·x f (x)dx.
Rn
Therefore, this gives the Fourier transform for f ∈ S. The nice property which S
has in common with G is that the Fourier transform and its inverse map S one to
one onto S. This means I could have presented the whole of the above theory as
well as what follows in terms of S and its algebraic dual, S∗ rather than in terms
of G and G ∗ . However, it is more technical. Nevertheless, letting S play the role
of G in the above is convenient in certain applications because it is easier to reduce
to S than G. I will make use of this simple observation whenever it will simplify a
presentation. The fundamental result which makes it possible is the following.
Theorem 19.29 If f ∈ S, then F f and F −1 f are also in S.
Proof: To begin with, let α = ej = (0, 0, · · ·, 1, 0, · · ·, 0), the 1 in the j th slot.

Z
F −1 f (t + hej ) − F −1 f (t) eihxj − 1
= (2π)−n/2 eit·x f (x)( )dx. (19.16)
h Rn h
Consider the integrand in 19.16.
¯ ¯ ¯ i(h/2)x ¯
¯ it·x ihxj
− 1 ¯¯ ¯ e − e−i(h/2)xj ¯¯
¯e f (x)( e
j
)¯ = ¯
|f (x)| ¯( )¯
¯ h h
¯ ¯
¯ i sin ((h/2) xj ) ¯
= |f (x)| ¯¯ ¯
¯
(h/2)
≤ |f (x)| |xj |
and this is a function in L1 (Rn ) because f ∈ S. Therefore by the Dominated

Convergence Theorem,
Z
∂F −1 f (t)
= (2π)−n/2 eit·x ixj f (x)dx
∂tj Rn
Z
= i(2π)−n/2 eit·x xej f (x)dx.
Rn
Now xej f (x) ∈ S and so one can continue in this way and take derivatives indefi-
nitely. Thus F −1 f ∈ C ∞ (Rn ) and from the above argument,
Z
α
Dα F −1 f (t) =(2π)−n/2 eit·x (ix) f (x)dx.
Rn
To complete showing F −1 f ∈ S,
Z
a
tβ Dα F −1 f (t) =(2π)−n/2 eit·x tβ (ix) f (x)dx.
Rn
Integrate this integral by parts to get

Z
a
tβ Dα F −1 f (t) =(2π)−n/2 i|β| eit·x Dβ ((ix) f (x))dx. (19.17)
Rn
Here is how this is done.

Z
β α eitj xj β j
eitj xj tj j (ix) f (x)dxj = t (ix)α f (x) |∞
−∞ +
R itj j
Z
β −1
i eitj xj tj j Dej ((ix)α f (x))dxj
R
where the boundary term vanishes because f ∈ S. Returning to 19.17, use the fact
that |eia | = 1 to conclude
Z
a
|tβ Dα F −1 f (t)| ≤C |Dβ ((ix) f (x))|dx < ∞.
Rn
It follows F −1 f ∈ S. Similarly F f ∈ S whenever f ∈ S.
Theorem 19.30 Let ψ ∈ S. Then (F ◦ F −1 )(ψ) = ψ and (F −1 ◦ F )(ψ) = ψ

whenever ψ ∈ S. Also F and F −1 map S one to one and onto S.
Proof: The first claim follows from the fact that F and F −1 are inverses
¡ of each
¢
other which was established above. For the second, let ψ ∈ S. Then ψ = F F −1 ψ .
Thus F maps S onto S. If F ψ = 0, then do F −1 to both sides to conclude ψ = 0.
Thus F is one to one and onto. Similarly, F −1 is one to one and onto.
Note the above equations involving F and F −1 hold pointwise everywhere be-
cause F ψ and F −1 ψ are continuous.
19.3.4 Convolution
To begin with it is necessary to discuss the meaning of φf where f ∈ G ∗ and φ ∈ G.
What should it mean? First suppose f ∈ Lp (Rn ) or measurable with polynomial
growth. RThen φf alsoR has these properties. Hence, it should be the case that
φf (ψ) = Rn φf ψdx = Rn f (φψ) dx. This motivates the following definition.
Definition 19.31 Let T ∈ G ∗ and let φ ∈ G. Then φT ≡ T φ ∈ G ∗ will be defined

by
φT (ψ) ≡ T (φψ) .
The next topic is that of convolution. It was just shown that

n/2 n/2
F (f ∗ φ) = (2π) F φF f, F −1 (f ∗ φ) = (2π) F −1 φF −1 f
whenever f ∈ L2 (Rn ) and φ ∈ G so the same definition is retained in the general

case because it makes perfect sense and agrees with the earlier definition.
Definition 19.32 Let f ∈ G ∗ and let φ ∈ G. Then define the convolution of f with
an element of G as follows.
n/2
f ∗ φ ≡ (2π) F −1 (F φF f ) ∈ G ∗
There is an obvious question. With this definition, is it true that F −1 (f ∗ φ) =

n/2 −1
(2π) F φF −1 f as it was earlier?
Theorem 19.33 Let f ∈ G ∗ and let φ ∈ G.

n/2
F (f ∗ φ) = (2π) F φF f, (19.18)
n/2
F −1 (f ∗ φ) = (2π) F −1 φF −1 f. (19.19)
Proof: Note that 19.18 follows from Definition 19.32 and both assertions hold
for f ∈ G. Consider 19.19. Here is a simple formula involving a pair of functions in
G. ¡ ¢
ψ ∗ F −1 F −1 φ (x)
µZ Z Z ¶
iy·y1 iy1 ·z n
= ψ (x − y) e e
φ (z) dzdy1 dy (2π)
µZ Z Z ¶
−iy·ỹ1 −iỹ1 ·z n
= ψ (x − y) e e φ (z) dzdỹ1 dy (2π)
= (ψ ∗ F F φ) (x) .
Now for ψ ∈ G,
n/2 ¡ ¢ n/2 ¡ −1 ¢
(2π) F F −1 φF −1 f (ψ) ≡ (2π) F φF −1 f (F ψ) ≡
n/2 ¡ ¢ n/2 ¡ −1 ¡ −1 ¢¢
(2π) F −1 f F −1 φF ψ ≡ (2π) f F F φF ψ =
³ ¢´
n/2 −1 ¡¡ ¢
f (2π) F F F −1 F −1 φ (F ψ) ≡
¡ ¢
f ψ ∗ F −1 F −1 φ = f (ψ ∗ F F φ) (19.20)
Also ¡ ¢
n/2 n/2
(2π) F −1 (F φF f ) (ψ) ≡ (2π) (F φF f ) F −1 ψ ≡
n/2 ¡ ¢ n/2 ¡ ¡ ¢¢
(2π) F f F φF −1 ψ ≡ (2π) f F F φF −1 ψ =
³ ³ ¢´´
n/2 ¡
= f F (2π) F φF −1 ψ
³ ³ ¢´´
n/2 ¡ −1 ¡ ¡ ¢¢
= f F (2π) F F F φF −1 ψ = f F F −1 (F F φ ∗ ψ)
f (F F φ ∗ ψ) = f (ψ ∗ F F φ) . (19.21)
The last line follows from the following.
Z Z
F F φ (x − y) ψ (y) dy = F φ (x − y) F ψ (y) dy
Z
= F ψ (x − y) F φ (y) dy
Z
= ψ (x − y) F F φ (y) dy.
From 19.21 and 19.20 , since ψ was arbitrary,

n/2 ¡ ¢ n/2 −1
(2π) F F −1 φF −1 f = (2π) F (F φF f ) ≡ f ∗ φ
which shows 19.19.
19.4 Exercises
1. For f ∈ L1 (Rn ), show that if F −1 f ∈ L1 or F f ∈ L1 , then f equals a
continuous bounded function a.e.
2. Suppose f, g ∈ L1 (R) and F f = F g. Show f = g a.e.
3. Show that if f ∈ L1 (Rn ) , then lim|x|→∞ F f (x) = 0.
4. ↑ Suppose f ∗ f = f or f ∗ f = 0 and f ∈ L1 (R). Show f = 0.
R∞ Rr
5. For this problem define a f (t) dt ≡ limr→∞ a f (t) dt. Note this coincides
with the Lebesgue integral when f ∈ L1 (a, ∞). Show
R∞
(a) 0 sin(u)
u du = 2
π
R ∞ sin(ru)
(b) limr→∞ δ u du = 0 whenever δ > 0.
1
R
(c) If f ∈ L (R), then limr→∞ R sin (ru) f (u) du = 0.
R∞
Hint: For the first two, use u1 = 0 e−ut dt and apply Fubini’s theorem to
RR R
0
sin u R e−ut dtdu. For the last part, first establish it for f ∈ Cc∞ (R) and
then use the density of this set in L1 (R) to obtain the result. This is sometimes
called the Riemann Lebesgue lemma.
19.4. EXERCISES 537
6. ↑Suppose that g ∈ L1 (R) and that at some x > 0, g is locally Holder contin-
uous from the right and from the left. This means
lim g (x + r) ≡ g (x+)
r→0+
exists,
lim g (x − r) ≡ g (x−)
r→0+
exists and there exist constants K, δ > 0 and r ∈ (0, 1] such that for |x − y| <
δ,
r
|g (x+) − g (y)| < K |x − y|
for y > x and
r
|g (x−) − g (y)| < K |x − y|
for y < x. Show that under these conditions,
Z µ ¶
2 ∞ sin (ur) g (x − u) + g (x + u)
lim du
r→∞ π 0 u 2
g (x+) + g (x−)
= .
2
7. ↑ Let g ∈ L1 (R) and suppose g is locally Holder continuous from the right
and from the left at x. Show that then
Z R Z ∞
1 g (x+) + g (x−)
lim eixt e−ity g (y) dydt = .
R→∞ 2π −R −∞ 2
This is very interesting. If g ∈ L2 (R), this shows F −1 (F g) (x) = g(x+)+g(x−)

2 ,
the midpoint of the jump in g at the point, x. In particular, if g ∈ G,
F −1 (F g) = g. Hint: Show the left side of the above equation reduces to
Z µ ¶
2 ∞ sin (ur) g (x − u) + g (x + u)
du
π 0 u 2
and then use Problem 6 to obtain the result.

8. ↑ A measurable function g defined on (0, ∞) has exponential growth if |g (t)| ≤
Ceηt for some η. For Re (s) > η, define the Laplace Transform by
Z ∞
Lg (s) ≡ e−su g (u) du.
0
Assume that g has exponential growth as above and is Holder continuous from
the right and from the left at t. Pick γ > η. Show that
Z R
1 g (t+) + g (t−)
lim eγt eiyt Lg (γ + iy) dy = .
R→∞ 2π −R 2
This formula is sometimes written in the form

Z γ+i∞
1
est Lg (s) ds
2πi γ−i∞
and is called the complex inversion integral for Laplace transforms. It can be
used to find inverse Laplace transforms. Hint:
Z R
1
eγt eiyt Lg (γ + iy) dy =
2π −R
Z R Z ∞
1 γt iyt
e e e−(γ+iy)u g (u) dudy.
2π −R 0
Now use Fubini’s theorem and do the integral from −R to R to get this equal
to Z
eγt ∞ −γu sin (R (t − u))
e g (u) du
π −∞ t−u
where g is the zero extension of g off [0, ∞). Then this equals
Z
eγt ∞ −γ(t−u) sin (Ru)
e g (t − u) du
π −∞ u
which equals
Z ∞
2eγt g (t − u) e−γ(t−u) + g (t + u) e−γ(t+u) sin (Ru)
du
π 0 2 u
and then apply the result of Problem 6.
9. Suppose f ∈ S. Show F (fxj )(t) = itj F f (t).
10. Let f ∈ S and let k be a positive integer.
X
||f ||k,2 ≡ (||f ||22 + ||Dα f ||22 )1/2.
|α|≤k
One could also define

Z
|||f |||k,2 ≡ ( |F f (x)|2 (1 + |x|2 )k dx)1/2.
Rn
Show both || ||k,2 and ||| |||k,2 are norms on S and that they are equivalent.
These are Sobolev space norms. For which values of k does the second norm
make sense? How about the first norm?
11. ↑ Define H k (Rn ), k ≥ 0 by f ∈ L2 (Rn ) such that
Z
1
( |F f (x)|2 (1 + |x|2 )k dx) 2 < ∞,
19.4. EXERCISES 539
Z
1
|||f |||k,2 ≡ ( |F f (x)|2 (1 + |x|2 )k dx) 2.
Show H k (Rn ) is a Banach space, and that if k is a positive integer, H k (Rn )

={ f ∈ L2 (Rn ) : there exists {uj } ⊆ G with ||uj − f ||2 → 0 and {uj } is a
Cauchy sequence in || ||k,2 of Problem 10}. This is one way to define Sobolev
Spaces. Hint: One way to do the second part of this is to define a new
measure, µ by Z ³ ´k
2
µ (E) ≡ 1 + |x| dx.
E
Then show µ is a Radon measure and show there exists {gm } such that gm ∈ G
and gm → F f in L2 (µ). Thus gm = F fm , fm ∈ G because F maps G onto G.
Then by Problem 10, {fm } is Cauchy in the norm || ||k,2 .
12. ↑ If 2k > n, show that if f ∈ H k (Rn ), then f equals a bounded continuous

function a.e. Hint: Show that for k this large, F f ∈ L1 (Rn ), and then use
Problem 1. To do this, write
k −k
|F f (x)| = |F f (x)|(1 + |x|2 ) 2 (1 + |x|2 ) 2 ,
So Z Z
k −k
|F f (x)|dx = |F f (x)|(1 + |x|2 ) 2 (1 + |x|2 ) 2 dx.
Use the Cauchy Schwarz inequality. This is an example of a Sobolev imbedding

Theorem.
13. Let u ∈ G. Then F u ∈ G and so, in particular, it makes sense to form the
integral, Z
F u (x0 , xn ) dxn
R
where (x , xn ) = x ∈ R . For u ∈ G, define γu (x0 ) ≡ u (x0 , 0). Find a

0 n
constant such that F (γu) (x0 ) equals this constant times the above integral.
Hint: By the dominated convergence theorem
Z Z
2
0
F u (x , xn ) dxn = lim e−(εxn ) F u (x0 , xn ) dxn .
R ε→0 R
Now use the definition of the Fourier transform and Fubini’s theorem as re-
quired in order to obtain the desired relationship.
14. Recall the Fourier series of a function in L2 (−π, π) converges to the func-
tion in L2 (−π, π). Prove a similar theorem with L2 (−π, π) replaced by
L2 (−mπ, mπ) and the functions
n o
−(1/2) inx
(2π) e
n∈Z
used in the Fourier series replaced with

n n
o
−(1/2) i m
(2mπ) e x
n∈Z
Now suppose f is a function in L2 (R) satisfying F f (t) = 0 if |t| > mπ. Show
that if this is so, then
µ ¶
1X −n sin (π (mx + n))
f (x) = f .
π m mx + n
n∈Z
Here m is a positive integer. This is sometimes called the Shannon sampling

theorem.Hint: First note that since F f ∈ L2 and is zero off a finite interval,
it follows F f ∈ L1 . Also
Z mπ
1
f (t) = √ eitx F f (x) dx
2π −mπ
and you can conclude from this that f has all derivatives and they are all
bounded. Thus f is a very nice function. You can replace F f with its Fourier
series.
¡ ¢ Then consider carefully the Fourier coefficient of F f. Argue it equals
f −nm or at least an appropriate constant times this. When you get this the
rest will fall quickly into place if you use F f is zero off [−mπ, mπ].
Fourier Analysis In Rn An
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to present some of the most important theorems
on Fourier analysis in Rn . These theorems are the Marcinkiewicz interpolation
theorem, the Calderon Zygmund decomposition, and Mihlin’s theorem. They are
all fundamental results whose proofs depend on the methods of real analysis.
20.1 The Marcinkiewicz Interpolation Theorem

Let (Ω, µ, S) be a measure space.
Definition 20.1 Lp (Ω) + L1 (Ω) will denote the space of measurable functions, f ,
such that f is the sum of a function in Lp (Ω) and L1 (Ω). Also, if T : Lp (Ω) +
L1 (Ω) → space of measurable functions, T is subadditive if
|T (f + g) (x)| ≤ |T f (x)| + |T g (x)|.
T is of type (p, p) if there exists a constant independent of f ∈ Lp (Ω) such that
||T f ||p ≤ A kf kp , f ∈ Lp (Ω).
T is weak type (p, p) if there exists a constant A independent of f such that

µ ¶p
A
µ ([x : |T f (x)| > α]) ≤ ||f ||p , f ∈ Lp (Ω).
α
The following lemma involves writing a function as a sum of a functions whose
values are small and one whose values are large.
Lemma 20.2 If p ∈ [1, r], then Lp (Ω) ⊆ L1 (Ω) + Lr (Ω).
Proof: Let λ > 0 and let f ∈ Lp (Ω)

½ ½
f (x) if |f (x)| ≤ λ f (x) if |f (x)| > λ
f1 (x) ≡ , f2 (x) ≡ .
0 if |f (x)| > λ 0 if |f (x)| ≤ λ
541
542 FOURIER ANALYSIS IN RN AN INTRODUCTION
Thus f (x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x).

Z Z Z
r r p
|f1 (x)| dµ = |f (x)| dµ ≤ λr−p |f (x)| dµ < ∞.
[|f |≤λ] [|f |≤λ]
Therefore, f1 ∈ Lr (Ω).
Z Z µZ ¶1/p
1/p0 p
|f2 (x)| dµ = |f (x)| dµ ≤ µ [|f | > λ] |f | dµ < ∞.
[|f |>λ]
This proves the lemma since f = f1 + f2 , f1 ∈ Lr and f2 ∈ L1 .

For f a function having nonnegative real values, α → µ ([f > α]) is called the
distribution function.
Lemma 20.3 Let φ (0) = 0, φ is strictly increasing, and C 1 . Let f : Ω → [0, ∞)

be measurable. Then
Z Z ∞
(φ ◦ f ) dµ = φ0 (α) µ [f > α] dα. (20.1)
Ω 0
Proof: First suppose

m
X
f= ai XEi
i=1
where ai > 0 and the ai are all distinct nonzero values of f , the sets, Ei being
disjoint. Thus,
Z m
X
(φ ◦ f ) dµ = φ (ai ) µ (Ei ).
Ω i=1
Suppose without loss of generality a1 < a2 < · · · < am . Observe
α → µ ([f > α])
is constant on the intervals [0, a1 ), [a1 , a2 ), · · ·. For example, on [ai , ai+1 ), this func-
tion has the value
Xm
µ (Ej ).
j=i+1
The function equals zero on [am , ∞). Therefore,
α → φ0 (α) µ ([|f | > α])

20.1. THE MARCINKIEWICZ INTERPOLATION THEOREM 543
is Lebesgue measurable and letting a0 = 0, the second integral in 20.1 equals

Z ∞ m Z
X ai
φ0 (α) µ ([f > α]) dα = φ0 (α) µ ([f > α]) dα
0 i=1 ai−1
m X
X m Z ai
= µ (Ej ) φ0 (α) dα
i=1 j=i ai−1
j
m X
X
= µ (Ej ) (φ (ai ) − φ (ai−1 ))
j=1 i=1
Xm Z
= µ (Ej ) φ (aj ) = (φ ◦ f ) dµ
j=1 Ω
and so this establishes 20.1 in the case when f is a nonnegative simple function.
Since every measurable nonnegative function may be written as the pointwise limit
of such simple functions, the desired result will follow by the Monotone convergence
theorem and the next claim.
Claim: If fn ↑ f , then for each α > 0,
µ ([f > α]) = lim µ ([fn > α]).

n→∞
Proof of the claim: [fn > α] ↑ [f > α] because if f (x) > α then for large
enough n, fn (x) > α and so
µ ([fn > α]) ↑ µ ([f > α]).
This proves the lemma. (Note the importance of the strict inequality in [f > α] in
proving the claim.)
The next theorem is the main result in this section. It is called the Marcinkiewicz
interpolation theorem.
Theorem 20.4 Let (Ω, µ, S) be a σ finite measure space, 1 < r < ∞, and let
T : L1 (Ω) + Lr (Ω) → space of measurable functions
be subadditive, weak (r, r), and weak (1, 1). Then T is of type (p, p) for every
p ∈ (1, r) and
||T f ||p ≤ Ap ||f ||p
where the constant Ap depends only on p and the constants in the definition of weak
(1, 1) and weak (r, r).
Proof: Let α > 0 and let f1 and f2 be defined as in Lemma 20.2,

½ ½
f (x) if |f (x)| ≤ α f (x) if |f (x)| > α
f1 (x) ≡ , f2 (x) ≡ .
0 if |f (x)| > α 0 if |f (x)| ≤ α
Thus f = f1 + f2 where f1 ∈ Lr and f2 ∈ L1 . Since T is subadditive ,
[|T f | > α] ⊆ [|T f1 | > α/2] ∪ [|T f2 | > α/2] .
Let p ∈ (1, r). By Lemma 20.3,

Z Z ∞
p
|T f | dµ ≤ p αp−1 µ ([|T f1 | > α/2]) dα+
0
Z ∞
+p αp−1 µ ([|T f2 | > α/2]) dα.
0
Therefore, since T is weak (1, 1) and weak (r, r),

Z Z ∞ µ ¶r Z ∞
p 2Ar 2A1
|T f | dµ ≤ p αp−1 ||f1 ||r dα + p αp−1 ||f2 ||1 dα. (20.2)
0 α 0 α
Therefore, the right side of 20.2 equals

Z ∞ Z Z ∞ Z
r r
p (2Ar ) αp−1−r |f1 | dµdα + 2A1 p αp−2 |f2 | dµdα =
0 Ω 0 Ω
Z Z ∞ Z Z ∞
r p−1−r r
p (2Ar ) α |f1 | dαdµ + 2A1 p αp−2 |f2 | dαdµ.
Ω 0 Ω 0
Now f1 (x) = 0 unless |f1 (x)| ≤ α and f2 (x) = 0 unless |f2 (x)| > α so this equals
Z Z ∞ Z Z |f (x)|
r r p−1−r
p (2Ar ) |f (x)| α dαdµ + 2A1 p |f (x)| αp−2 dαdµ
Ω |f (x)| Ω 0
which equals Z Z
2r Arr p 2pA1p p
|f (x)| dµ + |f (x)| dµ
r−p Ω p − 1 Ω
µ r r ¶
2 Ar p 2pA1 p
≤ max , ||f ||Lp (Ω)
r−p p−1
20.2 The Calderon Zygmund Decomposition

For a given nonnegative integrable function, Rn can be decomposed into a set where
the function is small and a set which is the union of disjoint cubes on which the
average of the function is under some control. The measure in this section will
always be Lebesgue measure on Rn . This theorem depends on the Lebesgue theory
of differentiation.
20.2. THE CALDERON ZYGMUND DECOMPOSITION 545
R
Theorem 20.5 Let f ≥ 0, f dx < ∞, and let α be a positive constant. Then
there exist sets F and Ω such that
Rn = F ∪ Ω, F ∩ Ω = ∅ (20.3)
f (x) ≤ α a.e. on F (20.4)

Ω = ∪∞
k=1 Qk where the interiors of the cubes are disjoint and for each cube, Qk ,
Z
1
α< f (x) dx ≤ 2n α. (20.5)
m (Qk ) Qk
Proof: Let S0 be a tiling of Rn into cubes having sides of length M where M

is chosen large enough that if Q is one of these cubes, then
Z
1
f dm ≤ α. (20.6)
m (Q) Q
Suppose S0 , · · ·, Sm have been chosen. To get Sm+1 , replace each cube of Sm by

the 2n cubes obtained by bisecting the sides. Then Sm+1 consists of exactly those
cubes of Sm for which 20.6 holds and let Tm+1 consist of the bisected cubes from
Sm for which 20.6 does not hold. Now define
F ≡ {x : x is contained in some cube from Sm for all m} ,
Ω ≡ Rn \ F = ∪∞
m=1 ∪ {Q : Q ∈ Tm }
Note that the cubes from Tm have pair wise disjoint interiors and also the interiors
of cubes from Tm have empty intersections with the interiors of cubes of Tk if k 6= m.
Let x be a point of Ω and let x be in a cube of Tm such that m is the first index
for which this happens. Let Q be the cube in Sm−1 containing x and let Q∗ be the
cube in the bisection of Q which contains x. Therefore 20.6 does not hold for Q∗ .
Thus
≤α
Z z }|Z {
1 m (Q) 1
α< f dx ≤ f dx ≤ 2n α
m (Q∗ ) Q∗ m (Q∗ ) m (Q) Q
which shows Ω is the union of cubes having disjoint interiors for which 20.5 holds.
Now a.e. point of F is a Lebesgue point of f . Let x be such a point of F and
suppose x ∈ Qk for Qk ∈ Sk . Let dk ≡ diameter of Qk . Thus dk → 0.
Z Z
1 1
|f (y) − f (x)| dy ≤ |f (y) − f (x)| dy
m (Qk ) Qk m (Qk ) B(x,dk )
Z
m (B (x,dk )) 1
= |f (x) − f (y)| dy
m (Qk ) m (B (x,dk )) B(x,dk )
Z
1
≤ Kn |f (x) − f (y)| dy
m (B (x,dk )) B(x,dk )
where Kn is a constant which depends on n and measures the ratio of the volume of
a ball with diamiter 2d and a cube with diameter d. The last expression converges
to 0 because x is a Lebesgue point. Hence
Z
1
f (x) = lim f (y) dy ≤ α
k→∞ m (Qk ) Q
k
and this shows f (x) ≤ α a.e. on F . This proves the theorem.
20.3 Mihlin’s Theorem

In this section, the Marcinkiewicz interpolation theorem and Calderon Zygmund
decomposition will be used to establish a remarkable theorem of Mihlin, a general-
ization of Plancherel’s theorem to the Lp spaces. It is of fundamental importance
in the study of elliptic partial differential equations and can also be used to give
proofs for the theory of singular integrals. Mihlin’s theorem involves a conclusion
which is of the form ¯¯ −1 ¯¯
¯¯F ρ ∗ φ¯¯ ≤ Ap ||φ|| (20.7)
p p
for p > 1 and φ ∈ G. Thus F −1 ρ∗ extends to a continuous linear map defined on Lp

because of the density of G. It is proved by showing various weak type estimates
and then applying the Marcinkiewicz Interpolation Theorem to get an estimate like
the above.
Recall that by Corollary 19.27, if f ∈ L2 (Rn ) and if φ ∈ G, then f ∗ φ ∈ L2 (Rn )
and
n/2
F (f ∗ φ) (x) = (2π) F φ (x) F f (x).
The next lemma is essentially a weak (1, 1) estimate. The inequality 20.7 is estab-
lished under the condition, 20.8 and then it is shown there exist conditions which
are easier to verify which imply condition 20.8. I think the approach used here is
due to Hormander [29] and is found in Berg and Lofstrom [8]. For many more ref-
erences and generalizations, you might look in Triebel [50]. A different proof based
on singular integrals is in Stein [49]. Functions, ρ which yield an inequality of the
sort in 20.7 are called Lp multipliers.
Lemma 20.6 Suppose ρ ∈ L∞ (Rn ) ∩ L2 (Rn ) and suppose also there exists a con-
stant C1 such that
Z
¯ −1 ¯
¯F ρ (x − y) − F −1 ρ (x)¯ dx ≤ C1 . (20.8)
|x|≥2|y|
Then there exists a constant A depending only on C1 , ||ρ||∞ , and n such that
¡£ ¯ −1 ¯ ¤¢ A
m x : ¯F ρ∗φ (x)¯ > α ≤ ||φ||1
α
for all φ ∈ G.
20.3. MIHLIN’S THEOREM 547
Proof: Let φ ∈ G and use the Calderon decomposition to write Rn = E ∪ Ω

where Ω is a union of cubes, {Qi } with disjoint interiors such that
Z
αm (Qi ) ≤ |φ (x)| dx ≤ 2n αm (Qi ) , |φ (x)| ≤ α a.e. on E. (20.9)
Qi
The proof is accomplished by writing φ as the sum of a good function and

a bad function and establishing a similar weak inequality for these two functions
separately. Then this information is used to obtain the desired conclusion.
½
φ (x) if
R x∈E
g (x) = 1 , g (x) + b (x) = φ (x). (20.10)
m(Qi ) Qi φ (x) dx if x ∈ Qi ⊆ Ω
Thus
Z Z Z Z
b (x) dx = (φ (x) − g (x)) dx = φ (x) dx − φ (x) dx = 0,
(20.11)
Qi Qi Qi Qi
b (x) = 0 if x ∈Ω.
/ (20.12)
Claim:
2
||g||2 ≤ α (1 + 4n ) ||φ||1 , ||g||1 ≤ ||φ||1 . (20.13)
Proof of claim:
2 2 2
||g||2 = ||g||L2 (E) + ||g||L2 (Ω) .
Thus
2
XZ 2
||g||L2 (Ω) = |g (x)| dx
i Qi
XZ µ Z ¶2
1
≤ |φ (y)| dy dx
i Qi m (Qi ) Qi
XZ 2
X
≤ (2n α) dx ≤ 4n α2 m (Qi )
i Qi i
Z
1X
≤ 4n α2 |φ (x)| dx ≤ 4n α ||φ||1 .
α i Qi
Z Z
2 2
||g||L2 (E) = |φ (x)| dx ≤ α |φ (x)| dx = α ||φ||1 .
E E
Now consider the second of the inequalities in 20.13.
Z Z
||g||1 = |g (x)| dx + |g (x)| dx
E Ω
Z XZ
= |φ (x)| dx + |g| dx
E i Qi
Z XZ Z
1
≤ |φ (x)| dx + |φ (x)| dm (x) dm
E i Qi m (Qi ) Qi
Z XZ
= |φ (x)| dx + |φ (x)| dm (x) = ||φ||1
E i Qi
This proves the claim. From the claim, it follows that b ∈ L2 (Rn ) ∩ L1 (Rn ) .
Because of 20.13, g ∈ L1 (Rn ) and so F −1 ρ ∗ g ∈ L2 (Rn ). (Since ρ ∈ L2 ,
it follows F −1 ρ ∈ L2 and so this convolution is indeed in L2 .) By Plancherel’s
theorem, ¯¯ −1 ¯¯ ¯¯ ¡ ¢¯¯
¯¯F ρ ∗ g ¯¯ = ¯¯F F −1 ρ ∗ g ¯¯ .
2 2
By Corollary 19.27 on Page 531, the expression on the right equals
n/2
(2π) ||ρF g||2
and so ¯¯ −1 ¯¯
¯¯F ρ ∗ g ¯¯ = (2π)n/2 ||ρF g|| ≤ Cn ||ρ|| ||g|| .
2 2 ∞ 2
From this and 20.13 ¡£¯ −1 ¯ ¤¢
m ¯F ρ ∗ g ¯ ≥ α/2
2
Cn ||ρ||∞
≤ α (1 + 4n ) ||φ||1 = Cn α−1 ||φ||1 . (20.14)
α2
This
¡£¯ is what ¯is wanted
¤¢ so far as g is concerned. Next it is required to estimate
m ¯F −1 ρ ∗ b¯ ≥ α/2 .
∗
If Q is one of the cubes whose √ union is Ω, let Q be the cube with the same
center as Q but whose sides are 2 n times as long.
Q∗i
rQi
yi
Let
Ω ∗ ≡ ∪∞ ∗
i=1 Qi
and let
E ∗ ≡ Rn \ Ω∗.
Thus E ∗ ⊆ E. Let x ∈ E ∗ . Then because of 20.11,
Z
F −1 ρ (x − y) b (y) dy
Qi
Z
£ −1 ¤
= F ρ (x − y) − F −1 ρ (x − yi ) b (y) dy, (20.15)
Qi
√
where yi is the center of Qi . Consequently if the sides of Qi have length 2t/ n,
20.15 implies Z ¯Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ F ρ (x − y) b (y) dy ¯¯ dx ≤
−1
(20.16)
∗
¯
E Qi
Z Z
¯ −1 ¯
¯F ρ (x − y) − F −1 ρ (x − yi )¯ |b (y)| dydx
E∗ Qi
Z Z
¯ −1 ¯
= ¯F ρ (x − y) − F −1 ρ (x − yi )¯ dx |b (y)| dy (20.17)
Qi E∗
Z Z
¯ −1 ¯
≤ ¯F ρ (x − y) − F −1 ρ (x − yi )¯ dx |b (y)| dy (20.18)
Qi |x−yi |≥2t
since if x ∈ E ∗ , then |x − yi | ≥ 2t. Now for y ∈ Qi ,

 
Xn µ ¶2 1/2
t
|y − yi | ≤  √  = t.
j=1
n
From 20.8 and the change of variables u = x − yi 20.16 - 20.18 imply

Z ¯Z ¯ Z
¯ ¯
¯ F −1
ρ (x − y) b (y) dy ¯ dx ≤ C1 |b (y)| dy. (20.19)
¯ ¯
E∗ Qi Qi
Now from 20.19, and the fact that b = 0 off Ω,

Z Z ¯Z ¯
¯ −1 ¯ ¯ ¯
¯F ρ ∗ b (x)¯ dx = ¯ F ρ (x − y) b (y) dy ¯¯ dx
−1
¯
E∗ E∗ Rn
Z ¯¯X ∞ Z
¯
¯
¯ −1 ¯
= ¯ F ρ (x − y) b (y) dy ¯ dx
E ∗ ¯ ¯
i=1 Qi
Z X ∞ ¯ Z ¯
¯ ¯
≤ ¯ F ρ (x − y) b (y) dy ¯¯ dx
−1
¯ ∗
E i=1 Qi
¯Z ¯
XZ
∞
¯ ¯
= ¯ F −1
ρ (x − y) b (y) dy ¯¯ dx
∗
¯
i=1 E Qi
X∞ Z
≤ C1 |b (y)| dy = C1 ||b||1 .
i=1 Qi
Thus, by 20.13,
Z
¯ −1 ¯
¯F ρ ∗ b (x)¯ dx ≤ C1 ||b||1
E∗
≤ C1 [||φ||1 + ||g||1 ]
≤ C1 [||φ||1 + ||φ||1 ]
≤ 2C1 ||φ||1 .
Consequently,
³h¯ ¯ i ´
m ¯F −1 ρ ∗ b¯ ≥ α ∩ E ∗ ≤ 4C1 ||φ|| .
1
2 α
From 20.10, 20.14, and 20.9,

£¯ ¯ ¤ h¯ ¯ αi h¯ ¯ αi
m ¯F −1 ρ ∗ φ¯ > α ≤ m ¯F −1 ρ ∗ g ¯ ≥ + m ¯F −1 ρ ∗ b¯ ≥
2 2
Cn ³h¯ ¯ αi ´
≤ ||φ||1 + m ¯F −1 ρ ∗ b¯ ≥ ∩ E ∗ + m (Ω∗ )
α 2
Cn 4C1 A
≤ ||φ||1 + ||φ||1 + Cn m (Ω) ≤ ||φ||1
α α α
because
m (Ω) ≤ α−1 ||φ||1
by 20.9. This proves the lemma.
The next lemma extends this lemma by giving a weak (2, 2) estimate and a (2, 2)
estimate.
Lemma 20.7 Suppose ρ ∈ L∞ (Rn ) ∩ L2 (Rn ) and suppose also that there exists a
constant C1 such that
Z
¯ −1 ¯
¯F ρ (x − y) − F −1 ρ (x)¯ dx ≤ C1 . (20.20)
|x|>2|y|
Then F −1 ρ∗ maps L1 (Rn ) + L2 (Rn ) to measurable functions and there exists a

constant A depending only on C1 , n, ||ρ||∞ such that
¡£¯ −1 ¯ ¤¢
m ¯F ρ ∗ f ¯ > α ≤ A ||f ||1 if f ∈ L1 (Rn ), (20.21)
α
µ ¶2
¡£¯ ¯ ¤¢ ||f ||2
m ¯F −1 ρ ∗ f ¯ > α ≤ A if f ∈ L2 (Rn ). (20.22)
α
Thus, F −1 ρ∗ is weak type (1, 1) and weak type (2, 2). Also
¯¯ −1 ¯¯
¯¯F ρ ∗ f ¯¯ ≤ A ||f || if f ∈ L2 (Rn ). (20.23)
2 2
Proof: By Plancherel’s theorem F −1 ρ is in L2 (Rn ). If f ∈ L1 (Rn ), then by

Minkowski’s inequality,
F −1 ρ ∗ f ∈ L2 (Rn ) .
Now let g ∈ L2 (Rn ). By Holder’s inequality,
Z µZ ¶1/2 µZ ¶1/2
¯ −1 ¯ ¯ −1 ¯
¯F ρ (x − y)¯ |g (y)| dy ≤ ¯F ρ (x − y)¯2 dy 2
|g (y)| dy <∞
and so the following is well defined a.e.

Z
F −1 ρ ∗ g (x) ≡ F −1 ρ (x − y) g (y) dy
also,
Z
¯ −1 ¯ ¯ −1 ¯
¯F ρ ∗ g (x) − F −1 ρ ∗ g (x0 )¯ ≤ ¯F ρ (x − y) − F −1 ρ (x0 − y)¯ |g (y)| dy
¯¯ −1 ¯¯
≤ ¯¯F ρ − F −1 ρx0 −x ¯¯ ||g|| 2
l
2 n −1
and by continuity of translation in L (R ), this shows x → F ρ ∗ g (x) is continu-
ous. Therefore, F −1 ρ∗ maps L1 (Rn )+L2 (Rn ) to the space of measurable functions.
(Continuous functions are measurable.) It is clear that F −1 ρ∗ is subadditive.
If φ ∈ G, Plancherel’s theorem implies as before,
¯¯ −1 ¯¯ ¯¯ ¡ ¢¯¯
¯¯F ρ ∗ φ¯¯ = ¯¯F F −1 ρ ∗ φ ¯¯ =
2 2
n/2 n/2
(2π) ||ρF φ||2 ≤ (2π) ||ρ||∞ ||φ||2 . (20.24)
2 n
Now let f ∈ L (R ) and let φk ∈ G, with
||φk − f ||2 → 0.
Then by Holder’s inequality,

Z Z
−1
F ρ (x − y) f (y) dy = lim F −1 ρ (x − y) φk (y) dy
k→∞
and so by Fatou’s lemma, Plancherel’s theorem, and 20.24,

ÃZ ¯Z ¯2 !1/2
¯¯ −1 ¯¯ ¯ ¯
¯¯F ρ ∗ f ¯¯ = ¯ F −1 ρ (x − y) f (y) dy ¯ dx ≤
2 ¯ ¯
Ã Z ¯Z ¯2 !1/2
¯ ¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
≤ lim inf ¯ F ρ (x − y) φk (y) dy ¯ dx
−1
= lim inf ¯¯F −1 ρ ∗ φk ¯¯2
k→∞ ¯ ¯ k→∞
n/2 n/2
≤ ||ρ||∞ (2π) lim inf ||φk ||2 = ||ρ||∞ (2π) ||f ||2 .
k→∞
n/2
Thus, 20.23 holds with A = ||ρ||∞ (2π) . Consequently,
ÃZ !1/2
¯ −1 ¯2
A ||f ||2 ≥ ¯F ρ ∗ f (x)¯ dx
[|F −1 ρ∗f |>α]
¡£¯ −1 ¯ ¤¢
≥ αm ¯F ρ ∗ f ¯ > α 1/2
and so 20.22 follows.
It remains to prove 20.21 which holds for all f ∈ G by Lemma 20.6. Let
f ∈ L1 (Rn ) and let φk → f in L1 (Rn ) , φk ∈ G. Without loss of generality, assume
that both f and F −1 ρ are Borel measurable. Therefore, by Minkowski’s inequality,
and Plancherel’s theorem,
¯¯ −1 ¯¯
¯¯F ρ ∗ φk − F −1 ρ ∗ f ¯¯
2
ÃZ ¯Z ¯2 !1/2
¯ ¯
≤ ¯ F −1 ρ (x − y) (φk (y) − f (y)) dy ¯ dx
¯ ¯
≤ ||φk − f ||1 ||ρ||2
which shows that F −1 ρ ∗ φk converges to F −1 ρ ∗ f in L2 (Rn ). Therefore, there

exists a subsequence such that the convergence is pointwise a.e. Then, denoting the
subsequence by k,
X[|F −1 ρ∗f |>α] (x) ≤ lim inf X[|F −1 ρ∗φk |>α] (x) a.e. x.
k→∞
Thus by Lemma 20.6 and Fatou’s lemma, there exists a constant, A, depending on
C1 , n, and ||ρ||∞ such that
¡£¯ ¯ ¤¢ ¡£¯ ¯ ¤¢
m ¯F −1 ρ ∗ f ¯ > α ≤ lim inf m ¯F −1 ρ ∗ φk ¯ > α
k→∞
||φk ||1 ||f ||1
≤ lim inf A =A .
k→∞ α α
This shows 20.21 and proves the lemma.
Theorem 20.8 Let ρ ∈ L2 (Rn ) ∩ L∞ (Rn ) and suppose

Z
¯ −1 ¯
¯F ρ (x − y) − F −1 ρ (x)¯ dx ≤ C1 .
|x|≥2|y|
Then for each p ∈ (1, ∞), there exists a constant, Ap , depending only on
p, n, ||ρ||∞ ,
and C1 such that for all φ ∈ G,

¯¯ −1 ¯¯
¯¯F ρ ∗ φ¯¯ ≤ Ap ||φ|| .
p p
Proof: From Lemma 20.7, F −1 ρ∗ is weak (1, 1), weak (2, 2), and maps
L1 (Rn ) + L2 (Rn )
to measurable functions. Therefore, by the Marcinkiewicz interpolation theorem,

there exists a constant Ap depending only on p, C1 , n, and ||ρ||∞ for p ∈ (1, 2], such
that for f ∈ Lp (Rn ), and p ∈ (1, 2],
¯¯ −1 ¯¯
¯¯F ρ ∗ f ¯¯ ≤ Ap ||f || .
p p
Thus the theorem is proved for these values of p. Now suppose p > 2. Then p0 < 2
where
1 1
+ 0 = 1.
p p
By Plancherel’s theorem and Theorem 19.33,

Z Z
n/2
F −1 ρ ∗ φ (x) ψ (x) dx = (2π) ρ (x) F φ (x) F ψ (x) dx
Z
¡ ¢
= F F −1 ρ ∗ ψ F φdx
Z
¡ −1 ¢
= F ρ ∗ ψ (φ) dx.
Thus by the case for p ∈ (1, 2) and Holder’s inequality,

¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¡ −1 ¢ ¯
¯ F −1 ρ ∗ φ (x) ψ (x) dx¯ = ¯ F ρ ∗ ψ (φ) dx¯¯
¯ ¯ ¯
¯¯ ¯¯
≤ ¯¯F −1 ρ ∗ ψ ¯¯p0 ||φ||p
≤ Ap0 ||ψ||p0 ||φ||p .
R 0 0
Letting Lψ ≡ F −1 ρ ∗ φ (x) ψ (x) dx, this shows L ∈ Lp (Rn ) and ||L||(Lp0 )0 ≤
Ap0 ||φ||p which implies by the Riesz representation theorem that F −1 ρ∗φ represents
L and ¯¯ ¯¯
||L||(Lp0 )0 = ¯¯F −1 ρ ∗ φ¯¯Lp ≤ Ap0 ||φ||p
Since p0 = p/ (p − 1), this proves the theorem.

It is possible to give verifiable conditions on ρ which imply 20.20. The condition
on ρ which is presented here is the existence of a constant, C0 such that
|α|
C0 ≥ sup{|x| |Dα ρ (x)| : |α| ≤ L, x ∈ Rn \ {0}}, L > n/2. (20.25)
ρ ∈ C L (Rn \ {0}) where L is an integer.

Pn
Here α is a multi-index and |α| = i=1 αi . The condition says roughly that ρ
is pretty smooth away from 0 and all the partial derivatives vanish pretty fast as
|x| → ∞. Also recall the notation
xα ≡ xα αn
1 · · · xn
1
where α = (α1 · · · αn ). For more general conditions, see [29].
Lemma 20.9 Let 20.25 hold and suppose ψ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn \ {0}). Then for each
α, |α| ≤ L, there exists a constant C ≡ C (α, n, ψ) independent of k such that
¯ α¡ ¡ ¢¢¯
sup |x|
|α| ¯D ρ (x) ψ 2k x ¯ ≤ CC0 .
x ∈Rn
Proof:
¯ α¡ ¡ ¢¢¯ X ¯ ¯ ¯ ¡ ¢¯
|x|
|α| ¯D ρ (x) ψ 2k x ¯ ≤ |x||α| ¯Dβ ρ (x)¯ 2k|γ| ¯Dγ ψ 2k x ¯
β+γ=α
X ¯ β ¯¯ ¯ ¯ ¡ ¢¯
= |x|
|β| ¯D ρ (x)¯ ¯2k x¯|γ| ¯Dγ ψ 2k x ¯
β+γ=α
X |γ|
≤ C0 C (α, n) sup{|z| |Dγ ψ (z)| : z ∈ Rn } = C0 C (α, n, ψ)
|γ|≤|α|
Lemma 20.10 There exists

¡£ ¤¢
φ ∈ Cc∞ x :4−1 < |x| < 4 , φ (x) ≥ 0,
and
∞
X ¡ ¢
φ 2k x = 1
k=−∞
for each x 6= 0.
Proof: Let £ ¤
ψ ≥ 0, ψ = 1 on 2−1 ≤ |x| ≤ 2 ,
£ ¤
spt (ψ) ⊆ 4−1 < |x| < 4 .
Consider
∞
X ¡ ¢
g (x) = ψ 2k x .
k=−∞
Then for each x, only finitely many terms are not equal to 0. Also, g (x) £ l> l+20 for
¤
all x 6= 0. To verify this last claim, note that for some
£ k an ¤ integer, |x| ∈ 2 , 2 .
Therefore, choose k an integer such £that 2k |x| ∈ 2 −1
, 2 . For example,
¤ £ l−l−1 l+2−l−1 ¤ £ −1 ¤ let k =
−l − 1. This works because 2k |x| ∈
¡ k ¢2 l k l+2 k
2 , 2 2 = 2 ,2 = 2 ,2 .
Therefore, for this value of k, ψ 2 x = 1 so g (x) > 0.
Now notice that
∞
X ∞
X
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
g (2r x) = ψ 2k 2r x = ψ 2k x = g (x).
k=−∞ k=−∞
−1
Let φ (x) ≡ ψ (x) g (x) . Then
∞ ∞ ¡ ¢ ∞
X ¡ ¢ X ψ 2k x −1
X ¡ ¢
k
φ 2 x = k
= g (x) ψ 2k x = 1
g (2 x)
k=−∞ k=−∞ k=−∞
for each x 6= 0. This proves the lemma.

Now define
m
X ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
ρm (x) ≡ ρ (x) φ 2k x , γ k (x) ≡ ρ (x) φ 2k x .
k=−m
Let t > 0 and let |y| ≤ t. Consider the problem of estimating

Z
¯ −1 ¯
¯F γ k (x − y) − F −1 γ k (x)¯ dx. (20.26)
|x|≥2t
In the following estimates, C (a, b, · · ·, d) will denote a generic constant depending

only on the indicated objects, a, b, · · ·, d. For the first estimate, note that since
|y| ≤ t, 20.26 is no larger than
Z Z
¯ −1 ¯ ¯ −1 ¯
2 ¯F γ k (x)¯ dx = 2 ¯F γ k (x)¯ |x|−L |x|L dx
|x|≥t |x|≥t
ÃZ !1/2 ÃZ !1/2
¯ −1 ¯
≤2 |x|
−2L
dx |x|
2L ¯F γ k (x)¯2 dx
|x|≥t |x|≥t
Using spherical coordinates and Plancherel’s theorem,

³R ¯2 ´1/2
2L ¯
≤ C (n, L) tn/2−L |x| ¯F −1 γ k (x)¯ dx
³R P ¯2 ´1/2
2L ¯¯ −1
F γ k (x)¯ dx
n
≤ C (n, L) tn/2−L j=1 |xj |
³P R ¯ −1 L ¯ ´1/2 (20.27)
≤ C (n, L) tn/2−L
n ¯F D γ k (x)¯2 dx
j=1 j
³P R ¯ L ¯ ´1/2
= C (n, L) tn/2−L
n ¯D γ k (x)¯2 dx
j=1 Sk j
where £ ¤
Sk ≡ x :2−2−k < |x| < 22−k , (20.28)
a set containing the support of γ k . Now from the definition of γ k ,
¯ L ¯ ¯ ¡ ¡ ¢¢¯
¯Dj γ k (z)¯ = ¯DjL ρ (z) φ 2k z ¯.
By Lemma 20.9, this is no larger than

−L
C (L, n, φ) C0 |z| . (20.29)
It follows, using polar coordinates, that the last expression in 20.27 is no larger than
µZ ¶1/2
n/2−L −2L
C (n, L, φ, C0 ) t |z| dz ≤ C (n, L, φ, C0 ) tn/2−L· (20.30)
Sk
ÃZ !1/2
22−k
n−1−2L
ρ dρ ≤ C (n, L, φ, C0 ) tn/2−L 2k(L−n/2).
2−2−k
Now estimate 20.26 in another way. The support of γ k is in Sk , a bounded set,

and so F −1 γ k is differentiable. Therefore,
Z
¯ −1 ¯
¯F γ k (x − y) − F −1 γ k (x)¯ dx =
|x|≥2t
¯ ¯
Z ¯Z 1 X
n ¯
¯ ¯
¯ D F −1
γ (x−sy) y ds ¯ dx
¯ j k j ¯
|x|≥2t ¯ 0 j=1 ¯
Z Z n
1X ¯ ¯
≤ t ¯Dj F −1 γ k (x−sy)¯ dsdx
|x|≥2t 0 j=1
Z X
n
¯ ¯
≤ t ¯Dj F −1 γ k (x)¯ dx
j=1
n µZ ³ ¶1/2
X ¯ ¯2 ´−L
≤ t 1 + ¯2−k x¯ dx
j=1
µZ ³ ¶1/2
¯ −k ¯2 ´L ¯ ¯2
· ¯
1+ 2 x ¯ ¯ −1 ¯
Dj F γ k (x) dx
n µZ ³ ¶1/2
X ¯ ¯2 ´ L ¯ ¯
≤ C (n, L) t2kn/2 1 + ¯2−k x¯ ¯Dj F −1 γ k (x)¯2 dx . (20.31)
j=1
Now consider the j th term in the last sum in 20.31.

R³ ¯ ¯2 ´ L ¯ ¯
1 + ¯2−k x¯ ¯Dj F −1 γ k (x)¯2 dx ≤
RP ¯ ¯2
C (n, L) −2k|α| 2α ¯
x Dj F −1 γ k (x)¯ dx (20.32)
|α|≤L 2
P R ¯ ¯2
= C (n, L) |α|≤L 2−2k|α| x2α ¯F −1 (π j γ k ) (x)¯ dx
where π j (z) ≡ zj . This last assertion follows from

Z Z
Dj e−ix·y γ k (y) dy = (−i) e−ix·y yj γ k (y) dy.
Therefore, a similar computation and Plancherel’s theorem implies 20.32 equals

X Z
¯ ¯2
= C (n, L) 2−2k|α| ¯F −1 Dα (π j γ k ) (x)¯ dx
|α|≤L
X Z
−2k|α| 2
= C (n, L) 2 |Dα (zj γ k (z))| dz (20.33)
|α|≤L Sk
where Sk is given in 20.28. Now

¯ ¡ ¡ ¢¢¯
|Dα (zj γ k (z))| = 2−k ¯Dα ρ (z) zj 2k φ 2k z ¯
¯ ¡ ¡ ¢¢¯
= 2−k ¯Dα ρ (z) ψ j 2k z ¯
where ψ j (z) ≡ zj φ (z). By Lemma 20.9, this is dominated by
−|α|
2−k C (α, n, φ, j, C0 ) |z| .
Therefore, 20.33 is dominated by

X Z
−2|α|
C (L, n, φ, j, C0 ) 2−2k|α| 2−2k |z| dz
|α|≤L Sk
X ¡ ¢(−2|α|) ¡ 2−k ¢n
≤ C (L, n, φ, j, C0 ) 2−2k|α| 2−2k 2−2−k 2
|α|≤L
X
≤ C (L, n, φ, j, C0 ) 2−kn−2k
|α|≤L
≤ C (L, n, φ, j, C0 ) 2−kn 2−2k.

It follows that 20.31 is no larger than
C (L, n, φ, C0 ) t2kn/2 2−kn/2 2−k = C (L, n, φ, C0 ) t2−k . (20.34)
It follows from 20.34 and 20.30 that if |y| ≤ t,

Z
¯ −1 ¯
¯F γ k (x − y) − F −1 γ k (x)¯ dx ≤
|x|≥2t
³ ¡ ¢n/2−L ´
C (L, n, φ, C0 ) min t2−k , 2−k t .
With this inequality, the next lemma which is the desired result can be obtained.
Lemma 20.11 There exists a constant depending only on the indicated objects,
C1 = C (L, n, φ, C0 ) such that when |y| ≤ t,
Z
¯ −1 ¯
¯F ρ (x − y) − F −1 ρ (x)¯ dx ≤ C1
|x|≥2t
Z
¯ −1 ¯
¯F ρm (x − y) − F −1 ρm (x)¯ dx ≤ C1 . (20.35)
|x|≥2t
Proof: F −1 ρ = limm→∞ F −1 ρm in L2 (Rn ). Let mk → ∞ be such that conver-

gence is pointwise a.e. Then if |y| ≤ t, Fatou’s lemma implies
Z
¯ −1 ¯
¯F ρ (x − y) − F −1 ρ (x)¯ dx ≤
|x|≥2t
Z
¯ −1 ¯
lim inf ¯F ρm (x − y) − F −1 ρm (x)¯ dx
l l
l→∞ |x|≥2t
ml
X Z
¯ −1 ¯
≤ lim inf ¯F γ k (x − y) − F −1 γ k (x)¯ dx
l→∞ |x|≥2t
k=−ml
∞
X ³ ¡ ¢n/2−L ´
≤ C (L, n, φ, C0 ) min t2−k , 2−k t . (20.36)
k=−∞
Now consider the sum in 20.36,

∞
X ³ ¡ ¢n/2−L ´
min t2−k , 2−k t . (20.37)
k=−∞
³ ¡ ¢n/2−L ´
t2j = min t2j , 2j t exactly when t2j ≤ 1. This occurs if and only if
j ≤ − ln (t) / ln (2). Therefore 20.37 is no larger than
X X ¡ j ¢n/2−L
2j t + 2 t .
j≤− ln(t)/ ln(2) j≥− ln(t)/ ln(2)
Letting a = L − n/2, this equals

X X ¡ −a ¢j
t 2−k + t−α 2
k≥ln(t)/ ln(2) j≥− ln(t)/ ln(2)
µ ¶ln(t)/ ln(2) µ ¶− ln(t)/ ln(2)
1 1
≤ 2t + t−a
2 2a
µ ¶log2 (t) µ ¶− log2 (t)
1 1
= 2t + t−a
2 2a
= 2 + 1 = 3.
Similarly, 20.35 holds. This proves the lemma.

Now it is possible to prove Mihlin’s theorem.
Theorem 20.12 (Mihlin’s theorem) Suppose ρ satisfies

|α|
C0 ≥ sup{|x| |Dα ρ (x)| : |α| ≤ L, x ∈ Rn \ {0}},
where L is an integer greater than n/2 and ρ ∈ C L (Rn \ {0}). Then for every
p > 1, there exists a constant Ap depending only on p, C0 , φ, n, and L, such that
for all ψ ∈ G, ¯¯ −1 ¯¯
¯¯F ρ ∗ ψ ¯¯ ≤ Ap ||ψ|| .
p p
Proof: Since ρm satisfies 20.35, and is obviously in L2 (Rn )∩L∞ (Rn ), Theorem
20.8 implies there exists a constant Ap depending only on p, n, ||ρm ||∞ , and C1 such
that for all ψ ∈ G and p ∈ (1, ∞),
¯¯ −1 ¯¯
¯¯F ρm ∗ ψ ¯¯ ≤ Ap ||ψ|| .
p p
20.4. SINGULAR INTEGRALS 559
Now ||ρm ||∞ ≤ ||ρ||∞ because

m
X ¡ ¢
|ρm (x)| ≤ |ρ (x)| φ 2k x ≤ |ρ (x)|. (20.38)
k=−m
Therefore, since C1 = C1 (L, n, φ, C0 ) and C0 ≥ ||ρ||∞ ,

¯¯ −1 ¯¯
¯¯F ρm ∗ ψ ¯¯ ≤ Ap (L, n, φ, C0 , p) ||ψ|| .
p p
In particular, Ap does not depend on m. Now, by 20.38, the observation that

ρ ∈ L∞ (Rn ), limm→∞ ρm (y) = ρ (y) and the dominated convergence theorem, it
follows that for θ ∈ G.
¯ Z ¯
¯¡ −1 ¢ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ F ρ ∗ ψ (θ)¯ ≡ ¯(2π)n/2 ρ (x) F ψ (x) F −1 θ (x) dx¯
¯ ¯
¯¡ ¢ ¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
= lim ¯ F −1 ρm ∗ ψ (θ)¯ ≤ lim sup ¯¯F −1 ρm ∗ ψ ¯¯p ||θ||p0
m→∞ m→∞
≤ Ap (L, n, φ, C0 , p) ||ψ||p ||θ||p0 .

¯¯ ¯¯
Hence F −1 ρ ∗ ψ ∈ Lp (Rn ) and ¯¯F −1 ρ ∗ ψ ¯¯p ≤ Ap ||ψ||p . This proves the theorem.
20.4 Singular Integrals

If K ∈ L1 (Rn ) then when p > 1,
||K ∗ f ||p ≤ ||f ||p .
It turns out that some meaning can be assigned to K ∗ f for some functions K
which are not in L1 . This involves assuming a certain form for K and exploiting
cancellation. The resulting theory of singular integrals is very useful. To illustrate,
an application will be given to the Helmholtz decomposition of vector fields in the
next section. Like Mihlin’s theorem, the theory presented here rests on Theorem
20.8, restated here for convenience.
Theorem 20.13 Let ρ ∈ L2 (Rn ) ∩ L∞ (Rn ) and suppose

Z
¯ −1 ¯
¯F ρ (x − y) − F −1 ρ (x)¯ dx ≤ C1 .
|x|≥2|y|
Then for each p ∈ (1, ∞), there exists a constant, Ap , depending only on
p, n, ||ρ||∞ ,
and C1 such that for all φ ∈ G,

¯¯ −1 ¯¯
¯¯F ρ ∗ φ¯¯ ≤ Ap ||φ|| .
p p
Lemma 20.14 Suppose
K ∈ L2 (Rn ) , ||F K||∞ ≤ B < ∞, (20.39)
and Z
|K (x − y) − K (x)| dx ≤ B.
|x|>2|y|
Then for all p > 1, there exists a constant, A (p, n, B), depending only on the
indicated quantities such that
||K ∗ f ||p ≤ A (p, n, B) ||f ||p
for all f ∈ G.
Proof: Let F K = ρ so F −1 ρ = K. Then from 20.39 ρ ∈ L2 (Rn ) ∩ L∞ (Rn )

and K = F −1 ρ. By Theorem 20.8 listed above,
¯¯ ¯¯
||K ∗ f ||p = ¯¯F −1 ρ ∗ f ¯¯p ≤ A (p, n, B) ||f ||p
for all f ∈ G. This proves the lemma.

The next lemma provides a situation in which the above conditions hold.
Lemma 20.15 Suppose

−n
|K (x)| ≤ B |x| , (20.40)
Z
K (x) dx = 0, (20.41)
a<|x|2|y|
Define ½
K (x) if |x| ≥ ε,
Kε (x) = (20.43)
0 if |x| < ε.
Then there exists a constant C (n) such that
Z
|Kε (x − y) − Kε (x)| dx ≤ C (n) B (20.44)
|x|>2|y|
and
||F Kε ||∞ ≤ C (n) B. (20.45)
Proof: In the argument, C (n) will denote a generic constant depending only on
n. Consider 20.44 first. The integral is broken up according to whether |x| , |x − y| >
ε.
|x| >ε >ε <ε <ε

|x − y| >ε <ε <ε >ε
R
|x|≥2|y|
|Kε (x − y) − Kε (x)| dx =
R
|Kε (x − y) − Kε (x)| dx+
|x|≥2|y|,|x−y|>ε,|x|<ε
R
+ |Kε (x − y) − Kε (x)| dx+
|x|≥2|y|,|x−y|<ε,|x|≥ε (20.46)
R
|Kε (x − y) − Kε (x)| dx+
|x|≥2|y|,|x−y|>ε,|x|>ε
R
+ |Kε (x − y) − Kε (x)| dx.
|x|≥2|y|,|x−y|<ε,|x|<ε
Now consider the terms in the above expression. The last integral in 20.46 equals 0
from the definition of Kε . The third integral on the right is no larger than B by the
definition of Kε and 20.42. Consider the second integral on the right. This integral
is no larger than Z
−n
B |x| dx.
|x|≥2|y|,|x|≥ε,|x−y|<ε
Now |x| ≤ |y| + ε ≤ |x| /2 + ε and so |x| < 2ε. Thus this is no larger than
Z Z Z 2ε
−n 1
B |x| dx = B ρn−1 n dρdσ ≤ BC (n) ln 2 = C (n) B.
S n−1 ε ρ
ε≤|x|≤2ε
It remains to estimate the first integral on the right in 20.46. This integral is
bounded by Z
−n
B |x − y| dx
|x|≥2|y|,|x−y|>ε,|x|<ε
In the integral above, |x| < ε and so |x − y| − |y| < ε. Therefore, |x − y| < ε + |y| <
ε + |x| /2 < ε + ε/2 = (3/2) ε. Hence ε ≤ |x − y| ≤ (3/2) |x − y|. Therefore, the
above integral is no larger than
Z (3/2)ε Z Z (3/2)ε
−n
B |z| dz = B ρ−1 dρdσ = BC (n) ln (3/2) .
ε S n−1 ε

Now it remains to show 20.45, a statement about the Fourier transforms of Kε .
Fix ε and let y 6= 0 also be given.
½
Kε (y) if |y| < R,
KεR (y) ≡
0 if |y| ≥ R
3π
where R > |y| . (The 3 here isn’t important. It just needs to be larger than 1.)
Then
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ Z ¯ ¯ Z ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ −ix·y ¯ ¯ −ix·y ¯
|F KεR (y)| ≤ ¯ Kε (x) e dx¯ + ¯ Kε (x) e dx¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯0<|x|<3π|y|−1 ¯ ¯3π|y|−1 <|x|≤R ¯
= A + B. (20.47)
Consider A. By 20.41
Z
Kε (x) dx = 0
−1
ε<|x|<3π|y|
and so ¯ ¯
¯ Z ¯
¯ ¡ −ix·y ¢ ¯¯
¯
A =¯ Kε (x) e − 1 dx¯
¯ ¯
¯ε<|x|<3π|y|−1 ¯
Now ¯ −ix·y ¯
¯e − 1¯ = |2 − 2 cos (x · y)|
1/2
≤ 2 |x · y| ≤ 2 |x| |y|
so, using polar coordinates, this expression is no larger than
Z Z 3π/|y|
−n
2B |x| |x| |y| dx ≤ C (n) B |y| dρ ≤ BC (n).
ε
−1
ε<|x|<3π|y|
Next, consider B. This estimate is based on the trick which follows. Let
2
z ≡ yπ/ |y|
so that
|z| = π/ |y| , z · y =π.
Then
R R
Kε (x) e−ix·y dx = 12 Kε (x) e−ix·y dx
−1 −1
3π|y| <|x|≤R 3π|y| <|x|≤R
R (20.48)
− 12 Kε (x) e−i(x+z)·y dx.
3π|y|−1 <|x|≤R
Here is why. Note in the second of these integrals,

Z
1
− Kε (x) e−i(x+z)·y dx
2
3π|y|−1 <|x|≤R
Z
1
= − Kε (x) e−ix·y e−iz·y dx
2
3π|y|−1 <|x|≤R
Z
1
= − Kε (x) e−ix·y e−iπ dx
2
3π|y|−1 <|x|≤R
Z
1
= Kε (x) e−ix·y dx.
2
3π|y|−1 <|x|≤R
Then changing the variables in 20.48,,

Z
Kε (x) e−ix·y dx
3π|y|−1 <|x|≤R
Z
1
= Kε (x) e−ix·y dx
2
3π|y|−1 <|x|≤R
Z
1
− Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx.
2
3π|y|−1 <|x−z|≤R
Thus
R
Kε (x) e−ix·y dx =
R 3π|y|−1 <|x|≤R R
1
2 Kε (x) e−ix·y dx − 12 Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx (20.49)
|x|≤R
R |x−z|≤R R
+ 12 Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx − 12 Kε (x) e−ix·y dx.
|x−z|≤3π|y|−1 |x|≤3π|y|−1
π 3π
Since |z| = π/ |y|, it follows |z| = |y| < |y| < R and so the following picture
describes the situation. In this picture, the radius of each ball equals either R or
−1
3π |y| and each integral above is taken over one of the two balls in the picture,
either the one centered at 0 or the one centered at z.
0t zt
To begin with, consider the integrals which involve Kε (x − z).

R
Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx
|x−z|≤R
R
= Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx
|x|≤R
R (20.50)
− Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx
|x−z|>R,|x|<R
R
+ Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx.
|x−z|<R,|x|>R
Look at the picture. Similarly,

R
Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx
−1
|x−z|≤3π|y|
R
= Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx
−1
|x|≤3π|y|
R (20.51)
− Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx+
|x−z|>3π|y|−1
R ,|x|<3π|y|
−1
Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx.
−1 −1
|x−z|<3π|y| ,|x|>3π|y|
The last integral in 20.50 is taken over a set that is contained in
B (0,R + |z|) \ B (0,R)
illustrated in the following picture as the region between the small ball centered at
0 and the big ball which surrounds the two small balls
0t zt
and so this integral is dominated by

µ ¶
1 n
B n α (n) ((R + |z|) − Rn ),
(R − |z|)
an expression which converges to 0 as R → ∞. Similarly, the second integral on

the right in 20.50 converges to zero as R → ∞. Now consider the last two integrals
−1
in 20.51. Letting 3π |y| play the role of R and using |z| = π/ |y|, these are each
dominated by an expression of the form
 
1 ³³ ń ³ ń ´
B ³ ń  α (n) 3π |y|−1 + |z| − 3π |y|−1
−1
3π |y| − |z|
 
1
= B ³ ń  α (n) ·
−1 −1
3π |y| − π |y|
³³ ń ³ ń ´
−1 −1 −1
3π |y| + π |y| − 3π |y|
n
|y| 1 n n
= α (n) B n n ((4π) − (3π) ) = C (n) B.
(2π) |y|
Returning to 20.49, the terms involving x − y have now been estimated. Thus,
collecting the terms which have not yet been estimated along with those that have,
¯ ¯
¯ Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ −ix·y ¯
B =¯ Kε (x) e dx¯
¯ ¯
¯3π|y|−1 <|x|≤R ¯
¯
¯ Z Z
1 ¯¯
≤ ¯ Kε (x) e−ix·y dx − Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx
2¯
¯|x|<R |x|<R
¯
Z Z ¯
¯
¯
+ Kε (x − z) e−ix·y dx − Kε (x) e−ix·y
dx¯
¯
|x|<3π|y|−1 |x|<3π|y|−1
¯
+C (n) B + g (R)
where g (R) → 0 as R → ∞. Using |z| = π/ |y| again,
Z
1
B≤ |Kε (x) − Kε (x − z)| dx + C (n) B + g (R).
2
3|z|<|x|<R
But the integral in the above is dominated by C (n) B by 20.44 which was established
earlier. Therefore, from 20.47,
|F KεR | ≤ C (n) B + g (R)
where g (R) → 0.
Now KεR → Kε in L2 (Rn ) because
Z
1
||KεR − Kε ||L2 (Rn ) ≤ B 2n dx
|x|>R |x|
Z Z ∞
1
= B dρdσ,
S n−1 R ρn+1
which converges to 0 as R → ∞ and so F KεR → F Kε in L2 (Rn ) by Plancherel’s

theorem. Therefore, by taking a subsequence, still denoted by R, F KεR (y) →
F Kε (y) a.e. which shows
|F Kε (y)| ≤ C (n) B a.e.
Corollary 20.16 Suppose 20.40 - 20.42 hold. Then if g ∈ Cc1 (Rn ), Kε ∗g converges
uniformly and in Lp (Rn ) as ε → 0.
Proof: Z
Kε ∗ g (x) ≡ Kε (y) g (x − y) dy.
Let 0 < η < ε. Then since g ∈ Cc1 (Rn ) , there exists a constant, K such that
K |u − v| ≥ |g (u) − g (v)| for all u, v ∈ Rn .
Z
1
|Kε ∗ g (x) − Kη ∗ g (x)| ≤ BK n |y| dy
η<|y|<ε |y|
Z Z ε
= BK dρdσ = Cn |ε − η| .
S n−1 η
Theorem 20.17 Suppose 20.40 - 20.42. Then for Kε given by 20.43 and p > 1,
there exists a constant A (p, n, B) such that for all f ∈ Lp (Rn ),
||Kε ∗ f ||p ≤ A (p, n, B) ||f ||p . (20.52)
Also, for each f ∈ Lp (Rn ),

T f ≡ lim Kε ∗ f (20.53)
ε→0
exists in Lp (Rn ) and for all f ∈ Lp (Rn ),
||T f ||p ≤ A (p, n, B) ||f ||p . (20.54)
Thus T is a linear and continuous map defined on Lp (Rn ) for each p > 1.
0
Proof: From 20.40 it follows Kε ∈ Lp (Rn ) ∩ L2 (Rn ) where, as usual, 1/p +
0
1/p0 = 1. By continuity of translation in Lp (Rn ), x → Kε ∗ f (x) is a continuous
function.By Lemma 20.15, ||F Kε ||∞ ≤ C (n) B for all ε. Therefore, by Lemma
20.14,
||Kε ∗ g||p ≤ A (p, n, B) ||g||p
for all g ∈ G. Now let f ∈ Lp (Rn ) and gk → f in Lp (Rn ) where gk ∈ G. Then
Z
|Kε ∗ f (x) − Kε ∗ gk (x)| ≤ |Kε (x − y)| |gk (y) − f (y)| dy
≤ ||Kε ||p0 ||gk − f ||p
which shows that Kε ∗ gk (x) → Kε ∗ f (x) pointwise and so by Fatou’s lemma,
||Kε ∗ f ||p ≤ lim inf ||Kε ∗ gk ||p ≤ lim inf A (p, n, B) ||gk ||p
k→∞ k→∞
= A (p, n, B) ||f ||p .
This verifies 20.52.

To verify 20.53, let δ > 0 be given and let
f ∈ Lp (Rn ) , g ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) .

||Kε ∗ f − Kη ∗ f ||p ≤ ||Kε ∗ (f − g)||p + ||Kε ∗ g − Kη ∗ g||p

+ ||Kη ∗ (f − g)||p
≤ 2A (p, n, B) ||f − g||p + ||Kε ∗ g − Kη ∗ g||p .

Choose g such that 2A (p, n, B) ||f − g||p ≤ δ/2. Then if ε, η are small enough,
Corollary 20.16 implies the last term is also less than δ/2. Thus, limε→0 Kε ∗ f
exists in Lp (Rn ). Let T f be the element of Lp (Rn ) to which it converges. Then
20.54 follows and T is obviously linear because
T (af + bg) = lim Kε ∗ (af + bg) = lim (aKε ∗ f + bKε ∗ g)
ε→0 ε→0
= aT f + bT g.
When do conditions 20.40-20.42 hold? It turns out this happens for K given by
the following.
Ω (x)
K (x) ≡ n , (20.55)
|x|
where
Ω (λx) = Ω (x) for all λ > 0, (20.56)
Ω is Lipschitz on S n−1,
Z
Ω (x) dσ = 0. (20.57)
S n−1
Theorem 20.18 For K given by 20.55 - 20.57, it follows there exists a constant
B such that
−n
|K (x)| ≤ B |x| , (20.58)
Z
K (x) dx = 0, (20.59)
a<|x|2|y|
Consequently, the conclusions of Theorem 20.17 hold also.
Proof: 20.58 is obvious. To verify 20.59,
Z Z bZ
Ω (ρw) n−1
K (x) dx = ρ dσdρ
a<|x|<b a S n−1 ρn
Z b Z
1
= Ω (w) dσdρ = 0.
a ρ S n−1
It remains to show 20.60.

µ µ ¶ µ ¶¶
−nx−y x
K (x − y) − K (x) = |x − y| Ω −Ω
|x − y| |x|
µ ¶
1 1
+Ω (x) n − n (20.61)
|x − y| |x|
³ ´
z
where 20.56 was used to write Ω |z| = Ω (z). The first group of terms in 20.61 is
dominated by ¯ ¯
¯ x−y x ¯¯
|x − y|
−n ¯
Lip (Ω) ¯ −
|x − y| |x| ¯
and an estimate is required for |x| > 2 |y|. Since |x| > 2 |y|,
−n −n 2n
|x − y| ≤ (|x| − |y|) ≤ n.
|x|
Also ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ x−y x ¯¯ ¯¯ (x − y) |x| − x |x − y| ¯¯
¯
¯ |x − y| − |x| ¯ = ¯ |x| |x − y| ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ (x − y) |x| − x |x − y| ¯ ¯ (x − y) |x| − x |x − y| ¯
≤ ¯¯ ¯≤¯
¯ ¯
¯
¯
|x| (|x| − |y|) |x| (|x| /2)
2 2
= 2 |x |x| − y |x| − x |x − y|| = 2 |x (|x| − |x − y|) − y |x||
|x| |x|
2 2
≤ 2 |x| ||x| − |x − y|| + |y| |x| ≤ 2 (|x| |x− (x − y)| + |y| |x|)
|x| |x|
4 |y|
≤ 2 |x| |y| = 4 .
|x| |x|
Therefore, Z ¯ µ ¶ µ ¶¯
¯ ¯
|x − y|
−n ¯Ω x − y − Ω x ¯ dx
¯ |x − y| |x| ¯
|x|>2|y|
Z
n 1 |y|
≤ 4 (2 ) n dx Lip (Ω)
|x|>2|y| |x| |x|
Z
|y|
= C (n, Lip Ω) n+1 dx
|x|>2|y| |x|
Z
1
= C (n, Lip Ω) n+1 du. (20.62)
|u|>2 |u|
It remains to consider the second group of terms in 20.61 when |x| > 2 |y|.
¯ ¯ ¯ n n¯
¯ 1 1 ¯¯ ¯¯ |x| − |x − y| ¯¯
¯ − =
¯ |x − y|n |x| ¯ ¯ |x − y| |x| ¯
n n n
2n n n
≤ 2n ||x| − |x − y| |
|x|
2n h
n−1 n−2
≤ 2n |y| |x| + |x| |x − y| +
|x|
i
n−2 n−1
· · · + |x| |x − y| + |x − y|
20.5. HELMHOLTZ DECOMPOSITIONS 569
n−1
2n |y| C (n) |x| C (n) 2n |y|
≤ 2n = n+1 .
|x| |x|
Thus
Z ¯ µ ¶¯
¯ 1 1 ¯¯
¯Ω (x) − dx
¯ |x − y|
n
|x| ¯
n
|x|>2|y|
Z
|y|
≤ C (n) n+1 dx
|x|>2|y| |x|
Z
1
≤ C (n) n+1 du. (20.63)
|u|>2 |u|
From 20.62 and 20.63,
Z
|K (x − y) − K (x)| dx ≤ C (n, Lip Ω).
|x|>2|y|
20.5 Helmholtz Decompositions

It turns out that every vector field which has its components in Lp can be written
as a sum of a gradient and a vector field which has zero divergence. This is a very
remarkable result, especially when applied to vector fields which are only in Lp .
Pn 2
Recall that for u a function of n variables, ∆u = i=1 ∂∂xu2 .
i
Definition 20.19 Define

(
− a11 ln |y| , if n = 2,
Φ (y) ≡ 1 2−n
(n−2)an−1 |y| , if n > 2.
where ak denotes the area of the unit sphere, S k .

Then it is routine to verify ∆Φ = 0 away from 0. In fact, if n > 2,
" #
1 yi2 yi yj
Φ,ii (y) = Cn n −n n+2 , Φ,ij (y) = Cn n+2 , (20.64)
|y| |y| |y|
while if n = 2,
y12 − y22 y22 − y12
Φ,22 (y) = C2 2 , Φ,11 (y) = C 2 2,
(y12 + y22 ) (y12 + y22 )
y1 y2
Φ,ij (y) = C2 2.
(y12 + y22 )
Also,
−y
∇Φ (y) = n. (20.65)
an−1 |y|
In the above the subscripts following a comma denote partial derivatives.
Lemma 20.20 For n ≥ 2

Ωij (y)
Φ,ij (y) = n
|y|
where
Ωij is Lipschitz continuous on S n−1, (20.66)
Ωij (λy) = Ωij (y), (20.67)
for all λ > 0, and Z
Ωij (y) dσ = 0. (20.68)
S n−1
Proof:
Proof: The case n = 2 is left to the reader. 20.66 and 20.67 are obvious from
the above descriptions. It remains to verify 20.68. If n ≥ 3 and i 6= j, then this
formula is also clear from 20.64. Thus consider the case when n ≥ 3 and i = j. By
symmetry, Z Z
I≡ 1 − nyi2 dσ = 1 − nyj2 dσ.
S n−1 S n−1
Hence
n Z Z Ã !
X X
nI = 1− nyi2 dσ = n−n yi2 dσ
i=1 S n−1 S n−1 i
Z
= (n − n) dσ = 0.
S n−1

Let U be a bounded open set locally on one side of its boundary having Lipschitz
boundary so the divergence theorem holds and let B = B (0,R) where
B ⊇ U − U ≡ {x − y : x ∈ U, y ∈ U }
Let f ∈ Cc∞ (U ) and define for x ∈ U ,

Z Z
u (x) ≡ Φ (y) f (x − y) dy = Φ (x − y) f (y) dy.
B U
Let h (y) = f (x − y) . Then since Φ is in L1 (B),

Z Z
∆u (x) = Φ (y) ∆f (x − y) dy = Φ (y) ∆h (y) dy
B B
Z
= ∇ · (∇h (y) Φ (y)) − ∇Φ (y) · ∇h (y) dy
B\B(0,ε)
Z
+ Φ (y) ∆h (y) dy.
B(0,ε)
The last term converges to 0 as ε → 0 because Φ is in L1 and ∆h is bounded. Since

spt (h) ⊆ B, the divergence theorem implies
Z Z
∆u (x) = − Φ (y) ∇h (y)·ndσ − ∇Φ (y)·∇h (y) dy +e (ε) (20.69)
∂B(0,ε) B\B(0,ε)
where here and below, e (ε) → 0 as ε → 0. The first term in 20.69 converges to 0
as ε → 0 because
¯Z ¯ ½
¯ ¯ 1
¯ ¯ Cnh εn−2 εn−1 = Cnh ε if n > 2
¯ Φ (y) ∇h (y) · ndσ ¯ ≤
¯ ∂B(0,ε) ¯ Ch (ln ε) ε if n = 2
and since ∆Φ (y) = 0,
∇Φ (y) · ∇h (y) = ∇ · (∇Φ (y) h (y)).
Consequently
Z
∆u (x) = − ∇ · (∇Φ (y) h (y)) dy + e (ε).
B\B(0,ε)
Thus, by the divergence theorem, 20.65, and the definition of h above,

Z
∆u (x) = f (x − y) ∇Φ (y) · ndσ + e (ε)
∂B(0,ε)
Z µ ¶ µ ¶
y y
= f (x − y) − n · − dσ + e (ε)
∂B(0,ε) an−1 |y| |y|
ÃZ !
1
= − f (x − y) dσ (y) + e (ε).
∂B(0,ε) an−1 εn−1
Letting ε → 0,
−∆u (x) = f (x).
This proves the following lemma.
Lemma 20.21 Let U be a bounded open set in Rn with Lipschitz boundary and let
B ⊇ U − U where B = B (0,R). Let f ∈ Cc∞ (U ). Then for x ∈ U,
Z Z
Φ (y) f (x − y) dy = Φ (x − y) f (y) dy,
B U
and it follows that if u is given by one of the above formulas, then for all x ∈ U ,
−∆u (x) = f (x).
Theorem 20.22 Let f ∈ Lp (U ). Then there exists u ∈ Lp (U ) whose weak deriva-

tives are also in Lp (U ) such that in the sense of weak derivatives,
−∆u = f.
It is given by
Z Z
u (x) = Φ (y) fe(x − y) dy = Φ (x − y) f (y) dy (20.70)
B U
where fe denotes the zero extension of f off of U .
Proof: Let f ∈ Lp (U ) and let fk ∈ Cc∞ (U ) , ||fk − f ||Lp (U ) → 0, and let uk be

given by 20.70 with fk in place of f . Then by Minkowski’s inequality,
µZ µZ ¯ ¯ ¶p ¶1/p
¯e ¯
||u − uk ||Lp (U ) = Φ (y) ¯f (x − y) − fk (x − y)¯ dy dx
ÃZU B
µZ ¯ !
¯p ¶1/p
¯e ¯
≤ |Φ (y)| ¯f (x − y) − fk (x − y)¯ dx dy
B U
Z
≤ |Φ (y)| dy ||f − fk ||Lp (U ) = C (B) ||f − fk ||Lp (U )
B
and so uk → u in Lp (U ). Also
Z Z
uk,i (x) = Φ,i (x − y) fk (y) dy = fk (x − y) Φ,i (y) dy.
U B
Now let Z
wi ≡ fe(x − y) Φ,i (y) dy. (20.71)
B
and since Φ,i ∈ L1 (B), it follows from Minkowski’s inequality that
||uk,i − wi ||Lp (U )
µZ µZ ¯ ¯ ¶p ¶1/p
¯ e ¯
≤ ¯fk (x − y) − f (x − y)¯ |Φ,i (y)| dy dx
U B
Z µZ ¯ ¯p ¶1/p
¯ ¯
≤ |Φ,i (y)| ¯fk (x − y) − fe(x − y)¯ dx dy
B U
≤ C (B) ||fk − f ||Lp (U )
and so uk,i → wi in Lp (U ).
Now let φ ∈ Cc∞ (U ). Then
Z Z Z
wi φdx = − lim uk φ,i dx = − uφ,i dx.
U k→∞ U U
p n
Thus u,i = wi ∈ L (R ) and so if φ ∈ (U ), Cc∞
Z Z Z Z
f φdx = lim fk φdx = lim ∇uk · ∇φdx = ∇u · ∇φdx
U k→∞ U k→∞ U U
and so −∆u = f as claimed. This proves the theorem.

One could also ask whether the second weak partial derivatives of u are in
Lp (U ). This is where the theory singular integrals is used. Recall from 20.70 and
20.71 along with the argument of the above lemma, that if u is given by 20.70, then
u,i is given by 20.71 which equals
Z
Φ,i (x − y) f (y) dy.
U
Lemma 20.23 Let f ∈ Lp (U ) and let

Z
wi (x) ≡ Φ,i (x − y) f (y) dy.
U
p
Then wi,j ∈ L (U ) for each j = 1 · · · n and the map f → wi,j is continuous and
linear on Lp (U ).
Proof: First let f ∈ Cc∞ (U ). For such f ,

Z Z
wi (x) = Φ,i (x − y) f (y) dy = Φ,i (x − y) f (y) dy
n
ZU ZR
= Φ,i (y) f (x − y) dy = Φ,i (y) f (x − y) dy
Rn B
and
Z
wi,j (x) = Φ,i (y) f,j (x − y) dy
ZB Z
= Φ,i (y) f,j (x − y) dy + Φ,i (y) f,j (x − y) dy.
B\B(0,ε) B(0,ε)
The second term converges to 0 because f,j is bounded and by 20.65, Φ,i ∈ L1loc .
Thus
Z
wi,j (x) = Φ,i (y) f,j (x − y) dy + e (ε)
B\B(0,ε)
Z
= − (Φ,i (y) f (x − y)),j + Φ,ij (y) f (x − y) dy + e (ε)
B\B(0,ε)
where e (ε) → 0 as ε → 0. Using the divergence theorem, this yields

Z Z
wi,j (x) = Φ,i (y) f (x − y) nj dσ + Φ,ij (y) f (x − y) dy + e (ε).
∂B(0,ε) B\B(0,ε)
Consider the first term on the right. This term equals, after letting y = εz,
Z Z
εn−1 Φ,i (εz) f (x−εz) nj dσ = Cn εn−1 ε1−n zi zj f (x−εz) dσ (z)
∂B(0,1) ∂B(0,1)
Z
= Cn zi zj f (x−εz) dσ (z)
∂B(0,1)
and this converges to 0 if i 6= j and it converges to

Z
Cn f (x) zi2 dσ (z)
∂B(0,1)
if i = j. Thus
Z
wi,j (x) = Cn δ ij f (x) + Φ,ij (y) f (x − y) dy + e (ε).
B\B(0,ε)
Letting ½
0 if |y| < ε,
Φεij ≡
Φ,ij (y) if |y| ≥ ε,
it follows
wi,j (x) = Cn δ ij f (x) + Φεij ∗ fe(x) + e (ε) .
By the theory of singular integrals, there exists a continuous linear map, Kij ∈
L (Lp (Rn ) , Lp (Rn )) such that
Kij f ≡ lim Φεij ∗ f.

ε→0
Therefore, letting ε → 0,
wi,j = Cn δ ij f + Kij fe
whenever f ∈ Cc∞ (U ).
Now let f ∈ Lp (U ), let
||fk − f ||Lp (U ) → 0,
where fk ∈ Cc∞ (U ), and let
Z
wik (x) = Φ,i (x − y) fk (y) dy.
U
Then it follows as before that wik → wi in Lp (U ) and

k
wi,j = Cn δ ij fk + Kij fek .
Now let φ ∈ Cc∞ (U ).

Z Z
wi,j (φ) ≡ − wi φ,j dx = − lim wik φ,j dx
U k→∞ U
Z Z ³ ´
= lim k
wi,j φdx = lim Cn δ ij fek + Kij fek φdx
k→∞ U k→∞ U
Z ³ ´
= Cn δ ij fe + Kij fe φdx.
U
It follows
wi,j = Cn δ ij fe + Kij fe
Corollary 20.24 In the situation of Theorem 20.22, all weak derivatives of u of

order 2 are in Lp (U ) and also f → u,ij is a continuous map.
Proof: Z
u,i (x) = Φ,i (x − y) f (y) dy
U
and so u,ij ∈ Lp (U ) and f → u,ij is continuous by Lemma 20.23.
With this preparation, it is possible to consider the Helmholtz decomposition.
Let F ∈ Lp (U ; Rn ) and define
Z
φ (x) ≡ ∇Φ (x − y) · F (y) dy. (20.72)
U
Then by Lemma 20.23,

X
φ,j = Cn Fej + Kij Fei ∈ Lp (Rn )
i
and the mapping F →∇φ is continuous from Lp (U ; Rn ) to Lp (U ; Rn ).

Now suppose F ∈ Cc∞ (U ; Rn ). Then
Z X n
∂
φ (x) = − i (Φ (x − y) Fi (y)) + Φ (x − y) ∇ · F (y) dy
U ∂y
Z i=1
= Φ (x − y) ∇ · F (y) dy
U
and so by Lemma 20.21,

∇ · ∇φ = ∆φ = −∇ · F.
This continues to hold in the sense of weak derivatives if F is only in Lp (U ; Rn )
because by Minkowski’s inequality and 20.72 the map F →φ is continuous. Also
note that for F ∈ Cc∞ (U ; Rn ),
Z
φ (x) = Φ (y) ∇ · F (x − y) dy.
B
Next define π : L (U ; R ) → Lp (U ; Rn ) by
p n
Z
πF = −∇φ, φ (x) = ∇Φ (x − y) · F (y) dy.
U
It was already shown that π is continuous, linear, and ∇ · πF =∇ · F. It is also true

that π is a projection. To see this, let F ∈ Cc∞ (U ; Rn ). Then for B large enough,
Z
2
π F (x) = −∇ Φ (z) ∇ · πF (x − z) dz
ZB Z
= −∇ Φ (z) ∇ · ∇ Φ (w) ∇ · F (x − z − w) dwdz
B B
Z
= −∇ Φ (z) ∇ · F (x − z) dz = πF (x).
B
Since π is continuous and Cc∞ (U ; Rn ) is dense in Lp (U ; Rn ), π 2 F =πF for all F ∈

Lp (U ; Rn ). This proves the following theorem which is the Helmholtz decomposi-
tion.
Theorem 20.25 There exists a continuous projection
π : Lp (U ; Rn ) → Lp (U ; Rn )
such that πF is a gradient and
∇ · (F−πF) = 0
in the sense of weak derivatives.
Note this theorem shows that any Lp vector field is the sum of a gradient and a
part which is divergence free. F = F−πF+πF.
The Bochner Integral
21.1 Strong And Weak Measurability

In this chapter (Ω, S,µ) will be a σ finite measure space and X will be a Banach
space which contains the values of either a function or a measure. The Banach
space will be either a real or a complex Banach space but the field of scalars does
not matter and so it is denoted by F with the understanding that F = C unless
otherwise stated. The theory presented here includes the case where X = Rn or
Cn but it does not include the situation where f could have values in a space like
[0, ∞]. To begin with here is a definition.
Definition 21.1 A function, x : Ω → X, for X a Banach space, is a simple
function if it is of the form
n
X
x (s) = ai XBi (s)
i=1
where Bi ∈ S and µ (Bi ) < ∞ for each i. A function x from Ω to X is said to be

strongly measurable if there exists a sequence of simple functions {xn } converging
pointwise to x. The function x is said to be weakly measurable if, for each f ∈ X 0 ,
f ◦x
is a scalar valued measurable function.
Earlier, a function was measurable if inverse images of open sets were measur-
able. Something similar holds here. The difference is that another condition needs
to hold.
Theorem 21.2 x is strongly measurable if and only if x−1 (U ) is measurable for
all U open in X and x (Ω) is separable.
Proof: Suppose first x−1 (U ) is measurable for all U open in X and x (Ω)
is separable. Let {an }∞
n=1 be the dense subset of x (Ω). It follows x
−1
(B) is
measurable for all B Borel because
{B : x−1 (B) is measurable}
577
578 THE BOCHNER INTEGRAL
is a σ algebra containing the open sets. Let

n
Ukn ≡ {z ∈ X : ||z − ak || ≤ min{||z − al ||l=1 }}.
In words, Ukm is the set of points of X which are as close to ak as they are to any
of the al for l ≤ n.
¡ ¢
Bkn ≡ x−1 (Ukn ) , Dkn ≡ Bkn \ ∪k−1 n n n
i=1 Bi , D1 ≡ B1 ,
and
n
X
xn (s) ≡ ak XDkn (s).
k=1
n
Thus xn (s) is a closest approximation to x (s) from {ak }k=1 and so xn (s) → x (s)
because {an }∞n=1 is dense in x (Ω). Furthermore, xn is measurable because each Dk
n
is measurable.
Since (Ω, S, µ) is σ finite, there exists Ωn ↑ Ω with µ (Ωn ) < ∞. Let
yn (s) ≡ XΩn (s) xn (s).
Then yn (s) → x (s) for each s because for any s, s ∈ Ωn if n is large enough. Also
yn is a simple function because it equals 0 off a set of finite measure.
Now suppose that x is strongly measurable. Then some sequence of simple
functions, {xn }, converges pointwise to x. Then x−1 n (W ) is measurable for every
open set W because it is just a finite union of measurable sets. Thus, x−1n (W ) is
measurable for every Borel set W . This follows by considering
© ª
W : x−1
n (W ) is measurable
and observing this is a σ algebra which contains the open sets. Since X is a metric
space, it follows that if U is an open set in X , there exists a sequence of open sets,
{Vn } which satisfies
V n ⊆ U, V n ⊆ Vn+1 , U = ∪∞
n=1 Vn .
Then [ \ ¡ ¢
x−1 (Vm ) ⊆ x−1
k (Vm ) ⊆ x
−1
Vm .
n<∞ k≥n
This implies [
x−1 (U ) = x−1 (Vm )
m<∞
[ [ \ [ ¡ ¢
⊆ x−1
k (Vm ) ⊆ x−1 V m ⊆ x−1 (U ).
m<∞ n<∞ k≥n m<∞
Since [ [ \
x−1 (U ) = x−1
k (Vm ),
m<∞ n<∞ k≥n
21.1. STRONG AND WEAK MEASURABILITY 579
it follows that x−1 (U ) is measurable for every open U . It remains to show x (Ω) is
separable. Let
D ≡ all values of the simple functions xn
which converge to x pointwise. Then D is clearly countable and dense in D, a set
which contains x (Ω).
Claim: x (Ω) is separable. © ª
Proof of claim: For n ∈ N, let Bn ≡ B (d, r) : 0 < r < n1 , r rational, d ∈ D .
¡ 1¢
Thus
¡ B1 n¢ is countable. Let z¡∈1 D.1 ¢Consider B z, n . Then there exists d ∈ D ∩
B z, 3n . Now pick r ∈ Q ∩ 3n , n so that B (d, r) ∈ Bn . Now z ∈ B (d, r) and so
this shows that x (Ω) ⊆ D ⊆ ∪Bn for each n. Now let Bn0 denote those sets of Bn
∞
which have nonempty intersection with x (Ω) . Say Bn0 = {Bkn }n,k=1 . By the axiom
n n
of choice, there exists xk ∈ Bk ∩ x (Ω) . Then if z ∈ x (Ω) , z is contained in some set
∞
of Bn0 which also contains a point of {xnk }n,k=1 . Therefore, z is at least as close as
∞ ∞
2/n to some point of {xnk }n,k=1 which shows {xnk }n,k=1 is a countable dense subset
of x (Ω) . Therefore x (Ω) is separable. This proves the theorem.
The last part also shows that a subset of a separable metric space is also sepa-
rable. Therefore, the following simple corollary is obtained.
Corollary 21.3 If X is a separable Banach space then x is strongly measurable if

and only if x−1 (U ) is measurable for all U open in X.
The next lemma is interesting for its own sake. Roughly it says that if a Banach
space is separable, then the unit ball in the dual space is weak ∗ separable. This
will be used to prove Pettis’s theorem, one of the major theorems in this subject
which relates weak measurability to strong measurability.
Lemma 21.4 If X is a separable Banach space with B 0 the closed unit ball in X 0 ,
then there exists a sequence {fn }∞ 0 0
n=1 ≡ D ⊆ B with the property that for every
x ∈ X,
||x|| = sup |f (x)|
f ∈D 0
Proof: Let {ak } be a countable dense set in X and consider the mapping
φ n : B 0 → Fn
given by
φn (f ) ≡ (f (a1 ) , · · ·, f (an )) .
Then φn (B ) is contained in a compact subset of Fn because |f (ak )| ≤ ||ak || .
0
∞
Therefore, there exists a countable dense subset of φn (B 0 ) , {φn (fkn )}k=1 . Let Dn0 ≡
n ∞
{fk }k=1 . Let
D 0 ≡ ∪∞ 0
k=1 Dk .
It remains to show this works. Letting x ∈ X and ε > 0 be given, there exists am
such that ||am − x|| < ε. Then by the usual argument involving the Hahn Banach
theorem, there exists fx ∈ B 0 such that ||x|| = fx (x) . Letting n > m, let g ∈ B 0 be
∞
one of the fkn with {φn (fkn )}k=1 a dense subset of φn (B 0 ) such that
|g (am ) − fx (am )| < ε.
Then
||x|| = |fx (x)| = |fx (am ) + fx (x) − fx (am )|

≤ |fx (am )| + ε ≤ |g (am )| + 2ε ≤ |g (x)| + 3ε
and so since ε > 0 is arbitrary,
||x|| ≤ sup |g (x)| ≤ ||x||

g∈D 0

The next theorem is one of the most important results in the subject. It is due
to Pettis and appeared in 1938.
Theorem 21.5 If x has values in a separable Banach space, X, and if x is weakly

measurable, then x is strongly measurable.
Proof: It is necessary to show x−1 (U ) is measurable whenever U is open.

Since every open set is a countable union of balls, it suffices to show x−1 (B (a, r))
is measurable for any ball, B (a, r) . ³Since every
´ open ball is the countable union of
−1
closed balls, it suffices to verify x B (a, r) is measurable. From Lemma 21.4
³ ´
x−1 B (a, r) = {s : ||x (s) − a|| ≤ r}
( )
= s : sup |f (x (s) − a)| ≤ r
f ∈D 0
= ∩f ∈D0 {s : |f (x (s) − a)| ≤ r}

= ∩f ∈D0 {s : |f (x (s)) − f (a)| ≤ r}
−1
= ∩f ∈D0 (f ◦ x) B (f (a) , r)
which equals a countable union of measurable sets because it is assumed that f ◦ x

is measurable for all f ∈ X 0 . This proves the theorem.
The same method of proof yields the following interesting corollary.
Corollary 21.6 Let X be a separable Banach space and let B (X) denote the σ
algebra of Borel sets. Then B (X) = F where F is the smallest σ algebra of subsets
of X which has the property that every function, x∗ ∈ X 0 is F measurable.
Proof: First I need to show F contains open balls because then F will contain
the open sets, since every open set is a countable union of open balls, which will
imply F ⊇ B (X). As noted above, it suffices to verify F contains the closed balls
because every open ball is a countable union of closed balls. Let D0 be those
functionals in B 0 defined in Lemma 21.4. Then
½ ¾
∗
{x : ||x − a|| ≤ r} = x : sup |x (x − a)| ≤ r
x∗ ∈D 0
= ∩x∗ ∈D0 {x : |x∗ (x − a)| ≤ r}
= ∩x∗ ∈D0 {x : |x∗ (x) − x∗ (a)| ≤ r}
³ ´
= ∩x∗ ∈D0 x∗−1 B (x∗ (a) , r)
which is measurable because this is a countable intersection of measurable sets.

Thus F contains open sets so F ⊇ B (X) .
To show the other direction for the inclusion, note that each x∗ is B (X) mea-
surable because x∗−1 (open set) = open set. Therefore, B (X) is a σ algebra with
respect to which each x∗ is measurable and F is the smallest of these so B (X) ⊇ F.
It is important to verify the limit of strongly measurable functions is itself
strongly measurable. This happens under very general conditions. Suppose X
is any separable metric space and let τ denote the open sets of X. Then it is routine
to see that
τ has a countable basis, B. (21.1)
Whenever U ∈ B, there exists a sequence of open sets, {Vm }∞
m=1 , such that
∞
[
· · · Vm ⊆ V m ⊆ Vm+1 ⊆ · · · , U = Vm . (21.2)
m=1
Theorem 21.7 Let fn and f be functions mapping Ω to X where F is a σ algebra

of measurable sets of Ω and (X, τ ) is a topological space satisfying 21.1 - 21.2. Then
if fn is measurable, and f (ω) = limn→∞ fn (ω), it follows that f is also measurable.
(Pointwise limits of measurable functions are measurable.)
Proof: Let B be the countable basis of 21.1 and let U ∈ B. Let {Vm } be the
sequence of 21.2. Since f is the pointwise limit of fn ,
f −1 (Vm ) ⊆ {ω : fk (ω) ∈ Vm for all k large enough} ⊆ f −1 (Vm ).
Therefore,
−1
f −1 (U ) = ∪∞
m=1 f
−1
(Vm ) ⊆ ∪∞ ∞ ∞
m=1 ∪n=1 ∩k=n fk (Vm )
⊆ ∪∞
m=1 f
−1
(Vm ) = f −1 (U ).
It follows f −1 (U ) ∈ F because it equals the expression in the middle which is
measurable. Now let W ∈ τ . Since B is countable, W = ∪∞ n=1 Un for some sets
Un ∈ B. Hence
f −1 (W ) = ∪∞
n=1 f
−1
(Un ) ∈ F.
Corollary 21.8 x is strongly measurable if and only if x (Ω) is separable and x is

weakly measurable.
Proof: Strong measurability clearly implies weak measurability. If xn (s) →

x (s) where xn is simple, then f (xn (s)) → f (x (s)) for all f ∈ X 0 . Hence f ◦ x
is measurable by Theorem 21.7 because it is the limit of a sequence of measurable
functions. Let D denote the set of all values of xn . Then D is a separable set
containing x (Ω). Thus D is a separable metric space. Therefore x (Ω) is separable
also by the last part of the proof of Theorem 21.2.
Now suppose D is a countable dense subset of x (Ω) and x is weakly measurable.
Let Z be the subset consisting of all finite linear combinations of D with the scalars
coming from the set of rational points of F. Thus, Z is countable. Letting Y = Z,
Y is a separable Banach space containing x (Ω). If f ∈ Y 0 , f can be extended to an
element of X 0 by the Hahn Banach theorem. Therefore, x is a weakly measurable
Y valued function. Now use Theorem 21.5 to conclude x is strongly measurable.
Weakly measurable as defined above means s → x∗ (x (s)) is measurable for
every x∗ ∈ X 0 . The next lemma ties this to the usual version of measurability in
which a function is measurable when inverse images of open sets are measurable.
Lemma 21.9 Let X be a Banach space and let x : (Ω, F) → K ⊆ X where K is

weakly compact and X 0 is separable. Then x is weakly measurable if and only if
x−1 (U ) ∈ F whenever U is a weakly open set.
Proof: By Corollary 13.41 on Page 358, there exists a metric d, such that the
metric space topology with respect to d coincides with the weak topology. Since
K is compact, it follows that K is also separable. Hence it is completely separable
and so there exists a countable basis of open sets, B for the weak topology on K. It
follows that if U is any weakly open set, covered by basic sets of the form BA (x, r)
where A is a finite subset of X 0 , there exists a countable collection of these sets of
the form BA (x, r) which covers U .
Suppose now that x is weakly measurable. To show x−1 (U ) ∈ F whenever U
is weakly open, it suffices to verify x−1 (BA (z, r)) ∈ F for any set, BA (z, r) . Let
A = {x∗1 , · · ·, x∗m } . Then
x−1 (BA (z, r)) = {s ∈ Ω : ρA (x (s) − z) < r}

½ ¾
∗
≡ s ∈ Ω : max
∗
|x (x (s) − z)| < r
x ∈A
= ∪m
i=1 {s ∈ Ω : |x∗i (x (s) − z)| < r}
= ∪m
i=1 {s ∈ Ω : |x∗i (x (s)) − x∗i (z)| < r}
which is measurable because each x∗i ◦ x is given to be measurable.

Next suppose x−1 (U ) ∈ F whenever U is weakly open. Then in particular this
holds when U = Bx∗ (z, r) for arbitrary x∗ . Hence
{s ∈ Ω : x (s) ∈ Bx∗ (z, r)} ∈ F.

But this says the same as
{s ∈ Ω : |x∗ (x (s)) − x∗ (z)| < r} ∈ F
Since x∗ (z) can be a completely arbitrary element of F, it follows x∗ ◦ x is an F

valued measurable function. In other words, x is weakly measurable according to
the former definition. This proves the lemma.
One can also define weak ∗ measurability and prove a theorem just like the
Pettis theorem above. The next lemma is the analogue of Lemma 21.4.
Lemma 21.10 Let B be the closed unit ball in X. If X 0 is separable, there exists
a sequence {xm }∞ ∗ 0
m=1 ≡ D ⊆ B with the property that for all y ∈ X ,
||y ∗ || = sup |y ∗ (x)| .

x∈D
Proof: Let
{x∗k }∞
k=1
be the dense subspace of X 0 . Define φn : B → Fn by
φn (x) ≡ (x∗1 (x) , · · ·, x∗n (x)).
Then |x∗k (x)| ≤ ||x∗k || and so φn (B) is contained in a compact subset of Fn .

Therefore, there exists a countable set, Dn ⊆ B such that φn (Dn ) is dense in
φn (B) . Let
D ≡ ∪∞n=1 Dn .
It remains to verify this works. Let y ∗ ∈ X 0 . Then there exists y such that
|y ∗ (y)| > ||y ∗ || − ε.
By density, there exists one of the x∗k from the countable dense subset of X 0 such
that also
|x∗k (y)| > ||y ∗ || − ε, ||x∗k − y ∗ || < ε.
Now x∗k (y) ∈ φk (B) and so there exists x ∈ Dk ⊆ D such that
|x∗k (x)| > ||y ∗ || − ε.
Then since ||x∗k − y ∗ || < ε, this implies
|y ∗ (x)| ≥ ||y ∗ || − 2ε.
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary,
||y ∗ || ≤ sup |y ∗ (x)| ≤ ||y ∗ ||

x∈D

The next theorem is another version of the Pettis theorem. First here is a
definition.
Definition 21.11 A function y having values in X 0 is weak ∗ measurable, when

for each x ∈ X, y (·) (x) is a measurable scalar valued function.
Theorem 21.12 If X 0 is separable and y : Ω → X 0 is weak ∗ measurable, then y

is strongly measurable.
Proof: It is necessary to show y −1 (B (a∗ , r)) is measurable. This will suffice

because the separability of X 0 implies every open set is the countable union of such
balls of the form B (a∗ , r). It also suffices to verify inverse images of closed balls
are measurable because every open ball is the countable union of closed balls. From
Lemma 21.10,
³ ´
y −1 B (a∗ , r) = {s : ||y (s) − a∗ || ≤ r}
½ ¾
∗
= s : sup |(y (s) − a ) (x)| ≤ r
x∈D
½ ¾
∗
= s : sup |y (s) (x) − a (x)| ≤ r
x∈D
³ ´
−1
= ∩x∈D y (·) (x) B (a∗ (x) , r)
which is a countable intersection of measurable sets by hypothesis. This proves the

theorem.
The following are interesting consequences of the theory developed so far and
are of interest independent of the theory of integration of vector valued functions.
Theorem 21.13 If X 0 is separable, then so is X.
Proof: Let D = {xm } ⊆ B, the unit ball of X, be the sequence promised

by Lemma 21.10. Let V be all finite linear combinations of elements of {xm } with
rational scalars. Thus V is a separable subspace of X. The claim is that V = X.
If not, there exists
x0 ∈ X \ V .
But by the Hahn Banach theorem there exists x∗0 ∈ X 0 satisfying x∗0 (x0 ) 6= 0, but
x∗0 (v) = 0 for every v ∈ V . Hence
||x∗0 || = sup |x∗0 (x)| = 0,

x∈D
Corollary 21.14 If X is reflexive, then X is separable if and only if X 0 is separa-

ble.
Proof: From the above theorem, if X 0 is separable, then so is X. Now suppose

X is separable with a dense subset equal to D. Then since X is reflexive, J (D) is
dense in X 00 where J is the James map satisfying Jx (x∗ ) ≡ x∗ (x) . Then since X 00
is separable, it follows from the above theorem that X 0 is also separable.
21.2. THE BOCHNER INTEGRAL 585
21.2 The Bochner Integral

21.2.1 Definition And Basic Properties
Definition 21.15 Let ak ∈ X, a Banach space and let
n
X
x (s) = ak XEk (s) (21.3)
k=1
where for each k, Ek is measurable and µ (Ek ) < ∞. Then define

Z n
X
x (s) dµ ≡ ak µ (Ek ).
Ω k=1
Proposition 21.16 Definition 21.15 is well defined.
Proof: It suffices to verify that if

n
X
ak XEk (s) = 0,
k=1
then
n
X
ak µ (Ek ) = 0.
k=1
Let f ∈ X 0 . Then
Ã n
! n
X X
f ak XEk (s) = f (ak ) XEk (s) = 0
k=1 k=1
and, therefore,
Z ÃX n
! n
X
Ã n
X
!
0= f (ak ) XEk (s) dµ = f (ak ) µ (Ek ) = f ak µ (Ek ) .
Ω k=1 k=1 k=1
Since f ∈ X 0 is arbitrary, and X 0 separates the points of X, it follows that

n
X
ak µ (Ek ) = 0
k=1
as claimed. This proves the proposition. R

It follows easily from this proposition that Ω dµ is well defined and linear on
simple functions.
Definition 21.17 A strongly measurable function x is Bochner integrable if there

exists a sequence of simple functions xn converging to x pointwise and satisfying
Z
||xn (s) − xm (s)|| dµ → 0 as m, n → ∞. (21.4)
Ω
If x is Bochner integrable, define

Z Z
x (s) dµ ≡ lim xn (s) dµ. (21.5)
Ω n→∞ Ω
Theorem 21.18 The Bochner integral is well defined and if x is Bochner integrable
and f ∈ X 0 , µZ ¶ Z
f x (s) dµ = f (x (s)) dµ (21.6)
Ω Ω
and ¯¯Z ¯¯ Z
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ x (s) dµ¯¯ ≤ ||x (s)|| dµ. (21.7)
¯¯ ¯¯
Ω Ω
Also, the Bochner integral is linear. That is, if a, b are scalars and x, y are two
Bochner integrable functions, then
Z Z Z
(ax (s) + by (s)) dµ = a x (s) dµ + b y (s) dµ (21.8)
Ω Ω Ω
Proof: First it is shown that the triangle inequality holds on simple functions
and that the limit in 21.5 exists. Thus, if x is given by 21.3 with the Ek disjoint,
¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ x (s) dµ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
Ω
¯¯Z ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ X n ¯¯ ¯¯ X n ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
= ¯¯ ak XEk (s) dµ¯¯ = ¯¯ ak µ (Ek )¯¯
¯¯ Ω ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
k=1 k=1
Xn Z Xn Z
≤ ||ak || µ (Ek ) = ||ak || XEk (s) dµ = ||x (s)|| dµ
k=1 Ω k=1 Ω
which shows the triangle inequality holds on simple functions. This implies
¯¯Z Z ¯¯ ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ xn (s) dµ − x (s) dµ ¯ ¯ = ¯ ¯ (x (s) − x (s)) dµ ¯¯
¯¯ m ¯¯ ¯¯ n m ¯¯
Ω Ω Ω
Z
≤ ||xn (s) − xm (s)|| dµ
Ω
which verifies the existence of the limit in 21.5. This completes the first part of the
argument.
Next it is shown the integral does not depend on the choice of the sequence
satisfying 21.4 so that the integral is well defined. Suppose yn , xn both satisfy 21.4
and converge to x pointwise. By Fatou’s lemma,
¯¯Z Z ¯¯ Z Z
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ yn dµ − x dµ¯ ¯ ≤ ||y − x|| dµ + ||x − xm || dµ
¯¯ m ¯¯ n
Ω Ω Ω Ω
Z Z
≤ lim inf ||yn − yk || dµ + lim inf ||xk − xm ||
k→∞ Ω k→∞ Ω
≤ ε/2 + ε/2
if m and n are chosen large enough. Since ε is arbitrary, this shows the limit is the
same for both sequences and demonstrates the Bochner integral is well defined.
It remains to verify the triangle inequality on Bochner integral functions and
the claim about passing a continuous linear functional inside the integral. Let x be
Bochner integrable and let xn be a sequence which satisfies the conditions of the
definition. Define
½
xn (s) if ||xn (s)|| ≤ 2 ||x (s)||,
yn (s) ≡ (21.9)
0 if ||xn (s)|| > 2 ||x (s)||.
If x (s) = 0 then yn (s) = 0 for all n. If ||x (s)|| > 0 then for all n large enough,
yn (s) = xn (s).
Thus, yn (s) → x (s) and

||yn (s)|| ≤ 2 ||x (s)||. (21.10)
By Fatou’s lemma, Z Z
||x|| dµ ≤ lim inf ||xn || dµ. (21.11)
Ω n→∞ Ω
©R ª∞
Also from 21.4 and the triangle inequality on simple functions, Ω ||xn || dµ n=1 is
a Cauchy sequence and so it must be bounded. Therefore, by 21.10, 21.11, and the
dominated convergence theorem,
Z
0 = lim ||yn − ym || dµ (21.12)
n,m→∞ Ω
and it follows xn can be replaced with yn in Definition 21.17.

From Definition 21.15,
µZ ¶ Z
f yn dµ = f (yn ) dµ.
Ω Ω
Thus,
µZ ¶ µZ ¶ Z Z
f xdµ = lim f yn dµ = lim f (yn ) dµ = f (x) dµ,
Ω n→∞ Ω n→∞ Ω Ω
the last equation holding from the dominated convergence theorem and 21.10 and
21.11. This shows 21.6. To verify 21.7,
¯¯Z ¯¯ ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ x (s) dµ¯¯ = lim ¯¯ yn (s) dµ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ n→∞ ¯¯
Ω Ω
Z Z
≤ lim ||yn (s)|| dµ = ||x (s)|| dµ
n→∞ Ω Ω
where the last equation follows from the dominated convergence theorem and 21.10,
21.11.
It remains to verify 21.8. Let f ∈ X 0 . Then from 21.6
µZ ¶ Z
f (ax (s) + by (s)) dµ = (af (x (s)) + bf (y (s))) dµ
Ω Ω
Z Z
= a f (x (s)) dµ + b f (y (s)) dµ
µΩ Z ZΩ ¶
= f a x (s) dµ + b y (s) dµ .
Ω Ω
Since X 0 separates the points of X,it follows

Z Z Z
(ax (s) + by (s)) dµ = a x (s) dµ + b y (s) dµ
Ω Ω Ω
and this proves 21.8. This proves the theorem.
Theorem 21.19 An X valued function, x, is Bochner integrable if and only if x

is strongly measurable and Z
||x (s)|| dµ < ∞. (21.13)
Ω
In this case there exists a sequence of simple functions {yn } satisfying 21.4, yn (s)
converging pointwise to x (s),
||yn (s)|| ≤ 2 ||x (s)|| (21.14)
and Z
lim ||x (s) − yn (s)|| dµ = 0. (21.15)
n→∞ Ω
Proof: Suppose x is strongly measurable and condition 21.13 holds. Since x is

strongly measurable, there exists a sequence of simple functions, {xn } converging
pointwise to x. As before, let
½
xn (s) if ||xn (s)|| ≤ 2 ||x (s)||,
yn (s) = (21.16)
0 if ||xn (s)|| > 2 ||x (s)||.
Then 21.14 holds for yn and yn (s) → x (s) . Also

Z
0 = lim ||yn (s) − ym (s)|| dµ
m,n→∞ Ω
since otherwise, there would exist ε > 0 and Nε → ∞ as ε → 0 and nε , mε > Nε

such that Z
||ynε (s) − ymε (s)|| dµ ≥ ε.
Ω
But then taking a limit as ε → 0 and using the dominated convergence theorem
and 21.14 and 21.13, this would imply 0 ≥ ε. Therefore, x is Bochner integrable.
21.15 follows from the dominated convergence theorem and 21.14.
Now suppose x is Bochner integrable. Then it is strongly measurable and there
exists a sequence of simple functions {xn } such that xn (s) converges pointwise to
x and Z
lim ||xn (s) − xm (s)|| dµ = 0.
m,n→∞ Ω
©R ª∞
Therefore, as before, since Ω
xn dµ n=1 is a Cauchy sequence, it follows
½Z ¾∞
||xn || dµ
Ω n=1
is also a Cauchy sequence because

¯Z Z ¯ Z
¯ ¯
¯ ||xn || dµ − ||x || dµ ¯ ≤ |||xn || − ||xm ||| dµ
¯ m ¯
Ω Ω
ZΩ
≤ ||xn − xm || dµ.
Ω
Thus Z Z
||x|| dµ ≤ lim inf ||xn || dµ < ∞
Ω n→∞ Ω
Using 21.16 it follows yn satisfies 21.14, converges pointwise to x and then from the
dominated convergence theorem 21.15 holds. This proves the theorem.
21.2.2 Taking A Closed Operator Out Of The Integral

Now let X and Y be separable Banach spaces and suppose A : D (A) ⊆ X → Y be
a closed operator. Recall this means that the graph of A,
G (A) ≡ {(x, Ax) : x ∈ D (A)}
is a closed subset of X × Y with respect to the product topology obtained from the
norm
||(x, y)|| = max (||x|| , ||y||) .
Thus also G (A) is a separable Banach space with the above norm. You can also
consider D (A) as a separable Banach space having the norm
||x||D(A) ≡ max (||x|| , ||Ax||) (21.17)
which is isometric to G (A) with the mapping, θx ≡ (x, Ax) .
Lemma 21.20 A closed subspace of a reflexive Banach space is reflexive.
Proof: Consider the following diagram in which Y is a closed subspace of the

reflexive space, X.
i∗∗ 1-1
Y 00 → X 00
i∗ onto
Y0 ← X0
i
Y → X
This diagram follows from theorems on adjoints presented earlier.
Now let y ∗∗ ∈ Y 00 . Then i∗∗ y ∗∗ = Jy because X is reflexive. I want to show
that y ∈ Y . If it is not in Y then there exists x∗ ∈ X 0 such that x∗ (y) 6= 0 but
x∗ (Y ) = 0. Then i∗ x∗ = 0. Hence
0 = y ∗∗ (i∗ x∗ ) = i∗∗ y ∗∗ (x∗ ) = J (y) (x∗ ) = x∗ (y) 6= 0,
a contradiction. Hence y ∈ Y . Since i∗ is onto, I want to show that for all x∗ ∈ X 0 ,
i∗ x∗ (y) = y ∗∗ (i∗ x∗ )
because this will imply y ∗∗ = JY (y) where JY is the James map from Y to Y 0 .
However, the above is equivalent to the following holding for all x∗ ∈ X 0 .
i∗ x∗ (y) = JY (y) (i∗ x∗ ) = i∗∗ JY (y) (x∗ ) = i∗∗ y ∗∗ (x∗ )
Since i∗∗ is onto, it follows JY (y) = y ∗∗ and this proves it.
Lemma 21.21 Suppose V and W are reflexive Banach spaces and that V is a
dense subset of W in the topology of W. Then i∗ W 0 is a dense subset of V 0 where
here i is the inclusion map of V into W .
Proof: First note that i∗ is one to one. If i∗ w∗ = 0 for w∗ ∈ W 0 , then this

means that for all v ∈ V,
i∗ w (v) = w∗ (v) = 0
and since V is dense in W, this shows w∗ = 0.
Consider the following diagram
i∗∗
V 00 → W 00
i∗
V0 ← W0
i
V → W
in which i is the inclusion map. Next suppose i∗ W 0 is not dense in V 0 . Then there
exists v ∗∗ ∈ V 00 such that v ∗∗ 6= 0 but v ∗∗ (i∗ W 0 ) = 0. It follows from V being
reflexive, that v ∗∗ = Jv0 where J is the James map from V to V 00 for some v0 ∈ V .
Thus for every w∗ W 0 ,
0 = v ∗∗ (i∗ w∗ ) = i∗∗ v ∗∗ (w∗ )
= i∗∗ Jv0 (w∗ ) = Jv0 (i∗ w∗ )
= i∗ w∗ (v0 ) = w∗ (v0 )
and since W 0 separates the points of W, it follows v0 = 0 which contradicts v ∗∗ 6= 0.
Note that in the proof, only V reflexive was used.
This lemma implies an easy corollary.
Corollary 21.22 Let E and F be reflexive Banach spaces and let A be a closed
operator, A : D (A) ⊆ E → F. Suppose also that D (A) is dense in E. Then making
D (A) into a Banach space by using the above graph norm given in 21.17, it follows
0
that D (A) is a Banach space and i∗ E 0 is a dense subspace of D (A) .
Proof: First note that E × F is a reflexive Banach space and G (A) is a closed
subspace of E × F so it is also a reflexive Banach space. Now D (A) is isometric to
G (A) and so it follows D (A) is a dense subspace of E which is reflexive. Therefore,
from Lemma 21.21 the conclusion follows.
With this preparation, here is another interesting theorem. This one is about
taking outside the integral a closed linear operator as opposed to a continuous linear
operator.
Theorem 21.23 Let X, Y be separable Banach spaces and let A : D (A) ⊆ X → Y
be a closed operator where D (A) is a dense subset of X. Suppose also that i∗ X 0 is
0
a dense subspace of D (A) where D (A) is a Banach space having the graph norm
described in 21.17. Suppose that (Ω, F, µ) is a σ finite measure space and x : Ω → X
is strongly measurable and it happens that x (s) ∈ D (A) for all s ∈ Ω. Then x is
strongly measurable as a mapping into D (A). Also Ax is strongly measurable as a
map into Y and if Z Z
||x (s)|| dµ, ||Ax (s)|| dµ < ∞, (21.18)
Ω Ω
then Z
x (s) dµ ∈ D (A) (21.19)
Ω
and Z Z
A x (s) dµ = Ax (s) dµ. (21.20)
Ω Ω
Proof: First of all, consider the assertion that x is strongly measurable into
0
D (A) . Letting f ∈ D (A) be given, there exists a sequence, {gn } ⊆ i∗ X 0 such that
0
gn → f in D (A) . Therefore,
s → gn (x (s))
is measurable by assumption and

gn (x (s)) → f (x (s))
which shows that s → f (x (s)) is measurable. By the Pettis theorem, it follows
s → x (s)
is strongly measurable as a map into D (A).
It follows from Theorem 21.19 there exists a sequence of simple functions, {xn }
of the form
mn
X
xn (s) = ank XEkn (s) , xn (s) ∈ D (A) ,
k=1
which converges strongly and pointwise to x (s) in D (A). Thus
xn (s) → x (s) , Axn (s) → Ax (s) ,
which shows s → Ax (s) is stongly measurable in Y as claimed.
It remains to verify the assertions about the integral. 21.18 implies x is Bochner
integrable as a function having values in D (A) with the norm on D (A) described
above. Therefore, by Theorem 21.19 there exists a sequence of simple functions
{yn } having values in D (A) ,
Z
lim ||yn − ym ||D(A) dµ = 0,
m,n→∞ Ω
yn (s) converging pointwise to x (s),

||yn (s)||D(A) ≤ 2 ||x (s)||D(A)
and Z
lim ||x (s) − yn (s)||D(A) ds = 0.
n→∞ Ω
Therefore,
Z Z Z
yn (s) dµ ∈ D (A) , yn (s) dµ → x (s) dµ in X,
Ω Ω Ω
and since yn is a simple function and A is linear,

Z Z Z
A yn (s) dµ = Ayn (s) dµ → Ax (s) dµ in Y.
Ω Ω Ω
It follows, since A is a closed operator, that

Z
x (s) dµ ∈ D (A)
Ω
and Z Z
A x (s) dµ = Ax (s) dµ.
Ω Ω
Here is another version of this theorem which has different hypotheses.
Theorem 21.24 Let X and Y be separable Banach spaces and let A : D (A) ⊆
X → Y be a closed operator. Also let (Ω, F, µ) be a σ finite measure space and let
x : Ω → X be Bochner integrable such that x (s) ∈ D (A) for all s. Also suppose Ax
is Bochner integrable. Then
Z Z
Axdµ = A xdµ
R
and xdµ ∈ D (A).
Proof: Consider the graph of A,
G (A) ≡ {(x, Ax) : x ∈ D (A)} ⊆ X × Y.
Then since A is closed, G (A) is a closed separable Banach space with the norm
0
||(x, y)|| ≡ max (||x|| , ||y||) . Therefore, for g ∗ ∈ G (A) , one can apply the Hahn Ba-
0
nach theorem and obtain (x , y ) ∈ (X × Y ) such that g ∗ (x, Ax) = (x∗ (x) , y ∗ (Ax)) .
∗ ∗
Now it follows from the assumptions that s → (x∗ (x (s)) , y ∗ (Ax (s))) is mea-
surable with values in G (A) . It is also separably valued because this is true of
G (A)R. By the Pettis theorem, s → (x (s) , A (x (s))) must be strongly measurable.
Also ||x (s)|| + ||A (x (s))|| dµ < ∞ by assumption and so there exists a sequence
of simple functions having values Rin G (A) , {(xn (s) , Axn (s))} which converges to
(x (s) , A (s)) pointwise such that ||(xn , Axn ) − (x, Ax)|| dµ → 0 in G (A) . Now
for simple functions is it routine to verify that
Z µZ Z ¶
(xn , Axn ) dµ = xn dµ, Axn dµ
µZ Z ¶
= xn dµ, A xn dµ
Also
¯¯Z Z ¯¯ Z
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ xn dµ − xdµ¯¯ ≤ ||xn − x|| dµ
¯¯ ¯¯
Z
≤ ||(xn , Axn ) − (x, Ax)|| dµ
which converges to 0. Also

¯¯Z Z ¯¯ ¯¯ Z Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ Axn dµ − Axdµ¯¯ = ¯¯A xn dµ − Axdµ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
Z
≤ ||Axn − Ax|| dµ
Z
≤ ||(xn , Axn ) − (x, Ax)|| dµ
R R R R
and this converges
R to 0. Therefore, xn dµ → xdµ and AR xn dµ → Axdµ.
R each R xn dµ ∈ D (A) , and A is closed, this implies xdµ ∈ D (A) and
Since
A xdµ = Axdµ. This proves the theorem.
21.3 Operator Valued Functions

Consider the case where A (s) ∈ L (X, Y ) for X and Y separable Banach spaces.
With the operator norm L (X, Y ) is a Banach space and so if A is strongly mea-
surable, the Bochner integral can be defined as before. However, it is also possible
to define the Bochner integral of such operator valued functions for more general
situations. In this section, (Ω, F, µ) will be a σ finite measure space as usual.
Lemma 21.25 Let x ∈ X and suppose A is strongly measurable. Then
s → A (s) x
is strongly measurable as a map into Y.
Proof: Since A is assumed to be strongly measurable, it is the pointwise limit

of simple functions of the form
mn
X
An (s) ≡ Ank XEkn (s)
k=1
where Ank is in L (X, Y ). It follows An (s) x → A (s) x for each s and so, since s →
An (s) x is a simple Y valued function, s → A (s) x must be strongly measurable.
Definition 21.26 Suppose A (s) ∈ L (X, Y ) for each s ∈ Ω where X, Y are sepa-
rable Banach spaces. Suppose also that for each x ∈ X,
s → A (s) x is strongly measurable (21.21)
and there exists C such that for each x ∈ X,

Z
||A (s) x|| dµ < C ||x|| (21.22)
Ω
R
Then Ω
A (s) dµ ∈ L (X, Y ) is defined by the following formula.
µZ ¶ Z
A (s) dµ (x) ≡ A (s) xdµ (21.23)
Ω Ω
Lemma 21.27 The above definition is well defined. Furthermore, if 21.21 holds
then s → ||A (s)|| is measurable and if 21.22 holds, then
¯¯Z ¯¯ Z
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ A (s) dµ¯¯ ≤ ||A (s)|| dµ.
¯¯ ¯¯
Ω Ω
Proof: It is clear that in case s → A (s) x is measurable for all x ∈ X there

exists a unique Ψ ∈ L (X, Y ) such that
Z
Ψ (x) = A (s) xdµ.
Ω
21.3. OPERATOR VALUED FUNCTIONS 595
R R
This is because x → Ω A (s) xdµ is linear and continuous. Thus Ψ = Ω A (s) dµ
and the definition is well defined.
Now consider the assertion about s → ||A (s)||. Let D0 ⊆ B 0 the closed unit ball
in Y 0 be such that D0 is countable and
||y|| = sup |y ∗ (y)| .

y ∗ ∈D 0
Also let D be a countable dense subset of B, the unit ball of X. Then

½ ¾
{s : ||A (s)|| > α} = s : sup ||A (s) x|| > α
x∈D
= ∪x∈D {s : ||A (s) x|| > α}
= ∪x∈D (∪y∗ ∈D0 {|y ∗ (A (s) x)| > α})
and this is measurable because s → A (s) x is strongly, hence weakly measurable.

Now suppose 21.22 holds. Then for all x,
Z
||A (s) x|| dµ < C ||x|| .
Ω
It follows that for ||x|| ≤ 1,

¯¯µZ ¶ ¯¯ ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ A (s) dµ (x)¯¯¯¯ ¯ ¯
= ¯¯ A (s) xdµ¯¯¯¯
¯¯
Ω
Z Ω
≤ ||A (s) x|| dµ
ZΩ
≤ ||A (s)|| dµ
Ω
and so ¯¯Z ¯¯ Z
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ A (s) dµ¯¯ ≤ ||A (s)|| dµ.
¯¯ ¯¯
Ω Ω

Now it is interesting to consider the case where A (s) ∈ L (H, H) where s →
A (s) x is strongly measurable and A (s) is compact and self adjoint. Recall the
Kuratowski measurable selection theorem, Theorem 8.11 on Page 176 listed here
for convenience.
Theorem 21.28 Let E be a compact metric space and let (Ω, F) be a measure
space. Suppose ψ : E × Ω → R has the property that x → ψ (x, ω) is continuous
and ω → ψ (x, ω) is measurable. Then there exists a measurable function, f having
values in E such that
ψ (f (ω) , ω) = sup ψ (x, ω) .
x∈E
Furthermore, ω → ψ (f (ω) , ω) is measurable.

21.3.1 Review Of Hilbert Schmidt Theorem

Here I will give a proof of the Hilbert Schmidt theorem which will generalize to a
result about measurable operators. Recall the following.
Definition 21.29 Define v ⊗ u ∈ L (H, H) by
v ⊗ u (x) = (x, u) v.
A ∈ L (H, H) is a compact operator if whenever {xk } is a bounded sequence, there

exists a convergent subsequence of {Axk }. Equivalently, A maps bounded sets to
sets whose closures are compact or to use other terminology, A maps bounded sets
to sets which are precompact.
Lemma 21.30 Let H be a separable Hilbert space and suppose A ∈ L (H, H) is a

compact operator. Let B denote the closed unit ball in H. Then A is continuous as
a map from B with the weak topology into H with the strong topology. For u, v ∈ H,
v ⊗ u : H → H is a compact operator. If A is self adjoint and compact, the function
x → (Ax, x)
is continuous on B with respect to the weak topology on B. The function,
x → (v ⊗ u (x) , x)
is continuous and the operator u ⊗ u is self adjoint.
Proof: Since H is separable, it follows from Corollary 13.41 on Page 358 that
B can be considered as a metric space. Therefore, showing continuity reduces
to showing convergent sequences are taken to convergent sequences. Let xn → x
weakly in B. Suppose Axn does not converge to Ax. Then there exists a subsequence,
still denoted by {xn } such that
||Axn − Ax|| ≥ ε > 0 (21.24)
for all n. Then since A maps bounded sets to compact sets, there is a further sub-
sequence, still denoted by {xn } such that Axn converges to some y ∈ H. Therefore,
(y, w) = lim (Axn , w) = lim (xn , A∗ w)

n→∞ n→∞
= (x, A∗ w) = (Ax, w)
which shows Ax = y since w is arbitrary. However, this contradicts 21.24.

Next consider the claim about v ⊗ u. Letting {xn } be a bounded sequence,
v ⊗ u (xn ) = (xn , u) v.
There exists a weakly convergent subsequence of {xn } say {xnk } converging weakly
to x ∈ H. Therefore,
||v ⊗ u (xnk ) − v ⊗ u (x)|| = ||(xnk , u) − (x, u)|| ||v||

which converges to 0. Thus v ⊗ u is compact as claimed. It takes bounded sets to

precompact sets.
To verify the assertion about x → (Ax, x), let xn → x weakly. Then
|(Axn , xn ) − (Ax, x)|

≤ |(Axn , xn ) − (Ax, xn )| + |(Ax, xn ) − (Ax, x)|
≤ |(Axn , xn ) − (Ax, xn )| + |(Axn , x) − (Ax, x)|
≤ ||Axn − Ax|| ||xn || + ||Axn − Ax|| ||x|| ≤ 2 ||Axn − Ax||
which converges to 0.
|(v ⊗ u (xn ) , xn ) − (v ⊗ u (x) , x)|

= |(xn , u) (v, xn ) − (x, u) (v, x)|
and this converges to 0 by weak convergence. It follows from the definition that
u ⊗ u is self adjoint. This proves the lemma.
Observation 21.31 Note that if A is any self adjoint operator,
(Ax, x) = (x, Ax) = (Ax, x) .
so (Ax, x) is real valued.
Lemma 21.32 Let A ∈ L (H, H) and suppose it is self adjoint and compact. Let
B denote the closed unit ball in H. Let e ∈ B be such that
|(Ae, e)| = max |(Ax, x)| .

x∈B
Then letting λ = (Ae, e) , it follows Ae = λe. If λ 6= 0, then ||e|| = 1 and if λ = 0,

it can be assumed e = 0 so it is still the case Ae = λe.
Proof: From the above observation, (Ax, x) is always real and since A is com-
pact, |(Ax, x)| achieves a maximum at e. It remains to verify e is an eigenvector.
Note that ||e|| = 1 whenever λ 6= 0 since otherwise |(Ae, e)| could be made larger
by replacing e with e/ ||e||.
Suppose λ = (Ae, e) > 0. Then it is easy to verify that λI − A is a nonnegative
(((λI − A) x, x) ≥ 0 for all x.) and self adjoint operator. Therefore, the Cauchy
Schwarz inequality can be applied to write
1/2 1/2
((λI − A) e, x) ≤ ((λI − A) e, e) ((λI − A) x, x) =0
Since this is true for all x it follows Ae = λe.

Next suppose λ = (Ae, e) < 0. Then −λ = (−Ae, e) and the previous result can
be applied to −A and −λ. Thus −λe = −Ae and so Ae = λe.
Finally consider the case where λ = 0. Then 0 = (A0, 0) and so it suffices to
take e = 0 as claimed. This proves the lemma.
With these lemmas here is a major theorem, the Hilbert Schmidt theorem.
Theorem 21.33 Let A ∈ L (H, H) be a compact self adjoint operator on a Hilbert

∞ ∞
space. Then there exist real numbers {λk }k=1 and vectors {ek }k=1 such that
||ek || = 1 if λk 6= 0,
||ek || = 0 if λk = 0,
(ek , ej )H = 0 if k 6= j,
Aek = λk ek ,
|λn | ≥ |λn+1 | for all n,
lim λn = 0,
n→∞
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ n
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
lim ¯¯A − λk (ek ⊗ ek )¯¯ = 0. (21.25)
n→∞ ¯¯ ¯¯
k=1 L(H,H)
Proof: This is done by considering a sequence of compact self adjoint operators,

A, A1 , A2 , · · ·. Here is how these are defined. Using Lemma 21.32 let e1 , λ1 be given
by that lemma such that
|(Ae1 , e1 )| = max |(Ax, x)| , λ1 = (Ae1 , e1 ) .
x∈B
Then by that lemma, Ae1 = λ1 e1 and ||e1 || = 1 if λ1 6= 0 while e1 = 0 if λ1 = 0.

If An has been obtained, use Lemma 21.32 to obtain en+1 and λn+1 such that
|(An en+1 , en+1 )| = max |(An x, x)| , λn+1 = (An en+1 , en+1 ) .
x∈B
By that lemma again, An en+1 = λn+1 en+1 and ||en+1 || = 1 if λn+1 6= 0 while
en+1 = 0 if λn+1 = 0. Then
An+1 ≡ An − λn+1 en+1 ⊗ en+1
Thus
n
X
An = A − λk e k ⊗ e k . (21.26)
k=1
Claim 1: If k < n + 1 then (en+1 , ek ) = 0. Also Aek = λk ek for all k.
Proof of claim: From the above,
n
X
λn+1 en+1 = An en+1 = Aen+1 − λk (en+1 , ek ) ek .
k=1
If λn+1 = 0, then (en+1 , ek ) = 0 because en+1 = 0. If λn+1 6= 0, then from the

above and an induction hypothesis
n
X
λn+1 (en+1 , ej ) = (Aen+1 , ej ) − λk (en+1 , ek ) (ek , ej )
k=1
Xn
= (en+1 , Aej ) − λk (en+1 , ek ) (ek , ej )
k=1
= λj (en+1 , ej ) − λj (en+1 , ej ) = 0.
To verify the second part of this claim,

n
X
λn+1 en+1 = An en+1 = Aen+1 − λk ek (en+1 , ek ) = Aen+1
k=1

Claim 2: |λn | ≥ |λn+1 | .
Proof of claim: From 21.26 and the definition of An and ek ⊗ ek ,
λn+1 = (An en+1 , en+1 )
2
= (An−1 en+1 , en+1 ) − λn |(en , en+1 )|
= (An−1 en+1 , en+1 )
By the previous claim. Therefore,
|λn+1 | = |(An−1 en+1 , en+1 )| ≤ |(An−1 en , en )| = |λn |
by the definition of |λn |. (en makes |(An−1 x, x)| as large as possible, not necessarily
en+1 .)
Claim 3:limn→∞ λn = 0.
Proof of claim: If for some n, λn = 0, then λk = 0 for all k > n by claim 2.
Assume then that λk 6= 0 for any k. Then if limk→∞ |λk | = ε > 0, contrary to the
claim, ||ek || = 1 for all k and
2 2
||Aen − Aem || = ||λn en − λm em ||
= λ2n + λ2m ≥ 2ε2
∞
which shows there is no Cauchy subsequence of {Aen }n=1 , which contradicts the
compactness of A. This proves the claim.
Claim 4: ||An || → 0
Proof of claim: Let x, y ∈ B
¯µ ¶¯
¯ x + y x + y ¯¯
¯
|λn+1 | ≥ ¯ An ,
2 2 ¯
¯ ¯
¯1 1 1 ¯
= ¯ (An x, x) + (An y, y) + (An x, y)¯¯
¯
4 4 2
1 1
≥ |(An x, y)| − |(An x, x) + (An y, y)|
2 4
1 1
≥ |(An x, y)| − (|(An x, x)| + |(An y, y)|)
2 4
1 1
≥ |(An x, y)| − |λn+1 |
2 2
and so
3 |λn+1 | ≥ |(An x, y)| .
It follows ||An || ≤ 3 |λn+1 | . This proves the claim.
By 21.26 this proves 21.25 and completes the proof.
21.3.2 Measurable Compact Operators

Here the operators will be of the form A (s) where s ∈ Ω and s → A (s) x is strongly
measurable and A (s) is a compact operator in L (H, H).
Theorem 21.34 Let A (s) ∈ L (H, H) be a compact self adjoint operator and H is
a separable Hilbert space such that s → A (s) x is strongly measurable. Then there
∞ ∞
exist real numbers {λk (s)}k=1 and vectors {ek (s)}k=1 such that
||ek (s)|| = 1 if λk 6= 0,
||ek (s)|| = 0 if λk = 0,
(ek (s) , ej (s))H = 0 if k 6= j,

A (s) ek (s) = λk (s) ek (s) ,
|λn (s)| ≥ |λn+1 (s)| for all n,
lim λn (s) = 0,
n→∞
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ n
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
lim ¯¯A (s) − λk (s) (ek (s) ⊗ ek (s))¯¯ = 0.
n→∞ ¯¯ ¯¯
k=1 L(H,H)
The function s → λj (s) is measurable and s → ej (s) is strongly measurable.
Proof: It is simply a repeat of the above proof of the Hilbert Schmidt theorem
except at every step when the ek and λk are defined, you use the Kuratowski mea-
surable selection theorem, Theorem 21.28 on Page 595 to obtain λk (s) is measurable
and that s → ek (s) is also measurable.
When you consider maxx∈B |(An (s) x, x)| , let ψ (x, s) = |(An (s) x, x)| . Then
ψ is continuous in x by Lemma 21.30 on Page 596 and it is measurable in s by
assumption. Therefore, by the Kuratowski theorem, ek (s) is measurable in the sense
that inverse images of weakly open sets in B are measurable. However, by Lemma
21.9 on Page 582 this is the same as weakly measurable. Since H is separable, this
implies s → ek (s) is also strongly measurable. The measurability of λk and ek is
the only new thing here and so this completes the proof.
21.4 Fubini’s Theorem For Bochner Integrals

Now suppose (Ω1 , F, µ) and (Ω2 , S, λ) are two σ finite measure spaces. Recall
the notion of product measure. There was a σ algebra, denoted by F × S which
is the smallest σ algebra containing the elementary sets, (finite disjoint unions of
measurable rectangles) and a measure, denoted by µ × λ defined on this σ algebra
such that for E ∈ F × S,
s1 → λ (Es1 ) , (Es1 ≡ {s2 : (s1 , s2 ) ∈ E})

21.4. FUBINI’S THEOREM FOR BOCHNER INTEGRALS 601
is µ measurable and
s2 → µ (Es2 ) , (Es2 ≡ {s1 : (s1 , s2 ) ∈ E})
is λ measurable. In terms of nonnegative functions which are F × S measurable,
s1 → f (s1 , s2 ) is µ measurable,
s2 → f (s1 , s2 ) is λ measurable,
Z
s1 → f (s1 , s2 ) dλ is µ measurable,
Ω2
Z
s2 → f (s1 , s2 ) dµ is λ measurable,
Ω1
and the conclusion of Fubini’s theorem holds.

Z Z Z
f d (µ × λ) = f (s1 , s2 ) dλdµ
Ω1 ×Ω2 Ω1 Ω2
Z Z
= f (s1 , s2 ) dµdλ.
Ω2 Ω1
The following theorem is the version of Fubini’s theorem valid for Bochner integrable
functions.
Theorem 21.35 Let f : Ω1 × Ω2 → X be strongly measurable with respect to µ × λ

and suppose Z
||f (s1 , s2 )|| d (µ × λ) < ∞. (21.27)
Ω1 ×Ω2
Then there exist a set of µ measure zero, N and a set of λ measure zero, M such
that the following formula holds with all integrals making sense.
Z Z Z
f (s1 , s2 ) d (µ × λ) = f (s1 , s2 ) XN (s1 ) dλdµ
Ω1 ×Ω2 Ω1 Ω2
Z Z
= f (s1 , s2 ) XM (s2 ) dµdλ.
Ω2 Ω1
Proof: First note that from 21.27 and the usual Fubini theorem for nonnegative
valued functions,
Z Z Z
||f (s1 , s2 )|| d (µ × λ) = ||f (s1 , s2 )|| dλdµ
Ω1 ×Ω2 Ω1 Ω2
and so Z
||f (s1 , s2 )|| dλ < ∞ (21.28)
Ω2
for µ a.e. s1 . Say for all s1 ∈

/ N where µ (N ) = 0.
Let φ ∈ X 0 . Then φ ◦ f is F × S measurable and

Z
|φ ◦ f (s1 , s2 )| d (µ × λ)
Ω1 ×Ω2
Z
≤ ||φ|| ||f (s1 , s2 )|| d (µ × λ) < ∞
Ω1 ×Ω2
and so from the usual Fubini theorem for complex valued functions,
Z Z Z
φ ◦ f (s1 , s2 ) d (µ × λ) = φ ◦ f (s1 , s2 ) dλdµ. (21.29)
Ω1 ×Ω2 Ω1 Ω2
Now also if you fix s2 , it follows from the definition of strongly measurable and the
properties of product measure mentioned above that
s1 → f (s1 , s2 )
is strongly measurable. Also, by 21.28

Z
||f (s1 , s2 )|| dλ < ∞
Ω2
/ N . Therefore, by Theorem 21.19 s2 → f (s1 , s2 ) XN C (s1 ) is Bochner

for s1 ∈
integrable. By 21.29 and 21.6
Z
φ ◦ f (s1 , s2 ) d (µ × λ)
Ω1 ×Ω2
Z Z
= φ ◦ f (s1 , s2 ) dλdµ
Ω1 Ω2
Z Z
= φ (f (s1 , s2 ) XN C (s1 )) dλdµ
Ω1 Ω2
Z µZ ¶
= φ f (s1 , s2 ) XN C (s1 ) dλ dµ. (21.30)
Ω1 Ω2
Each iterated integral makes sense and

Z
s1 → φ (f (s1 , s2 ) XN C (s1 )) dλ
Ω2
µZ ¶
= φ f (s1 , s2 ) XN C (s1 ) dλ (21.31)
Ω2
is µ measurable because
(s1 , s2 ) → φ (f (s1 , s2 ) XN C (s1 ))

= φ (f (s1 , s2 )) XN C (s1 )
21.5. THE SPACES LP (Ω; X) 603
is product measurable. Now consider the function,

Z
s1 → f (s1 , s2 ) XN C (s1 ) dλ. (21.32)
Ω2
I want to show this is also Bochner integrable with respect to µ so I can factor
out φ once again. It’s measurability follows from the Pettis theorem and the above
observation 21.31. Also,
Z ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f (s1 , s2 ) XN C (s1 ) dλ¯¯¯¯ dµ
¯¯
Ω Ω
Z 1Z 2
≤ ||f (s1 , s2 )|| dλdµ
ZΩ1 Ω2
= ||f (s1 , s2 )|| d (µ × λ) < ∞.
Ω1 ×Ω2
Therefore, the function in 21.32 is indeed Bochner integrable and so in 21.30 the φ
can be taken outside the last integral. Thus,
µZ ¶
φ f (s1 , s2 ) d (µ × λ)
Z Ω1 ×Ω2
= φ ◦ f (s1 , s2 ) d (µ × λ)
ZΩ1 ×Ω
Z 2
= φ ◦ f (s1 , s2 ) dλdµ
Ω Ω2
Z 1 µZ ¶
= φ f (s1 , s2 ) XN C (s1 ) dλ dµ
Ω1 Ω
µZ Z 2 ¶
= φ f (s1 , s2 ) XN C (s1 ) dλdµ .
Ω1 Ω2
0
Since X separates the points,
Z Z Z
f (s1 , s2 ) d (µ × λ) = f (s1 , s2 ) XN C (s1 ) dλdµ.
Ω1 ×Ω2 Ω1 Ω2
The other formula follows from similar reasoning. This proves the theorem.
21.5 The Spaces Lp (Ω; X)

Definition 21.36 x ∈ Lp (Ω; X) for p ∈ [1, ∞) if x is strongly measurable and
Z
p
||x (s)|| dµ < ∞
Ω
Also µZ ¶1/p
p
||x||Lp (Ω;X) ≡ ||x||p ≡ ||x (s)|| dµ . (21.33)
Ω
As in the case of scalar valued functions, two functions in Lp (Ω; X) are consid-
ered equal if they are equal a.e. With this convention, and using the same arguments
found in the presentation of scalar valued functions it is clear that Lp (Ω; X) is a
normed linear space with the norm given by 21.33. In fact, Lp (Ω; X) is a Banach
space. This is the main contribution of the next theorem.
Lemma 21.37 If xn is a Cauchy sequence in Lp (Ω; X) satisfying

∞
X
||xn+1 − xn ||p < ∞,
n=1
then there exists x ∈ Lp (Ω; X) such that xn (s) → x (s) a.e. and
||x − xn ||p → 0.
Proof: Let
N
X
gN (s) ≡ ||xn+1 (s) − xn (s)||X
n=1
Then by the triangle inequality,

µZ ¶1/p N µZ
X ¶1/p
p p
gN (s) dµ ≤ ||xn+1 (s) − xn (s)|| dµ
Ω n=1 Ω
X∞
≤ ||xn+1 − xn ||p < ∞.
n=1
Let
∞
X
g (s) = lim gN (s) = ||xn+1 (s) − xn (s)||X .
N →∞
n=1
By the monotone convergence theorem,

µZ ¶1/p µZ ¶1/p
p p
g (s) dµ = lim gN (s) dµ < ∞.
Ω N →∞ Ω
Therefore, there exists a set of measure 0, E, such that for s ∈

/ E, g (s) < ∞. Hence,
for s ∈
/ E,
lim xN +1 (s)
N →∞
exists because
N
X
xN +1 (s) = xN +1 (s) − x1 (s) + x1 (s) = (xn+1 (s) − xn (s)) + x1 (s).
n=1
Thus, if N > M , and s is a point where g (s) < ∞,
N
X
||xN +1 (s) − xM +1 (s)||X ≤ ||xn+1 (s) − xn (s)||X
n=M +1
X∞
≤ ||xn+1 (s) − xn (s)||X
n=M +1
∞
which shows that {xN +1 (s)}N =1 is a Cauchy sequence. Now let
½
limN →∞ xN (s) if s ∈
/ E,
x (s) ≡
0 if s ∈ E.
By Theorem 21.2, xn (Ω) is separable for each n. Therefore, x (Ω) is also separable.
Also, if f ∈ X 0 , then
f (x (s)) = lim f (xN (s))
N →∞
if s ∈
/ E and f (x (s)) = 0 if s ∈ E. Therefore, f ◦ x is measurable because it is the
limit of the measurable functions,
f ◦ xN XE C .
Since x is weakly measurable and x (Ω) is separable, Corollary 21.8 shows that x is
strongly measurable. By Fatou’s lemma,
Z Z
p p
||x (s) − xN (s)|| dµ ≤ lim inf ||xM (s) − xN (s)|| dµ.
Ω M →∞ Ω
But if N and M are large enough with M > N ,

µZ ¶1/p M
X
p
||xM (s) − xN (s)|| dµ ≤ ||xn+1 − xn ||p
Ω n=N
X∞
≤ ||xn+1 − xn ||p < ε
n=N
and this shows, since ε is arbitrary, that

Z
p
lim ||x (s) − xN (s)|| dµ = 0.
N →∞ Ω
It remains to show x ∈ Lp (Ω; X). This follows from the above and the triangle
inequality. Thus, for N large enough,
µZ ¶1/p
p
||x (s)|| dµ
Ω
µZ ¶1/p µZ ¶1/p
p p
≤ ||xN (s)|| dµ + ||x (s) − xN (s)|| dµ
Ω Ω
µZ ¶1/p
p
≤ ||xN (s)|| dµ + ε < ∞.
Ω
Theorem 21.38 Lp (Ω; X) is complete. Also every Cauchy sequence has a subse-
quence which converges pointwise.
Proof: If {xn } is Cauchy in Lp (Ω; X), extract a subsequence {xnk } satisfying

¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯xn − xnk ¯¯p ≤ 2−k
k+1
and apply Lemma 21.37. The pointwise convergence of this subsequence was estab-
lished in the proof of this lemma. This proves the theorem because if a subsequence
of a Cauchy sequence converges, then the Cauchy sequence must also converge.
Observation 21.39 If the measure space is Lebesgue measure then you have conti-
nuity of translation in Lp (Rn ; X) in the usual way. More generally, for µ a Radon
measure on Ω a locally compact Hausdorff space, Cc (Ω; X) is dense in Lp (Ω; X) .
Here Cc (Ω; X) is the space of continuous X valued functions which have compact
support in Ω. The proof of this little observation follows immediately from approx-
imating with simple functions and then applying the appropriate considerations to
the simple functions.
Clearly Fatou’s lemma and the monotone convergence theorem make no sense
for functions with values in a Banach space but the dominated convergence theorem
holds in this setting.
Theorem 21.40 If x is strongly measurable and xn (s) → x (s) a.e. with
||xn (s)|| ≤ g (s) a.e.
where g ∈ L1 (Ω), then x is Bochner integrable and

Z Z
x (s) dµ = lim xn (s) dµ.
Ω n→∞ Ω
Proof: ||xn (s) − x (s)|| ≤ 2g (s) a.e. so by the usual dominated convergence
theorem, Z
0 = lim ||xn (s) − x (s)|| dµ.
n→∞ Ω
Also, Z
||xn (s) − xm (s)|| dµ
Ω
Z Z
≤ ||xn (s) − x (s)|| dµ + ||xm (s) − x (s)|| dµ,
Ω Ω
and so {xn } is a Cauchy sequence in L1 (Ω; X). Therefore, by Theorem 21.38, there
exists y ∈ L1 (Ω; X) and a subsequence xn0 satisfying
xn0 (s) → y (s) a.e. and in L1 (Ω; X).
But x (s) = limn0 →∞ xn0 (s) a.e. and so x (s) = y (s) a.e. Hence
Z Z
||x (s)|| dµ = ||y (s)|| dµ < ∞
Ω Ω
which shows that x is Bochner integrable. Finally, since the integral is linear,
¯¯Z Z ¯¯ ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ x (s) dµ − xn (s) dµ¯¯ = ¯¯ (x (s) − xn (s)) dµ¯¯¯¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯¯
Ω Ω
Z Ω
≤ ||xn (s) − x (s)|| dµ,
Ω
and this last integral converges to 0. This proves the theorem.

The following theorem is interesting.
Theorem 21.41 Let 1 ≤ p < ∞ and let p < r ≤ ∞. Then Lr ([0, T ] , X) is a Borel
subset of Lp ([0, T ] ; X). Letting C ([0, T ] ; X) denote the functions having values in
X which are continuous, C ([0, T ] ; X) is also a Borel subset of Lp ([0, T ] ; X) . Here
the measure is ordinary one dimensional Lebesgue measure on [0, T ].
Proof: First consider the claim about Lr ([0, T ] ; X). Let
n o
BM ≡ x ∈ Lp ([0, T ] ; X) : ||x||Lr ([0,T ];X) ≤ M .
Then BM is a closed subset of Lp ([0, T ] ; X) . Here is why. If {xn } is a sequence
of elements of BM and xn → x in Lp ([0, T ] ; X) , then passing to a subsequence,
still denoted by xn , it can be assumed xn (s) → x (s) a.e. Hence Fatou’s lemma can
be applied to conclude
Z T Z T
r r
||x (s)|| ds ≤ lim inf ||xn (s)|| ds ≤ M r < ∞.
0 n→∞ 0
Now ∪∞
M =1 BM
r
= L ([0, T ] ; X) . Note this did not depend on the measure space
used. It would have been equally valid on any measure space.
Consider now C ([0, T ] ; X) . The norm on this space is the usual norm, ||·||∞ .
The argument above shows ||·||∞ is a Borel measurable function on Lp ([0, T ] ; X) .
This is because BM ≡ {x ∈ Lp ([0, T ] ; X) : ||x||∞ ≤ M } is a closed, hence Borel sub-
set of Lp ([0, T ] ; X). Now let θ ∈ L (Lp ([0, T ] ; X) , Lp (R; X)) such that θ (x (t)) =
x (t) for all t ∈ [0, T ] and also θ ∈ L (C ([0, T ] ; X) , BC (R; X)) where BC (R; X)
denotes the bounded continuous functions with a norm given by
||x|| ≡ sup ||x (t)|| ,
t∈R
and θx has compact support.

For example, you could define


 x (t) if t ∈ [0, T ]

x (2T − t) if t ∈ [T, 2T ]
x
e (t) ≡

 x (−t) if t ∈ [−T, 0]

0 if t ∈
/ [−T, 2T ]
and let Φ ∈ Cc∞ (−T, 2T ) such that Φ (t) = 1 for t ∈ [0, T ]. Then you could let
θx (t) ≡ Φ (t) x
e (t) .
Then let {φn } be a mollifier and define
ψ n x (t) ≡ φn ∗ θx (t) .
It follows ψ n x is uniformly continuous because
||ψ n x (t) − ψ n x (t0 )||X

Z
≤ |φn (t0 − s) − φn (t − s)| ||θx (s)||X ds
R
µZ ¶1/p0
0 p0
≤ C ||x||p |φn (t − s) − φn (t − s)| ds
R
Also for x ∈ C ([0, T ] ; X) , it follows from usual mollifier arguments that
||ψ n x − x||L∞ ([0,T ];X) → 0.
Here is why. For t ∈ [0, T ] ,

Z
||ψ n x (t) − x (t)||X ≤ φn (s) ||θx (t − s) − θx (t)|| ds
R
Z 1/n
≤ Cθ φn (s) dsε = Cθ ε
−1/n
provided n is large enough due to the compact support and consequent uniform
continuity of θx.
If ||ψ n x − x||L∞ ([0,T ];X) → 0, then {ψ n x} must be a Cauchy sequence in C ([0, T ] ; X)
and this requires that x equals a continuous function a.e. Thus C ([0, T ] ; X) con-
sists exactly of those functions, x of Lp ([0, T ] ; X) such that ||ψ n x − x||∞ → 0. It
follows
C ([0, T ] ; X) =
½ ¾
1
∩∞ ∪ ∞
n=1 m=1 k=m ∩ ∞
x ∈ L p
([0, T ] ; X) : ||ψ k x − x||∞ ≤ . (21.34)
n
It only remains to show
S ≡ {x ∈ Lp ([0, T ] ; X) : ||ψ k x − x||∞ ≤ α}

is a Borel set. Suppose then that xn ∈ S and xn → x in Lp ([0, T ] ; X). Then there
exists a subsequence, still denoted by n such that xn → x pointwise a.e. as well as
in Lp . There exists a set of measure 0 such that for all n, and t not in this set,
¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ 1/k ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
||ψ k xn (t) − xn (t)|| ≡ ¯¯ φk (s) (θxn (t − s)) ds − xn (t)¯¯ ≤ α
¯¯ −1/k ¯¯
xn (t) → x (t) .
Then
||ψ k xn (t) − xn (t) − (ψ k x (t) − x (t))||

¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ 1/k ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
≤ ||xn (t) − x (t)||X + ¯¯ φk (s) (θxn (t − s) − θx (t − s)) ds¯¯
¯¯ −1/k ¯¯
≤ ||xn (t) − x (t)||X + Ck,θ ||xn − x||Lp (0,T ;X)
which converges to 0 as n → ∞. It follows that for a.e. t,
||ψ k x (t) − x (t)|| ≤ α.
Thus S is closed and so the set in 21.34 is a Borel set. This proves the theorem.
As in the scalar case, the following lemma holds in this more general context.
Lemma 21.42 Let (Ω, µ) be a regular measure space where Ω is a locally compact
Hausdorff space. Then Cc (Ω; X) the space of continuous functions having compact
support and values in X is dense in Lp (0, T ; X) for all p ∈ [0, ∞). For any σ finite
measure space, the simple functions are dense in Lp (0, T ; X) .
Proof: First is it shown the simple functions are dense in Lp (0, T ; X) . Let
f ∈ Lp (0, T ; X) and let {xn } denote a sequence of simple functions which converge
to f pointwise which also have the property that
||xn (s)|| ≤ 2 ||f (s)||
Then Z
p
||xn (s) − f (s)|| dµ → 0
Ω
from the dominated convergence theorem. Therefore, the simple functions are in-
deed dense in Lp (0, T ; X) . P
Next suppose (Ω, µ) is a regular measure space. If x (s) ≡ i ai XEi (s) is a
simple function, then by regularity, there exist compact sets, Ki and open sets, Vi
1/p P
such that Ki ⊆ Ei ⊆ Vi and µ (Vi \ Ki ) < ε/ i ||ai || . Let Ki ≺ hi ≺ Vi . Then
consider X
ai hi ∈ Cc (Ω) .
i
By the triangle inequality,

ÃZ ¯¯ ¯¯p !1/p
¯¯X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ai hi (s) − ai XEi (s)¯¯ dµ
Ω ¯ ¯ ¯¯
i
X µZ p
¶1/p
≤ ||ai (hi (s) − XEi (s))|| dµ
i Ω
X µZ p p
¶1/p
≤ ||ai || |hi (s) − XEi (s)| dµ
i Ω
ÃZ !1/p
X
≤ ||ai || dµ
i Vi \Ki
X 1/p
≤ ||ai || µ (Vi \ Ki ) <ε
i
Since ε is arbitrary, this and the first part of the lemma shows Cc (Ω; X) is dense
in Lp (Ω; X) .
21.6 Measurable Representatives

In this section consider the special case where X = L1 (B, ν) where (B, F,ν) is a σ
finite measure space and x ∈ L1 (Ω; X). Thus for each s ∈ Ω, x (s) ∈ L1 (B, ν). In
general, the map
(s, t) → x (s) (t)
will not be measurable, but one can obtain a measurable representative. This is
important because it allows the use of Fubini’s theorem on the measurable repre-
sentative.
By Theorem 21.19, there exists a sequence of simple functions, {xn }, of the form
m
X
xn (s) = ak XEk (s) (21.35)
k=1
where ak ∈ L1 (B, ν) which satisfy the conditions of Definition 21.17 and
||xn − x||1 → 0. (21.36)
Because of the form of xn given in 21.35, if
xn (s, t) ≡ xn (s) (t),
then xn is measurable.
Z Z Z Z
|xn (s, t) − xm (s, t)| dνdµ ≤ |xn (s, t) − x (s) (t)| dνdµ
Ω B Ω B
21.6. MEASURABLE REPRESENTATIVES 611
Z Z
+ |xm (s, t) − x (s) (t)| dνdµ. (21.37)
Ω B
It follows from 21.37 and 21.36 that {xn } is a Cauchy sequence in L1 (Ω × B).
Therefore, there exists y ∈ L1 (Ω × B) and a subsequence of {xn }, still denoted by
{xn }, such that
lim xn (s, t) = y (s, t) a.e.
n→∞
and
lim ||xn − y||1 = 0.
n→∞
It follows that
Z Z Z Z
|y (s, t) − x (s) (t)| dνdµ ≤ |y (s, t) − xn (s, t)| dνdµ (21.38)
Ω B Ω
Z BZ
+ |x (s) (t) − xn (s, t)| dνdµ.
Ω B
Since limn→∞ ||xn − x||1 = 0, it follows from 21.38 that y = x in L1 (Ω; X) . Thus,
for a.e. s,
y (s, ·) = x (s) in X = L1 (B).
R ¡R ¢
Now Ω x (s) dµ ∈ X = L1 (B, ν) so it makes sense to ask for Ω x (s) dµ (t), at
least a.e. To find what this is, note
¯¯Z Z ¯¯ Z
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ xn (s) dµ − x (s) dµ ¯¯ ≤ ||xn (s) − x (s)||X dµ.
¯¯ ¯¯
Ω Ω X Ω
Therefore, since the right side converges to 0,

¯¯Z Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯ ¯
lim ¯¯ xn (s) dµ − x (s) dµ¯¯¯¯ =
n→∞ Ω Ω X
Z ¯µZ ¶ µZ ¶ ¯
¯ ¯
lim ¯ xn (s) dµ (t) − x (s) dµ (t)¯¯ dν = 0.
n→∞ ¯
B Ω Ω
But µZ ¶ Z
xn (s) dµ (t) = xn (s, t) dµ a.e. t.
Ω Ω
Therefore Z ¯Z µZ ¶ ¯
¯ ¯
lim ¯ x (s) dµ (t)¯¯ dν = 0.
n→∞ ¯ xn (s, t) dµ − (21.39)
B Ω Ω
Also, since xn → y in L1 (Ω × B),

Z Z
0 = lim |xn (s, t) − y (s, t)| dµdν ≥
n→∞ B Ω
Z ¯Z Z ¯
¯ ¯
lim ¯ y (s, t) dµ¯¯ dν.
n→∞ ¯ xn (s, t) dµ − (21.40)
B Ω Ω
From 21.39 and 21.40

Z µZ ¶
y (s, t) dµ = x (s) dµ (t) a.e. t.
Ω Ω
This proves the following theorem.
Theorem 21.43 Let X = L1 (B) where (B, F, ν) is a σ finite measure space and
let x ∈ L1 (Ω; X). Then there exists a measurable representative, y ∈ L1 (Ω × B),
such that
x (s) = y (s, ·) a.e. s in Ω,
and Z µZ ¶
y (s, t) dµ = x (s) dµ (t) a.e. t.
Ω Ω
21.7 Vector Measures

There is also a concept of vector measures.
Definition 21.44 Let (Ω, S) be a set and a σ algebra of subsets of Ω. A mapping
F :S→X
is said to be a vector measure if

∞
X
F (∪∞
i=1 Ei ) = F (Ei )
i=1
∞
whenever {Ei }i=1 is a sequence of disjoint elements of S. For F a vector measure,
X
|F | (A) ≡ sup{ ||µ (F )|| : π (A) is a partition of A}.
F ∈π(A)
This is the same definition that was given in the case where F would have values
in C, the only difference being the fact that now F has values in a general Banach
space X as the vector space of values of the vector measure. Recall that a partition
of A is a finite set, {F1 , · · ·, Fm } ⊆ S such that ∪m
i=1 Fi = A. The same theorem
about |F | proved in the case of complex valued measures holds in this context with
the same proof. For completeness, it is included here.
Theorem 21.45 If |F | (Ω) < ∞, then |F | is a measure on S.
Proof: Let E1 and E2 be sets of S such that E1 ∩ E2 = ∅ and let {Ai1 · · · Aini } =
π(Ei ), a partition of Ei which is chosen such that
ni
X
|F |(Ei ) − ε < ||F (Aij )|| i = 1, 2.
j=1
Consider the sets which are contained in either of π (E1 ) or π (E2 ) , it follows this
collection of sets is a partition of E1 ∪ E2 which is denoted here by π(E1 ∪ E2 ).
Then by the above inequality and the definition of total variation,
X
|F |(E1 ∪ E2 ) ≥ ||F (F )|| > |F |(E1 ) + |F |(E2 ) − 2ε,
F ∈π(E1 ∪E2 )
which shows that since ε > 0 was arbitrary,

|F |(E1 ∪ E2 ) ≥ |F |(E1 ) + |F |(E2 ). (21.41)
∞
Let {Ej }j=1 be a sequence of disjoint sets of S and let E∞ = ∪∞ j=1 Ej . Then by the
definition of total variation there exists a partition of E∞ , π(E∞ ) = {A1 , · · ·, An }
such that
Xn
|F |(E∞ ) − ε < ||F (Ai )||.
i=1
Also,
Ai = ∪∞ j=1 Ai ∩ Ej
P∞
and so by the triangle inequality, ||F (Ai )|| ≤ j=1 ||F (Ai ∩ Ej )||. Therefore, by
the above,
≥||F (Ai )||
z }| {
n X
X ∞
|F |(E∞ ) − ε < ||F (Ai ∩ Ej )||
i=1 j=1
X∞ X n
= ||F (Ai ∩ Ej )||
j=1 i=1
X∞
≤ |F |(Ej )
j=1
n
because {Ai ∩ Ej }i=1 is a partition of Ej .
∞
X
|F |(∪∞
j=1 Ej ) ≤ |F |(Ej ).
j=1
Pn
Also, 21.41 implies that whenever the Ei are disjoint, |F |(∪nj=1 Ej ) ≥ j=1 |F |(Ej ).
Therefore,
∞
X n
X
|F |(Ej ) ≥ |F |(∪∞ n
j=1 Ej ) ≥ |F |(∪j=1 Ej ) ≥ |F |(Ej ).
j=1 j=1
Since n is arbitrary,
∞
X
|F |(∪∞
j=1 Ej ) = |F |(Ej )
j=1
which shows that |F | is a measure as claimed. This proves the theorem.

Definition 21.46 A Banach space is said to have the Radon Nikodym property if
whenever
(Ω, S, µ) is a finite measure space
F : S → X is a vector measure with |F | (Ω) < ∞
F ¿µ
then one may conclude there exists g ∈ L1 (Ω; X) such that
Z
F (E) = g (s) dµ
E
for all E ∈ S.
Some Banach spaces have the Radon Nikodym property and some don’t. No
attempt is made to give a complete answer to the question of which Banach spaces
have this property but the next theorem gives examples of many spaces which do.
Theorem 21.47 Suppose X 0 is a separable dual space. Then X 0 has the Radon
Nikodym property.
Proof: Let F ¿ µ and let |F | (Ω) < ∞ for F : S → X 0 , a vector measure. Pick
x ∈ X and consider the map
E → F (E) (x)
for E ∈ S. This defines a complex measure which is absolutely continuous with
respect to |F |. Therefore, by the Radon Nikodym theorem, there exists fx ∈
L1 (Ω, |F |) such that Z
F (E) (x) = fx (s) d |F |. (21.42)
E
Claim: |fx (s)| ≤ ||x|| for |F | a.e. s.
Proof of claim: Consider the closed ball in F, B (0, ||x||) and let B ≡ B (p, r)
be an open ball contained in its complement. Let fx−1 (B) ≡ E ∈ S. I want to
argue that |F | (E) = 0 so suppose |F | (E) > 0. then
|F | (E) ||x|| ≥ ||F (E)|| ||x|| ≥ |F (E) (x)|
and so from 21.42, ¯Z ¯

1 ¯ ¯
¯ fx (s) d |F |¯ ≤ ||x|| . (21.43)
|F | (E) ¯ E ¯
But on E, |fx (s) − p| < r and so
¯ Z ¯
¯ 1 ¯
¯ f (s) d |F | − p¯<r
¯ |F | (E) x ¯
E
which contradicts 21.43 because B (p, r) was given to have empty intersection with
B (0, ||x||). Therefore, |F | (E) = 0 as hoped.
³ Now F \´B (0, ||x||) can be covered by
countably many such balls and so |F | F \ B (0, ||x||) = 0.
Denote the exceptional set of measure zero by Nx . By Theorem 21.13, X is

separable. Letting D be a dense, countable subset of X, define
N1 ≡ ∪x∈D Nx .
Thus
|F | (N1 ) = 0.
For any E ∈ S, x, y ∈ D, and a, b ∈ F,
Z
fax+by (s) d |F | = F (E) (ax + by) = aF (E) (x) + bF (E) (y)
E
Z
= (afx (s) + bfy (s)) d |F |. (21.44)
E
Since 21.44 holds for all E ∈ S, it follows
fax+by (s) = afx (s) + bfy (s)
for |FP
| a.e. s and x, y ∈ D. Let D̃ consist of all finite linear combinations of the
m
form i=1 ai xi where ai is a rational point of F and xi ∈ D. If
m
X
ai xi ∈ D̃,
i=1
the above argument implies

m
X
fPm
i=1 ai xi
(s) = ai fxi (s) a.e.
i=1
Since D̃ is countable, there exists a set, N2 , with
|F | (N2 ) = 0
such that for s ∈

/ N2 ,
m
X
fPm
i=1 ai xi
(s) = ai fxi (s) (21.45)
i=1
Pm
whenever i=1 ai xi ∈ D̃. Let
N = N1 ∪ N2
and let
h̃x (s) ≡ XN C (s) fx (s)
for all x ∈ D̃. Now for x ∈ X define
hx (s) ≡ lim
0
{h̃x0 (s) : x0 ∈ D̃}.
x →x
This is well defined because if x0 and y 0 are elements of D̃, the above claim and
21.45 imply ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ 0 ¯ ¯ ¯
¯h̃x (s) − h̃y0 (s)¯ = ¯h̃(x0 −y0 ) (s)¯ ≤ ||x0 − y 0 ||.
Using 21.45, the dominated convergence theorem may be applied to conclude that
for xn → x, with xn ∈ D̃,
Z Z
hx (s) d |F | = lim h̃xn (s) d |F | = lim F (E) (xn ) = F (E) (x). (21.46)
E n→∞ E n→∞
It follows from the density of D̃ that for all x, y ∈ X and a, b ∈ F,
|hx (s)| ≤ ||x|| , hax+by (s) = ahx (s) + bhy (s), (21.47)
for all s because if s ∈ N , both sides of the equation in 21.47 equal 0.

Let θ (s) be given by
θ (s) (x) = hx (s).
By 21.47 it follows that θ (s) ∈ X 0 for each s. Also
θ (s) (x) = hx (s) ∈ L1 (Ω)
so θ (·) is weak ∗ measurable. Since X 0 is separable, Theorem 21.12 implies that θ

is strongly measurable. Furthermore, by 21.47,
||θ (s)|| ≡ sup |θ (s) (x)| ≤ sup |hx (s)| ≤ 1.

||x||≤1 ||x||≤1
Therefore, Z
||θ (s)|| d |F | < ∞
Ω
so θ ∈ L1 (Ω; X 0 ). By 21.6, if E ∈ S,
Z Z µZ ¶
hx (s) d |F | = θ (s) (x) d |F | = θ (s) d |F | (x). (21.48)
E E E
From 21.46 and 21.48,

µZ ¶
θ (s) d |F | (x) = F (E) (x)
E
for all x ∈ X and therefore,

Z
θ (s) d |F | = F (E).
E
Finally, since F ¿ µ, |F | ¿ µ also and so there exists k ∈ L1 (Ω) such that

Z
|F | (E) = k (s) dµ
E
21.8. THE RIESZ REPRESENTATION THEOREM 617
for all E ∈ S, by the Radon Nikodym Theorem. It follows

Z Z
F (E) = θ (s) d |F | = θ (s) k (s) dµ.
E E
Letting g (s) = θ (s) k (s), this has proved the theorem.
Corollary 21.48 Any separable reflexive Banach space has the Radon Nikodym
property.
It is not necessary to assume separability in the above corollary. For the proof
of a more general result, consult Vector Measures by Diestal and Uhl, [16].
21.8 The Riesz Representation Theorem

The Riesz representation theorem for the spaces Lp (Ω; X) holds under certain con-
ditions. The proof follows the proofs given earlier for scalar valued functions.
Definition 21.49 If X and Y are two Banach spaces, X is isometric to Y if there

exists θ ∈ L (X, Y ) such that
||θx||Y = ||x||X .
This will be written as X ∼

= Y . The map θ is called an isometry.
0
The next theorem says that Lp (Ω; X 0 ) is always isometric to a subspace of
p 0
(L (Ω; X)) for any Banach space, X.
Theorem 21.50 Let X be any Banach space and let (Ω, S, µ) be a finite measure
0
space. Let p ≥ 1 and let 1/p + 1/p0 = 1.(If p = 1, p0 ≡ ∞.) Then Lp (Ω; X 0 ) is
p 0 p0 0
isometric to a subspace of (L (Ω; X)) . Also, for g ∈ L (Ω; X ),
¯Z ¯
¯ ¯
sup ¯¯ g (s) (f (s)) dµ¯¯ = ||g||p0 .
||f ||p ≤1 Ω
0
Proof: First observe that for f ∈ Lp (Ω; X) and g ∈ Lp (Ω; X 0 ),
s → g (s) (f (s))
is a function in L1 (Ω). (To obtain measurability, write f as a limit of simple

functions. Holder’s inequality then yields the function is in L1 (Ω).) Define
0 0
θ : Lp (Ω; X 0 ) → (Lp (Ω; X))
by Z
θg (f ) ≡ g (s) (f (s)) dµ.
Ω
Holder’s inequality implies

||θg|| ≤ ||g||p0 (21.49)
and it is also clear that θ is linear. Next it is required to show
||θg|| = ||g||.
This will first be verified for simple functions. Let

m
X
g (s) = ci XEi (s)
i=1
where ci ∈ X 0 , the Ei are disjoint and
∪m
i=1 Ei = Ω.
0
Then ||g|| ∈ Lp (Ω). Let ε > 0 be given. By the scalar Riesz representation
theorem, there exists h ∈ Lp (Ω) such that ||h||p = 1 and
Z
||g (s)||X 0 h (s) dµ ≥ ||g||Lp0 (Ω;X 0 ) − ε.
Ω
Now let di be chosen such that
ci (di ) ≥ ||ci ||X 0 − ε/ ||h||L1 (Ω)
and ||di ||X ≤ 1. Let

m
X
f (s) ≡ di h (s) XEi (s).
i=1
Thus f ∈ Lp (Ω; X) and ||f ||Lp (Ω;X) ≤ 1. This follows from

Z X
m
p p p
||f ||p = ||di ||X |h (s)| XEi (s) dµ
Ω i=1
X µZ
m
p
¶
p
Z
p
= |h (s) | dµ ||di ||X ≤ |h| dµ = 1.
i=1 Ei Ω
Also ¯Z ¯
¯ ¯
||θg|| ≥ |θg (f )| = ¯¯ g (s) (f (s)) dµ¯¯ ≥
Ω
¯Z ¯
¯ X m ³ ´ ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ||ci ||X 0 − ε/ ||h||L1 (Ω) h (s) XEi (s) dµ¯
¯ Ω ¯
i=1
¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
≥ ¯¯ ||g (s)||X 0 h (s) dµ¯¯ − ε ¯¯ h (s) / ||h||L1 (Ω) dµ¯¯
Ω Ω
≥ ||g||Lp0 (Ω;X 0 ) − 2ε.

21.8. THE RIESZ REPRESENTATION THEOREM 619
Since ε was arbitrary,

||θg|| ≥ ||g|| (21.50)
and from 21.49 this shows equality holds in 21.50 whenever g is a simple function.
0
In general, let g ∈ Lp (Ω; X 0 ) and let gn be a sequence of simple functions
0
converging to g in Lp (Ω; X 0 ). Then
||θg|| = lim ||θgn || = lim ||gn || = ||g||.

n→∞ n→∞
This proves the theorem and shows θ is the desired isometry.
Theorem 21.51 If X is a Banach space and X 0 has the Radon Nikodym property,
then if (Ω, S, µ) is a finite measure space,
0
(Lp (Ω; X)) ∼
0
= Lp (Ω; X 0 )
and in fact the mapping θ of Theorem 21.50 is onto.

0
Proof: Let l ∈ (Lp (Ω; X)) and define F (E) ∈ X 0 by
F (E) (x) ≡ l (XE (·) x).
Lemma 21.52 F defined above is a vector measure with values in X 0 and |F | (Ω) <
∞.
Proof of the lemma: Clearly F (E) is linear. Also
||F (E)|| = sup ||F (E) (x)||

||x||≤1
1/p
≤ ||l|| sup ||XE (·) x||Lp (Ω;X) ≤ ||l|| µ (E) .
||x||≤1
Let {Ei }∞
i=1 be a sequence of disjoint elements of S and let E = ∪n<∞ En .
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ Xn ¯ ¯ X n ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯F (E) (x) − F (Ek ) (x)¯ = ¯l (XE (·) x) − l (XEi (·) x)¯ (21.51)
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
k=1 i=1
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ Xn ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
≤ ||l|| ¯¯XE (·) x − XEi (·) x¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ p
i=1 L (Ω;X)
Ã !1/p
[
≤ ||l|| µ Ek ||x||.
k>n
Since µ (Ω) < ∞,

Ã !1/p
[
lim µ Ek =0
n→∞
k>n
and so inequality 21.51 shows that

¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ n
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
lim ¯¯F (E) − F (Ek )¯¯ = 0.
n→∞ ¯¯ ¯¯
k=1 X0
To show |F | (Ω) < ∞, let ε > 0 be given, let {H1 , · · ·, Hn } be a partition of Ω,

and let ||xi || ≤ 1 be chosen in such a way that
F (Hi ) (xi ) > ||F (Hi )|| − ε/n.
Thus
¯¯ n ¯¯
n
X n
X ¯¯X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
−ε + ||F (Hi )|| < l (XHi (·) xi ) ≤ ||l|| ¯¯ XHi (·) xi ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
i=1 i=1 i=1 Lp (Ω;X)
ÃZ n !1/p
X 1/p
≤ ||l|| XHi (s) dµ = ||l|| µ (Ω) .
Ω i=1
Since ε > 0 was arbitrary,

n
X 1/p
||F (Hi )|| < ||l|| µ (Ω) .
i=1
1/p
Since the partition was arbitrary, this shows |F | (Ω) ≤ ||l|| µ (Ω) and this proves
the lemma.
Continuing with the proof of Theorem 21.51, note that
F ¿ µ.
Since X 0 has the Radon Nikodym property, there exists g ∈ L1 (Ω; X 0 ) such that
Z
F (E) = g (s) dµ.
E
Also, from the definition of F (E) ,

Ã n ! n
X X
l xi XEi (·) = l (XEi (·) xi )
i=1 i=1
n
X n Z
X
= F (Ei ) (xi ) = g (s) (xi ) dµ. (21.52)
i=1 i=1 Ei
It follows from 21.52 that whenever h is a simple function,

Z
l (h) = g (s) (h (s)) dµ. (21.53)
Ω
21.9. EXERCISES 621
Let
Gn ≡ {s : ||g (s)||X 0 ≤ n}
and let
j : Lp (Gn ; X) → Lp (Ω; X)
be given by ½
h (s) if s ∈ Gn ,
jh (s) =
0 if s ∈
/ Gn .
Letting h be a simple function in Lp (Gn ; X),
Z
∗
j l (h) = l (jh) = g (s) (h (s)) dµ. (21.54)
Gn
0
Since the simple functions are dense in Lp (Gn ; X), and g ∈ Lp (Gn ; X 0 ), it follows
21.54 holds for all h ∈ Lp (Gn ; X). By Theorem 21.50,
||g||Lp0 (Gn ;X 0 ) = ||j ∗ l||(Lp (Gn ;X))0 ≤ ||l||(Lp (Ω;X))0 .
By the monotone convergence theorem,
||g||Lp0 (Ω;X 0 ) = lim ||g||Lp0 (Gn ;X 0 ) ≤ ||l||(Lp (Ω;X))0 .
n→∞
0
Therefore g ∈ Lp (Ω; X 0 ) and since simple functions are dense in Lp (Ω; X), 21.53
holds for all h ∈ Lp (Ω; X) . Thus l = θg and the theorem is proved because, by
Theorem 21.50, ||l|| = ||g|| and the mapping θ is onto because l was arbitrary.
Corollary 21.53 If X 0 is separable, then
0
(Lp (Ω; X)) ∼
0
= Lp (Ω; X 0 ).
Corollary 21.54 If X is separable and reflexive, then
0
(Lp (Ω; X)) ∼
0
= Lp (Ω; X 0 ).
Corollary 21.55 If X is separable and reflexive, then if p ∈ (1, ∞) , then Lp (Ω; X)
is reflexive.
Proof: This is just like the scalar valued case.
21.9 Exercises
1. Show L1 (R) is not reflexive. Hint: L1 (R) is separable. What about L∞ (R)?
2. If f ∈ L1 (Rn ; X) for X a Banach space, does the usual fundamental
R theorem
1
of calculus work? That is, can you say limr→0 m(B(x,r)) B(x,r)
f (t) dm =
f (x) a.e.?
3. Does the Vitali convergence theorem hold for Bochner integrable functions?
If so, give a statement of the appropriate theorem and a proof.
Part III
Complex Analysis
623
The Complex Numbers
The reader is presumed familiar with the algebraic properties of complex numbers,
including the operation of conjugation. Here a short review of the distance in C is
presented.
The length of a complex number, referred to as the modulus of z and denoted
by |z| is given by
¡ ¢1/2 1/2
|z| ≡ x2 + y 2 = (zz) ,
Then C is a metric space with the distance between two complex numbers, z and
w defined as
d (z, w) ≡ |z − w| .
This metric on C is the same as the usual metric of R2 . A sequence, zn → z if and
only if xn → x in R and yn → y in R where z = x + iy and zn = xn + iyn . For
n
example if zn = n+1 + i n1 , then zn → 1 + 0i = 1.
Definition 22.1 A sequence of complex numbers, {zn } is a Cauchy sequence if for

every ε > 0 there exists N such that n, m > N implies |zn − zm | < ε.
This is the usual definition of Cauchy sequence. There are no new ideas here.
Proposition 22.2 The complex numbers with the norm just mentioned forms a
complete normed linear space.
Proof: Let {zn } be a Cauchy sequence of complex numbers with zn = xn + iyn .

Then {xn } and {yn } are Cauchy sequences of real numbers and so they converge
to real numbers, x and y respectively. Thus zn = xn + iyn → x + iy. C is a linear
space with the field of scalars equal to C. It only remains to verify that | | satisfies
the axioms of a norm which are:
|z + w| ≤ |z| + |w|
|z| ≥ 0 for all z

|z| = 0 if and only if z = 0
|αz| = |α| |z| .
625
626 THE COMPLEX NUMBERS
The only one of these axioms of a norm which is not completely obvious is the first
one, the triangle inequality. Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv
2 2 2
|z + w| = (z + w) (z + w) = |z| + |w| + 2 Re (zw)
2 2 2
≤ |z| + |w| + 2 |(zw)| = (|z| + |w|)
and this verifies the triangle inequality.
Definition 22.3 An infinite sum of complex numbers is defined as the limit of the
sequence of partial sums. Thus,
∞
X n
X
ak ≡ lim ak .
n→∞
k=1 k=1
Just as in the case of sums of real numbers, an infinite sum converges if and
only if the sequence of partial sums is a Cauchy sequence.
From now on, when f is a function of a complex variable, it will be assumed that
f has values in X, a complex Banach space. Usually in complex analysis courses,
f has values in C but there are many important theorems which don’t require this
so I will leave it fairly general for a while. Later the functions will have values in
C. If you are only interested in this case, think C whenever you see X.
Definition 22.4 A sequence of functions of a complex variable, {fn } converges

uniformly to a function, g for z ∈ S if for every ε > 0 there exists Nε such that if
n > Nε , then
||fn (z) − g (z)|| < ε
P∞
for all z ∈ S. The infinite sum k=1 fn converges uniformly on S if the partial
sums converge uniformly on S. Here ||·|| refers to the norm in X, the Banach space
in which f has its values.
The following proposition is also a routine application of the above definition.

Neither the definition nor this proposition say anything new.
Proposition 22.5 A sequence of functions, {fn } defined on a set S, converges

uniformly to some function, g if and only if for all ε > 0 there exists Nε such that
whenever m, n > Nε ,
||fn − fm ||∞ < ε.
Here ||f ||∞ ≡ sup {||f (z)|| : z ∈ S} .
Just as in the case of functions of a real variable, one of the important theorems
is the Weierstrass M test. Again, there is nothing new here. It is just a review of
earlier material.
Theorem 22.6 Let {fn } be a sequence of complex valued functions

P defined on S ⊆
C.
P Suppose there exists Mn such that ||f n ||∞ < M n and Mn converges. Then
fn converges uniformly on S.
22.1. THE EXTENDED COMPLEX PLANE 627
Proof: Let z ∈ S. Then letting m < n

¯¯ n ¯¯
¯¯ X m
X ¯¯ Xn ∞
X
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f k (z) − fk (z)¯¯ ≤ ||f k (z)|| ≤ Mk < ε
¯¯ ¯¯
k=1 k=1 k=m+1 k=m+1
whenever m is large enough. Therefore, the sequence

P∞ of partial sums is uniformly
Cauchy on S and therefore, converges uniformly to k=1 fk (z) on S.
22.1 The Extended Complex Plane

The set of complex numbers has already been considered along with the topology of
C which is nothing but the topology of R2 . Thus, for zn = xn + iyn , zn → z ≡ x + iy
if and only if xn → x and yn → y. The norm in C is given by
1/2 ¡ ¢1/2
|x + iy| ≡ ((x + iy) (x − iy)) = x2 + y 2
which is just the usual norm in R2 identifying (x, y) with x + iy. Therefore, C is
a complete metric space topologically like R2 and so the Heine Borel theorem that
compact sets are those which are closed and bounded is valid. Thus, as far as
topology is concerned, there is nothing new about C.
The extended complex plane, denoted by C b , consists of the complex plane, C
along with another point not in C known as ∞. For example, ∞ could be any point
in R3 . A sequence of complex numbers, zn , converges to ∞ if, whenever K is a
compact set in C, there exists a number, N such that for all n > N, zn ∈ / K. Since
compact sets in C are closed and bounded, this is equivalent to saying that for all
R > 0, there exists N such that if n > N, then zn ∈ / B (0, R) which is the same as
saying limn→∞ |zn | = ∞ where this last symbol has the same meaning as it does in
calculus.
A geometric way of understanding this in terms of more familiar objects involves
a concept known as the Riemann sphere.
2
Consider the unit sphere, S 2 given by (z − 1) + y 2 + x2 = 1. Define a map
from the complex plane to the surface of this sphere as follows. Extend a line
from the point, p in the complex plane to the point (0, 0, 2) on the top of this
sphere and let θ (p) denote the point of this sphere which the line intersects. Define
θ (∞) ≡ (0, 0, 2).
(0, 0,
s 2)
@
@
s @ sθ(p)
(0, 0, 1) @
@
@ p
@s C
628 THE COMPLEX NUMBERS
Then θ−1 is sometimes called sterographic projection. The mapping θ is clearly

continuous because it takes converging sequences, to converging sequences. Fur-
thermore, it is clear that θ−1 is also continuous. In terms of the extended complex
b a sequence, zn converges to ∞ if and only if θzn converges to (0, 0, 2) and
plane, C,
a sequence, zn converges to z ∈ C if and only if θ (zn ) → θ (z) .
b
In fact this makes it easy to define a metric on C.
Definition 22.7 Let z, w ∈ C b including possibly w = ∞. Then let d (x, w) ≡

|θ (z) − θ (w)| where this last distance is the usual distance measured in R3 .
³ ´
Theorem 22.8 C, b d is a compact, hence complete metric space.
b This means {θ (zn )} is a sequence in

Proof: Suppose {zn } is a sequence in C.
S 2 which is compact. Therefore, there exists a subsequence, {θznk } and a point,
z ∈ S 2 such that θznk → θz in S 2 which implies immediately that d (znk , z) → 0.
A compact metric space must be complete.
22.2 Exercises
1. Prove the root test for series of complex numbers. If ak ∈ C and r ≡
1/n
lim supn→∞ |an | then

X ∞  converges absolutely if r < 1
ak diverges if r > 1

k=0 test fails if r = 1.
¡ 2+i ¢n
2. Does limn→∞ n 3exist? Tell why and find the limit if it does exist.
Pn
3. Let A0 = 0 and let An ≡ k=1 ak if n > 0. Prove the partial summation
formula,
Xq q−1
X
ak bk = Aq bq − Ap−1 bp + Ak (bk − bk+1 ) .
k=p k=p
Now using this formula, suppose {bn } is a sequence of real numbers which
converges toP0 and is decreasing. Determine those values of ω such that
∞
|ω| = 1 and k=1 bk ω k converges.
4. Let f : U ⊆ C → C be given by f (x + iy) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) . Show f is
continuous on U if and only if u : U → R and v : U → R are both continuous.
Riemann Stieltjes Integrals
In the theory of functions of a complex variable, the most important results are those
involving contour integration. I will base this on the notion of Riemann Stieltjes
integrals as in [13], [39], and [27]. The Riemann Stieltjes integral is a generalization
of the usual Riemann integral and requires the concept of a function of bounded
variation.
Definition 23.1 Let γ : [a, b] → C be a function. Then γ is of bounded variation

if ( n )
X
sup |γ (ti ) − γ (ti−1 )| : a = t0 < · · · < tn = b ≡ V (γ, [a, b]) < ∞
i=1
where the sums are taken over all possible lists, {a = t0 < · · · < tn = b} .
The idea is that it makes sense to talk of the length of the curve γ ([a, b]) , defined
as V (γ, [a, b]) . For this reason, in the case that γ is continuous, such an image of a
bounded variation function is called a rectifiable curve.
Definition 23.2 Let γ : [a, b] → C be of bounded variation and let f : [a, b] → X.

Letting P ≡ {t0 , · · ·, tn } where a = t0 < t1 < · · · < tn = b, define
||P|| ≡ max {|tj − tj−1 | : j = 1, · · ·, n}
and the Riemann Steiltjes sum by

n
X
S (P) ≡ f (γ (τ j )) (γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 ))
j=1
where τ j ∈ [tj−1 , tj ] . (Note this notation is a little sloppy because it does not identify
the
R specific point, τ j used. It is understood that this point is arbitrary.) Define
γ
f dγ as the unique number which satisfies the following condition. For all ε > 0
there exists a δ > 0 such that if ||P|| ≤ δ, then
¯Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ f dγ − S (P)¯ < ε.
¯ ¯
γ
629
630 RIEMANN STIELTJES INTEGRALS
Sometimes this is written as

Z
f dγ ≡ lim S (P) .
γ ||P||→0
The set of points in the curve, γ ([a, b]) will be denoted sometimes by γ ∗ .
Then γ ∗ is a set of points in C and as t moves from a to b, γ (t) moves from

γ (a) to γ (b) . Thus γ ∗ has a first point and a last point. If φ : [c, d] → [a, b] is
a continuous nondecreasing function, then γ ◦ φ : [c, d] → C is also of bounded
variation and yields the same set of points in C with the same first and last points.
Theorem 23.3 Let φ and γ be as just described. Then assuming that

Z
f dγ
γ
exists, so does Z
f d (γ ◦ φ)
γ◦φ
and Z Z
f dγ = f d (γ ◦ φ) . (23.1)
γ γ◦φ
Proof: There exists δ > 0 such that if P is a partition of [a, b] such that ||P|| < δ,
then ¯Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ f dγ − S (P)¯ < ε.
¯ ¯
γ
By continuity of φ, there exists σ > 0 such that if Q is a partition of [c, d] with

||Q|| < σ, Q = {s0 , · · ·, sn } , then |φ (sj ) − φ (sj−1 )| < δ. Thus letting P denote the
points in [a, b] given by φ (sj ) for sj ∈ Q, it follows that ||P|| < δ and so
¯ ¯
¯Z n ¯
¯ X ¯
¯ f dγ − f (γ (φ (τ j ))) (γ (φ (sj )) − γ (φ (sj−1 )))¯¯ < ε
¯
¯ γ j=1 ¯
where τ j ∈ [sj−1 , sj ] . Therefore, from the definition 23.1 holds and

Z
f d (γ ◦ φ)
γ◦φ
exists. R
This theorem shows that γ f dγ is independent of the particular γ used in its
computation to the extent that if φ is any nondecreasing function from another
interval, [c, d] , mapping to [a, b] , then the same value is obtained by replacing γ
with γ ◦ φ.
The fundamental result in this subject is the following theorem.
631
Theorem 23.4 Let f : γ ∗ → X be R continuous and let γ : [a, b] → C be continuous

and of bounded variation. Then γ f dγ exists. Also letting δ m > 0 be such that
1
|t − s| < δ m implies ||f (γ (t)) − f (γ (s))|| < m ,
¯Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ f dγ − S (P)¯ ≤ 2V (γ, [a, b])
¯ ¯ m
γ
whenever ||P|| < δ m .
Proof: The function, f ◦ γ , is uniformly continuous because it is defined on

a compact set. Therefore, there exists a decreasing sequence of positive numbers,
{δ m } such that if |s − t| < δ m , then
1
|f (γ (t)) − f (γ (s))| < .
m
Let
Fm ≡ {S (P) : ||P|| < δ m }.
Thus Fm is a closed set. (The symbol, S (P) in the above definition, means to
include all sums corresponding to P for any choice of τ j .) It is shown that
2V (γ, [a, b])

diam (Fm ) ≤ (23.2)
m
and then it will follow there exists a unique
R point, I ∈ ∩∞
m=1 Fm . This is because
X is complete. It will then follow I = γ f (t) dγ (t) . To verify 23.2, it suffices to
verify that whenever P and Q are partitions satisfying ||P|| < δ m and ||Q|| < δ m ,
2
|S (P) − S (Q)| ≤ V (γ, [a, b]) . (23.3)
m
Suppose ||P|| < δ m and Q ⊇ P. Then also ||Q|| < δ m . To begin with, suppose
that P ≡ {t0 , · · ·, tp , · · ·, tn } and Q ≡ {t0 , · · ·, tp−1 , t∗ , tp , · · ·, tn } . Thus Q contains
only one more point than P. Letting S (Q) and S (P) be Riemann Steiltjes sums,
p−1
X
S (Q) ≡ f (γ (σ j )) (γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 )) + f (γ (σ ∗ )) (γ (t∗ ) − γ (tp−1 ))
j=1
n
X
+f (γ (σ ∗ )) (γ (tp ) − γ (t∗ )) + f (γ (σ j )) (γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 )) ,
j=p+1
p−1
X
S (P) ≡ f (γ (τ j )) (γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 )) +
j=1
=f (γ(τ p ))(γ(tp )−γ(tp−1 ))

z }| {
f (γ (τ p )) (γ (t∗ ) − γ (tp−1 )) + f (γ (τ p )) (γ (tp ) − γ (t∗ ))
n
X
+ f (γ (τ j )) (γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 )) .
j=p+1
Therefore,
p−1
X 1 1
|S (P) − S (Q)| ≤ |γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 )| + |γ (t∗ ) − γ (tp−1 )| +
j=1
m m
Xn
1 1 1
|γ (tp ) − γ (t∗ )| + |γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 )| ≤ V (γ, [a, b]) . (23.4)
m j=p+1
m m
Clearly the extreme inequalities would be valid in 23.4 if Q had more than one
extra point. You simply do the above trick more than one time. Let S (P) and
S (Q) be Riemann Steiltjes sums for which ||P|| and ||Q|| are less than δ m and let
R ≡ P ∪ Q. Then from what was just observed,
2
|S (P) − S (Q)| ≤ |S (P) − S (R)| + |S (R) − S (Q)| ≤ V (γ, [a, b]) .
m
and this shows 23.3 which proves 23.2. Therefore, there Rexists a unique complex
number, I ∈ ∩∞ m=1 Fm which satisfies the definition of γ f dγ. This proves the
theorem.
The following theorem follows easily from the above definitions and theorem.
Theorem 23.5 Let f ∈ C (γ ∗ ) and let γ : [a, b] → C be of bounded variation and

continuous. Let
M ≥ max {||f ◦ γ (t)|| : t ∈ [a, b]} . (23.5)
Then ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f dγ ¯¯ ≤ M V (γ, [a, b]) . (23.6)
¯¯ ¯¯
γ
Also if {fn } is a sequence of functions of C (γ ∗ ) which is converging uniformly to

the function, f on γ ∗ , then
Z Z
lim fn dγ = f dγ. (23.7)
n→∞ γ γ
Proof: Let 23.5 hold. From the proof of the above theorem, when ||P|| < δ m ,
¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f dγ − S (P)¯¯ ≤ 2 V (γ, [a, b])
¯¯ ¯¯ m
γ
and so ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f dγ ¯¯ ≤ ||S (P)|| + 2 V (γ, [a, b])
¯¯ ¯¯ m
γ
633
n
X 2
≤ M |γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 )| + V (γ, [a, b])
j=1
m
2
≤ M V (γ, [a, b]) + V (γ, [a, b]) .
m
This proves 23.6 since m is arbitrary. To verify 23.7 use the above inequality to
write ¯¯Z Z ¯¯ ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f dγ − fn dγ ¯¯ = ¯¯ (f − fn ) dγ (t)¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
γ γ γ
≤ max {||f ◦ γ (t) − fn ◦ γ (t)|| : t ∈ [a, b]} V (γ, [a, b]) .

Since the convergence is assumed to be uniform, this proves 23.7.
It turns out to be much easier to evaluate such integrals in the case where γ is
also C 1 ([a, b]) . The following theorem about approximation will be very useful but
first here is an easy lemma.
Lemma 23.6 Let γ : [a, b] → C be in C 1 ([a, b]) . Then V (γ, [a, b]) < ∞ so γ is of
bounded variation.
Proof: This follows from the following

¯
n ¯Z t j
¯
n
X X ¯
¯ 0 ¯
|γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 )| = ¯ γ (s) ds¯
¯ tj−1 ¯
j=1 j=1
Xn Z tj
≤ |γ 0 (s)| ds
j=1 tj−1
Xn Z tj
≤ ||γ 0 ||∞ ds
j=1 tj−1
0
= ||γ ||∞ (b − a) .
Therefore it follows V (γ, [a, b]) ≤ ||γ 0 ||∞ (b − a) . Here ||γ||∞ = max {|γ (t)| : t ∈ [a, b]}.
Theorem 23.7 Let γ : [a, b] → C be continuous and of bounded variation. Let

Ω be an open set containing γ ∗ and let f : Ω × K → X be continuous for K a
compact set in C, and let ε > 0 be given. Then there exists η : [a, b] → C such that
η (a) = γ (a) , γ (b) = η (b) , η ∈ C 1 ([a, b]) , and
||γ − η|| < ε, (23.8)

¯Z Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ f (·, z) dγ − f (·, z) dη ¯ < ε, (23.9)
¯ ¯
γ η
V (η, [a, b]) ≤ V (γ, [a, b]) , (23.10)

where ||γ − η|| ≡ max {|γ (t) − η (t)| : t ∈ [a, b]} .
Proof: Extend γ to be defined on all R according to γ (t) = γ (a) if t < a and

γ (t) = γ (b) if t > b. Now define
Z 2h
t+ (b−a) (t−a)
1
γ h (t) ≡ γ (s) ds.
2h 2h
−2h+t+ (b−a) (t−a)
where the integral is defined in the obvious way. That is,

Z b Z b Z b
α (t) + iβ (t) dt ≡ α (t) dt + i β (t) dt.
a a a
Therefore,
Z b+2h
1
γ h (b) = γ (s) ds = γ (b) ,
2h b
Z a
1
γ h (a) = γ (s) ds = γ (a) .
2h a−2h
Also, because of continuity of γ and the fundamental theorem of calculus,

½ µ ¶µ ¶
1 2h 2h
γ 0h (t) = γ t+ (t − a) 1+ −
2h b−a b−a
µ ¶µ ¶¾
2h 2h
γ −2h + t + (t − a) 1+
b−a b−a
and so γ h ∈ C 1 ([a, b]) . The following lemma is significant.
Lemma 23.8 V (γ h , [a, b]) ≤ V (γ, [a, b]) .
Proof: Let a = t0 < t1 < · · · < tn = b. Then using the definition of γ h and
changing the variables to make all integrals over [0, 2h] ,
n
X
|γ h (tj ) − γ h (tj−1 )| =
j=1
¯ Z
Xn ¯ 2h · µ ¶
¯ 1 2h
¯ γ s − 2h + tj + (tj − a) −
¯ 2h 0 b−a
j=1
µ ¶¸¯
2h ¯
γ s − 2h + tj−1 + (tj−1 − a) ¯¯
b−a
Z 2h X
n ¯ µ ¶
1 ¯ 2h
≤ ¯ γ s − 2h + tj + (tj − a) −
2h 0 j=1 ¯ b−a
µ ¶¯
2h ¯
γ s − 2h + tj−1 + (tj−1 − a) ¯¯ ds.
b−a
635
2h
For a given s ∈ [0, 2h] , the points, s − 2h + tj + b−a (tj − a) for j = 1, · · ·, n form
an increasing list of points in the interval [a − 2h, b + 2h] and so the integrand is
bounded above by V (γ, [a − 2h, b + 2h]) = V (γ, [a, b]) . It follows
n
X
|γ h (tj ) − γ h (tj−1 )| ≤ V (γ, [a, b])
j=1

With this lemma the proof of the theorem can be completed without too much
∗
trouble. Let H be
¡ an open
¢ set containing γ such that H is a compact subset of Ω.
∗ C
Let 0 < ε < dist γ , H . Then there exists δ 1 such that if h < δ 1 , then for all t,
Z 2h
t+ (b−a) (t−a)
1
|γ (t) − γ h (t)| ≤ |γ (s) − γ (t)| ds
2h 2h
−2h+t+ (b−a) (t−a)
Z 2h
t+ (b−a) (t−a)
1
< εds = ε (23.11)
2h 2h
−2h+t+ (b−a) (t−a)
due to the uniform continuity of γ. This proves 23.8.

From 23.2 and the above lemma, there exists δ 2 such that if ||P|| < δ 2 , then for
all z ∈ K,
¯¯Z ¯¯ ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ε ¯¯¯¯ ¯¯ ε
¯¯
¯¯ f (·, z) dγ (t) − S (P)¯¯ < , ¯¯ f (·, z) dγ (t) − S (P)¯¯ <
¯¯ ¯¯ 3 ¯¯ h h
¯¯ 3
γ γh
for all h. Here S (P) is a Riemann Steiltjes sum of the form

n
X
f (γ (τ i ) , z) (γ (ti ) − γ (ti−1 ))
i=1
and Sh (P) is a similar Riemann Steiltjes sum taken with respect to γ h instead of
γ. Because of 23.11 γ h (t) has values in H ⊆ Ω. Therefore, fix the partition, P, and
choose h small enough that in addition to this, the following inequality is valid for
all z ∈ K.
ε
|S (P) − Sh (P)| <
3
This is possible because of 23.11 and the uniform continuity of f on H × K. It
follows ¯¯Z Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f (·, z) dγ (t) − f (·, z) dγ h (t)¯¯ ≤
¯¯ γ γh ¯¯
¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f (·, z) dγ (t) − S (P)¯¯ + ||S (P) − Sh (P)||
¯¯ ¯¯
γ
¯¯ Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
+ ¯¯Sh (P) − f (·, z) dγ h (t)¯¯ < ε.
¯¯ γh ¯¯
Formula 23.10 follows from the lemma. This proves the theorem.
Of course the same result is obtained without the explicit dependence of f on z.
1
R This is a very useful theorem because if γ is C ([a, b]) , it is easy to calculate
γ
f dγ and the above theorem allows a reduction to the case where γ is C 1 . The
next theorem shows how easy it is to compute these integrals in the case where γ is
C 1 . First note that if f is continuous and γ ∈ C 1 ([a,
R b]) , then by Lemma 23.6 and
the fundamental existence theorem, Theorem 23.4, γ f dγ exists.
Theorem 23.9 If f : γ ∗ → X is continuous and γ : [a, b] → C is in C 1 ([a, b]) ,

then Z Z b
f dγ = f (γ (t)) γ 0 (t) dt. (23.12)
γ a
Proof: Let P be a partition of [a, b], P = {t0 , · · ·, tn } and ||P|| is small enough
that whenever |t − s| < ||P|| ,
|f (γ (t)) − f (γ (s))| < ε (23.13)
and ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯Z n ¯¯
¯¯ X ¯¯
¯¯ f dγ − f (γ (τ j )) (γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 ))¯¯¯¯ < ε.
¯¯
¯¯ γ j=1 ¯¯
Now
n
X Z n
bX
f (γ (τ j )) (γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 )) = f (γ (τ j )) X[tj−1 ,tj ] (s) γ 0 (s) ds
j=1 a j=1
where here ½
1 if s ∈ [a, b]
X[a,b] (s) ≡ .
0 if s ∈
/ [a, b]
Also,
Z b Z n
bX
f (γ (s)) γ 0 (s) ds = f (γ (s)) X[tj−1 ,tj ] (s) γ 0 (s) ds
a a j=1
and thanks to 23.13,

¯¯ P R ¯¯
¯¯ = n j=1 f (γ(τ j ))(γ(tj )−γ(tj−1 )) = ab f (γ(s))γ 0 (s)ds ¯¯
¯¯z }| { z }| {¯¯¯¯
¯¯Z n Z bX
¯¯ b X n ¯¯
¯¯ 0 ¯¯
¯¯ f (γ (τ j )) X [tj−1 ,tj ] (s) γ (s) ds − f (γ (s)) X[tj−1 ,tj ] (s) γ 0 (s) ds¯¯
¯¯ a a j=1 ¯¯
¯¯ j=1 ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
n Z
X tj X
≤ ||f (γ (τ j )) − f (γ (s))|| |γ 0 (s)| ds ≤ ||γ 0 ||∞ ε (tj − tj−1 )
j=1 tj−1 j
= ε ||γ 0 ||∞ (b − a) .
637
It follows that
¯¯Z Z b ¯¯ ¯¯¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ n
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f dγ − 0
f (γ (s)) γ (s) ds¯¯ ≤ ¯¯ f dγ − f (γ (τ j )) (γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 ))¯¯¯¯
¯¯ γ a ¯¯ ¯¯ γ ¯¯
j=1
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯X Z b ¯¯
¯¯ n ¯¯
¯
+ ¯¯¯ f (γ (τ j )) (γ (tj ) − γ (tj−1 )) − f (γ (s)) γ (s) ds¯¯¯¯ ≤ ε ||γ 0 ||∞ (b − a) + ε.
0
¯¯ j=1 a ¯¯
Since ε is arbitrary, this verifies 23.12.
Definition 23.10 Let Ω be an open subset of C and let γ : [a, b] → Ω be a contin-

uous function with bounded variation f : Ω → X be a continuous function. Then
the following notation is more customary.
Z Z
f (z) dz ≡ f dγ.
γ γ
R
The expression, γ f (z) dz, is called a contour integral and γ is referred to as the
contour. A function f : Ω → X for Ω an open set in C has a primitive if there
exists a function, F, the primitive, such that F 0 (z) = f (z) . Thus F is just an
antiderivative. Also if γ k : [ak , bk ] → C is continuous and of bounded variation, for
k = 1, · · ·, m and γ k (bk ) = γ k+1 (ak ) , define
Z m Z
X
Pm
f (z) dz ≡ f (z) dz. (23.14)
k=1 γk k=1 γk
In addition to this, for γ : [a, b] → C, define −γ : [a, b] → C by −γ (t) ≡

γ (b + a − t) . Thus γ simply traces out the points of γ ∗ in the opposite order.
The following lemma is useful and follows quickly from Theorem 23.3.
Lemma 23.11 In the above definition, there exists a continuous bounded vari-
ation function, γ defined on some closed interval, [c, d] , such that γ ([c, d]) =
∪m
k=1 γ k ([ak , bk ]) and γ (c) = γ 1 (a1 ) while γ (d) = γ m (bm ) . Furthermore,
Z m Z
X
f (z) dz = f (z) dz.
γ k=1 γk
If γ : [a, b] → C is of bounded variation and continuous, then

Z Z
f (z) dz = − f (z) dz.
γ −γ
Re stating Theorem 23.7 with the new notation in the above definition,
Theorem 23.12 Let K be a compact set in C and let f : Ω×K → X be continuous

for Ω an open set in C. Also let γ : [a, b] → Ω be continuous with bounded variation.
Then if r > 0 is given, there exists η : [a, b] → Ω such that η (a) = γ (a) , η (b) =
γ (b) , η is C 1 ([a, b]) , and
¯Z Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ f (z, w) dz − f (z, w) dz ¯ < r, ||η − γ|| < r.
¯ ¯
γ η
It will be very important to consider which functions have primitives. It turns

out, it is not enough for f to be continuous in order to possess a primitive. This is
in stark contrast to the situation for functions of a real variable in which the funda-
mental theorem of calculus will deliver a primitive for any continuous function. The
reason for the interest in such functions is the following theorem and its corollary.
Theorem 23.13 Let γ : [a, b] → C be continuous and of bounded variation. Also

suppose F 0 (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ Ω, an open set containing γ ∗ and f is continuous
on Ω. Then Z
f (z) dz = F (γ (b)) − F (γ (a)) .
γ
Proof: By Theorem 23.12 there exists η ∈ C 1 ([a, b]) such that γ (a) = η (a) ,
and γ (b) = η (b) such that
¯¯Z Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f (z) dz − f (z) dz ¯¯ < ε.
¯¯ ¯¯
γ η
Then since η is in C 1 ([a, b]) ,

Z Z b Z b
dF (η (t))
f (z) dz = f (η (t)) η 0 (t) dt = dt
η a a dt
= F (η (b)) − F (η (a)) = F (γ (b)) − F (γ (a)) .
Therefore,
¯¯ Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯(F (γ (b)) − F (γ (a))) − f (z) dz ¯¯ < ε
¯¯ ¯¯
γ
and since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this proves the theorem.
Corollary 23.14 If γ : [a, b] → C is continuous, has bounded variation, is a closed

curve, γ (a) = γ (b) , and γ ∗ ⊆ Ω where Ω is an open set on which F 0 (z) = f (z) ,
then Z
f (z) dz = 0.
γ
23.1. EXERCISES 639
23.1 Exercises
1. Let γ : [a, b] → R be increasing. Show V (γ, [a, b]) = γ (b) − γ (a) .
2. Suppose γ : [a, b] → C satisfies a Lipschitz condition, |γ (t) − γ (s)| ≤ K |s − t| .
Show γ is of bounded variation and that V (γ, [a, b]) ≤ K |b − a| .
3. γ : [c0 , cm ] → C is piecewise smooth if there exist numbers, ck , k = 1, · ·
·, m such that c0 < c1 < · · · < cm−1 < cm such that γ is continuous and
γ : [ck , ck+1 ] → C is C 1 . Show that such piecewise smooth functions are of
bounded variation and give an estimate for V (γ, [c0 , cm ]) .
4. Let γ R: [0, 2π] → C be given by γ (t) = r (cos mt + i sin mt) for m an integer.
Find γ dz z .
5. Show that if γ : [a, b] → C then there exists an increasing function h : [0, 1] →

[a, b] such that γ ◦ h ([0, 1]) = γ ∗ .
6. Let γ : [a, b] → C be an arbitrary continuous curve having bounded variation
and let f, g have continuous derivatives on some open set containing γ ∗ . Prove
the usual integration by parts formula.
Z Z
f g dz = f (γ (b)) g (γ (b)) − f (γ (a)) g (γ (a)) − f 0 gdz.
0
γ γ
−(1/2) θ
7. Let f (z) ≡ |z| e−i 2R where z = |z| eiθ . This function is called the principle
−(1/2)
branch of z . Find γ f (z) dz where γ is the semicircle in the upper half
plane which goes from (1, 0) to (−1, 0) in the counter clockwise direction. Next
do the integral in which γ goes in the clockwise direction along the semicircle
in the lower half plane.
8. Prove an open set, U is connected if and only if for every two points in U,
there exists a C 1 curve having values in U which joins them.
9. Let P, Q be two partitions of [a, b] with P ⊆ Q. Each of these partitions can
be used to form an approximation to V (γ, [a, b]) as described above. Recall
the total variation was the supremum of sums of a certain form determined by
a partition. How is the sum associated with P related to the sum associated
with Q? Explain.
10. Consider the curve,
½ ¡1¢
t + it2 sin t if t ∈ (0, 1]
γ (t) = .
0 if t = 0
Is γ a continuous curve having bounded variation? What if the t2 is replaced

with t? Is the resulting curve continuous? Is it a bounded variation curve?
R
11. Suppose γ : [a, b] → R is given by γ (t) = t. What is γ f (t) dγ? Explain.
Fundamentals Of Complex
Analysis
24.1 Analytic Functions

Definition 24.1 Let Ω be an open set in C and let f : Ω → X. Then f is analytic
on Ω if for every z ∈ Ω,
f (z + h) − f (z)
lim ≡ f 0 (z)
h→0 h
exists and is a continuous function of z ∈ Ω. Here h ∈ C.
Note that if f is analytic, it must be the case that f is continuous. It is more

common to not include the requirement that f 0 is continuous but it is shown later
that the continuity of f 0 follows.
What are some examples of analytic functions? In the case where X = C, the
simplest example is any polynomial. Thus
n
X
p (z) ≡ ak z k
k=0
is an analytic function and

n
X
p0 (z) = ak kz k−1 .
k=1
More generally, power series are analytic. This will be shown soon but first here is
an important definition and a convergence theorem called the root test.
P∞ Pn
Definition 24.2 Let {ak } be a sequence in X. Then k=1 ak ≡ limn→∞ k=1 ak
whenever this limit exists. When the limit exists, the series is said to converge.
641
642 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX ANALYSIS
P∞ 1/k
Theorem 24.3 Consider k=1 ak and let ρ ≡ lim supk→∞ ||ak || . Then if ρ < 1,
the series converges absolutely and if ρ > 1 the series diverges
P∞ spectacularly in the
k
sense that limk→∞ ak 6= 0. If ρ = 1 the test fails. Also k=1 ak (z − a) converges
on some disk B (a, R) . It converges absolutely if |z − a| < R and uniformly on
P∞ k
B (a, r1 ) whenever r1 < R. The function f (z) = k=1 ak (z − a) is continuous on
B (a, R) .
Proof: Suppose ρ < 1. Then there exists r ∈ P (ρ, 1) . Therefore, ||ak || ≤ rk for
all k large enough and so by a comparison test, k ||ak || converges because the
partial sums are bounded above. Therefore, the partial sums of the original series
form a Cauchy sequence in X and so they also converge due to completeness of X.
1/k
Now suppose ρ > 1. Then letting ρ > r > 1, it follows ||ak || ≥ r infinitely
often. Thus ||ak || ≥ rk infinitely often. Thus there exists a subsequence for which
||ank || converges to ∞. Therefore, the series cannot converge.
P∞ k
Now consider k=1 ak (z − a) . This series converges absolutely if
1/k
lim sup ||ak || |z − a| < 1
k→∞
1/k
which is the same as saying |z − a| < 1/ρ where ρ ≡ lim supk→∞ ||ak || . Let
R = 1/ρ.
Now suppose r1 < R. Consider |z − a| ≤ r1 . Then for such z,
k
||ak || |z − a| ≤ ||ak || r1k
and
¡ ¢1/k 1/k r1
lim sup ||ak || r1k = lim sup ||ak || r1 = <1
k→∞ k→∞ R
P P∞ k
so k ||ak || r1k converges. By the Weierstrass M test, k=1 ak (z − a) converges
uniformly for |z − a| ≤ r1 . Therefore, f is continuous on B (a, R) as claimed because
it is the uniform limit of continuous functions, the partial sums of the infinite series.
What if ρ = 0? In this case,
1/k
lim sup ||ak || |z − a| = 0 · |z − a| = 0
k→∞
P k
and so R = ∞ and the series, ||ak || |z − a| converges everywhere.
What if ρ = ∞? Then in this case, the series converges only at z = a because if
z 6= a,
1/k
lim sup ||ak || |z − a| = ∞.
k→∞
P∞ k
Theorem 24.4 Let f (z) ≡ k=1 ak (z − a) be given in Theorem 24.3 where R >
0. Then f is analytic on B (a, R) . So are all its derivatives.
24.1. ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 643
P∞ k−1
Proof: Consider g (z) = k=2 ak k (z − a) on B (a, R) where R = ρ−1 as
above. Let r1 < r < R. Then letting |z − a| < r1 and h < r − r1 ,
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f (z + h) − f (z) ¯¯
¯¯ − g (z)¯¯¯¯
¯¯ h
¯ ¯
X∞ ¯ (z + h − a)k − (z − a)k ¯
¯ k−1 ¯
≤ ||ak || ¯ − k (z − a) ¯
¯ h ¯
k=2
¯ Ã k µ ¶
! ¯
X∞ ¯1 X k ¯
¯ k−i i k k−1 ¯
≤ ||ak || ¯ (z − a) h − (z − a) − k (z − a) ¯
¯h i ¯
k=2 i=0
¯ Ã k µ ¶
! ¯
X∞ ¯1 X k ¯
¯ k−i i k−1 ¯
= ||ak || ¯ (z − a) h − k (z − a) ¯
¯h i ¯
k=2 i=1
¯ Ã µ ¶ !¯
X∞ ¯ X k
k ¯
¯ k−i i−1 ¯
≤ ||ak || ¯ (z − a) h ¯
¯ i ¯
k=2 i=2
Ã !
X∞ Xµ k ¶
k−2
k−2−i i
≤ |h| ||ak || |z − a| |h|
i=0
i+2
k=2
Ãk−2 µ !
X∞ X k − 2¶ k (k − 1) k−2−i i
= |h| ||ak || |z − a| |h|
i=0
i (i + 2) (i + 1)
k=2
∞
Ãk−2 µ ¶ !
X k (k − 1) X k − 2 k−2−i i
≤ |h| ||ak || |z − a| |h|
2 i=0
i
k=2
X∞ X ∞
k (k − 1) k−2 k (k − 1) k−2
= |h| ||ak || (|z − a| + |h|) < |h| ||ak || r .
2 2
k=2 k=2
Then
µ ¶1/k
k (k − 1) k−2
lim sup ||ak || r = ρr < 1
k→∞ 2
and so ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f (z + h) − f (z) ¯¯
¯¯ − g (z)¯¯¯¯ ≤ C |h| .
¯¯ h
therefore, g (z) = f 0 (z) . Now by Theorem 24.3 it also follows that f 0 is continuous.
Since r1 < R was arbitrary, this shows that f 0 (z) is given by the differentiated
series above for |z − a| < R. Now a repeat of the argument shows all the derivatives
of f exist and are continuous on B (a, R).
24.1.1 Cauchy Riemann Equations

Next consider the very important Cauchy Riemann equations which give conditions
under which complex valued functions of a complex variable are analytic.
Theorem 24.5 Let Ω be an open subset of C and let f : Ω → C be a function,

such that for z = x + iy ∈ Ω,
f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) .
Then f is analytic if and only if u, v are C 1 (Ω) and
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Furthermore,
∂u ∂v
f 0 (z) = (x, y) + i (x, y) .
∂x ∂x
Proof: Suppose f is analytic first. Then letting t ∈ R,
f (z + t) − f (z)
f 0 (z) = lim =
t→0 t
µ ¶
u (x + t, y) + iv (x + t, y) u (x, y) + iv (x, y)
lim −
t→0 t t
∂u (x, y) ∂v (x, y)
= +i .
∂x ∂x
But also
f (z + it) − f (z)
f 0 (z) = lim =
t→0 it
µ ¶
u (x, y + t) + iv (x, y + t) u (x, y) + iv (x, y)
lim −
t→0 it it
µ ¶
1 ∂u (x, y) ∂v (x, y)
+i
i ∂y ∂y
∂v (x, y) ∂u (x, y)
= −i .
∂y ∂y
This verifies the Cauchy Riemann equations. We are assuming that z → f 0 (z) is
continuous. Therefore, the partial derivatives of u and v are also continuous. To see
this, note that from the formulas for f 0 (z) given above, and letting z1 = x1 + iy1
¯ ¯
¯ ∂v (x, y) ∂v (x1 , y1 ) ¯
¯ − ¯ ≤ |f 0 (z) − f 0 (z1 )| ,
¯ ∂y ∂y ¯
showing that (x, y) → ∂v(x,y)

∂y is continuous since (x1 , y1 ) → (x, y) if and only if
z1 → z. The other cases are similar.
Now suppose the Cauchy Riemann equations hold and the functions, u and v
are C 1 (Ω) . Then letting h = h1 + ih2 ,
f (z + h) − f (z) = u (x + h1 , y + h2 )
24.1. ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 645
+iv (x + h1 , y + h2 ) − (u (x, y) + iv (x, y))
We know u and v are both differentiable and so

∂u ∂u
f (z + h) − f (z) = (x, y) h1 + (x, y) h2 +
∂x ∂y
µ ¶
∂v ∂v
i (x, y) h1 + (x, y) h2 + o (h) .
∂x ∂y
Dividing by h and using the Cauchy Riemann equations,
∂u ∂v
f (z + h) − f (z) ∂x (x, y) h1 + i ∂y (x, y) h2
= +
h h
∂v ∂u
i ∂x (x, y) h1 + ∂y (x, y) h2 o (h)
+
h h
∂u h1 + ih2 ∂v h1 + ih2 o (h)
= (x, y) +i (x, y) +
∂x h ∂x h h
Taking the limit as h → 0,
∂u ∂v
f 0 (z) = (x, y) + i (x, y) .
∂x ∂x
It follows from this formula and the assumption that u, v are C 1 (Ω) that f 0 is
continuous.
It is routine to verify that all the usual rules of derivatives hold for analytic
functions. In particular, the product rule, the chain rule, and quotient rule.
24.1.2 An Important Example

An important example of an analytic function is ez ≡ exp (z) ≡ ex (cos y + i sin y)
where z = x + iy. You can verify that this function satisfies the Cauchy Riemann
equations and that all the partial derivatives are continuous. Also from the above
0
discussion, (ez ) = ex cos (y) + iex sin y = ez . Later I will show that ez is given by
the usual power series. An important property of this function is that it can be
used to parameterize the circle centered at z0 having radius r.
Lemma 24.6 Let γ denote the closed curve which is a circle of radius r centered
at z0 . Then a parameterization this curve is γ (t) = z0 + reit where t ∈ [0, 2π] .
¯ ¯
Proof: |γ (t) − z0 | = ¯reit re−it ¯ = r2 . Also, you can see from the definition of
2
the sine and cosine that the point described in this way moves counter clockwise
over this circle.
24.2 Exercises
1. Verify all the usual rules of differentiation including the product and chain
rules.
2. Suppose f and f 0 : U → C are analytic and f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) .

Verify uxx + uyy = 0 and vxx + vyy = 0. This partial differential equation
satisfied by the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function is called
Laplace’s equation. We say these functions satisfying Laplace’s equation are
harmonic Rfunctions. If u isR a harmonic function defined on B (0, r) show that
y x
v (x, y) ≡ 0 ux (x, t) dt − 0 uy (t, 0) dt is such that u + iv is analytic.
3. Let f : U → C be analytic and f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) . Show u, v and uv

are all harmonic although it can happen that u2 is not. Recall that a function,
w is harmonic if wxx + wyy = 0.
4. Define a function f (z) ≡ z ≡ x − iy where z = x + iy. Is f analytic?
5. If f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) and f is analytic, verify that

µ ¶
ux uy 2
det = |f 0 (z)| .
vx vy
6. Show that if u (x, y) + iv (x, y) = f (z) is analytic, then ∇u · ∇v = 0. Recall
∇u (x, y) = hux (x, y) , uy (x, y)i.
7. Show that every polynomial is analytic.
8. If γ (t) = x (t)+iy (t) is a C 1 curve having values in U, an open set of C, and if

f : U → C is analytic, we can consider f ◦γ, another C 1 curve having values in
0
C. Also, γ 0 (t) and (f ◦ γ) (t) are complex numbers so these can be considered
2
as vectors in R as follows. The complex number, x + iy corresponds to the
vector, hx, yi. Suppose that γ and η are two such C 1 curves having values in
U and that γ (t0 ) = η (s0 ) = z and suppose that f : U → C is analytic. Show
0 0
that the angle between (f ◦ γ) (t0 ) and (f ◦ η) (s0 ) is the same as the angle
0 0 0
between γ (t0 ) and η (s0 ) assuming that f (z) 6= 0. Thus analytic mappings
preserve angles at points where the derivative is nonzero. Such mappings
are called isogonal. . Hint: To make this easy to show, first observe that
hx, yi · ha, bi = 12 (zw + zw) where z = x + iy and w = a + ib.
9. Analytic functions are even better than what is described in Problem 8. In

addition to preserving angles, they also preserve orientation. To verify this
show that if z = x + iy and w = a + ib are two complex numbers, then
hx, y, 0i and ha, b, 0i are two vectors in R3 . Recall that the cross product,
hx, y, 0i × ha, b, 0i, yields a vector normal to the two given vectors such that
the triple, hx, y, 0i, ha, b, 0i, and hx, y, 0i × ha, b, 0i satisfies the right hand rule
24.3. CAUCHY’S FORMULA FOR A DISK 647
and has magnitude equal to the product of the sine of the included angle
times the product of the two norms of the vectors. In this case, the cross
product either points in the direction of the positive z axis or in the direction
of the negative z axis. Thus, either the vectors hx, y, 0i, ha, b, 0i, k form a right
handed system or the vectors ha, b, 0i, hx, y, 0i, k form a right handed system.
These are the two possible orientations. Show that in the situation of Problem
8 the orientation of γ 0 (t0 ) , η 0 (s0 ) , k is the same as the orientation of the
0 0
vectors (f ◦ γ) (t0 ) , (f ◦ η) (s0 ) , k. Such mappings are called conformal. If f
is analytic and f 0 (z) 6= 0, then we know from this problem and the above that
0
f is a conformal map. Hint: You can do this by verifying that (f ◦ γ) (t0 ) ×
0 2
(f ◦ η) (s0 ) = |f 0 (γ (t0 ))| γ 0 (t0 ) × η 0 (s0 ). To make the verification easier,
you might first establish the following simple formula for the cross product
where here x + iy = z and a + ib = w.
(x, y, 0) × (a, b, 0) = Re (ziw) k.
10. Write the Cauchy Riemann equations in terms of polar coordinates. Recall
the polar coordinates are given by
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.
This means, letting u (x, y) = u (r, θ) , v (x, y) = v (r, θ) , write the Cauchy Rie-
mann equations in terms of r and θ. You should eventually show the Cauchy
Riemann equations are equivalent to
∂u 1 ∂v ∂v 1 ∂u
= , =−
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
11. Show that a real valued analytic function must be constant.
24.3 Cauchy’s Formula For A Disk

The Cauchy integral formula is the most important theorem in complex analysis.
It will be established for a disk in this chapter and later will be generalized to
much more general situations but the version given here will suffice to prove many
interesting theorems needed in the later development of the theory. The following
are some advanced calculus results.
Lemma 24.7 Let f : [a, b] → C. Then f 0 (t) exists if and only if Re f 0 (t) and
Im f 0 (t) exist. Furthermore,
f 0 (t) = Re f 0 (t) + i Im f 0 (t) .
Proof: The if part of the equivalence is obvious.
Now suppose f 0 (t) exists. Let both t and t + h be contained in [a, b]
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ Re f (t + h) − Re f (t) ¯ ¯ f (t + h) − f (t) ¯
¯ 0 ¯ ¯
− Re (f (t))¯ ≤ ¯ − f (t)¯¯
0
¯ h h
and this converges to zero as h → 0. Therefore, Re f 0 (t) = Re (f 0 (t)) . Similarly,

Im f 0 (t) = Im (f 0 (t)) .
Lemma 24.8 If g : [a, b] → C and g is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on

(a, b) with g 0 (t) = 0, then g (t) is a constant.
Proof: From the above lemma, you can apply the mean value theorem to the
real and imaginary parts of g.
Applying the above lemma to the components yields the following lemma.
Lemma 24.9 If g : [a, b] → Cn = X and g is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable

on (a, b) with g 0 (t) = 0, then g (t) is a constant.
If you want to have X be a complex Banach space, the result is still true.
Lemma 24.10 If g : [a, b] → X and g is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on

(a, b) with g 0 (t) = 0, then g (t) is a constant.
Proof: Let Λ ∈ X 0 . Then Λg : [a, b] → C . Therefore, from Lemma 24.8, for each
Λ ∈ X 0 , Λg (s) = Λg (t) and since X 0 separates the points, it follows g (s) = g (t) so
g is constant.
Lemma 24.11 Let φ : [a, b] × [c, d] → R be continuous and let

Z b
g (t) ≡ φ (s, t) ds. (24.1)
a
∂φ
Then g is continuous. If ∂t exists and is continuous on [a, b] × [c, d] , then
Z b
∂φ (s, t)
g 0 (t) = ds. (24.2)
a ∂t
Proof: The first claim follows from the uniform continuity of φ on [a, b] × [c, d] ,
which uniform continuity results from the set being compact. To establish 24.2, let
t and t + h be contained in [c, d] and form, using the mean value theorem,
Z b
g (t + h) − g (t) 1
= [φ (s, t + h) − φ (s, t)] ds
h h a
Z b
1 ∂φ (s, t + θh)
= hds
h a ∂t
Z b
∂φ (s, t + θh)
= ds,
a ∂t
where θ may depend on s but is some number between 0 and 1. Then by the uniform
continuity of ∂φ
∂t , it follows that 24.2 holds.
Corollary 24.12 Let φ : [a, b] × [c, d] → C be continuous and let

Z b
g (t) ≡ φ (s, t) ds. (24.3)
a
∂φ
Z b
∂φ (s, t)
g 0 (t) = ds. (24.4)
a ∂t
Proof: Apply Lemma 24.11 to the real and imaginary parts of φ.

Applying the above corollary to the components, you can also have the same
result for φ having values in Cn .
Corollary 24.13 Let φ : [a, b] × [c, d] → Cn be continuous and let

Z b
g (t) ≡ φ (s, t) ds. (24.5)
a
∂φ
Z b
0 ∂φ (s, t)
g (t) = ds. (24.6)
a ∂t
If you want to consider φ having values in X, a complex Banach space a similar

result holds.
Corollary 24.14 Let φ : [a, b] × [c, d] → X be continuous and let

Z b
g (t) ≡ φ (s, t) ds. (24.7)
a
∂φ
Z b
0 ∂φ (s, t)
g (t) = ds. (24.8)
a ∂t
∂Λφ
Proof: Let Λ ∈ X 0 . Then Λφ : [a, b] × [c, d] → C is continuous and ∂t exists
and is continuous on [a, b] × [c, d] . Therefore, from 24.8,
Z b Z b
0 0 ∂Λφ (s, t) ∂φ (s, t)
Λ (g (t)) = (Λg) (t) = ds = Λ ds
a ∂t a ∂t
and since X 0 separates the points, it follows 24.8 holds.

The following is Cauchy’s integral formula for a disk.
Theorem 24.15 Let f : Ω → X be analytic on the open set, Ω and let

B (z0 , r) ⊆ Ω.
Let γ (t) ≡ z0 + reit for t ∈ [0, 2π] . Then if z ∈ B (z0 , r) ,
Z
1 f (w)
f (z) = dw. (24.9)
2πi γ w − z
Proof: Consider for α ∈ [0, 1] ,
Z 2π ¡ ¡ ¢¢
f z + α z0 + reit − z
g (α) ≡ rieit dt.
0 reit + z0 − z
If α equals one, this reduces to the integral in 24.9. The idea is to show g is a
constant and that g (0) = f (z) 2πi. First consider the claim about g (0) .
µZ 2π ¶
reit
g (0) = dt if (z)
0 reit + z0 − z
µZ 2π ¶
1
= if (z) dt
0 1 − z−z
reit
0
Z 2π X∞
n
= if (z) r−n e−int (z − z0 ) dt
0 n=0
¯ ¯
because ¯ z−z
reit
0¯
< 1. Since this sum converges uniformly you can interchange the
sum and the integral to obtain
X∞ Z 2π
−n n
g (0) = if (z) r (z − z0 ) e−int dt
n=0 0
= 2πif (z)
R 2π
because 0 e−int dt = 0 if n > 0.
Next consider the claim that g is constant. By Corollary 24.13, for α ∈ (0, 1) ,
Z 2π 0 ¡ ¡ ¢¢ ¡ it ¢
0 f z + α z0 + reit − z re + z0 − z
g (α) = rieit dt
0 reit + z0 − z
Z 2π
¡ ¡ ¢¢
= f 0 z + α z0 + reit − z rieit dt
0
Z 2π µ ¶
d ¡ ¡ ¢¢ 1
= f z + α z0 + reit − z dt
0 dt α
¡ ¡ ¢¢ 1 ¡ ¡ ¢¢ 1
= f z + α z0 + rei2π − z − f z + α z0 + re0 − z = 0.
α α
Now g is continuous on [0, 1] and g 0 (t) = 0 on (0, 1) so by Lemma 24.9, g equals a
constant. This constant can only be g (0) = 2πif (z) . Thus,
Z
f (w)
g (1) = dw = g (0) = 2πif (z) .
γ w −z

This is a very significant theorem. A few applications are given next.
Theorem 24.16 Let f : Ω → X be analytic where Ω is an open set in C. Then f
has infinitely many derivatives on Ω. Furthermore, for all z ∈ B (z0 , r) ,
Z
n! f (w)
f (n) (z) = dw (24.10)
2πi γ (w − z)n+1
where γ (t) ≡ z0 + reit , t ∈ [0, 2π] for r small enough that B (z0 , r) ⊆ Ω.
Proof: Let z ∈ B (z0 , r) ⊆ Ω and let B (z0 , r) ⊆ Ω. Then, letting γ (t) ≡
z0 + reit , t ∈ [0, 2π] , and h small enough,
Z Z
1 f (w) 1 f (w)
f (z) = dw, f (z + h) = dw
2πi γ w − z 2πi γ w − z − h
Now
1 1 h
− =
w−z−h w−z (−w + z + h) (−w + z)
and so
Z
f (z + h) − f (z) 1 hf (w)
= dw
h 2πhi γ (−w + z + h) (−w + z)
Z
1 f (w)
= dw.
2πi γ (−w + z + h) (−w + z)
Now for all h sufficiently small, there exists a constant C independent of such h
such that
¯ ¯
¯ 1 1 ¯
¯ − ¯
¯ (−w + z + h) (−w + z) (−w + z) (−w + z) ¯
¯ ¯
¯ h ¯
¯ ¯
= ¯ ¯ ≤ C |h|
¯ (w − z − h) (w − z)2 ¯
and so, the integrand converges uniformly as h → 0 to

f (w)
= 2
(w − z)
Therefore, the limit as h → 0 may be taken inside the integral to obtain
Z
0 1 f (w)
f (z) = dw.
2πi γ (w − z)2
Continuing in this way, yields 24.10.
This is a very remarkable result. It shows the existence of one continuous deriva-
tive implies the existence of all derivatives, in contrast to the theory of functions of
a real variable. Actually, more than what is stated in the theorem was shown. The
above proof establishes the following corollary.
Corollary 24.17 Suppose f is continuous on ∂B (z0 , r) and suppose that for all
z ∈ B (z0 , r) , Z
1 f (w)
f (z) = dw,
2πi γ w − z
where γ (t) ≡ z0 + reit , t ∈ [0, 2π] . Then f is analytic on B (z0 , r) and in fact has
infinitely many derivatives on B (z0 , r) .
Another application is the following lemma.
Lemma 24.18 Let γ (t) = z0 + reit , for t ∈ [0, 2π], suppose fn → f uniformly on
B (z0 , r), and suppose Z
1 fn (w)
fn (z) = dw (24.11)
2πi γ w − z
for z ∈ B (z0 , r) . Then Z
1 f (w)
f (z) = dw, (24.12)
2πi γ w−z
implying that f is analytic on B (z0 , r) .
Proof: From 24.11 and the uniform convergence of fn to f on γ ([0, 2π]) , the
integrals in 24.11 converge to
Z
1 f (w)
dw.
2πi γ w − z
Therefore, the formula 24.12 follows.

Uniform convergence on a closed disk of the analytic functions implies the target
function is also analytic. This is amazing. Think of the Weierstrass approximation
theorem for polynomials. You can obtain a continuous nowhere differentiable func-
tion as the uniform limit of polynomials.
The conclusions of the following proposition have all been obtained earlier in
Theorem 24.4 but they can be obtained more easily if you use the above theorem
and lemmas.
Proposition 24.19 Let {an } denote a sequence in X. Then there exists R ∈ [0, ∞]
such that
∞
X k
ak (z − z0 )
k=0
converges absolutely if |z − z0 | < R, diverges if |z − z0 | > R and converges uniformly

on B (z0 , r) for all r < R. Furthermore, if R > 0, the function,
∞
X k
f (z) ≡ ak (z − z0 )
k=0
is analytic on B (z0 , R) .
Proof: The assertions about absolute convergence are routine from the root test
if
µ ¶−1
1/n
R ≡ lim sup |an |
n→∞
with R = ∞ if the quantity in parenthesis equals zero. The root test can be used
to verify absolute convergence which then implies convergence by completeness of
X.
The assertion aboutP∞uniform convergence follows from the Weierstrass M test
and Mn ≡ |an | rn . ( n=0 |an | rn < ∞ by the root test). It only remains to verify
the assertion about f (z) being analytic in the case where R > 0.
Pn k
Let 0 < r < R and define fn (z) ≡ k=0 ak (z − z0 ) . Then fn is a polynomial
and so it is analytic. Thus, by the Cauchy integral formula above,
Z
1 fn (w)
fn (z) = dw
2πi γ w−z
where γ (t) = z0 + reit , for t ∈ [0, 2π] . By Lemma 24.18 and the first part of this
proposition involving uniform convergence,
Z
1 f (w)
f (z) = dw.
2πi γ w−z
Therefore, f is analytic on B (z0 , r) by Corollary 24.17. Since r < R is arbitrary,

this shows f is analytic on B (z0 , R) .
This proposition shows that all functions having values in X which are given as
power series are analytic on their circle of convergence, the set of complex numbers,
z, such that |z − z0 | < R. In fact, every analytic function can be realized as a power
series.
Theorem 24.20 If f : Ω → X is analytic and if B (z0 , r) ⊆ Ω, then

∞
X n
f (z) = an (z − z0 ) (24.13)
n=0
for all |z − z0 | < r. Furthermore,
f (n) (z0 )
an = . (24.14)
n!
Proof: Consider |z − z0 | < r and let γ (t) = z0 + reit , t ∈ [0, 2π] . Then for
w ∈ γ ([0, 2π]) ,
¯ ¯
¯ z − z0 ¯
¯ ¯
¯ w − z0 ¯ < 1
and so, by the Cauchy integral formula,

Z
1 f (w)
f (z) = dw
2πi γ w − z
Z
1 f (w)
= ³ ´ dw
2πi γ (w − z ) 1 − z−z0
0 w−z0
Z ∞ µ ¶n
1 f (w) X z − z0
= dw.
2πi γ (w − z0 ) n=0 w − z0
Since the series converges uniformly, you can interchange the integral and the sum
to obtain
∞
Ã Z !
X 1 f (w) n
f (z) = n+1 (z − z0 )
n=0
2πi γ (w − z0 )
∞
X n
≡ an (z − z0 )
n=0
By Theorem 24.16, 24.14 holds.

Note that this also implies that if a function is analytic on an open set, then all
of its derivatives are also analytic. This follows from Theorem 24.4 which says that
a function given by a power series has all derivatives on the disk of convergence.
24.4 Exercises
¯P ∞ ¡ ¢¯
1. Show that if |ek | ≤ ε, then ¯ k=m ek rk − rk+1 ¯ < ε if 0 ≤ r < 1. Hint:
Let |θ| = 1 and verify that
¯ ¯
X∞
¡ k ¢ ¯X∞
¡ ¢ ¯ X ∞
¡ ¢
¯ ¯
θ ek r − rk+1 = ¯ ek rk − rk+1 ¯ = Re (θek ) rk − rk+1
¯ ¯
k=m k=m k=m
where −ε < Re (θek ) < ε.

P∞ n
2. Abel’s theorem saysPthat if n=0 an (z − a) Phas radius of convergence equal
∞ ∞ n
to
P∞1 and kif A P = n=0¡ an , then ¢limr→1− n=0 an r = A. Hint: Show
∞ k k+1
P
k=0 a k r = k=0 A k r − r where A k denotes the k th partial sum
of aj . Thus
∞
X ∞
X m
k
¡ k k+1
¢ X ¡ ¢
ak r = Ak r − r + Ak rk − rk+1 ,
k=0 k=m+1 k=0
where |Ak − A| < ε for all k ≥ m. In the first sum, write Ak = A + ek and use
P∞ k 1
Problem 1. Use this theorem to verify that arctan (1) = k=0 (−1) 2k+1 .
24.4. EXERCISES 655
3. Find the integrals using the Cauchy integral formula.

R
(a) γ sin z it
z−i dz where γ (t) = 2e : t ∈ [0, 2π] .
R 1
(b) γ z−a dz where γ (t) = a + reit : t ∈ [0, 2π]
R cos z
(c) γ z2 dz where γ (t) = eit : t ∈ [0, 2π]
R
(d) γ log(z)
z n dz where γ (t) = 1 + 2 e
1 it
: t ∈ [0, 2π] and n = 0, 1, 2. In this
problem, log (z) ≡ ln |z| + i arg (z) where arg (z) ∈ (−π, π) and z =
0
|z| ei arg(z) . Thus elog(z) = z and log (z) = z1 .
R z2 +4
4. Let γ (t) = 4eit : t ∈ [0, 2π] and find γ z(z 2 +1) dz.
P∞
5. Suppose f (z) = n=0 an z n for all |z| < R. Show that then
Z 2π ∞
X
1 ¯ ¡ iθ ¢¯2
¯f re ¯ dθ = 2
|an | r2n
2π 0 n=0
for all r ∈ [0, R). Hint: Let

n
X
fn (z) ≡ ak z k ,
k=0
show Z 2π n
X
1 ¯ ¡ iθ ¢¯2
¯fn re ¯ dθ = 2
|ak | r2k
2π 0 k=0
and then take limits as n → ∞ using uniform convergence.

6. The Cauchy integral formula, marvelous as it is, can actually be improved
upon. The Cauchy integral formula involves representing f by the values of
f on the boundary of the disk, B (a, r) . It is possible to represent f by using
only the values of Re f on the boundary. This leads to the Schwarz formula .
Supply the details in the following outline.
Suppose f is analytic on |z| < R and
∞
X
f (z) = an z n (24.15)
n=0
with the series converging uniformly on |z| = R. Then letting |w| = R,
2u (w) = f (w) + f (w)
and so
∞
X ∞
X k
2u (w) = ak w k + ak (w) . (24.16)
k=0 k=0
Now letting γ (t) = Reit , t ∈ [0, 2π]

Z Z
2u (w) 1
dw = (a0 + a0 ) dw
γ w γ w
= 2πi (a0 + a0 ) .
Thus, multiplying 24.16 by w−1 ,

Z
1 u (w)
dw = a0 + a0 .
πi γ w
Now multiply 24.16 by w−(n+1) and integrate again to obtain

Z
1 u (w)
an = dw.
πi γ wn+1
Using these formulas for an in 24.15, we can interchange the sum and the
integral (Why can we do this?) to write the following for |z| < R.
Z
1 X ³ z ´k+1
∞
1
f (z) = u (w) dw − a0
πi γ z w
k=0
Z
1 u (w)
= dw − a0 ,
πi γ w−z
1
R u(w)
which is the Schwarz formula. Now Re a0 = 2πi γ w
dw and a0 = Re a0 −
i Im a0 . Therefore, we can also write the Schwarz formula as
Z
1 u (w) (w + z)
f (z) = dw + i Im a0 . (24.17)
2πi γ (w − z) w
7. Take the real parts of the second form of the Schwarz formula to derive the
Poisson formula for a disk,
Z 2π ¡ ¢¡ ¢
¡ iα ¢ 1 u Reiθ R2 − r2
u re = dθ. (24.18)
2π 0 R2 + r2 − 2Rr cos (θ − α)
8. Suppose that u (w) is a given real continuous function defined on ∂B (0, R)

and define f (z) for |z| < R by 24.17. Show that f, so defined is analytic.
Explain why u given in 24.18 is harmonic. Show that
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
lim u reiα = u Reiα .
r→R−
Thus u is a harmonic function which approaches a given function on the

boundary and is therefore, a solution to the Dirichlet problem.
24.5. ZEROS OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION 657
P∞ k
9. Suppose f (z) = k=0 ak (z − z0 ) for all |z − z0 | < R. Show that f 0 (z) =
P∞ k−1
k=0 ak k (z − z0 ) for all |z − z0 | < R. Hint: Let fn (z) be a partial sum
of f. Show that fn0 converges uniformly to some function, g on |z − z0 | ≤ r
for any r < R. Now use the Cauchy integral formula for a function and its
derivative to identify g with f 0 .
P∞ ¡ ¢k
10. Use Problem 9 to find the exact value of k=0 k 2 13 .
11. Prove the binomial formula,
X∞ µ ¶
α α n
(1 + z) = z
n=0
n
where µ ¶
α α · · · (α − n + 1)
≡ .
n n!
Can this be used to give a proof of the binomial formula,
Xn µ ¶
n n n−k k
(a + b) = a b ?
k
k=0
Explain.
12. Suppose f is analytic on B (z0¯ , r) and¯continuous on B (z0 , r) and |f (z)| ≤ M
on B (z0 , r). Show that then ¯f (n) (a)¯ ≤ Mrnn! .
24.5 Zeros Of An Analytic Function

In this section we give a very surprising property of analytic functions which is in
stark contrast to what takes place for functions of a real variable.
Definition 24.21 A region is a connected open set.
It turns out the zeros of an analytic function which is not constant on some
region cannot have a limit point. This is also a good time to define the order of a
zero.
Definition 24.22 Suppose f is an analytic function defined near a point, α where

f (α) = 0. Thus α is a zero of the function, f. The zero is of order m if f (z) =
m
(z − α) g (z) where g is an analytic function which is not equal to zero at α.
Theorem 24.23 Let Ω be a connected open set (region) and let f : Ω → X be

analytic. Then the following are equivalent.
1. f (z) = 0 for all z ∈ Ω

2. There exists z0 ∈ Ω such that f (n) (z0 ) = 0 for all n.
3. There exists z0 ∈ Ω which is a limit point of the set,
Z ≡ {z ∈ Ω : f (z) = 0} .
Proof: It is clear the first condition implies the second two. Suppose the third
holds. Then for z near z0
∞
X f (n) (z0 ) n
f (z) = (z − z0 )
n!
n=k
where k ≥ 1 since z0 is a zero of f. Suppose k < ∞. Then,

k
f (z) = (z − z0 ) g (z)
where g (z0 ) 6= 0. Letting zn → z0 where zn ∈ Z, zn 6= z0 , it follows

k
0 = (zn − z0 ) g (zn )
which implies g (zn ) = 0. Then by continuity of g, we see that g (z0 ) = 0 also,

contrary to the choice of k. Therefore, k cannot be less than ∞ and so z0 is a point
satisfying the second condition.
Now suppose the second condition and let
n o
S ≡ z ∈ Ω : f (n) (z) = 0 for all n .
It is clear that S is a closed set which by assumption is nonempty. However, this

set is also open. To see this, let z ∈ S. Then for all w close enough to z,
∞
X f (k) (z) k
f (w) = (w − z) = 0.
k!
k=0
Thus f is identically equal to zero near z ∈ S. Therefore, all points near z are
contained in S also, showing that S is an open set. Now Ω = S ∪ (Ω \ S) , the union
of two disjoint open sets, S being nonempty. It follows the other open set, Ω \ S,
must be empty because Ω is connected. Therefore, the first condition is verified.
This proves the theorem. (See the following diagram.)
1.)
.% &
2.) ←− 3.)
Note how radically different this is from the theory of functions of a real variable.
Consider, for example the function
½ 2 ¡ ¢
x sin x1 if x 6= 0
f (x) ≡
0 if x = 0
24.6. LIOUVILLE’S THEOREM 659
which has a derivative for all x ∈ R and for which 0 is a limit point of the set, Z,
even though f is not identically equal to zero.
Here is a very important application called Euler’s formula. Recall that
ez ≡ ex (cos (y) + i sin (y)) (24.19)

P∞ zk
Is it also true that ez = k=0 k! ?
Theorem 24.24 (Euler’s Formula) Let z = x + iy. Then

∞
X zk
ez = .
k!
k=0
Proof: It was already observed that ez given by 24.19 is analytic. So is exp (z) ≡
P∞ zk
k=0 k! . In fact the power series converges for all z ∈ C. Furthermore the two
functions, ez and exp (z) agree on the real line which is a set which contains a limit
point. Therefore, they agree for all values of z ∈ C.
This formula shows the famous two identities,
eiπ = −1 and e2πi = 1.
24.6 Liouville’s Theorem

The following theorem pertains to functions which are analytic on all of C, “entire”
functions.
Definition 24.25 A function, f : C → C or more generally, f : C → X is entire

means it is analytic on C.
Theorem 24.26 (Liouville’s theorem) If f is a bounded entire function having

values in X, then f is a constant.
Proof: Since f is entire, pick any z ∈ C and write

Z
1 f (w)
f 0 (z) = dw
2πi γ R (w − z)2
where γ R (t) = z + Reit for t ∈ [0, 2π] . Therefore,

1
||f 0 (z)|| ≤ C
R
where C is some constant depending on the assumed bound on f. Since R is
arbitrary, let R → ∞ to obtain f 0 (z) = 0 for any z ∈ C. It follows from this that f
is constant for if zj j = 1, 2 are two complex numbers, let h (t) = f (z1 + t (z2 − z1 ))
for t ∈ [0, 1] . Then h0 (t) = f 0 (z1 + t (z2 − z1 )) (z2 − z1 ) = 0. By Lemmas 24.8 -
24.10 h is a constant on [0, 1] which implies f (z1 ) = f (z2 ) .
With Liouville’s theorem it becomes possible to give an easy proof of the fun-
damental theorem of algebra. It is ironic that all the best proofs of this theorem
in algebra come from the subjects of analysis or topology. Out of all the proofs
that have been given of this very important theorem, the following one based on
Liouville’s theorem is the easiest.
Theorem 24.27 (Fundamental theorem of Algebra) Let
p (z) = z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a1 z + a0
be a polynomial where n ≥ 1 and each coefficient is a complex number. Then there

exists z0 ∈ C such that p (z0 ) = 0.
−1
Proof: Suppose not. Then p (z) is an entire function. Also
³ ´
n n−1
|p (z)| ≥ |z| − |an−1 | |z| + · · · + |a1 | |z| + |a0 |
¯ ¯
¯ −1 ¯
and so lim|z|→∞ |p (z)| = ∞ which implies lim|z|→∞ ¯p (z) ¯ = 0. It follows that,
−1 −1
since p (z) is bounded for z in any bounded set, we must have that p (z) is a
−1
bounded entire function. But then it must be constant. However since p (z) → 0
1
as |z| → ∞, this constant can only be 0. However, p(z) is never equal to zero. This
proves the theorem.
24.7 The General Cauchy Integral Formula

24.7.1 The Cauchy Goursat Theorem
This section gives a fundamental theorem which is essential to the development
which follows and is closely related to the question of when a function has a
primitive. First of all, if you have two points in C, z1 and z2 , you can consider
γ (t) ≡ z1 + t (z2 − z1 ) for t ∈ [0, 1] to obtain a continuous bounded variation curve
from z1 to z2 . More generally, if z1 , · · ·, zm are points in C you can obtain a contin-
uous bounded variation curve from z1 to zm which consists of first going from z1 to
z2 and then from z2 to z3 and so on, till in the end one goes from zm−1 to zm . We
denote this piecewise linear curve as γ (z1 , · · ·, zm ) . Now let T be a triangle with
vertices z1 , z2 and z3 encountered in the counter clockwise direction as shown.
z3
¡@
¡ @
¡ @
¡ @
z1¡ @ z2
R R
Denote by ∂T
f (z) dz, the expression, γ(z1 ,z2 ,z3 ,z1 )
f (z) dz. Consider the fol-
24.7. THE GENERAL CAUCHY INTEGRAL FORMULA 661
lowing picture.
z3
¡@
¡ª @
¡ T11 @
I T
¡- ¾@
¡@R
@ T21 ¡@
¡
ª
¡
ª @ ¡ @
¡T31 @ ¡T41 @
I
@
I µ
¡
z1¡ - @¡ - @ z
2
By Lemma 23.11
Z 4 Z
X
f (z) dz = f (z) dz. (24.20)
∂T k=1 ∂Tk1
On the “inside lines” the integrals cancel as claimed in Lemma 23.11 because there
are two integrals going in opposite directions for each of these inside lines.
Theorem 24.28 (Cauchy Goursat) Let f : Ω → X have the property that f 0 (z)
exists for all z ∈ Ω and let T be a triangle contained in Ω. Then
Z
f (w) dw = 0.
∂T
Proof: Suppose not. Then

¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f (w) dw¯¯¯¯ = α 6= 0.
¯¯
∂T
From 24.20 it follows ¯¯ ¯¯

4 ¯¯Z
X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
α≤ ¯¯ f (w) dw¯¯
¯¯ ∂T 1 ¯¯
k=1 k
and so for at least one of these Tk1 , denoted from now on as T1 ,

¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ α
¯¯ f (w) dw ¯¯ ≥ .
¯¯ ¯¯ 4
∂T1
Now let T1 play the same role as T , subdivide as in the above picture, and obtain
T2 such that ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ α
¯¯ f (w) dw¯¯¯¯ ≥ 2 .
¯¯ 4
∂T2
Continue in this way, obtaining a sequence of triangles,
Tk ⊇ Tk+1 , diam (Tk ) ≤ diam (T ) 2−k ,
and ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ α
¯¯ f (w) dw¯¯¯¯ ≥ k .
¯¯ 4
∂Tk
Then let z ∈ ∩∞ 0
k=1 Tk and note that by assumption, f (z) exists. Therefore, for all
k large enough,
Z Z
f (w) dw = f (z) + f 0 (z) (w − z) + g (w) dw
∂Tk ∂Tk
where ||g (w)|| < ε |w − z| . Now observe that w → f (z) + f 0 (z) (w − z) has a
primitive, namely,
2
F (w) = f (z) w + f 0 (z) (w − z) /2.
Therefore, by Corollary 23.14.
Z Z
f (w) dw = g (w) dw.
∂Tk ∂Tk
From the definition, of the integral,

¯¯Z ¯¯
α ¯¯ ¯¯
≤ ¯¯ g (w) dw ¯¯ ≤ ε diam (Tk ) (length of ∂Tk )
4 k ¯ ¯ ¯¯
∂Tk
≤ ε2−k (length of T ) diam (T ) 2−k ,
and so
α ≤ ε (length of T ) diam (T ) .
R
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows α = 0, a contradiction. Thus ∂T f (w) dw = 0 as
claimed.
This fundamental result yields the following important theorem.
Theorem 24.29 (Morera1 ) Let Ω be an open set and let f 0 (z) exist for all z ∈ Ω.
Let D ≡ B (z0 , r) ⊆ Ω. Then there exists ε > 0 such that f has a primitive on
B (z0 , r + ε).
Proof: Choose ε > 0 small enough that B (z0 , r + ε) ⊆ Ω. Then for w ∈

B (z0 , r + ε) , define Z
F (w) ≡ f (u) du.
γ(z0 ,w)
Then by the Cauchy Goursat theorem, and w ∈ B (z0 , r + ε) , it follows that for |h|
small enough, Z
F (w + h) − F (w) 1
= f (u) du
h h γ(w,w+h)
Z Z 1
1 1
= f (w + th) hdt = f (w + th) dt
h 0 0
which converges to f (w) due to the continuity of f at w. This proves the theorem.
The following is a slight generalization of the above theorem which is also referred
to as Morera’s theorem.
1 Giancinto Morera 1856-1909. This theorem or one like it dates from around 1886
Corollary 24.30 Let Ω be an open set and suppose that whenever
γ (z1 , z2 , z3 , z1 )
is a closed curve bounding a triangle T, which is contained in Ω, and f is a contin-

uous function defined on Ω, it follows that
Z
f (z) dz = 0,
γ(z1 ,z2 ,z3 ,z1 )
then f is analytic on Ω.
Proof: As in the proof of Morera’s theorem, let B (z0 , r) ⊆ Ω and use the given
condition to construct a primitive, F for f on B (z0 , r) . Then F is analytic and so
by Theorem 24.16, it follows that F and hence f have infinitely many derivatives,
implying that f is analytic on B (z0 , r) . Since z0 is arbitrary, this shows f is analytic
on Ω.
24.7.2 A Redundant Assumption

Earlier in the definition of analytic, it was assumed the derivative is continuous.
This assumption is redundant.
Theorem 24.31 Let Ω be an open set in C and suppose f : Ω → X has the property
that f 0 (z) exists for each z ∈ Ω. Then f is analytic on Ω.
Proof: Let z0 ∈ Ω and let B (z0 , r) ⊆ Ω. By Morera’s theorem f has a prim-

itive, F on B (z0 , r) . It follows that F is analytic because it has a derivative, f,
and this derivative is continuous. Therefore, by Theorem 24.16 F has infinitely
many derivatives on B (z0 , r) implying that f also has infinitely many derivatives
on B (z0 , r) . Thus f is analytic as claimed.
It follows a function is analytic on an open set, Ω if and only if f 0 (z) exists for
z ∈ Ω. This is because it was just shown the derivative, if it exists, is automatically
continuous.
The same proof used to prove Theorem 24.29 implies the following corollary.
Corollary 24.32 Let Ω be a convex open set and suppose that f 0 (z) exists for all
z ∈ Ω. Then f has a primitive on Ω.
Note that this implies that if Ω is a convex open set on which f 0 (z) exists and
if γ : [a, b] → Ω is a closed, continuous curve having bounded variation, then letting
F be a primitive of f Theorem 23.13 implies
Z
f (z) dz = F (γ (b)) − F (γ (a)) = 0.
γ
Notice how different this is from the situation of a function of a real variable! It
is possible for a function of a real variable to have a derivative everywhere and yet
the derivative can be discontinuous. A simple example is the following.
½ 2 ¡ ¢
x sin x1 if x 6= 0
f (x) ≡ .
0 if x = 0
Then f 0 (x) exists for all x ∈ R. Indeed, if x 6= 0, the derivative equals 2x sin x1 −cos x1
which has no limit as x → 0. However, from the definition of the derivative of a
function of one variable, f 0 (0) = 0.
24.7.3 Classification Of Isolated Singularities

First some notation.
Definition 24.33 Let B 0 (a, r) ≡ {z ∈ C such that 0 < |z − a| < r}. Thus this is
the usual ball without the center. A function is said to have an isolated singularity
at the point a ∈ C if f is analytic on B 0 (a, r) for some r > 0.
It turns out isolated singularities can be neatly classified into three types, re-
movable singularities, poles, and essential singularities. The next theorem deals
with the case of a removable singularity.
Definition 24.34 An isolated singularity of f is said to be removable if there exists
an analytic function, g analytic at a and near a such that f = g at all points near
a.
Theorem 24.35 Let f : B 0 (a, r) → X be analytic. Thus f has an isolated singu-
larity at a. Suppose also that
lim f (z) (z − a) = 0.
z→a
Then there exists a unique analytic function, g : B (a, r) → X such that g = f on

B 0 (a, r) . Thus the singularity at a is removable.
2
Proof: Let h (z) ≡ (z − a) f (z) , h (a) ≡ 0. Then h is analytic on B (a, r)
because it is easy to see that h0 (a) = 0. It follows h is given by a power series,
∞
X k
h (z) = ak (z − a)
k=2
where a0 = a1 = 0 because of the observation above that h0 (a) = h (a) = 0. It

follows that for |z − a| > 0
∞
X k−2
f (z) = ak (z − a) ≡ g (z) .
k=2

What of the other case where the singularity is not removable? This situation
is dealt with by the amazing Casorati Weierstrass theorem.
Theorem 24.36 (Casorati Weierstrass) Let a be an isolated singularity and sup-

pose for some r > 0, f (B 0 (a, r)) is not dense in C. Then either a is a removable
singularity or there exist finitely many b1 , · · ·, bM for some finite number, M such
that for z near a,
XM
bk
f (z) = g (z) + k
(24.21)
k=1 (z − a)
where g (z) is analytic near a.
Proof: Suppose B (z0 , δ) has no points of f (B 0 (a, r)) . Such a ball must exist if
f (B 0 (a, r)) is not dense. Then for z ∈ B 0 (a, r) , |f (z) − z0 | ≥ δ > 0. It follows from
1
Theorem 24.35 that f (z)−z 0
has a removable singularity at a. Hence, there exists h
an analytic function such that for z near a,
1
h (z) = . (24.22)
f (z) − z0
P∞ k 1
There are two cases. First suppose h (a) = 0. Then k=1 ak (z − a) = f (z)−z 0
for z near a. If all the ak = 0, this would be a contradiction because then the left
side would equal zero for z near a but the right side could not equal zero. Therefore,
there is a first m such that am 6= 0. Hence there exists an analytic function, k (z)
which is not equal to zero in some ball, B (a, ε) such that
m 1
k (z) (z − a) = .
f (z) − z0
Hence, taking both sides to the −1 power,
∞
X
1 k
f (z) − z0 = m bk (z − a)
(z − a)
k=0
and so 24.21 holds.

The other case is that h (a) 6= 0. In this case, raise both sides of 24.22 to the −1
power and obtain
−1
f (z) − z0 = h (z) ,
a function analytic near a. Therefore, the singularity is removable. This proves the
theorem.
This theorem is the basis for the following definition which classifies isolated
singularities.
Definition 24.37 Let a be an isolated singularity of a complex valued function, f .

When 24.21 holds for z near a, then a is called a pole. The order of the pole in
24.21 is M. If for every r > 0, f (B 0 (a, r)) is dense in C then a is called an essential
singularity.
In terms of the above definition, isolated singularities are either removable, a

pole, or essential. There are no other possibilities.
Theorem 24.38 Suppose f : Ω → C has an isolated singularity at a ∈ Ω. Then a

is a pole if and only if
lim d (f (z) , ∞) = 0
z→a
b
in C.
Proof: Suppose first f has a pole at a. Then by definition, f (z) = g (z) +

PM bk
k=1 (z−a)k for z near a where g is analytic. Then
M
X −1
|bM | |bk |
|f (z)| ≥ M
− |g (z)| − k
|z − a| k=1 |z − a|
Ã Ã M −1
!!
1 M
X M −k
= M
|bM | − |g (z)| |z − a| + |bk | |z − a| .
|z − a| k=1
³ PM −1 ´
M M −k
Now limz→a |g (z)| |z − a| + k=1 |bk | |z − a| = 0 and so the above in-
equality proves limz→a |f (z)| = ∞. Referring to the diagram on Page 628, you see
this is the same as saying
lim |θf (z) − (0, 0, 2)| = lim |θf (z) − θ (∞)| = lim d (f (z) , ∞) = 0
z→a z→a z→a
Conversely, suppose limz→a d (f (z) , ∞) = 0. Then from the diagram on Page

628, it follows limz→a |f (z)| = ∞ and in particular, a cannot be either removable or
an essential singularity by the Casorati Weierstrass theorem, Theorem 24.36. The
only case remaining is that a is a pole. This proves the theorem.
Definition 24.39 Let f : Ω → C where Ω is an open subset of C. Then f is called

meromorphic if all singularities are isolated and are either poles or removable and
this set of singularities has no limit point. It is convenient to regard meromorphic
functions as having values in C b where if a is a pole, f (a) ≡ ∞. From now on, this
will be assumed when a meromorphic function is being considered.
The usefulness of the above convention about f (a) ≡ ∞ at a pole is made clear
in the following theorem.
b be meromorphic.
Theorem 24.40 Let Ω be an open subset of C and let f : Ω → C
b
Then f is continuous with respect to the metric, d on C.
Proof: Let zn → z where z ∈ Ω. Then if z is a pole, it follows from Theorem

24.38 that
d (f (zn ) , ∞) ≡ d (f (zn ) , f (z)) → 0.
If z is not a pole, then f (zn ) → f (z) in C which implies |θ (f (zn )) − θ (f (z))| =
d (f (zn ) , f (z)) → 0. Recall that θ is continuous on C.
24.7.4 The Cauchy Integral Formula

This section presents the general version of the Cauchy integral formula valid for
arbitrary closed rectifiable curves. The key idea in this development is the notion
of the winding number. This is the number also called the index, defined in the
following theorem. This winding number, along with the earlier results, especially
Liouville’s theorem, yields an extremely general Cauchy integral formula.
Definition 24.41 Let γ : [a, b] → C and suppose z ∈ / γ ∗ . The winding number,
n (γ, z) is defined by Z
1 dw
n (γ, z) ≡ .
2πi γ w − z
The main interest is in the case where γ is closed curve. However, the same
notation will be used for any such curve.
Theorem 24.42 Let γ : [a, b] → C be continuous and have bounded variation with
γ (a) = γ (b) . Also suppose that z ∈/ γ ∗ . Define
Z
1 dw
n (γ, z) ≡ . (24.23)
2πi γ w − z
Then n (γ, ·) is continuous and integer valued. Furthermore, there exists a sequence,
η k : [a, b] → C such that η k is C 1 ([a, b]) ,
1
||η k − γ|| < , η (a) = η k (b) = γ (a) = γ (b) ,
k k
and n (η k , z) = n (γ, z) for all k large enough. Also n (γ, ·) is constant on every
connected component of C\γ ∗ and equals zero on the unbounded component of C\γ ∗ .
Proof: First consider the assertion about continuity.
¯Z µ ¶ ¯
¯ 1 1 ¯
|n (γ, z) − n (γ, z1 )| ≤ C ¯¯ − dw¯¯
γ w−z w − z1
≤ Ce (Length of γ) |z1 − z|
whenever z1 is close enough to z. This proves the continuity assertion. Note this
did not depend on γ being closed.
Next it is shown that for a closed curve the winding number equals an integer.
To do so, use Theorem 23.12 to obtain η k , a function in C 1 ([a, b]) such that z ∈ /
η k ([a, b]) for all k large enough, η k (x) = γ (x) for x = a, b, and
¯ ¯
¯ 1 Z dw 1
Z
dw ¯¯ 1 1
¯
¯ − ¯ < , ||η k − γ|| < .
¯ 2πi γ w − z 2πi ηk w − z ¯ k k
1
R dw
It is shown that each of 2πi η k w−z
is an integer. To simplify the notation, write η
instead of η k .
Z Z b 0
dw η (s) ds
= .
η w − z a η (s) − z
Define Z t
η 0 (s) ds
g (t) ≡ . (24.24)
a η (s) − z
Then
³ ´0
e−g(t) (η (t) − z) = e−g(t) η 0 (t) − e−g(t) g 0 (t) (η (t) − z)
= e−g(t) η 0 (t) − e−g(t) η 0 (t) = 0.
It follows that e−g(t) (η (t) − z) equals a constant. In particular, using the fact that
η (a) = η (b) ,
e−g(b) (η (b) − z) = e−g(a) (η (a) − z) = (η (a) − z) = (η (b) − z)
and so e−g(b) = 1. This happens if and only if −g (b) = 2mπi for some integer m.
Therefore, 24.24 implies
Z b 0 Z
η (s) ds dw
2mπi = = .
a η (s) − z η w −z
1
R dw 1
R dw
Therefore, 2πi η k w−z
is a sequence of integers converging to 2πi γ w−z
≡ n (γ, z)
and so n (γ, z) must also be an integer and n (η k , z) = n (γ, z) for all k large enough.
Since n (γ, ·) is continuous and integer valued, it follows from Corollary 6.67 on
Page 155 that it must be constant on every connected component of C\γ ∗ . It is clear
that n (γ, z) equals zero on the unbounded component because from the formula,
µ ¶
1
lim |n (γ, z)| ≤ lim V (γ, [a, b])
z→∞ z→∞ |z| − c
where c ≥ max {|w| : w ∈ γ ∗ } .This proves the theorem.
Corollary 24.43 Suppose γ : [a, b] → C is a continuous bounded variation curve

/ γ ∗ . Then γ (a) = γ (b) . Also z → n (γ, z) for
and n (γ, z) is an integer where z ∈
z∈/ γ ∗ is continuous.
Proof: Letting η be a C 1 curve for which η (a) = γ (a) and η (b) = γ (b) and
which is close enough to γ that n (η, z) = n (γ, z) , the argument is similar to the
above. Let Z t 0
η (s) ds
g (t) ≡ . (24.25)
a η (s) − z
Then
³ ´0
e−g(t) (η (t) − z) = e−g(t) η 0 (t) − e−g(t) g 0 (t) (η (t) − z)
= e−g(t) η 0 (t) − e−g(t) η 0 (t) = 0.
Hence
e−g(t) (η (t) − z) = c 6= 0. (24.26)
By assumption Z
1
g (b) = dw = 2πim
η w−z
for some integer, m. Therefore, from 24.26
η (b) − z
1 = e2πmi = .
c
Thus c = η (b) − z and letting t = a in 24.26,
η (a) − z
1=
η (b) − z
which shows η (a) = η (b) . This proves the corollary since the assertion about con-
tinuity was already observed.
It is a good idea to consider a simple case to get an idea of what the winding
number is measuring. To do so, consider γ : [a, b] → C such that γ is continuous,
closed and bounded variation. Suppose also that γ is one to one on (a, b) . Such a
curve is called a simple closed curve. It can be shown that such a simple closed curve
divides the plane into exactly two components, an “inside” bounded component and
an “outside” unbounded component. This is called the Jordan Curve theorem or
the Jordan separation theorem. This is a difficult theorem which requires some
very hard topology such as homology theory or degree theory. It won’t be used
here beyond making reference to it. For now, it suffices to simply assume that γ
is such that this result holds. This will usually be obvious anyway. Also suppose
that it is¡ possible to change
¢ the parameter to be in [0, 2π] , in such a way that
γ (t) + λ z + reit − γ (t) − z 6= 0 for all t ∈ [0, 2π] and λ ∈ [0, 1] . (As t goes
from 0 to 2π the point γ (t) traces the curve γ ([0, 2π]) in the counter clockwise
direction.) Suppose z ∈ D, the inside of the simple closed curve and consider the
curve δ (t) = z +reit for t ∈ [0, 2π] where r is chosen small enough that B (z, r) ⊆ D.
Then it happens that n (δ, z) = n (γ, z) .
Proposition 24.44 Under the above conditions,
n (δ, z) = n (γ, z)
and n (δ, z) = 1.
Proof: By changing the parameter, assume that [a, b] = [0, 2π]¡. From Theorem¢
24.42 it suffices to assume also that γ is C 1 . Define hλ (t) ≡ γ (t)+λ z + reit − γ (t)
for λ ∈ [0, 1] . (This function is called a homotopy of the curves γ and δ.) Note that
for each λ ∈ [0, 1] , t → hλ (t) is a closed C 1 curve. Also,
Z Z 2π
¡ ¢
1 1 1 γ 0 (t) + λ rieit − γ 0 (t)
dw = dt.
2πi hλ w−z 2πi 0 γ (t) + λ (z + reit − γ (t)) − z
This number is an integer and it is routine to verify that it is a continuous function

of λ. When λ = 0 it equals n (γ, z) and when λ = 1 it equals n (δ, z). Therefore,
n (δ, z) = n (γ, z) . It only remains to compute n (δ, z) .
Z 2π
1 rieit
n (δ, z) = dt = 1.
2πi 0 reit
Now if γ was not one to one but caused the point, γ (t) to travel around γ ∗ twice,
you could modify the above argument to have the parameter interval, [0, 4π] and
still find n (δ, z) = n (γ, z) only this time, n (δ, z) = 2. Thus the winding number
is just what its name suggests. It measures the number of times the curve winds
around the point. One might ask why bother with the winding number if this is
all it does. The reason is that the notion of counting the number of times a curve
winds around a point is rather vague. The winding number is precise. It is also the
natural thing to consider in the general Cauchy integral formula presented below.
Consider a situation typified by the following picture in which Ω is the open set
between the dotted curves and γ j are closed rectifiable curves in Ω.
¾
γ3
¾ -
γ2 γ1
The following theorem is the general Cauchy integral formula.

n
Definition 24.45 Let {γ k }k=1 be continuous oriented curves having
Pn bounded vari-
/ ∪nk=1 γ ∗k , k=1 n (γ k , z) is an
ation. Then this is called a cycle if whenever, z ∈
integer.
n
By Theorem 24.42 if each γ k is a closed curve, then {γ k }k=1 is a cycle.
Theorem 24.46 Let Ω be an open subset of the plane and let f : Ω → X be

analytic. If γ k : [ak , bk ] → Ω, k = 1, · · ·, m are continuous curves having bounded
variation such that for all z ∈ / ∪m
k=1 γ k ([ak , bk ])
m
X
n (γ k , z) equals an integer
k=1
and for all z ∈

/ Ω,
m
X
n (γ k , z) = 0.
k=1
Then for all z ∈ Ω \ ∪m

k=1 γ k ([ak , bk ]) ,
m
X m
X Z
1 f (w)
f (z) n (γ k , z) = dw.
2πi γ k w − z
k=1 k=1
Proof: Let φ be defined on Ω × Ω by

½ f (w)−f (z)
if w 6= z
φ (z, w) ≡ w−z .
f 0 (z) if w = z
Then φ is analytic as a function of both z and w and is continuous in Ω × Ω. This

is easily seen using Theorem 24.35. Consider the case of w → φ (z, w) .
µ ¶
f (w) − f (z) 0
lim (w − z) (φ (z, w) − φ (z, z)) = lim − f (z) = 0.
w→z w→z w−z
Thus w → φ (z, w) has a removable singularity at z. The case of z → φ (z, w) is

similar.
Define
m Z
1 X
h (z) ≡ φ (z, w) dw.
2πi γk k=1
Is h is analytic on Ω? To show this is the case, verify

Z
h (z) dz = 0
∂T
for every triangle, T, contained in Ω and apply Corollary 24.30. To do this, use
Theorem 23.12 to obtain for each k, a sequence of functions, η kn ∈ C 1 ([ak , bk ])
such that
η kn (x) = γ k (x) for x ∈ {ak , bk }
and
1
η kn ([ak , bk ]) ⊆ Ω, ||η kn − γ k || < ,
n
¯¯Z Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ 1
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ φ (z, w) dw − φ (z, w) dw¯¯ < , (24.27)
¯¯ ηkn γk ¯¯ n
for all z ∈ T. Then applying Fubini’s theorem,
Z Z Z Z
φ (z, w) dwdz = φ (z, w) dzdw = 0
∂T η kn η kn ∂T
because φ is given to be analytic. By 24.27,

Z Z Z Z
φ (z, w) dwdz = lim φ (z, w) dwdz = 0
∂T γk n→∞ ∂T η kn
and so h is analytic on Ω as claimed.

Now let H denote the set,

( m
)
X
H≡ z ∈ C\ ∪m
k=1 γ k ([ak , bk ]) : n (γ k , z) = 0 .
k=1
Pm
H is an open set because z → k=1 n (γ k , z) is integer valued by assumption and
continuous. Define
(
h (z) if z ∈ Ω
g (z) ≡ 1
Pm R f (w) . (24.28)
2πi k=1 γ k w−z dw if z ∈ H
/ ∪m
Why is g (z) well defined? For z ∈ Ω ∩ H, z ∈ k=1 γ k ([ak , bk ]) and so
m Z m Z
1 X 1 X f (w) − f (z)
g (z) = φ (z, w) dw = dw
2πi 2πi w−z
k=1 γ k k=1 γ k
m Z m Z
1 X f (w) 1 X f (z)
= dw − dw
2πi w−z 2πi w−z
k=1 γ k k=1 γ k
m Z
1 X f (w)
= dw
2πi γk w − z
k=1
because z ∈ H. This shows g (z) is well defined. Also, g is analytic on Ω because

it equals h there. It is routine to verify that g is analytic on H also because of
the second line of 24.28. By assumption, ΩC ⊆ H because it is assumed that
P
k n (γ k , z) = 0 forPzm∈ / Ω and so Ω ∪ H = C showing that g is an entire function.
Now note that k=1 n (γ k , z) = 0 for all z contained in the unbounded compo-
C
nent of C\ ∪m k=1 γ k ([ak , bk ]) which component contains B (0, r) for r large enough.
It follows that for |z| > r, it must be the case that z ∈ H and so for such z, the
bottom description of g (z) found in 24.28 is valid. Therefore, it follows
lim ||g (z)|| = 0

|z|→∞
and so g is bounded and entire. By Liouville’s theorem, g is a constant. Hence,

from the above equation, the constant can only equal zero.
For z ∈ Ω \ ∪m
k=1 γ k ([ak , bk ]) ,
m Z m Z
1 X 1 X f (w) − f (z)
0 = h (z) = φ (z, w) dw = dw =
2πi γk 2πi γk w−z
k=1 k=1
m Z m
1 X f (w) X
dw − f (z) n (γ k , z) .
2πi γk w−z
k=1 k=1

Corollary 24.47 Let Ω be an open set and let γ k : [ak , bk ] → Ω, k = 1, · · ·, m, be

closed, continuous and of bounded variation. Suppose also that
m
X
n (γ k , z) = 0
k=1
for all z ∈
/ Ω. Then if f : Ω → C is analytic,
m Z
X
f (w) dw = 0.
k=1 γk
Proof: This follows from Theorem 24.46 as follows. Let
g (w) = f (w) (w − z)
where z ∈ Ω \ ∪m
k=1 γ k ([ak , bk ]) . Then by this theorem,
m
X m
X
0=0 n (γ k , z) = g (z) n (γ k , z) =
k=1 k=1
m
X Z m Z
1 g (w) 1 X
dw = f (w) dw.
2πi γ k w − z 2πi γk
k=1 k=1
Another simple corollary to the above theorem is Cauchy’s theorem for a simply
connected region.
Definition 24.48 An open set, Ω ⊆ C is a region if it is open and connected. A

b \Ω is connected where C
region, Ω is simply connected if C b is the extended complex
plane. In the future, the term simply connected open set will be an open set which
is connected and Cb \Ω is connected .
Corollary 24.49 Let γ : [a, b] → Ω be a continuous closed curve of bounded vari-

ation where Ω is a simply connected region in C and let f : Ω → X be analytic.
Then Z
f (w) dw = 0.
γ
Proof: Let D denote the unbounded component of C\γ b ∗ . Thus ∞ ∈ C\γ b ∗.

b b
Then the connected set, C \ Ω is contained in D since every point of C \ Ω must be
in some component of C\γb ∗ and ∞ is contained in both C\Ω b and D. Thus D must
be the component that contains C b \ Ω. It follows that n (γ, ·) must be constant on
b \ Ω, its value being its value on D. However, for z ∈ D,
C
Z
1 1
n (γ, z) = dw
2πi γ w − z
and so lim|z|→∞ n (γ, z) = 0 showing n (γ, z) = 0 on D. Therefore this verifies the

hypothesis of Theorem 24.46. Let z ∈ Ω ∩ D and define
g (w) ≡ f (w) (w − z) .
Thus g is analytic on Ω and by Theorem 24.46,

Z Z
1 g (w) 1
0 = n (z, γ) g (z) = dw = f (w) dw.
2πi γ w − z 2πi γ

The following is a very significant result which will be used later.
Corollary 24.50 Suppose Ω is a simply connected open set and f : Ω → X is

analytic. Then f has a primitive, F, on Ω. Recall this means there exists F such
that F 0 (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ Ω.
Proof: Pick a point, z0 ∈ Ω and let V denote those points, z of Ω for which
there exists a curve, γ : [a, b] → Ω such that γ is continuous, of bounded variation,
γ (a) = z0 , and γ (b) = z. Then it is easy to verify that V is both open and closed
in Ω and therefore, V = Ω because Ω is connected. Denote by γ z0 ,z such a curve
from z0 to z and define Z
F (z) ≡ f (w) dw.
γ z0 ,z
Then F is well defined because if γ j , j = 1, 2 are two such curves, it follows from
Corollary 24.49 that
Z Z
f (w) dw + f (w) dw = 0,
γ1 −γ 2
implying that Z Z
f (w) dw = f (w) dw.
γ1 γ2
Now this function, F is a primitive because, thanks to Corollary 24.49

Z
1
(F (z + h) − F (z)) h−1 = f (w) dw
h γ z,z+h
Z
1 1
= f (z + th) hdt
h 0
and so, taking the limit as h → 0, F 0 (z) = f (z) .
24.7.5 An Example Of A Cycle

The next theorem deals with the existence of a cycle with nice properties. Basically,
you go around the compact subset of an open set with suitable contours while staying
in the open set. The method involves the following simple concept.
Definition 24.51 A tiling of R2 = C is the union of infinitely many equally spaced

vertical and horizontal lines. You can think of the small squares which result as
tiles. To tile the plane or R2 = C means to consider such a union of horizontal and
vertical lines. It is like graph paper. See the picture below for a representation of
part of a tiling of C.
Theorem 24.52 Let K be a compact subset of an open set, Ω. Then there exist
m
continuous, closed, bounded variation oriented curves {Γj }j=1 for which Γ∗j ∩ K = ∅
for each j, Γ∗j ⊆ Ω, and for all p ∈ K,
m
X
n (Γk , p) = 1.
k=1
while for all z ∈

/ Ω
m
X
n (Γk , z) = 0.
k=1
¡ ¢
Proof: Let δ = dist K, ΩC . Since K is compact, δ > 0. Now tile the plane
with squares, each of which has diameter less than δ/2.
K
Let S denote the set of all the closed squares in this tiling which have nonempty
intersection with K.Thus, all the squares of S are contained in Ω. First suppose p is
a point of K which is in the interior of one of these squares in the tiling. Denote by
∂Sk the boundary of Sk one of the squares in S, oriented in the counter clockwise
direction and Sm denote the square of S which contains the point, p in its interior.
n o4
Let the edges of the square, Sj be γ jk . Thus a short computation shows
k=1
n (∂Sm , p) = 1 but n (∂Sj , p) = 0 for all j 6= m. The reason for this is that for
z in Sj , the values {z − p : z ∈ Sj } lie in an open square, Q which is located at a
positive distance from 0. Then C b \ Q is connected and 1/ (z − p) is analytic on Q.
It follows from Corollary 24.50 that this function has a primitive on Q and so
Z
1
dz = 0.
∂Sj z−p
Similarly, if z ∈
/ Ω, n (∂Sj , z) = 0. On the other
³ hand, ´ a P
direct computation will
P j
verify that n (p, ∂Sm ) = 1. Thus 1 = j,k n p, γ k = Sj ∈S n (p, ∂Sj ) and if
P ³ ´ P
j
z∈/ Ω, 0 = j,k n z, γ k = Sj ∈S n (z, ∂Sj ) .
If γ j∗ l∗
k coincides with γ l , then the contour integrals taken over this edge are
taken in opposite directions and so ³ the edge
´ the two squares have in common can
P
be deleted without changing j,k n z, γ jk for any z not on any of the lines in the
tiling. For example, see the picture,
¾ ¾ ¾
?
? ? 6
- 6 - 6 -
From the construction, if any of the γ j∗

k contains a point of K then this point is
on one of the four edges of Sj and at this point, there is at least one edge of some
Sl which also contains this³ point.
´ As just discussed, this shared edge can be deleted
P
without changing i,j n z, γ jk . Delete the edges of the Sk which intersect K but
not the endpoints of these edges. That is, delete the open edges. When this is done,
m
delete all isolated points. Let the resulting oriented curves be denoted by {γ k }k=1 .
∗ ∗
Note that you might have γ k = γ l . The construction is illustrated in the following
picture.
K
-
?
? K 6
¾ 6
?
Pm
Then as explained above, k=1 n (p, γ k ) = 1. It remains to prove the claim
about the closed curves.
Each orientation on an edge corresponds to a direction of motion over that
edge. Call such a motion over the edge a route. Initially, every vertex, (corner of
a square in S) has the property there are the same number of routes to and from
that vertex. When an open edge whose closure contains a point of K is deleted,
every vertex either remains unchanged as to the number of routes to and from that
vertex or it loses both a route away and a route to. Thus the property of having the
same number of routes to and from each vertex is preserved by deleting these open
edges.. The isolated points which result lose all routes to and from. It follows that
upon removing the isolated points you can begin at any of the remaining vertices
and follow the routes leading out from this and successive vertices according to
orientation and eventually return to that end. Otherwise, there would be a vertex
which would have only one route leading to it which does not happen. Now if you
have used all the routes out of this vertex, pick another vertex and do the same
process. Otherwise, pick an unused route out of the vertex and follow it to return.
Continue this way till all routes are used exactly once, resulting in closed oriented
curves, Γk . Then
X X
n (Γk , p) = n (γ k , p) = 1.
k j
In case p ∈ K is on some line of the tiling, it is not on any of the Γk because

Γ∗k ∩ K = ∅ and so the continuity of z → n (Γk , z) yields the desired result in this
case also. This proves the lemma.
24.8 Exercises
1. If U is simply connected, f is analytic on U and f has no zeros in U, show
there exists an analytic function, F, defined on U such that eF = f.
2. Let f be defined and analytic near the point a ∈ C. Show that then f (z) =
P∞ k
k=0 bk (z − a) whenever |z − a| < R where R is the distance between a and
the nearest point where f fails to have a derivative. The number R, is called
the radius of convergence and the power series is said to be expanded about
a.
1
3. Find the radius of convergence of the function 1+z 2 expanded about a = 2.
1
Note there is nothing wrong with the function, 1+x2 when considered as a
function of a real variable, x for any value of x. However, if you insist on using
power series, you find there is a limitation on the values of x for which the
power series converges due to the presence in the complex plane of a point, i,
where the function fails to have a derivative.
1/2
4. Suppose f is analytic on all of C and satisfies |f (z)| < A + B |z| . Show f
is constant.
5. What if you defined an open set, U to be simply connected if C\U is connected.

Would it amount to the same thing? Hint: Consider the outside of B (0, 1) .
R
6. Let γ (t) = eit : t ∈ [0, 2π] . Find γ z1n dz for n = 1, 2, · · ·.
R 2π 2n R ¡ ¢2n ¡ 1 ¢
7. Show i 0 (2 cos θ) dθ = γ z + z1 it
z dz where γ (t) = e : t ∈ [0, 2π] .
Then evaluate this integral using the binomial theorem and the previous prob-
lem.
8. Suppose that for some constants a, b 6= 0, a, b ∈ R, f (z + ib) = f (z) for all

z ∈ C and f (z + a) = f (z) for all z ∈ C. If f is analytic, show that f must
be constant. Can you generalize this? Hint: This uses Liouville’s theorem.
9. Suppose f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) is analytic for z ∈ U, an open set. Let

g (z) = u∗ (x, y) + iv ∗ (x, y) where
µ ∗ ¶ µ ¶
u u
= Q
v∗ v
where Q is a unitary matrix. That is QQ∗ = Q∗ Q = I. When will g be

analytic?
10. Suppose f is analytic on an open set, U, except for γ ∗ ⊂ U where γ is a one

to one continuous function having bounded variation, but it is known that f
is continuous on γ ∗ . Show that in fact f is analytic on γ ∗ also. Hint: Pick a
point on γ ∗ , say γ (t0 ) and suppose for now that t0 ∈ (a, b) . Pick r > 0 such
that B = B (γ (t0 ) , r) ⊆ U. Then show there exists t1 < t0 and t2 > t0 such
24.8. EXERCISES 679
that γ ([t1 , t2 ]) ⊆ B and γ (ti ) ∈

/ B. Thus γ ([t1 , t2 ]) is a path across B going
through the center of B which divides B into two open sets, B1 , and B2 along
with γ ∗ . Let the boundary of Bk consist of γ ([t1 , t2 ]) and a circular arc, Ck .
Now letting z ∈ Bk , the line integral of fw−z
(w)
over γ ∗ in two different directions
1
R f (w)
cancels. Therefore, if z ∈ Bk , you can argue that f (z) = 2πi C w−z
dw. By
continuity, this continues to hold for z ∈ γ ((t1 , t2 )) . Therefore, f must be
analytic on γ ((t1 , t1 )) also. This shows that f must be analytic on γ ((a, b)) .
To get the endpoints, simply extend γ to have the same properties but defined
on [a − ε, b + ε] and repeat the above argument or else do this at the beginning
and note that you get [a, b] ⊆ (a − ε, b + ε) .
11. Let U be an open set contained in the upper half plane and suppose that
there are finitely many line segments on the x axis which are contained in
the boundary of U. Now suppose that f is defined, real, and continuous on
these line segments and is defined and analytic on U. Now let U e denote the
reflection of U across the x axis. Show that it is possible to extend f to a
function, g defined on all of
e ∪ U ∪ {the line segments mentioned earlier}
W ≡U
such that g is analytic in W . Hint: For z ∈ U e , the reflection of U across the

x axis, let g (z) ≡ f (z). Show that g is analytic on Ue ∪ U and continuous on
the line segments. Then use Problem 10 or Morera’s theorem to argue that
g is analytic on the line segments also. The result of this problem is know as
the Schwarz reflection principle.
12. Show that rotations and translations of analytic functions yield analytic func-
tions and use this observation to generalize the Schwarz reflection principle
to situations in which the line segments are part of a line which is not the x
axis. Thus, give a version which involves reflection about an arbitrary line.
The Open Mapping Theorem
25.1 A Local Representation

The open mapping theorem, is an even more surprising result than the theorem
about the zeros of an analytic function. The following proof of this important
theorem uses an interesting local representation of the analytic function.
Theorem 25.1 (Open mapping theorem) Let Ω be a region in C and suppose f :

Ω → C is analytic. Then f (Ω) is either a point or a region. In the case where f (Ω)
is a region, it follows that for each z0 ∈ Ω, there exists an open set, V containing
z0 and m ∈ N such that for all z ∈ V,
m
f (z) = f (z0 ) + φ (z) (25.1)
where φ : V → B (0, δ) is one to one, analytic and onto, φ (z0 ) = 0, φ0 (z) =

6 0 on
V and φ−1 analytic on B (0, δ) . If f is one to one then m = 1 for each z0 and
f −1 : f (Ω) → Ω is analytic.
Proof: Suppose f (Ω) is not a point. Then if z0 ∈ Ω it follows there exists r > 0
such that f (z) 6= f (z0 ) for all z ∈ B (z0 , r) \ {z0 } . Otherwise, z0 would be a limit
point of the set,
{z ∈ Ω : f (z) − f (z0 ) = 0}
which would imply from Theorem 24.23 that f (z) = f (z0 ) for all z ∈ Ω. Therefore,
making r smaller if necessary and using the power series of f,
³ ´m
m ? 1/m
f (z) = f (z0 ) + (z − z0 ) g (z) (= (z − z0 ) g (z) )
for all z ∈ B (z0 , r) , where g (z) 6= 0 on B (z0 , r) . As implied in the above formula,
one wonders if you can take the mth root of g (z) .
g0
g is an analytic function on B (z0 , r) and so by Corollary 24.32 it has a primitive
¡ ¢0
on B (z0 , r) , h. Therefore by the product rule and the chain rule, ge−h = 0 and
so there exists a constant, C = ea+ib such that on B (z0 , r) ,
ge−h = ea+ib .
681
682 THE OPEN MAPPING THEOREM
Therefore,
g (z) = eh(z)+a+ib
and so, modifying h by adding in the constant, a + ib, g (z) = eh(z) where h0 (z) =
g 0 (z)
g(z) on B (z0 , r) . Letting
h(z)
φ (z) = (z − z0 ) e m
implies formula 25.1 is valid on B (z0 , r) . Now

h(z0 )
φ0 (z0 ) = e m 6= 0.
Shrinking r if necessary you can assume φ0 (z) 6= 0 on B (z0 , r). Is there an open
set, V contained in B (z0 , r) such that φ maps V onto B (0, δ) for some δ > 0?
Let φ (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) where z = x + iy. Consider the mapping
µ ¶ µ ¶
x u (x, y)
→
y v (x, y)
where u, v are C 1 because φ is given to be analytic. The Jacobian of this map at

(x, y) ∈ B (z0 , r) is
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ux (x, y) uy (x, y) ¯ ¯ ux (x, y) −vx (x, y) ¯¯
¯ ¯=¯
¯ vx (x, y) vy (x, y) ¯ ¯ vx (x, y) ux (x, y) ¯
¯ ¯2
= ux (x, y) + vx (x, y) = ¯φ0 (z)¯ 6= 0.
2 2
This follows from a use of the Cauchy Riemann equations. Also

µ ¶ µ ¶
u (x0 , y0 ) 0
=
v (x0 , y0 ) 0
Therefore, by the inverse function theorem there exists an open set, V, containing
T
z0 and δ > 0 such that (u, v) maps V one to one onto B (0, δ) . Thus φ is one to
one onto B (0, δ) as claimed. Applying the same argument to other points, z of V
and using the fact that φ0 (z) 6= 0 at these points, it follows φ maps open sets to
open sets. In other words, φ−1 is continuous.
It also follows that φm maps V onto B (0, δ m ) . Therefore, the formula 25.1
implies that f maps the open set, V, containing z0 to an open set. This shows f (Ω)
is an open set because z0 was arbitrary. It is connected because f is continuous and
Ω is connected. Thus f (Ω) is a region. It remains to verify that φ−1 is analytic on
B (0, δ) . Since φ−1 is continuous,
φ−1 (φ (z1 )) − φ−1 (φ (z)) z1 − z 1

lim = lim = 0 .
φ(z1 )→φ(z) φ (z1 ) − φ (z) z1 →z φ (z1 ) − φ (z) φ (z)
Therefore, φ−1 is analytic as claimed.

25.2. BRANCHES OF THE LOGARITHM 683
It only remains to verify the assertion about the case where f is one to one. If
2πi
m > 1, then e m 6= 1 and so for z1 ∈ V,
2πi
e m φ (z1 ) 6= φ (z1 ) . (25.2)
2πi
But e m φ (z1 ) ∈ B (0, δ) and so there exists z2 6= z1 (since φ is one to one) such that
2πi
φ (z2 ) = e m φ (z1 ) . But then
³ 2πi ´m
m m
φ (z2 ) = e m φ (z1 ) = φ (z1 )
implying f (z2 ) = f (z1 ) contradicting the assumption that f is one to one. Thus
m = 1 and f 0 (z) = φ0 (z) 6= 0 on V. Since f maps open sets to open sets, it follows
that f −1 is continuous and so
¡ ¢0 f −1 (f (z1 )) − f −1 (f (z))
f −1 (f (z)) = lim
f (z1 )→f (z) f (z1 ) − f (z)
z1 − z 1
= lim = 0 .
z1 →z f (z1 ) − f (z) f (z)

One does not have to look very far to find that this sort of thing does not hold
for functions mapping R to R. Take for example, the function f (x) = x2 . Then
f (R) is neither a point nor a region. In fact f (R) fails to be open.
Corollary 25.2 Suppose in the situation of Theorem 25.1 m > 1 for the local
representation of f given in this theorem. Then there exists δ > 0 such that if
w ∈ B (f (z0 ) , δ) = f (V ) for V an open set containing z0 , then f −1 (w) consists of
m distinct points in V. (f is m to one on V )
Proof: Let w ∈ B (f (z0 ) , δ) . Then w = f (b zn) where zb o∈ V. Thus f (b

z) =
m
m 2kπi
z ) . Consider the m distinct numbers, e
f (z0 ) + φ (b m φ (b
z) . Then each of
k=1
these numbers is in B (0, δ) and so since φ maps V one to one onto B (0, δ) , there
m 2kπi
are m distinct numbers in V , {zk }k=1 such that φ (zk ) = e m φ (b
z ). Then
³ 2kπi ´m
m
f (zk ) = f (z0 ) + φ (zk ) = f (z0 ) + e m φ (b z)
m m
= f (z0 ) + e2kπi φ (b
z) = f (z0 ) + φ (b
z) = f (b
z) = w
25.2 Branches Of The Logarithm

The argument used in to prove the next theorem was used in the proof of the open
mapping theorem. It is a very important result and deserves to be stated as a
theorem.
Theorem 25.3 Let Ω be a simply connected region and suppose f : Ω → C is

analytic and nonzero on Ω. Then there exists an analytic function, g such that
eg(z) = f (z) for all z ∈ Ω.
Proof: The function, f 0 /f is analytic on Ω and so by Corollary 24.50 there is

a primitive for f 0 /f, denoted as g1 . Then
¡ −g1 ¢0 f0
e f = − e−g1 f + e−g1 f 0 = 0
f
and so since Ω is connected, it follows e−g1 f equals a constant, ea+ib . Therefore,

f (z) = eg1 (z)+a+ib . Define g (z) ≡ g1 (z) + a + ib.
The function, g in the above theorem is called a branch of the logarithm of f
and is written as log (f (z)).
Definition 25.4 Let ρ be a ray starting at 0. Thus ρ is a straight line of infinite

length extending in one direction with its initial point at 0.
A special case of the above theorem is the following.
Theorem 25.5 Let ρ be a ray starting at 0. Then there exists an analytic function,
L (z) defined on C \ ρ such that
eL(z) = z.
This function, L is called a branch of the logarithm. This branch of the logarithm
satisfies the usual formula for logarithms, L (zw) = L (z) + L (w) provided zw ∈
/ ρ.
Proof: C \ ρ is a simply connected region because its complement with respect

b
to C is connected. Furthermore, the function, f (z) = z is not equal to zero on
C \ ρ. Therefore, by Theorem 25.3 there exists an analytic function L (z) such that
eL(z) = f (z) = z. Now consider the problem of finding a description of L (z). Each
z ∈ C \ ρ can be written in a unique way in the form
z = |z| ei argθ (z)
where argθ (z) is the angle in (θ, θ + 2π) associated with z. (You could of course
have considered this to be the angle in (θ − 2π, θ) associated with z or in infinitely
many other open intervals of length 2π. The description of the log is not unique.)
Then letting L (z) = a + ib
z = |z| ei argθ (z) = eL(z) = ea eib
and so you can let L (z) = ln |z| + i argθ (z) .

Does L (z) satisfy the usual properties of the logarithm? That is, for z, w ∈ C\ρ,
is L (zw) = L (z) + L (w)? This follows from the usual rules of exponents. You know
ez+w = ez ew . (You can verify this directly or you can reduce to the case where z, w
are real. If z is a fixed real number, then the equation holds for all real w. Therefore,
it must also hold for all complex w because the real line contains a limit point. Now
25.3. MAXIMUM MODULUS THEOREM 685
for this fixed w, the equation holds for all z real. Therefore, by similar reasoning,
it holds for all complex z.)
Now suppose z, w ∈ C \ ρ and zw ∈ / ρ. Then
eL(zw) = zw, eL(z)+L(w) = eL(z) eL(w) = zw
and so L (zw) = L (z) + L (w) as claimed. This proves the theorem.

In the case where the ray is the negative real axis, it is called the principal
branch of the logarithm. Thus arg (z) is a number between −π and π.
Definition 25.6 Let log denote the branch of the logarithm which corresponds to
the ray for θ = π. That is, the ray is the negative real axis. Sometimes this is called
the principal branch of the logarithm.
25.3 Maximum Modulus Theorem

Here is another very significant theorem known as the maximum modulus theorem
which follows immediately from the open mapping theorem.
Theorem 25.7 (maximum modulus theorem) Let Ω be a bounded region and let
f : Ω → C be analytic and f : Ω → C continuous. Then if z ∈ Ω,
|f (z)| ≤ max {|f (w)| : w ∈ ∂Ω} . (25.3)
If equality is achieved for any z ∈ Ω, then f is a constant.
Proof: Suppose f is not a constant. Then f (Ω) is a region and so if z ∈ Ω,

there exists r > 0 such that B (f ©(z) , r) ⊆ f (Ω)ª. It follows there exists z1 ∈ Ω
with |f (z1 )| > |f (z)| . Hence max |f (w)| : w ∈ Ω is not achieved at any interior
point of Ω. Therefore, the point at which the maximum is achieved must lie on the
boundary of Ω and so
© ª
max {|f (w)| : w ∈ ∂Ω} = max |f (w)| : w ∈ Ω > |f (z)|
for all z ∈ Ω or else f is a constant. This proves the theorem.

You can remove the assumption that Ω is bounded and give a slightly different
version.
Theorem 25.8 Let f : Ω → C be analytic on a region, Ω and suppose B (a, r) ⊆ Ω.

Then
©¯ ¡ ¢¯ ª
|f (a)| ≤ max ¯f a + reiθ ¯ : θ ∈ [0, 2π] .
Equality occurs for some r > 0 and a ∈ Ω if and only if f is constant in Ω hence
equality occurs for all such a, r.
Proof: The claimed inequality holds by Theorem 25.7. Suppose equality in the
above is achieved for some B (a, r) ⊆ Ω. Then by Theorem 25.7 f is equal to a
constant, w on B (a, r) . Therefore, the function, f (·) − w has a zero set which has
a limit point in Ω and so by Theorem 24.23 f (z) = w for all z ∈ Ω.
Conversely, if f is constant, then the equality in the above inequality is achieved
for all B (a, r) ⊆ Ω.
Next is yet another version of the maximum modulus principle which is in Con-
way [13]. Let Ω be an open set.
Definition 25.9 Define ∂∞ Ω to equal ∂Ω in the case where Ω is bounded and

∂Ω ∪ {∞} in the case where Ω is not bounded.
Definition 25.10 Let f be a complex valued function defined on a set S ⊆ C and

let a be a limit point of S.
lim sup |f (z)| ≡ lim {sup |f (w)| : w ∈ B 0 (a, r) ∩ S} .

z→a r→0
The limit exists because {sup |f (w)| : w ∈ B 0 (a, r) ∩ S} is decreasing in r. In case

a = ∞,
lim sup |f (z)| ≡ lim {sup |f (w)| : |w| > r, w ∈ S}
z→∞ r→∞
Note that if lim supz→a |f (z)| ≤ M and δ > 0, then there exists r > 0 such that
if z ∈ B 0 (a, r) ∩ S, then |f (z)| < M + δ. If a = ∞, there exists r > 0 such that if
|z| > r and z ∈ S, then |f (z)| < M + δ.
Theorem 25.11 Let Ω be an open set in C and let f : Ω → C be analytic. Suppose

also that for every a ∈ ∂∞ Ω,
lim sup |f (z)| ≤ M < ∞.

z→a
Then in fact |f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ Ω.
Proof: Let δ > 0 and let H ≡ {z ∈ Ω : |f (z)| > M + δ} . Suppose H 6= ∅.

Then H is an open subset of Ω. I claim that H is actually bounded. If Ω is
bounded, there is nothing to show so assume Ω is unbounded. Then the condition
involving the lim sup implies there exists r > 0 such that if |z| > r and z ∈ Ω, then
|f (z)| ≤ M + δ/2. It follows H is contained in B (0, r) and so it is bounded. Now
consider the components of Ω. One of these components contains points from H.
Let this component be denoted as V and let HV ≡ H ∩ V. Thus HV is a bounded
open subset of V. Let U be a component of HV . First suppose U ⊆ V . In this
case, it follows that on ∂U, |f (z)| = M + δ and so by Theorem 25.7 |f (z)| ≤ M + δ
for all z ∈ U contradicting the definition of H. Next suppose ∂U contains a point
of ∂V, a. Then in this case, a violates the condition on lim sup . Either way you
get a contradiction. Hence H = ∅ as claimed. Since δ > 0 is arbitrary, this shows
|f (z)| ≤ M.
25.4. EXTENSIONS OF MAXIMUM MODULUS THEOREM 687
25.4 Extensions Of Maximum Modulus Theorem

25.4.1 Phragmên Lindelöf Theorem
This theorem is an extension of Theorem 25.11. It uses a growth condition near the
extended boundary to conclude that f is bounded. I will present the version found
in Conway [13]. It seems to be more of a method than an actual theorem. There
are several versions of it.
Theorem 25.12 Let Ω be a simply connected region in C and suppose f is ana-

lytic on Ω. Also suppose there exists a function, φ which is nonzero and uniformly
bounded on Ω. Let M be a positive number. Now suppose ∂∞ Ω = A ∪ B such
that for every a ∈ A, lim supz→a |f (z)| ≤ M and for every b ∈ B, and η > 0,
η
lim supz→b |f (z)| |φ (z)| ≤ M. Then |f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ Ω.
Proof: By Theorem 25.3 there exists log (φ (z)) analytic on Ω. Now define
η
g (z) ≡ exp (η log (φ (z))) so that g (z) = φ (z) . Now also
η
|g (z)| = |exp (η log (φ (z)))| = |exp (η ln |φ (z)|)| = |φ (z)| .
Let m ≥ |φ (z)| for all z ∈ Ω. Define F (z) ≡ f (z) g (z) m−η . Thus F is analytic
and for b ∈ B,
η
lim sup |F (z)| = lim sup |f (z)| |φ (z)| m−η ≤ M m−η
z→b z→b
while for a ∈ A,
lim sup |F (z)| ≤ M.
z→a
−η
Therefore, for α³∈ ∂∞ Ω,´ lim supz→α |F (z)| ≤ max (M, M η ) and so by Theorem
mη −η
25.11, |f (z)| ≤ |φ(z)|η max (M, M η ) . Now let η → 0 to obtain |f (z)| ≤ M.
In applications, it is often the case that B = {∞}.
Now here is an interesting
© case of this theorem.
ª It involves a particular form for
π
Ω, in this case Ω = z ∈ C : |arg (z)| < 2a where a ≥ 12 .
Then ∂Ω equals the two slanted lines. Also on Ω you can define a logarithm,
log (z) = ln |z| + i arg (z) where arg (z) is the angle associated with z between −π
and π. Therefore, if c is a real number you can define z c for such z in the usual way:
zc ≡ exp (c log (z)) = exp (c [ln |z| + i arg (z)])

c c
= |z| exp (ic arg (z)) = |z| (cos (c arg (z)) + i sin (c arg (z))) .
π
If |c| < a, then |c arg (z)| < 2 and so cos (c arg (z)) > 0. Therefore, for such c,
c
|exp (− (z c ))| = |exp (− |z| (cos (c arg (z)) + i sin (c arg (z))))|
c
= |exp (− |z| (cos (c arg (z))))|
which is bounded since cos (c arg (z)) > 0.

© π
ª
Corollary 25.13 Let Ω = z ∈ C : |arg (z)| < 2a where a ≥ 12 and suppose f is
analytic on Ω and satisfies lim supz→a |f (z)| ≤ M on ∂Ω and suppose there are
positive constants, P, b where b < a and
³ ´
b
|f (z)| ≤ P exp |z|
for all |z| large enough. Then |f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ Ω.
Proof: Let b < c < a and let φ (z) ≡ exp (− (z c )) . Then as discussed above,
φ (z) 6= 0 on Ω and |φ (z)| is bounded on Ω. Now
η c
|φ (z)| = |exp (− |z| η (cos (c arg (z))))|
³ ´
b
P exp |z|
η
lim sup |f (z)| |φ (z)| ≤ lim sup c =0≤M
z→∞ z→∞ |exp (|z| η (cos (c arg (z))))|
and so by Theorem 25.12 |f (z)| ≤ M.

The following is another interesting case. This case is presented in Rudin [45]
Corollary 25.14 Let Ω be the open set consisting of {z ∈ C : a < Re z < b} and
suppose f is analytic on Ω , continuous on Ω, and bounded on Ω. Suppose also that
f (z) ≤ 1 on the two lines Re z = a and Re z = b. Then |f (z)| ≤ 1 for all z ∈ Ω.
1
Proof: This time let φ (z) = 1+z−a . Thus |φ (z)| ≤ 1 because Re (z − a) > 0 and
η
φ (z) 6= 0 for all z ∈ Ω. Also, lim supz→∞ |φ (z)| = 0 for every η > 0. Therefore, if a
η
is a point of the sides of Ω, lim supz→a |f (z)| ≤ 1 while lim supz→∞ |f (z)| |φ (z)| =
0 ≤ 1 and so by Theorem 25.12, |f (z)| ≤ 1 on Ω.
This corollary yields an interesting conclusion.
Corollary 25.15 Let Ω be the open set consisting of {z ∈ C : a < Re z < b} and
suppose f is analytic on Ω , continuous on Ω, and bounded on Ω. Define
M (x) ≡ sup {|f (z)| : Re z = x}
Then for x ∈ (a, b).

b−x x−a
M (x) ≤ M (a) b−a M (b) b−a .
Proof: Let ε > 0 and define

b−z z−a
g (z) ≡ (M (a) + ε) b−a (M (b) + ε) b−a
where for M > 0 and z ∈ C, M z ≡ exp (z ln (M )) . Thus g 6= 0 and so f /g is
analytic on Ω and continuous on Ω. Also on the left side,
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ f (a + iy) ¯ ¯¯ f (a + iy) ¯ ¯ f (a + iy) ¯
¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯ g (a + iy) ¯ = ¯¯ b−a−iy ¯ = ¯
¯ ¯ b−a ¯ ≤ 1
(M (a) + ε) b−a (M (a) + ε) b−a ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
while on the right side a similar computation shows ¯ fg ¯ ≤ 1 also. Therefore, by
Corollary 25.14 |f /g| ≤ 1 on Ω. Therefore, letting x + iy = z,
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ b−z z−a
¯ ¯ b−x x−a
¯
|f (z)| ≤ ¯(M (a) + ε) b−a (M (b) + ε) b−a ¯ = ¯(M (a) + ε) b−a (M (b) + ε) b−a ¯
and so b−x x−a

M (x) ≤ (M (a) + ε) b−a (M (b) + ε) b−a .
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, it yields the conclusion of the corollary.
Another way of saying this is that x → ln (M (x)) is a convex function.
This corollary has an interesting application known as the Hadamard three cir-
cles theorem.
25.4.2 Hadamard Three Circles Theorem

Let 0 < R1 < R2 and suppose f is analytic on {z ∈ C : R1 < |z| < R2 } . Then letting
R1 < a < b < R2 , note that g (z) ≡ exp (z) maps the strip {z ∈ C : ln a < Re z < b}
onto {z ∈ C : a < |z| < b} and that in fact, g maps the line ln r + iy onto the circle
reiθ . Now let M (x) be defined as above and m be defined by
¯ ¡ ¢¯
m (r) ≡ max ¯f reiθ ¯ .
θ
Then for a < r < b, Corollary 25.15 implies

¯ ¡ ¢¯ ln b−ln r ln r−ln a
m (r) = sup ¯f eln r+iy ¯ = M (ln r) ≤ M (ln a) ln b−ln a M (ln b) ln b−ln a
y
ln(b/r)/ ln(b/a) ln(r/a)/ ln(b/a)
= m (a) m (b)
and so
ln(b/a) ln(b/r) ln(r/a)
m (r) ≤ m (a) m (b) .
Taking logarithms, this yields
µ ¶ µ ¶ ³r´
b b
ln ln (m (r)) ≤ ln ln (m (a)) + ln ln (m (b))
a r a
which says the same as r → ln (m (r)) is a convex function of ln r.
The next example, also in Rudin [45] is very dramatic. An unbelievably weak
assumption is made on the growth of the function and still you get a uniform bound
in the conclusion.
© ª
Corollary 25.16 Let Ω = z ∈ C : |Im (z)| < π2 . Suppose f is analytic on Ω,
continuous on Ω, and there exist constants, α < 1 and A < ∞ such that
|f (z)| ≤ exp (A exp (α |x|)) for z = x + iy
and ¯ ³
¯ π ´¯¯
¯f x ± i ¯ ≤ 1
2
for all x ∈ R. Then |f (z)| ≤ 1 on Ω.
−1
Proof: This time let φ (z) = [exp (A exp (βz)) exp (A exp (−βz))] where α <
β < 1. Then φ (z) 6= 0 on Ω and for η > 0
η 1
|φ (z)| =
|exp (ηA exp (βz)) exp (ηA exp (−βz))|
Now
exp (ηA exp (βz)) exp (ηA exp (−βz))

= exp (ηA (exp (βz) + exp (−βz)))
£ ¡ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¢¤
= exp ηA cos (βy) eβx + e−βx + i sin (βy) eβx − e−βx
and so
η 1
|φ (z)| =
exp [ηA (cos (βy) (eβx + e−βx ))]
π
Now cos βy > 0 because β < 1 and |y| < 2. Therefore,
η
lim sup |f (z)| |φ (z)| ≤ 0 ≤ 1
z→∞
and so by Theorem 25.12, |f (z)| ≤ 1.
25.4.3 Schwarz’s Lemma

This interesting lemma comes from the maximum modulus theorem. It will be used
later as part of the proof of the Riemann mapping theorem.
Lemma 25.17 Suppose F : B (0, 1) → B (0, 1) , F is analytic, and F (0) = 0. Then

for all z ∈ B (0, 1) ,
|F (z)| ≤ |z| , (25.4)
and
|F 0 (0)| ≤ 1. (25.5)
If equality holds in 25.5 then there exists λ ∈ C with |λ| = 1 and
F (z) = λz. (25.6)

Proof: First note that by assumption, F (z) /z has a removable singularity at

0 if its value at 0 is defined to be F 0 (0) . By the maximum modulus theorem, if
|z| < r < 1, ¯ ¡ it ¢¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ F (z) ¯
¯ ¯ ≤ max F re 1
≤ .
¯ z ¯ t∈[0,2π] r r
Then letting r → 1, ¯ ¯
¯ F (z) ¯
¯ ¯
¯ z ¯≤1
this shows 25.4 and it also verifies 25.5 on taking the limit as z → 0. If equality
holds in 25.5, then |F (z) /z| achieves a maximum at an interior point so F (z) /z
equals a constant, λ by the maximum modulus theorem. Since F (z) = λz, it follows
F 0 (0) = λ and so |λ| = 1.
Rudin [45] gives a memorable description of what this lemma says. It says that
if an analytic function maps the unit ball to itself, keeping 0 fixed, then it must do
one of two things, either be a rotation or move all points closer to 0. (This second
part follows in case |F 0 (0)| < 1 because in this case, you must have |F (z)| 6= |z|
and so by 25.4, |F (z)| < |z|)
25.4.4 One To One Analytic Maps On The Unit Ball

The transformation in the next lemma is of fundamental importance.
Lemma 25.18 Let α ∈ B (0, 1) and define

z−α
φα (z) ≡ .
1 − αz
Then φα : B (0, 1) → B (0, 1) , φα : ∂B (0, 1) → ∂B (0, 1) , and is one to one and
onto. Also φ−α = φ−1
α . Also
2 1
φ0α (0) = 1 − |α| , φ0 (α) = 2.
1 − |α|
Proof: First of all, for |z| < 1/ |α| ,

³ ´
z+α
1+αz −α
φα ◦ φ−α (z) ≡ ³ ´ =z
z+α
1−α 1+αz
after a few computations. If I show that φα maps B (0, 1) to B (0, 1) for all |α| < 1,
this will have¯ shown that φα is one to one and onto B (0, 1).
¡ ¢¯
Consider ¯φα eiθ ¯ . This yields
¯ iθ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ e − α ¯ ¯ 1 − αe−iθ ¯
¯ ¯=¯ ¯
¯ 1 − αeiθ ¯ ¯ 1 − αeiθ ¯ = 1
¯ ¯
where the first equality is obtained by multiplying by ¯e−iθ ¯ = 1. Therefore, φα maps
∂B (0, 1) one to one and onto ∂B (0, 1) . Now notice that φα is analytic on B (0, 1)
because the only singularity, a pole is at z = 1/α. By the maximum modulus
theorem, it follows
|φα (z)| < 1
whenever |z| < 1. The same is true of φ−α .
It only remains to verify
³ the assertions
´ about the derivatives. Long division
−1 −α+(α)−1
gives φα (z) = (−α) + 1−αz and so
³ ´
−2 −1
φ0α (z) = (−1) (1 − αz) −α + (α) (−α)
³ ´
−2 −1
= α (1 − αz) −α + (α)
³ ´
−2 2
= (1 − αz) − |α| + 1
Hence the two formulas follow. This proves the lemma.

One reason these mappings are so important is the following theorem.
Theorem 25.19 Suppose f is an analytic function defined on B (0, 1) and f maps
B (0, 1) one to one and onto B (0, 1) . Then there exists θ such that
f (z) = eiθ φα (z)
for some α ∈ B (0, 1) .
Proof: Let f (α) = 0. Then h (z) ≡ f ◦ φ−α (z) maps B (0, 1) one to one and
onto B (0, 1) and has the property that h (0) = 0. Therefore, by the Schwarz lemma,
|h (z)| ≤ |z| .
but it is also the case that h−1 (0) = 0 and h−1 maps B (0, 1) to B (0, 1). Therefore,
the same inequality holds for h−1 . Therefore,
¯ ¯
|z| = ¯h−1 (h (z))¯ ≤ |h (z)|
¡ ¢
and so |h (z)| = |z| . By the Schwarz lemma again, h (z) ≡ f φ−α (z) = eiθ z.
Letting z = φα , you get f (z) = eiθ φα (z).
25.5 Exercises
1. Consider the function, g (z) = z−i
z+i . Show this is analytic on the upper half
plane, P + and maps the upper half plane one to one and onto B (0, 1). Hint:
First show g maps the real axis to ∂B (0, 1) . This is really easy because you
end up looking at a complex number divided by its conjugate. Thus |g (z)| = 1
for z on ∂ (P +) . Now show that lim supz→∞ |g (z)| = 1. Then apply a version
of the maximum modulus theorem. You might note that g (z) = 1 + −2i z+i . This
will show |g (z)| ≤ 1. Next pick w ∈ B (0, 1) and solve g (z) = w. You just
have to show there exists a unique solution and its imaginary part is positive.
25.5. EXERCISES 693
2. Does there exist an entire function f which maps C onto the upper half plane?
¡ ¢0
3. Letting g be the function of Problem 1 show that g −1 (0) = 2. Also note
that g −1 (0) = i. Now suppose f is an analytic function defined on the upper
half plane which has the property that |f (z)| ≤ 1 and f (i) = β where |β| < 1.
Find an upper bound to |f 0 (i)| . Also find all functions, f which satisfy the
condition, f (i) = β, |f (z)| ≤ 1, and achieve this maximum value. Hint: You
could consider the function, h (z) ≡ φβ ◦ f ◦ g −1 (z) and check the conditions
for the Schwarz lemma for this function, h.
4. This and the next two problems follow a presentation of an interesting topic
in Rudin [45]. Let φα be given in Lemma 25.18. Suppose f is an analytic
function defined on B (0, 1) which satisfies |f (z)| ≤ 1. Suppose also there are
α, β ∈ B (0, 1) and it is required f (α) = β. If f is such a function, show
1−|β|2
that |f 0 (α)| ≤ 1−|α| 2 . Hint: To show this consider g = φβ ◦ f ◦ φ−α . Show
g (0) = 0 and |g (z)| ≤ 1 on B (0, 1) . Now use Lemma 25.17.

5. In Problem 4 show there exists a function, f analytic on B (0, 1) such that
1−|β|2
f (α) = β, |f (z)| ≤ 0, and |f 0 (α)| = 1−|α|2 . Hint: You do this by choosing
g in the above problem such that equality holds in Lemma 25.17. Thus you
need g (z) = λz where |λ| = 1 and solve g = φβ ◦ f ◦ φ−α for f .
6. Suppose that f : B (0, 1) → B (0, 1) and that f is analytic, one to one, and
onto with f (α) = 0. Show there exists λ, |λ| = 1 such that f (z) = λφα (z) .
This gives a different way to look at Theorem 25.19. Hint: Let g = f −1 .
Then g 0 (0) f 0 (α) = 1. However, f (α) = 0 and g (0) = α. From Problem
4 with β = 0, you can conclude an inequality for |f 0 (α)| and another one
for |g 0 (0)| . Then use the fact that the product of these two equals 1 which
comes from the chain rule to conclude that equality must take place. Now use
Problem 5 to obtain the form of f.
7. In Corollary 25.16 show that it is essential that α < 1. That is, show there
exists an example where the conclusion is not satisfied with a slightly weaker
growth condition. Hint: Consider exp (exp (z)) .
8. Suppose {fn } is a sequence of functions which are analytic on Ω, a bounded
region such that each fn is also continuous on Ω. Suppose that {fn } converges
uniformly on ∂Ω. Show that then {fn } converges uniformly on Ω and that the
function to which the sequence converges is analytic on Ω and continuous on
Ω.
9. Suppose Ω is ©a bounded region ª and there exists a point z0 ∈ Ω such that
|f (z0 )| = min |f (z)| : z ∈ Ω . Can you conclude f must equal a constant?
10. Suppose f is continuous on B (a, r) and analytic on B (a, r) and that f is not
constant. Suppose also |f (z)| = C 6= 0 for all |z − a| = r. Show that there
exists α ∈ B (a, r) such that f (α) = 0. Hint: If not, consider f /C and C/f.
Both would be analytic on B (a, r) and are equal to 1 on the boundary.
11. Suppose f is analytic on B (0, 1) but for every a ∈ ∂B (0, 1) , limz→a |f (z)| =
∞. Show there exists a sequence, {zn } ⊆ B (0, 1) such that limn→∞ |zn | = 1
and f (zn ) = 0.
25.6 Counting Zeros

The above proof of the open mapping theorem relies on the very important inverse
function theorem from real analysis. There are other approaches to this important
theorem which do not rely on the big theorems from real analysis and are more
oriented toward the use of the Cauchy integral formula and specialized techniques
from complex analysis. One of these approaches is given next which involves the
notion of “counting zeros”. The next theorem is the one about counting zeros. It
will also be used later in the proof of the Riemann mapping theorem.
Theorem 25.20 Let Ω be an open set in C and let γ : [a, b] → Ω be closed, con-
tinuous, bounded variation, and n (γ, z) = 0 for all z ∈ / Ω. Suppose also that f
is analytic on Ω having zeros a1 , · · ·, am where the zeros are repeated according to
multiplicity, and suppose that none of these zeros are on γ ∗ . Then
Z m
X
1 f 0 (z)
dz = n (γ, ak ) .
2πi γ f (z)
k=1
Qm
Proof: Let f (z) = j=1 (z − aj ) g (z) where g (z) 6= 0 on Ω. Hence
m
f 0 (z) X 1 g 0 (z)
= +
f (z) j=1
z − aj g (z)
and so Z Z
X m
1 f 0 (z) 1 g 0 (z)
dz = n (γ, aj ) + dz.
2πi γ f (z) j=1
2πi γ g (z)
0
But the function, z → gg(z)
(z)
is analytic and so by Corollary 24.47, the last integral
in the above expression equals 0. Therefore, this proves the theorem.
The following picture is descriptive of the situation described in the next theo-
rem.
qa2 f (γ([a, b]))

γ f
qa1 aq3 Ω αq
q
Theorem 25.21 Let Ω be a region, let γ : [a, b] → Ω be closed continuous, and

bounded variation such that n (γ, z) = 0 for all z ∈
/ Ω. Also suppose f : Ω → C
25.6. COUNTING ZEROS 695
is analytic and that α ∈/ f (γ ∗ ) . Then f ◦ γ : [a, b] → C is continuous, closed,

and bounded variation. Also suppose {a1 , · · ·, am } = f −1 (α) where these points are
counted according to their multiplicities as zeros of the function f − α Then
m
X
n (f ◦ γ, α) = n (γ, ak ) .
k=1
Proof: It is clear that f ◦ γ is continuous. It only remains to verify that it is of

bounded variation. Suppose first that γ ∗ ⊆ B ⊆ B ⊆ Ω where B is a ball. Then
|f (γ (t)) − f (γ (s))| =
¯Z 1 ¯
¯ ¯
¯ f (γ (s) + λ (γ (t) − γ (s))) (γ (t) − γ (s)) dλ¯¯
0
¯
0
≤ C |γ (t) − γ (s)|
© ª
where C ≥ max |f 0 (z)| : z ∈ B . Hence, in this case,
V (f ◦ γ, [a, b]) ≤ CV (γ, [a, b]) .
Now let ε denote the distance between γ ∗ and C \ Ω. Since γ ∗ is compact, ε > 0.
By uniform continuity there exists δ = b−a p for p a positive integer such that if
ε
|s − t| < δ, then |γ (s) − γ (t)| < 2 . Then
³ ε´
γ ([t, t + δ]) ⊆ B γ (t) , ⊆ Ω.
2
n ¡ ¢o
Let C ≥ max |f 0 (z)| : z ∈ ∪pj=1 B γ (tj ) , 2ε where tj ≡ j
p (b − a) + a. Then from
what was just shown,
p−1
X
V (f ◦ γ, [a, b]) ≤ V (f ◦ γ, [tj , tj+1 ])
j=0
p−1
X
≤ C V (γ, [tj , tj+1 ]) < ∞
j=0
showing that f ◦ γ is bounded variation as claimed. Now from Theorem 24.42 there
exists η ∈ C 1 ([a, b]) such that
η (a) = γ (a) = γ (b) = η (b) , η ([a, b]) ⊆ Ω,
and
n (η, ak ) = n (γ, ak ) , n (f ◦ γ, α) = n (f ◦ η, α) (25.7)
for k = 1, · · ·, m. Then
n (f ◦ γ, α) = n (f ◦ η, α)
Z
1 dw
=
2πi f ◦η w−α
Z b
1 f 0 (η (t)) 0
= η (t) dt
2πi a f (η (t)) − α
Z
1 f 0 (z)
= dz
2πi η f (z) − α
Xm
= n (η, ak )
k=1
Pm
By Theorem 25.20. By 25.7, this equals k=1 n (γ, ak ) which proves the theorem.
The next theorem is incredible and is very interesting for its own sake. The
following picture is descriptive of the situation of this theorem.
t a3 f
t a1 q
sz
ta sα
t a2
t a4
B(α, δ)
B(a, ²)
Theorem 25.22 Let f : B (a, R) → C be analytic and let

m
f (z) − α = (z − a) g (z) , ∞ > m ≥ 1
where g (z) 6= 0 in B (a, R) . (f (z) − α has a zero of order m at z = a.) Then there
exist ε, δ > 0 with the property that for each z satisfying 0 < |z − α| < δ, there exist
points,
{a1 , · · ·, am } ⊆ B (a, ε) ,
such that
f −1 (z) ∩ B (a, ε) = {a1 , · · ·, am }
and each ak is a zero of order 1 for the function f (·) − z.
Proof: By Theorem 24.23 f is not constant on B (a, R) because it has a zero

of order m. Therefore, using this theorem again, there exists ε > 0 such that
B (a, 2ε) ⊆ B (a, R) and there are no solutions to the equation f (z) − α = 0 for
z ∈ B (a, 2ε) except a. Also assume ε is small enough that for 0 < |z − a| ≤ 2ε,
f 0 (z) 6= 0. This can be done since otherwise, a would be a limit point of a sequence
of points, zn , having f 0 (zn ) = 0 which would imply, by Theorem 24.23 that f 0 = 0
on B (a, R) , contradicting the assumption that f − α has a zero of order m and is
therefore not constant. Thus the situation is described by the following picture.
25.6. COUNTING ZEROS 697
f 0 6= 0
s
2ε ¡
¡
¡f − α 6= 0
¡
ª
Now pick γ (t) = a + εeit , t ∈ [0, 2π] . Then α ∈

/ f (γ ∗ ) so there exists δ > 0 with
B (α, δ) ∩ f (γ ∗ ) = ∅. (25.8)
Therefore, B (α, δ) is contained on one component of C \ f (γ ([0, 2π])) . Therefore,
n (f ◦ γ, α) = n (f ◦ γ, z) for all z ∈ B (α, δ) . Now consider f restricted to B (a, 2ε) .
For z ∈ B (α, δ) , f −1 (z) must consist of a finite set of points because f 0 (w) 6= 0
for all w in B (a, 2ε) \ {a} implying that the zeros of f (·) − z in B (a, 2ε) have no
limit point. Since B (a, 2ε) is compact, this means there are only finitely many. By
Theorem 25.21,
X p
n (f ◦ γ, z) = n (γ, ak ) (25.9)
k=1
where {a1 , · · ·, ap } = f (z) . Each point, ak of f −1 (z) is either inside the circle
−1
traced out by γ, yielding n (γ, ak ) = 1, or it is outside this circle yielding n (γ, ak ) =

0 because of 25.8. It follows the sum in 25.9 reduces to the number of points of
f −1 (z) which are contained in B (a, ε) . Thus, letting those points in f −1 (z) which
are contained in B (a, ε) be denoted by {a1 , · · ·, ar }
n (f ◦ γ, α) = n (f ◦ γ, z) = r.
Also, by Theorem 25.20, m = n (f ◦ γ, α) because a is a zero of f − α of order m.
Therefore, for z ∈ B (α, δ)
m = n (f ◦ γ, α) = n (f ◦ γ, z) = r
It is required to show r = m, the order of the zero of f − α. Therefore, r = m. Each
of these ak is a zero of order 1 of the function f (·) − z because f 0 (ak ) 6= 0. This
proves the theorem.
This is a very fascinating result partly because it implies that for values of f
near a value, α, at which f (·) − α has a zero of order m for m > 1, the inverse
image of these values includes at least m points, not just one. Thus the topological
properties of the inverse image changes radically. This theorem also shows that
f (B (a, ε)) ⊇ B (α, δ) .
Theorem 25.23 (open mapping theorem) Let Ω be a region and f : Ω → C
be analytic. Then f (Ω) is either a point or a region. If f is one to one, then
f −1 : f (Ω) → Ω is analytic.
Proof: If f is not constant, then for every α ∈ f (Ω) , it follows from Theorem
24.23 that f (·) − α has a zero of order m < ∞ and so from Theorem 25.22 for each
a ∈ Ω there exist ε, δ > 0 such that f (B (a, ε)) ⊇ B (α, δ) which clearly implies
that f maps open sets to open sets. Therefore, f (Ω) is open, connected because f
is continuous. If f is one to one, Theorem 25.22 implies that for every α ∈ f (Ω)
the zero of f (·) − α is of order 1. Otherwise, that theorem implies that for z near
α, there are m points which f maps to z contradicting the assumption that f is one
to one. Therefore, f 0 (z) 6= 0 and since f −1 is continuous, due to f being an open
map, it follows
¡ ¢0 f −1 (f (z1 )) − f −1 (f (z))
f −1 (f (z)) = lim
f (z1 )→f (z) f (z1 ) − f (z)
z1 − z 1
= lim = 0 .
z1 →z f (z1 ) − f (z) f (z)
25.7 An Application To Linear Algebra

Gerschgorin’s theorem gives a convenient way to estimate eigenvalues of a matrix
from easy to obtain information. For A an n × n matrix, denote by σ (A) the
collection of all eigenvalues of A.
Theorem 25.24 Let A be an n × n matrix. Consider the n Gerschgorin discs

defined as  
 X 
Di ≡ λ ∈ C : |λ − aii | ≤ |aij | .
 
j6=i
Then every eigenvalue is contained in some Gerschgorin disc.
This theorem says to add up the absolute values of the entries of the ith row
which are off the main diagonal and form the disc centered at aii having this radius.
The union of these discs contains σ (A) .
Proof: Suppose Ax = λx where x 6= 0. Then for A = (aij )
X
aij xj = (λ − aii ) xi .
j6=i
Therefore, if we pick k such that |xk | ≥ |xj | for all xj , it follows that |xk | 6= 0 since
|x| 6= 0 and
X X
|xk | |akj | ≥ |akj | |xj | ≥ |λ − akk | |xk | .
j6=k j6=k
Now dividing by |xk | we see that λ is contained in the k th Gerschgorin disc.

25.7. AN APPLICATION TO LINEAR ALGEBRA 699
More can be said using the theory about counting zeros. To begin with the
distance between two n × n matrices, A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) as follows.
2
X 2
||A − B|| ≡ |aij − bij | .
ij
Thus two matrices are close if and only if their corresponding entries are close.
Let A be an n × n matrix. Recall the eigenvalues of A are given by the zeros
of the polynomial, pA (z) = det (zI − A) where I is the n × n identity. Then small
changes in A will produce small changes in pA (z) and p0A (z) . Let γ k denote a very
small closed circle which winds around zk , one of the eigenvalues of A, in the counter
clockwise direction so that n (γ k , zk ) = 1. This circle is to enclose only zk and is
to have no other eigenvalue on it. Then apply Theorem 25.20. According to this
theorem Z 0
1 pA (z)
dz
2πi γ pA (z)
is always an integer equal to the multiplicity of zk as a root of pA (t) . Therefore,
small changes in A result in no change to the above contour integral because it
must be an integer and small changes in A result in small changes in the integral.
Therefore whenever every entry of the matrix B is close enough to the corresponding
entry of the matrix A, the two matrices have the same number of zeros inside γ k
under the usual convention that zeros are to be counted according to multiplicity. By
making the radius of the small circle equal to ε where ε is less than the minimum
distance between any two distinct eigenvalues of A, this shows that if B is close
enough to A, every eigenvalue of B is closer than ε to some eigenvalue of A. The
next theorem is about continuous dependence of eigenvalues.
Theorem 25.25 If λ is an eigenvalue of A, then if ||B − A|| is small enough, some

eigenvalue of B will be within ε of λ.
Consider the situation that A (t) is an n × n matrix and that t → A (t) is

continuous for t ∈ [0, 1] .
Lemma 25.26 Let λ (t) ∈ σ (A (t)) for t < 1 and let Σt = ∪s≥t σ (A (s)) . Also let
Kt be the connected component of λ (t) in Σt . Then there exists η > 0 such that
Kt ∩ σ (A (s)) 6= ∅ for all s ∈ [t, t + η] .
Proof: Denote by D (λ (t) , δ) the disc centered at λ (t) having radius δ > 0,
with other occurrences of this notation being defined similarly. Thus
D (λ (t) , δ) ≡ {z ∈ C : |λ (t) − z| ≤ δ} .
Suppose δ > 0 is small enough that λ (t) is the only element of σ (A (t)) contained
in D (λ (t) , δ) and that pA(t) has no zeroes on the boundary of this disc. Then by
continuity, and the above discussion and theorem, there exists η > 0, t + η < 1, such
that for s ∈ [t, t + η] , pA(s) also has no zeroes on the boundary of this disc and that
A (s) has the same number of eigenvalues, counted according to multiplicity, in the
disc as A (t) . Thus σ (A (s)) ∩ D (λ (t) , δ) 6= ∅ for all s ∈ [t, t + η] . Now let
[
H= σ (A (s)) ∩ D (λ (t) , δ) .
s∈[t,t+η]
I will show H is connected. Suppose not. Then H = P ∪Q where P, Q are separated

and λ (t) ∈ P. Let
s0 ≡ inf {s : λ (s) ∈ Q for some λ (s) ∈ σ (A (s))} .
There exists λ (s0 ) ∈ σ (A (s0 )) ∩ D (λ (t) , δ) . If λ (s0 ) ∈

/ Q, then from the above
discussion there are
λ (s) ∈ σ (A (s)) ∩ Q
for s > s0 arbitrarily close to λ (s0 ) . Therefore, λ (s0 ) ∈ Q which shows that s0 > t
because λ (t) is the only element of σ (A (t)) in D (λ (t) , δ) and λ (t) ∈ P. Now let
sn ↑ s0 . Then λ (sn ) ∈ P for any
λ (sn ) ∈ σ (A (sn )) ∩ D (λ (t) , δ)
and from the above discussion, for some choice of sn → s0 , λ (sn ) → λ (s0 ) which
contradicts P and Q separated and nonempty. Since P is nonempty, this shows
Q = ∅. Therefore, H is connected as claimed. But Kt ⊇ H and so Kt ∩σ (A (s)) 6= ∅
for all s ∈ [t, t + η] . This proves the lemma.
The following is the necessary theorem.
Theorem 25.27 Suppose A (t) is an n × n matrix and that t → A (t) is continuous

for t ∈ [0, 1] . Let λ (0) ∈ σ (A (0)) and define Σ ≡ ∪t∈[0,1] σ (A (t)) . Let Kλ(0) = K0
denote the connected component of λ (0) in Σ. Then K0 ∩ σ (A (t)) 6= ∅ for all
t ∈ [0, 1] .
Proof: Let S ≡ {t ∈ [0, 1] : K0 ∩ σ (A (s)) 6= ∅ for all s ∈ [0, t]} . Then 0 ∈ S.

Let t0 = sup (S) . Say σ (A (t0 )) = λ1 (t0 ) , · · ·, λr (t0 ) . I claim at least one of these
is a limit point of K0 and consequently must be in K0 which will show that S
has a last point. Why is this claim true? Let sn ↑ t0 so sn ∈ S. Now let the discs,
D (λi (t0 ) , δ) , i = 1, ···, r be disjoint with pA(t0 ) having no zeroes on γ i the boundary
of D (λi (t0 ) , δ) . Then for n large enough it follows from Theorem 25.20 and the
discussion following it that σ (A (sn )) is contained in ∪ri=1 D (λi (t0 ) , δ). Therefore,
K0 ∩ (σ (A (t0 )) + D (0, δ)) 6= ∅ for all δ small enough. This requires at least one of
the λi (t0 ) to be in K0 . Therefore, t0 ∈ S and S has a last point.
Now by Lemma 25.26, if t0 < 1, then K0 ∪Kt would be a strictly larger connected
set containing λ (0) . (The reason this would be strictly larger is that K0 ∩σ (A (s)) =
∅ for some s ∈ (t, t + η) while Kt ∩ σ (A (s)) 6= ∅ for all s ∈ [t, t + η].) Therefore,
t0 = 1 and this proves the theorem.
The following is an interesting corollary of the Gerschgorin theorem.
25.7. AN APPLICATION TO LINEAR ALGEBRA 701
Corollary 25.28 Suppose one of the Gerschgorin discs, Di is disjoint from the
union of the others. Then Di contains an eigenvalue of A. Also, if there are n
disjoint Gerschgorin discs, then each one contains an eigenvalue of A.
¡ ¢
Proof: Denote by A (t) the matrix atij where if i 6= j, atij = taij and atii = aii .
Thus to get A (t) we multiply all non diagonal terms by t. Let t ∈ [0, 1] . Then
A (0) = diag (a11 , · · ·, ann ) and A (1) = A. Furthermore, the map, t → A (t) is
continuous. Denote by Djt the Gerschgorin disc obtained from the j th row for the
matrix, A (t). Then it is clear that Djt ⊆ Dj the j th Gerschgorin disc for A. Then
aii is the eigenvalue for A (0) which is contained in the disc, consisting of the single
point aii which is contained in Di . Letting K be the connected component in Σ for
Σ defined in Theorem 25.27 which is determined by aii , it follows by Gerschgorin’s
theorem that K ∩ σ (A (t)) ⊆ ∪nj=1 Djt ⊆ ∪nj=1 Dj = Di ∪ (∪j6=i Dj ) and also, since
K is connected, there are no points of K in both Di and (∪j6=i Dj ) . Since at least
one point of K is in Di ,(aii ) it follows all of K must be contained in Di . Now by
Theorem 25.27 this shows there are points of K ∩ σ (A) in Di . The last assertion
follows immediately.
Actually, this can be improved slightly. It involves the following lemma.
Lemma 25.29 In the situation of Theorem 25.27 suppose λ (0) = K0 ∩ σ (A (0))

and that λ (0) is a simple root of the characteristic equation of A (0). Then for all
t ∈ [0, 1] ,
σ (A (t)) ∩ K0 = λ (t)
where λ (t) is a simple root of the characteristic equation of A (t) .
Proof: Let S ≡
{t ∈ [0, 1] : K0 ∩ σ (A (s)) = λ (s) , a simple eigenvalue for all s ∈ [0, t]} .
Then 0 ∈ S so it is nonempty. Let t0 = sup (S) and suppose λ1 6= λ2 are two

elements of σ (A (t0 )) ∩ K0 . Then choosing η > 0 small enough, and letting Di be
disjoint discs containing λi respectively, similar arguments to those of Lemma 25.26
imply
Hi ≡ ∪s∈[t0 −η,t0 ] σ (A (s)) ∩ Di
is a connected and nonempty set for i = 1, 2 which would require that Hi ⊆ K0 .
But then there would be two different eigenvalues of A (s) contained in K0 , contrary
to the definition of t0 . Therefore, there is at most one eigenvalue, λ (t0 ) ∈ K0 ∩
σ (A (t0 )) . The possibility that it could be a repeated root of the characteristic
equation must be ruled out. Suppose then that λ (t0 ) is a repeated root of the
characteristic equation. As before, choose a small disc, D centered at λ (t0 ) and η
small enough that
H ≡ ∪s∈[t0 −η,t0 ] σ (A (s)) ∩ D
is a nonempty connected set containing either multiple eigenvalues of A (s) or else a
single repeated root to the characteristic equation of A (s) . But since H is connected
and contains λ (t0 ) it must be contained in K0 which contradicts the condition for
s ∈ S for all these s ∈ [t0 − η, t0 ] . Therefore, t0 ∈ S as hoped. If t0 < 1, there exists

a small disc centered at λ (t0 ) and η > 0 such that for all s ∈ [t0 , t0 + η] , A (s) has
only simple eigenvalues in D and the only eigenvalues of A (s) which could be in K0
are in D. (This last assertion follows from noting that λ (t0 ) is the only eigenvalue
of A (t0 ) in K0 and so the others are at a positive distance from K0 . For s close
enough to t0 , the eigenvalues of A (s) are either close to these eigenvalues of A (t0 )
at a positive distance from K0 or they are close to the eigenvalue, λ (t0 ) in which
case it can be assumed they are in D.) But this shows that t0 is not really an upper
bound to S. Therefore, t0 = 1 and the lemma is proved.
With this lemma, the conclusion of the above corollary can be improved.
Corollary 25.30 Suppose one of the Gerschgorin discs, Di is disjoint from the
union of the others. Then Di contains exactly one eigenvalue of A and this eigen-
value is a simple root to the characteristic polynomial of A.
Proof: In the proof of Corollary 25.28, first note that aii is a simple root of A (0)
since otherwise the ith Gerschgorin disc would not be disjoint from the others. Also,
K, the connected component determined by aii must be contained in Di because it
is connected and by Gerschgorin’s theorem above, K ∩ σ (A (t)) must be contained
in the union of the Gerschgorin discs. Since all the other eigenvalues of A (0) , the
ajj , are outside Di , it follows that K ∩ σ (A (0)) = aii . Therefore, by Lemma 25.29,
K ∩ σ (A (1)) = K ∩ σ (A) consists of a single simple eigenvalue. This proves the
corollary.
Example 25.31 Consider the matrix,

 
5 1 0
 1 1 1 
0 1 0
The Gerschgorin discs are D (5, 1) , D (1, 2) , and D (0, 1) . Then D (5, 1) is dis-
joint from the other discs. Therefore, there should be an eigenvalue in D (5, 1) .
The actual eigenvalues are not easy to find. They are the roots of the characteristic
equation, t3 − 6t2 + 3t + 5 = 0. The numerical values of these are −. 669 66, 1. 423 1,
and 5. 246 55, verifying the predictions of Gerschgorin’s theorem.
25.8 Exercises
1. Use Theorem 25.20 to give an alternate proof of the fundamental theorem
of algebra. Hint: Take a contour of the form γ r = reit where t ∈ [0, 2π] .
R 0
Consider γ pp(z)
(z)
dz and consider the limit as r → ∞.
r
2. Let M be an n × n matrix. Recall that the eigenvalues of M are given by the

zeros of the polynomial, pM (z) = det (M − zI) where I is the n × n identity.
Formulate a theorem which describes how the eigenvalues depend on small
25.8. EXERCISES 703
changes in M. Hint: You could define a norm on the space of n × n matrices

1/2
as ||M || ≡ tr (M M ∗ ) where M ∗ is the conjugate transpose of M. Thus
 1/2
X 2
||M || =  |Mjk |  .
j,k
Argue that small changes will produce small changes in pM (z) . Then apply
Theorem 25.20 using γ k a very small circle surrounding zk , the k th eigenvalue.
3. Suppose that two analytic functions defined on a region are equal on some
set, S which contains a limit point. (Recall p is a limit point of S if every
open set which contains p, also contains infinitely many points of S. ) Show
the two functions coincide. We defined ez ≡ ex (cos y + i sin y) earlier and we
showed that ez , defined this way was analytic on C. Is there any other way
to define ez on all of C such that the function coincides with ex on the real
axis?
4. You know various identities for real valued functions. For example cosh2 x −
z −z z −z
sinh2 x = 1. If you define cosh z ≡ e +e
2 and sinh z ≡ e −e
2 , does it follow
that
cosh2 z − sinh2 z = 1
for all z ∈ C? What about
sin (z + w) = sin z cos w + cos z sin w?
Can you verify these sorts of identities just from your knowledge about what
happens for real arguments?
5. Was it necessary that U be a region in Theorem 24.23? Would the same

conclusion hold if U were only assumed to be an open set? Why? What
about the open mapping theorem? Would it hold if U were not a region?
6. Let f : U → C be analytic and one to one. Show that f 0 (z) 6= 0 for all z ∈ U.
Does this hold for a function of a real variable?
7. We say a real valued function, u is subharmonic if uxx +uyy ≥ 0. Show that if u

is subharmonic on a bounded region, (open connected set) U, and continuous
on U and u ≤ m on ∂U, then u ≤ m on U. Hint: If not, u achieves its
maximum at (x0 , y0 ) ∈ U. Let u (x0 , y0 ) > m + δ where δ > 0. Now consider
uε (x, y) = εx2 + u (x, y) where ε is small enough that 0 < εx2 < δ for all
(x, y) ∈ U. Show that uε also achieves its maximum at some point of U and
that therefore, uεxx + uεyy ≤ 0 at that point implying that uxx + uyy ≤ −ε,
a contradiction.
8. If u is harmonic on some region, U, show that u coincides locally with the

real part of an analytic function and that therefore, u has infinitely many
derivatives on U. Hint: Consider the case where 0 ∈ U. You can always

reduce to this case by a suitable translation. Now let B (0, r) ⊆ U and use
the Schwarz formula to obtain an analytic function whose real part coincides
with u on ∂B (0, r) . Then use Problem 7.
9. Show the solution to the Dirichlet problem of Problem 8 on Page 656 is unique.
You need to formulate this precisely and then prove uniqueness.
Residues
Definition 26.1 The residue of f at an isolated singularity α which is a pole,

−1
written res (f, α) is the coefficient of (z − α) where
m
X bk
f (z) = g (z) + k
.
k=1 (z − α)
Thus res (f, α) = b1 in the above.
At this point, recall Corollary 24.47 which is stated here for convenience.
Corollary 26.2 Let Ω be an open set and let γ k : [ak , bk ] → Ω, k = 1, · · ·, m, be

m
X
n (γ k , z) = 0
k=1
for all z ∈
/ Ω. Then if f : Ω → C is analytic,
Xm Z
f (w) dw = 0.
k=1 γk
The following theorem is called the residue theorem. Note the resemblance to
Corollary 24.47.
Theorem 26.3 Let Ω be an open set and let γ k : [ak , bk ] → Ω, k = 1, · · ·, m, be

m
X
n (γ k , z) = 0
k=1
for all z ∈
/ Ω. Then if f : Ω → C b is meromorphic such that no γ ∗ contains any poles
k
of f ,
m Z m
1 X X X
f (w) dw = res (f, α) n (γ k , α) (26.1)
2πi γk
k=1 α∈A k=1
705
706 RESIDUES
where here A denotes the set of poles of f in Ω. The sum on the right is a finite
sum.
Proof: First note that there are at most finitely many α which are not in
the unbounded component of C \ ∪m k=1 γ k ([ak , bk ]) . Thus there existsPna finite set,
{α1 , · · ·, αN } ⊆ A such that these are the only possibilities for which k=1 n (γ k , α)
might not equal zero. Therefore, 26.1 reduces to
m Z N n
1 X X X
f (w) dw = res (f, αj ) n (γ k , αj )
2πi γk j=1
k=1 k=1
and it is this last equation which is established. Near αj ,

mj
X bjr
f (z) = gj (z) + r ≡ gj (z) + Qj (z) .
r=1
(z − αj )
where gj is analytic at and near αj . Now define

N
X
G (z) ≡ f (z) − Qj (z) .
j=1
It follows that G (z) has a removable singularity at each αj . Therefore, by Corollary

24.47,
Xm Z m Z
X XN Xm Z
0= G (z) dz = f (z) dz − Qj (z) dz.
k=1 γk k=1 γk j=1 k=1 γk
Now
m Z m Z
Ã mj
!
X X bj1 X bjr
Qj (z) dz = + dz
γk (z − αj ) r=2 (z − αj )r
k=1 k=1 γ k
Xm Z X m
bj1
= dz ≡ n (γ k , αj ) res (f, αj ) (2πi) .
γk (z − αj )
k=1 k=1
Therefore,
m Z
X m Z
N X
X
f (z) dz = Qj (z) dz
k=1 γk j=1 k=1 γk
N X
X m
= n (γ k , αj ) res (f, αj ) (2πi)
j=1 k=1
N
X m
X
= 2πi res (f, αj ) n (γ k , αj )
j=1 k=1
X Xm
= (2πi) res (f, α) n (γ k , α)
α∈A k=1
707

The following is an important example. This example can also be done by real
variable methods and there are some who think that real variable methods are
always to be preferred to complex variable methods. However, I will use the above
theorem to work this example.
RR sin(x)
Example 26.4 Find limR→∞ −R x dx
Things are easier if you write it as

ÃZ Z !
−R−1 R
1 eix eix
lim dx + dx .
R→∞ i −R x R−1 x
This gives the same answer because cos (x) /x is odd. Consider the following contour
in which the orientation involves counterclockwise motion exactly once around.
−R −R−1 R−1 R
Denote by γ R−1 the little circle and γ R the big one. Then on the inside of this
contour there are no singularities of eiz /z and it is contained in an open set with
the property that the winding number with respect to this contour about any point
not in the open set equals zero. By Theorem 24.22
ÃZ Z Z Z !
−R−1 R
1 eix eiz eix eiz
dx + dz + dx + dz =0 (26.2)
i −R x γ R−1 z R−1 x γR z
Now
¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯ Z π
¯ eiz ¯¯ ¯¯ π R(i cos θ−sin θ) ¯¯
¯
¯ dz =
¯ ¯ e idθ ¯≤ e−R sin θ dθ
¯ γR z ¯ 0 0
and this last integral converges to 0 by the dominated convergence theorem. Now
consider the other circle. By the dominated convergence theorem again,
Z Z 0
eiz −1
dz = eR (i cos θ−sin θ)
idθ → −iπ
γ R−1 z π
708 RESIDUES
as R → ∞. Then passing to the limit in 26.2,

Z R
sin (x)
lim dx
R→∞ −R x
ÃZ Z R ix !
−R−1 ix
1 e e
= lim dx + dx
R→∞ i −R x R−1 x
Ã Z Z !
1 eiz eiz −1
= lim − dz − dz = (−iπ) = π.
R→∞ i γ R−1 z γR z i
RR
Example 26.5 Find limR→∞ −R eixt sinx x dx. Note this is essentially finding the
inverse Fourier transform of the function, sin (x) /x.
This equals
Z R
sin (x)
lim (cos (xt) + i sin (xt)) dx
R→∞ −R x
Z R
sin (x)
= lim cos (xt) dx
R→∞ −R x
Z R
sin (x)
= lim cos (xt) dx
R→∞ −R x
Z R
1 sin (x (t + 1)) + sin (x (1 − t))
= lim dx
R→∞ 2 −R x
Let t 6= 1, −1. Then changing variables yields
Ã Z Z !
1 R(1+t) sin (u) 1 R(1−t) sin (u)
lim du + du .
R→∞ 2 −R(1+t) u 2 −R(1−t) u
In case |t| < 1 Example 26.4 implies this limit is π. However, if t > 1 the limit
equals 0 and this is also the case if t < −1. Summarizing,
Z R ½
sin x π if |t| < 1
lim eixt dx = .
R→∞ −R x 0 if |t| > 1
26.1 Rouche’s Theorem And The Argument Prin-

ciple
26.1.1 Argument Principle
A simple closed curve is just one which is homeomorphic to the unit circle. The
Jordan Curve theorem states that every simple closed curve in the plane divides
the plane into exactly two connected components, one bounded and the other un-
bounded. This is a very hard theorem to prove. However, in most applications the
26.1. ROUCHE’S THEOREM AND THE ARGUMENT PRINCIPLE 709
conclusion is obvious. Nevertheless, to avoid using this big topological result and
to attain some extra generality, I will state the following theorem in terms of the
winding number to avoid using it. This theorem is called the argument principle.
m
First recall that f has a zero of order m at α if f (z) = g (z) (z − α) where g is
an analytic
P∞ function which is not equal to zero at α. This is equivalent to having
k
f (z) = k=m ak (z − α) for z near α where am 6= 0. Also recall that f has a pole
of order m at α if for z near α, f (z) is of the form
m
X bk
f (z) = h (z) + k
(26.3)
k=1 (z − α)
where bm 6= 0 and h is a function analytic near α.

Theorem 26.6 (argument principle) Let f be meromorphic in Ω. Also suppose γ ∗
is a closed bounded variation curve containing none of the poles or zeros of f with
the property that for all z ∈ / Ω, n (γ, z) = 0 and for all z ∈ Ω, n (γ, z) either equals 0
or 1. Now let {p1 , · · ·, pm } and {z1 , · · ·, zn } be respectively the poles and zeros for
which the winding number of γ about these points equals 1. Let zk be a zero of order
rk and let pk be a pole of order lk . Then
Z 0 Xn Xm
1 f (z)
dz = rk − lk
2πi γ f (z)
k=1 k=1
Proof: This theorem follows from computing the residues of f 0 /f. It has residues
at poles and zeros. I will do this now. First suppose f has a pole of order p at α.
Then f has the form given in 26.3. Therefore,
Pp kbk
f 0 (z) h0 (z) − k=1 (z−α) k+1
= Pp b
f (z) h (z) + k=1 (z−α)k k
p Pp−1 −k−1+p pbp

h0 (z) (z − α) − k=1 kbk (z − α) − (z−α)
= p Pp−1 p−k
h (z) (z − α) + k=1 bk (z − α) + bp
This is of the form
pbp µ ¶
bp r (z) − (z−α) bp r (z) p
= = −
s (z) + bp bp s (z) + bp bp (z − α)
where s (α) = r (α) = 0. From this, it is clear res (f 0 /f, α) = −p, the order of the
pole.
Next suppose f has a zero of order p at α. Then
P∞ k−1 P∞ k−1−p
f 0 (z) k=p ak k (z − α) k=p ak k (z − α)
= P∞ k
= P∞ k−p
f (z) k=p ak (z − α) k=p ak (z − α)
and from this it is clear res (f 0 /f ) = p, the order of the zero. The conclusion of this
theorem now follows from Theorem 26.3.
710 RESIDUES
One can also generalize the theorem to the case where there are many closed
curves involved. This is proved in the same way as the above.
Theorem 26.7 (argument principle) Let f be meromorphic in Ω and let γ k :

[ak , bk ] → Ω, k = 1, · · ·, m, be closed, continuous and of bounded variation. Suppose
also that
Xm
n (γ k , z) = 0
k=1
Pm
and for all z ∈ / Ω and for z ∈ Ω, k=1 n (γ k , z) either equals 0 or 1. Now let
{p1 , · · ·, pm } and {z1 , · · ·, zn } be respectively the poles and zeros for which the above
sum of winding numbers equals 1. Let zk be a zero of order rk and let pk be a pole
of order lk . Then
Z 0 Xn Xm
1 f (z)
dz = rk − lk
2πi γ f (z)
k=1 k=1
There is also a simple extension of this important principle which I found in

[27].
Theorem 26.8 (argument principle) Let f be meromorphic in Ω. Also suppose γ ∗

is a closed bounded variation curve with the property that for all z ∈ / Ω, n (γ, z) = 0
and for all z ∈ Ω, n (γ, z) either equals 0 or 1. Now let {p1 , · · ·, pm } and {z1 , · · ·, zn }
be respectively the poles and zeros for which the winding number of γ about these
points equals 1 listed according to multiplicity. Thus if there is a pole of order m
there will be this value repeated m times in the list for the poles. Also let g (z) be
an analytic function. Then
Z nX m
X
1 f 0 (z)
g (z) dz = g (zk ) − g (pk )
2πi γ f (z)
k=1 k=1
Proof: This theorem follows from computing the residues of g (f 0 /f ) . It has

residues at poles and zeros. I will do this now. First suppose f has a pole of order
m at α. Then f has the form given in 26.3. Therefore,
f 0 (z)
g (z)
f (z)
³ Pm ´
kbk
g (z) h0 (z) − k=1 (z−α) k+1
= Pm bk
h (z) + k=1 (z−α) k
0 m Pm−1 −k−1+m mbm

h (z) (z − α) − k=1 kbk (z − α) − (z−α)
= g (z) m Pm−1 m−k
h (z) (z − α) + k=1 bk (z − α) + bm
From this, it is clear res (g (f 0 /f ) , α) = −mg (α) , where m is the order of the pole.
Thus α would have been listed m times in the list of poles. Hence the residue at
this point is equivalent to adding −g (α) m times.
26.1. ROUCHE’S THEOREM AND THE ARGUMENT PRINCIPLE 711
Next suppose f has a zero of order m at α. Then

P∞ k−1 P∞ k−1−m
f 0 (z) k=m ak k (z − α) k=m ak k (z − α)
g (z) = g (z) P ∞ k
= g (z) P∞ k−m
f (z) k=m ak (z − α) k=m ak (z − α)
and from this it is clear res (g (f 0 /f )) = g (α) m, where m is the order of the zero.
The conclusion of this theorem now follows from the residue theorem, Theorem
26.3.
The way people usually apply these theorems is to suppose γ ∗ is a simple closed
bounded variation curve, often a circle. Thus it has an inside and an outside, the
outside being the unbounded component of C\γ ∗ . The orientation of the curve is
such that you go around it once in the counterclockwise direction. Then letting rk
and lk be as described, the conclusion of the theorem follows. In applications, this
is likely the way it will be.
26.1.2 Rouche’s Theorem

With the argument principle, it is possible to prove
Pm Rouche’s theorem . In the
argument
Pn principle, denote by Z f the quantity k=1 rk and by Pf the quantity
k=1 lk . Thus Zf is the number of zeros of f counted according to the order of the
zero with a similar definition holding for Pf . Thus the conclusion of the argument
principle is. Z 0
1 f (z)
dz = Zf − Pf
2πi γ f (z)
Rouche’s theorem allows the comparison of Zh − Ph for h = f, g. It is a wonderful
and amazing result.
Theorem 26.9 (Rouche’s theorem)Let f, g be meromorphic in an open set Ω. Also

suppose γ ∗ is a closed bounded variation curve with the property that for all z ∈ /
Ω, n (γ, z) = 0, no zeros or poles are on γ ∗ , and for all z ∈ Ω, n (γ, z) either equals 0
or 1. Let Zf and Pf denote respectively the numbers of zeros and poles of f, which
have the property that the winding number equals 1, counted according to order, with
Zg and Pg being defined similarly. Also suppose that for z ∈ γ ∗
|f (z) + g (z)| < |f (z)| + |g (z)| . (26.4)
Then
Zf − Pf = Zg − Pg .
Proof: From the hypotheses,

¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯1 + f (z) ¯ < 1 + ¯ f (z) ¯
¯ g (z) ¯ ¯ g (z) ¯
which shows that for all z ∈ γ ∗ ,
f (z)
∈ C \ [0, ∞).
g (z)
712 RESIDUES
Letting
³ ´ l denote a branch of the logarithm defined on C \ [0, ∞), it follows that
l fg(z)
(z)
is a primitive for the function,
0
(f /g) f0 g0
= − .
(f /g) f g
Therefore, by the argument principle,
Z 0 Z µ 0 ¶
1 (f /g) 1 f g0
0 = dz = − dz
2πi γ (f /g) 2πi γ f g
= Zf − Pf − (Zg − Pg ) .

Often another condition other than 26.4 is used.
Corollary 26.10 In the situation of Theorem 26.9 change 26.4 to the condition,
|f (z) − g (z)| < |f (z)|
for z ∈ γ ∗ . Then the conclusion is the same.

¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Proof: The new condition implies ¯1 − fg (z)¯ < ¯ fg(z) ∗ g(z)
(z) ¯ on γ . Therefore, f (z) ∈
/
(−∞, 0] and so you can do the same argument with a branch of the logarithm.
26.1.3 A Different Formulation

In [47] I found this modification for Rouche’s theorem concerned with the counting
of zeros of analytic functions. This is a very useful form of Rouche’s theorem because
it makes no mention of a contour.
Theorem 26.11 Let Ω be a bounded open set and suppose f, g are continuous on Ω
and analytic on Ω. Also suppose |f (z)| < |g (z)| on ∂Ω. Then g and f + g have the
same number of zeros in Ω provided each zero is counted according to multiplicity.
© ª
Proof: Let K = z ∈ Ω : |f (z)| ≥ |g (z)| . Then letting λ ∈ [0, 1] , if z ∈
/ K,
then |f (z)| < |g (z)| and so
0 < |g (z)| − |f (z)| ≤ |g (z)| − λ |f (z)| ≤ |g (z) + λf (z)|
which shows that all zeros of g + λf are contained in K which must be a compact
subset of Ω due to the assumption that |f (z)| < |g (z)| on ∂Ω. ByP Theorem 24.52 on
n n
Page 675 there exists aPcycle, {γ k }k=1 such that ∪nk=1 γ ∗k ⊆ Ω\K, k=1 n (γ k , z) = 1
n
for every z ∈ K and k=1 n (γ k , z) = 0 for all z ∈ / Ω. Then as above, it follows
from the residue theorem or more directly, Theorem 26.7,
n
X Z Xp
1 λf 0 (z) + g 0 (z)
dz = mj
2πi γ k λf (z) + g (z) j=1
k=1
26.2. SINGULARITIES AND THE LAURENT SERIES 713
where mj is the order of the j th zero of λf + g in K, hence in Ω. However,

n
X Z
1 λf 0 (z) + g 0 (z)
λ→ dz
2πi γ k λf (z) + g (z)
k=1
is integer valued and continuous so it gives the same value when λ = 0 as when
λ = 1. When λ = 0 this gives the number of zeros of g in Ω and when λ = 1 it is
the number of zeros of f + g. This proves the theorem.
Here is another formulation of this theorem.
Corollary 26.12 Let Ω be a bounded open set and suppose f, g are continuous on
Ω and analytic on Ω. Also suppose |f (z) − g (z)| < |g (z)| on ∂Ω. Then f and
g have the same number of zeros in Ω provided each zero is counted according to
multiplicity.
Proof: You let f − g play the role of f in Theorem 26.11. Thus f − g + g = f

and g have the same number of zeros. Alternatively, you can give a proof of this
directly as follows.
Let K = {z ∈ Ω : |f (z) − g (z)| ≥ |g (z)|} . Then if g (z) + λ (f (z) − g (z)) = 0
it follows
0 = |g (z) + λ (f (z) − g (z))| ≥ |g (z)| − λ |f (z) − g (z)|

≥ |g (z)| − |f (z) − g (z)|
and so z ∈ K. Thus all zeros of g (z) + λ (f (z) − g (z)) are contained in K. By

n n ∗
Theorem
Pn24.52 on Page 675 there exists a cycle,Pn{γ k }k=1 such that ∪k=1 γ k ⊆
Ω \ K, k=1 n (γ k , z) = 1 for every z ∈ K and k=1 n (γ k , z) = 0 for all z ∈
/ Ω.
Then by Theorem 26.7,
n
X Z Xp
1 λ (f 0 (z) − g 0 (z)) + g 0 (z)
dz = mj
2πi γ k λ (f (z) − g (z)) + g (z) j=1
k=1
where mj is the order of the j th zero of λ (f − g) + g in K, hence in Ω. The left

side is continuous as a function of λ and so the number of zeros of g corresponding
to λ = 0 equals the number of zeros of f corresponding to λ = 1. This proves the
corollary.
26.2 Singularities And The Laurent Series

26.2.1 What Is An Annulus?
In general, when you consider singularities, isolated or not, the fundamental tool
is the Laurent series. This series is important for many other reasons also. In
particular, it is fundamental to the spectral theory of various operators in functional
analysis and is one way to obtain relationships between algebraic and analytical
714 RESIDUES
conditions essential in various convergence theorems. A Laurent series lives on an

annulus. In all this f has values in X where X is a complex Banach space. If you
like, let X = C.
Definition 26.13 Define ann (a, R1 , R2 ) ≡ {z : R1 < |z − a| < R2 } .
Thus ann (a, 0, R) would denote the punctured ball, B (a, R) \ {0} and when
R1 > 0, the annulus looks like the following.
r a
The annulus is the stuff between the two circles.

Here is an important lemma which is concerned with the situation described in
the following picture.
qz qz
qa qa
Lemma 26.14 Let γ r (t) ≡ a + reit for t ∈ [0, 2π] and let |z − a| < r. Then
n (γ r , z) = 1. If |z − a| > r, then n (γ r , z) = 0.
Proof: For the first claim, consider for t ∈ [0, 1] ,
f (t) ≡ n (γ r , a + t (z − a)) .
Then from properties of the winding number derived earlier, f (t) ∈ Z, f is continu-
ous, and f (0) = 1. Therefore, f (t) = 1 for all t ∈ [0, 1] . This proves the first claim
because f (1) = n (γ r , z) .
For the second claim,
Z
1 1
n (γ r , z) = dw
2πi γ r w − z
Z
1 1
= dw
2πi γ r w − a − (z − a)
Z
1 −1 1
= ³ ´ dw
2πi z − a γ r 1 − w−a
z−a
Z X ∞ µ ¶k
−1 w−a
= dw.
2πi (z − a) γ r z−a
k=0
The series converges uniformly for w ∈ γ r because

¯ ¯
¯w − a¯ r
¯ ¯
¯z−a¯= r+c
for some c > 0 due to the assumption that |z − a| > r. Therefore, the sum and the
integral can be interchanged to give
∞ Z
X µ ¶k
−1 w−a
n (γ r , z) = dw = 0
2πi (z − a) γr z−a
k=0
³ ´k
because w → w−a
z−a has an antiderivative. This proves the lemma.
Now consider the following picture which pertains to the next lemma.
γr
r a
Lemma 26.15 Let g be analyticRon ann (a, R1 , R2 ) . Then if γ r (t) ≡ a + reit for
t ∈ [0, 2π] and r ∈ (R1 , R2 ) , then γ g (z) dz is independent of r.
r
Proof: Let R1 < r1 < r2 < R2 and denote by −γ r (t) the curve, −γ r (t) ≡
a ¡+ rei(2π−t)
¢ for¡ t ∈ ¢[0, 2π] . Then if z ∈ B (a, R1 ), Lemma 26.14 implies both
n γ r2 , z and n γ r1 , z = 1 and so
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
n −γ r1 , z + n γ r2 , z = −1 + 1 = 0.
³ ´
Also if z ∈ / B (a, R2 ) , then Lemma 26.14 implies n γ rj , z = 0 for j = 1, 2.
Therefore, whenever z ∈ / ann (a, R1 , R2 ) , the sum of the winding numbers equals
zero. Therefore, by Theorem 24.46 applied to the function, f (w) = g (z) (w − z)
and z ∈ ann (a, R1 , R2 ) \ ∪2j=1 γ rj ([0, 2π]) ,
¡ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¢ ¡ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¢
f (z) n γ r2 , z + n −γ r1 , z = 0 n γ r2 , z + n −γ r1 , z =
Z Z
1 g (w) (w − z) 1 g (w) (w − z)
dw − dw
2πi γ r w−z 2πi γ r w−z
2 1
Z Z
1 1
= g (w) dw − g (w) dw
2πi γ r 2πi γ r
2 1
which proves the desired result.

716 RESIDUES
26.2.2 The Laurent Series

The Laurent series is like a power series except it allows for negative exponents.
First here is a definition of what is meant by the convergence of such a series.
P∞ n
Definition 26.16 n=−∞ an (z − a) converges if both the series,
∞
X ∞
X
n −n
an (z − a) and a−n (z − a)
n=0 n=1
P∞ n
converge. When this is the case, the symbol, n=−∞ an (z − a) is defined as
∞
X ∞
X
n −n
an (z − a) + a−n (z − a) .
n=0 n=1
Lemma 26.17 Suppose

∞
X n
f (z) = an (z − a)
n=−∞
P∞ n P∞ −n
for all |z − a| ∈ (R1 , R2 ) . Then both n=0 an (z − a) and n=1 a−n (z − a)
converge absolutely and uniformly on {z : r1 ≤ |z − a| ≤ r2 } for any r1 < r2 satis-
fying R1 < r1 < r2 < R2 .
P∞ −n
Proof: Let R1 < |w − a| = r1 − δ < r1 . Then n=1 a−n (w − a) converges
and so
−n −n
lim |a−n | |w − a| = lim |a−n | (r1 − δ) = 0
n→∞ n→∞
which implies that for all n sufficiently large,
−n
|a−n | (r1 − δ) < 1.
Therefore,
∞
X ∞
X
−n −n n −n
|a−n | |z − a| = |a−n | (r1 − δ) (r1 − δ) |z − a| .
n=1 n=1
Now for |z − a| ≥ r1 ,
−n 1
|z − a| ≤
r1n
and so for all sufficiently large n
n
(r1 − δ) −n
|a−n | |z − a| . ≤
r1n
P∞ −n
Therefore, by the Weierstrass M test, the series, n=1 a−n (z − a) converges
absolutely and uniformly on the set
{z ∈ C : |z − a| ≥ r1 } .
P∞ n
Similar reasoning shows the series, n=0 an (z − a) converges uniformly on the set
{z ∈ C : |z − a| ≤ r2 } .
This proves the Lemma.
Theorem 26.18 Let f be analytic on ann (a, R1 , R2 ) . Then there exist numbers,
an ∈ C such that for all z ∈ ann (a, R1 , R2 ) ,
∞
X n
f (z) = an (z − a) , (26.5)
n=−∞
where the series converges absolutely and uniformly on ann (a, r1 , r2 ) whenever R1 <
r1 < r2 < R2 . Also
Z
1 f (w)
an = dw (26.6)
2πi γ (w − a)n+1
where γ (t) = a + reit , t ∈ [0, 2π] for any r ∈ (R1 , R2 ) . Furthermore the series is
unique in the sense that if 26.5 holds for z ∈ ann (a, R1 , R2 ) , then an is given in
26.6.
Proof: Let R1 < r1 < r2 < R2 and define γ 1 (t) ≡ a + (r1 − ε) eit and γ 2 (t) ≡
a + (r2 + ε) eit for t ∈ [0, 2π] and ε chosen small enough that R1 < r1 − ε < r2 + ε <
R2 .
γ2
γ1
qa
qz
Then using Lemma 26.14, if z ∈

/ ann (a, R1 , R2 ) then
n (−γ 1 , z) + n (γ 2 , z) = 0
and if z ∈ ann (a, r1 , r2 ) ,
n (−γ 1 , z) + n (γ 2 , z) = 1.
718 RESIDUES
Therefore, by Theorem 24.46, for z ∈ ann (a, r1 , r2 )

"Z Z #
1 f (w) f (w)
f (z) = dw + dw
2πi −γ 1 w − z γ2 w − z
 
Z Z
1  f (w) f (w)
= h i dw + h i dw
2πi γ 1 (z − a) 1 − w−a γ 2 (w − a) 1 − z−a
z−a w−a
Z ∞ µ ¶n
1 f (w) X z − a
= dw+
2πi γ 2 w − a n=0 w − a
Z ∞ µ ¶n
1 f (w) X w − a
dw. (26.7)
2πi γ 1 (z − a) n=0 z − a
From the formula 26.7, it follows that for z ∈ ann ³ (a, r´1n, r2 ), the terms in the first
sum are bounded by an expression of the form C r2r+ε 2
while those in the second
³ ń
are bounded by one of the form C r1r−ε 1
and so by the Weierstrass M test, the
convergence is uniform and so the integrals and the sums in the above formula may
be interchanged and after renaming the variable of summation, this yields
∞
Ã Z !
X 1 f (w) n
f (z) = n+1 dw (z − a) +
n=0
2πi γ 2
(w − a)
−1
Ã Z !
X 1 f (w) n
n+1 (z − a) . (26.8)
n=−∞
2πi γ1 (w − a)
Therefore, by Lemma 26.15, for any r ∈ (R1 , R2 ) ,
∞
Ã Z !
X 1 f (w) n
f (z) = n+1 dw (z − a) +
n=0
2πi γ r (w − a)
−1
Ã Z !
X 1 f (w) n
n+1 (z − a) . (26.9)
n=−∞
2πi γr (w − a)
and so Ã Z !
∞
X 1 f (w) n
f (z) = n+1 dw (z − a) .
n=−∞
2πi γr (w − a)
where r ∈ (R1 , R2 ) is arbitrary. This proves the existence part of the theorem. It
remains to characterize
P∞ an .
n
If f (z) = n=−∞ an (z − a) on ann (a, R1 , R2 ) let
n
X k
fn (z) ≡ ak (z − a) . (26.10)
k=−n
This function is analytic in ann (a, R1 , R2 ) and so from the above argument,
∞
Ã Z !
X 1 fn (w) k
fn (z) = dw (z − a) . (26.11)
2πi γ r (w − a)k+1
k=−∞
Also if k > n or if k < −n,

Ã Z !
1 fn (w)
k+1
dw = 0.
2πi γr (w − a)
and so Ã Z !
n
X 1 fn (w) k
fn (z) = k+1
dw (z − a)
2πi γr (w − a)
k=−n
which implies from 26.10 that for each k ∈ [−n, n] ,

Z
1 fn (w)
dw = ak
2πi γ r (w − a)k+1
However, from the uniform convergence of the series,
∞
X n
an (w − a)
n=0
and
∞
X −n
a−n (w − a)
n=1
ensured by Lemma 26.17 which allows the interchange of sums and integrals, if
k ∈ [−n, n] ,
Z
1 f (w)
dw
2πi γ r (w − a)k+1
Z P∞ m P∞ −m
1 m=0 am (w − a) + m=1 a−m (w − a)
= k+1
dw
2πi γ r (w − a)
X∞ Z
1 m−(k+1)
= am (w − a) dw
m=0
2πi γ r
X∞ Z
−m−(k+1)
+ a−m (w − a) dw
m=1 γr
n
X Z
1 m−(k+1)
= am (w − a) dw
m=0
2πi γr
Xn Z
−m−(k+1)
+ a−m (w − a) dw
m=1 γr
Z
1 fn (w)
= k+1
dw
2πi γr (w − a)
720 RESIDUES
because if l > n or l < −n,

Z l
al (w − a)
k+1
dw = 0
γr (w − a)
for all k ∈ [−n, n] . Therefore,

Z
1 f (w)
ak = k+1
dw
2πi γr (w − a)
and so this establishes uniqueness. This proves the theorem.
26.2.3 Contour Integrals And Evaluation Of Integrals

Here are some examples of hard integrals which can be evaluated by using residues.
This will be done by integrating over various closed curves having bounded variation.
Example 26.19 The first example we consider is the following integral.

Z ∞
1
4
dx
−∞ 1 + x
One could imagine evaluating this integral by the method of partial fractions
and it should work out by that method. However, we will consider the evaluation
of this integral by the method of residues instead. To do so, consider the following
picture.
Let γ r (t) = reit , t ∈ [0, π] and let σ r (t) = t : t ∈ [−r, r] . Thus γ r parameterizes
the top curve and σ r parameterizes the straight line from −r to r along the x
axis. Denoting by Γr the closed curve traced out by these two, we see from simple
estimates that Z
1
lim dz = 0.
r→∞ γ 1 + z 4
r
This follows from the following estimate.

¯Z ¯
¯ 1 ¯ 1
¯ ¯
¯ dz ¯≤ 4 πr.
¯ γr 1 + z 4 ¯ r −1
Therefore, Z Z
∞
1 1
dx = lim dz.
−∞ 1 + x4 r→∞ Γr 1 + z4
R 1
We compute Γr 1+z 4 dz
using the method of residues. The only residues of the
integrand are located at points, z where 1 + z 4 = 0. These points are
1√ 1 √ 1√ 1 √
z = − 2 − i 2, z = 2− i 2,
2 2 2 2
1 √ 1 √ 1 √ 1 √
z = 2 + i 2, z = − 2+ i 2
2 2 2 2
and it is only the last two which are found in the inside of Γr . Therefore, we need
to calculate the residues at these points. Clearly this function has a pole of order
one at each of these points and so we may calculate the residue at α in this list by
evaluating
1
lim (z − α)
z→α 1 + z4
Thus
µ ¶
1√ 1 √
Res f, 2+ i 2
2 2
µ µ ¶¶
1√ 1 √ 1
= lim
√ √ z − 2 + i 2
1 1
z→ 2 2+ 2 i 2 2 2 1 + z4
1√ 1 √
= − 2− i 2
8 8
Similarly we may find the other residue in the same way
µ ¶
1√ 1 √
Res f, − 2+ i 2
2 2
µ µ ¶¶
1√ 1 √ 1
= lim
√ √ z− − 2+ i 2
1 1
z→− 2 2+ 2 i 2 2 2 1 + z4
1 √ 1√
= − i 2+ 2.
8 8
Therefore,
Z µ µ ¶¶
1 1 √ 1√ 1√ 1 √
dz = 2πi − i 2 + 2+ − 2− i 2
Γr 1 + z4 8 8 8 8
1 √
= π 2.
2
722 RESIDUES
√ R∞ 1
Thus, taking the limit we obtain 12 π 2 = −∞ 1+x 4 dx.
Obviously many different variations of this are possible. The main idea being
that the integral over the semicircle converges to zero as r → ∞.
Sometimes we don’t blow up the curves and take limits. Sometimes the problem
of interest reduces directly to a complex integral over a closed curve. Here is an
example of this.
Example 26.20 The integral is

Z π
cos θ
dθ
0 2 + cos θ
This integrand is even and so it equals
Z
1 π cos θ
dθ.
2 −π 2 + cos θ
¡ ¢
For z on the unit circle, z = eiθ , z = z1 and therefore, cos θ = 12 z + z1 . Thus
dz = ieiθ dθ and so dθ = dz iz . Note this is proceeding formally to get a complex
integral which reduces to the one of interest. It follows that a complex integral
which reduces to the one desired is
Z 1
¡ 1
¢ Z
1 2 z¡+ z ¢ dz 1 z2 + 1
= dz
2i γ 2 + 12 z + z1 z 2i γ z (4z + z 2 + 1)
where γ ¡is the unit circle.

¢ Now the integrand has poles of order 1 at those points
where z 4z + z 2 + 1 = 0. These points are
√ √
0, −2 + 3, −2 − 3.
Only the first two are inside the unit circle. It is also clear the function has simple
poles at these points. Therefore,
µ ¶
z2 + 1
Res (f, 0) = lim z = 1.
z→0 z (4z + z 2 + 1)
³ √ ´
Res f, −2 + 3 =
³ ³ √ ´´ z2 + 1 2√
lim √ z − −2 + 3 2
=− 3.
z→−2+ 3 z (4z + z + 1) 3
It follows
Z π Z
cos θ 1 z2 + 1
dθ = 2
dz
0 2 + cos θ 2i
γ z (4z + z + 1)
µ ¶
1 2√
= 2πi 1 − 3
2i 3
µ ¶
2√
= π 1− 3 .
3
Other rational functions of the trig functions will work out by this method also.
Sometimes you have to be clever about which version of an analytic function
that reduces to a real function you should use. The following is such an example.
Example 26.21 The integral here is

Z ∞
ln x
dx.
0 1 + x4
The same curve used in the integral involving sinx x earlier will create problems
with the log since the usual version of the log is not defined on the negative real
axis. This does not need to be of concern however. Simply use another branch of
the logarithm. Leave out the ray from 0 along the negative y axis and use Theorem
25.5 to define L (z) on this set. Thus L (z) = ln |z| + i arg1 (z) where arg1 (z) will be
the angle, θ, between − π2 and 3π iθ
2 such that z = |z| e . Now the only singularities
contained in this curve are
1√ 1 √ 1√ 1 √
2 + i 2, − 2+ i 2
2 2 2 2
and the integrand, f has simple poles at these points. Thus using the same proce-
dure as in the other examples,
µ ¶
1√ 1 √
Res f, 2+ i 2 =
2 2
1√ 1 √
2π − i 2π
32 32
and µ ¶
−1 √ 1 √
Res f, 2+ i 2 =
2 2
3√ 3 √
2π + i 2π.
32 32
Consider the integral along the small semicircle of radius r. This reduces to
Z 0
ln |r| + it ¡ it ¢
4 rie dt
π 1 + (reit )
which clearly converges to zero as r → 0 because r ln r → 0. Therefore, taking the

limit as r → 0,
Z Z −r
L (z) ln (−t) + iπ
dz + lim dt+
large semicircle 1 + z4 r→0+ −R 1 + t4
Z µ ¶
R
ln t 3√ 3 √ 1√ 1 √
lim dt = 2πi 2π + i 2π + 2π − i 2π .
r→0+ r 1 + t4 32 32 32 32
724 RESIDUES
R L(z)
Observing that large semicircle 1+z 4
dz → 0 as R → ∞,
Z Z µ ¶
R
ln t 0
1 1 1 √
e (R) + 2 lim dt + iπ dt = − + i π2 2
r→0+ r 1 + t4 −∞ 1 + t4 8 4
where e (R) → 0 as R → ∞. From an earlier example this becomes

Z R Ã√ ! µ ¶
ln t 2 1 1 √
e (R) + 2 lim dt + iπ π = − + i π 2 2.
r→0+ r 1 + t4 4 8 4
Now letting r → 0+ and R → ∞,

Z µ ¶ Ã√ !
∞
ln t 1 1 2
√ 2
2 dt = − + i π 2 − iπ π
0 1 + t4 8 4 4
1√ 2
= − 2π ,
8
and so Z ∞
ln t 1√ 2
4
dt = − 2π ,
0 1+t 16
which is probably not the first thing you would thing of. You might try to imagine
how this could be obtained using elementary techniques.
The next example illustrates the use of what is referred to as a branch cut. It
includes many examples.
Example 26.22 Mellin transformations are of the form

Z ∞
dx
f (x) xα .
0 x
Sometimes it is possible to evaluate such a transform in terms of the constant, α.
Assume f is an analytic function except at isolated singularities, none of which

are on (0, ∞) . Also assume that f has the growth conditions,
C
|f (z)| ≤ b
,b > α
|z|
for all large |z| and assume that
C0
|f (z)| ≤ b1
, b1 < α
|z|
for all |z| sufficiently small. It turns out there exists an explicit formula for this
Mellin transformation under these conditions. Consider the following contour.
−R ¾
In this contour the small semicircle in the center has radius ε which will converge
to 0. Denote by γ R the large circular path which starts at the upper edge of the
slot and continues to the lower edge. Denote by γ ε the small semicircular contour
and denote by γ εR+ the straight part of the contour from 0 to R which provides
the top edge of the slot. Finally denote by γ εR− the straight part of the contour
from R to 0 which provides the bottom edge of the slot. The interesting aspect of
this problem is the definition of f (z) z α−1 . Let
z α−1 ≡ e(ln|z|+i arg(z))(α−1) = e(α−1) log(z)
where arg (z) is the angle of z in (0, 2π) . Thus you use a branch of the logarithm
which is defined on C\(0, ∞) . Then it is routine to verify from the assumed estimates
that Z
lim f (z) z α−1 dz = 0
R→∞ γR
and Z
lim f (z) z α−1 dz = 0.
ε→0+ γε
Also, it is routine to verify

Z Z R
lim f (z) z α−1 dz = f (x) xα−1 dx
ε→0+ γ εR+ 0
and Z Z R
lim f (z) z α−1 dz = −ei2π(α−1) f (x) xα−1 dx.
ε→0+ γ εR− 0
726 RESIDUES
Therefore, letting ΣR denote the sum of the residues of f (z) z α−1 which are con-
tained in the disk of radius R except for the possible residue at 0,
³ ´Z R
e (R) + 1 − ei2π(α−1) f (x) xα−1 dx = 2πiΣR
0
where e (R) → 0 as R → ∞. Now letting R → ∞,

Z R
2πi πe−πiα
lim f (x) xα−1 dx = i2π(α−1)
Σ= Σ
R→∞ 0 1−e sin (πα)
where Σ denotes the sum of all the residues of f (z) z α−1 except for the residue at
0.
The next example is similar to the one on the Mellin transform. In fact it is
a Mellin transform but is worked out independently of the above to emphasize a
slightly more informal technique related to the contour.
R ∞ p−1
Example 26.23 0 x1+x dx, p ∈ (0, 1) .
Since the exponent of x in the numerator is larger than −1. The integral does
converge. However, the techniques of real analysis don’t tell us what it converges
to. The contour to be used is as follows: From (ε, 0) to (r, 0) along the x axis and
then from (r, 0) to (r, 0) counter clockwise along the circle of radius r, then from
(r, 0) to (ε, 0) along the x axis and from (ε, 0) to (ε, 0) , clockwise along the circle
of radius ε. You should draw a picture of this contour. The interesting thing about
this is that z p−1 cannot be defined all the way around 0. Therefore, use a branch of
z p−1 corresponding to the branch of the logarithm obtained by deleting the positive
x axis. Thus
z p−1 = e(ln|z|+iA(z))(p−1)
where z = |z| eiA(z) and A (z) ∈ (0, 2π) . Along the integral which goes in the positive
direction on the x axis, let A (z) = 0 while on the one which goes in the negative
direction, take A (z) = 2π. This is the appropriate choice obtained by replacing the
line from (ε, 0) to (r, 0) with two lines having a small gap joined by a circle of radius
ε and then taking a limit as the gap closes. You should verify that the two integrals
taken along the circles of radius ε and r converge to 0 as ε → 0 and as r → ∞.
Therefore, taking the limit,
Z ∞ p−1 Z 0 p−1 ³ ´
x x
dx + e2πi(p−1) dx = 2πi Res (f, −1) .
0 1+x ∞ 1+x
Calculating the residue of the integrand at −1, and simplifying the above expression,
³ ´ Z ∞ xp−1
1 − e2πi(p−1) dx = 2πie(p−1)iπ .
0 1+x
Upon simplification Z ∞
xp−1 π
dx = .
0 1+x sin pπ
Example 26.24 The Fresnel integrals are

Z ∞ Z ∞
¡ 2¢ ¡ ¢
cos x dx, sin x2 dx.
0 0
2
To evaluate these integrals consider f (z) = eiz on the curve which goes³ from ´
the origin to the point r on the x axis and from this point to the point r 1+i √
2
along a circle of radius r, and from there back to the origin as illustrated in the
following picture.
@ x
¡
Thus the curve to integrate over is shaped like a slice of pie. Denote by γ r the
curved part. Since f is analytic,
Z Z r Z r ³ ³ 1+i ´´2 µ ¶
iz 2 ix2 i t √2 1+i
0 = e dz + e dx − e √ dt
γr 0 0 2
Z Z r Z r µ ¶
2 2 2 1+i
= eiz dz + eix dx − e−t √ dt
γr 0 0 2
Z Z r √ µ ¶
2 2 π 1+i
= eiz dz + eix dx − √ + e (r)
γr 0 2 2
R∞ 2
√
where e (r) → 0 as r → ∞. Here we used the fact that 0 e−t dt = 2π . Now
consider the first of these integrals.
¯Z ¯ ¯Z π ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ 4 ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ it 2 ¯
ei(re ) rieit dt¯
2
¯ eiz dz ¯ = ¯
¯ γr ¯ ¯ 0 ¯
Z π4
2
≤ r e−r sin 2t dt
0
Z 1 2
r e−r u
= √ du
2 0 1 − u2
Z r −(3/2) µZ 1 ¶
r 1 r 1
e−(r )
1/2
≤ √ du + √
2 0 1−u2 2 0 1−u 2
728 RESIDUES
which converges to zero as r → ∞. Therefore, taking the limit as r → ∞,

√ µ ¶ Z ∞
π 1+i 2
√ = eix dx
2 2 0
and so Z ∞ √ Z ∞
2 π
sin x dx = √ = cos x2 dx.
0 2 2 0
The following example is one of the most interesting. By an auspicious choice
of the contour it is possible to obtain a very interesting formula for cot πz known
as the Mittag- Leffler expansion of cot πz.
Example 26.25 Let γ N be the contour which goes from −N − 21 − N i horizontally
to N + 12 − N i and from there, vertically to N + 21 + N i and then horizontally
to −N − 12 + N i and finally vertically to −N − 12 − N i. Thus the contour is a
large rectangle and the direction of integration is in the counter clockwise direction.
Consider the following integral.
Z
π cos πz
IN ≡ 2 2
dz
γ N sin πz (α − z )
where α ∈ R is not an integer. This will be used to verify the formula of Mittag
Leffler,
X∞
1 2 π cot πα
+ = . (26.12)
α2 n=1 α2 − n2 α
You should verify that cot πz is bounded on this contour and that therefore,
IN → 0 as N → ∞. Now you compute the residues of the integrand at ±α and
at n where |n| < N + 12 for n an integer. These are the only singularities of the
integrand in this contour and therefore, you can evaluate IN by using these. It is
left as an exercise to calculate these residues and find that the residue at ±α is
−π cos πα
2α sin πα
while the residue at n is
1
.
α2 − n2
Therefore,
" N
#
X 1 π cot πα
0 = lim IN = lim 2πi −
N →∞ N →∞ α 2 − n2 α
n=−N
which establishes the following formula of Mittag Leffler.

N
X 1 π cot πα
lim = .
N →∞ α 2 − n2 α
n=−N
Writing this in a slightly nicer form, yields 26.12.

26.3. THE SPECTRAL RADIUS OF A BOUNDED LINEAR TRANSFORMATION729
26.3 The Spectral Radius Of A Bounded Linear

Transformation
As a very important application of the theory of Laurent series, I will give a short
description of the spectral radius. This is a fundamental result which must be
understood in order to prove convergence of various important numerical methods
such as the Gauss Seidel or Jacobi methods.
Definition 26.26 Let X be a complex Banach space and let A ∈ L (X, X) . Then
n o
−1
r (A) ≡ λ ∈ C : (λI − A) ∈ L (X, X)
This is called the resolvent set. The spectrum of A, denoted by σ (A) is defined as
all the complex numbers which are not in the resolvent set. Thus
σ (A) ≡ C \ r (A)
Lemma 26.27 λ ∈ r (A) if and only if λI − A is one to one and onto X. Also if
|λ| > ||A|| , then λ ∈ σ (A). If the Neumann series,
∞ µ ¶k
1X A
λ λ
k=0
converges, then
∞ µ ¶k
1X A −1
= (λI − A) .
λ λ
k=0
Proof: Note that to be in r (A) , λI − A must be one to one and map X onto
−1
X since otherwise, (λI − A) ∈ / L (X, X) .
By the open mapping theorem, if these two algebraic conditions hold, then
−1
(λI − A) is continuous and so this proves the first part of the lemma. Now
suppose |λ| > ||A|| . Consider the Neumann series
∞ µ ¶k
1X A
.
λ λ
k=0
By the root test, Theorem 24.3 on Page 642 this series converges to an element
of L (X, X) denoted here by B. Now suppose the series converges. Letting Bn ≡
1
Pn ¡ A ¢k
λ k=0 λ ,
n µ ¶k
X n µ ¶k+1
X
A A
(λI − A) Bn = Bn (λI − A) = −
λ λ
k=0 k=0
µ ¶n+1
A
= I− →I
λ
730 RESIDUES
as n → ∞ because the convergence of the series requires the nth term to converge
to 0. Therefore,
(λI − A) B = B (λI − A) = I
which shows λI − A is both one to one and onto and the Neumann series converges
−1
to (λI − A) . This proves the lemma.
This lemma also shows that σ (A) is bounded. In fact, σ (A) is closed.
¯¯ ¯¯−1
¯¯ −1 ¯¯
Lemma 26.28 r (A) is open. In fact, if λ ∈ r (A) and |µ − λ| < ¯¯(λI − A) ¯¯ ,
then µ ∈ r (A).
Proof: First note

³ ´
−1
(µI − A) = I − (λ − µ) (λI − A) (λI − A) (26.13)
³ ´
−1
= (λI − A) I − (λ − µ) (λI − A) (26.14)
Also from the assumption about |λ − µ| ,

¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ −1 ¯¯ ¯¯ −1 ¯¯
¯¯(λ − µ) (λI − A) ¯¯ ≤ |λ − µ| ¯¯(λI − A) ¯¯ < 1
and so by the root test,

∞ ³
X ´k
−1
(λ − µ) (λI − A)
k=0
converges to an element of L (X, X) . As in Lemma 26.27,

∞ ³
X ´k ³ ´−1
−1 −1
(λ − µ) (λI − A) = I − (λ − µ) (λI − A) .
k=0
Therefore, from 26.13,

³ ´−1
−1 −1 −1
(µI − A) = (λI − A) I − (λ − µ) (λI − A) .
Corollary 26.29 σ (A) is a compact set.
Proof: Lemma 26.27 shows σ (A) is bounded and Lemma 26.28 shows it is
closed.
Definition 26.30 The spectral radius, denoted by ρ (A) is defined by
ρ (A) ≡ max {|λ| : λ ∈ σ (A)} .
Since σ (A) is compact, this maximum exists. Note from Lemma 26.27, ρ (A) ≤
||A||.
26.4. EXERCISES 731
There is a simple formula for the spectral radius.
Lemma 26.31 If |λ| > ρ (A) , then the Neumann series,

∞ µ ¶k
1X A
λ λ
k=0
converges.
Proof: This follows directly from Theorem 26.18 on Page 717 and the obser-
P∞ ¡ ¢k −1
vation above that λ1 k=0 A λ = (λI − A) for all |λ| > ||A||. Thus the analytic
−1
function, λ → (λI − A) has a Laurent expansion on |λ| > ρ (A) by Theorem 26.18
P∞ ¡ ¢k
and it must coincide with λ1 k=0 A on |λ| > ||A|| so the Laurent expansion of
−1 1
P∞ λ¡ A ¢k
λ → (λI − A) must equal λ k=0 λ on |λ| > ρ (A) . This proves the lemma.
The theorem on the spectral radius follows. It is due to Gelfand.
1/n
Theorem 26.32 ρ (A) = limn→∞ ||An || .
Proof: If
1/n
|λ| < lim sup ||An ||
n→∞
then by the root test, the Neumann series does not converge and so by Lemma
26.31 |λ| ≤ ρ (A) . Thus
1/n
ρ (A) ≥ lim sup ||An || .
n→∞
Now let p be a positive integer. Then λ ∈ σ (A) implies λp ∈ σ (Ap ) because

¡ ¢
λp I − Ap = (λI − A) λp−1 + λp−2 A + · · · + Ap−1
¡ ¢
= λp−1 + λp−2 A + · · · + Ap−1 (λI − A)
It follows from Lemma 26.27 applied to Ap that for λ ∈ σ (A) , |λp | ≤ ||Ap || and so
1/p 1/p
|λ| ≤ ||Ap || . Therefore, ρ (A) ≤ ||Ap || and since p is arbitrary,
1/p 1/n
lim inf ||Ap || ≥ ρ (A) ≥ lim sup ||An || .
p→∞ n→∞
26.4 Exercises
1. Example 26.19 found the integral of a rational function of a certain sort. The
technique used in this example typically works for rational functions of the
form fg(x)
(x)
where deg (g (x)) ≥ deg f (x) + 2 provided the rational function
has no poles on the real axis. State and prove a theorem based on these
observations.
732 RESIDUES
2. Fill in the missing details of Example 26.25 about IN → 0. Note how important
it was that the contour was chosen just right for this to happen. Also verify
the claims about the residues.
3. Suppose f has a pole of order m at z = a. Define g (z) by

m
g (z) = (z − a) f (z) .
Show
1
Res (f, a) = g (m−1) (a) .
(m − 1)!
Hint: Use the Laurent series.
4. Give a proof of Theorem 26.6. Hint: Let p be a pole. Show that near p, a
pole of order m,
P∞ k
f 0 (z) −m + k=1 bk (z − p)
= P∞ k
f (z) (z − p) + k=2 ck (z − p)
Show that Res (f, p) = −m. Carry out a similar procedure for the zeros.
5. Use Rouche’s theorem to prove the fundamental theorem of algebra which

says that if p (z) = z n + an−1 z n−1 · · · +a1 z + a0 , then p has n zeros in C.
Hint: Let q (z) = −z n and let γ be a large circle, γ (t) = reit for r sufficiently
large.
6. Consider the two polynomials z 5 + 3z 2 − 1 and z 5 + 3z 2 . Show that on |z| = 1,

the conditions for Rouche’s theorem hold. Now use Rouche’s theorem to verify
that z 5 + 3z 2 − 1 must have two zeros in |z| < 1.
7. Consider the polynomial, z 11 + 7z 5 + 3z 2 − 17. Use Rouche’s theorem to find

a bound on the zeros of this polynomial. In other words, find r such that if z
is a zero of the polynomial, |z| < r. Try to make r fairly small if possible.
R∞ 2
√
8. Verify that 0 e−t dt = 2π . Hint: Use polar coordinates.
9. Use the contour described in Example 26.19 to compute the exact values of
the following improper integrals.
R∞ x
(a) −∞ (x2 +4x+13) 2 dx
R∞ x2
(b) 0 (x2 +a 2 )2 dx
R∞
(c) −∞ (x2 +a2dx )(x2 +b2 ) , a, b > 0
10. Evaluate the following improper integrals.

R∞
(a) 0 (xcos ax
2 +b2 )2 dx
26.4. EXERCISES 733
R∞ x sin x
(b) 0 (x2 +a2 )2
dx
11. Find the Cauchy principle value of the integral

Z ∞
sin x
2
dx
−∞ (x + 1) (x − 1)
defined as
µZ 1−ε Z ∞ ¶
sin x sin x
lim dx + dx .
ε→0+ −∞ (x2 + 1) (x − 1) 1+ε (x2 + 1) (x − 1)
R∞ dx
12. Find a formula for the integral −∞ (1+x2 )n+1
where n is a nonnegative integer.
R∞ sin2 x
13. Find −∞ x2 dx.
14. If m < n for m and n integers, show

Z ∞
x2m π 1
2n
dx = ¡ 2m+1 ¢ .
0 1 + x 2n sin 2n π
R∞ 1
15. Find −∞ (1+x4 )2
dx.
R∞ ln(x)
16. Find 0 1+x2 dx = 0.
17. Suppose f has an isolated singularity at α. Show the singularity is essential

if and only if the principal part
P∞of the Laurent series of f has infinitely many
k P∞ bk
terms. That is, show f (z) = k=0 ak (z − α) + k=1 (z−α) k where infinitely
many of the bk are nonzero.

18. Suppose Ω is a bounded open set and fn is analytic on Ω and continuous on
Ω. Suppose also that fn → f uniformly on Ω and that f 6= 0 on ∂Ω. Show
that for all n large enough, fn and f have the same number of zeros on Ω
provided the zeros are counted according to multiplicity.
734 RESIDUES
Complex Mappings
27.1 Conformal Maps

If γ (t) = x (t) + iy (t) is a C 1 curve having values in U, an open set of C, and
if f : U → C is analytic, consider f ◦ γ, another C 1 curve having values in C.
0
Also, γ 0 (t) and (f ◦ γ) (t) are complex numbers so these can be considered as
2
vectors in R as follows. The complex number, x + iy corresponds to the vector,
(x, y) . Suppose that γ and η are two such C 1 curves having values in U and that
γ (t0 ) = η (s0 ) = z and suppose that f : U → C is analytic. What can be said about
0 0
the angle between (f ◦ γ) (t0 ) and (f ◦ η) (s0 )? It turns out this angle is the same
as the angle between γ (t0 ) and η (s0 ) assuming that f 0 (z) 6= 0. To see this, note
0 0
(x, y) · (a, b) = 12 (zw + zw) where z = x + iy and w = a + ib. Therefore, letting θ

0 0
be the cosine between the two vectors, (f ◦ γ) (t0 ) and (f ◦ η) (s0 ) , it follows from
calculus that
cos θ
0 0
(f ◦ γ) (t0 ) · (f ◦ η) (s0 )
= ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯(f ◦ η)0 (s0 )¯ ¯(f ◦ γ)0 (t0 )¯
1 f 0 (γ (t0 )) γ 0 (t0 ) f 0 (η (s0 ))η 0 (s0 ) + f 0 (γ (t0 )) γ 0 (t0 )f 0 (η (s0 )) η 0 (s0 )
=
2 |f 0 (γ (t0 ))| |f 0 (η (s0 ))|
1 f 0 (z) f 0 (z)γ 0 (t0 ) η 0 (s0 ) + f 0 (z)f 0 (z) γ 0 (t0 )η 0 (s0 )
=
2 |f 0 (z)| |f 0 (z)|
1 γ 0 (t0 ) η 0 (s0 ) + η 0 (s0 ) γ 0 (t0 )
=
2 1
which equals the angle between the vectors, γ 0 (t0 ) and η 0 (t0 ) . Thus analytic map-
pings preserve angles at points where the derivative is nonzero. Such mappings are
called isogonal. .
Actually, they also preserve orientations. If z = x + iy and w = a + ib are two
complex numbers, then (x, y, 0) and (a, b, 0) are two vectors in R3 . Recall that the
cross product, (x, y, 0) × (a, b, 0) , yields a vector normal to the two given vectors
such that the triple, (x, y, 0) , (a, b, 0) , and (x, y, 0) × (a, b, 0) satisfies the right hand
735
736 COMPLEX MAPPINGS
rule and has magnitude equal to the product of the sine of the included angle times
the product of the two norms of the vectors. In this case, the cross product will
produce a vector which is a multiple of k, the unit vector in the direction of the z
axis. In fact, you can verify by computing both sides that, letting z = x + iy and
w = a + ib,
(x, y, 0) × (a, b, 0) = Re (ziw) k.
Therefore, in the above situation,
0 0
(f ◦ γ) (t0 ) × (f ◦ η) (s0 )
³ ´
= Re f 0 (γ (t0 )) γ 0 (t0 ) if 0 (η (s0 ))η 0 (s0 ) k
³ ´
2
= |f 0 (z)| Re γ 0 (t0 ) iη 0 (s0 ) k
which shows that the orientation of γ 0 (t0 ), η 0 (s0 ) is the same as the orientation of
0 0
(f ◦ γ) (t0 ) , (f ◦ η) (s0 ). Mappings which preserve both orientation and angles are
called conformal mappings and this has shown that analytic functions are conformal
mappings if the derivative does not vanish.
27.2 Fractional Linear Transformations

27.2.1 Circles And Lines
These mappings map lines and circles to either lines or circles.
Definition 27.1 A fractional linear transformation is a function of the form

az + b
f (z) = (27.1)
cz + d
where ad − bc 6= 0.
Note that if c = 0, this reduces to a linear transformation (a/d) z +(b/d) . Special

cases of these are defined as follows.
1
dilations: z → δz, δ 6= 0, inversions: z → ,
z
translations: z → z + ρ.
The next lemma is the key to understanding fractional linear transformations.
Lemma 27.2 The fractional linear transformation, 27.1 can be written as a finite
composition of dilations, inversions, and translations.
Proof: Let
d 1 (bc − ad)
S1 (z) = z + , S2 (z) = , S3 (z) = z
c z c2
27.2. FRACTIONAL LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS 737
and
a
S4 (z) = z +
c
in the case where c 6= 0. Then f (z) given in 27.1 is of the form
f (z) = S4 ◦ S3 ◦ S2 ◦ S1 .
Here is why. µ ¶
d 1 c
S2 (S1 (z)) = S2 z + ≡ d
= .
c z+ c
zc + d
Now consider
µ ¶ µ ¶
c (bc − ad) c bc − ad
S3 ≡ = .
zc + d c2 zc + d c (zc + d)
Finally, consider
µ ¶
bc − ad bc − ad a b + az
S4 ≡ + = .
c (zc + d) c (zc + d) c zc + d
In case that c = 0, f (z) = ad z + db which is a translation composed with a dilation.

Because of the assumption that ad − bc 6= 0, it follows that since c = 0, both a and
d 6= 0. This proves the lemma.
This lemma implies the following corollary.
Corollary 27.3 Fractional linear transformations map circles and lines to circles
or lines.
Proof: It is obvious that dilations and translations map circles to circles and
lines to lines. What of inversions? If inversions have this property, the above lemma
implies a general fractional linear transformation has this property as well.
Note that all circles and lines may be put in the form
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
α x2 + y 2 − 2ax − 2by = r2 − a2 + b2
where α = 1 gives a circle centered at (a, b) with radius r and α = 0 gives a line. In
terms of complex variables you may therefore consider all possible circles and lines
in the form
αzz + βz + βz + γ = 0, (27.2)
To see this let β = β 1 + iβ 2 where β 1 ≡ −a and β 2 ≡ b. Note that even if α is not
0 or 1 the expression still corresponds to either a circle or a line because you can
divide by α if α 6= 0. Now I verify that replacing z with z1 results in an expression
of the form in 27.2. Thus, let w = z1 where z satisfies 27.2. Then
¡ ¢ 1 ¡ ¢
α + βw + βw + γww = αzz + βz + βz + γ = 0
zz
and so w also satisfies a relation like 27.2. One simply switches α with γ and β
with β. Note the situation is slightly different than with dilations and translations.
In the case of an inversion, a circle becomes either a line or a circle and similarly, a
line becomes either a circle or a line. This proves the corollary.
The next example is quite important.
z−i
Example 27.4 Consider the fractional linear transformation, w = z+i .
First consider what this mapping does to the points of the form z = x + i0.
Substituting into the expression for w,
x−i x2 − 1 − 2xi
w= = ,
x+i x2 + 1
a point on the unit circle. Thus this transformation maps the real axis to the unit
circle.
The upper half plane is composed of points of the form x + iy where y > 0.
Substituting in to the transformation,
x + i (y − 1)
w= ,
x + i (y + 1)
which is seen to be a point on the interior of the unit disk because |y − 1| < |y + 1|
which implies |x + i (y + 1)| > |x + i (y − 1)|. Therefore, this transformation maps
the upper half plane to the interior of the unit disk.
One might wonder whether the mapping is one to one and onto. The mapping
w+1
is clearly one to one because it has an inverse, z = −i w−1 for all w in the interior
of the unit disk. Also, a short computation verifies that z so defined is in the upper
half plane. Therefore, this transformation maps {z ∈ C such that Im z > 0} one to
one and onto the unit disk {z ∈ C such that |z| < 1} . ¯ ¯
¯ ¯
A fancy way to do part of this is to use Theorem 25.11. lim supz→a ¯ z−i z+i ¯ ≤ 1
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
whenever a is the real axis or ∞. Therefore, ¯ z−iz+i ¯ ≤ 1. This is a little shorter.
27.2.2 Three Points To Three Points

There is a simple procedure for determining fractional linear transformations which
map a given set of three points to another set of three points. The problem is as
follows: There are three distinct points in the extended complex plane, z1 , z2 , and
z3 and it is desired to find a fractional linear transformation such that zi → wi
for i = 1, 2, 3 where here w1 , w2 , and w3 are three distinct points in the extended
complex plane. Then the procedure says that to find the desired fractional linear
transformation solve the following equation for w.
w − w1 w2 − w3 z − z1 z2 − z3
· = ·
w − w3 w2 − w1 z − z3 z2 − z1
27.3. RIEMANN MAPPING THEOREM 739
The result will be a fractional linear transformation with the desired properties.
If any of the points equals ∞, then the quotient containing this point should be
adjusted.
Why should this procedure work? Here is a heuristic argument to indicate why
you would expect this to happen rather than a rigorous proof. The reader may
want to tighten the argument to give a proof. First suppose z = z1 . Then the right
side equals zero and so the left side also must equal zero. However, this requires
w = w1 . Next suppose z = z2 . Then the right side equals 1. To get a 1 on the left,
you need w = w2 . Finally suppose z = z3 . Then the right side involves division by
0. To get the same bad behavior, on the left, you need w = w3 .
Example 27.5 Let Im ξ > 0 and consider the fractional linear transformation
which takes ξ to 0, ξ to ∞ and 0 to ξ/ξ, .
The equation for w is
w−0 z−ξ ξ−0

¡ ¢= ·
w − ξ/ξ z−0 ξ−ξ
After some computations,

z−ξ
w= .
z−ξ
Note that this has the property that x−ξ
x−ξ
is always a point on the unit circle because
it is a complex number divided by its conjugate. Therefore, this fractional linear
transformation maps the real line to the unit circle. It also takes the point, ξ to
0 and so it must map the upper half plane to the unit disk. You can verify the
mapping is onto as well.
Example 27.6 Let z1 = 0, z2 = 1, and z3 = 2 and let w1 = 0, w2 = i, and w3 = 2i.
Then the equation to solve is

w −i z −1
· = ·
w − 2i i z−2 1
Solving this yields w = iz which clearly works.
27.3 Riemann Mapping Theorem

From the open mapping theorem analytic functions map regions to other regions or
else to single points. The Riemann mapping theorem states that for every simply
connected region, Ω which is not equal to all of C there exists an analytic function,
f such that f (Ω) = B (0, 1) and in addition to this, f is one to one. The proof
involves several ideas which have been developed up to now. The proof is based on
the following important theorem, a case of Montel’s theorem. Before, beginning,
note that the Riemann mapping theorem is a classic example of a major existence
theorem. In mathematics there are two sorts of questions, those related to whether
something exists and those involving methods for finding it. The real questions are
often related to questions of existence. There is a long and involved history for
proofs of this theorem. The first proofs were based on the Dirichlet principle and
turned out to be incorrect, thanks to Weierstrass who pointed out the errors. For
more on the history of this theorem, see Hille [27].
The following theorem is really wonderful. It is about the existence of a subse-
quence having certain salubrious properties. It is this wonderful result which will
give the existence of the mapping desired. The other parts of the argument are
technical details to set things up and use this theorem.
27.3.1 Montel’s Theorem

Theorem 27.7 Let Ω be an open set in C and let F denote a set of analytic
functions mapping Ω to B (0, M ) ⊆ C. Then there exists a sequence of functions
∞ (k)
from F, {fn }n=1 and an analytic function, f such that fn converges uniformly to
f (k) on every compact subset of Ω.
Proof: First note there exists a sequence of compact sets, Kn such that Kn ⊆
int Kn+1 ⊆ Ω for all n where here int K denotes the interior of the set K, the
∞
union of all open © sets contained
¡ in¢ K andª ∪n=1 Kn = Ω. In fact, you can verify
C 1
that B (0, n) ∩ z ∈ Ω : dist z, Ω ≤ n works for Kn . Then there exist positive
numbers, δ n such that if z ∈ Kn , then B (z, δ n ) ⊆ int Kn+1 . Now denote by Fn
the set of restrictions of functions of F to Kn . Then let z ∈ Kn and let γ (t) ≡
z + δ n eit , t ∈ [0, 2π] . It follows that for z1 ∈ B (z, δ n ) , and f ∈ F ,
¯ Z µ ¶ ¯
¯ 1 1 1 ¯
|f (z) − f (z1 )| = ¯¯ f (w) − dw¯¯
2πi γ w−z w − z1
¯Z ¯
1 ¯¯ z − z1 ¯
≤ f (w) dw¯
2π ¯ γ (w − z) (w − z1 ) ¯
δn
Letting |z1 − z| < 2 ,
M |z − z1 |
|f (z) − f (z1 )| ≤ 2πδ n 2
2π δ n /2
|z − z1 |
≤ 2M .
δn
It follows that Fn is equicontinuous and uniformly bounded so by the Arzela Ascoli
∞
theorem there exists a sequence, {fnk }k=1 ⊆ F which converges uniformly on Kn .
∞
Let {f1k }k=1 converge uniformly on K1 . Then use the Arzela Ascoli theorem applied
∞
to this sequence to get a subsequence, denoted by {f2k }k=1 which also converges
∞
uniformly on K2 . Continue in this way to obtain {fnk }k=1 which converges uni-
∞
formly on K1 , · · ·, Kn . Now the sequence {fnn }n=m is a subsequence of {fmk } ∞
k=1
and so it converges uniformly on Km for all m. Denoting fnn by fn for short, this
∞
is the sequence of functions promised by the theorem. It is clear {fn }n=1 converges
uniformly on every compact subset of Ω because every such set is contained in Km
for all m large enough. Let f (z) be the point to which fn (z) converges. Then f
is a continuous function defined on Ω. Is f is analytic? Yes it is by Lemma 24.18.
Alternatively, you could let T ⊆ Ω be a triangle. Then
Z Z
f (z) dz = lim fn (z) dz = 0.
∂T n→∞ ∂T
Therefore, by Morera’s theorem, f is analytic.

As for the uniform convergence of the derivatives of f, recall Theorem 24.52
about the existence of a cycle. Let K be a compact subset of int (Kn ) and let
m
{γ k }k=1 be closed oriented curves contained in
int (Kn ) \ K
Pm
such that k=1 n (γ k , z) = 1 for every z ∈ K. Also let η denote the distance
between ∪j γ ∗j and K. Then for z ∈ K,
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ m Z ¯
¯ (k) ¯ ¯ k! X f (w) − f n (w) ¯
¯f (z) − fn(k) (z)¯ = ¯ dw¯¯
¯ 2πi k+1
¯ j=1 γ j (w − z) ¯
Xm
k! 1
≤ ||fk − f ||Kn (length of γ k ) k+1 .
2π j=1
η
where here ||fk − f ||Kn ≡ sup {|fk (z) − f (z)| : z ∈ Kn } . Thus you get uniform
convergence of the derivatives.
Since the family, F satisfies the conclusion of Theorem 27.7 it is known as a
normal family of functions. More generally,
Definition 27.8 Let F denote a collection of functions which are analytic on Ω, a

region. Then F is normal if every sequence contained in F has a subsequence which
converges uniformly on compact subsets of Ω.
The following result is about a certain class of fractional linear transformations.

Recall Lemma 25.18 which is listed here for convenience.
Lemma 27.9 For α ∈ B (0, 1) , let

z−α
φα (z) ≡ .
1 − αz
Then φα maps B (0, 1) one to one and onto B (0, 1), φ−1
α = φ−α , and
1
φ0α (α) = 2.
1 − |α|
The next lemma, known as Schwarz’s lemma is interesting for its own sake but
will also be an important part of the proof of the Riemann mapping theorem. It
was stated and proved earlier but for convenience it is given again here.
Lemma 27.10 Suppose F : B (0, 1) → B (0, 1) , F is analytic, and F (0) = 0. Then

for all z ∈ B (0, 1) ,
|F (z)| ≤ |z| , (27.3)
and
|F 0 (0)| ≤ 1. (27.4)
If equality holds in 27.4 then there exists λ ∈ C with |λ| = 1 and
F (z) = λz. (27.5)
Proof: First note that by assumption, F (z) /z has a removable singularity at

0 if its value at 0 is defined to be F 0 (0) . By the maximum modulus theorem, if
|z| < r < 1, ¯ ¡ it ¢¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ F (z) ¯
¯ ¯ ≤ max F re 1
≤ .
¯ z ¯ t∈[0,2π] r r
Then letting r → 1, ¯ ¯
¯ F (z) ¯
¯ ¯
¯ z ¯≤1
this shows 27.3 and it also verifies 27.4 on taking the limit as z → 0. If equality
holds in 27.4, then |F (z) /z| achieves a maximum at an interior point so F (z) /z
equals a constant, λ by the maximum modulus theorem. Since F (z) = λz, it follows
F 0 (0) = λ and so |λ| = 1. This proves the lemma.
Definition 27.11 A region, Ω has the square root property if whenever f, f1 : Ω →

C are both analytic1 , it follows there exists φ : Ω → C such that φ is analytic and
f (z) = φ2 (z) .
The next theorem will turn out to be equivalent to the Riemann mapping the-
orem.
27.3.2 Regions With Square Root Property

Theorem 27.12 Let Ω 6= C for Ω a region and suppose Ω has the square root
property. Then for z0 ∈ Ω there exists h : Ω → B (0, 1) such that h is one to one,
onto, analytic, and h (z0 ) = 0.
Proof: Define F to be the set of functions, f such that f : Ω → B (0, 1) is one

to one and analytic. The first task is to show F is nonempty. Then, using Montel’s
¯ ¯
theorem it will be shown there is a function in F, h, such that |h0 (z0 )| ≥ ¯ψ 0 (z0 )¯
1 This implies f has no zero on Ω.
for all ψ ∈ F. When this has been done it will be shown that h is actually onto.
This will prove the theorem.
Claim 1: F is nonempty.
Proof of Claim 1: Since Ω 6= C it follows there exists ξ ∈/ Ω. Then it follows
1
z − ξ and z−ξ are both analytic on Ω. Since Ω has the square root property,
there exists an analytic
√ function, φ : Ω → C such that φ2 (z) = z − ξ for all
z ∈ Ω, φ (z) = z − ξ. Since z − ξ is not constant, neither is φ and it follows
from the open mapping theorem that φ (Ω) is a region. Note also that φ is one
to one because if φ (z1 ) = φ (z2 ) , then you can square both sides and conclude
z1 − ξ = z2 − ξ implying z1 = z2√.
Now pick
¯√ a ∈ φ (Ω)
¯ . Thus za − ξ = a. I claim there exists a positive lower
bound to ¯ z − ξ + a¯ for z ∈ Ω. If not, there exists a sequence, {zn } ⊆ Ω such
that p p p
zn − ξ + a = zn − ξ + za − ξ ≡ εn → 0.
Then p ³ p ´
zn − ξ = εn − za − ξ (27.6)
and squaring both sides,
p
zn − ξ = ε2n + za − ξ − 2εn za − ξ.
√
Consequently, (zn −√za ) = ε2n − 2εn za − ξ which converges to 0. Taking the limit
in 27.6, it follows 2 za − ξ =¯√0 and so ξ¯ = za , a contradiction to ξ ∈
/ Ω. Choose
r > 0 such that for all z ∈ Ω, ¯ z − ξ + a¯ > r > 0. Then consider
r
ψ (z) ≡ √ . (27.7)
z−ξ+a
¯√ ¯
This is one to one, analytic, and maps Ω into B (0, 1) (¯ z − ξ + a¯ > r). Thus F
is not empty and this proves the claim.
Claim 2: Let z0 ∈ Ω. There exists a finite positive real number, η, defined by
©¯ ¯ ª
η ≡ sup ¯ψ 0 (z0 )¯ : ψ ∈ F (27.8)
and an analytic function, h ∈ F such that |h0 (z0 )| = η. Furthermore, h (z0 ) = 0.

Proof of Claim 2: First you show η < ∞. Let γ (t) = z0 + reit for t ∈ [0, 2π]
and r is small enough that B (z0 , r) ⊆ Ω. Then for ψ ∈ F, the Cauchy integral
formula for the derivative implies
Z
1 ψ (w)
ψ 0 (z0 ) = dw
2πi γ (w − z0 )2
¯ ¯ ¡ ¢
and so ¯ψ 0 (z0 )¯ ≤ (1/2π) 2πr 1/r2 = 1/r. Therefore, η < ∞ as desired. For ψ
defined above in 27.7
¡√ ¢−1
0 −rφ0 (z0 ) −r (1/2) z0 − ξ
ψ (z0 ) = 2 = 2 6= 0.
(φ (z0 ) + a) (φ (z0 ) + a)
Therefore, η > 0. It remains to verify the existence of the function, h.

By Theorem 27.7, there exists a sequence, {ψ n }, of functions in F and an
analytic function, h, such that
¯ 0 ¯
¯ψ n (z0 )¯ → η (27.9)
and
ψ n → h, ψ 0n → h0 , (27.10)
uniformly on all compact subsets of Ω. It follows
¯ ¯
|h0 (z0 )| = lim ¯ψ 0n (z0 )¯ = η (27.11)
n→∞
and for all z ∈ Ω,

|h (z)| = lim |ψ n (z)| ≤ 1. (27.12)
n→∞
By 27.11, h is not a constant. Therefore, in fact, |h (z)| < 1 for all z ∈ Ω in

27.12 by the open mapping theorem.
Next it must be shown that h is one to one in order to conclude h ∈ F. Pick
z1 ∈ Ω and suppose z2 is another point of Ω. Since the zeros of h − h (z1 ) have no
limit point, there exists a circular contour bounding a circle which contains z2 but
not z1 such that γ ∗ contains no zeros of h − h (z1 ).
¾
γ
t ? t
z1 z2 6
Using the theorem on counting zeros, Theorem 25.20, and the fact that ψ n is
one to one,
Z
1 ψ 0n (w)
0 = lim dw
n→∞ 2πi γ ψ n (w) − ψ n (z1 )
Z
1 h0 (w)
= dw,
2πi γ h (w) − h (z1 )
which shows that h − h (z1 ) has no zeros in B (z2 , r) . In particular z2 is not a zero of
h − h (z1 ) . This shows that h is one to one since z2 6= z1 was arbitrary. Therefore,
h ∈ F. It only remains to verify that h (z0 ) = 0.
If h (z0 ) 6= 0,consider φh(z0 ) ◦ h where φα is the fractional linear transformation
defined in Lemma 27.9. By this lemma it follows φh(z0 ) ◦ h ∈ F. Now using the
chain rule,
¯³ ´0 ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ 0 ¯
¯ φh(z ) ◦ h (z0 )¯ = ¯φh(z0 ) (h (z0 ))¯ |h0 (z0 )|
¯ 0 ¯
¯ ¯
¯ 1 ¯
¯ ¯ 0
= ¯ ¯ |h (z0 )|
¯ 1 − |h (z0 )|2 ¯
¯ ¯
¯ 1 ¯
¯ ¯
= ¯ 2 ¯η > η
¯ 1 − |h (z0 )| ¯
Contradicting the definition of η. This proves Claim 2.

Claim 3: The function, h just obtained maps Ω onto B (0, 1).
Proof of Claim 3: To show h is onto, use the fractional linear transformation
of Lemma 27.9. Suppose h is not onto. Then there exists α ∈ B (0, 1) \ h (Ω) . Then
0 6= φα ◦ h (z) for all z ∈ Ω because
h (z) − α
φα ◦ h (z) =
1 − αh (z)
and it is assumed α ∈/ h (Ω) . Therefore, p

since Ω has the square root property, you
can consider an analytic function z → φα ◦ h (z). This function is one to one
because both φα and h are. Also, the values of this function are in B (0, 1) by
Lemma 27.9 so it is in F.
Now let p
ψ ≡ φ√ ◦ φ ◦ h.
φα ◦h(z0 ) α (27.13)
Thus p
ψ (z0 ) = φ√φ ◦ φα ◦ h (z0 ) = 0
α ◦h(z0 )
and ψ is a one to one mapping of Ω into B (0, 1) so ψ is also in F. Therefore,

¯³ ´0 ¯
¯ 0 ¯ ¯ p ¯
¯ψ (z0 )¯ ≤ η, ¯ φ ◦ h (z ) ¯
0 ¯ ≤ η. (27.14)
¯ α
Define s (w) ≡ w2 . Then using Lemma 27.9, in particular, the description of φ−1
α =
φ−α , you can solve 27.13 for h to obtain
h (z) = φ−α ◦ s ◦ φ−√φ ◦h(z ) ◦ ψ

α 0
 ≡F

z }| {
= φ−α ◦ s ◦ φ−√φ ◦h(z ) ◦ ψ  (z)
α 0
= (F ◦ ψ) (z) (27.15)
Now
F (0) = φ−α ◦ s ◦ φ−√φ (0) = φ−1

α (φα ◦ h (z0 )) = h (z0 ) = 0
α ◦h(z0 )
and F maps B (0, 1) into B (0, 1). Also, F is not one to one because it maps B (0, 1)
to B (0, 1) and has s in its definition. Thus there exists z1 ∈ B (0, 1) such that
φ−√φ ◦h(z ) (z1 ) = − 21 and another point z2 ∈ B (0, 1) such that φ−√φ ◦h(z ) (z2 ) =
α 0 α 0
1
2. However, thanks to s, F (z1 ) = F (z2 ).
Since F (0) = h (z0 ) = 0, you can apply the Schwarz lemma to F . Since F is
not one to one, it can’t be true that F (z) = λz for |λ| = 1 and so by the Schwarz
lemma it must be the case that |F 0 (0)| < 1. But this implies from 27.15 and 27.14
that
¯ ¯
η = |h0 (z0 )| = |F 0 (ψ (z0 ))| ¯ψ 0 (z0 )¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
= |F 0 (0)| ¯ψ 0 (z0 )¯ < ¯ψ 0 (z0 )¯ ≤ η,

The following lemma yields the usual form of the Riemann mapping theorem.
Lemma 27.13 Let Ω be a simply connected region with Ω 6= C. Then Ω has the
square root property.
0
Proof: Let f and both be analytic on Ω. Then ff is analytic on Ω so by
1
f
0
Corollary 24.50, there exists Fe, analytic on Ω such that Fe0 = ff on Ω. Then
³ ´0
e e e
f e−F = 0 and so f (z) = CeF = ea+ib eF . Now let F = Fe + a + ib. Then F is
1
still a primitive of f 0 /f and f (z) = eF (z) . Now let φ (z) ≡ e 2 F (z) . Then φ is the
desired square root and so Ω has the square root property.
Corollary 27.14 (Riemann mapping theorem) Let Ω be a simply connected region

with Ω 6= C and let z0 ∈ Ω. Then there exists a function, f : Ω → B (0, 1) such
that f is one to one, analytic, and onto with f (z0 ) = 0. Furthermore, f −1 is also
analytic.
Proof: From Theorem 27.12 and Lemma 27.13 there exists a function, f : Ω →
B (0, 1) which is one to one, onto, and analytic such that f (z0 ) = 0. The assertion
that f −1 is analytic follows from the open mapping theorem.
27.4 Analytic Continuation

27.4.1 Regular And Singular Points
Given a function which is analytic on some set, can you extend it to an analytic
function defined on a larger set? Sometimes you can do this. It was done in the
proof of the Cauchy integral formula. There are also reflection theorems like those
discussed in the exercises starting with Problem 10 on Page 678. Here I will give a
systematic way of extending an analytic function to a larger set. I will emphasize
simply connected regions. The subject of analytic continuation is much larger than
the introduction given here. A good source for much more on this is found in Alfors
27.4. ANALYTIC CONTINUATION 747
[2]. The approach given here is suggested by Rudin [45] and avoids many of the
standard technicalities.
Definition 27.15 Let f be analytic on B (a, r) and let β ∈ ∂B (a, r) . Then β is

called a regular point of f if there exists some δ > 0 and a function, g analytic on
B (β, δ) such that g = f on B (β, δ) ∩ B (a, r) . Those points of ∂B (a, r) which are
not regular are called singular.
rβ
r a
Theorem 27.16 Suppose f is analytic on B (a, r) and the power series

∞
X k
f (z) = ak (z − a)
k=0
has radius of convergence r. Then there exists a singular point on ∂B (a, r).
Proof: If not, then for every z ∈ ∂B (a, r) there exists δ z > 0 and gz analytic
on B (z, δ z ) such that gz = f on B (z, δ z ) ∩ B (a, r) . Since ∂B (a, r) is compact,
n
there exist z1 , · · ·, zn , points in ∂B (a, r) such that {B (zk , δ zk )}k=1 covers ∂B (a, r) .
Now define ½
f (z) if z ∈ B (a, r)
g (z) ≡
gzk (z) if z ∈ B (zk , δ zk )
¡ ¢
Is this well defined? If z ∈ B (zi , δ zi ) ∩ B zj , δ zj , is gzi (z) = gzj (z)? Consider the
following picture representing this situation.
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
You see that if z ∈ B (zi , δ zi ) ∩ B zj , δ zj then I ≡ B (zi , δ zi ) ∩ B zj , δ zj ∩
B (a, r) is a nonempty open set. ¡Both g¢zi and gzj equal f on I. Therefore, they
must be equal on B (zi , δ zi ) ∩ B zj , δ zj because I has a limit point. Therefore,
g is well defined and analytic on an open set containing B (a, r). Since g agrees
with f on B (a, r) , the power series for g is the same as the power series for f and
converges on a ball which is larger than B (a, r) contrary to the assumption that the
radius of convergence of the above power series equals r. This proves the theorem.
27.4.2 Continuation Along A Curve

Next I will describe what is meant by continuation along a curve. The following
definition is standard and is found in Rudin [45].
Definition 27.17 A function element is an ordered pair, (f, D) where D is an open

ball and f is analytic on D. (f0 , D0 ) and (f1 , D1 ) are direct continuations of each
other if D1 ∩ D0 6= ∅ and f0 = f1 on D1 ∩ D0 . In this case I will write (f0 , D0 ) ∼
(f1 , D1 ) . A chain is a finite sequence, of disks, {D0 , · · ·, Dn } such that Di−1 ∩ Di 6=
∅. If (f0 , D0 ) is a given function element and there exist function elements, (fi , Di )
such that {D0 , · · ·, Dn } is a chain and (fj−1 , Dj−1 ) ∼ (fj , Dj ) then (fn , Dn ) is
called the analytic continuation of (f0 , D0 ) along the chain {D0 , · · ·, Dn }. Now
suppose γ is an oriented curve with parameter interval [a, b] and there exists a chain,
{D0 , · · ·, Dn } such that γ ∗ ⊆ ∪nk=1 Dk , γ (a) is the center of D0 , γ (b) is the center
of Dn , and there is an increasing list of numbers in [a, b] , a = s0 < s1 · ·· < sn = b
such that γ ([si , si+1 ]) ⊆ Di and (fn , Dn ) is an analytic continuation of (f0 , D0 )
along the chain. Then (fn , Dn ) is called an analytic continuation of (f0 , D0 ) along
the curve γ. (γ will always be a continuous curve. Nothing more is needed. )
In the above situation it does not follow that if Dn ∩ D0 6= ∅, that fn = f0 ! How-

ever, there are some cases where this will happen. This is the monodromy theorem
which follows. This is as far as I will go on the subject of analytic continuation. For
more on this subject including a development of the concept of Riemann surfaces,
see Alfors [2].
Lemma 27.18 Suppose (f, B (0, r)) for r < 1 is a function element and (f, B (0, r))
can be analytically continued along every curve in B (0, 1) that starts at 0. Then
there exists an analytic function, g defined on B (0, 1) such that g = f on B (0, r) .
Proof: Let
R = sup{r1 ≥ r such that there exists gr1

analytic on B (0, r1 ) which agrees with f on B (0, r) .}
Define gR (z) ≡ gr1 (z) where |z| < r1 . This is well defined because if you use r1
and r2 , both gr1 and gr2 agree with f on B (0, r), a set with a limit point and so
the two functions agree at every point in both B (0, r1 ) and B (0, r2 ). Thus gR is
analytic on B (0, R) . If R < 1, then by the assumption there are no singular points
on B (0, R) and so Theorem 27.16 implies the radius of convergence of the power
series for gR is larger than R contradicting the choice of R. Therefore, R = 1 and
this proves the lemma. Let g = gR .
The following theorem is the main result in this subject, the monodromy theo-
rem.
27.5. THE PICARD THEOREMS 749
Theorem 27.19 Let Ω be a simply connected proper subset of C and suppose

(f, B (a, r)) is a function element with B (a, r) ⊆ Ω. Suppose also that this function
element can be analytically continued along every curve through a. Then there exists
G analytic on Ω such that G agrees with f on B (a, r).
Proof: By the Riemann mapping theorem, there exists h : Ω → B (0, 1) which

is analytic, one to one and onto such that f (a) = 0. Since h is an open map, there
exists δ > 0 such that
B (0, δ) ⊆ h (B (a, r)) .
It follows f ◦ h−1 can be analytically continued along every curve through 0. By
Lemma 27.18 there exists g analytic on B (0, 1) which agrees
¡ −1with f¢ ◦h−1 on B (0, δ).
−1
Define G (z) ≡ g¡(h (z)) . ¢For z = h (w) , it follows G h (w) = g (w) . If w ∈
B (0, δ) , then G h−1 (w) = f ◦ h−1 (w) and so G = f on h−1 (B (0, δ)) , an open
set contained in B (a, r). Therefore, G = f on B (a, r) because h−1 (B (0, δ)) has a
limit point. This proves the theorem.
Actually, you sometimes want to consider the case where Ω = C. This requires
a small modification to obtain from the above theorem.
Corollary 27.20 Suppose (f, B (a, r)) is a function element with B (a, r) ⊆ C.
Suppose also that this function element can be analytically continued along every
curve through a. Then there exists G analytic on C such that G agrees with f on
B (a, r).
Proof: Let Ω1 ≡ {z ∈ C : a + it : t > a} and Ω2 ≡ {z ∈ C : a − it : t > a} . Here

is a picture of Ω1 .
Ω1
r
a
A picture of Ω2 is similar except the line extends down from the boundary of
B (a, r).
Thus B (a, r) ⊆ Ωi and Ωi is simply connected and proper. By Theorem 27.19
there exist analytic functions, Gi analytic on Ωi such that Gi = f on B (a, r). Thus
G1 = G2 on B (a, r) , a set with a limit point. Therefore, G1 = G2 on Ω1 ∩ Ω2 . Now
let G (z) = Gi (z) where z ∈ Ωi . This is well defined and analytic on C. This proves
the corollary.
27.5 The Picard Theorems

The Picard theorem says that if f is an entire function and there are two complex
numbers not contained in f (C) , then f is constant. This is certainly one of the
most amazing things which could be imagined. However, this is only the little
Picard theorem. The big Picard theorem is even more incredible. This one asserts
that to be non constant the entire function must take every value of C but two
infinitely many times! I will begin with the little Picard theorem. The method of
proof I will use is the one found in Saks and Zygmund [47], Conway [13] and Hille
[27]. This is not the way Picard did it in 1879. That approach is very different and
is presented at the end of the material on elliptic functions. This approach is much
more recent dating it appears from around 1924.
Lemma 27.21 Let f be analytic on a region containing B (0, r) and suppose
|f 0 (0)| = b > 0, f (0) = 0,
³ 2 2´
and |f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ B (0, r). Then f (B (0, r)) ⊇ B 0, r6M
b
.
Proof: By assumption,
∞
X
f (z) = ak z k , |z| ≤ r. (27.16)
k=0
Then by the Cauchy integral formula for the derivative,

Z
1 f (w)
ak = dw
2πi ∂B(0,r) wk+1
where the integral is in the counter clockwise direction. Therefore,
Z 2π ¯¯ ¡ iθ ¢¯¯
1 f re M
|ak | ≤ k
dθ ≤ k .
2π 0 r r
In particular, br ≤ M . Therefore, from 27.16
³ ´2
|z|
∞
X M M r
k
|f (z)| ≥ b |z| − |z| = b |z| −
rk 1− |z|
k=2 r
2
M |z|
= b |z| −
r2 − r |z|
r2 b
Suppose |z| = 4M < r. Then this is no larger than
1 2 2 3M − br 1 3M − M r 2 b2
b r ≥ b2 r 2 = .
4 M (4M − br) 4 M (4M − M ) 6M
r2 b r2 b
Let |w| < 4M . Then for |z| = 4M and the above,
r2 b
|w| = |(f (z) − w) − f (z)| < ≤ |f (z)|
4M
and so by Rouche’s
³ ´ theorem, z → f (z) − w and z → f (z) have the same number of
r2 b
zeros in B 0, 4M . But f has at least one zero in this ball and so this shows there
³ ´
r2 b
exists at least one z ∈ B 0, 4M such that f (z) − w = 0. This proves the lemma.
27.5.1 Two Competing Lemmas

Lemma 27.21 is a really nice lemma but there is something even better, Bloch’s
lemma. This lemma does not depend on the bound of f . Like the above two
lemmas it is interesting for its own sake and in addition is the key to a fairly short
1
proof of Picard’s theorem. It features the number 24 . The best constant is not
currently known.
Lemma 27.22 Let f be analytic on an open set containing B (0, R) and suppose
|f 0 (0)| > 0. Then there exists a ∈ B (0, R) such that
µ ¶
|f 0 (0)| R
f (B (0, R)) ⊇ B f (a) , .
24
Proof: Let K (ρ) ≡ max {|f 0 (z)| : |z| = ρ} . For simplicity, let Cρ ≡ {z : |z| = ρ}.
Claim: K is continuous from the left.
Proof of claim: Let zρ ∈ Cρ such that |f 0 (zρ )| = K (ρ) . Then by the maximum
modulus theorem, if λ ∈ (0, 1) ,
|f 0 (λzρ )| ≤ K (λρ) ≤ K (ρ) = |f 0 (zρ )| .
Letting λ → 1 yields the claim.

Let ρ0 be the largest such that (R − ρ0 ) K (ρ0 ) = R |f 0 (0)| . (Note (R − 0) K (0) =
R |f 0 (0)| .) Thus ρ0 < R because (R − R) K (R) = 0. Let |a| = ρ0 such that
|f 0 (a)| = K (ρ0 ). Thus
|f 0 (a)| (R − ρ0 ) = |f 0 (0)| R (27.17)
R−ρ0
Now let r = 2 . From 27.17,
1 0
|f 0 (a)| r = |f (0)| R, B (a, r) ⊆ B (0, ρ0 + r) ⊆ B (0, R) . (27.18)
2
ra
r
0
Therefore, if z ∈ B (a, r) , it follows from the maximum modulus theorem and

the definition of ρ0 that
R |f 0 (0)| 2R |f 0 (0)|
|f 0 (z)| ≤ K (ρ0 + r) < =
R − ρ0 − r R − ρ0
0 0
2R |f (0)| R |f (0)|
= = (27.19)
2r r
Let g (z) = f (a + z) − f (a) where z ∈ B (0, r) . Then |g 0 (0)| = |f 0 (a)| > 0 and
for z ∈ B (0, r),
¯Z ¯
¯ ¯ R |f 0 (0)|
¯ 0 ¯
|g (z)| ≤ ¯ g (w) dw¯ ≤ |z − a| = R |f 0 (0)| .
¯ γ(a,z) ¯ r
By Lemma 27.21 and 27.18,

Ã !
2
r2 |f 0 (a)|
g (B (0, r)) ⊇ B 0,
6R |f 0 (0)|
Ã ¡1 0 ¢2 ! µ ¶
r2 2r |f (0)| R |f 0 (0)| R
= B 0, = B 0,
6R |f 0 (0)| 24
Now g (B (0, r)) = f (B (a, r)) − f (a) and so this implies

µ ¶
|f 0 (0)| R
f (B (0, R)) ⊇ f (B (a, r)) ⊇ B f (a) , .
24
Here is a slightly more general version which allows the center of the open set
to be arbitrary.
Lemma 27.23 Let f be analytic on an open set containing B (z0 , R) and suppose
|f 0 (z0 )| > 0. Then there exists a ∈ B (z0 , R) such that
µ ¶
|f 0 (z0 )| R
f (B (z0 , R)) ⊇ B f (a) , .
24
Proof: You look at g (z) ≡ f (z0 + z) − f (z0 ) for z ∈ B (0, R) . Then g 0 (0) =
0
f (z0 ) and so by Lemma 27.22 there exists a1 ∈ B (0, R) such that
µ ¶
|f 0 (z0 )| R
g (B (0, R)) ⊇ B g (a1 ) , .
24
Now g (B (0, R)) = f (B (z0 , R)) − f (z0 ) and g (a1 ) = f (a) − f (z0 ) for some a ∈
B (z0 , R) and so
µ ¶
|f 0 (z0 )| R
f (B (z0 , R)) − f (z0 ) ⊇ B g (a1 ) ,
24
µ ¶
|f 0 (z0 )| R
= B f (a) − f (z0 ) ,
24
which implies µ ¶
|f 0 (z0 )| R
f (B (z0 , R)) ⊇ B f (a) ,
24
as claimed. This proves the lemma.
No attempt was made to find the best number to multiply by R |f 0 (z0 )|. A
discussion of this is given in Conway [13]. See also [27]. Much larger numbers than
1/24 are available and there is a conjecture due to Alfors about the best value. The
conjecture is that 1/24 can be replaced with
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Γ 13 Γ 11
12
¡ √ ¢1/2 ¡ 1 ¢ ≈ . 471 86
1+ 3 Γ 4
You can see there is quite a gap between the constant for which this lemma is proved
above and what is thought to be the best constant.
Bloch’s lemma above gives the existence of a ball of a certain size inside the
image of a ball. By contrast the next lemma leads to conditions under which the
values of a function do not contain a ball of certain radius. It concerns analytic
functions which do not achieve the values 0 and 1.
Lemma 27.24 Let F denote the set of functions, f defined on Ω, a simply con-
nected region which do not achieve the values 0 and 1. Then for each such function,
it is possible to define a function analytic on Ω, H (z) by the formula
"r r #
log (f (z)) log (f (z))
H (z) ≡ log − −1 .
2πi 2πi
There exists a constant C independent of f ∈ F such that H (Ω) does not contain
any ball of radius C.
Proof: Let f ∈ F . Then since f does not take the value 0, there exists g1 a
primitive of f 0 /f . Thus
d ¡ −g1 ¢
e f =0
dz
so there exists a, b such that f (z) e−g1 (z) = ea+bi . Letting g (z) = g1 (z) + a + ib, it
follows eg(z) = f (z). Let log (f (z)) = g (z). Then for n ∈ Z, the integers,
, − 1 6= n
2πi 2πi
because if equality held, then f (z) = 1 which does not happen. It follows log(f (z))
2πi
and log(f
2πi
(z))
− 1 are never equal to zero. Therefore, using the same reasoning, you
can define a logarithm of these two quantities and therefore, a square root. Hence
there exists a function analytic on Ω,
r r
− − 1. (27.20)
2πi 2πi
√ √
For n a positive integer, this function cannot equal n ± n − 1 because if it did,
then Ãr r !
log (f (z)) log (f (z)) √ √
− −1 = n± n−1 (27.21)
2πi 2πi
and you could take reciprocals of both sides to obtain
Ãr r !
log (f (z)) log (f (z)) √ √
+ − 1 = n ∓ n − 1. (27.22)
2πi 2πi
Then adding 27.21 and 27.22

r
log (f (z)) √
2 =2 n
2πi
which contradicts the above observation that log(f (z))

2πi is not equal to an integer.
Also, the function of 27.20 is never equal to zero. Therefore, you can define the
logarithm of this function also. It follows
Ãr r !
log (f (z)) log (f (z)) ¡√ √ ¢
H (z) ≡ log − − 1 6= ln n ± n − 1 + 2mπi
2πi 2πi
where m is an arbitrary integer and n is a positive integer. Now

¡√ √ ¢
lim ln n + n − 1 = ∞
n→∞
¡√ √ ¢
and limn→∞ ln n − n − 1 = −∞ and so C is covered by rectangles having
¡√ √ ¢
vertices at points ln n ± n − 1 + 2mπi as described above. Each of these
rectangles has height equal to 2π and a short computation shows their widths are
bounded. Therefore, there exists C independent of f ∈ F such that C is larger
than the diameter of all these rectangles. Hence H (Ω) cannot contain any ball of
radius larger than C.
27.5.2 The Little Picard Theorem

Now here is the little Picard theorem. It is easy to prove from the above.
Theorem 27.25 If h is an entire function which omits two values then h is a

constant.
Proof: Suppose the two values omitted are a and b and that h is not constant.
Let f (z) = (h (z) − a) / (b − a). Then f omits the two values 0 and 1. Let H be
defined in Lemma 27.24. Then H (z) is clearly
¡√ not√ of the¢form az +b because then it
would have values equal to the vertices ln n ± n − 1 +2mπi or else be constant
neither of which happen if h is not constant. Therefore, by Liouville’s theorem, H 0
must be unbounded. Pick ξ such that |H 0 (ξ)| > 24C where C is such that H (C)
contains no balls of radius larger than C. But by Lemma 27.23 H (B (ξ, 1)) must
|H 0 (ξ)|
contain a ball of radius 24 > 24C 24 = C, a contradiction. This proves Picard’s
theorem.
The following is another formulation of this theorem.
Corollary 27.26 If f is a meromophic function defined on C which omits three

distinct values, a, b, c, then f is a constant.
Proof: Let φ (z) ≡ z−a b−c

z−c b−a . Then φ (c) = ∞, φ (a) = 0, and φ (b) = 1. Now
consider the function, h = φ ◦ f. Then h misses the three points ∞, 0, and 1. Since
h is meromorphic and does not have ∞ in its values, it must actually be analytic.
Thus h is an entire function which misses the two values 0 and 1. Therefore, h is
constant by Theorem 27.25.
27.5.3 Schottky’s Theorem

Lemma 27.27 Let f be analytic on an open set containing B (0, R) and suppose
that f does not take on either of the two values 0 or 1. Also suppose |f (0)| ≤ β.
Then letting θ ∈ (0, 1) , it follows
|f (z)| ≤ M (β, θ)
for all z ∈ B (0, θR) , where M (β, θ) is a function of only the two variables β, θ.
(In particular, there is no dependence on R.)
Proof: Consider the function, H (z) used in Lemma 27.24 given by

Ãr r !
H (z) ≡ log − −1 . (27.23)
2πi 2πi
You notice there are two explicit uses of logarithms. Consider first the logarithm
inside the radicals. Choose this logarithm such that
log (f (0)) = ln |f (0)| + i arg (f (0)) , arg (f (0)) ∈ (−π, π]. (27.24)
You can do this because
elog(f (0)) = f (0) = eln|f (0)| eiα = eln|f (0)|+iα
and by replacing α with α + 2mπ for a suitable integer, m it follows the above
equation still holds. Therefore, you can assume 27.24. Similar reasoning applies to
the logarithm on the outside of the parenthesis. It can be assumed H (0) equals
¯r ¯ Ãr !
¯ log (f (0)) r log (f (0)) ¯ log (f (0))
r
log (f (0))
¯ ¯
ln ¯ − − 1¯ + i arg − −1
¯ 2πi 2πi ¯ 2πi 2πi
(27.25)
where the imaginary part is no larger than π in absolute value.

Now if ξ ∈ B (0, R) is a point where H 0 (ξ) 6= 0, then by Lemma 27.22
µ ¶
|H 0 (ξ)| (R − |ξ|)
H (B (ξ, R − |ξ|)) ⊇ B H (a) ,
24
where a is some point in B (ξ, R − |ξ|). But by Lemma 27.24 H (B (ξ, R − |ξ|))
contains no balls of radius C where ¡C√depended
√ only
¢ on the maximum diameters of
those rectangles having vertices ln n ± n − 1 + 2mπi for n a positive integer
and m an integer. Therefore,
|H 0 (ξ)| (R − |ξ|)
<C
24
and consequently
24C
|H 0 (ξ)| < .
R − |ξ|
Even if H 0 (ξ) = 0, this inequality still holds. Therefore, if z ∈ B (0, R) and γ (0, z)
is the straight segment from 0 to z,
¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ 1 ¯
¯ ¯ ¯
|H (z) − H (0)| = ¯ 0
H (w) dw¯ = ¯ H (tz) zdt¯¯
0
¯ γ(0,z) ¯ 0
Z 1 Z 1
24C
≤ |H 0 (tz) z| dt ≤ |z| dt
0 R − t |z|
µ ¶ 0
R
= 24C ln .
R − |z|
Therefore, for z ∈ ∂B (0, θR) ,
µ ¶
1
|H (z)| ≤ |H (0)| + 24C ln . (27.26)
1−θ
By the maximum modulus theorem, the above inequality holds for all |z| < θR also.
Next I will use 27.23 to get an inequality for |f (z)| in terms of |H (z)|. From
27.23, Ãr r !
H (z) = log − −1
2πi 2πi
and so
Ãr r !2
2H (z) = log − −1
2πi 2πi
Ãr r !−2
−2H (z) = log − −1
2πi 2πi
Ãr r !2
= log + −1
2πi 2πi
Therefore,
Ãr r !2
+ −1
2πi 2πi
Ãr r !2
+ − −1
2πi 2πi
= exp (2H (z)) + exp (−2H (z))
and
µ ¶
log (f (z)) 1
−1 = (exp (2H (z)) + exp (−2H (z))) .
πi 2
Thus
πi
log (f (z)) = πi + (exp (2H (z)) + exp (−2H (z)))
2
which shows
¯ · ¸¯
¯ πi ¯
|f (z)| = ¯¯exp (exp (2H (z)) + exp (−2H (z))) ¯¯
2
¯ ¯
¯ πi ¯
≤ exp ¯¯ (exp (2H (z)) + exp (−2H (z)))¯¯
2
¯π ¯
¯ ¯
≤ exp ¯ (|exp (2H (z))| + |exp (−2H (z))|)¯
¯π2 ¯
¯ ¯
≤ exp ¯ (exp (2 |H (z)|) + exp (|−2H (z)|))¯
2
= exp (π exp 2 |H (z)|) .
Now from 27.26 this is dominated by

µ µ µ ¶¶¶
1
exp π exp 2 |H (0)| + 24C ln
1−θ
µ µ µ ¶¶¶
1
= exp π exp (2 |H (0)|) exp 48C ln (27.27)
1−θ
Consider exp (2 |H (0)|). I want to obtain an inequality for this which involves
β. This is where I will use the convention about the logarithms discussed above.
From 27.25,
¯ Ãr r !¯
¯ log (f (0)) log (f (0)) ¯
¯ ¯
2 |H (0)| = 2 ¯log − −1 ¯
¯ 2πi 2πi ¯
Ã ¯r ¯!2 1/2
¯ log (f (0)) r log (f (0)) ¯
¯ ¯
≤ 2  ln ¯ − − 1¯ + π 2 
¯ 2πi 2πi ¯
¯ Ã¯r ¯ ¯ ¯!¯2 1/2
¯ ¯ log (f (0)) ¯ ¯r log (f (0)) ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
≤ 2 ¯ln ¯ ¯+¯ − 1¯ ¯ + π 2 
¯ ¯ 2πi ¯ ¯ 2πi ¯ ¯
¯ Ã¯r ¯ ¯r ¯!¯
¯ ¯ log (f (0)) ¯ ¯ log (f (0)) ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
≤ 2 ¯ln ¯ ¯+¯ − 1¯ ¯ + 2π
¯ ¯ 2πi ¯ ¯ 2πi ¯ ¯
µ µ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯¶¶
¯ log (f (0)) ¯ ¯ log (f (0)) ¯
≤ ln 2 ¯¯ ¯+¯
¯ ¯ − 1¯¯ + 2π
2πi 2πi
µµ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯¶¶
¯ log (f (0)) ¯ ¯ log (f (0)) ¯
= ln ¯ ¯+¯ − 2 ¯ + 2π (27.28)
¯ πi ¯ ¯ πi ¯
¯ ¯
¯ (0)) ¯
Consider ¯ log(f
πi ¯
log (f (0)) ln |f (0)| arg (f (0))

=− i+
πi π π
and so
¯ ¯ Ã¯ ¯ µ ¶2 !1/2
¯ log (f (0)) ¯ ¯ ln |f (0)| ¯2
¯ ¯ = ¯ ¯ + arg (f (0))
¯ πi ¯ ¯ π ¯ π
Ã¯ ¯2 ³ ´ !1/2
¯ ln β ¯ π 2
≤ ¯ ¯
¯ π ¯ + π
Ã¯ ¯ !1/2
¯ ln β ¯2
= ¯ ¯
¯ π ¯ +1 .
Similarly,
¯ ¯ Ã¯ ¯ !1/2
¯ log (f (0)) ¯ ¯ ln β ¯2
¯ − 2¯¯ ≤ ¯ ¯ + (2 + 1)2
¯ πi ¯ π ¯
Ã¯ ¯ !1/2
¯ ln β ¯2
= ¯ ¯ +9
¯ π ¯
It follows from 27.28 that

 Ã !1/2 
¯ ¯
¯ ln β ¯2
2 |H (0)| ≤ ln 2 ¯¯ ¯ +9  + 2π.
π ¯
Hence from 27.27

|f (z)| ≤
   Ã !1/2   
¯ ¯ µ µ ¶¶
¯ ln β ¯2 1
exp π exp ln 2 ¯¯ ¯ +9  + 2π  exp 48C ln 
π ¯ 1−θ
and so, letting M (β, θ) be given by the above expression on the right, the lemma
is proved.
The following theorem will be referred to as Schottky’s theorem. It looks just
like the above lemma except it is only assumed that f is analytic on B (0, R) rather
than on an open set containing B (0, R). Also, the case of an arbitrary center is
included along with arbitrary points which are not attained as values of the function.
Theorem 27.28 Let f be analytic on B (z0 , R) and suppose that f does not take
on either of the two distinct values a or b. Also suppose |f (z0 )| ≤ β. Then letting
θ ∈ (0, 1) , it follows
|f (z)| ≤ M (a, b, β, θ)
for all z ∈ B (z0 , θR) , where M (a, b, β, θ) is a function of only the variables β, θ,a, b.
(In particular, there is no dependence on R.)
Proof: First you can reduce to the case where the two values are 0 and 1 by
considering
f (z) − a
h (z) ≡ .
b−a
If there exists an estimate of the desired sort for h, then there exists such an estimate
for f. Of course here the function, M would depend on a and b. Therefore, there is
no loss of generality in assuming the points which are missed are 0 and 1.
Apply Lemma 27.27 to B (0, R1 ) for the function, g (z) ≡ f (z0 + z) and R1 < R.
Then if β ≥ |f (z0 )| = |g (0)| , it follows |g (z)| = |f (z0 + z)| ≤ M (β, θ) for every
z ∈ B (0, θR1 ) . Now let θ ∈ (0, 1) and choose R1 < R large enough that θR = θ1 R1
where θ1 ∈ (0, 1) . Then if |z − z0 | < θR, it follows
|f (z)| ≤ M (β, θ1 ) .
Now let R1 → R so θ1 → θ.
27.5.4 A Brief Review

b For convenience it is listed here again.
First recall the definition of the metric on C.
2
Consider the unit sphere, S given by (z − 1) + y 2 + x2 = 1. Define a map from the
2
complex plane to the surface of this sphere as follows. Extend a line from the point,
p in the complex plane to the point (0, 0, 2) on the top of this sphere and let θ (p)
denote the point of this sphere which the line intersects. Define θ (∞) ≡ (0, 0, 2).
(0, 0,
s 2)
@
@
s @ sθ(p)
(0, 0, 1) @
@
@ p
@s C
−1
Then θ is sometimes called sterographic projection. The mapping θ is clearly
continuous because it takes converging sequences, to converging sequences. Fur-
thermore, it is clear that θ−1 is also continuous. In terms of the extended complex
b a sequence, zn converges to ∞ if and only if θzn converges to (0, 0, 2) and
plane, C,
a sequence, zn converges to z ∈ C if and only if θ (zn ) → θ (z) .
b
In fact this makes it easy to define a metric on C.
Definition 27.29 Let z, w ∈ C. b Then let d (x, y) ≡ |θ (z) − θ (w)| where this last
distance is the usual distance measured in R3 .
³ ´
Theorem 27.30 C, b d is a compact, hence complete metric space.
Proof: Suppose {zn } is a sequence in C. b This means {θ (zn )} is a sequence in

2
S which is compact. Therefore, there exists a subsequence, {θznk } and a point,
z ∈ S 2 such that θznk → θz in S 2 which implies immediately that d (znk , z) → 0.
A compact metric space must be complete.
Also recall the interesting fact that meromorphic functions are continuous with
values in C b which is reviewed here for convenience. It came from the theory of
classification of isolated singularities.
b be meromorphic.
Theorem 27.31 Let Ω be an open subset of C and let f : Ω → C
b
Then f is continuous with respect to the metric, d on C.
Proof: Let zn → z where z ∈ Ω. Then if z is a pole, it follows from Theorem
24.38 that
d (f (zn ) , ∞) ≡ d (f (zn ) , f (z)) → 0.
If z is not a pole, then f (zn ) → f (z) in C which implies |θ (f (zn )) − θ (f (z))| =
d (f (zn ) , f (z)) → 0. Recall that θ is continuous on C.
The fundamental result behind all the theory about to be presented is the Ascoli
Arzela theorem also listed here for convenience.
Definition 27.32 Let (X, d) be a complete metric space. Then it is said to be
locally compact if B (x, r) is compact for each r > 0.
Thus if you have a locally compact metric space, then if {an } is a bounded
sequence, it must have a convergent subsequence.
Let K be a compact subset of Rn and consider the continuous functions which
have values in a locally compact metric space, (X, d) where d denotes the metric on
X. Denote this space as C (K, X) .
Definition 27.33 For f, g ∈ C (K, X) , where K is a compact subset of Rn and X

is a locally compact complete metric space define
ρK (f, g) ≡ sup {d (f (x) , g (x)) : x ∈ K} .
The Ascoli Arzela theorem, Theorem 6.24 is a major result which tells which
subsets of C (K, X) are sequentially compact.
Definition 27.34 Let A ⊆ C (K, X) for K a compact subset of Rn . Then A is

said to be uniformly equicontinuous if for every ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that
whenever x, y ∈ K with |x − y| < δ and f ∈ A,
d (f (x) , f (y)) < ε.
The set, A is said to be uniformly bounded if for some M < ∞, and a ∈ X,
f (x) ∈ B (a, M )
for all f ∈ A and x ∈ K.
The Ascoli Arzela theorem follows.
Theorem 27.35 Suppose K is a nonempty compact subset of Rn and A ⊆ C (K, X) ,

is uniformly bounded and uniformly equicontinuous where X is a locally compact
complete metric space. Then if {fk } ⊆ A, there exists a function, f ∈ C (K, X) and
a subsequence, fkl such that
lim ρK (fkl , f ) = 0.
l→∞
b with the metric defined above.

In the cases of interest here, X = C
27.5.5 Montel’s Theorem

The following lemma is another version of Montel’s theorem. It is this which will
make possible a proof of the big Picard theorem.
Lemma 27.36 Let Ω be a region and let F be a set of functions analytic on Ω

none of which achieve the two distinct values, a and b. If {fn } ⊆ F then one of the
following hold: Either there exists a function, f analytic on Ω and a subsequence,
{fnk } such that for any compact subset, K of Ω,
lim ||fnk − f ||K,∞ = 0. (27.29)

k→∞
or there exists a subsequence {fnk } such that for all compact subsets K,
lim ρK (fnk , ∞) = 0. (27.30)

k→∞
Proof: Let B (z0 , 2R) ⊆ Ω. There are two cases to consider. The first case is
that there exists a subsequence, nk such that {fnk (z0 )} is bounded. The second
case is that limn→∞ |fnk (z0 )| = ∞.
Consider the first case. By Theorem 27.28 {fnk (z)} is uniformly bounded on
B (z0 , R) because by
¡ this theorem,
¢ and letting θ = 1/2 applied to B (z0 , 2R) , it fol-
lows |fnk (z)| ≤ M a, b, 21 , β where β is an upper bound to the numbers, |fnk©(z0 )|.ª
The Cauchy integral formula implies the existence of a uniform bound on the fn0 k
which implies the functions are equicontinuous and uniformly bounded. Therefore,
by the Ascoli Arzela theorem there exists a further subsequence which converges
uniformly on B (z0 , R) to a function, f analytic on B (z0 , R). Thus denoting this
subsequence by {fnk } to save on notation,
lim ||fnk − f ||B(z0 ,R),∞ = 0. (27.31)

k→∞
Consider the second case. In this case, it follows {1/fn (z0 )} is bounded on
B (z0 , R) and so by the same argument just given {1/fn (z)} is uniformly bounded
on B (z0 , R). Therefore, a subsequence converges uniformly on B (z0 , R). But
{1/fn (z)} converges to 0 and so this requires that {1/fn (z)} must converge uni-
formly to 0. Therefore,
lim ρB(z0 ,R) (fnk , ∞) = 0. (27.32)
k→∞
Now let {Dk } denote a countable set of closed balls, Dk = B (zk , Rk ) such that
B (zk , 2Rk ) ⊆ Ω and ∪∞k=1 int (Dk ) = Ω. Using a Cantor diagonal process, there
exists a subsequence, {fnk } of {fn } such that for each Dj , one of the above two
alternatives holds. That is, either
lim ||fnk − gj ||Dj ,∞ = 0 (27.33)

k→∞
or,
lim ρDj (fnk , ∞) . (27.34)
k→∞
Let A = {∪ int (Dj ) : 27.33 holds} , B = {∪ int (Dj ) : 27.34 holds} . Note that the
balls whose union is A cannot intersect any of the balls whose union is B. Therefore,
one of A or B must be empty since otherwise, Ω would not be connected.
If K is any compact subset of Ω, it follows K must be a subset of some finite
collection of the Dj . Therefore, one of the alternatives in the lemma must hold.
That the limit function, f must be analytic follows easily in the same way as the
proof in Theorem 27.7 on Page 740. You could also use Morera’s theorem. This
proves the lemma.
27.5.6 The Great Big Picard Theorem

The next theorem is the main result which the above lemmas lead to. It is the Big
Picard theorem, also called the Great Picard theorem.Recall B 0 (a, r) is the deleted
ball consisting of all the points of the ball except the center.
Theorem 27.37 Suppose f has an isolated essential singularity at 0. Then for

every R > 0, and β ∈ C, f −1 (β) ∩ B 0 (0, R) is an infinite set except for one possible
exceptional β.
Proof: Suppose this is not true. Then there exists R1 > 0 and two points, α
and β such that f −1 (β) ∩ B 0 (0, R1 ) and f −1 (α) ∩ B 0 (0, R1 ) are both finite sets.
Then shrinking R1 and calling the result R, there exists B (0, R) such that
f −1 (β) ∩ B 0 (0, R) = ∅, f −1 (α) ∩ B 0 (0, R) = ∅.

© ª
Now let A0 denote the annulus z ∈ C : 2R2 < |z| < 3R and let An denote the
© R
ª 22
annulus z ∈ C : 22+n < |z| < 23R
2+n . The reason for the 3 is to insure that An ∩
An+1 6= ∅. This follows from the observation that 3R/22+1+n > R/22+n . Now
define a set of functions on A0 as follows:
³z ´
fn (z) ≡ f n .
2
By the choice of R, this set of functions missed the two points α and β. Therefore, by
Lemma 27.36 there exists a subsequence such that one of the two options presented
there holds.
First suppose limk→∞ ||fnk − f ||K,∞ = 0 for all K a compact subset of A0 and
f is analytic on A0 . In particular, this happens for γ 0 the circular contour having
radius R/2. Thus fnk must be bounded on this contour. But this says the same
thing as f (z/2nk ) is bounded for |z| = R/2, this holding for each k = 1, 2, · · ·. Thus
there exists a constant, M such that on each of a shrinking sequence of concentric
circles whose radii converge to 0, |f (z)| ≤ M . By the maximum modulus theorem,
|f (z)| ≤ M at every point between successive circles in this sequence. Therefore,
|f (z)| ≤ M in B 0 (0, R) contradicting the Weierstrass Casorati theorem.
The other option which might hold from Lemma 27.36 is that limk→∞ ρK (fnk , ∞) =
0 for all K compact subset of A0 . Since f has an essential singularity at 0 the zeros
of f in B (0, R) are isolated. Therefore, for all k large enough, fnk has no zeros for
|z| < 3R/22 . This is because the values of fnk are the values of f on Ank , a small
anulus which avoids all the zeros of f whenever k is large enough. Only consider k
this large. Then use the above argument on the analytic functions 1/fnk . By the as-
sumption that limk→∞ ρK (fnk , ∞) = 0, it follows limk→∞ ||1/fnk − 0||K,∞ = 0 and
so as above, there exists a shrinking sequence of concentric circles whose radii con-
verge to 0 and a constant, M such that for z on any of these circles, |1/f (z)| ≤ M .
This implies that on some deleted ball, B 0 (0, r) where r ≤ R, |f (z)| ≥ 1/M which
again violates the Weierstrass Casorati theorem. This proves the theorem.
As a simple corollary, here is what this remarkable theorem says about entire
functions.
Corollary 27.38 Suppose f is entire and nonconstant and not a polynomial. Then
f assumes every complex value infinitely many times with the possible exception of
one.
P∞
Proof: Since f is entire, f (z) = n=0 an z n . Define for z 6= 0,
µ ¶ X ∞ µ ¶n
1 1
g (z) ≡ f = an .
z n=0
z
Thus 0 is an isolated essential singular point of g. By the big Picard theorem,

Theorem 27.37 it follows g takes every complex number but possibly one an infinite
number of times. This proves the corollary.
Note the difference between this and the little Picard theorem which says that
an entire function which is not constant must achieve every value but two.
27.6 Exercises
1. Prove that in Theorem 27.7 it suffices to assume F is uniformly bounded on
each compact subset of Ω.
2. Find conditions on a, b, c, d such that the fractional linear transformation,

az+b
cz+d maps the upper half plane onto the upper half plane.
3. Let D be a simply connected region which is a proper subset of C. Does there

exist an entire function, f which maps C onto D? Why or why not?
4. Verify the conclusion of Theorem 27.7 involving the higher order derivatives.
5. What if Ω = C? Does there exist an analytic function, f mapping Ω one to

one and onto B (0, 1)? Explain why or why not. Was Ω 6= C used in the proof
of the Riemann mapping theorem?
6. Verify that |φα (z)| = 1 if |z| = 1. Apply the maximum modulus theorem to
conclude that |φα (z)| ≤ 1 for all |z| < 1.
7. Suppose that |f (z)| ≤ 1 for |z| = 1 and f (α) = 0 for |α| < 1. Show that
|f (z)| ≤ |φα (z)| for all z ∈ B (0, 1) . Hint: Consider f (z)(1−αz)
z−α which has a
removable singularity at α. Show the modulus of this function is bounded by
1 on |z| = 1. Then apply the maximum modulus theorem.
8. Let U and V be open subsets of C and suppose u : U → R is harmonic while

h is an analytic map which takes V one to one onto U . Show that u ◦ h is
harmonic on V .
9. Show that for a harmonic function, u defined on B (0, R) , there exists an

analytic function, h = u + iv where
Z y Z x
v (x, y) ≡ ux (x, t) dt − uy (t, 0) dt.
0 0
27.6. EXERCISES 765
10. Suppose Ω is a simply connected region and u is a real valued function defined
on Ω such that u is harmonic. Show there exists an analytic function, f such
that u = Re f . Show this is not true if Ω is not a simply connected region.
Hint: You might use the Riemann mapping theorem and Problems 8 and
9. ¡ For the¢ second part it might be good to try something like u (x, y) =
ln x2 + y 2 on the annulus 1 < |z| < 2.
1+z
11. Show that w = 1−z maps {z ∈ C : Im z > 0 and |z| < 1} to the first quadrant,
{z = x + iy : x, y > 0} .
a1 z+b1
12. Let f (z) = az+b
cz+d and let g (z) = c1 z+d1 . Show that f ◦g (z) equals the quotient
of two expressions, the numerator being the top entry in the vector
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
a b a1 b1 z
c d c1 d1 1
and the denominator being the bottom entry. Show that if you define
µµ ¶¶
a b az + b
φ ≡ ,
c d cz + d
then φ (AB) = φ (A) ◦ φ (B) . Find an easy way to find the inverse of f (z) =
az+b
cz+d and give a condition on the a, b, c, d which insures this function has an
inverse.
13. The modular group2 is the set of fractional linear transformations, az+b
cz+d such
that a, b, c, d are integers and ad − bc = 1. Using Problem 12 or brute force
show this modular group is really a group with the group operation being
composition. Also show the inverse of az+b dz−b
cz+d is −cz+a .
14. Let Ω be a region and suppose f is analytic on Ω and that the functions fn
are also analytic on Ω and converge to f uniformly on compact subsets of Ω.
Suppose f is one to one. Can it be concluded that for an arbitrary compact
set, K ⊆ Ω that fn is one to one for all n large enough?
15. The Vitali theorem says that if Ω is a region and {fn } is a uniformly bounded
sequence of functions which converges pointwise on a set, S ⊆ Ω which has a
limit point in Ω, then in fact, {fn } must converge uniformly on compact sub-
sets of Ω to an analytic function. Prove this theorem. Hint: If the sequence
fails to converge, show you can get two different subsequences converging uni-
formly on compact sets to different functions. Then argue these two functions
coincide on S.
16. Does there exist a function analytic on B (0, 1) which maps B (0, 1) onto
B 0 (0, 1) , the open unit ball in which 0 has been deleted?
2 This is the terminology used in Rudin’s book Real and Complex Analysis.
Approximation By Rational
Functions
28.1 Runge’s Theorem

Consider the function, z1 = f (z) for z defined on Ω ≡ B (0, 1) \ {0} = B 0 (0, 1) .
Clearly f is analytic on Ω. Suppose you could approximate f uniformly by poly-
¡ ¢
nomials on ann 0, 12 , 34 , a compact
¯ subset of Ω. Then,¯ there would exist a suit-
¯ 1 R ¯ 1
able polynomial p (z) , such that ¯ 2πi γ f (z) − p (z) dz ¯ < 10 where here γ is a
2 1
R
circle of radius 3 . However, this is impossible because 2πi γ f (z) dz = 1 while
1
R
2πi γ p (z) dz = 0. This shows you can’t expect to be able to uniformly approxi-
mate analytic functions on compact sets using polynomials. This is just horrible!
In real variables, you can approximate any continuous function on a compact
set with a polynomial. However, that is just the way it is. It turns out that the
ability to approximate an analytic function on Ω with polynomials is dependent on
Ω being simply connected.
All these theorems work for f having values in a complex Banach space. How-
ever, I will present them in the context of functions which have values in C. The
changes necessary to obtain the extra generality are very minor.
Definition 28.1 Approximation will be taken with respect to the following norm.
||f − g||K,∞ ≡ sup {||f (z) − g (z)|| : z ∈ K}
28.1.1 Approximation With Rational Functions

It turns out you can approximate analytic functions by rational functions, quotients
of polynomials. The resulting theorem is one of the most profound theorems in
complex analysis. The basic idea is simple. The Riemann sums for the Cauchy
integral formula are rational functions. The idea used to implement this observation
is that if you have a compact subset,© ªK of an open set, Ω there exists a cycle
n
composed of closed oriented curves γ j j=1 which are contained in Ω \ K such that
767
768 APPROXIMATION BY RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
Pn
for every z ∈ K, k=1 n (γ k , z) = 1. One more ingredient is needed and this is a
theorem which lets you keep the approximation but move the poles.
To begin with, consider the part about the cycle of closed oriented curves. Recall
Theorem 24.52 which is stated for convenience.
Theorem 28.2 Let K be a compact subset of an open © ªset, Ω. Then there exist
m
continuous, closed, bounded variation oriented curves γ j j=1 for which γ ∗j ∩K = ∅
for each j, γ ∗j ⊆ Ω, and for all p ∈ K,
m
X
n (p, γ k ) = 1.
k=1
and
m
X
n (z, γ k ) = 0
k=1
for all z ∈
/ Ω.
This theorem implies the following.
Theorem 28.3 Let K ⊆ Ω where K is compact and Ω is open. Then there exist
oriented closed curves, γ k such that γ ∗k ∩ K = ∅ but γ ∗k ⊆ Ω, such that for all z ∈ K,
p Z
1 X f (w)
f (z) = dw. (28.1)
2πi γk w −z
k=1
Proof: This follows from Theorem 24.52 and the Cauchy integral formula. As
shown in the proof, you can assume the γ k are linear mappings but this is not
important.
Next I will show how the Cauchy integral formula leads to approximation by
rational functions, quotients of polynomials.
Lemma 28.4 Let K be a compact subset of an open set, Ω and let f be analytic
on Ω. Then there exists a rational function, Q whose poles are not in K such that
||Q − f ||K,∞ < ε.
Proof: By Theorem 28.3 there are oriented curves, γ k described there such that
for all z ∈ K,
p Z
1 X f (w)
f (z) = dw. (28.2)
2πi γk w −z
k=1
Defining g (w, z) ≡ fw−z

(w)
for (w, z) ∈ ∪pk=1 γ ∗k × K, it follows since the distance
between K and ∪k γ ∗k is positive that g is uniformly continuous and so there exists
a δ > 0 such that if ||P|| < δ, then for all z ∈ K,
¯ ¯
¯ Xp X n ¯
¯ f (γ k (τ j )) (γ k (ti ) − γ k (ti−1 )) ¯¯ ε
¯f (z) − 1
¯ 2πi γ k (τ j ) − z ¯ < 2.
¯ k=1 j=1 ¯
28.1. RUNGE’S THEOREM 769
The complicated expression is obtained by replacing each integral in 28.2 with a

Riemann sum. Simplifying the appearance of this, it follows there exists a rational
function of the form
M
X Ak
R (z) =
wk − z
k=1
where the wk are elements of components of C \ K and Ak are complex numbers or

in the case where f has values in X, these would be elements of X such that
ε
||R − f ||K,∞ < .
2
28.1.2 Moving The Poles And Keeping The Approximation

Lemma 28.4 is a nice lemma but needs refining. In this lemma, the Riemann sum
handed you the poles. It is much better if you can pick the poles. The following
theorem from advanced calculus, called Merten’s theorem, will be used
28.1.3 Merten’s Theorem.

P∞ P∞
Theorem 28.5 Suppose i=r ai and j=r bj both converge absolutely1 . Then
Ã ∞
! ∞  ∞
X X X
ai  bj  = cn
i=r j=r n=r
where
n
X
cn = ak bn−k+r .
k=r
Proof: Let pnk = 1 if r ≤ k ≤ n and pnk = 0 if k > n. Then
∞
X
cn = pnk ak bn−k+r .
k=r
1 Actually, it is only necessary to assume one of the series converges and the other converges
absolutely. This is known as Merten’s theorem and may be read in the 1974 book by Apostol
listed in the bibliography.
Also,
∞ X
X ∞ ∞
X ∞
X
pnk |ak | |bn−k+r | = |ak | pnk |bn−k+r |
k=r n=r k=r n=r
X∞ X∞
= |ak | |bn−k+r |
k=r n=k
X∞ X∞
¯ ¯
= |ak | ¯bn−(k−r) ¯
k=r n=k
X∞ X∞
= |ak | |bm | < ∞.
k=r m=r
Therefore,
∞
X ∞ X
X n ∞ X
X ∞
cn = ak bn−k+r = pnk ak bn−k+r
n=r n=r k=r n=r k=r
X∞ X ∞ X∞ ∞
X
= ak pnk bn−k+r = ak bn−k+r
k=r n=r k=r n=k
X∞ X∞
= ak bm
k=r m=r
and this proves thePtheorem.

∞
It follows that n=r cn converges absolutely. Also, you can see by induction that
you can multiply any number of absolutely convergent series together and obtain a
series which is absolutely convergent. Next, here are some similar results related to
Merten’s theorem.
P∞ P∞
Lemma 28.6 Let n=0 an (z) and n=0 bn (z) be two convergent series for z ∈ K
which satisfy the conditions of the Weierstrass M test. Thus there exist positive
constants,
P∞ An and
P∞Bn such that |an (z)| ≤ An , |bn (z)| ≤ Bn for all z ∈ K and
n=0 nA < ∞, n=0 Bn < ∞. Then defining the Cauchy product,
n
X
cn (z) ≡ an−k (z) bk (z) ,
k−0
P∞
it follows n=0 cn (z) also converges absolutely and uniformly on K because cn (z)
satisfies the conditions of the Weierstrass M test. Therefore,
∞
Ã∞ !Ã ∞ !
X X X
cn (z) = ak (z) bn (z) . (28.3)
n=0 k=0 n=0
Proof:
n
X n
X
|cn (z)| ≤ |an−k (z)| |bk (z)| ≤ An−k Bk .
k=0 k=0
Also,
∞ X
X n ∞ X
X ∞
An−k Bk = An−k Bk
n=0 k=0 k=0 n=k
X∞ X∞
= Bk An < ∞.
k=0 n=0
The claim of 28.3 follows from Merten’s theorem. This proves the lemma.
P∞
Corollary 28.7 Let P be a polynomial and let n=0 an (z) converge uniformly and
absolutely on K such that the an Psatisfy the conditions
P∞ of the Weierstrass M test.
∞
Then there exists a series for P ( n=0 an (z)) , n=0 cn (z) , which also converges
absolutely and uniformly for z ∈ K because cn (z) also satisfies the conditions of the
Weierstrass M test.
The following picture is descriptive of the following lemma. This lemma says
that if you have a rational function with one pole off a compact set, then you can
approximate on the compact set with another rational function which has a different
pole.
ub
ua K
V
Lemma 28.8 Let R be a rational function which has a pole only at a ∈ V, a

component of C \ K where K is a compact set. Suppose b ∈ V. Then for ε > 0
given, there exists a rational function, Q, having a pole only at b such that
||R − Q||K,∞ < ε. (28.4)
If it happens that V is unbounded, then there exists a polynomial, P such that
||R − P ||K,∞ < ε. (28.5)
Proof: Say that b ∈ V satisfies P if for all ε > 0 there exists a rational function,
Qb , having a pole only at b such that
||R − Qb ||K,∞ < ε
Now define a set,

S ≡ {b ∈ V : b satisfies P } .
Observe that S 6= ∅ because a ∈ S.

I claim S is open. Suppose b1 ∈ S. Then there exists a δ > 0 such that
¯ ¯
¯ b1 − b ¯ 1
¯ ¯
¯ z−b ¯< 2 (28.6)
for all z ∈ K whenever b ∈ B (b1 , δ) . In fact, it suffices to take |b − b1 | < dist (b1 , K) /4
because then
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ b1 − b ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ < ¯ dist (b1 , K) /4 ¯ ≤ dist (b1 , K) /4
¯ z−b ¯ ¯ z−b ¯ |z − b1 | − |b1 − b|
dist (b1 , K) /4 1 1
≤ ≤ < .
dist (b1 , K) − dist (b1 , K) /4 3 2
Since b1 satisfies P, there exists a rational function Qb1 with the desired prop-
erties. It is shown next that you can approximate Qb1 with Qb thus yielding an
approximation to R by the use of the triangle inequality,
||R − Qb1 ||K,∞ + ||Qb1 − Qb ||K,∞ ≥ ||R − Qb ||K,∞ .

Since Qb1 has poles only at b1 , it follows it is a sum of functions of the form
αn
(z−b1 )n .Therefore, it suffices to consider the terms of Qb1 or that Qb1 is of the
special form
1
Qb1 (z) = n.
(z − b1 )
However,
1 1
n = ³ ń
(z − b1 ) n
(z − b) 1 − b1 −b
z−b
Now from the choice of b1 , the series

X∞ µ ¶k
b1 − b 1
=³ ´
z−b 1 − bz−b
1 −b
k=0
converges absolutely independent of the choice of z ∈ K because

¯µ ¯
¯ b − b ¶k ¯ 1
¯ 1 ¯
¯ ¯ < k.
¯ z−b ¯ 2
1
By Corollary 28.7 the same is true of the series for 1 −b n
. Thus a suitable partial
(1− bz−b )
sum can be made uniformly on K as close as desired to (z−b1 1 )n . This shows that b
satisfies P whenever b is close enough to b1 verifying that S is open.
Next it is shown S is closed in V. Let bn ∈ S and suppose bn → b ∈ V. Then
since bn ∈ S, there exists a rational function, Qbn such that
ε
||Qbn − R||K,∞ < .
2
Then for all n large enough,
1
dist (b, K) ≥ |bn − b|
2
and so for all n large enough, ¯ ¯
¯ b − bn ¯ 1
¯ ¯
¯ z − bn ¯ < 2 ,
for all z ∈ K. Pick such a bn . As before, it suffices to assume Qbn , is of the form
1
(z−bn )n . Then
1 1
Qbn (z) = n = ³ ń
(z − bn ) n
(z − b) 1 − bz−bn −b
and because of the estimate, there exists M such that for all z ∈ K
¯ ¯
¯ XM µ ¶k ¯ n
¯ 1 bn − b ¯¯ ε (dist (b, K))
¯³ ń − ak < . (28.7)
¯ z−b ¯ 2
¯ 1 − bz−b
n −b
k=0 ¯
Therefore, for all z ∈ K

¯ µ ¶k ¯
¯ 1 XM
bn − b ¯¯
¯
¯Qbn (z) − n ak ¯ =
¯ (z − b) z−b ¯
k=0
¯ ¯
¯ XM µ ¶k ¯
¯ 1 1 b n − b ¯
¯ ³ ń − ak ¯ ≤
¯ n (z − b)
n
z−b ¯
¯ (z − b) 1 − bz−b
n −b
k=0 ¯
n
ε (dist (b, K)) 1 ε
n =
2 dist (b, K) 2
PM ³ ´k
1 bn −b
and so, letting Qb (z) = (z−b)n k=0 ak z−b ,
||R − Qb ||K,∞ ≤ ||R − Qbn ||K,∞ + ||Qbn − Qb ||K,∞

ε ε
< + =ε
2 2
showing that b ∈ S. Since S is both open and closed in V it follows that, since
S 6= ∅, S = V . Otherwise V would fail to be connected.
It remains to consider the case where V is unbounded. Pick b ∈ V large enough
that ¯z ¯ 1
¯ ¯
¯ ¯< (28.8)
b 2
for all z ∈ K. From what was just shown, there exists a rational function, Qb having
a pole only at b such that ||Qb − R||K,∞ < 2ε . It suffices to assume that Qb is of the
form
p (z) n 1 1
Qb (z) = n = p (z) (−1) ¡ ¢
(z − b) bn 1 − zb n
Ã∞ !n
n 1
X ³ z ´k
= p (z) (−1) n
b b
k=0
Then by an application of Corollary 28.7 there exists a partial sum of the power
series for Qb which is uniformly close to Qb on K. Therefore, you can approximate
Qb and therefore also R uniformly on K by a polynomial consisting of a partial sum
of the above infinite sum. This proves the theorem.
If f is a polynomial, then f has a pole at ∞. This will be discussed more later.
28.1.4 Runge’s Theorem

Now what follows is the first form of Runge’s theorem.
Theorem 28.9 Let K be a compact subset of an open set, Ω and let {bj } be a
set which consists of one point from each component of C b \ K. Let f be analytic
on Ω. Then for each ε > 0, there exists a rational function, Q whose poles are all
contained in the set, {bj } such that
||Q − f ||K,∞ < ε. (28.9)
b \ K has only one component, then Q may be taken to be a polynomial.

If C
Proof: By Lemma 28.4 there exists a rational function of the form

M
X Ak
R (z) =
wk − z
k=1
where the wk are elements of components of C \ K and Ak are complex numbers

such that
ε
||R − f ||K,∞ < .
2
Consider the rational function, Rk (z) ≡ wA k
k −z
where wk ∈ Vj , one of the com-
ponents of C \ K, the given point of Vj being bj . By Lemma 28.8, there exists
a function, Qk which is either a rational function having its only pole at bj or a
polynomial, depending on whether Vj is bounded such that
ε
||Rk − Qk ||K,∞ < .
2M
PM
Letting Q (z) ≡ k=1 Qk (z) ,
ε
||R − Q||K,∞ < .
2
It follows
||f − Q||K,∞ ≤ ||f − R||K,∞ + ||R − Q||K,∞ < ε.
In the case of only one component of C \ K, this component is the unbounded
component and so you can take Q to be a polynomial. This proves the theorem.
The next version of Runge’s theorem concerns the case where the given points
are contained in C b \ Ω for Ω an open set rather than a compact set. Note that here
there could be uncountably many components of C b \ Ω because the components are
no longer open sets. An easy example of this phenomenon in one dimension is where
Ω = [0, 1] \ P for P the Cantor set. Then you can show that R \ Ω has uncountably
many components. Nevertheless, Runge’s theorem will follow from Theorem 28.9
with the aid of the following interesting lemma.
Lemma 28.10 Let Ω be an open set in C. Then there exists a sequence of compact
sets, {Kn } such that
Ω = ∪∞
k=1 Kn , · · ·, Kn ⊆ int Kn+1 · ··, (28.10)
and for any K ⊆ Ω,

K ⊆ Kn , (28.11)
b \ Kn contains a component of
for all n sufficiently large, and every component of C
b
C \ Ω.
Proof: Let µ ¶
[ 1
Vn ≡ {z : |z| > n} ∪ B z, .
n
z ∈Ω
/
Thus {z : |z| > n} contains the point, ∞. Now let
b \ Vn = C \ Vn ⊆ Ω.
Kn ≡ C
You should verify that 28.10 and 28.11 hold. It remains to show that every compo-
b
nent of C\K b b
n contains a component of C\Ω. Let D be a component of C\Kn ≡ Vn .
If ∞ ∈
/ D, then D contains no point of {z : |z| > n} because this set is connected
and D is a component. (If it did contain S a ¡point ¢ of this set, it would have to
contain the whole set.) Therefore, D ⊆ B z, n1 and so D contains some point
¡ ¢ z ∈Ω
/
of B z, n1 for some z ∈
/ Ω. Therefore, since this ball is connected, it follows D must
contain the whole ball and consequently D contains some point of ΩC . (The point
z at the center of the ball will do.) Since D contains z ∈ / Ω, it must contain the
component, Hz , determined by this point. The reason for this is that
b \Ω⊆C
Hz ⊆ C b \ Kn
and Hz is connected. Therefore, Hz can only have points in one component of

b \ Kn . Since it has a point in D, it must therefore, be totally contained in D. This
C
verifies the desired condition in the case where ∞ ∈ / D.
Now suppose that ∞ ∈ D. ∞ ∈ / Ω because Ω is given to be a set in C. Letting

H∞ denote the component of C b \ Ω determined by ∞, it follows both D and H∞
contain ∞. Therefore, the connected set, H∞ cannot have any points in another
component of Cb \ Kn and it is a set which is contained in Cb \ Kn so it must be
contained in D. This proves the lemma.
The following picture is a very simple example of the sort of thing considered
by Runge’s theorem. The picture is of a region which has a couple of holes.
sa1 sa2 Ω
However, there could be many more holes than two. In fact, there could be
infinitely many. Nor does it follow that the components of the complement of Ω need
to have any interior points. Therefore, the picture is certainly not representative.
Theorem 28.11 (Runge) Let Ω be an open set, and let A be a set which has one
point in each component of C b \ Ω and let f be analytic on Ω. Then there exists a
sequence of rational functions, {Rn } having poles only in A such that Rn converges
uniformly to f on compact subsets of Ω.
Proof: Let Kn be the compact sets of Lemma 28.10 where each component of
b \ Kn contains a component of C
C b \ Ω. It follows each component of C
b \ Kn contains
a point of A. Therefore, by Theorem 28.9 there exists Rn a rational function with
poles only in A such that
1
||Rn − f ||Kn ,∞ < .
n
It follows, since a given compact set, K is a subset of Kn for all n large enough,
that Rn → f uniformly on K. This proves the theorem.
Corollary 28.12 Let Ω be simply connected and f analytic on Ω. Then there exists
a sequence of polynomials, {pn } such that pn → f uniformly on compact sets of Ω.
Proof: By definition of what is meant by simply connected, C b \ Ω is connected

b
and so there are no bounded components of C\Ω. Therefore, in the proof of Theorem
28.11 when you use Theorem 28.9, you can always have Rn be a polynomial by
Lemma 28.8.
28.2 The Mittag-Leffler Theorem

28.2.1 A Proof From Runge’s Theorem
This theorem is fairly easy to prove once you have Theorem 28.9. Given a set of
complex numbers, does there exist a meromorphic function having its poles equal
28.2. THE MITTAG-LEFFLER THEOREM 777
to this set of numbers? The Mittag-Leffler theorem provides a very satisfactory

answer to this question. Actually, it says somewhat more. You can specify, not just
the location of the pole but also the kind of singularity the meromorphic function
is to have at that pole.
∞
Theorem 28.13 Let P ≡ {zk }k=1 be a set of points in an open subset of C, Ω.
Suppose also that P ⊆ Ω ⊆ C. For each zk , denote by Sk (z) a function of the form
mk
X akj
Sk (z) = j
.
j=1 (z − zk )
Then there exists a meromorphic function, Q defined on Ω such that the poles of
∞
Q are the points, {zk }k=1 and the singular part of the Laurent expansion of Q at
zk equals Sk (z) . In other words, for z near zk , Q (z) = gk (z) + Sk (z) for some
function, gk analytic near zk .
Proof: Let {Kn } denote the sequence of compact sets described in Lemma
28.10. Thus ∪∞ n=1 Kn = Ω, Kn ⊆ int (Kn+1 ) ⊆ Kn+1 · ··, and the components of
b \ Kn contain the components of C
C b \ Ω. Renumbering if necessary, you can assume
each Kn 6= ∅. Also let K0 = ∅. Let Pm ≡ P ∩ (Km \ Km−1 ) and consider the
rational function, Rm defined by
X
Rm (z) ≡ Sk (z) .
zk ∈Km \Km−1
Since each Km is compact, it follows Pm is finite and so the above really is a

rational function. Now for m > 1,this rational function is analytic on some open
set containing Km−1 . There exists a set of points, A one point in each component
b \ Ω. Consider C
of C b \ Km−1 . Each of its components contains a component of Cb \Ω
b
and so for each of these components of C \ Km−1 , there exists a point of A which
is contained in it. Denote the resulting set of points by A0 . By Theorem 28.9 there
exists a rational function, Qm whose poles are all contained in the set, A0 ⊆ ΩC
such that
1
||Rm − Qm ||Km−1,∞ < m .
2
The meromorphic function is
∞
X
Q (z) ≡ R1 (z) + (Rk (z) − Qk (z)) .
k=2
It remains to verify this function works. First consider K1 . Then on K1 , the above
sum converges uniformly. Furthermore, the terms of the sum are analytic in some
open set containing K1 . Therefore, the infinite sum is analytic on this open set and
so for z ∈ K1 The function, f is the sum of a rational function, R1 , having poles at
P1 with the specified singular terms and an analytic function. Therefore, Q works
on K1 . Now consider Km for m > 1. Then
m+1
X ∞
X
Q (z) = R1 (z) + (Rk (z) − Qk (z)) + (Rk (z) − Qk (z)) .
k=2 k=m+2
As before, the infinite sum converges uniformly on Km+1 and hence on some open
set, O containing Km . Therefore, this infinite sum equals a function which is
analytic on O. Also,
m+1
X
R1 (z) + (Rk (z) − Qk (z))
k=2
is a rational function having poles at ∪m

k=1 Pk with the specified singularities because
the poles of each Qk are not in Ω. It follows this function is meromorphic because
it is analytic except for the points in P. It also has the property of retaining the
specified singular behavior.
28.2.2 A Direct Proof Without Runge’s Theorem

There is a direct proof of this important theorem which is not dependent on Runge’s
theorem in the case where Ω = C. I think it is arguably easier to understand and
the Mittag-Leffler theorem is very important so I will give this proof here.
∞
Theorem 28.14 Let P ≡ {zk }k=1 be a set of points in C which satisfies limn→∞ |zn | =
1
∞. For each zk , denote by Sk (z) a polynomial in z−z k
which is of the form
mk
X akj
Sk (z) = j
.
j=1 (z − zk )
Then there exists a meromorphic function, Q defined on C such that the poles of Q
∞
are the points, {zk }k=1 and the singular part of the Laurent expansion of Q at zk
equals Sk (z) . In other words, for z near zk ,
Q (z) = gk (z) + Sk (z)
for some function, gk analytic in some open set containing zk .
Proof: First consider the case where none of the zk = 0. Letting
Kk ≡ {z : |z| ≤ |zk | /2} ,

1
there exists a power series for z−zk which converges uniformly and absolutely on
this set. Here is why:
Ã ! ∞ µ ¶l
1 −1 1 −1 X z
= =
z − zk 1 − zzk zk zk zk
l=0
and the Weierstrass M test can be applied because

¯ ¯
¯z¯ 1
¯ ¯<
¯ zk ¯ 2
1
on this set. Therefore, by Corollary 28.7, Sk (z) , being a polynomial in z−z k
, has
a power series which converges uniformly to Sk (z) on Kk . Therefore, there exists a
polynomial, Pk (z) such that
1
||Pk − Sk ||B(0,|zk |/2),∞ < .
2k
Let
∞
X
Q (z) ≡ (Sk (z) − Pk (z)) . (28.12)
k=1
Consider z ∈ Km and let N be large enough that if k > N, then |zk | > 2 |z|
N
X ∞
X
Q (z) = (Sk (z) − Pk (z)) + (Sk (z) − Pk (z)) .
k=1 k=N +1
On Km , the second sum converges uniformly to a function analytic on int (Km )

(interior of Km ) while the first is a rational function having poles at z1 , · · ·, zN .
Since any compact set is contained in Km for large enough m, this shows Q (z) is
meromorphic as claimed and has poles with the given singularities.
∞
Now consider the case where the poles are at {zk }k=0 with z0 = 0. Everything
is similar in this case. Let
∞
X
Q (z) ≡ S0 (z) + (Sk (z) − Pk (z)) .
k=1
The series converges uniformly on every compact set because of the assumption
that limn→∞ |zn | = ∞ which implies that any compact set is contained in Kk for
k large enough. Choose N such that z ∈ int(KN ) and zn ∈
/ KN for all n ≥ N + 1.
Then
N
X ∞
X
Q (z) = S0 (z) + (Sk (z) − Pk (z)) + (Sk (z) − Pk (z)) .
k=1 k=N +1
The last sum is analytic on int(KN ) because each function in the sum is analytic due
PN
to the fact that none of its poles are in KN . Also, S0 (z) + k=1 (Sk (z) − Pk (z)) is
a finite sum of rational functions so it is a rational function and Pk is a polynomial
so zm is a pole of this function with the correct singularity whenever zm ∈ int (KN ).
28.2.3 b
Functions Meromorphic On C
Sometimes it is useful to think of isolated singular points at ∞.
Definition 28.15 Suppose f is analytic on {z ∈ C : |z| > r}¡. Then ¢ f is said to

have a removable singularity at ∞ if the function, g (z) ≡ f z1 has a removable
¡ ¢
singularity at 0. f is said to have a pole at ∞ if the function, g (z) = f z1 has a
pole at 0. Then f is said to be meromorphic on C b if all its singularities are isolated
and either poles or removable.
So what is f like for these cases? First suppose f has a removable singularity
at ∞. Then zg (z) converges to 0 as z → 0. It follows g (z) must be analytic¡ near ¢
0 and so can be given as a power series. Thus f (z) is of the form f (z) = g z1 =
P∞ ¡ ¢
1 n
n=0 an z . Next suppose f has a pole at ∞. This means g (z) has a pole at 0 so
Pm
g (z) is of the form g (z) = k=1 zbkk +h (z) where h (z) is analytic near 0. Thus in the
¡ ¢ Pm P∞ ¡ ¢n
case of a pole at ∞, f (z) is of the form f (z) = g z1 = k=1 bk z k + n=0 an z1 .
It turns out that the functions which are meromorphic on C b are all rational
b
functions. To see this suppose f is meromorphic on C and note that there exists
r > 0 such that f (z) is analytic for |z| > r. This is required if ∞ is to be isolated.
Therefore, there are only finitely many poles of f for |z| ≤ r, {a1 , · · ·, am } , because
by assumption, these poles are isolated and this is P a compact set. Let the singular
m
part of f at ak be denoted by Sk (z) . Then f (z) − k=1 Sk (z) is analytic on all of
C. Therefore, it is bounded on |z| ≤ r. In one P case, f has a removable singularity at
∞. In this case, f is bounded as z → ∞ andP k Sk also converges to 0 as z → ∞.
m
Therefore,
P by Liouville’s theorem, f (z) − k=1 Sk (z) equals a constant and so
f − k Sk is a constant. Thus f is a rational function. In¡the ¢ other case that f has
Pm Pm k
P∞ 1 n
Pm
a pole atPm∞, f (z) − P
k=1 S k (z) − k=1 bk z = n=0 a n z − k=1 Sk (z) . Now
m k
f (z) − k=1 S¡k (z) −
¢n Pk=1 b k z is analytic on C and so is bounded on |z| ≤ r. But
P∞ m
now n=0 an z1 P− k=1 Sk (z) Pm converges to 0 as z → ∞ and so by Liouville’s
m
theorem, f (z) − k=1 Sk (z) − k=1 bk z k must equal a constant and again, f (z)
equals a rational function.
28.2.4 A Great And Glorious Theorem About Simply Con-

nected Regions
Here is given a laundry list of properties which are equivalent to an open set being
simply connected. Recall Definition 24.48 on Page 673 which said that an open
set, Ω is simply connected means C b \ Ω is connected. Recall also that this is not
the same thing at all as saying C \ Ω is connected. Consider the outside of a disk
for example. I will continue to use this definition for simply connected because it
is the most convenient one for complex analysis. However, there are many other
equivalent conditions. First here is an interesting lemma which is interesting for
its own sake. Recall n (p, γ) means the winding number of γ about p. Now recall
Theorem 24.52 implies the following lemma in which B C is playing the role of Ω in
Theorem 24.52.
Lemma 28.16 Let K be a compact subset of B C , the complement of a closed set.

m
Then there exist continuous, closed, bounded variation oriented curves {Γj }j=1 for
which Γ∗j ∩ K = ∅ for each j, Γ∗j ⊆ Ω, and for all p ∈ K,
m
X
n (Γk , p) = 1.
k=1
while for all z ∈ B

m
X
n (Γk , z) = 0.
k=1
Definition 28.17 Let γ be a closed curve in an open set, Ω, γ : [a, b] → Ω. Then

γ is said to be homotopic to a point, p in Ω if there exists a continuous function,
H : [0, 1]×[a, b] → Ω such that H (0, t) = p, H (α, a) = H (α, b) , and H (1, t) = γ (t) .
This function, H is called a homotopy.
Lemma 28.18 Suppose γ is a closed continuous bounded variation curve in an

open set, Ω which is homotopic to a point. Then if a ∈
/ Ω, it follows n (a, γ) = 0.
Proof: Let H be the homotopy described above. The problem with this is
that it is not known that H (α, ·) is of bounded variation. There is no reason it
should be. Therefore, it might not make sense to take the integral which defines
the winding number. There are various ways around this. Extend H as follows.
H (α, t) = H (α, a) for t < a, H (α, t) = H (α, b) for t > b. Let ε > 0.
Z 2ε
t+ (b−a) (t−a)
1
Hε (α, t) ≡ H (α, s) ds, Hε (0, t) = p.
2ε 2ε
−2ε+t+ (b−a) (t−a)
Thus Hε (α, ·) is a closed curve which has bounded variation and when α = 1, this
converges to γ uniformly on [a, b]. Therefore, for ε small enough, n (a, Hε (1, ·)) =
n (a, γ) because they are both integers and as ε → 0, n (a, Hε (1, ·)) → n (a, γ) . Also,
Hε (α, t) → H (α, t) uniformly on [0, 1] × [a, b] because of uniform continuity of H.
Therefore, for small enough ε, you can also assume Hε (α, t) ∈ Ω for all α, t. Now
α → n (a, Hε (α, ·)) is continuous. Hence it must be constant because the winding
number is integer valued. But
Z
1 1
lim dz = 0
α→0 2πi H (α,·) z − a
ε
because the length of Hε (α, ·) converges to 0 and the integrand is bounded because
a∈/ Ω. Therefore, the constant can only equal 0. This proves the lemma.
Now it is time for the great and glorious theorem on simply connected regions.
The following equivalence of properties is taken from Rudin [45]. There is a slightly
different list in Conway [13] and a shorter list in Ash [6].
Theorem 28.19 The following are equivalent for an open set, Ω.

1. Ω is homeomorphic to the unit disk, B (0, 1) .
2. Every closed curve contained in Ω is homotopic to a point in Ω.
3. If z ∈
/ Ω, and if γ is a closed bounded variation continuous curve in Ω, then
n (γ, z) = 0.
b \ Ω is connected and Ω is connected. )

4. Ω is simply connected, (C
5. Every function analytic on Ω can be uniformly approximated by polynomials

on compact subsets.
6. For every f analytic on Ω and every closed continuous bounded variation

curve, γ, Z
f (z) dz = 0.
γ
7. Every function analytic on Ω has a primitive on Ω.
8. If f, 1/f are both analytic on Ω, then there exists an analytic, g on Ω such

that f = exp (g) .
9. If f, 1/f are both analytic on Ω, then there exists φ analytic on Ω such that
f = φ2 .
Proof: 1⇒2. Assume 1 and let γ be a closed¡ ¡ curve in ¢¢Ω. Let h be the homeo-
morphism, h : B (0, 1) → Ω. Let H (α, t) = h α h−1 γ (t) . This works.
2⇒3 This is Lemma 28.18.
3⇒4. Suppose 3 but 4 fails to hold. Then if C b \ Ω is not connected, there exist
disjoint nonempty sets, A and B such that A ∩ B = A ∩ B = ∅. It follows each
of these sets must be closed because neither can have a limit point in Ω nor in
the other. Also, one and only one of them contains ∞. Let this set be B. Thus
A is a closed set which must also be bounded. Otherwise, there would exist a
sequence of points in A, {an } such that limn→∞ an = ∞ which would contradict
the requirement that no limit points of A can be in B. Therefore, A is a compact
set contained in the open set, B C ≡ {z ∈ C : z ∈
/ B} . Pick p ∈ A. By Lemma 28.16
m
there exist continuous bounded variation closed curves {Γk }k=1 which are contained
C
in B , do not intersect A and such that
m
X
1= n (p, Γk )
k=1
However, if these curves do not intersect A and they also do not intersect B then
they must be all contained in Ω. Since p ∈ / Ω, it follows by 3 that for each k,
n (p, Γk ) = 0, a contradiction.
4⇒5 This is Corollary 28.12 on Page 776.
5⇒6 Every polynomial has a primitive and so the integral over any closed
bounded variation curve of a polynomial equals 0. Let f be analytic on Ω. Then let
{fn } be a sequence of polynomials converging uniformly to f on γ ∗ . Then
Z Z
0 = lim fn (z) dz = f (z) dz.
n→∞ γ γ
6⇒7 Pick z0 ∈ Ω. Letting γ (z0 , z) be a bounded variation continuous curve

joining z0 to z in Ω, you define a primitive for f as follows.
Z
F (z) = f (w) dw.
γ(z0 ,z)
This is well defined by 6 and is easily seen to be a primitive. You just write the
difference quotient and take a limit using 6.
ÃZ Z !
F (z + w) − F (z) 1
lim = lim f (u) du − f (u) du
w→0 w w→0 w γ(z0 ,z+w) γ(z0 ,z)
Z
1
= lim f (u) du
w→0 w γ(z,z+w)
Z
1 1
= lim f (z + tw) wdt = f (z) .
w→0 w 0
7⇒8 Suppose then that f, 1/f are both analytic. Then f 0 /f is analytic and so
it has a primitive by 7. Let this primitive be g1 . Then
¡ −g1 ¢0
e f = e−g1 (−g10 ) f + e−g1 f 0
µ 0¶
f
= −e−g1 f + e−g1 f 0 = 0.
f
Therefore, since Ω is connected, it follows e−g1 f must equal a constant. (Why?)
Let the constant be ea+ibi . Then f (z) = eg1 (z) ea+ib . Therefore, you let g (z) =
g1 (z) + a + ib.
8⇒9 Suppose then that f, 1/f are both analytic on Ω. Then by 8 f (z) = eg(z) .
Let φ (z) ≡ eg(z)/2 .
9⇒1 There are two cases. First suppose Ω = C. This satisfies condition 9
because if f, 1/f are both analytic, then the same argument involved in 8⇒9 gives
the existence of a square root. A homeomorphism is h (z) ≡ √ z 2 . It obviously
1+|z|
maps onto B (0, 1) and is continuous. To see it is 1 - 1 consider the case of z1
and z2 having different arguments. Then h (z1 ) 6= h (z2 ) . If z2 = tz1 for a positive
t 6= 1, then it is also clear h (z1 ) 6= h (z2 ) . To show h−1 is continuous, note that if
you have an open set in C and a point in this open set, you can get a small open
set containing this point by allowing the modulus and the argument to lie in some
open interval. Reasoning this way, you can verify h maps open sets to open sets. In
the case where Ω 6= C, there exists a one to one analytic map which maps Ω onto
B (0, 1) by the Riemann mapping theorem. This proves the theorem.
28.3 Exercises
1. Let a ∈ C. Show there exists a sequence of polynomials, {pn } such that
pn (a) = 1 but pn (z) → 0 for all z 6= a.
2. Let l be a line in C. Show there exists a sequence of polynomials {pn } such
that pn (z) → 1 on one side of this line and pn (z) → −1 on the other side of
the line. Hint: The complement of this line is simply connected.
3. Suppose Ω is a simply connected region, f is analytic on Ω, f 6= 0 on Ω, and

n
n ∈ N. Show that there exists an analytic function, g such that g (z) = f (z)
th
for all z ∈ Ω. That is, you can take the n root of f (z) . If Ω is a region
which contains 0, is it possible to find g (z) such that g is analytic on Ω and
2
g (z) = z?
4. Suppose Ω is a region (connected open set) and f is an analytic function
defined on Ω such that f (z) 6= 0 for any z ∈ Ω. Suppose also that for every
positive integer, n there exists an analytic function, gn defined on Ω such that
gnn (z) = f (z) . Show that then it is possible to define an analytic function, L
on f (Ω) such that eL(f (z)) = f (z) for all z ∈ Ω.
5. You know that φ (z) ≡ z−i z+i maps the upper half plane onto the unit ball. Its
1+z
inverse, ψ (z) = i 1−z maps the unit ball onto the upper half plane. Also for z
in the upper half plane, you can define a square root as follows. If z = |z| eiθ
1/2
where θ ∈ (0, π) , let z 1/2 ≡ |z| eiθ/2 so the square root maps the upper half
plane to the first quadrant. Now consider
Ã · µ ¶¸1/2 !
1+z
z → exp −i log i . (28.13)
1−z
Show this is an analytic function which maps the unit ball onto an annulus.
Is it possible to find a one to one analytic map which does this?
Infinite Products
The Mittag-Leffler theorem gives existence of a meromorphic function which has

specified singular part at various poles. It would be interesting to do something
similar to zeros of an analytic function. That is, given the order of the zero at
various points, does there exist an analytic function which has these points as zeros
with the specified orders? You know that if you have the zeros of the polynomial,
you can factor it. Can you do something similar with analytic functions which
are just limits of polynomials? These questions involve the concept of an infinite
product.
Q∞ Qn
Definition 29.1 n=1 (1 + un ) ≡ limn→∞ k=1 (1 + uk ) whenever this limit ex-
ists. If un = un (z) for z Q
∈ H, we say the infinite product converges uniformly on
n
H if the partial products, k=1 (1 + uk (z)) converge uniformly on H.
The main theorem is the following.
P∞
Theorem 29.2 Let H ⊆ C and suppose that n=1 |un (z)| converges uniformly on
H where un (z) bounded on H. Then
∞
Y
P (z) ≡ (1 + un (z))
n=1
converges uniformly on H. If (n1 , n2 , · · ·) is any permutation of (1, 2, · · ·) , then for

all z ∈ H,
∞
Y
P (z) = (1 + unk (z))
k=1
and P has a zero at z0 if and only if un (z0 ) = −1 for some n.
785
786 INFINITE PRODUCTS
Proof: First a simple estimate:
n
Y
(1 + |uk (z)|)
k=m
Ã Ã n
!! Ã n
!
Y X
= exp ln (1 + |uk (z)|) = exp ln (1 + |uk (z)|)
k=m k=m
Ã ∞
!
X
≤ exp |uk (z)| <e
k=m
P∞
for all z ∈ H provided m is large enough. Since k=1 |uk (z)| converges uniformly
on H, |uk (z)| < 12 for all z ∈ H provided k is large enough. Thus you can take
log (1 + uk (z)) . Pick N0 such that for n > m ≥ N0 ,
n
1 Y
|um (z)| < , (1 + |uk (z)|) < e. (29.1)
2
k=m
Now having picked N0 , the assumption the un are bounded on H implies there
exists a constant, C, independent of z ∈ H such that for all z ∈ H,
N0
Y
(1 + |uk (z)|) < C. (29.2)
k=1
Let N0 < M < N . Then
¯N ¯
¯Y YM ¯
¯ ¯
¯ (1 + uk (z)) − (1 + uk (z))¯
¯ ¯
k=1 k=1
¯ ¯
YN0 ¯ Y N M
Y ¯
¯ ¯
≤ (1 + |uk (z)|) ¯ (1 + uk (z)) − (1 + uk (z))¯
¯ ¯
k=1 k=N0 +1 k=N0 +1
¯ N ¯
¯ Y YM ¯
¯ ¯
≤ C¯ (1 + uk (z)) − (1 + uk (z))¯
¯ ¯
k=N0 +1 k=N0 +1
Ã M ! ¯ ¯
Y ¯ Y N ¯
¯ ¯
≤ C (1 + |uk (z)|) ¯ (1 + uk (z)) − 1¯
¯ ¯
k=N0 +1 k=M +1
¯ ¯
¯ Y N ¯
¯ ¯
≤ Ce ¯ (1 + |uk (z)|) − 1¯ .
¯ ¯
k=M +1
787
QN
Since 1 ≤ k=M +1 (1 + |uk (z)|) ≤ e, it follows the term on the far right is domi-
nated by
¯ Ã N ! ¯
¯ Y ¯
¯
2 ¯
Ce ¯ln (1 + |uk (z)|) − ln 1¯
¯ ¯
k=M +1
N
X
≤ Ce2 ln (1 + |uk (z)|)
k=M +1
N
X
≤ Ce2 |uk (z)| < ε
k=M +1
uniformly in z ∈ H provided M is large enough. This follows from Qmthe simple obser-∞
vation that if 1 < x < e, then x−1 ≤ e (ln x − ln 1). Therefore, { k=1 (1 + uk (z))}m=1
is uniformly Cauchy on H and therefore, converges uniformly on H. Let P (z) denote
the function it converges to.
What about the permutations? Let {n1 , n2 , · · ·} be a permutation of the indices.
Let ε > 0 be given and let N0 be such that if n > N0 ,
¯ ¯
¯Yn ¯
¯ ¯
¯ (1 + uk (z)) − P (z)¯ < ε
¯ ¯
k=1
© ª
for all z ∈ H. Let {1, 2, · · ·, n} ⊆ n1 , n2 , · · ·, np(n) where p (n) is an increasing
sequence. Then from 29.1 and 29.2,
¯ ¯
¯ p(n) ¯
¯ Y ¯
¯P (z) − (1 + unk (z))¯¯
¯
¯ k=1 ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ Yn ¯ ¯¯ Y n p(n)
Y ¯
¯
¯ ¯ ¯
≤ ¯P (z) − (1 + uk (z))¯ + ¯ (1 + uk (z)) − (1 + unk (z))¯¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
k=1 k=1 k=1
¯ ¯
¯ n p(n) ¯
¯Y Y ¯
≤ ε+¯ ¯ (1 + uk (z)) − (1 + unk (z))¯¯
¯k=1 k=1 ¯
¯ n ¯¯ ¯
¯Y ¯¯ Y ¯
¯ ¯¯ ¯
≤ ε+¯ (1 + |uk (z)|)¯ ¯1 − (1 + unk (z))¯
¯ ¯¯ nk >n
¯
k=1
¯N ¯¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯Y 0 ¯¯ Y n ¯¯ Y ¯
¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯
≤ ε+¯ (1 + |uk (z)|)¯ ¯ (1 + |uk (z)|)¯ ¯1 − (1 + unk (z))¯
¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯
k=1 k=N0 +1 nk >n
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯Y ¯ ¯M (p(n)) ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ Y ¯
≤ ε + Ce ¯ (1 + |unk (z)|) − 1¯ ≤ ε + Ce ¯¯ (1 + |unk (z)|) − 1¯¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
n >n
k k=n+1
© ª
where M (p (n)) is the largest index in the permuted list, n1 , n2 , · · ·, np(n) . then
from 29.1, this last term is dominated by
¯   ¯
¯ M (p(n))
Y ¯
¯ ¯
ε + Ce2 ¯¯ln  (1 + |unk (z)|) − ln 1¯¯
¯ k=n+1 ¯
∞
X ∞
X
≤ ε + Ce2 ln (1 + |unk |) ≤ ε + Ce2 |unk | < 2ε
k=n+1 k=n+1
¯ Qp(n) ¯
¯ ¯
for all n large enough uniformly in z ∈ H. Therefore, ¯P (z) − k=1 (1 + unk (z))¯ <
2ε whenever n is large enough. This proves the part about the permutation.
It remains to verify the assertion about the points, z0 , where P (z0 ) = 0. Obvi-
ously, if un (z0 ) = −1, then P (z0 ) = 0. Suppose then that P (z0 ) = 0 and M > N0 .
Then ¯ ¯
¯YM ¯
¯ ¯
¯ (1 + uk (z0 ))¯ =
¯ ¯
k=1
¯ ¯
¯Y M Y∞ ¯
¯ ¯
¯ (1 + uk (z0 )) − (1 + uk (z0 ))¯
¯ ¯
k=1 k=1
¯ ¯¯ ¯
¯Y M ¯¯ Y∞ ¯
¯ ¯¯ ¯
≤ ¯ (1 + uk (z0 ))¯ ¯1 − (1 + uk (z0 ))¯
¯ ¯¯ ¯
k=1 k=M +1
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯Y M ¯¯ Y ∞ ¯
¯ ¯¯ ¯
≤ ¯ (1 + uk (z0 ))¯ ¯ (1 + |uk (z0 )|) − 1¯
¯ ¯¯ ¯
k=1 k=M +1
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯Y M ¯¯ Y∞ ¯
¯ ¯¯ ¯
≤ e¯ (1 + uk (z0 ))¯ ¯ln (1 + |uk (z0 )|) − ln 1¯
¯ ¯¯ ¯
k=1 k=M +1
Ã ∞ !¯ M ¯
X ¯Y ¯
¯ ¯
≤ e ln (1 + |uk (z)|) ¯ (1 + uk (z0 ))¯
¯ ¯
k=M +1 k=1
¯ ¯
X∞ ¯Y M ¯
¯ ¯
≤ e |uk (z)| ¯ (1 + uk (z0 ))¯
¯ ¯
k=M +1 k=1
¯M ¯
1 ¯¯ Y ¯
¯
≤ ¯ (1 + uk (z0 ))¯
2¯ ¯
k=1
whenever M is large enough. Therefore, for such M,

M
Y
(1 + uk (z0 )) = 0
k=1
and so uk (z0 ) = −1 for some k ≤ M. This proves the theorem.

29.1. ANALYTIC FUNCTION WITH PRESCRIBED ZEROS 789
29.1 Analytic Function With Prescribed Zeros

Suppose you are given complex numbers, {zn } and you want to find an analytic
function, f such that these numbers are the zeros of f . How can you do it? The
problem is easy if there are only finitely many of these zeros, {z1 , z2 , · · ·, zm } . You
just write (z − z1 ) (z − z2 ) · ·´· (z − zm ) . Now if none of the zk = 0 you could
Qm ³
also write it at k=1 1 − zzk and this might have a better chance of success in
the case of infinitely ¯many prescribed zeros. However, you would need to verify
P∞ ¯ z ¯¯
something like n=1 ¯ zn ¯ < ∞ which might not be so. The way around this is to
Q∞ ³ ´
adjust the product, making it k=1 1 − zzk egk (z) where gk (z) is some analytic
³ ´ P n
−1 ∞
function. Recall also that for |x| < 1, ln (1 − x) = n=1 xn . If you had x/xn
³ ³ ´´ Q∞
−1
small and real, then 1 = (1 − x/xn ) exp ln (1 − x/xn ) and k=1 1 of course
converges but loses all the information about zeros. However, this is why it is not
too unreasonable to consider factors of the form
µ ¶ Pp ³ ´k
z k z 1
1− e k=1 zk k
zk
where pk is suitably chosen.

First here are some estimates.
Lemma 29.3 For z ∈ C,

|ez − 1| ≤ |z| e|z| , (29.3)
and if |z| ≤ 1/2,
¯ ¯
¯X∞
z k ¯¯ 1 |z|
m
2 1 1
¯ m
¯ ¯≤ ≤ |z| ≤ . (29.4)
¯ k ¯ m 1 − |z| m m 2m−1
k=m
Proof: Consider 29.3.

¯ ¯
¯X∞ k¯ ∞
¯ X |z|
k
¯ z
|ez − 1| = ¯ ¯≤ = e|z| − 1 ≤ |z| e|z|
¯ k! ¯ k!
k=1 k=1
the last inequality holding by the mean value theorem. Now consider 29.4.
¯ ¯
¯X∞
z k ¯¯ X∞
|z|
k ∞
1 X k
¯
¯ ¯ ≤ ≤ |z|
¯ k¯ k m
k=m k=m k=m
m
1 |z| 2 m 1 1
= ≤ |z| ≤ .
m 1 − |z| m m 2m−1

The functions, Ep in the next definition are called the elementary factors.
Definition 29.4 Let E0 (z) ≡ 1 − z and for p ≥ 1,

µ ¶
z2 zp
Ep (z) ≡ (1 − z) exp z + +···+
2 p
In terms of this new symbol, here is another estimate. A sharper inequality is

available in Rudin [45] but it is more difficult to obtain.
Corollary 29.5 For Ep defined above and |z| ≤ 1/2,

p+1
|Ep (z) − 1| ≤ 3 |z| .
P∞ xn
Proof: From elementary calculus, ln (1 − x) = − n=1 n for all |x| < 1.
Therefore, for |z| < 1,
X∞
zn ³ ´ X ∞
zn
−1
log (1 − z) = − , log (1 − z) = ,
n=1
n n=1
n
P∞ n
because the function log (1 − z) and the analytic function, − n=1 zn both are
equal to ln (1 − x) on the real line segment (−1, 1) , a set which has a limit point.
Therefore, using Lemma 29.3,
|Ep (z) − 1|
¯ µ ¶ ¯
¯ 2 p ¯
= ¯(1 − z) exp z + z + · · · + z − 1 ¯
¯ 2 p ¯
¯ Ã ! ¯
¯ ³ ´ X∞
zn ¯
¯ −1 ¯
= ¯(1 − z) exp log (1 − z) − − 1¯
¯ n ¯
n=p+1
¯ Ã ! ¯
¯ X ∞
zn ¯
¯ ¯
= ¯exp − − 1¯
¯ n ¯
n=p+1
¯ ¯
¯ X ∞
z n ¯¯ |− P∞
¯ zn
n=p+1 n |
≤ ¯− ¯e
¯ n¯
n=p+1
1 p+1 p+1
≤ · 2 · e1/(p+1) |z| . ≤ 3 |z|
p+1

With this estimate, it is easy to prove the Weierstrass product formula.
Theorem 29.6 Let {zn } be a sequence of nonzero complex numbers which have no
limit point in C and let {pn } be a sequence of nonnegative integers such that
X∞ µ ¶pn +1
R
<∞ (29.5)
n=1
|zn |
for all R ∈ R. Then

∞
Y µ ¶
z
P (z) ≡ Epn
n=1
zn
is analytic on C and has a zero at each point, zn and at no others. If w occurs m
times in {zn } , then P has a zero of order m at w.
Proof: Since {zn } has no limit point, it follows limn→∞ |zn | = ∞. Therefore,
if pn = n − 1 the condition, 29.5 holds for this choice of pn . Now by Theorem 29.2,
the infinite product in this theorem will converge uniformly on |z| ≤ R if the same
is true of the sum,
∞ ¯
X µ ¶ ¯
¯ ¯
¯Epn z − 1¯ . (29.6)
¯ zn ¯
n=1
But by Corollary 29.5 the nth term of this sum satisfies

¯ µ ¶ ¯ ¯ ¯pn +1
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯Epn z − 1¯ ≤ 3 ¯ z ¯ .
¯ zn ¯ ¯ zn ¯
Since |zn | → ∞, there exists N such that for n > N, |zn | > 2R. Therefore, for
|z| < R and letting 0 < a = min {|zn | : n ≤ N } ,
∞ ¯
X µ ¶ ¯ N ¯ ¯pn +1
X
¯ ¯ ¯R¯
¯Epn z − 1¯ ≤ 3 ¯ ¯
¯ zn ¯ ¯a¯
n=1 n=1
∞ µ
X ¶pn +1
R
+3 < ∞.
2R
n=N
By the Weierstrass M test, the series in 29.6 converges uniformly for |z| < R and so
the same is true of the infinite product. It follows from Lemma 24.18 on Page 652
that P (z) is analytic on |z| < R because it is a uniform limit of analytic functions.
Also by Theorem 29.2 the zeros of the analytic P (z) are exactly the points,
{zn } , listed according to multiplicity. That is, if zn is a zero of order m, then if it
is listed m times in the formula for P (z) , then it is a zero of order m for P. This
proves the theorem.
The following corollary is an easy consequence and includes the case where there
is a zero at 0.
Corollary 29.7 Let {zn } be a sequence of nonzero complex numbers which have
no limit point and let {pn } be a sequence of nonnegative integers such that
X∞ µ ¶1+pn
r
<∞ (29.7)
n=1
|zn |
for all r ∈ R. Then

∞
Y µ ¶
z
P (z) ≡ z m Epn
n=1
zn
is analytic Ω and has a zero at each point, zn and at no others along with a zero of
order m at 0. If w occurs m times in {zn } , then P has a zero of order m at w.
The above theory can be generalized to include the case of an arbitrary open
set. First, here is a lemma.
Lemma 29.8 Let Ω be an open set. Also let {zn } be a sequence of points in Ω
which is bounded and which has no point repeated more than finitely many times
such that {zn } has no limit point in Ω. Then there exist {wn } ⊆ ∂Ω such that
limn→∞ |zn − wn | = 0.
Proof: Since ∂Ω is closed, there exists wn ∈ ∂Ω such that dist (zn , ∂Ω) =
|zn − wn | . Now if there is a subsequence, {znk } such that |znk − wnk | ≥ ε for all k,
then {znk } must possess a limit point because it is a bounded infinite set of points.
However, this limit point can only be in Ω because {znk } is bounded away from ∂Ω.
This is a contradiction. Therefore, limn→∞ |zn − wn | = 0. This proves the lemma.
Corollary 29.9 Let {zn } be a sequence of complex numbers contained in Ω, an

open subset of C which has no limit point in Ω. Suppose each zn is repeated no more
than finitely many times. Then there exists a function f which is analytic on Ω
whose zeros are exactly {zn } . If w ∈ {zn } and w is listed m times, then w is a zero
of order m of f.
QmProof: There is nothing to prove if {zn } is finite. You just let f (z) =
j=1 (z − zj ) where {zn } = {z1 , · · ·, zm }.
∞ 1
Pick w ∈ Ω \ {zn }n=1 and let h (z) ≡ z−w . Since w is not a limit point of {zn } ,
there exists r > 0 such that B (w, r) contains no points of {zn } . Let Ω1 ≡ Ω \ {w}.
Now h is not constant and so h (Ω1 ) is an open set by the open mapping theorem.
In fact, h maps each component of Ω to a region. |zn − w| > r for all zn and
so |h (zn )| < r−1 . Thus the sequence, {h (zn )} is a bounded sequence in the open
set h (Ω1 ) . It has no limit point in h (Ω1 ) because this is true of {zn } and Ω1 .
By Lemma 29.8 there exist wn ∈ ∂ (h (Ω1 )) such that limn→∞ |wn − h (zn )| = 0.
Consider for z ∈ Ω1 µ ¶
Y∞
h (zn ) − wn
f (z) ≡ En . (29.8)
n=1
h (z) − wn
Letting K be a compact subset of Ω1 , h (K) is a compact subset of h (Ω1 ) and so if

z ∈ K, then |h (z) − wn | is bounded below by a positive constant. Therefore, there
exists N large enough that for all z ∈ K and n ≥ N,
¯ ¯
¯ h (zn ) − wn ¯ 1
¯ ¯
¯ h (z) − wn ¯ < 2
and so by Corollary 29.5, for all z ∈ K and n ≥ N,

¯ µ ¶ ¯ µ ¶n
¯ ¯
¯En h (zn ) − wn − 1¯ ≤ 3 1 . (29.9)
¯ h (z) − wn ¯ 2
Therefore,
∞ ¯
X µ ¶ ¯
¯ ¯
¯En h (zn ) − wn − 1¯
¯ h (z) − wn ¯
n=1
Q∞ ³ ´
converges uniformly for z ∈ K. This implies n=1 En h(z n )−wn
h(z)−wn also converges
uniformly for z ∈ K by Theorem 29.2. Since K is arbitrary, this shows f defined
in 29.8 is analytic on Ω1 .
Also if zn is listed m times so it is a zero of multiplicity m and wn is the point
from ∂ (h (Ω1 )) closest to h (zn ) , then there are m factors in 29.8 which are of the
form
µ ¶ µ ¶
h (zn ) − wn h (zn ) − wn
En = 1− egn (z)
h (z) − wn h (z) − wn
µ ¶
h (z) − h (zn ) gn (z)
= e
h (z) − wn
µ ¶
zn − z 1
= egn (z)
(z − w) (zn − w) h (z) − wn
= (z − zn ) Gn (z) (29.10)
where Gn is an analytic function which is not zero at and near zn . Therefore, f has
a zero of order m at zn . This proves the theorem except for the point, w which has
been left out of Ω1 . It is necessary to show f is analytic at this point also and right
now, f is not even defined at w.
The {wn } are bounded because {h (zn )} is bounded and limn→∞ |wn − h (zn )| =
0 which implies |wn − h (zn )| ≤ C for some constant, C. Therefore, there exists
δ > 0 such that if z ∈ B 0 (w, δ) , then for all n,
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ h (zn ) − w ¯ ¯ h (zn ) − wn ¯ 1
¯³ ´ ¯=¯ ¯
¯ 1 ¯ ¯ h (z) − wn ¯ < 2 .
¯ z−w −w ¯ n
Thus 29.9 holds for all z ∈ B 0 (w, δ) and n so by Theorem 29.2, the infinite product
in 29.8 converges uniformly on B 0 (w, δ) . This implies f is bounded in B 0 (w, δ) and
so w is a removable singularity and f can be extended to w such that the result is
analytic. It only remains to verify f (w) 6= 0. After all, this would not do because
it would be another zero other than those in the given list. By 29.10, a partial
product is of the form
YN µ ¶
h (z) − h (zn ) gn (z)
e (29.11)
n=1
h (z) − wn
where
Ã µ ¶2 µ ¶n !
h (zn ) − wn 1 h (zn ) − wn 1 h (zn ) − wn
gn (z) ≡ + +···+
h (z) − wn 2 h (z) − wn n h (z) − wn
Each of the quotients in the definition of gn (z) converges to ³ 0 as z → w´ and so

the partial product of 29.11 converges to 1 as z → w because h(z)−h(z
h(z)−wn
n)
→ 1 as
z → w.
If f (w) = 0, then if z is close enough to w, it follows |f (z)| < 12 . Also, by the
uniform convergence on B 0 (w, δ) , it follows that for some N, the partial product
up to N must also be less than 1/2 in absolute value for all z close enough to w
and as noted above, this does not occur because such partial products converge to
1 as z → w. Hence f (w) 6= 0. This proves the corollary.
Recall the definition of a meromorphic function on Page 666. It was a function
which is analytic everywhere except at a countable set of isolated points at which
the function has a pole. It is clear that the quotient of two analytic functions yields
a meromorphic function but is this the only way it can happen?
Theorem 29.10 Suppose Q is a meromorphic function on an open set, Ω. Then

there exist analytic functions on Ω, f (z) and g (z) such that Q (z) = f (z) /g (z) for
all z not in the set of poles of Q.
Proof: Let Q have a pole of order m (z) at z. Then by Corollary 29.9 there
exists an analytic function, g which has a zero of order m (z) at every z ∈ Ω. It
follows gQ has a removable singularity at the poles of Q. Therefore, there is an
analytic function, f such that f (z) = g (z) Q (z) . This proves the theorem.
Corollary 29.11 Suppose Ω is a region and Q is a meromorphic function defined

on Ω such that the set, {z ∈ Ω : Q (z) = c} has a limit point in Ω. Then Q (z) = c
for all z ∈ Ω.
Proof: From Theorem 29.10 there are analytic functions, f, g such that Q = fg .
Therefore, the zero set of the function, f (z) − cg (z) has a limit point in Ω and so
f (z) − cg (z) = 0 for all z ∈ Ω. This proves the corollary.
29.2 Factoring A Given Analytic Function

The next theorem is the Weierstrass factorization theorem which can be used to
factor a given analytic function f . If f has a zero of order m when z = 0, then you
could factor out a z m and from there consider the factorization of what remains
when you have factored out the z m . Therefore, the following is the main thing of
interest.
Theorem 29.12 Let f be analytic on C, f (0) 6= 0, and let the zeros of f, be

{zk } ,listed according to order. (Thus if z is a zero of order m, it will be listed m
times in the list, {zk } .) Choosing nonnegative integers, pn such that for all r > 0,
X∞ µ ¶pn +1
r
< ∞,
n=1
|zn |
29.2. FACTORING A GIVEN ANALYTIC FUNCTION 795
There exists an entire function, g such that

∞
Y µ ¶
g(z) z
f (z) = e Epn . (29.12)
n=1
zn
Note that eg(z) 6= 0 for any z and this is the interesting thing about this function.
Proof: {zn } cannot have a limit point because if there were a limit point of this
sequence, it would follow from Theorem 24.23 that f (z) = 0 for all z, contradicting
the hypothesis that f (0) 6= 0. Hence limn→∞ |zn | = ∞ and so
X∞ µ ¶1+n−1 X ∞ µ ¶n
r r
= <∞
n=1
|zn | n=1
|zn |
by the root test. Therefore, by Theorem 29.6

∞
Y µ ¶
z
P (z) = Epn
n=1
zn
a function analytic on C by picking pn = n − 1 or perhaps some other choice. (

pn = n − 1 works but there might be another choice that would work.) Then f /P
has only removable singularities in C and no zeros thanks to Theorem 29.6. Thus,
letting h (z) = f (z) /P (z) , Corollary 24.50 implies that h0 /h has a primitive, ge.
Then ³ ´0
he−eg = 0
and so
h (z) = ea+ib ege(z)
for some constants, a, b. Therefore, letting g (z) = ge (z) + a + ib, h (z) = eg(z) and
thus 29.12 holds. This proves the theorem.
Corollary 29.13 Let f be analytic on C, f has a zero of order m at 0, and let the
other zeros of f be {zk } , listed according to order. (Thus if z is a zero of order l,
it will be listed l times in the list, {zk } .) Also let
X∞ µ ¶1+pn
r
<∞ (29.13)
n=1
|zn |
for any choice of r > 0. Then there exists an entire function, g such that
∞
Y µ ¶
z
f (z) = z m eg(z) Epn . (29.14)
n=1
zn
Proof: Since f has a zero of order m at 0, it follows from Theorem 24.23 that
{zk } cannot have a limit point in C and so you can apply Theorem 29.12 to the
function, f (z) /z m which has a removable singularity at 0. This proves the corollary.
29.2.1 Factoring Some Special Analytic Functions

Factoring a polynomial is in general a hard task. It is true it is easy to prove the
factors exist but finding them is another matter. Corollary 29.13 gives the existence
of factors of a certain form but it does not tell how to find them. This should not
be surprising. You can’t expect things to get easier when you go from polynomials
to analytic functions. Nevertheless, it is possible to factor some popular analytic
functions. These factorizations are based on the following Mitag-Leffler expansions.
By an auspicious choice of the contour and the method of residues it is possible to
obtain a very interesting formula for cot πz .
Example 29.14 Let γ N be the contour which goes from −N − 21 − N i horizontally

to N + 12 − N i and from there, vertically to N + 21 + N i and then horizontally
to −N − 12 + N i and finally vertically to −N − 12 − N i. Thus the contour is a
large rectangle and the direction of integration is in the counter clockwise direction.
Consider the integral Z
π cos πz
IN ≡ 2 2
dz
γ N sin πz (α − z )
where α ∈ R is not an integer. This will be used to verify the formula of Mittag-
Leffler,
∞
1 X 2α
+ = π cot πα. (29.15)
α n=1 α2 − n2
First you show that cot πz is bounded on this contour. This is easy using the
iz
+e−iz
formula for cot (z) = eeiz −e −iz . Therefore, IN → 0 as N → ∞ because the integrand
is of order 1/N 2 while the diameter of γ N is of order N. Next you compute the
residues of the integrand at ±α and at n where |n| < N + 12 for n an integer. These
are the only singularities of the integrand in this contour and therefore, using the
residue theorem, you can evaluate IN by using these. You can calculate these
residues and find that the residue at ±α is
−π cos πα
2α sin πα
while the residue at n is
1
.
α 2 − n2
Therefore " #
N
X 1 π cot πα
0 = lim IN = lim 2πi 2 2
−
N →∞ N →∞ α −n α
n=−N
which establishes the following formula of Mittag Leffler.

N
X 1 π cot πα
lim = .
N →∞ α2 −n 2 α
n=−N
29.2. FACTORING A GIVEN ANALYTIC FUNCTION 797
Writing this in a slightly nicer form, you obtain 29.15.

This is a very interesting formula. This will be used to factor sin (πz) . The
zeros of this function are at the integers. Therefore, considering 29.13 you can pick
pn = 1 in the Weierstrass factorization formula. Therefore, by Corollary 29.13 there
exists an analytic function g (z) such that
Y∞ µ ¶
g(z) z
sin (πz) = ze 1− ez/zn (29.16)
n=1
zn
where the zn are the nonzero integers. Remember you can permute the factors in
these products. Therefore, this can be written more conveniently as
Y∞ µ ³ z ´2 ¶
g(z)
sin (πz) = ze 1−
n=1
n
and it is necessary to find g (z) . Differentiating both sides of 29.16
Y∞ µ ³ z ´2 ¶ Y∞ µ ³ z ´2 ¶
g(z) 0 g(z)
π cos (πz) = e 1− + zg (z) e 1−
n=1
n n=1
n
X∞ µ ¶Yµ ³ z ´2 ¶
2z
+zeg(z) − 1 −
n=1
n2 k
k6=n
Now divide both sides by sin (πz) to obtain
X∞
1 0 2z/n2
π cot (πz) = + g (z) −
z n=1
(1 − z 2 /n2 )
X∞
1 2z
= + g 0 (z) + .
z n=1
z − n2
2
By 29.15, this yields g 0 (z) = 0 for z not an integer and so g (z) = c, a constant. So
far this yields
Y∞ µ ³ z ´2 ¶
sin (πz) = zec 1−
n=1
n
and it only remains to find c. Divide both sides by πz and take a limit as z → 0.
Using the power series of sin (πz) , this yields
ec
1=
π
and so c = ln π. Therefore,
Y∞ µ ³ z ´2 ¶
sin (πz) = zπ 1− . (29.17)
n=1
n
Example 29.15 Find an interesting formula for tan (πz) .
This is easy to obtain from the formula for cot (πz) .

µ µ ¶¶
1
cot π z + = − tan πz
2
1
for z real and therefore, this formula holds for z complex also. Therefore, for z + 2
not an integer
µ µ ¶¶ ∞
X
1 2 2z + 1
π cot π z + = + ¡ ¢
2 2z + 1 n=1 2z+1 2 − n2
2
29.3 The Existence Of An Analytic Function With

Given Values
The Weierstrass product formula, Theorem 29.6, along with the Mittag-Leffler the-
orem, Theorem 28.13 can be used to obtain an analytic function which has given
values on a countable set of points, having no limit point. This is clearly an amazing
result and indicates how potent these theorems are. In fact, you can show that it
isn’t just the values of the function which may be specified at the points in this
countable set of points but the derivatives up to any finite order.
∞
Theorem 29.16 Let P ≡ {zk }k=1 be a set of points in C,which has no limit point.
For each zk , consider
mk
X j
akj (z − zk ) . (29.18)
j=0
Then there exists an analytic function defined on C such that the Taylor series of
f at zk has the first mk terms given by 29.18.1
Proof: By the Weierstrass product theorem, Theorem 29.6, there exists an

analytic function, f defined on all of Ω such that f has a zero of order mk + 1 at
zk . Consider this zk Thus for z near zk ,
∞
X j
f (z) = cj (z − zk )
j=mk +1
where cmk +1 6= 0. You choose b1 , b2 , · · ·, bmk +1 such that

Ãm +1 ! m ∞
Xk
bl X k
j
X j
k
f (z) k
= a j (z − zk ) + ckj (z − zk ) .
l=1 (z − z k ) j=0 k=mk +1
1 This says you can specify the first mk derivatives of the function at the point zk .
29.3. THE EXISTENCE OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION WITH GIVEN VALUES799
Thus you need

mk +1
X ∞
X mk
X
j−l r
cj bl (z − zk ) = akr (z − zk ) + Higher order terms.
l=1 j=mk +1 r=0
It follows you need to solve the following system of equations for b1 , · · ·, bmk +1 .
cmk +1 bmk +1 = ak0
cmk +2 bmk +1 + cmk +1 bmk = ak1
cmk +3 bmk +1 + cmk +2 bmk + cmk +1 bmk −1 = ak2
..
.
cmk +mk +1 bmk +1 + cmk +mk bmk + · · · + cmk +1 b1 = akmk
Since cmk +1 6= 0, it follows there exists a unique solution to the above system.
You first solve for bmk +1 in the top. Then, having found it, you go to the next
and use cmk +1 6= 0 again to find bmk and continue in this manner. Let Sk (z)
be determined in this manner for each zk . By the Mittag-Leffler theorem, there
exists a Meromorphic function, g such that g has exactly the singularities, Sk (z) .
Therefore, f (z) g (z) has removable singularities at each zk and for z near zk , the
first mk terms of f g are as prescribed. This proves the theorem.
∞
Corollary 29.17 Let P ≡ {zk }k=1 be a set of points in Ω, an open set such that
P has no limit points in Ω. For each zk , consider
mk
X j
akj (z − zk ) . (29.19)
j=0
Then there exists an analytic function defined on Ω such that the Taylor series of
f at zk has the first mk terms given by 29.19.
Proof: The proof is identical to the above except you use the versions of the
Mittag-Leffler theorem and Weierstrass product which pertain to open sets.
Definition 29.18 Denote by H (Ω) the analytic functions defined on Ω, an open
subset of C. Then H (Ω) is a commutative ring2 with the usual operations of addition
and multiplication. A set, I ⊆ H (Ω) is called a finitely generated ideal of the ring
if I is of the form
( n )
X
gk fk : fk ∈ H (Ω) for k = 1, 2, · · ·, n
k=1
where g1 , ···, gn are given functions in H (Ω). This ideal is also denoted as [g1 , · · ·, gn ]
and is called the ideal generated by the functions, {g1 , · · ·, gn }. Since there are
finitely many of these functions it is called a finitely generated ideal. A principal
ideal is one which is generated by a single function. An example of such a thing is
[1] = H (Ω) .
2 It is not a field because you can’t divide two analytic functions and get another one.
Then there is the following interesting theorem.
Theorem 29.19 Every finitely generated ideal in H (Ω) for Ω a connected open set
(region) is a principal ideal.
Proof: Let I = [g1 , · · ·, gn ] be a finitely generated ideal as described above.

Then if any of the functions has no zeros, this ideal would consist of H (Ω) because
then gi−1 ∈ H (Ω) and so 1 ∈ I. It follows all the functions have zeros. If any of the
functions has a zero of infinite order, then the function equals zero on Ω because Ω
is connected and can be deleted from the list. Similarly, if the zeros of any of these
functions have a limit point in Ω, then the function equals zero and can be deleted
from the list. Thus, without loss of generality, all zeros are of finite order and there
are no limit points of the zeros in Ω. Let m (gi , z) denote the order of the zero of
gi at z. If gi has no zero at z, then m (gi , z) = 0.
I claim that if no point of Ω is a zero of all the gi , then the conclusion of the
theorem is true and in fact [g1 , · · ·, gn ] = [1] = H (Ω) . The claim is obvious if n = 1
because this assumption that no point is a zero of all the functions implies g 6= 0
and so g −1 is analytic. Hence 1 ∈ [g1 ] . Suppose it is true for n − 1 and consider
[g1 , · · ·, gn ] where no point of Ω is a zero of all the gi . Even though this may be true
of {g1 , · · ·, gn } , it may not be true of {g1 , · · ·, gn−1 } . By Corollary 29.9 there exists
φ, a function analytic on Ω such that m (φ, z) = min {m (gi , z) , i = 1, 2, · · ·, n − 1} .
Thus the functions {g1 /φ, · · ·, gn−1 /φ} .are all analytic. Could they all equal zero
at some point, z? If so, pick i where m (φ, z) = m (gi , z) . Thus gi /φ is not equal to
zero at z after all and so these functions are analytic there is no point of Ω which
is a zero of all of them. By induction, [g1 /φ, · · ·, gn−1 /φ] = H (Ω). (Also there are
no new zeros obtained in this way.)
Now this means there exist functions fi ∈ H (Ω) such that
X n µ ¶
gi
fi =1
i=1
φ
Pn
and so φ = i=1 fi gi . Therefore, [φ] ⊆ [g1 , · · ·, gP n−1 ] . On the other hand, if
Pn−1 n−1
h
k=1 k kg ∈ [g1 , · · ·, gn−1 ] you could define h ≡ k=1 hk (gk /φ ) , an analytic
Pn−1
function with the property that hφ = k=1 hk gk which shows [φ] = [g1 , · · ·, gn−1 ].
Therefore,
[g1 , · · ·, gn ] = [φ, gn ]
Now φ has no zeros in common with gn because the zeros of φ are contained in the
set of zeros for g1 , · · ·, gn−1 . Now consider a zero, α of φ. It is not a zero of gn and
so near α, these functions have the form
∞
X ∞
X
k k
φ (z) = ak (z − α) , gn (z) = bk (z − α) , b0 6= 0.
k=m k=0
I want to determine coefficients for an analytic function, h such that
m (1 − hgn , α) ≥ m (φ, α) . (29.20)

29.3. THE EXISTENCE OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION WITH GIVEN VALUES801
Let
∞
X k
h (z) = ck (z − α)
k=0
and the ck must be determined. Using Merten’s theorem, the power series for 1−hgn
is of the form Ã j !
∞
X X j
1 − b0 c0 − bj−r cr (z − α) .
j=1 r=0
First determine c0 such that 1 − c0 b0 = 0. This is no problem because b0 6= 0. Next

you need to get the coefficients of (z − α) to equal zero. This requires
b1 c0 + b0 c1 = 0.
Again, there is no problem because b0 6= 0. In fact, c1 = (−b1 c0 /b0 ) . Next consider

the second order terms if m ≥ 2.
b2 c0 + b1 c1 + b0 c2 = 0
Again there is no problem in solving, this time for c2 because b0 6= 0. Continuing this
way, you see that in every step, the ck which needs to be solved for is multiplied by
b0 6= 0. Therefore, by Corollary 29.9 there exists an analytic function, h satisfying
29.20. Therefore, (1 − hgn ) /φ has a removable singularity at every zero of φ and
so may be considered an analytic function. Therefore,
1 − hgn
1= φ + hgn ∈ [φ, gn ] = [g1 · · · gn ]
φ
which shows [g1 · · · gn ] = H (Ω) = [1] . It follows the claim is established.
Now suppose {g1 · · · gn } are just elements of H (Ω) . As explained above, it can
be assumed they all have zeros of finite order and the zeros have no limit point
in Ω since if these occur, you can delete the function from the list. By Corollary
29.9 there exists φ ∈ H (Ω) such that m (φ, z) ≤ min {m (gi , z) : i = 1, · · ·, n} . Then
gk /φ has a removable singularity at each zero of gk and so can be regarded as an
analytic function. Also, as before, there is no point which is a zero of each gk /φ and
so by the first part of this argument, [g1 /φ · · · gn /φ] = H (Ω) . As in the first part
of the argument, this implies [g1 · · · gn ] = [φ] which proves the theorem. [g1 · · · gn ]
is a principal ideal as claimed.
The following corollary follows from the above theorem. You don’t need to
assume Ω is connected.
Corollary 29.20 Every finitely generated ideal in H (Ω) for Ω an open set is a
principal ideal.
Proof: Let [g1 , · · ·, gn ] be a finitely generated ideal in H (Ω) . Let {Uk } be the
components of Ω. Then applying the above to each component, there exists hk ∈
H (Uk ) such that restricting each gi to Uk , [g1 , · · ·, gn ] = [hk ] . Then let h (z) = hk (z)
for z ∈ Uk . This is an analytic function which works.
29.4 Jensen’s Formula

This interesting formula relates the zeros of an analytic function to an integral. The
proof given here follows Alfors, [2]. First, here is a technical lemma.
Lemma 29.21 Z π ¯ ¯
ln ¯1 − eiθ ¯ dθ = 0.
−π
Proof: First note that the only problem with the integrand occurs when θ = 0.
However, this is an integrable singularity so the integral will end up making sense.
Letting z = eiθ , you could get the above integral as a limit as ε → 0 of the following
contour integral where γ ε is the contour shown in the following picture with the
radius of the big circle equal to 1 and the radius of the little circle equal to ε..
Z
ln |1 − z|
dz.
γε iz
s s
1
On the indicated contour, 1−z lies in the half plane Re z > 0 and so log (1 − z) =
ln |1 − z| + i arg (1 − z). The above integral equals
Z Z
log (1 − z) arg (1 − z)
dz − dz
γε iz γε z
The first of these integrals equals zero because the integrand has a removable sin-
gularity at 0. The second equals
Z −ηε Z π
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
i arg 1 − eiθ dθ + i arg 1 − eiθ dθ
−π ηε
Z −π Z π
2 −λε
+εi θdθ + εi θdθ
−π
2 −λε π
where η ε , λε → 0 as ε → 0. The last two terms converge to 0 as ε → 0 while the

first two add to zero. To see this, change the variable in the first integral and then
recall that when you multiply complex numbers you add the arguments. Thus you
end up integrating arg (real valued function) which equals zero.
In this material on Jensen’s equation, ε will denote a small positive number. Its
value is not important as long as it is positive. Therefore, it may change from place
29.4. JENSEN’S FORMULA 803
to place. Now suppose f is analytic on B (0, r + ε) , and f has no zeros on B (0, r).
Then you can define a branch of the logarithm which makes sense for complex
numbers near f (z) . Thus z → log (f (z)) is analytic on B (0, r + ε). Therefore, its
real part, u (x, y) ≡ ln |f (x + iy)| must be harmonic. Consider the following lemma.
Lemma 29.22 Let u be harmonic on B (0, r + ε) . Then

Z π
1 ¡ ¢
u (0) = u reiθ dθ.
2π −π
Proof: For a harmonic function, u defined on B (0, r + ε) , there exists an

analytic function, h = u + iv where
Z y Z x
v (x, y) ≡ ux (x, t) dt − uy (t, 0) dt.
0 0
By the Cauchy integral theorem,

Z Z π
1 h (z) 1 ¡ ¢
h (0) = dz = h reiθ dθ.
2πi γr z 2π −π
Therefore, considering the real part of h,

Z π
1 ¡ ¢
u (0) = u reiθ dθ.
2π −π

Now this shows the following corollary.
Corollary 29.23 Suppose f is analytic on B (0, r + ε) and has no zeros on B (0, r).
Then
Z π
1 ¯ ¡ ¢¯
ln |f (0)| = ln ¯f reiθ ¯ (29.21)
2π −π
What if f has some zeros on |z| =©r butªnone on B (0, r)? It turns out 29.21
m
is still valid. Suppose the zeros are at reiθk k=1 , listed according to multiplicity.
Then let
f (z)
g (z) = Qm iθ k )
.
k=1 (z − re
It follows g is analytic on B (0, r + ε) but has no zeros in B (0, r). Then 29.21 holds
for g in place of f. Thus
m
X
ln |f (0)| − ln |r|
k=1
Z π Z π Xm
1 ¯ ¡ iθ ¢¯ 1 ¯ ¯
= ¯
ln f re ¯ dθ − ln ¯reiθ − reiθk ¯ dθ
2π −π 2π −π
k=1
Z π Z π Xm Xm
1 ¯ ¡ iθ ¢¯ 1 ¯ ¯
= ln ¯f re ¯ dθ − ln ¯eiθ − eiθk ¯ dθ − ln |r|
2π −π 2π −π
k=1 k=1
Z π Z π Xm m
X
1 ¯ ¡ ¢¯ 1 ¯ ¯
= ln ¯f reiθ ¯ dθ − ln ¯eiθ − 1¯ dθ − ln |r|
2π −π 2π −π
k=1 k=1
R π Pm ¯ iθ ¯
1
Therefore, 29.21 will continue to hold exactly when 2π ¯ ¯
−π k=1 ln e − 1 dθ = 0.
But this is the content of Lemma 29.21. This proves the following lemma.
Lemma 29.24 Suppose f is analytic on B (0, r + ε) and has no zeros on B (0, r) .

Then Z π
1 ¯ ¡ ¢¯
ln |f (0)| = ln ¯f reiθ ¯ (29.22)
2π −π
With this preparation, it is now not too hard to prove Jensen’s formula. Suppose
n
there are n zeros of f in B (0, r) , {ak }k=1 , listed according to multiplicity, none equal
to zero. Let
Yn
r2 − ai z
F (z) ≡ f (z) .
i=1
r (z − ai )
Then F is analytic
Qn on B (0, r + ε) and has no zeros in B (0, r) . The reason for this
is that f (z) / i=1 r (z − ai ) has no zeros there and r2 − ai z cannot equal zero if
|z| < r because if this expression equals zero, then
r2
|z| = > r.
|ai |
The other interesting thing about F (z) is that when z = reiθ ,

n
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢Y r2 − ai reiθ
F reiθ = f reiθ
i=1
r (reiθ − ai )
n n
¡ ¢Y r − ai eiθ ¡ iθ ¢ iθ Y re−iθ − ai
= f reiθ = f re e
i=1
(reiθ − ai ) i=1
reiθ − ai
¯ ¡ ¢¯ ¯ ¡ ¢¯
so ¯F reiθ ¯ = ¯f reiθ ¯.
29.5. BLASCHKE PRODUCTS 805
Theorem 29.25 Let f be analytic on B (0, r + ε) and suppose f (0) 6= 0. If the

n
zeros of f in B (0, r) are {ak }k=1 , listed according to multiplicity, then
n
X µ ¶ Z 2π
r 1 ¯ ¡ ¢¯
ln |f (0)| = − ln + ln ¯f reiθ ¯ dθ.
i=1
|ai | 2π 0
Proof: From the above discussion and Lemma 29.24,

Z π
1 ¯ ¡ ¢¯
ln |F (0)| = ln ¯f reiθ ¯ dθ
2π −π
Qn Pn ¯ ¯
r ¯ ¯
But F (0) = f (0) i=1 ai and so ln |F (0)| = ln |f (0)| + i=1 ln ¯ ari ¯ . Therefore,
n
X ¯ ¯ Z 2π
¯r¯ 1 ¯ ¡ ¢¯
ln |f (0)| = − ln ¯¯ ¯¯ + ln ¯f reiθ ¯ dθ
i=1
ai 2π 0
as claimed.
Written in terms of exponentials this is
n ¯
Y
¯ µ Z 2π ¶
¯r ¯ ¯ ¡ iθ ¢¯
|f (0)| ¯ ¯ = exp 1 ln ¯f re ¯ dθ .
¯ ak ¯ 2π 0
k=1
29.5 Blaschke Products

The Blaschke3 product is a way to produce a function which is bounded and analytic
on B (0, 1) which also has given zeros in B (0, 1) . The interesting thing here is
that there may be infinitely many of these zeros. Thus, unlike the above case of
Jensen’s inequality, the function is not analytic on B (0, 1). Recall for purposes of
comparison, Liouville’s theorem which says bounded entire functions are constant.
The Blaschke product gives examples of bounded functions on B (0, 1) which are
definitely not constant.
Theorem 29.26 Let {αn } be a sequence of nonzero points in B (0, 1) with the
property that
∞
X
(1 − |αn |) < ∞.
n=1
Then for k ≥ 0, an integer

∞
Y αn − z |αn |
B (z) ≡ z k
1 − α n z αn
k=1
is a bounded function which is analytic on B (0, 1) which has zeros only at 0 if k > 0
and at the αn .
3 Wilhelm Blaschke, 1915
Proof: From Theorem 29.2 the above product will converge uniformly on B (0, r)
for r < 1 to an analytic function if
X∞ ¯ ¯
¯ αn − z |αn | ¯
¯ ¯
¯ 1 − αn z αn − 1¯
k=1
converges uniformly on B (0, r) . But for |z| < r,

¯ ¯
¯ αn − z |αn | ¯
¯ − 1¯
¯ 1 − αn z αn ¯
¯ ¯
¯ αn − z |αn | αn (1 − αn z) ¯
= ¯¯ − ¯
1 − αn z αn αn (1 − αn z) ¯
¯ ¯
¯ |α | α − |α | z − α + |α |2 z ¯
¯ n n n n n ¯
= ¯ ¯
¯ (1 − αn z) αn ¯
¯ ¯
¯ |α | α − α − |α | z + |α |2 z ¯
¯ n n n n n ¯
= ¯ ¯
¯ (1 − αn z) αn ¯
¯ ¯
¯ αn + z |αn | ¯
= ||αn | − 1| ¯¯ ¯
(1 − αn z) αn ¯
¯ ¯
¯ 1 + z (|αn | /αn ) ¯
= ||αn | − 1| ¯¯ ¯
(1 − αn z) ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ 1 + |z| ¯ ¯ ¯
≤ ||αn | − 1| ¯¯ ¯ ≤ ||αn | − 1| ¯ 1 + r ¯
1 − |z| ¯ ¯ 1 − r¯
and so the assumption on the sum gives uniform convergence of the product on
B (0, r) to an analytic function. Since r < 1 is arbitrary, this shows B (z) is analytic
on B (0, 1) and has the specified zeros because the only place the factors equal zero
are at the αn or 0.
Now consider the factors in the product. The claim is that they are all no larger
in absolute value than 1. This is very easy to see from the maximum modulus
α−z
theorem. Let |α| < 1 and φ (z) = 1−αz . Then φ is analytic near B (0, 1) because its
iθ
only pole is 1/α. Consider z = e . Then
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¡ iθ ¢¯ ¯ α − eiθ ¯ ¯ 1 − αe−iθ ¯
¯φ e ¯ = ¯ ¯=¯ ¯
¯ 1 − αeiθ ¯ ¯ 1 − αeiθ ¯ = 1.
Thus the modulus of φ (z) equals 1 on ∂B (0, 1) . Therefore, by the maximum mod-
ulus theorem, |φ (z)| < 1 if |z| < 1. This proves the claim that the terms in the
product are no larger than 1 and shows the function determined by the Blaschke
product is bounded. This proves the theorem. P∞
Note in the conditions for this theorem the one for the sum, n=1 (1 − |αn |) <
∞. The Blaschke product gives an analytic function, whose absolute value is bounded
by 1 and which has the αn as zeros. What if you had a bounded function, analytic
on B (0, 1) which had zeros at {αk }? Could you conclude the condition on the sum?
The answer is yes. In fact, you can get by with less than the assumption that f is
bounded but this will not be presented here. See Rudin [45]. This theorem is an
exciting use of Jensen’s equation.
Theorem 29.27 Suppose f is an analytic function on B (0, 1) , f (0) = 6 0, and

∞
|f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ B (0, 1) . Suppose
P∞ also that the zeros of f are {αk }k=1 ,
listed according to multiplicity. Then k=1 (1 − |αk |) < ∞.
Proof: If there are only finitely many zeros, there is nothing to prove so assume
there are infinitely many. Also let the zeros be listed such that |αn | ≤ |αn+1 | · ·· Let
n (r) denote the number of zeros in B (0, r) . By Jensen’s formula,
n(r)
X Z 2π
1 ¯ ¡ ¢¯
ln |f (0)| + ln r − ln |αi | = ln ¯f reiθ ¯ dθ ≤ ln (M ) .
i=1
2π 0
Therefore, by the mean value theorem,
n(r) n(r)
X1 X
(r − |αi |) ≤ ln r − ln |αi | ≤ ln (M ) − ln |f (0)|
i=1
r i=1
As r → 1−, n (r) → ∞, and so an application of Fatous lemma yields
∞ n(r)
X X1
(1 − |αi |) ≤ lim inf (r − |αi |) ≤ ln (M ) − ln |f (0)| .
i=1
r→1−
i=1
r

You don’t need the assumption that f (0) 6= 0.
Corollary 29.28 Suppose f is an analytic function on B (0, 1) and |f (z)| ≤ M

∞
for all z ∈ B (0, 1) . Suppose also
Pthat the nonzero zeros4 of f are {αk }k=1 , listed
∞
according to multiplicity. Then k=1 (1 − |αk |) < ∞.
Proof: Suppose f has a zero of order m at 0. Then consider the analytic

function, g (z) ≡ f (z) /z m which has the same zeros except for 0. The argument
goes the same way except here you use g instead of f and only consider r > r0 > 0.
4 This is a fun thing to say: nonzero zeros.

Thus from Jensen’s equation,
n(r)
X
ln |g (0)| + ln r − ln |αi |
i=1
Z 2π
1 ¯ ¡ ¢¯
= ln ¯g reiθ ¯ dθ
2π 0
Z 2π Z 2π
1 ¯ ¡ ¢¯ 1
= ln ¯f reiθ ¯ dθ − m ln (r)
2π0 2π 0
Z 2π
1 ¡ ¢
≤ M+ m ln r−1
2π 0
µ ¶
1
≤ M + m ln .
r0
Now the rest of the argument is the same.

An interesting restatement yields the following amazing result.
Corollary
P∞29.29 Suppose f is analytic and bounded on B (0, 1) having zeros {αn } .
Then if k=1 (1 − |αn |) = ∞, it follows f is identically equal to zero.
29.5.1 The Müntz-Szasz Theorem Again

Corollary 29.29 makes possible an easy proof of a remarkable theorem named above
which yields a wonderful generalization of the Weierstrass approximation theorem.
In what follows b > 0. The Weierstrass approximation theorem states that linear
combinations of 1, t, t2 , t3 , · · · (polynomials) are dense in C ([0, b]) . Let λ1 < λ2 <
λ3 < · · · be an increasing list of positive real numbers. This theorem tells when
linear combinations of 1, tλ1 , tλ2 , · · · are dense in C ([0, b]). The proof which follows
is like the one given in Rudin [45]. There is a much longer one in Cheney [14] which
discusses more aspects of the subject. See also Page 377 where the version given in
Cheney is presented. This other approach is much more elementary and does not
depend in any way on the theory of functions of a complex variable. There are those
of us who automatically prefer real variable techniques. Nevertheless, this proof by
Rudin is a very nice and insightful application of the preceding material. Cheney
refers to the theorem as the second Müntz theorem. I guess Szasz must also have
been involved.
Theorem 29.30 Let λ1 < λ2 < λ3 < · · · be an increasing list of positive real
numbers and let a > 0. If
X∞
1
= ∞, (29.23)
λ
n=1 n
then linear combinations of 1, tλ1 , tλ2 , · · · are dense in C ([0, b]).

© ª
Proof: Let X denote the closure of linear combinations of 1, tλ1 , tλ2 , · · · in
0
C ([0, b]) . If X 6= C ([0, b]) , then letting f ∈ C ([0, b]) \ X, define Λ ∈ C ([0, b]) as
follows. First let Λ0 : X + Cf be given by Λ0 (g + αf ) = α ||f ||∞ . Then
sup |Λ0 (g + αf )| = sup |α| ||f ||∞

||g+αf ||≤1 ||g+αf ||≤1
= sup |α| ||f ||∞

1
||g/α+f ||≤ |α|
= sup |α| ||f ||∞

1
||g+f ||≤ |α|
Now dist (f, X) > 0 because X is closed. Therefore, there exists a lower bound,
η > 0 to ||g + f || for g ∈ X. Therefore, the above is no larger than
µ ¶
1
sup |α| ||f ||∞ = ||f ||∞
|α|≤ 1 η
η
³ ´
1
which shows that ||Λ0 || ≤ η ||f ||∞ . By the Hahn Banach theorem Λ0 can be
0
extended to Λ ∈ C ([0, b]) which has the property that Λ (X) = 0 but Λ (f ) =
||f || 6= 0. By the Weierstrass approximation theorem, Theorem 7.6 or one of its
cases, there exists a polynomial, p such that Λ (p) 6= 0. Therefore, if it can be
shown that whenever Λ (X) = 0, it is the case that Λ (p) = 0 for all polynomials, it
must be the case that X is dense in C ([0, b]).
0
By the Riesz representation theorem the elements of C ([0, b]) are complex mea-
sures. Suppose then that for µ a complex measure it follows that for all tλk ,
Z
tλk dµ = 0.
[0,b]
I want to show that then Z

tk dµ = 0
[0,b]
for all positive integers. It suffices to modify µ is necessary to have µ ({0}) = 0 since
this will not change any of the above integrals. Let µ1 (E) = µ (E ∩ (0, b]) and use
µ1 . I will continue using the symbol, µ.
For Re (z) > 0, define
Z Z
F (z) ≡ tz dµ = tz dµ
[0,b] (0,b]
The function tz = exp (z ln (t)) is analytic. I claim that F (z) is also analytic for
Re z > 0. Apply Morea’s theorem. Let T be a triangle in Re z > 0. Then
Z Z Z
F (z) dz = e(z ln(t)) ξd |µ| dz
∂T ∂T (0,b]
R
Now ∂T can be split into three integrals over intervals of R and so this integral is es-
sentially a Lebesgue integral taken with respect to Lebesgue measure. Furthermore,
e(z ln(t)) is a continuous function of the two variables and ξ is a function of only the
one variable, t. Thus the integrand¯ is product¯ measurable. The iterated integral is
also absolutely integrable because ¯e(z ln(t)) ¯ ≤ ex ln t ≤ ex ln b where x + iy = z and
x is given to be positive. Thus the integrand is actually bounded. Therefore, you
can apply Fubini’s theorem and write
Z Z Z
F (z) dz = e(z ln(t)) ξd |µ| dz
∂T ∂T (0,b]
Z Z
= ξ e(z ln(t)) dzd |µ| = 0.
(0,b] ∂T
By Morea’s theorem, F is analytic on Re z > 0 which is given to have zeros at the

λk .
1+z
Now let φ (z) = 1−z . Then φ maps B (0, 1) one to one onto Re z > 0. To see this
let 0 < r < 1.
¡ ¢ 1 + reiθ 1 − r2 + i2r sin θ
φ reiθ = =
1 − reiθ 1 + r2 − 2r cos θ
¡ iθ ¢
and so Re φ re > 0. Now the inverse of φ is φ−1 (z) = z−1 z+1 . For Re z > 0,
¯ −1 ¯ 2
¯φ (z)¯2 = z − 1 · z − 1 = |z| − 2 Re z + 1 < 1.
z+1 z+1 2
|z| + 2 Re z + 1
Consider F ◦ φ, an analytic function defined on B (0, 1). This function is given to
1+zn
have zeros at zn where φ (zn ) = 1−z n
= λn . This reduces to zn = −1+λ
1+λn . Now
n
c
1 − |zn | ≥
1 + λn
P 1 P
for a positive constant, c. It is given that λn = ∞. so it follows (1 − |zn |) = ∞
also. Therefore, by Corollary 29.29, F ◦ φ = 0. It follows F = 0 also. In particular,
0
F (k) for k a positive integer equals zero. This has shown that if Λ ∈ C ([0, b]) and
λn k
Λ sends 1 and all the t to 0, then Λ sends 1 and all t for k a positive integer to
zero. As explained above, X is dense in C ((0, b]) .
The converse of this theorem is also true and is proved in Rudin [45].
29.6 Exercises
1. Suppose f is an entire function with f (0) = 1. Let
M (r) = max {|f (z)| : |z| = r} .
Use Jensen’s equation to establish the following inequality.
M (2r) ≥ 2n(r)
where n (r) is the number of zeros of f in B (0, r).
29.6. EXERCISES 811
2. The version of the Blaschke product presented above is that found in most
complex variable texts. However, there is another one in [37]. Instead of
αn −z |αn |
1−αn z αn you use
αn − z
1
αn − z
Prove a version of Theorem 29.26 using this modification.

3. The Weierstrass approximation theorem holds for polynomials of n variables
on any compact subset of Rn . Give a multidimensional version of the Müntz-
Szasz theorem which will generalize the Weierstrass approximation theorem
for n dimensions. You might just pick a compact subset of Rn in which
all components are positive. You have to do something like this because
otherwise, tλ might not be defined.
Q∞ ³ 4z 2
´
4. Show cos (πz) = k=1 1 − (2k−1) 2 .
Q∞ ³ ¡ ¢2 ´
5. Recall sin (πz) = zπ n=1 1 − nz . Use this to derive Wallis product,
π
Q ∞ 4k 2
2 = k=1 (2k−1)(2k+1) .
6. The order of an entire function, f is defined as

n a
o
inf a ≥ 0 : |f (z)| ≤ e|z| for all large enough |z|
If no such a exists, the function is said to be of infinite order. Show the order
of an entire function is also equal to lim supr→∞ ln(ln(M (r)))
ln(r) where M (r) ≡
max {|f (z)| : |z| = r}.
7. Suppose Ω is a simply connected region and let f be meromorphic on Ω.
Suppose also that the set, S ≡ {z ∈ Ω : f (z) = c} has a limit point in Ω. Can
you conclude f (z) = c for all z ∈ Ω?
8. This and the next collection of problems are dealing with the gamma function.
Show that ¯³ ¯ C (z)
¯ z ´ −z ¯
¯ 1+ e n − 1¯ ≤
n n2
and therefore,
∞ ¯³ ¯
X ¯ z ´ −z ¯
¯ 1+ e n − 1¯ < ∞
n=1
n
with the convergence uniform on compact sets.
Q∞ ¡ ¢ −z
9. ↑ Show n=1 1 + nz e n converges to an analytic function on C which has
zeros only at the negative integers and that therefore,
∞ ³
Y z ´−1 z
1+ en
n=1
n
is a meromorphic function (Analytic except for poles) having simple poles at

the negative integers.
10. ↑Show there exists γ such that if
e−γz Y ³ z ´−1 z
∞
Γ (z) ≡ 1+ en ,
z n=1 n
then Γ (1) = 1. Thus Γ is Q

a meromorphic function having simple poles at the
∞
negative integers. Hint: n=1 (1 + n) e−1/n = c = eγ .
11. ↑Now show that " #
n
X 1
γ = lim − ln n
n→∞ k
k=1
12. ↑Justify the following argument leading to Gauss’s formula

Ã n µ ¶ ! −γz
Y k z e
Γ (z) = lim ek
n→∞ k+z z
k=1
µ Pn
¶ −γz
n! e
ez( k=1 k )
1
= lim
n→∞ (1 + z) (2 + z) · · · (n + z) z
n! P P
ez( k=1 k ) e−z[ k=1 ]
n 1 n 1
= lim k −ln n
n→∞ (1 + z) (2 + z) · · · (n + z)
n!nz
= lim .
n→∞ (1 + z) (2 + z) · · · (n + z)
13. ↑ Verify from the Gauss formula above that Γ (z + 1) = Γ (z) z and that for n
a nonnegative integer, Γ (n + 1) = n!.
14. ↑ The usual definition of the gamma function for positive x is
Z ∞
Γ1 (x) ≡ e−t tx−1 dt.
0
¡ ¢n
Show 1 − nt ≤ e−t for t ∈ [0, n] . Then show
Z nµ ¶n
t n!nx
1− tx−1 dt = .
0 n x (x + 1) · · · (x + n)
Use the first part to conclude that
n!nx
Γ1 (x) = lim = Γ (x) .
n→∞ x (x + 1) · · · (x + n)
¡ ¢n
Hint: To show 1 − nt ≤ e−t for t ∈ [0, n] , verify this is equivalent to
n −nu
showing (1 − u) ≤ e for u ∈ [0, 1].
29.6. EXERCISES 813
R∞
15. ↑Show Γ (z) = 0 e−t tz−1 dt. whenever Re z > 0. Hint: You have already
shown that this is true for positive real numbers. Verify this formula for
Re z > 0 yields an analytic function.
¡1¢ √ ¡5¢
16. ↑Show Γ 2 = π. Then find Γ 2 .
R∞ −s2 √
17. Show that e 2 ds = 2π. Hint: Denote this integral by I and observe
R −∞−(x2 +y2 )/2
that I 2 = R2
e dxdy. Then change variables to polar coordinates,
x = r cos (θ), y = r sin θ.
18. ↑ Now that you know what the gamma function is, consider in the formula
for Γ (α + 1) the following change of variables. t = α + α1/2 s. Then in terms
of the new variable, s, the formula for Γ (α + 1) is
Z ∞ µ ¶α
−α α+ 12
√
− αs s
e α √
e 1+ √ ds
− α α
Z ∞ h ³ ´ i
−α α+ 12 α ln 1+ √sα − √sα
=e α √
e ds
− α
s2
Show the integrand converges to e− 2 . Show that then
Z ∞ √
Γ (α + 1) −s2
lim = e 2 ds = 2π.
α→∞ e−α αα+(1/2) −∞
Hint: You will need to obtain a dominating function for the integral so that
you can use the dominated convergence theorem. You might try considering
√ √
like e1−(s /4) on this interval.
2
s ∈ (− α, α) first and consider something
√
Then look for another function for s > α. This formula is known as Stirling’s
formula.
19. This and the next several problems develop the zeta function and give a
relation between the zeta and the gamma function. Define for 0 < r < 2π
Z 2π Z ∞
e(z−1)(ln r+iθ) iθ e(z−1)(ln t+2πi)
Ir (z) ≡ ire dθ + dt (29.24)
0 ereiθ − 1 r et − 1
Z r (z−1) ln t
e
+ t
dt
∞ e −1
Show that Ir is an entire function. The reason 0 < r < 2π is that this prevents
iθ
ere − 1 from equaling zero. The above is just a precise description of the
R z−1
contour integral, γ eww −1 dw where γ is the contour shown below.
? ¾ -
in which on the integrals along the real line, the argument is different in going
from r to ∞ than it is in going from ∞ to r. Now I have not defined such
contour integrals over contours which have infinite length and so have chosen
to simply write out explicitly what is involved. You have to work with these
integrals given above anyway but the contour integral just mentioned is the
motivation for them. Hint: You may want to use convergence theorems from
real analysis if it makes this more convenient but you might not have to.
20. ↑ In the context of Problem 19 define for small δ > 0

Z
wz−1
Irδ (z) ≡ dw
γ r,δ ew − 1
where γ rδ is shown below.
r¡
µ
¡ ¾
s¡ x
? - 2δ
Show that limδ→0 Irδ (z) = Ir (z) . Hint: Use the dominated convergence
theorem if it makes this go easier. This is not a hard problem if you use these
theorems but you can probably do it without them with more work.
21. ↑ In the context of Problem 20 show that for r1 < r, Irδ (z) − Ir1 δ (z) is a
contour integral,
Z
wz−1
w
dw
γ r,r ,δ e − 1
1
where the oriented contour is shown below.

29.6. EXERCISES 815
¾
-
γ r,r1 ,δ
?6
¾
-
In this contour integral, wz−1 denotes e(z−1) log(w) where log (w) = ln |w| +
i arg (w) for arg (w) ∈ (0, 2π) . Explain why this integral equals zero. From
Problem 20 it follows that Ir = Ir1 . Therefore, you can define an entire func-
tion, I (z) ≡ Ir (z) for all r positive but sufficiently small. Hint: Remember
the Cauchy integral formula for analytic functions defined on simply connected
regions. You could argue there is a simply connected region containing γ r,r1 ,δ .
22. ↑ In case Re z > 1, you can get an interesting formula for I (z) by taking the
limit as r → 0. Recall that
Z 2π (z−1)(ln r+iθ) Z ∞ (z−1)(ln t+2πi)
e iθ e
Ir (z) ≡ ire dθ + dt (29.25)
0 ere iθ
−1 r et − 1
Z r (z−1) ln t
e
+ t
dt
∞ e −1
and now it is desired to take a limit in the case where Re z > 1. Show the first
integral above converges to 0 as r → 0. Next argue the sum of the two last
integrals converges to
³ ´ Z ∞ e(z−1) ln(t)
e(z−1)2πi − 1 dt.
0 et − 1
Thus Z
¡ ¢ ∞
e(z−1) ln(t)
I (z) = ez2πi − 1 dt (29.26)
0 et − 1
when Re z > 1.
23. ↑ So what does all this have to do with the zeta function and the gamma
function? The zeta function is defined for Re z > 1 by
X∞
1
z
≡ ζ (z) .
n=1
n
By Problem 15, whenever Re z > 0,

Z ∞
Γ (z) = e−t tz−1 dt.
0
Change the variable and conclude

Z ∞
1
Γ (z) = e−ns sz−1 ds.
nz 0
Therefore, for Re z > 1,

∞ Z
X ∞
ζ (z) Γ (z) = e−ns sz−1 ds.
n=1 0
Now show that you can interchange the order of the sum and the integral.
This
P∞ isR ∞possibly most
¯ −ns z−1 ¯ easily done by using Fubini’s theorem. Show that
¯e s ¯ ds < ∞ and then use Fubini’s theorem. I think you
n=1 0
could do it other ways though. It is possible to do it without any reference to
Lebesgue integration. Thus
Z ∞ ∞
X
ζ (z) Γ (z) = sz−1 e−ns ds
0 n=1
Z ∞ Z ∞
sz−1 e−s sz−1
= ds = ds
0 1 − e−s 0 es − 1
By 29.26,
Z ∞
¡ ¢ e(z−1) ln(t)
I (z) = ez2πi − 1 dt
0 et − 1
¡ z2πi
¢
= e − 1 ζ (z) Γ (z)
¡ 2πiz
¢
= e − 1 ζ (z) Γ (z)
whenever Re z > 1.
24. ↑ Now show there exists an entire function, h (z) such that
1
ζ (z) = + h (z)
z−1
for Re z > 1. Conclude ζ (z) extends to a meromorphic function defined on
all of C which has a simple pole at z = 1, namely, the right side of the above
formula. Hint: Use Problem 10 to observe that Γ (z) is never equal to zero
but has simple poles at every nonnegative integer. Then for Re z > 1,
I (z)
ζ (z) ≡ .
(e2πiz − 1) Γ (z)
By 29.26 ζ has no poles for Re z > 1. The right side of the above equation is
defined for all z. There are no poles except possibly when z is a nonnegative
integer. However, these points are not poles either because of Problem 10
which states that Γ has simple poles at these points thus cancelling the simple
29.6. EXERCISES 817
¡ ¢
zeros of e2πiz − 1 . The only remaining possibility for a pole for ζ is at z = 1.
Show it has a simple pole at this point. You can use the formula for I (z)
Z 2π Z ∞
e(z−1)(ln r+iθ) iθ e(z−1)(ln t+2πi)
I (z) ≡ ire dθ + dt (29.27)
0 ereiθ − 1 r et − 1
Z r (z−1) ln t
e
+ t
dt
∞ e −1
Thus I (1) is given by

Z 2π Z ∞ Z r
1 1 1
I (1) ≡ ireiθ dθ + t
dt + dt
0 ereiθ −1 r e −1 ∞ et −1
R
= γ ewdw−1 where γ r is the circle of radius r. This contour integral equals 2πi
r
by the residue theorem. Therefore,
I (z) 1
= + h (z)
(e2πiz − 1) Γ (z) z−1
where h (z) is an entire function. People worry a lot about where the zeros of
ζ are located. In particular, the zeros for Re z ∈ (0, 1) are of special interest.
The Riemann hypothesis says they are all on the line Re z = 1/2. This is a
good problem for you to do next.
25. There is an important relation between prime numbers and the zeta function
∞
due to Euler. Let {pn }n=1 be the prime numbers. Then for Re z > 1,
∞
Y 1
= ζ (z) .
n=1
1 − p−z
n
To see this, consider a partial product.

N
Y YN X ∞ µ ¶j
1 1 n
= .
n=1
1 − p−z
n n=1 j =1
pzn
n
Let SN denote all positive integers which

P use only p1 , · · ·, pN in their prime
factorization. Then the above equals n∈SN n1z . Letting N → ∞ and using
the fact that Re z > 1 so that the order in which you sum is not important (See
P∞30.1 or recall advanced calculus. ) you obtain the desired equation.
Theorem
Show n=1 p1n = ∞.
Elliptic Functions
This chapter is to give a short introduction to elliptic functions. There is much

more available. There are books written on elliptic functions. What I am presenting
here follows Alfors [2] although the material is found in many books on complex
analysis. Hille, [27] has a much more extensive treatment than what I will attempt
here. There are also many references and historical notes available in the book by
Hille. Another good source for more having much the same emphasis as what is
presented here is in the book by Saks and Zygmund [47]. This is a very interesting
subject because it has considerable overlap with algebra.
Before beginning, recall that an absolutely convergent series can be summed in
any order and you always get the same answer. The easy way to see this is to think
of the series as a Lebesgue integral with respect to counting measure and apply
convergence theorems as needed. The following theorem provides the necessary
results.
P∞
P∞ n=1 |an | < P
Theorem 30.1 Suppose ∞ and let θ, φ : N → N be one to one and
∞
onto mappings. Then n=1 aφ(n) and n=1 aθ(n) both converge and the two sums
are equal.
Proof: By the monotone convergence theorem,

∞
X n
X n
X
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
|an | = lim ¯aφ(k) ¯ = lim ¯aθ(k) ¯
n→∞ n→∞
n=1 k=1 k=1
P∞ ¯ ¯ P∞ ¯ ¯
but these last two equal ¯aφ(k) ¯ and ¯aθ(k) ¯ respectively. Therefore,
P∞ P∞ k=1 k=1
1
k=1 aθ(k) and k=1 aφ(k) exist (n → aθ(n) is in L with respect to counting
measure.) It remains to show the two are equal. There exists M such that if
n > M then
X ∞ X∞
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯aθ(k) ¯ < ε, ¯aφ(k) ¯ < ε
k=n+1 k=n+1
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯X∞ n
X ¯ ¯X∞ n
X ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ aφ(k) − aφ(k) ¯ < ε, ¯ aθ(k) − aθ(k) ¯ < ε
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
819
820 ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
Pick such an n denoted by n1 . Then pick n2 > n1 > M such that

{θ (1) , · · ·, θ (n1 )} ⊆ {φ (1) , · · ·, φ (n2 )} .
Then
n2
X n1
X X
aφ(k) = aθ(k) + aφ(k) .
k=1 k=1 φ(k)∈{θ(1),···,θ(n
/ 1 )}
Therefore,
¯n ¯ ¯¯ ¯
¯
¯X2 n1
X ¯ ¯ X ¯
¯ ¯
¯ aφ(k) − aθ(k) ¯ = ¯¯ aφ(k) ¯¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
k=1 k=1 φ(k)∈{θ(1),···,θ(n
/ 1 )},k≤n2
Now all of these φ (k) in the last sum are contained in {θ (n1 + 1) , · · ·} and so the
last sum above is dominated by
∞
X ¯ ¯
≤ ¯aθ(k) ¯ < ε.
k=n1 +1
Therefore,
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯X∞ ∞
X ¯ ¯X ∞ Xn2 ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ aφ(k) − aθ(k) ¯ ≤ ¯ aφ(k) − aφ(k) ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
¯n ¯
¯X 2 X n1 ¯
¯ ¯
+¯ aφ(k) − aθ(k) ¯
¯ ¯
k=1 k=1
¯n ¯
¯X 1 X∞ ¯
¯ ¯
+¯ aθ(k) − aθ(k) ¯ < ε + ε + ε = 3ε
¯ ¯
k=1 k=1
P∞ P∞
and since ε is arbitrary, it follows k=1 aφ(k) = k=1 aθ(k) as claimed. This proves
the theorem.
30.1 Periodic Functions

Definition 30.2 A function defined on C is said to be periodic if there exists w
such that f (z + w) = f (z) for all z ∈ C. Denote by M the set of all periods. Thus
if w1 , w2 ∈ M and a, b ∈ Z, then aw1 + bw2 ∈ M. For this reason M is called the
module of periods.1 In all which follows it is assumed f is meromorphic.
Theorem 30.3 Let f be a meromorphic function and let M be the module of peri-
ods. Then if M has a limit point, then f equals a constant. If this does not happen
then either there exists w1 ∈ M such that Zw1 = M or there exist w1 , w2 ∈ M such
that M = {aw1 + bw2 : a, b ∈ Z} and w1 /w2 is not real. Also if τ = w2 /w1 ,
−1 1
|τ | ≥ 1, ≤ Re τ ≤ .
2 2
1A module is like a vector space except instead of a field of scalars, you have a ring of scalars.
30.1. PERIODIC FUNCTIONS 821
Proof: Suppose f is meromorphic and M has a limit point, w0 . By Theorem

29.10 on Page 794 there exist analytic functions, p, q such that f (z) = p(z) q(z) . Now
pick z0 such that z0 is not a pole of f . Then letting wn → w0 where {wn } ⊆ M,
f (z0 + wn ) = f (z0 ) . Therefore, p (z0 + wn ) = f (z0 ) q (z0 + wn ) and so the analytic
function, p (z) − f (z0 ) q (z) has a zero set which has a limit point. Therefore, this
function is identically equal to zero because of Theorem 24.23 on Page 657. Thus
f equals a constant as claimed.
This has shown that if f is not constant, then M is discreet. Therefore, there
exists w1 ∈ M such that |w1 | = min {|w| : w ∈ M }. Suppose first that every element
of M is a real multiple of w1 . Thus, if w ∈ M, it follows there exists a real number,
x such that w = xw1 . Then there exist positive integers, k, k + 1 such that k ≤ x <
k + 1. If x > k, then w − kw1 = (x − k) w1 is a period having smaller absolute value
than |w1 | which would be a contradiction. Hence, x = k and so M = Zw1 .
Now suppose there exists w2 ∈ M which is not a real multiple of w1 . You
can let w2 be the element of M having this property which has smallest absolute
value. Now let w ∈ M. Since w1 and w2 point in different directions, it follows
w = xw1 + yw2 for some real numbers, x, y. Let |m − x| ≤ 12 and |n − y| ≤ 12 where
m, n are integers. Therefore,
w = mw1 + nw2 + (x − m) w1 + (y − n) w2
and so
w − mw1 − nw2 = (x − m) w1 + (y − n) w2 (30.1)
Now since w2 /w1 ∈
/ R,
|(x − m) w1 + (y − n) w2 | < |(x − m) w1 | + |(y − n) w2 |

1 1
= |w1 | + |w2 | .
2 2
|w − mw1 − nw2 | = |(x − m) w1 + (y − n) w2 |

1 1
< |w1 | + |w2 | ≤ |w2 |
2 2
and so the period, w − mw1 − nw2 cannot be a non real multiple of w1 because w2
is the one which has smallest absolute value and this period has smaller absolute
value than w2 . Therefore, the ratio w − mw1 − nw2 /w1 must be a real number, x.
Thus
w − mw1 − nw2 = xw1
Since w1 has minimal absolute value of all periods, it follows |x| ≥ 1. Let k ≤ x <
k + 1 for some integer, k. If x > k, then
w − mw1 − nw2 − kw1 = (x − k) w1
which would contradict the choice of w1 as being the period having minimal absolute
value because the expression on the left in the above is a period and it equals
something which has absolute value less than |w1 |. Therefore, x = k and w is an
integer linear combination of w1 and w2 . It only remains to verify the claim about
τ.
From the construction, |w1 | ≤ |w2 | and |w2 | ≤ |w1 − w2 | , |w2 | ≤ |w1 + w2 | .
Therefore,
|τ | ≥ 1, |τ | ≤ |1 − τ | , |τ | ≤ |1 + τ | .
The last two of these inequalities imply −1/2 ≤ Re τ ≤ 1/2.
Definition 30.4 For f a meromorphic function which has the last of the above
alternatives holding in which M = {aw1 + bw2 : a, b ∈ Z} , the function, f is called
elliptic. This is also called doubly periodic.
Theorem 30.5 Suppose f is an elliptic function which has no poles. Then f is

constant.
Proof: Since f has no poles it is analytic. Now consider the parallelograms

determined by the vertices, mw1 + nw2 for m, n ∈ Z. By periodicity of f it must be
bounded because its values are identical on each of these parallelograms. Therefore,
it equals a constant by Liouville’s theorem.
Definition 30.6 Define Pa to be the parallelogram determined by the points
a + mw1 + nw2 , a + (m + 1) w1 + nw2 , a + mw1 + (n + 1) w2 ,

a + (m + 1) w1 + (n + 1) w2
Such Pa will be referred to as a period parallelogram. The sum of the orders of

the poles in a period parallelogram which contains no poles or zeros of f on its
boundary is called the order of the function. This is well defined because of the
periodic property of f .
Theorem 30.7 The sum of the residues of any elliptic function, f equals zero on
every Pa if a is chosen so that there are no poles on ∂Pa .
Proof: Choose a such that there are no poles of f on the boundary of Pa . By

periodicity, Z
f (z) dz = 0
∂Pa
because the integrals over opposite sides of the parallelogram cancel out because
the values of f are the same on these sides and the orientations are opposite. It
follows from the residue theorem that the sum of the residues in Pa equals 0.
Theorem 30.8 Let Pa be a period parallelogram for a nonconstant elliptic function,

f which has order equal to m. Then f assumes every value in f (Pa ) exactly m
times.
Proof: Let c ∈ f (Pa ) and consider Pa0 such that f −1 (c) ∩ Pa0 = f −1 (c) ∩ Pa
and Pa0 contains the same poles and zeros of f − c as Pa but Pa0 has no zeros of
f (z) − c or poles of f on its boundary. Thus f 0 (z) / (f (z) − c) is also an elliptic
function and so Theorem 30.7 applies. Consider
Z
1 f 0 (z)
dz.
2πi ∂Pa0 f (z) − c
By the argument principle, this equals Nz −Np where Nz equals the number of zeros
of f (z) − c and Np equals the number of the poles of f (z). From Theorem 30.7 this
must equal zero because it is the sum of the residues of f 0 / (f − c) and so Nz = Np .
Now Np equals the number of poles in Pa counted according to multiplicity.
There is an even better theorem than this one.
Theorem 30.9 Let f be a non constant elliptic function and suppose it has poles
p1 , · · ·, pm and zeros, z1 , · · ·, zm in Pα , listed
Pm according Pm to multiplicity where ∂Pα
contains no poles or zeros of f . Then k=1 zk − k=1 pk ∈ M, the module of
periods.
Proof: You can assume ∂Pa contains no poles or zeros of f because if it did,
then you could consider a slightly shifted period parallelogram, Pa0 which contains
no new zeros and poles but which has all the old ones but no poles or zeros on its
boundary. By Theorem 26.8 on Page 710
Z m
X Xm
1 f 0 (z)
z dz = zk − pk . (30.2)
2πi ∂Pa f (z)
k=1 k=1
Denoting by γ (z, w) the straight oriented line segment from z to w,

Z
f 0 (z)
z dz
∂Pa f (z)
Z Z
f 0 (z) f 0 (z)
= z dz + z dz
γ(a,a+w1 ) f (z) γ(a+w1 +w2 ,a+w2 ) f (z)
Z Z
f 0 (z) f 0 (z)
+ z dz + z dz
γ(a+w1 ,a+w2 +w1 ) f (z) γ(a+w2 ,a) f (z)
Z
f 0 (z)
= (z − (z + w2 )) dz
γ(a,a+w1 ) f (z)
Z
f 0 (z)
+ (z − (z + w1 )) dz
γ(a,a+w2 ) f (z)
f 0 (z)
Now near these line segments f (z) is analytic and so there exists a primitive, gwi (z)
on γ (a, a + wi ) by Corollary 24.32 on Page 663 which satisfies egwi (z) = f (z).
Therefore,
= −w2 (gw1 (a + w1 ) − gw1 (a)) − w1 (gw2 (a + w2 ) − gw2 (a)) .
Now by periodicity of f it follows f (a + w1 ) = f (a) = f (a + w2 ) . Hence
gwi (a + w1 ) − gwi (a) = 2mπi
for some integer, m because
egwi (a+wi ) − egwi (a) = f (a + wi ) − f (a) = 0.
Therefore, from 30.2, there exist integers, k, l such that

Z
1 f 0 (z)
z dz
2πi ∂Pa f (z)
1
= [−w2 (gw1 (a + w1 ) − gw1 (a)) − w1 (gw2 (a + w2 ) − gw2 (a))]
2πi
1
= [−w2 (2kπi) − w1 (2lπi)]
2πi
= −w2 k − w1 l ∈ M.
From 30.2 it follows

m
X m
X
zk − pk ∈ M.
k=1 k=1

Hille says this relation is due to Liouville. There is also a simple corollary which
follows from the above theorem applied to the elliptic function, f (z) − c.
Corollary 30.10 Let f be a non constant elliptic function and suppose the func-
tion, f (z) − c has poles p1 , · · ·, pm and zeros, z1 , · · ·, zm on Pα , listed according
Pm to
multiplicity where
P ∂Pα contains no poles or zeros of f (z) − c. Then k=1 zk −
m
k=1 pk ∈ M, the module of periods.
30.1.1 The Unimodular Transformations

Definition 30.11 Suppose f is a nonconstant elliptic function and the module of
periods is of the form {aw1 + bw2 } where a, b are integers and w1 /w2 is not real.
Then by analogy with linear algebra, {w1 , w2 } is referred to as a basis. The uni-
modular transformations will refer to matrices of the form
µ ¶
a b
c d
where all entries are integers and
ad − bc = ±1.
These linear transformations are also called the modular group.
The following is an interesting lemma which ties matrices with the fractional
linear transformations.
Lemma 30.12 Define µµ ¶¶

a b az + b
φ ≡ .
c d cz + d
Then
φ (AB) = φ (A) ◦ φ (B) , (30.3)
φ (A) (z) = z if and only if
A = cI
where I is the identity matrix and c 6= 0. Also if f (z) = az+b
cz+d , then f
−1
(z) exists
−1
if and only if ad − cb 6= 0. Furthermore it is easy to find f .
Proof: The equation

µ in 30.3
¶ is just a simple computation. Now suppose φ (A) (z) =
a b
z. Then letting A = , this requires
c d
az + b = z (cz + d)
and so az + b = cz 2 + dz. Since this is to hold for all z it follows c = 0 = b and

a = d. The other direction is obvious.
Consider the claim about the existence of an inverse. Let ad − cb 6= 0 for
f (z) = az+b
cz+d . Then µµ ¶¶
a b
f (z) = φ
c d
µ ¶−1 µ ¶
a b 1 d −b
It follows exists and equals ad−bc . Therefore,
c d −c a
µµ ¶µ µ ¶¶¶
a b 1 d −b
z = φ (I) (z) = φ (z)
c d ad − bc −c a
µµ ¶¶ µµ µ ¶¶¶
a b 1 d −b
= φ ◦φ (z)
c d ad − bc −c a
= f ◦ f −1 (z)
which shows f −1 exists and it is easy to find.

Next suppose f −1 exists. I need to verify the condition ad − cb 6= 0. If f −1
exists, then from the process used toµ find it,¶you see that it must be a fractional
a b
linear transformation. Letting A = so φ (A) = f, it follows there exists
c d
a matrix B such that
φ (BA) (z) = φ (B) ◦ φ (A) (z) = z.
However, it was shown that this implies BA is a nonzero multiple of I which requires
that A−1 must exist. Hence the condition must hold.
Theorem 30.13 If f is a nonconstant elliptic function with a basis {w1 , w2 } for

0 0
the module of periods, then {w
µ 1 , w2 } ¶is another basis, if and only if there exists a
a b
unimodular transformation, = A such that
c d
µ 0 ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
w1 a b w1
= . (30.4)
w20 c d w2
Proof: Since {w1 , w2 } is a basis, there exist integers, a, b, c, d such that 30.4
holds. It remains to show the transformation determined by the matrix is unimod-
ular. Taking conjugates,
µ 0 ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
w1 a b w1
= .
w20 c d w2
Therefore, µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
w10 w10 a b w1 w1
=
w20 w20 c d w2 w2
Now since {w10 , w20 }µ is also ¶
given to be a basis, there exits another matrix having
e f
all integer entries, such that
g h
µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
w1 e f w10
=
w2 g h w20
and µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
w1 e f w10
= .
w2 g h w20
Therefore, µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
w10 w10 a b e f w10 w10
= .
w20 w20 c d g h w20 w20
However, since w10 /w20 is not real, it is routine to verify that
µ 0 ¶
w1 w10
det 6= 0.
w20 w20
Therefore, µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
1 0 a b e f
=
0 1 c d g h
µ ¶ ¶ µ
a b e f
and so det det = 1. But the two matrices have all integer
c d g h
entries and so both determinants must equal either 1 or −1.
Next suppose µ 0 ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
w1 a b w1
= (30.5)
w20 c d w2
µ ¶
a b
where is unimodular. I need to verify that {w10 , w20 } is a basis. If w ∈ M,
c d
there exist integers, m, n such that
µ ¶
¡ ¢ w1
w = mw1 + nw2 = m n
w2
From 30.5 µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
d −b w10 w1
± =
−c a w20 w2
and so µ ¶µ ¶
¡ ¢ d −b w10
w=± m n
−c a w20
which is an integer linear combination of {w10 , w20 } . It only remains to verify that
w10 /w20 is not real.
Claim: Let w1 and w2 be nonzero complex numbers. Then w2 /w1 is not real
if and only if µ ¶
w1 w1
w1 w2 − w1 w2 = det 6= 0
w2 w2
Proof of the claim: Let λ = w2 /w1 . Then
¡ ¢ 2
w1 w2 − w1 w2 = λw1 w1 − w1 λw1 = λ − λ |w1 |
¡ ¢
Thus the ratio is not real if and only if λ − λ 6= 0 if and only if w1 w2 − w1 w2 6= 0.
Now to verify w20 /w10 is not real,
µ ¶
w10 w10
det
w20 w20
µµ ¶µ ¶¶
a b w1 w1
= det
c d w2 w2
µ ¶
w1 w1
= ± det 6= 0
w2 w2
30.1.2 The Search For An Elliptic Function

By Theorem 30.5 and 30.7 if you want to find a nonconstant elliptic function it must
fail to be analytic and also have either no terms in its Laurent expansion which are
−1
of the form b1 (z − a) or else these terms must cancel out. It is simplest to look
for a function which simply does not have them. Weierstrass looked for a function
of the form Ã !
1 X 1 1
℘ (z) ≡ 2 + 2 − w2 (30.6)
z (z − w)
w6=0
where w consists of all numbers of the form aw1 + bw2 for a, b integers. Sometimes
people write this as ℘ (z, w1 , w2 ) to emphasize its dependence on the periods, w1
and w2 but I won’t do so. It is understood there exist these periods, which are
given. This is a reasonable thing to try. Suppose you formally differentiate the
right side. Never mind whether this is justified for now. This yields
−2 X −2 X −2
℘0 (z) = 3 − 3 = 3
z (z − w) w (z − w)
w6=0
which is clearly periodic having both periods w1 and w2 . Therefore, ℘ (z + w1 ) −

℘ (z) and ℘ (z + w2 ) − ℘ (z) are both constants, c1 and c2 respectively. The reason
for this is that since ℘0 is periodic with periods w1 and w2 , it follows ℘0 (z + wi ) −
℘0 (z) = 0 as long as z is not a period. From 30.6 you can see right away that
℘ (z) = ℘ (−z)
Indeed
Ã !
1 X 1 1
℘ (−z) = + 2 − w2
z2 (−z − w)
w6=0
Ã !
1 X 1 1
= 2
+ 2 − w2 = ℘ (z) .
z (−z + w)
w6=0
and so
³ w ´ ³ w ´
1 1
c1 = ℘ − + w1 − ℘ −
³w ´2 ³ w ´ 2
1 1
= ℘ −℘ − =0
2 2
which shows the constant for ℘ (z + w1 ) − ℘ (z) must equal zero. Similarly the
constant for ℘ (z + w2 ) − ℘ (z) also equals zero. Thus ℘ is periodic having the two
periods w1 , w2 .
Of course to justify this, you need to consider whether the series of 30.6 con-
verges. Consider the terms of the series.
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ 1 1 ¯¯ ¯ 2w − z ¯
¯ ¯ ¯
¯ − 2 ¯ = |z| ¯ ¯
¯ (z − w)2 w ¯ ¯ (z − w)2 w2 ¯
If |w| > 2 |z| , this can be estimated more. For such w,

¯ ¯
¯ 1 1 ¯¯
¯
¯ − 2¯
¯ (z − w)2 w ¯
¯ ¯
¯ 2w − z ¯ (5/2) |w|
¯ ¯
= |z| ¯ 2 ¯ ≤ |z| 2 2
¯ (z − w) w ¯
2 |w| (|w| − |z|)
(5/2) |w| 10
≤ |z| 2 2 = |z| 3.
|w| ((1/2) |w|) |w|
It follows the series

P in 30.6 converges uniformly and absolutely on every compact
1
set, K provided w6=0 |w| 3 converges. This question is considered next.
Claim: There exists a positive number, k such that for all pairs of integers,
m, n, not both equal to zero,
|mw1 + nw2 |
≥ k > 0.
|m| + |n|
Proof of claim: If not, there exists mk and nk such that
mk nk
lim w1 + w2 = 0
k→∞ |mk | + |nk | |mk | + |nk |
³ ´
However, |mkm nk
|+|nk | , |mk |+|nk |
k
is a bounded sequence in R2 and so, taking a sub-
sequence, still denoted by k, you can have
µ ¶
mk nk
, → (x, y) ∈ R2
|mk | + |nk | |mk | + |nk |
and so there are real numbers, x, y such that xw1 + yw2 = 0 contrary to the
assumption that w2 /w1 is not equal to a real number. This proves the claim.
Now from the claim,
X 1
3
w6=0
|w|
X 1 X 1
= 3 ≤ 3
(m,n)6=(0,0)
|mw1 + nw2 | (m,n)6=(0,0)
k3 (|m| + |n|)
∞ ∞
1 X X 1 1 X 4j
= 3 = < ∞.
k 3 j=1 (|m| + |n|) k 3 j=1 j 3
|m|+|n|=j
Now consider the series in 30.6. Letting z ∈ B (0, R) ,

Ã !
1 X 1 1
℘ (z) ≡ + 2 − w2
z2 (z − w)
w6=0,|w|≤R
Ã !
X 1 1
+ 2 − w2
w6=0,|w|>R
(z − w)
and the last series converges uniformly on B (0, R) to an analytic function. Thus ℘ is
a meromorphic function and also the argument given above involving differentiation
of the series termwise is valid. Thus ℘ is an elliptic function as claimed. This is
called the Weierstrass ℘ function. This has proved the following theorem.
Theorem 30.14 The function ℘ defined above is an example of an elliptic function.

On any compact set, ℘ equals a rational function added to a series which is uniformly
and absolutely convergent on the compact set.
30.1.3 The Differential Equation Satisfied By ℘

For z not a pole,
−2 X 2
℘0 (z) = − 3
z3 (z − w)
w6=0
Also since there are no poles of order 1 you can obtain a primitive for ℘, −ζ.2
To do so, recall Ã !
1 X 1 1
℘ (z) ≡ 2 + 2 − w2
z (z − w)
w6=0
where for |z| < R this is the sum of a rational function with a uniformly convergent
series. Therefore, you can take the integral along any path, γ (0, z) from 0 to z
which misses the poles of ℘. By the uniform convergence of the above integral, you
can interchange the sum with the integral and obtain
1 X 1 z 1
ζ (z) = + + + (30.7)
z z − w w2 w
w6=0
This function is odd. Here is why.

1 X 1 z 1
ζ (−z) = + − +
−z −z − w w2 w
w6=0
while
1 X −1 z 1
−ζ (z) = + − −
−z z − w w2 w
w6=0
1 X −1 z 1
= + − + .
−z z + w w2 w
w6=0
Now consider 30.7. It will be used to find the Laurent expansion about the origin
for ζ which will then be differentiated to obtain the Laurent expansion for ℘ at the
origin. Since w 6= 0 and the interest is for z near 0 so |z| < |w| ,
1 z 1 z 1 1 1
+ 2+ = + −
z−w w w w 2 w w 1 − wz
1 X ³ z ´k
∞
z 1
= + −
w2 w w w
k=0
1 X ³ z ´k
∞
= −
w w
k=2
2 I don’t know why it is traditional to refer to this antiderivative as −ζ rather than ζ but I
am following the convention. I think it is to minimize the number of minus signs in the next
expression.
From 30.7
Ã ∞
!
1 X X zk
ζ (z) = + −
z wk+1
w6=0 k=2
∞
XX ∞
1 k
z 1 X X z 2k−1
= − k+1
= −
z w z w2k
k=2 w6=0 k=2 w6=0
because the sum over odd powers must be zero because for each w 6= 0, there exists
2k
z 2k
−w 6= 0 such that the two terms wz2k+1 and (−w) 2k+1 cancel each other. Hence
∞
1 X
ζ (z) = − Gk z 2k−1
z
k=2
P 1
where Gk = w6=0 w2k . Now with this,
X ∞
1
−ζ 0 (z) = ℘ (z) = 2
+ Gk (2k − 1) z 2k−2
z
k=2
1
= + 3G2 z 2 + 5G3 z 4 + · · ·
z2
Therefore,
−2
℘0 (z) = + 6G2 z + 20G3 z 3 + · · ·
z3
2 4 24G2
℘0 (z) = − 2 − 80G3 + · · ·
z6 z
µ ¶3
3 1 2 4
4℘ (z) = 4 + 3G2 z + 5G3 z · ··
z2
4 36
= + 2 G2 + 60G3 + · · ·
z6 z
and finally
60G2
60G2 ℘ (z) =
+0+···
z2
where in the above, the positive powers of z are not listed explicitly. Therefore,
∞
X
0 2 3
℘ (z) − 4℘ (z) + 60G2 ℘ (z) + 140G3 = an z n
n=1
In deriving the equation it was assumed |z| < |w| for all w = aw1 +bw2 where a, b are
integers not both zero. The left side of the above equation is periodic with respect
to w1 and w2 where w2 /w1 is not a real number. The only possible poles of the
left side are at 0, w1 , w2 , and w1 + w2 , the vertices of the parallelogram determined
by w1 and w2 . This follows from the original formula for ℘ (z) . However, the above
equation shows the left side has no pole at 0. Since the left side is periodic with
periods w1 and w2 , it follows it has no pole at the other vertices of this parallelogram
either. Therefore, the left side is periodic and has no poles. Consequently, it equals
a constant by Theorem 30.5. But the right side of the above equation shows this
constant is 0 because this side equals zero when z = 0. Therefore, ℘ satisfies the
differential equation,
2 3
℘0 (z) − 4℘ (z) + 60G2 ℘ (z) + 140G3 = 0.
It is traditional to define 60G2 ≡ g2 and 140G3 ≡ g3 . Then in terms of these new

quantities the differential equation is
2 3
℘0 (z) = 4℘ (z) − g2 ℘ (z) − g3 .
Suppose e1 , e2 and e3 are zeros of the polynomial 4w3 − g2 w − g3 = 0. Then the

above equation can be written in the form
2
℘0 (z) = 4 (℘ (z) − e1 ) (℘ (z) − e2 ) (℘ (z) − e3 ) . (30.8)
30.1.4 A Modular Function

The next task is to find the ei in 30.8. First recall that ℘ is an even function. That
is ℘ (−z) = ℘ (z). This follows from 30.6 which is listed here for convenience.
Ã !
1 X 1 1
℘ (z) ≡ 2 + 2 − w2 (30.9)
z (z − w)
w6=0
Thus
Ã !
1 X 1 1
℘ (−z) = 2
+ 2 − w2
z (−z − w)
w6=0
Ã !
1 X 1 1
= 2
+ 2 − w2 = ℘ (z) .
z (−z + w)
w6=0
Therefore, ℘ (w1 − z) = ℘ (z − w1 ) = ℘ (z) and so −℘0 (w1 − z) = ℘0 (z) . Letting

z = w1 /2, it follows ℘0 (w1 /2) = 0. Similarly, ℘0 (w2 /2) = 0 and ℘0 ((w1 + w2 ) /2) =
0. Therefore, from 30.8
0 = 4 (℘ (w1 /2) − e1 ) (℘ (w1 /2) − e2 ) (℘ (w1 /2) − e3 ) .
It follows one of the ei must equal ℘ (w1 /2) . Similarly, one of the ei must equal
℘ (w2 /2) and one must equal ℘ ((w1 + w2 ) /2).
Lemma 30.15 The numbers, ℘ (w1 /2) , ℘ (w2 /2) , and ℘ ((w1 + w2 ) /2) are dis-
tinct.
Proof: Choose Pa , a period parallelogram which contains the pole 0, and the
points w1 /2, w2 /2, and (w1 + w2 ) /2 but no other pole of ℘ (z) . Also ∂Pa∗ does not
contain any zeros of the elliptic function, z → ℘ (z) − ℘ (w1 /2). This can be done
by shifting P0 slightly because the poles are only at the points aw1 + bw2 for a, b
integers and the zeros of ℘ (z) − ℘ (w1 /2) are discreet.
w1 + w2
»s
» » »£ »
»
w2 »»» »»» » £
»
s »» £
»£»
» » £ £
£ £ £ £
£ £ £
£ £
£ £ £
£ £ £ £
£ »»
£ £s w1
£ »»»
£ £0»»»»»»» £
£ »£s
»»»
£ »»
s»
a
If ℘ (w2 /2) = ℘ (w1 /2) , then ℘ (z) − ℘ (w1 /2) has two zeros, w2 /2 and w1 /2 and
since the pole at 0 is of order 2, this is the order of ℘ (z) − ℘ (w1 /2) on Pa hence by
Theorem 30.8 on Page 822 these are the only zeros of this function on Pa . It follows
by Corollary 30.10 on Page 824 which says the sum of the zeros minus the sum of
the poles is in M , w21 + w22 ∈ M. Thus there exist integers, a, b such that
w1 + w2
= aw1 + bw2
2
which implies (2a − 1) w1 + (2b − 1) w2 = 0 contradicting w2 /w1 not being real.
Similar reasoning applies to the other pairs of points in {w1 /2, w2 /2, (w1 + w2 ) /2} .
For example, consider (w1 + w2 ) /2 and choose Pa such that its boundary contains
no zeros of the elliptic function, z → ℘ (z) − ℘ ((w1 + w2 ) /2) and Pa contains no
poles of ℘ on its interior other than 0. Then if ℘ (w2 /2) = ℘ ((w1 + w2 ) /2) , it
follows from Theorem 30.8 on Page 822 w2 /2 and (w1 + w2 ) /2 are the only two
zeros of ℘ (z) − ℘ ((w1 + w2 ) /2) on Pa and by Corollary 30.10 on Page 824
w1 + w1 + w2
= aw1 + bw2 ∈ M
2
for some integers a, b which leads to the same contradiction as before about w1 /w2
not being real. The other cases are similar. This proves the lemma.
Lemma 30.15 proves the ei are distinct. Number the ei such that
e1 = ℘ (w1 /2) , e2 = ℘ (w2 /2)
and
e3 = ℘ ((w1 + w2 ) /2) .
To summarize, it has been shown that for complex numbers, w1 and w2 with
w2 /w1 not real, an elliptic function, ℘ has been defined. Denote this function as
℘ (z) = ℘ (z, w1 , w2 ) . This in turn determined numbers, ei as described above. Thus

these numbers depend on w1 and w2 and as described above,
³w ´ ³w ´
1 2
e1 (w1 , w2 ) = ℘ , w1 , w2 , e2 (w1 , w2 ) = ℘ , w1 , w2
µ2 ¶ 2
w1 + w2
e3 (w1 , w2 ) = ℘ , w1 , w2 .
2
Therefore, using the formula for ℘, 30.9,

Ã !
1 X 1 1
℘ (z) ≡ 2 + 2 − w2
z (z − w)
w6=0
you see that if the two periods w1 and w2 are replaced with tw1 and tw2 respectively,
then
ei (tw1 , tw2 ) = t−2 ei (w1 , w2 ) .
Let τ denote the complex number which equals the ratio, w2 /w1 which was assumed
in all this to not be real. Then
ei (w1 , w2 ) = w1−2 ei (1, τ )
Now define the function, λ (τ )

µ ¶
e3 (1, τ ) − e2 (1, τ ) e3 (w1 , w2 ) − e2 (w1 , w2 )
λ (τ ) ≡ = . (30.10)
e1 (1, τ ) − e2 (1, τ ) e1 (w1 , w2 ) − e2 (w1 , w2 )
This function is meromorphic for Im τ > 0 or for Im τ < 0. However, since the
denominator is never equal to zero the function must actually be analytic on both
the upper half plane and the lower half plane. It never is equal to 0 because e3 6= e2
and it never equals 1 because e3 6= e1 . This is stated as an observation.
Observation 30.16 The function, λ (τ ) is analytic for τ in the upper half plane
and never assumes the values 0 and 1.
This is a very interesting function. Consider what happens when

µ 0 ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
w1 a b w1
=
w20 c d w2
and the matrix is unimodular. By Theorem 30.13 on Page 826 {w10 , w20 } is just an-
other basis for the same module of periods. Therefore, ℘ (z, w1 , w2 ) = ℘ (z, w10 , w20 )
because both are defined as sums over the same values of w, just in different order
which does not matter because of the absolute convergence of the sums on compact
subsets of C. Since ℘ is unchanged, it follows ℘0 (z) is also unchanged and so the
numbers, ei are also the same. However, they might be permuted in which case
the function λ (τ ) defined above would change. What would it take for λ (τ ) to
not change? In other words, for which unimodular transformations will λ be left
unchanged? This happens

³ 0 ´ if and ¡only¢ if no³permuting
´ takes place for the ei . This
¡ ¢ w w0
occurs if ℘ w21 = ℘ 21 and ℘ w22 = ℘ 22 . If
w10 w1 w0 w2
− ∈ M, 2 − ∈M
2 2 2 2
¡ ¢ ³ 0´
w
then ℘ w21 = ℘ 21 and so e1 will be unchanged and similarly for e2 and e3 .
This occurs exactly when
1 1
((a − 1) w1 + bw2 ) ∈ M, (cw1 + (d − 1) w2 ) ∈ M.
2 2
This happens if a and d are odd and if b and c are even. Of course the stylish way
to say this is
a ≡ 1 mod 2, d ≡ 1 mod 2, b ≡ 0 mod 2, c ≡ 0 mod 2. (30.11)
This has shown that for unimodular transformations satisfying 30.11 λ is unchanged.
Letting τ be defined as above,
w20 cw1 + dw2 c + dτ
τ0 = ≡ = .
w10 aw1 + bw2 a + bτ
µ ¶
a b
Thus for unimodular transformations, satisfying 30.11, or more suc-
c d
cinctly, µ ¶ µ ¶
a b 1 0
∼ mod 2 (30.12)
c d 0 1
it follows that µ ¶
c + dτ
λ = λ (τ ) . (30.13)
a + bτ
Furthermore, this is the only way this can happen.
Lemma 30.17 λ (τ ) = λ (τ 0 ) if and only if

aτ + b
τ0 =
cτ + d
where 30.12 holds.
Proof: It only remains to verify that if ℘ (w10 /2) = ℘ (w1 /2) then it is necessary
that
w10 w1
− ∈M
2 2
w0
with a similar requirement for w2 and w20 . If 21 − w21 ∈
/ M, then there exist integers,
m, n such that
−w10
+ mw1 + nw2
2
is in the interior of P0 , the period parallelogram whose vertices are 0, w1 , w1 + w2 ,

and w2 . Therefore, it is possible to choose small a such that Pa contains the pole,
−w0
0, w21 , and 2 1 + mw1 + nw¡2 but ∗
¢ no other poles of ℘ and in addition, ∂Pa contains
w1
no zeros of z → ℘ (z) − ℘ 2 . Then the order of this elliptic function is 2. By
assumption, and the fact that ℘ is even,
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ 0¶ ³w ´
−w10 −w10 w1 1
℘ + mw1 + nw2 = ℘ =℘ =℘ .
2 2 2 2
−w0 ¡ ¢
It follows both 2 1 + mw1 + nw2 and w21 are zeros of ℘ (z) − ℘ w21 and so by
Theorem 30.8 on Page 822 these are the only two zeros of this function in Pa .
Therefore, from Corollary 30.10 on Page 824
w1 w0
− 1 + mw1 + nw2 ∈ M
2 2
w0
which shows w21 − 21 ∈ M. This completes the proof of the lemma.
Note the condition in the lemma is equivalent to the condition 30.13 because
you can relabel the coefficients. The message of either version is that the coefficient
of τ in the numerator and denominator is odd while the constant in the numerator
and denominator
µ is¶ even.
µ ¶
1 0 1 0
Next, ∼ mod 2 and therefore,
2 1 0 1
µ ¶
2+τ
λ = λ (τ + 2) = λ (τ ) . (30.14)
1
Thus λ is periodic of period 2.
Thus λ leaves invariant a certain subgroup of the unimodular group. According
to the next definition, λ is an example of something called a modular function.
Definition 30.18 When an analytic or meromorphic function is invariant under

a group of linear transformations, it is called an automorphic function. A function
which is automorphic with respect to a subgroup of the modular group is called a
modular function or an elliptic modular function.
Now consider what happens for some other unimodular matrices which are not
congruent to the identity mod 2. This will yield other functional equations for λ
in addition to the fact that λ is periodic of period 2. As before, these functional
equations come about because ℘ is unchanged when you change the basis for M,
the module of periods. In particular, consider the unimodular matrices
µ ¶ µ ¶
1 0 0 1
, . (30.15)
1 1 1 0
Consider the first of these. Thus
µ 0 ¶ µ ¶
w1 w1
=
w20 w1 + w2
Hence τ 0 = w20 /w10 = (w1 + w2 ) /w1 = 1 + τ . Then from the definition of λ,
λ (τ 0 ) = λ (1 + τ )
³ 0 0´ ³ 0´
w +w w
℘ 1 2 2 − ℘ 22
= ³ 0´ ³ 0´
w w
℘ 21 − ℘ 22
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
℘ w1 +w22 +w1 − ℘ w1 +w 2
= ¡ w1 ¢ ¡ w +w 2¢
℘ − ℘ 12 2
¡ w2 2 ¢ ¡ ¢
℘ 2 + w1 − ℘ w1 +w 2
2
= ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
℘ w21 − ℘ w1 +w 2
2
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
℘ w22 − ℘ w1 +w 2
2
= ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
℘ w21 − ℘ w1 +w 2
2
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
℘ w1 +w2
2
− ℘ w22
= − ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
℘ w21 − ℘ w1 +w 2
2
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
℘ w1 +w 2
2
− ℘ w22
= − ¡ w1 ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
℘ 2 − ℘ w22 + ℘ w22 − ℘ w1 +w 2
2
µ w +w w
¶
℘( 1 2 2 )−℘( 22 )
w w
℘( 21 )−℘( 22 )
= − µ w w +w
¶
℘( 22 )−℘( 1 2 2 )
1+ w1
℘( 2 )−℘( 2 )
w2
µ w +w w
¶
℘( 1 2 2 )−℘( 22 )
w1 w2
℘( 2 )−℘( 2 )
= µ w +w w
¶
℘( 1 2 2 )−℘( 22 )
w w
℘( 21 )−℘( 22 )
−1
λ (τ )
= . (30.16)
λ (τ ) − 1
Summarizing the important feature of the above,
λ (τ )
λ (1 + τ ) = . (30.17)
λ (τ ) − 1
Next consider the other unimodular matrix in 30.15. In this case w10 = w2 and
w20 = w1 . Therefore, τ 0 = w20 /w10 = w1 /w2 = 1/τ . Then
λ (τ 0 ) = λ (1/τ )
³ 0 0´ ³ 0´
w +w w
℘ 1 2 2 − ℘ 22
= ³ 0´ ³ 0´
w w
℘ 21 − ℘ 22
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
℘ w1 +w
2
2
− ℘ w21
= ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
℘ w22 − ℘ w21
e3 − e1 e3 − e2 + e2 − e1
= =−
e2 − e1 e1 − e2
= − (λ (τ ) − 1) = −λ (τ ) + 1. (30.18)
You could try other unimodular matrices and attempt to find other functional
equations if you like but this much will suffice here.
30.1.5 A Formula For λ

Recall the formula of Mittag-Leffler for cot (πα) given in 29.15. For convenience,
here it is.
∞
1 X 2α
+ = π cot πα.
α n=1 α2 − n2
As explained in the derivation of this formula it can also be written as
∞
X α
2 − n2
= π cot πα.
n=−∞
α
Differentiating both sides yields

∞
X α 2 + n2
π 2 csc2 (πα) = 2
n=−∞ (α2 − n2 )
X∞ 2
(α + n) − 2αn
= 2 2
n=−∞ (α + n) (α − n)
=0
z }| {
∞
X 2 ∞
X
(α + n) 2αn
= 2 2 − 2
n=−∞ (α + n) (α − n) n=−∞ (α2 − n2 )
X∞
1
= 2. (30.19)
n=−∞ (α − n)
Now this formula can be used to obtain a formula for λ (τ ) . As pointed out
above, λ depends only on the ratio w2 /w1 and so it suffices to take w1 = 1 and
w2 = τ . Thus ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
℘ 1+τ
2 − ℘ τ2
λ (τ ) = ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ . (30.20)
℘ 12 − ℘ τ2
From the original formula for ℘,
µ ¶ ³τ ´
1+τ
℘ −℘
2 2
1 1 X 1 1
= ¡ ¢ 2 − ¡ ¢2 + ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2 − ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2
1+τ τ 1 1
2 2 (k,m)6=(0,0) k − 2 + m− 2 τ k + m − 12 τ
X 1 1
= ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2 − ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2
1 1
(k,m)∈Z2 k− 2 + m− 2 τ k + m − 12 τ
X 1 1
= ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2 − ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2
1 1
(k,m)∈Z2 k− 2 + m− 2 τ k + m − 12 τ
X 1 1
= ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2 − ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2
1 1
(k,m)∈Z2 k− 2 + −m − 2 τ k + −m − 12 τ
X 1 1
= ¡1 ¡ ¢ ¢2 − ¡¡ ¢ ¢2 . (30.21)
1 1
(k,m)∈Z2 2 + m+ 2 τ −k m+ 2 τ −k
Similarly,
µ ¶ ³τ ´
1
℘ −℘
2 2
1 1 X 1 1
= ¡ ¢2 − ¡ ¢2 + ¡ ¢2 − ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2
1 τ 1 1
2 2 (k,m)6=(0,0) k− 2 + mτ k+ m− 2 τ
X 1 1
= ¡ ¢2 − ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2
1
(k,m)∈Z2 k− 2 + mτ k + m − 21 τ
X 1 1
= ¡ ¢2 − ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2
1
(k,m)∈Z2 k− 2 − mτ k + −m − 12 τ
X 1 1
= ¡1 ¢2 − ¡¡ ¢ ¢2 . (30.22)
1
(k,m)∈Z2 2 + mτ − k m+ 2 τ −k
Now use 30.19 to sum these over k. This yields,

µ ¶ ³τ ´
1+τ
℘ −℘
2 2
X π 2
π2
= 2
¡ ¡1 ¡ 1
¢ ¢¢ − 2
¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
m
sin π 2 + m + 2 τ sin π m + 12 τ
X π2 π2
= ¡ ¡ 1
¢ ¢− 2
¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
m
2
cos π m + 2 τ sin π m + 12 τ
and
µ ¶ ³τ ´ X
1 π2 π2
℘ −℘ = ¡ ¡ ¢¢ − ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
2 2 m
sin2 π 12 + mτ sin2 π m + 12 τ
X π2 π2
= − 2
¡ ¡ ¢ ¢.
m
cos2 (πmτ ) sin π m + 12 τ
The following interesting formula for λ results.
P 1 1
m cos2 (π (m+ 1 )τ ) − sin2 (π (m+ 1 )τ )
2 2
λ (τ ) = P 1 1 . (30.23)
m cos (πmτ )
2 − sin (π (m+ 2 )τ )
2 1
From this it is obvious λ (−τ ) = λ (τ ) . Therefore, from 30.18,

µ ¶ µ ¶
1 −1
− λ (τ ) + 1 = λ =λ (30.24)
τ τ
(It is good to recall that λ has been defined for τ ∈
/ R.)
30.1.6 Mapping Properties Of λ

The two functional equations, 30.24 and 30.17 along with some other properties pre-
sented above are of fundamental importance. For convenience, they are summarized
here in the following lemma.
Lemma 30.19 The following functional equations hold for λ.
µ ¶
λ (τ ) −1
λ (1 + τ ) = , 1 = λ (τ ) + λ (30.25)
λ (τ ) − 1 τ
λ (τ + 2) = λ (τ ) , (30.26)
λ (z) = λ (w) if and only if there exists a unimodular matrix,
µ ¶ µ ¶
a b 1 0
∼ mod 2
c d 0 1
such that
az + b
w= (30.27)
cz + d
Consider the following picture.
l1 C l2
r r
1 1
2
In this picture, l1 is¡ the¢y axis and l2 is the line, x = 1 while C is the top half of
the circle centered at 12 , 0 which has radius 1/2. Note the above formula implies
λ has real values on l1 which are between 0 and 1. This is because 30.23 implies
P 1 1
m cos2 (π (m+ 1 )ib) − sin2 (π (m+ 1 )ib)
2 2
λ (ib) = P 1 1
m cos2 (πmib) − sin2 (π (m+ 21 )ib)
P 1 1
m cosh2 (π (m+ 1 )b) + sinh2 (π (m+ 1 )b)
2 2
= P 1 1 ∈ (0, 1) . (30.28)
m cosh (πmb)
2 + sinh2 (π (m+ 21 )b)
This follows from the observation that
cos (ix) = cosh (x) , sin (ix) = i sinh (x) .
Thus it is clear from 30.28 that limb→0+ λ (ib) = 1.

Next I need to consider the behavior of λ (τ ) as Im (τ ) → ∞. From 30.23 listed
here for convenience,
P 1 1
m cos2 (π (m+ 1 )τ ) − sin2 (π (m+ 1 )τ )
2 2
λ (τ ) = P 1 1 , (30.29)
m cos (πmτ )
2 − sin (π (m+ 2 )τ )
2 1
it follows
1 1 1 1
cos2 (π (− 12 )τ )
− sin2 (π (− 12 )τ )
+ cos2 (π 12 τ )
− sin2 (π 21 τ )
+ A (τ )
λ (τ ) =
1 + B (τ )
2 2
cos2 (π ( 12 )τ )
− sin2 (π ( 12 )τ )
+ A (τ )
= (30.30)
1 + B (τ )
Where A (τ ) , B (τ ) → 0 as Im (τ ) → ∞. I took out the m = 0 term involving
1/ cos2 (πmτ ) in the denominator and the m = −1 and m = 0 terms in the nu-
merator of 30.29. In fact, e−iπ(a+ib) A (a + ib) , e−iπ(a+ib) B (a + ib) converge to zero
uniformly in a as b → ∞.
Lemma 30.20 For A, B defined in 30.30, e−iπ(a+ib) C (a + ib) → 0 uniformly in a

for C = A, B.
Proof: From 30.23,

X e−iπτ e−iπτ
e−iπτ A (τ ) = ¡ ¡ 1
¢ ¢− 2
¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
m6=0
cos2 π m + 2 τ sin π m + 12 τ
m6=−1
¡ ¢
Now let τ = a + ib. Then letting αm = π m + 21 ,
cos (αm a + iαm b) = cos (αm a) cosh (αm b) − i sinh (αm b) sin (αm a)
sin (αm a + iαm b) = sin (αm a) cosh (αm b) + i cos (αm a) sinh (αm b)
Therefore,
¯ 2 ¯
¯cos (αm a + iαm b)¯ = cos2 (αm a) cosh2 (αm b) + sinh2 (αm b) sin2 (αm a)
≥ sinh2 (αm b) .
Similarly,
¯ 2 ¯
¯sin (αm a + iαm b)¯ = sin2 (αm a) cosh2 (αm b) + cos2 (αm a) sinh2 (αm b)
≥ sinh2 (αm b) .
It follows that for τ = a + ib and b large

¯ −iπτ ¯
¯e A (τ )¯
X 2eπb
≤ 2
¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
m6=0
sinh π m + 12 b
m6=−1
∞
X −2
X
2eπb 2eπb
≤ ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢ + ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
m=1
sinh2 π m + 12 b m=−∞
sinh2 π m + 12 b
∞
X X∞
2eπb eπb
= 2 2
¡ ¡ 1
¢ ¢ = 4 2
¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
m=1
sinh π m + 2 b m=1
sinh π m + 12 b
Now a short computation shows

eπb ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
sinh2 (π (m+1+ 12 )b) sinh2 π m + 12 b 1
eπb
= 2
¡ ¡ 3
¢ ¢ ≤ 3πb .
sinh π m + 2 b e
sinh2 (π (m+ 12 )b)
Therefore, for τ = a + ib,
X∞ µ ¶m
¯ −iπτ ¯ eπb 1
¯e A (τ )¯ ≤ 4 ¡ ¢
sinh 3πb
2 m=1
e3πb
eπb 1/e3πb
≤ 4 ¡ 3πb ¢
sinh 2 1 − (1/e3πb )
which converges to zero as b → ∞. Similar reasoning will establish the claim about
B (τ ) . This proves the lemma.
Lemma 30.21 limb→∞ λ (a + ib) e−iπ(a+ib) = 16 uniformly in a ∈ R.
Proof: From 30.30 and Lemma 30.20, this lemma will be proved if it is shown
Ã !
2 2
lim ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢− ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢ e−iπ(a+ib) = 16
b→∞ cos2 π 12 (a + ib) sin2 π 12 (a + ib)
uniformly in a ∈ R. Let τ = a + ib to simplify the notation. Then the above

expression equals
Ã !
8 8
¡ iπτ π ¢2
+¡ π π ¢2
e−iπτ
e 2 + e−i 2 τ ei 2 τ − e−i 2 τ
Ã !
8eiπτ 8eiπτ
= 2 + 2 e−iπτ
(eiπτ + 1) (eiπτ − 1)
8 8
= 2 + 2
iπτ
(e + 1) iπτ
(e − 1)
1 + e2πiτ
= 16 2.
(1 − e2πiτ )
Now
¯ ¯ ¯ ¡ ¢2 ¯
¯ 1 + e2πiτ ¯ ¯ 1 + e2πiτ 1 − e2πiτ ¯¯
¯ ¯ ¯
¯ − 1 ¯ = ¯ − 2¯
¯ (1 − e2πiτ )2 ¯ ¯ (1 − e2πiτ )2 (1 − e2πiτ ) ¯
¯ 2πiτ ¯
¯3e − e4πiτ ¯ 3e−2πb + e−4πb
≤ 2 ≤ 2
(1 − e−2πb ) (1 − e−2πb )
and this estimate proves the lemma.
Corollary 30.22 limb→∞ λ (a + ib) = 0 uniformly in a ∈ R. Also λ (ib) for b > 0

is real and is between 0 and 1, λ is real on the line, l2 and on the curve, C and
limb→0+ λ (1 + ib) = −∞.
Proof: From Lemma 30.21,

¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯λ (a + ib) e−iπ(a+ib) − 16¯ < 1
for all a provided b is large enough. Therefore, for such b,
|λ (a + ib)| ≤ 17e−πb .
30.28 proves the assertion about λ (−bi) real.

By the first part, limb→∞ |λ (ib)| = 0. Now from 30.24
µ µ ¶¶ µ µ ¶¶
−1 i
lim λ (ib) = lim 1 − λ = lim 1 − λ = 1. (30.31)
b→0+ b→0+ ib b→0+ b
by Corollary 30.22.
Next consider the behavior of λ on line l2 in the above picture. From 30.17 and
30.28,
λ (ib)
λ (1 + ib) = <0
λ (ib) − 1
and so as b → 0+ in the above, λ (1 + ib) → −∞.

It is left as an exercise to show that the map τ → 1 − τ1 maps l2 onto the curve,
C. Therefore, by 30.25, for τ ∈ l2 ,
µ ¶ ¡ ¢
1 λ −1
λ 1− = ¡ ¢τ (30.32)
τ λ −1τ −1
1 − λ (τ ) λ (τ ) − 1
= = ∈R (30.33)
(1 − λ (τ )) − 1 λ (τ )
It follows λ is real on the boundary of Ω in the above picture. This proves the
corollary.
Now, following Alfors [2], cut off Ω by considering the horizontal line segment,
z = a + ib0 where b0 is very large and positive and a ∈ [0, 1] . Also cut Ω off
by the images of this horizontal line, under the transformations z = τ1 and z =
1 − τ1 . These are arcs of circles because the two transformations are fractional linear
transformations. It is left as an exercise for you to verify these arcs are situated as
shown in the following picture. The important thing to notice is that for b0 large the
points of these circles are close to the origin and (1, 0) respectively. The following
picture is a summary of what has been obtained so far on the mapping by λ.
z = a + ib0
¾
real small positive small, real, negative
l1 l2
Ω
? 6
C1 C
- C2
near 1 and real z : large, real, negative
r r
1 1
2
In the picture, the descriptions are of λ acting on points of the indicated bound-
ary of Ω. Consider the oriented contour which results from λ (z) as z moves first up
l2 as indicated, then along the line z = a + ib and then down l1 and then along C1
to C and along C till C2 and then along C2 to l2 . As indicated in the picture, this
involves going from a large negative real number to a small negative real number
and then over a smooth curve which stays small to a real positive number and from
there to a real number near 1. λ (z) stays fairly near 1 on C1 provided b0 is large
so that the circle, C1 has very small radius. Then along C, λ (z) is real until it hits
C2 . What about the behavior of λ on C2 ? For z ∈ C2 , it follows from the definition
of C2 that z = 1 − τ1 where τ is on the line, a + ib0 . Therefore, by Lemma 30.21,
30.17, and 30.24

µ ¶ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
1 λ −1 τ λ τ1
λ (z) = λ 1 − = ¡ ¢ = ¡ ¢
τ λ −1
τ −1 λ τ1 − 1
1 − λ (τ ) λ (τ ) − 1 1
= = =1−
(1 − λ (τ )) − 1 λ (τ ) λ (τ )
which is approximately equal to
1 eπb0 e−iaπ
1− =1− .
16eiπ(a+ib0 ) 16
These points are essentially on a large half circle in the upper half plane which has
πb0
radius approximately e16 .
Now let w ∈ C with Im (w) 6= 0. Then for b0 large enough, the motion over the
boundary of the truncated region indicated in the above picture results in λ tracing
out a large simple closed curve oriented in the counter clockwise direction which
includes w on its interior if Im (w) > 0 but which excludes w if Im (w) < 0.
Theorem 30.23 Let Ω be the domain described above. Then λ maps Ω one to one
and onto the upper half plane of C, {z ∈ C such that Im (z) > 0} . Also, the line
λ (l1 ) = (0, 1) , λ (l2 ) = (−∞, 0) , and λ (C) = (1, ∞).
Proof: Let Im (w) > 0 and denote by γ the oriented contour described above
and illustrated in the above picture. Then the winding number of λ ◦ γ about w
equals 1. Thus Z
1 1
dz = 1.
2πi λ◦γ z − w
But, splitting the contour integrals into l2 ,the top line, l1 , C1 , C, and C2 and chang-
ing variables on each of these, yields
Z
1 λ0 (z)
1= dz
2πi γ λ (z) − w
and by the theorem on counting zeros, Theorem 25.20 on Page 694, the function,
z → λ (z) − w has exactly one zero inside the truncated Ω. However, this shows
this function has exactly one zero inside Ω because b0 was arbitrary as long as it
is sufficiently large. Since w was an arbitrary element of the upper half plane, this
verifies the first assertion of the theorem. The remaining claims follow from the
above description of λ, in particular the estimate for λ on C2 . This proves the
theorem.
Note also that the argument in the above proof shows that if Im (w) < 0, then
w is not in λ (Ω) . However, if you consider the reflection of Ω about the y axis,
then it will follow that λ maps this set one to one onto the lower half plane. The
argument will make significant use of Theorem 25.22 on Page 696 which is stated
here for convenience.
Theorem 30.24 Let f : B (a, R) → C be analytic and let

m
f (z) − α = (z − a) g (z) , ∞ > m ≥ 1
where g (z) 6= 0 in B (a, R) . (f (z) − α has a zero of order m at z = a.) Then there
exist ε, δ > 0 with the property that for each z satisfying 0 < |z − α| < δ, there exist
points,
{a1 , · · ·, am } ⊆ B (a, ε) ,
such that
f −1 (z) ∩ B (a, ε) = {a1 , · · ·, am }
and each ak is a zero of order 1 for the function f (·) − z.
Corollary 30.25 Let Ω be the region above. Consider the set of points, Q = Ω ∪
Ω0 \ {0, 1} described by the following picture.
Ω0 Ω
l1 C l2
r r r
−1 1 1
2
Then λ (Q) = C\ {0, 1} . Also λ0 (z) 6= 0 for every z in ∪∞

k=−∞ (Q + 2k) ≡ H.
Proof: By Theorem 30.23, this will be proved if it can be shown that λ (Ω0 ) =
{z ∈ C : Im (z) < 0} . Consider λ1 defined on Ω0 by
λ1 (x + iy) ≡ λ (−x + iy).
Claim: λ1 is analytic.
Proof of the claim: You just verify the Cauchy Riemann equations. Letting
λ (x + iy) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) ,
λ1 (x + iy) = u (−x, y) − iv (−x, y)

≡ u1 (x, y) + iv (x, y) .
Then u1x (x, y) = −ux (−x, y) and v1y (x, y) = −vy (−x, y) = −ux (−x, y) since
λ is analytic. Thus u1x = v1y . Next, u1y (x, y) = uy (−x, y) and v1x (x, y) =
vx (−x, y) = −uy (−x, y) and so u1y = −vx .
Now recall that on l1 , λ takes real values. Therefore, λ1 = λ on l1 , a set with
a limit point. It follows λ = λ1 on Ω0 ∪ Ω. By Theorem 30.23 λ maps Ω one to
one onto the upper half plane. Therefore, from the definition of λ1 = λ, it follows
λ maps Ω0 one to one onto the lower half plane as claimed. This has shown that λ
is one to one on Ω ∪ Ω0 . This also verifies from Theorem 25.22 on Page 696 that
λ0 6= 0 on Ω ∪ Ω0 .
Now consider the lines l2 and C. If λ0 (z) = 0 for z ∈ l2 , a contradiction can
be obtained. Pick such a point. If λ0 (z) = 0, then z is a zero of order m ≥ 2 of
the function, λ − λ (z) . Then by Theorem 25.22 there exist δ, ε > 0 such that if
w ∈ B (λ (z) , δ) , then λ−1 (w) ∩ B (z, ε) contains at least m points.
z1 r r z B(z, ε)
0
Ω Ω
l1 C l2
λ(z1 ) r
r r r λ(z)
r
−1 1 1
2 B(λ(z), δ)
In particular, for z1 ∈ Ω ∩ B (z, ε) sufficiently close to z, λ (z1 ) ∈ B (λ (z) , δ)

and so the function λ − λ (z1 ) has at least two distinct zeros. These zeros must be
in B (z, ε) ∩ Ω because λ (z1 ) has positive imaginary part and the points on l2 are
mapped by λ to a real number while the points of B (z, ε) \ Ω are mapped by λ to
the lower half plane thanks to the relation, λ (z + 2) = λ (z) . This contradicts λ
one to one on Ω. Therefore, λ0 6= 0 on l2 . Consider C. Points on C are of the form
1 − τ1 where τ ∈ l2 . Therefore, using 30.33,
µ ¶
1 λ (τ ) − 1
λ 1− = .
τ λ (τ )
Taking the derivative of both sides,

µ ¶µ ¶
1 1 λ0 (τ )
λ0 1 − = 2 6= 0.
τ τ2 λ (τ )
Since λ is periodic of period 2 it follows λ0 (z) 6= 0 for all z ∈ ∪∞

k=−∞ (Q + 2k) .
µ ¶
a b
Lemma 30.26 If Im (τ ) > 0 then there exists a unimodular such that
c d
c + dτ
a + bτ
¯ ¯
¯ c+dτ ¯
is contained in the interior of Q. In fact, ¯ a+bτ ¯ ≥ 1 and
µ ¶
c + dτ
−1/2 ≤ Re ≤ 1/2.
a + bτ
Proof: Letting a basis for the module of periods of ℘ be {1, τ } , it follows from
Theorem 30.3 on Page 820 that there exists a basis for the same module of periods,
{w10 , w20 } with the property that for τ 0 = w20 /w10
−1 1
|τ 0 | ≥ 1, ≤ Re τ 0 ≤ .
2 2
Since this
µ is a basis
¶ for the same module of periods, there exists a unimodular
a b
matrix, such that
c d
µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
w10 a b 1
= .
w20 c d τ
Hence,
w20 c + dτ
τ0 = 0 = .
w1 a + bτ
Thus τ 0 is in the interior of H. In fact, it is on the interior of Ω0 ∪ Ω ≡ Q.
τ s
0
s s
−1 −1/2 0 1/2 1
30.1.7 A Short Review And Summary

With this lemma, it is easy to extend Corollary 30.25. First, a simple observation
and review is a good idea. Recall that when you change the basis for the module
of periods, the Weierstrass ℘ function does not change and so the set of ei used in
defining λ also do not change. Letting the new basis be {w10 , w20 } , it was shown
that µ 0 ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
w1 a b w1
=
w20 c d w2
µ ¶
a b
for some unimodular transformation, . Letting τ = w2 /w1 and τ 0 =
c d
w20 /w10
c + dτ
τ0 = ≡ φ (τ )
a + bτ
Now as discussed earlier
³ ³ 0´ ´
w10 +w20
w
℘ − ℘ 22
2
λ (τ 0 ) = λ (φ (τ )) ≡ ³ 0´ ³ 0´
w w
℘ 21 − ℘ 22
³ 0
´ ³ 0´
℘ 1+τ 2 − ℘ τ
2
= ¡1¢ ¡ τ0 ¢
℘ 2 −℘ 2
¡ 1+τ ¢ ¡ τ ¢
These
¡ 1 ¢ numbers in the above fraction must be the same as ℘ 2 , ℘ 2 , and
℘ 2 but they might occur differently. This is because ℘ does not change and these
numbers are the zeros of a polynomial having coefficients
³ ´ involving only numbers
1+τ 0
¡ ¢
and ℘ (z) . It could happen for example that ℘ 2 = ℘ τ2 in which case this
would change the value of λ. In effect, you can keep track of all possibilities by
simply permuting the ei in the formula for λ (τ ) given by ee31 −e
−e2 . Thus consider the
2
following permutation table.

1 2 3
2 3 1
3 1 2
.
2 1 3
1 3 2
3 2 1
Corresponding to this list of 6 permutations, all possible formulas for λ (φ (τ ))
can be obtained as follows. Letting τ 0 = φ (τ ) where φ is a unimodular matrix
corresponding to a change of basis,
e3 − e2
λ (τ 0 ) = = λ (τ ) (30.34)
e1 − e2
e1 − e3 e3 − e2 + e2 − e1 1 λ (τ ) − 1
λ (τ 0 ) = = =1− = (30.35)
e2 − e3 e3 − e2 λ (τ ) λ (τ )
· ¸−1
e2 − e1 e3 − e2 − (e1 − e2 )
λ (τ 0 ) = =−
e3 − e1 e1 − e2
−1 1
= − [λ (τ ) − 1] = (30.36)
1 − λ (τ )
· ¸
0 e3 − e1 e3 − e2 − (e1 − e2 )
λ (τ ) = =−
e2 − e1 e1 − e2
= − [λ (τ ) − 1] = 1 − λ (τ ) (30.37)
e2 − e3 e3 − e2 1 λ (τ )
λ (τ 0 ) = = = 1 = (30.38)
e1 − e3 e3 − e2 − (e1 − e2 ) 1 − λ(τ )
λ (τ )−1
e1 − e3 1
λ (τ 0 ) = = (30.39)
e3 − e2 λ (τ )
Corollary 30.27 λ0 (τ ) 6= 0 for all τ in the upper half plane, denoted by P+ .
Proof: Let τ ∈ P+ . By Lemma 30.26 there exists φ a unimodular transforma-

tion and τ 0 in the interior of Q such that τ 0 = φ (τ ). Now from the definition of λ in
terms of the ei , there is at worst a permutation of the ei and so it might be the case
that λ (φ (τ )) 6= λ (τ ) but it is the case that λ (φ (τ )) = ξ (λ (τ )) where ξ 0 (z) 6= 0.
Here ξ is one of the functions determined by 30.34 - 30.39. (Since λ (τ ) ∈ / {0, 1} ,
ξ 0 (λ (z)) 6= 0. This follows from the above possibilities for ξ listed above in 30.34 -
30.39.) All the possibilities are ξ (z) =
z−1 1 z 1
z, , , 1 − z, ,
z 1−z z−1 z
and these are the same as the possibilities for ξ −1 . Therefore, λ0 (φ (τ )) φ0 (τ ) =
ξ 0 (λ (τ )) λ0 (τ ) and so λ0 (τ ) 6= 0 as claimed.
Now I will present a lemma which is of major significance. It depends on the
remarkable mapping properties of the modular function and the monodromy theo-
rem from analytic continuation. A review of the monodromy theorem will be listed
here for convenience. First recall the definition of the concept of function elements
and analytic continuation.
Definition 30.28 A function element is an ordered pair, (f, D) where D is an open

ball and f is analytic on D. (f0 , D0 ) and (f1 , D1 ) are direct continuations of each
other if D1 ∩ D0 6= ∅ and f0 = f1 on D1 ∩ D0 . In this case I will write (f0 , D0 ) ∼
(f1 , D1 ) . A chain is a finite sequence, of disks, {D0 , · · ·, Dn } such that Di−1 ∩ Di 6=
∅. If (f0 , D0 ) is a given function element and there exist function elements, (fi , Di )
such that {D0 , · · ·, Dn } is a chain and (fj−1 , Dj−1 ) ∼ (fj , Dj ) then (fn , Dn ) is
called the analytic continuation of (f0 , D0 ) along the chain {D0 , · · ·, Dn }. Now
suppose γ is an oriented curve with parameter interval [a, b] and there exists a chain,
{D0 , · · ·, Dn } such that γ ∗ ⊆ ∪nk=1 Dk , γ (a) is the center of D0 , γ (b) is the center
of Dn , and there is an increasing list of numbers in [a, b] , a = s0 < s1 · ·· < sn = b
such that γ ([si , si+1 ]) ⊆ Di and (fn , Dn ) is an analytic continuation of (f0 , D0 )
along the chain. Then (fn , Dn ) is called an analytic continuation of (f0 , D0 ) along
the curve γ. (γ will always be a continuous curve. Nothing more is needed. )
Then the main theorem is the monodromy theorem listed next, Theorem 27.19
and its corollary on Page 749.
Theorem 30.29 Let Ω be a simply connected subset of C and suppose (f, B (a, r))
is a function element with B (a, r) ⊆ Ω. Suppose also that this function element can
be analytically continued along every curve through a. Then there exists G analytic
on Ω such that G agrees with f on B (a, r).
Here is the lemma.
Lemma 30.30 Let λ be the modular function defined on P+ the upper half plane.
Let V be a simply connected region in C and let f : V → C\ {0, 1} be analytic
and nonconstant. Then there exists an analytic function, g : V → P+ such that
λ ◦ g = f.
Proof: Let a ∈ V and choose r0 small enough that f (B (a, r0 )) contains neither
0 nor 1. You need only let B (a, r0 ) ⊆ V . Now there exists a unique point in Q, τ 0
such that λ (τ 0 ) = f (a). By Corollary 30.25, λ0 (τ 0 ) 6= 0 and so by the open
mapping theorem, Theorem 25.22 on Page 696, There exists B (τ 0 , R0 ) ⊆ P+ such
that λ is one to one on B (τ 0 , R0 ) and has a continuous inverse. Then picking r0
still smaller, it can be assumed f (B (a, r0 )) ⊆ λ (B (τ 0 , R0 )). Thus there exists
a local inverse for λ, λ−1 0 defined on f (B (a, r0 )) having values in B (τ 0 , R0 ) ∩
λ−1 (f (B (a, r0 ))). Then defining g0 ≡ λ−1 0 ◦ f, (g0 , B (a, r0 )) is a function element.
I need to show this can be continued along every curve starting at a in such a way
that each function in each function element has values in P+ .
Let γ : [α, β] → V be a continuous curve starting at a, (γ (α) = a) and sup-
pose that if t < T there exists a nonnegative integer m and a function element
(gm , B (γ (t) , rm )) which is an analytic continuation of (g0 , B (a, r0 )) along γ where
gm (γ (t)) ∈ P+ and each function in every function element for j ≤ m has values
in P+ . Thus for some small T > 0 this has been achieved.
Then consider f (γ (T )) ∈ C\ {0, 1} . As in the first part of the argument, there
exists a unique τ T ∈ Q such that λ (τ T ) = f (γ (T )) and for r small enough there is
an analytic local inverse, λ−1 T between f (B (γ (T ) , r)) and λ
−1
(f (B (γ (T ) , r))) ∩
B (τ T , RT ) ⊆ P+ for some RT > 0. By the assumption that the analytic continua-
tion can be carried out for t < T, there exists {t0 , · · ·, tm = t} and function elements
(gj , B (γ (tj ) , rj )) , j = 0, · · ·, m as just described with gj (γ (tj )) ∈ P+ , λ ◦ gj = f
on B (γ (tj ) , rj ) such that for t ∈ [tm , T ] , γ (t) ∈ B (γ (T ) , r). Let
I = B (γ (tm ) , rm ) ∩ B (γ (T ) , r) .
Then since λ−1

T is a local inverse, it follows for all z ∈ I
¡ ¢
λ (gm (z)) = f (z) = λ λ−1 T ◦ f (z)
Pick z0 ∈ I . Then by Lemma 30.19 on Page 840 there exists a unimodular mapping
of the form
az + b
φ (z) =
cz + d
where µ ¶ µ ¶
a b 1 0
∼ mod 2
c d 0 1
such that
¡ ¢
gm (z0 ) = φ λ−1
T ◦ f (z0 ) .
¡ ¢
Since both gm (z0 ) and φ λ−1 T ◦ f (z0 ) are in the upper half plane, it follows ad −
cb = 1 and φ maps the upper half plane to the upper half plane. Note the pole of
φ is real and all the sets being considered are contained in the upper half plane so
φ is analytic where it needs to be.
Claim: For all z ∈ I,
gm (z) = φ ◦ λ−1
T ◦ f (z) . (30.40)
Proof: For z = z0 the equation holds. Let

© ¡ ¢ª
A = z ∈ I : gm (z) = φ λ−1
T ◦ f (z) .
Thus z0 ∈ I. If z ∈ I and if w is close enough to z, then w ∈ I also and so both

sides of 30.40 with w in place of z are in λ−1
m (f (I)) . But by construction, λ is one
to one on this set and since λ is invariant with respect to φ,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
λ (gm (w)) = λ λ−1 −1
T ◦ f (w) = λ φ ◦ λT ◦ f (w)
and consequently, w ∈ A. This shows A is open. But A is also closed in I because

the functions are continuous. Therefore, A = I and so 30.40 is obtained.
Letting f (z) ∈ f (B (γ (T )) , r) ,
¡ ¡ ¢¢ ¡ ¢
λ φ λ−1T (f (z)) = λ λ−1
T (f (z)) = f (z)
λ−1
and so φ ◦ T is a local inverse forλ on f (B (γ (T )) , r) . Let the new function
gm+1
z }| {
 
element be φ ◦ λ−1
T ◦ f , B (γ (T ) , r) . This has shown the initial function element
can be continued along every curve through a.

By the monodromy theorem, there exists g analytic on V such that g has values
in P+ and g = g0 on B (a, r0 ) . By the construction, it also follows λ ◦ g = f . This
last claim is easy to see because λ ◦ g = f on B (a, r0 ) , a set with a limit point so
the equation holds for all z ∈ V . This proves the lemma.
30.2 The Picard Theorem Again

Having done all this work on the modular function which is important for its own
sake, there is an easy proof of the Picard theorem. In fact, this is the way Picard
did it in 1879. I will state it slightly differently since it is no trouble to do so, [27].
Theorem 30.31 Let f be meromorphic on C and suppose f misses three distinct

points, a, b, c. Then f is a constant function.
Proof: Let φ (z) ≡ z−a b−c

z−c b−a . Then φ (c) = ∞, φ (a) = 0, and φ (b) = 1. Now
consider the function, h = φ ◦ f. Then h misses the three points ∞, 0, and 1. Since
h is meromorphic and does not have ∞ in its values, it must actually be analytic.
30.3. EXERCISES 853
Thus h is an entire function which misses the two values 0 and 1. If h is not constant,
then by Lemma 30.30 there exists a function, g analytic on C which has values in
the upper half plane, P+ such that λ ◦ g = h. However, g must be a constant
because there exists ψ an analytic map on the upper half plane which maps the
upper half plane to B (0, 1) . You can use the Riemann mapping theorem or more
simply, ψ (z) = z−i
z+i . Thus ψ ◦ g equals a constant by Liouville’s theorem. Hence
g is a constant and so h must also be a constant because λ (g (z)) = h (z) . This
proves f is a constant also. This proves the theorem.
30.3 Exercises
1. Show the set of modular transformations is a group. Also show those modular
transformations which are congruent mod 2 to the identity as described above
is a subgroup.
2. Suppose f is an elliptic function with period module M. If {w1 , w2 } and
{w10 , w20 } are two bases, show that the resulting period parallelograms resulting
from the two bases have the same area.
3. Given a module of periods with basis {w1 , w2 } and letting a typical element
of this module be denoted by w as described above, consider the product
Y³ z ´ (z/w)+ 1 (z/w)2
σ (z) ≡ z 1− e 2 .
w
w6=0
Show this product converges uniformly on compact sets, is an entire function,

and satisfies
σ 0 (z) /σ (z) = ζ (z)
where ζ (z) was defined above as a primitive of ℘ (z) and is given by
1 X 1 z 1
ζ (z) = + + + .
z z − w w2 w
w6=0
4. Show ζ (z + wi ) = ζ (z) + η i where η i is a constant.

5. Let Pa be the parallelogram shown in the following picture.
»
»
» » »»» £
w2 »» »
»
» £ £
»
s »»»
»£»
» » £ £
£ £ £ £
£ £ £
£ £
£ £ £
£ £ £ £
£ £ »£ £s w1
»
£ » »»»£
£ 0»»» »
£ »£s
» » »»»
£ »»
s»
a
1
R
Show that 2πi ∂Pa
ζ (z) dz = 1 where the contour is taken once around the
parallelogram in the counter clockwise direction. Next evaluate this contour
integral directly to obtain Legendre’s relation,
η 1 w2 − η 2 w1 = 2πi.
6. For σ defined in Problem 3, 4 explain the following steps. For j = 1, 2

σ 0 (z + wj ) σ 0 (z)
= ζ (z + wj ) = ζ (z) + η j = + ηj
σ (z + wj ) σ (z)
Therefore, there exists a constant, Cj such that
σ (z + wj ) = Cj σ (z) eηj z .
Next show σ is an odd function, (σ (−z) = −σ (z)) and then let z = −wj /2
η j wj
to find Cj = −e 2 and so
wj
σ (z + wj ) = −σ (z) eηj (z+ 2 ). (30.41)
7. Show any even elliptic function, f with periods w1 and w2 for which 0 is
neither a pole nor a zero can be expressed in the form
n
Y ℘ (z) − ℘ (ak )
f (0)
℘ (z) − ℘ (bk )
k=1
where C is some constant. Here ℘ is the Weierstrass function which comes

from the two periods, w1 and w2 . Hint: You might consider the above func-
tion in terms of the poles and zeros on a period parallelogram and recall that
an entire function which is elliptic is a constant.
8. Suppose f is any elliptic function with {w1 , w2 } a basis for the module of
periods. Using Theorem 30.9 and 30.41 show that there exists constants
a1 , · · ·, an and b1 , · · ·, bn such that for some constant C,
n
Y σ (z − ak )
f (z) = C .
σ (z − bk )
k=1
Hint: You might try something like this: By Theorem 30.9, it follows that if
{α
P k } arePthe zeros and {bk } the poles in an appropriate period
P parallelogram,
P
αk − bk equals a period. Replace αk with ak such that ak − bk = 0.
Then use 30.41 to show that the given formula for f is bi periodic. Anyway,
you try to arrange things such that the given formula has the same poles as
f. Remember an entire elliptic function equals a constant.
9. Show that the map τ → 1 − τ1 maps l2 onto the curve, C in the above picture
on the mapping properties of λ.
10. Modify the proof of Theorem 30.23 to show that λ (Ω)∩{z ∈ C : Im (z) < 0} =
∅.
Part IV
Stochastic Processes, An
Introduction
855
Random Variables And Basic
Probability
Caution: This material on probability and stochastic processes may be half baked
in places. I have not yet rewritten it several times. This is not to say that nothing
else is half baked. However, the probability is higher here.
Recall Lemma 11.3 on Page 305 which is stated here for convenience.
Lemma 31.1 Let M be a metric space with the closed balls compact and suppose
λ is a measure defined on the Borel sets of M which is finite on compact sets.
Then there exists a unique Radon measure, λ which equals λ on the Borel sets. In
particular λ must be both inner and outer regular on all Borel sets.
Also recall from earlier the following fundamental result which is called the Borel
Cantelli lemma.
Lemma 31.2 Let (Ω, F, λ) be a measure space and let {Ai } be a sequence of mea-
surable sets satisfying
X∞
λ (Ai ) < ∞.
i=1
Then letting S denote the set of ω ∈ Ω which are in infinitely many Ai , it follows
S is a measurable set and λ (S) = 0.
Proof: S = ∩∞ ∞
k=1 ∪m=k Am . Therefore, S is measurable and also
∞
X
λ (S) ≤ λ (∪∞
m=k Am ) ≤ λ (Ak )
m=k
and this converges to 0 as k → ∞ because of the convergence of the series. This

proves the lemma.
Definition 31.3 A probability space is a measure space, (Ω, F, P ) where P is a
measure satisfying P (Ω) = 1. A random vector is a measurable function, X : Ω →
Rp . This might also be called a random variable. Define the following σ algebra.
© ª
HX ≡ X−1 (E) : E is Borel in Rp
857
858 RANDOM VARIABLES AND BASIC PROBABILITY
Thus HX ⊆ F. This is also often written as σ (X). For E a Borel set in Rp define
¡ ¢
λX (E) ≡ P X−1 (E) .
This is called the distribution of the random variable, X. If

Z
|X (ω)| dP < ∞
Ω
then define
Z
E (X) ≡ XdP
Ω
where the integral is defined in the obvious way componentwise.
Lemma 31.4 For X a random vector defined above, λX is inner and outer regular,
Borel, and its completion is a Radon measure and λX (Rp ) = 1. Furthermore, if h
is any bounded Borel measurable function,
Z Z
h (X (ω)) dP = h (x) dλX .
Ω Rp
Proof: The assertions about λX follow from Lemma 11.3 on Page 305 listed
above. It remains to verify the formula involving the integrals. Suppose first
h (x) = cXE (x)
where E is a Borel set in Rp . Then the left side equals

Z Z
cXE (X (ω)) dP = cdP = cλX (E)
Ω [X∈E]
The right side equals

Z
cXE (x) dλX = cλX (E) .
Rp
Similarly, if h is any Borel simple function, the same result will hold. For an arbi-
trary bounded Borel function, h, there exists a sequence of Borel simple functions,
{sn } converging to h. Hence, by the dominated convergence theorem,
Z Z Z Z
h (X (ω)) dP = lim sn (X (ω)) dP = lim sn (x) dλX = h (x) dλX .
Ω n→∞ Ω n→∞ Rp

Obviously, h could also be vector valued and Borel measurable and the same
argument would work or else you could simply consider the component functions of
h.
859
n
Definition 31.5 A finite set of random vectors, {Xk }k=1 is independent if when-
ever Fk ∈ HXk (σ (Xk )),
n
Y
P (∩nk=1 Fk ) = P (Fk ) .
k=1
More generally, if {Fi }i∈I is any set of σ algebras, they are said to be independent
if whenever Aik ∈ Fik for k = 1, 2, · · ·, m, then
m
Y
P (∩m
k=1 Aik ) = P (Aik ) .
k=1
r
Lemma 31.6 If {Xk }k=1 are independent and if gk is a Borel measurable function,
n
then {gk (Xk )}k=1 is also independent. Furthermore, if the random variables have
values in R and they are all bounded, then
Ã r
! r
Y Y
E Xi = E (Xi ) .
i=1 i=1
r
Proof: First consider the claim about {gk (Xk )}k=1 . Letting O be an open set
in R,
−1 ¡ −1 ¢
(gk ◦ Xk ) (O) = X−1
k gk (O) = X−1
k (Borel set) ∈ HXk .
−1
It follows (gk ◦ Xk ) (E) is in HXk whenever E is Borel. Thus Hgk ◦Xk ⊆ HXk and
this proves the first part of the lemma.
© ª∞
Now let sin n=1 be a bounded sequence of simple functions measurable in HXi
which converges to Xi uniformly. (Since Xi is bounded, such a sequence exists by
breaking Xi into positive and negative parts and using Theorem 8.27 on Page 190.)
Say
mn
X
sin (ω) = cn,i
k XE n,i (ω)
k
k=1
where the Ek are disjoint elements of HXi and some might be empty. This is for
convenience in keeping the same index on the top of the sum. Then since all the
random variables are bounded, there is no problem about existence of any of the
above. Then from the assumption that the Xi are independent,

Ã r
! Z Y
r Z Y
r
Y
E Xi = Xi (ω) dP = lim sin (ω) dP
Ω i=1 n→∞ Ω i=1
i=1
Z Y mn
r X
= lim cn,i
k XE n,i (ω) dP
n→∞ Ω i=1 k=1 k
Z X
= lim cn,1 n,2 n,r
k1 ck2 · · · ckr XE n,1 XE n,2 · · · XEk dP
n,r
n→∞ Ω k ,k ,···,k
k1 k2 r
1 2 r
X Z
= lim cn,1 n,2 n,r
n,r
n→∞ Ω
k1 k2 r
k1 ,k2 ,···,kr
X r
Y ³ ´
= lim cn,1 n,2 n,r
k1 ck2 · · · ckr P Ekn,i
i
n→∞
k1 ,k2 ,···,kr i=1
Yr Z r
Y
= lim sin (ω) dP = E (Xi ) .
n→∞ Ω
i=1 i=1
31.1 The Characteristic Function

Definition 31.7 Let X be a random variable as above. The characteristic function
is Z Z
¡ ¢
φX (t) ≡ E eit·X ≡ eit·X(ω) dP = eit·x dλX
Ω Rp
the last equation holding by Lemma 31.4.
Recall the following fundamental lemma and definition, Lemma 19.12 on Page
522.

¡ ¢
F T (φ) ≡ T (F φ) , F −1 T (φ) ≡ T F −1 φ
Lemma 31.9 F and F −1 are both one to one, onto, and are inverses of each other.
The main result on characteristic functions is the following.
Theorem
¡ it·X ¢ 31.10 Let¢ X and Y be random vectors with values in Rp and suppose
¡ it·Y
E e =E e for all t ∈ Rp . Then λX = λY .
31.2. CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY 861
R R
Proof: For ψ ∈ G, let λX (ψ) ≡ Rp ψdλX and λY (ψ) ≡ Rp ψdλY . Thus both
λX and λY are in G ∗ . Then letting ψ ∈ G and using Fubini’s theorem,
Z Z Z Z
it·y
e ψ (t) dtdλY = eit·y dλY ψ (t) dt
Rp Rp Rp Rp
Z
¡ ¢
= E eit·Y ψ (t) dt
p
ZR
¡ ¢
= E eit·X ψ (t) dt
p
ZR Z
= eit·x dλX ψ (t) dt
p p
ZR ZR
= eit·x ψ (t) dtdλX .
Rp Rp
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Thus λY F −1 ψ = λX F −1 ψ . Since ψ ∈ G is arbitrary and F −1 is onto, this
implies λX = λY in G ∗ . But G is dense in C0 (Rp ) and so λX = λY as measures.
31.2 Conditional Probability

Here I will consider the concept of conditional probability depending on the theory
of differentiation of general Radon measures and leading to the Doob Dynkin lemma.
If X, Y are two random vectors defined on a probability space having values
in Rp1 and Rp2 respectively, and if E is a Borel set in the appropriate space, then
(X, Y) is a random vector with values in Rp1 × Rp2 and λ(X,Y) (E × Rp2 ) = λX (E),
λ(X,Y) (Rp1 × E) = λY (E). Thus, by Theorem 18.12 on Page 505, there exist
probability measures, denoted here by λX|y and λY|x , such that whenever E is a
Borel set in Rp1 × Rp2 ,
Z Z Z
XE dλ(X,Y) = XE dλY|x dλX ,
Rp1 ×Rp2 Rp1 Rp2
and Z Z Z
XE dλ(X,Y) = XE dλX|y dλY .
Rp1 ×Rp2 Rp2 Rp1
Definition 31.11 Let X and Y be two random vectors defined on a probability

space. The conditional probability measure of Y given X is the measure λY|x in the
above. Similarly the conditional probability measure of X given Y is the measure
λX|y .
More generally, one can use the theory of slicing measures to consider any finite
pi
list of random vectors, {Xi }, defined on Qna probability space with Xi ∈ R , and
write the following for E a Borel set in i=1 Rpi .
Z Z Z
XE dλ(X1 ,···,Xn ) = XE dλ(X2 ,···,Xn )|x1 dλX1
Rp1 ×···×Rpn Rp1 Rp2 ×···×Rpn
Z Z Z
= XE dλ(X3 ,···,Xn )|x1 x2 dλX2 |x1 dλX1
Rp1 Rp2 Rp3 ×···×Rpn
..
.
Z Z
= ··· XE dλXn |x1 x2 ···xn−1 dλXn−1 |x1 ···xn−2 · · · dλX2 |x1 dλX1 . (31.1)
Rp1 Rpn
Obviously, this could have been done in any order in the iterated integrals by
simply modifying the “given” variables, those occurring after the symbol |, to be
those which have been integrated in an outer level of the iterated integral.
Definition 31.12 Let {X1 , · · ·, Xn } be random vectors defined on a probability

space having values in Fp1 , ···, Fpn respectively. The random vectors are independent
if for every E a Borel set in Fp1 × · · · × Fpn ,
Z
XE dλ(X1 ,···,Xn )
Rp1 ×···×Rpn
Z Z
= ··· XE dλXn dλXn−1 · · · dλX2 dλX1 (31.2)
Rp1 Rpn
and the iterated integration may be taken in any order. If A is any set of random
vectors defined on a probability space, A is independent if any finite set of random
vectors from A is independent.
Thus, the random vectors are independent exactly when the dependence on the
givens in 31.1 can be dropped.
Does this amount to the same thing as discussed earlier? These two ran-
dom vectors, X, Y were independent if whenever A ∈ HX (σ (X)) and B ∈ HY ,
P (A ∩ B) = P (A) P (B) . Suppose the above definition and A and B as described.
Let A = X−1 (E) and B = Y−1 (F ) . Then
P (A ∩ B) = P ((X, Y) ∈ E × F )
Z
= XE (x) XF (y) dλ(X,Y)
Rp1 ×Rp2
Z Z
= XE (x) XF (y) dλY|x dλX
Rp1 Rp2
Z Z
= XE (x) XF (y) dλY dλX
Rp1 Rp2
= λX (E) λY (F ) = P (A) P (B)
Next suppose P (A ∩ B) = P (A) P (B) where A ∈ HX and B ∈ HY , A = X−1 (E)

and B = Y−1 (F ) . Can it be asserted λX|y = λX ? In this case, for all E Borel in
Rp1 and F Borel in Rp2 ,

Z Z
XE (x) XF (y) dλY dλX
Rp1 Rp2
= P (A) P (B) = P (A ∩ B)
Z
= XE (x) XF (y) dλ(X,Y)
p1 p2
ZR ×RZ
= XE (x) XF (y) dλY|x dλX
Rp1 Rp2
and so, by uniqueness of the slicing measures, dλY|x = dλY . A similar argument
shows dλX|y = dλX . Thus this amounts to the same thing discussed earlier.
Proposition 31.13 Equations 31.2 and 31.1 hold with XE replaced by any non-
negative Borel measurable function and for any bounded continuous function.
Proof: The two equations hold for simple functions in place of XE and so an
application of the monotone convergence theorem applied to an increasing sequence
of simple functions converging pointwise to a given nonnegative Borel measurable
function yields the conclusion of the proposition in the case of the nonnegative
Borel function. For a bounded continuous function, one can apply the result just
established to the positive and negative parts of the real and imaginary parts of the
function.
Lemma 31.14 Let X1 , ···, Xn be random vectors with values in Rp1 , ···, Rpn respec-
tively and let g : Rp1 × · · · × Rpn → Rk be Borel measurable. Then g (X1 , · · ·, Xn )
is a random vector with values in Rk and if h : Rk → [0, ∞), then
Z
h (y) dλg(X1 ,···,Xn ) (y) =
Rk
Z
h (g (x1 , · · ·, xn )) dλ(X1 ,···,Xn ) . (31.3)
Rp1 ×···×Rpn
If Xi is a random vector with values in Rpi , i = 1, 2, · · · and if gi : Rpi → Rki ,

where gi is Borel measurable, then the random vectors gi (Xi ) are also independent
whenever the Xi are independent.
Proof: First let E be a Borel set in Rk . From the definition,

Z Z
XE dλg(X1 ,···,Xn ) = Xg−1 (E) dλ(X1 ,···,Xn )
Rk p1 pn
ZR ×···×R
= XE (g (x1 , · · ·, xn )) dλ(X1 ,···,Xn ) .
Rp1 ×···×Rpn
This proves 31.3 in the case when h is XE . To prove it in the general case, approx-
imate the nonnegative Borel measurable function with simple functions for which
the formula is true, and use the monotone convergence theorem.
It remains to prove the last assertion that functions of independent random

vectors are also independent random vectors. Let E be a Borel set in Rk1 ×···×Rkn .
Then for
π i (x1 , · · ·, xn ) ≡ xi ,
Z
XE dλ(g1 (X1 ),···,gn (Xn ))
Rk1 ×···×Rkn
Z
≡ XE ◦ (g1 ◦ π 1 , · · ·, gn ◦ π n ) dλ(X1 ,···,Xn )
Rp1 ×···×Rpn
Z Z
= ··· XE ◦ (g1 ◦ π 1 , · · ·, gn ◦ π n ) dλXn · · · dλX1
p1 pn
ZR ZR
= ··· XE dλgn (Xn ) · · · dλg1 (X1 )
Rk1 Rkn
and this proves the last assertion.
Proposition 31.15 Let ν 1 , · · ·, ν n be Radon probability measures defined on Rp .

Then there exists a probability space and independent random vectors {X1 , · · ·, Xn }
defined on this probability space such that λXi = ν i .
n
Proof: Let (Ω, S, P ) ≡ ((Rp ) , S1 × · · · × Sn , ν 1 × · · · × ν n ) where this is just
the product σ algebra and product measure which satisfies the following for mea-
surable rectangles.
Ã n ! n
Y Y
(ν 1 × · · · × ν n ) Ei = ν i (Ei ).
i=1 i=1
Now let Xi (x1 , · · ·, xi , · · ·, xn ) = xi . Then from the definition, if E is a Borel set

in Rp ,
λXi (E) ≡ P {Xi ∈ E}
= (ν 1 × · · · × ν n ) (Rp × · · · × E × · · · × Rp ) = ν i (E).
n
Let M consist of all Borel sets of (Rp ) such that
Z Z Z
··· XE (x1 , · · ·, xn ) dλX1 · · · dλXn = XE dλ(X1 ,···,Xn ) .
Rp Rp (Rp )n
From what was just shown

Qn and the definition of (ν 1 × · · · × ν n ) that M contains
all sets of the form i=1 Ei where each Ei ∈ Borel sets of Rp . Therefore, M
contains the algebra of all finite disjoint unions of such sets. It is also clear that
M is a monotone class and so by the theorem on monotone classes, M equals the
Borel sets. Therefore, the given random vectors are independent and this proves
the proposition.
The following Lemma was proved earlier in a different way.
n
Lemma 31.16 If {Xi }i=1 are independent random variables having values in R,
Ã n ! n
Y Y
E Xi = E (Xi ).
i=1 i=1
Qn
Proof: By Lemma 31.14 and denoting by P the product, i=1 Xi ,
Ã n ! Z Z n
Y Y
E Xi = zdλP (z) = xi dλ(X1 ,···,Xn )
i=1 R R×R i=1
Z Z Y
n n
Y
= ··· xi dλX1 · · · dλXn = E (Xi ).
R R i=1 i=1
There is a way to tell if random vectors are independent by using their charac-
teristic functions.
Proposition 31.17 If X1 and X2 are random vectors having values in Rp1 and
Rp2 respectively, then the random vectors are independent if and only if
2
Y
¡ iP
¢ ¡ ¢
E e = E eitj ·Xj
j=1
P2
where P ≡ j=1 tj · Xj for tj ∈ Rpj . More generally, if Xi is a random vector
Pn
having values in Rpi for i = 1, 2, · · ·, n, and if P = j=1 tj · Xj , then the random
vectors are independent if and only if
n
¡ ¢ Y ¡ ¢
E eiP = E eitj ·Xj .
j=1
The proof of this proposition will depend on the following lemma.
Lemma 31.18 Let Y be a random vector with values in Rp and let f be bounded
and measurable with respect to the Radon measure, λY , and satisfy
Z
f (y) eit·y dλY = 0
for all t ∈ Rp . Then f (y) = 0 for λY a.e. y.
Proof: The proof is just like Rthe proof of Theorem 31.10 on Page 860 applied
to the measure, f (y) dλY . Thus E f (y) dλY = 0 for all E Borel. Hence f (y) = 0
a.e.
Proof of the proposition: If the Xj are independent, the formula follows
from Lemma 31.16 and Lemma 31.14.
Now suppose the formula holds. Then
Z Z
¡ ¢
eit1 ·x1 eit2 ·x2 dλX1 dλX2 = E eiP
Rp2 Rp1
Z Z
= eit1 ·x1 eit2 ·x2 dλX1 |x2 dλX2 .
Rp2 Rp1
Now apply Lemma 31.18 to conclude that
Z Z
it1 ·x1
e dλX1 = eit1 ·x1 dλX1 |x2 (31.4)
Rp1 Rp1
for λX2 a.e. x2 , the exceptional set depending on t1 . Therefore, taking the union of
all exceptional sets corresponding to t1 ∈ Qp1 , it follows by continuity and the domi-
nated convergence theorem that 31.4 holds for all t1 whenever x2 is not an element of
this exceptional set of measure zero. Therefore, for such x2 , Theorem 31.10 applies
p1 p2
Rand it follows λX1 |x2 = λRX1 for
R λX2 a.e. x2 . Hence, ifR E isR a Borel set in R × R ,
X dλ(X1 ,X2 ) = Rp2 Rp1 XE dλX1 |x2 dλX2 = Rp2 Rp1 XE dλX1 dλX2 . A re-
Rp1 +p2 E
peat of the above argument will give the iterated integral in the reverse order or
else one could apply Fubini’s theorem to obtain this. The proposition also holds if 2
is replaced with n and the argument is a longer version of what was just presented.
With this preparation, it is time to present the Doob Dynkin lemma.I am not
entirely sure what the Doob Dynkin lemma says actually. What follows is a gener-
alization of what is identified as a special case of this lemma in [42]. I am not sure
I have the right generalization. However, it is a very interesting lemma regardless
of its name.
Lemma 31.19 Suppose X, Y1 , Y2 , · · ·, Yk are random vectors, X having values in
Rn and Yj having values in Rpj and
X, Yj ∈ L1 (Ω) .
Suppose X is H(Y1 ,···,Yk ) measurable. Thus
 
© −1 ª  −1
k
Y 
X (E) : E Borel ⊆ (Y1 , · · ·, Yk ) (F ) : F is Borel in Rpj
 
j=1
Qk
Then there exists a Borel function, g : j=1 Rpj → Rn such that
X = g (Y1 , Y2 , · · ·, Yk ) .
Proof: For the sake of brevity, denote by Y the vector (Y1 , · · ·, Yk ) and by y
Qk
the vector (y1 , · · ·, yk ) and let j=1 Rpj ≡ RP . For E a Borel set of Rn ,
Z Z
XdP = XRn ×E (x, y) xdλ(X,Y)
Y −1 (E) Rn ×RP
Z Z
= xdλX|y dλY . (31.5)
E Rn
Consider the function Z

y→ xdλX|y .
Rn
31.3. THE MULTIVARIATE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 867
Since dλY is a Radon measure having inner and outer regularity, it follows the
above function is equal to a Borel function for λY a.e. y. This function will be
denoted by g. Then from 31.5
Z Z Z
XdP = g (y) dλY = XE (y) g (y) dλY
Y −1 (E) E RP
Z
= XE (Y (ω)) g (Y (ω)) dP
ZΩ
= g (Y (ω)) dP
Y −1 (E)
and since Y−1 (E) is an arbitrary element of HY , this shows that since X is HY
measurable,
X = E (X|HY ) = g (Y) .

Note also that as part of this argument, it is shown that if the symbol,
E (X|y1 , · · ·, yk )
is defined as the function g in the above, then for a.e. ω,

¡ ¢
E X|H(Y1 ,Y2 ,···,Yk ) (ω) = E (X|Y1 (ω) , Y2 (ω) , · · ·, Yk (ω))
which is a fairly attractive formula.
31.3 The Multivariate Normal Distribution

Definition 31.20 A random vector, X, with values in Rp has a multivariate nor-
mal distribution written as X ∼Np (m, Σ) if for all Borel E ⊆ Rp ,
Z
1 −1 ∗ −1
λX (E) = XE (x) e 2 (x−m) Σ (x−m)
dx
p/2 1/2
Rp (2π) det (Σ)
for µ a given vector and Σ a given positive definite symmetric matrix.
Theorem 31.21 For X ∼ Np (m, Σ) , m = E (X) and

¡ ∗¢
Σ = E (X − m) (X − m) .
Proof: Let R be an orthogonal transformation such that

¡ ¢
RΣR∗ = D = diag σ 21 , · · ·, σ 2p .
Changing the variable by x − m = R∗ y,

Z Ã !
−1 ∗ −1 1
E (X) ≡ xe 2 (x−m) Σ (x−m)
dx p/2 1/2
Rp (2π) det (Σ)
Z Ã !
∗ − 12 y∗ D −1 y 1
= (R y + m) e dy p/2 Qp
Rp (2π) σi
Z Ã ! i=1
− 12 y∗ D −1 y 1
= m e dy p/2 Qp =m
Rp (2π) i=1 σi
by Fubini’s theorem and the easy to establish formula

Z
1 y2
√ e− 2σ2 dy = 1.
2πσ R
¡ ∗¢
Next let M ≡ E (X − m) (X − m) . Thus, changing the variable as above by
x − m = R∗ y
Z Ã !
∗ −1 ∗ −1 1
M = (x − m) (x − m) e 2 (x−m) Σ (x−m) dx p/2 1/2
Rp (2π) det (Σ)
Z Ã !
1 ∗ −1 1
= R∗ yy∗ e− 2 y D y dy p/2 Qp R
Rp (2π) i=1 σ i
Therefore,
Z Ã !
∗ − 12 y∗ D −1 y 1
(RM R )ij = yi yj e dy p/2 Qp
= 0,
Rp (2π) i=1 σ i
so; RM R∗ is a diagonal matrix.

Z Ã !
∗ 1 ∗ −1 1
(RM R )ii = yi2 e− 2 y D y dy p/2 Qp
.
Rp (2π) i=1 σ i
Using Fubini’s theorem and the easy to establish equations,

Z Z
1 y2 1 y2
√ e− 2σ2 dy = 1, √ y 2 e− 2σ2 dy = σ 2,
2πσ R 2πσ R
it follows (RM R∗ )ii = σ 2i . Hence RM R∗ = D and so M = R∗ DR = Σ. This

proves the theorem.
Theorem 31.22 Suppose X1 ∼ Np (m1 , Σ1 ) , X2 ∼ Np (m2 , Σ2 ) and the two ran-

dom vectors are independent. Then
X1 + X2 ∼ Np (m1 + m2 , Σ1 + Σ2 ). (31.6)
Also, if X ∼ Np (m, Σ) then −X ∼ Np (−m, Σ) . Furthermore, if X ∼ Np (m, Σ)

then ¡ ¢ 1 ∗
E eit·X = eit·m e− 2 t Σt (31.7)
¡ 2
¢
Also if a is a constant and X ∼ Np (m, Σ) then aX ∼ Np am, a Σ .
¡ ¢
Proof: Consider E eit·X for X ∼ Np (m, Σ).
Z
¡ ¢ 1 1 ∗ −1
E eit·X ≡ p/2 1/2
eit·x e− 2 (x−m) Σ (x−m) dx.
(2π) (det Σ) R p
Let R be an orthogonal transformation such that

¡ ¢
RΣR∗ = D = diag σ 21 , · · ·, σ 2p .
Then let R (x − m) = y. Then

Z
¡ it·X
¢ 1 ∗
y+m) − 21 y∗ D −1 y
E e = p/2 Qp
eit·(R e dx.
(2π) i=1 σi Rp
Therefore
Z
¡ it·X
¢ 1 1 ∗
D −1 y
E e = p/2 Qp
eis·(y+Rm) e− 2 y dx
(2π) i=1 σi Rp
where s =Rt. This equals

p µZ
Y ¶
− 1
yi2 1
eit·m eisi yi e 2σ 2
i dyi √
i=1 R 2πσ i
p µZ
Y ¶
1 2 1
= eit·m eisi σi u e− 2 u du √
i=1 R 2π
p
Y Z
1 2 2 1 1 2
= eit·m e − 2 si σ i √ e− 2 (u−isi σi ) du
i=1
2π R
Pp 2 2 1 ∗
− 12
= eit·m e i=1 si σ i = eit·m e− 2 t Σt
This proves 31.7.

Since X1 and X2 are independent, eit·X1 and eit·X2 are also independent. Hence
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
E eit·X1 +X2 = E eit·X1 E eit·X2 .
Thus,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
E eit·X1 +X2 = E eit·X1 E eit·X2
1 ∗
Σ1 t it·m2 − 12 t∗ Σ2 t
= eit·m1 e− 2 t e e
it·(m1 +m2 ) − 21 t∗ (Σ1 +Σ2 )t
= e e
which is the characteristic function of a random vector distributed as
Np (m1 + m2 , Σ1 + Σ2 ).
Now it follows that X1 + X2 ∼ Np (m1 + m2 , Σ1 + Σ2 ) by Theorem 31.10. This

proves 31.6.
The assertion about −X is also easy to see because
³ ´ ³ ´
E eit·(−X) = E ei(−t)·X
Z
1 1 ∗ −1
= p/2 1/2
ei(−t)·x e− 2 (x−m) Σ (x−m) dx
(2π) (det Σ) R p
Z
1 1 ∗ −1
= p/2 1/2
eit·x e− 2 (x+m) Σ (x+m) dx
(2π) (det Σ) Rp
which is the characteristic function of a random variable which is N (−m, Σ) . The-

orem 31.10 again implies −X ∼ N (−m, Σ) . Finally consider the last claim. You
apply what is known about X with t replaced with at and then massage things.
This gives the characteristic function for aX is given by
µ ¶
1
E (exp (it·aX)) = exp (it·am) exp − t∗ Σa2 t
2
which is the characteristic function of a normal random vector having mean am

and covariance a2 Σ. This proves the theorem.
Following [42] a random vector has a generalized normal distribution if its char-
acteristic function is given as
1 ∗
eit·m e− 2 t Σt (31.8)
where Σ is symmetric and has nonnegative eigenvalues. For a random real valued
variable, m is scalar and so is Σ so the characteristic function of such a generalized
normally distributed random variable is
1 2
σ2
eitµ e− 2 t (31.9)
These generalized normal distributions do not require Σ to be invertible, only that

the eigenvalues by nonnegative. In one dimension this would correspond the charac-
teristic function of a dirac measure having point mass 1 at µ. In higher dimensions,
it could be a mixture of such things with more familiar things. I won’t try very hard
to distinguish between generalized normal distributions and normal distributions in
which the covariance matrix has all positive eigenvalues.
Here are some other interesting results about normal distributions found in [42].
The next theorem has to do with the question whether a random vector is normally
distributed in the above generalized sense.
Theorem 31.23 Let X = (X1 , · · ·, Xp ) where each Xi is a real valued random

variable. Then X is normally distributed in the above generalized sense if and only
Pp
if every linear combination, j=1 ai Xi is normally distributed. In this case the
mean of X is
m = (E (X1 ) , · · ·, E (Xp ))
and the covariance matrix for X is
¡ ∗¢
Σjk = E (Xj − mj ) (Xk − mk ) .
Proof: Suppose first X is normally distributed. Then its characteristic function

is of the form ¡ ¢ 1 ∗
φX (t) = E eit·X = eit·m e− 2 t Σt .
Then letting a = (a1 , · · ·, ap )
³ Pp ´ ¡ ¢ 1 ∗ 2
E eit j=1 ai Xi = E eita·X = eita·m e− 2 a Σat
which is the characteristic function of a normally distributed random variable with

mean a · m and variance
Pp σ 2 = a∗ Σa. This proves half of the theorem.
Next suppose j=1 aj Xj = a · X is normally distributed with mean µ and
variance σ 2 so that its characteristic function is given in 31.9. I will now relate µ and
∗
σ 2 to various quantities involving the Xj . Letting mj = E (Xj ) , m = (m1 , · · ·, mp )
 2 
X p Xp Xp Xp
 
µ = aj E (Xj ) = aj mj , σ 2 = E  aj Xj − aj mj  
j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1
 2 
Xp
  X
= E  aj (Xj − mj )  = aj ak E ((Xj − mj ) (Xk − mk ))
j=1 j,k
It follows the mean of the normally distributed random variable, a · X is

X
µ= aj mj = a · m
j
and its variance is ¡ ∗¢

σ 2 = a∗ E (X − m) (X − m) a
Therefore,
¡ ¢ 1 2 2
E eita·X = eitµ e− 2 t σ
1 2 ∗
a E((X−m)(X−m)∗ )a
= eita·m e− 2 t .
Then letting s = ta this shows
¡ ¢ 1 ∗ ∗
E eis·X = eis·m e− 2 s E((X−m)(X−m) )s
1 ∗
= eis·m e− 2 s Σs
which is the characteristic function of a normally distributed random variable with

m given above and Σ given by
Σjk = E ((Xj − mj ) (Xk − mk )) .
Corollary 31.24 Let X = (X1 , · · ·, Xp ) , Y = (Y1 , · · ·, Yp ) where each Xi , Yi is a

real valued random variable. Suppose also that for every a ∈ Rp , a · X and a · Y
are both normally distributed with the same mean and variance. Then X and Y are
both multivariate normal random vectors with the same mean and variance.
Proof: In the Proof of Theorem 31.23 the proof implies that the characteristic
functions of a · X and a · Y are both of the form
1 2 2
eitm e− 2 σ t
.
Then as in the proof of that theorem, it must be the case that

p
X
m= aj mj
j=1
where E (Xi ) = mi = E (Yi ) and

¡ ∗¢
σ2 = a∗ E (X − m) (X − m) a
¡ ∗¢
= a∗ E (Y − m) (Y − m) a
and this last equation must hold for every a. Therefore,

¡ ∗¢ ¡ ∗¢
E (X − m) (X − m) = E (Y − m) (Y − m) ≡ Σ
1 ∗
and so the characteristic function of both X and Y is eis·m e− 2 s Σs
as in the proof
of Theorem 31.23. This proves the corollary.
Theorem 31.25 Suppose X = (X1 , · · ·, Xp ) is normally distributed with mean m

and covariance Σ. Then if X1 is uncorrelated with any of the Xi , meaning
E ((X1 − m1 ) (Xj − mj )) = 0 for j > 1,
then X1 and (X2 , · · ·, Xp ) are both normally distributed and the two random vectors
are independent. Here mj ≡ E (Xj ) . More generally, if the covariance matrix is a
diagonal matrix, the random variables, {X1 , · · ·, Xp } are linearly independent.
Proof: From Theorem 31.21

¡ ∗¢
Σ = E (X − m) (X − m) .
Then by assumption, µ ¶
σ 21 0
Σ= . (31.10)
0 Σp−1
I need to verify that if E ∈ HX1 (σ (X1 )) and F ∈ H(X2 ,···,Xp ) (σ (X2 , · · ·, Xp )),
then
P (E ∩ F ) = P (E) P (F ) .
Let E = X1−1 (A) and
−1
F = (X2 , · · ·, Xp ) (B)
p−1
where A and B are Borel sets in R and R respectively. Thus I need to verify
that
P ([(X1 , (X2 , · · ·, Xp )) ∈ (A, B)]) =
µ(X1 ,(X2 ,···,Xp )) (A × B) = µX1 (A) µ(X2 ,···,Xp ) (B) . (31.11)
Using 31.10, Fubini’s theorem, and definitions,
µ(X1 ,(X2 ,···,Xp )) (A × B) =
Z
1 −1 ∗ −1
XA×B (x) e 2 (x−m) Σ (x−m)
dx
p/2 1/2
Rp (2π) det (Σ)
Z Z
= XA (x1 ) XB (X2 , · · ·, Xp ) ·
R Rp−1
−(x1 −m1 )2
1 2σ 2
(p−1)/2 √ 1/2 1/2
e 1 ·
(2π) 2π (σ 21 ) det (Σp−1 )
∗
³ 0 ´
e
−1
2 (x0 −m0 ) Σ−1
p−1 x −m
0
dx0 dx1
where x0 = (x2 , · · ·, xp ) and m0 = (m2 , · · ·, mp ) . Now this equals
Z −(x1 −m1 )2
Z
1 2σ 2
1
XA (x1 ) p 2
e 1
(p−1)/2 1/2
· (31.12)
R 2πσ 1 B (2π) det (Σp−1 )
∗
³ 0 ´
e
−1
2 (x0 −m0 ) Σ−1
p−1 x −m
0
dx0 dx. (31.13)
p−1
In case B = R , the inside integral equals 1 and
¡ ¢
λX1 (A) = λ(X1 ,(X2 ,···,Xp )) A × Rp−1
Z −(x1 −m1 )2
1 2σ 2
= XA (x1 ) p e 1 dx1
R 2πσ 21
which shows X1 is normally distributed as claimed. Similarly, letting A = R,
λ(X2 ,···,Xp ) (B)
= λ(X1 ,(X2 ,···,Xp )) (R × B)
Z ³ 0 ´
1 −1 ∗
(x0 −m0 ) Σ−1
p−1 x −m
0
= (p−1)/2 1/2
e 2
dx0
B (2π) det (Σp−1 )
and (X2 , · · ·, Xp ) is also normally distributed with mean m0 and covariance Σp−1 .
Now from 31.12, 31.11 follows. In case the covariance matrix is diagonal, the above
reasoning extends in an obvious way to prove the random variables, {X1 , · · ·, Xp }
are independent.
However, another way to prove this is to use Proposition 31.17 on Page 865 and
consider the characteristic function. Let E (Xj ) = mj and
p
X
P = tj Xj .
j=1
Then since X is normally distributed and the covariance is a diagonal,

 
σ 21 0
 .. 
D≡ . 
0 σ 2p
,
¡ ¢ ³ ´ 1 ∗
E eiP = E eit·(X−m) = eit·m e− 2 t Σt
 
X p
1
= exp  itj mj − t2j σ 2j  (31.14)
j=1
2
p
Y µ ¶
1
= exp itj mj − t2j σ 2j
j=1
2
Also,
  
¡ ¢ X
E e itj Xj
= E exp itj Xj + i0Xk 
k6=j
µ ¶
1 2 2
= exp itj mj − tj σ j
2
With 31.14, this shows

p
¡ ¢ Y ¡ ¢
E eiP = E eitj Xj
j=1
which shows by Proposition 31.17 that the random variables,
{X1 , · · ·, Xp }
are independent. This proves the theorem.

31.4. THE CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM 875
31.4 The Central Limit Theorem

The central limit theorem is one of the most marvelous theorems in mathematics.
It can be proved through the use of characteristic functions. Recall for x ∈ Rp ,
||x||∞ ≡ max {|xj | , j = 1, · · ·, p} .
Also recall the definition of the distribution function for a random vector, X.
FX (x) ≡ P (Xj ≤ xj , j = 1, · · ·, p) .
∞
Definition 31.26 Let {Xn } be random vectors with values in Rp . Then {λXn }n=1
is called “tight” if for all ε > 0 there exists a compact set, Kε such that
λXn ([x ∈
/ Kε ]) < ε
for all λXn .
Lemma 31.27 If Xn , X are random vectors with values in Rp such that
lim φXn (t) = φX (t)
n→∞
∞
for all t, then {λXn }n=1 is tight.
Proof: Let ej be the j th standard unit basis vector.
¯ Z u ¯
¯1 ¡ ¢ ¯
¯ 1 − φ (te ) dt¯
¯u Xn j ¯
−u
¯ Z uµ Z ¶ ¯
¯1 ¯
= ¯¯ 1− eitxj dλXn dt¯¯
u Rp
¯Z −u Z u ¯
¯ 1 ¡ ¢ ¯
= ¯¯ 1 − eitxj dtdλXn (x)¯¯
p u
¯ RZ µ −u ¶ ¯
¯ sin (uxj ) ¯
= ¯2¯ 1− dλXn (x)¯¯
Rp uxj
Z µ ¶
1
≥ 2 1− dλXn (x)
[|xj |≥ u2 ] |uxj |
Z µ ¶
1
≥ 2 1− dλXn (x)
[|xj |≥ u2 ] |u| (2/u)
Z
= 1dλXn (x)
[|xj |≥ u2 ]
µ· ¸¶
2
= λX n x : |xj | ≥ .
u
If ε > 0 is given, there exists r > 0 such that if u ≤ r,
Z
1 u
(1 − φX (tej )) dt < ε/p
u −u
for all j = 1, · · ·, p and so, by the dominated convergence theorem, the same is true
with φXn in place of φX provided n is large enough, say n ≥ N (u). Thus, if u ≤ r,
and n ≥ N (u), µ· ¸¶
2
λX n x : |xj | ≥ < ε/p
u
for all j ∈ {1, · · ·, p}. It follows that for u ≤ r and n ≥ N (u) ,
µ· ¸¶
2
λX n x : ||x||∞ ≥ < ε.
u
This proves the lemma because there are only finitely many measures, λXn for
n < N (u) and the compact set can be enlarged finitely many times to obtain a
single compact set, Kε such that for all n, λXn ([x ∈
/ Kε ]) < ε. This proves the
lemma.
Lemma 31.28 If φXn (t) → φX (t) for all t, then whenever ψ ∈ S,
Z Z
λXn (ψ) ≡ ψ (y) dλXn (y) → ψ (y) dλX (y) ≡ λX (ψ)
Rp Rp
as n → ∞.
Proof: Recall that if X is any random vector, its characteristic function is given
by Z
φX (y) ≡ eiy·x dλX (x) .
Rp
Also remember the inverse Fourier transform. Letting ψ ∈ S, the Schwartz class,
Z
¡ ¢
F −1 (λX ) (ψ) ≡ λX F −1 ψ ≡ F −1 ψdλX
Rp
Z Z
1
= p/2
eiy·x ψ (x) dxdλX (y)
(2π) Rp Rp
Z Z
1
= p/2
ψ (x) eiy·x dλX (y) dx
(2π) Rp Rp
Z
1
= p/2
ψ (x) φX (x) dx
(2π) Rp
and so, considered as elements of S∗ ,

−(p/2)
F −1 (λX ) = φX (·) (2π) ∈ L∞ .
By the dominated convergence theorem
Z
p/2 −1
(2π) F (λXn ) (ψ) ≡ φXn (t) ψ (t) dt
p
ZR
→ φX (t) ψ (t) dt
Rp
p/2
= (2π) F −1 (λX ) (ψ)
whenever ψ ∈ S. Thus
λXn (ψ) = F F −1 λXn (ψ) ≡ F −1 λXn (F ψ) → F −1 λX (F ψ)

≡ F F −1 λX (ψ) = λX (ψ).
Lemma 31.29 If φXn (t) → φX (t) , then if ψ is any bounded uniformly continuous
function, Z Z
lim ψdλXn = ψdλX .
n→∞ Rp Rp
Proof: Let ε > 0 be given, let ψ be a bounded function in C ∞ (Rp ). Now let
p
η ∈ Cc∞ (Qr ) where Qr ≡ [−r, r] satisfy the additional requirement that η = 1 on
∞
Qr/2 and η (x) ∈ [0, 1] for all x. By Lemma 31.27 the set, {λXn }n=1 , is tight and
so if ε > 0 is given, there exists r sufficiently large such that for all n,
Z
ε
|1 − η| |ψ| dλXn < ,
[x∈Q
/ r/2 ] 3
and Z
ε
|1 − η| |ψ| dλX < .
[x∈Q
/ r/2 ] 3
Thus, ¯Z Z ¯ ¯Z Z ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ψdλ − ψdλ ¯ ≤ ¯ ψdλ − ψηdλ ¯
Xn ¯ +
¯ p Xn X¯ ¯ Xn
R Rp Rp Rp
¯Z Z ¯ ¯Z Z ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ψηdλ − ψηdλ ¯ + ¯ ψηdλ − ψdλ ¯
¯ p Xn X¯ ¯ X X¯
R Rp Rp Rp
¯Z Z ¯
2ε ¯¯ ¯
≤ +¯ ψηdλXn − ψηdλX ¯¯ < ε
3 Rp Rp
whenever n is large enough by Lemma 31.28 because ψη ∈ S. This establishes the

conclusion of the lemma in the case where ψ is also infinitely differentiable. To
consider the general case, let ψ only be uniformly continuous and let ψ k = ψ ∗ φk
p
where φk is a mollifier whose support is in (− (1/k) , (1/k)) . Then ψ k converges
uniformly to ψ and so the desired conclusion follows for ψ after a routine estimate.
Definition 31.30 Let µ be a Radon measure on Rp . A Borel set, A, is a µ conti-

nuity set if µ (∂A) = 0 where ∂A ≡ A \ interior (A).
The main result is the following continuity theorem. More can be said about
the equivalence of various criteria [9].
Theorem 31.31 If φXn (t) → φX (t) then λXn (A) → λX (A) whenever A is a λX
continuity set.
Proof: First suppose K is a closed set and let

+
ψ k (x) ≡ (1 − k dist (x,K)) .
Thus, since K is closed limk→∞ ψ k (x) = XK (x). Choose k large enough that
Z
ψ k dλX ≤ λX (K) + ε.
Rp
Then by Lemma 31.29, applied to the bounded uniformly continuous function ψ k ,

Z Z
lim sup λXn (K) ≤ lim sup ψ k dλXn = ψ k dλX ≤ λX (K) + ε.
n→∞ n→∞
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows
lim sup λXn (K) ≤ λX (K)

n→∞
for all K closed.

Next suppose V is open and let
³ ³ ´´+
ψ k (x) = 1 − 1 − k dist x, VC .
¡ ¢
Thus ψ k (x) ∈ [0, 1] , ψ k = 1 if dist x,V C ≥ 1/k, and ψ k = 0 on V C . Since V is
open, it follows
lim ψ k (x) = XV (x).
k→∞
Choose k large enough that

Z
ψ k dλX ≥ λX (V ) − ε.

Z
lim inf λXn (V ) ≥ lim inf ψ k (x) dλXn =
n→∞ n→∞
Z
= ψ k (x) dλX ≥ λX (V ) − ε
and since ε is arbitrary,
lim inf λXn (V ) ≥ λX (V ).

n→∞
Now let λX (∂A) = 0 for A a Borel set.
λX (interior (A)) ≤ lim inf λXn (interior (A)) ≤ lim inf λXn (A) ≤
n→∞ n→∞
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
lim sup λXn (A) ≤ lim sup λXn A ≤ λX A .
n→∞ n→∞
¡ ¢
But λX (interior (A)) = λX A by assumption and so limn→∞ λXn (A) = λX (A)
as claimed. This proves the theorem.
As an application of this theorem the following is a version of the central limit
theorem in the situation in which the limit distribution is multivariate normal. It
∞
concerns a sequence of random vectors, {Xk }k=1 , which are identically distributed,
have finite mean m, and satisfy
³ ´
2
sup E |Xk | < ∞. (31.15)
k
∞
Theorem 31.32 Let {Xk }k=1
be random vectors satisfying 31.15, which are in-
dependent
¡ and identically distributed with mean m and positive definite covariance
∗¢
Σ ≡ E (X − m) (X − m) . Let
Xn
Xj − m
Zn ≡ √ . (31.16)
j=1
n
Then for Z ∼Np (0, Σ) ,

lim FZn (x) = FZ (x) (31.17)
n→∞
for all x.
Proof: The characteristic function of Zn is given by

µ P Xj −µ
¶ n
Y µ ³ X −µ ´ ¶
j
it· n √ it· √
φZn (t) = E e j=1 n = E e n
.
j=1
By Taylor’s theorem,
eiθx x2
eix = 1 + ix −
2
for some θ ∈ [0, 1] which depends on x. Denoting Xj as X, this implies
³ ´ 2
it· X−µ
√ X−m iθt· X−m
√ (t· (X − m))
e n
= 1 + it· √ −e n
n 2n
where θ depends on X and t and is in [0, 1]. The above equals

2
X − m (t· (X − m))
1 + it· √ −
n 2n
³ ´ (t· (X − m))2
iθt· X−m
√
+ 1−e n .
2n
Thus " Ã !
n
Y 2
(t· (X − m))
φZn (t) = 1−E
j=1
2n
Ã !#
³ ´ (t· (X − m))2
iθt· X−m
√
+E 1−e n
2n
n · ´¸
Y 1 ∗ 1 ³³ iθt· X−m
√
´
2
= 1− t Σt+ E 1 − e n (t· (X − m)) . (31.18)
j=1
2n 2n
2 ∗
(Note (t· (X − m)) = t∗ (X − m) (X − m) t.) Now here is a simple inequality for
complex numbers whose moduli are no larger than one. I will give a proof of this
at the end. It follows easily by induction.
n
X
|z1 · · · zn − w1 · · · wn | ≤ |zk − wk |. (31.19)
k=1
Also for each t, and all n large enough,

¯ ´¯¯
¯ 1 ³³ X−m
´
¯ E 1 − eiθt· √n (t· (X − m))2 ¯ < 1.
¯ 2n ¯
Applying 31.19 to 31.18,

Yn µ ¶
1 ∗
φZn (t) = 1− t Σt + en
j=1
2n
where
n ¯ ´¯¯
X ¯ 1 ³³ X−m
´
|en | ≤ ¯ E 1 − eiθt· √n (t· (X − m))2 ¯
¯ 2n ¯
j=1
1 ¯¯ ³³ iθt· X−m
√
´ ´¯
2 ¯
= ¯E 1 − e n (t· (X − m)) ¯
2
which converges to 0 as n → ∞ by the Dominated Convergence theorem. Therefore,
¯ µ ¶n ¯
¯ t∗ Σt ¯¯
¯
lim φZn (t) − 1 −
n→∞ ¯ 2n ¯=0
and so
1 ∗
lim φZn (t) = e− 2 t Σt
= φZ (t)
n→∞
Qp
where Z ∼Np (0, Σ). Therefore, FZn (x) → FZ (x) for all x because Rx ≡ k=1 (−∞, xk ]
is a set of λZ continuity due to the assumption that λZ ¿ mp which is implied by
Z ∼Np (0, Σ). This proves the theorem.
Here is the proof of the little inequality used above. The inequality is obviously
true if n = 1. Assume it is true for n. Then since all the numbers have absolute
value no larger than one,
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯n+1 Y ¯¯
n+1 ¯n+1 n ¯
¯Y ¯Y Y ¯
¯ zi − wi ¯ ≤ ¯ zi − zn+1 wi ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
¯ ¯
¯ n
Y Y ¯¯
n+1
¯
+ ¯zn+1 wi − wi ¯
¯ ¯
i=1 i=1
31.5. BROWNIAN MOTION 881
¯ ¯
¯Yn n
Y ¯
¯ ¯
≤ ¯ zi − wi ¯ + |zn+1 − wn+1 |
¯ ¯
i=1 i=1
n+1
X
≤ |zk − wk |
k=1
by induction.
Suppose X is a random vector with covariance Σ and mean m, and suppose also
that Σ−1 exists. Consider Σ−(1/2) (X − m) ≡ Y. Then E (Y) = 0 and
³ ´
E (YY∗ ) = E Σ−(1/2) (X − m) (X∗ − µ) Σ−(1/2)
= Σ−(1/2) E ((X − m) (X∗ − µ)) Σ−(1/2) = I.
Thus Y has zero mean and covariance I. This implies the following corollary to
Theorem 31.32.
Corollary 31.33 Let independent identically distributed random variables,

∞
{Xj }j=1
have mean m and positive definite covariance Σ where Σ−1 exists. Then if
n
X (Xj − µ)
Zn ≡ Σ−(1/2) √ ,
j=1
n
it follows that for Z ∼Np (0,I) ,
FZn (x) → FZ (x)
for all x.
31.5 Brownian Motion

Definition 31.34 A stochastic process is a set of random vectors, {Xt }t≥0 .
Brownian motion is a special kind of stochastic process. I will construct it and

then summarize its properties.
First recall the Kolmogorov extension theorem listed next for convenience. In
this theorem, Mt was a metric space having closed balls compact and I was a totally
ordered index set. From now on Mt will equal Rn and the index set, I will be [0, ∞).
J = (t1 , · · ·, tn ) ⊆ I,

sets of t∈J Mt such that if
(t1 , · · ·, tn ) ⊆ (s1 , · · ·, sp ) ,
then ¡ ¢
then Gsi = Ms0 i . Then there exists a probability space, (Ω, P, F) and measurable
Definition 31.36 For x, y ∈ Rn and t > 0 define

Ã !
2
1 |y − x|
p (t, x, y) ≡ n/2
exp − .
(2πt) 2t
Then considered as a function of y this is a normal distribution with mean x and

covariance tI. In case t = 0 this is defined to be the measure δ x which is defined by
δ x (E) = 1 if x ∈ E and 0 if x ∈
/ E.
Now define for each increasing list (t1 , t2 , · · ·, tk ) , a measure defined as follows.
For F a Borel set in Rnk ,
Z
ν t1 t2 ···tk (F ) ≡ p (t1 , x, y1 ) p (t2 − t1 , y1 , y2 )
F
· · ·p (tk − tk−1 , yk−1 , yk ) dy1 dy2 · · · dyk . (31.22)
R
Since Rn p (s, x, y) dy = 1 whenever s ≥ 0, this shows the conditions of the Kol-
mogorov extension theorem are satisfied for these measures and therefore there
exists a probability space, (Ω, F, P ) and measurable functions, Bt for each t ≥ 0
such that whenever the Fj are Borel sets,
ν t1 t2 ···tk (Ft1 × · · · × Ftk ) = P ((Bt1 , · · ·, Btk ) ∈ Ft1 × · · · × Ftk )
Lemma 31.37 Letting Z = (Bt1 , · · ·, Btk ) ∈ Rnk it follows Z is normally dis-

tributed. Its mean is ¡ ¢
x · · · x ∈ Rnk
and its covariance is the nk × nk matrix
 
t1 In t1 In t1 In ··· t1 In
 t1 In t2 In t2 In ··· t2 In 
 
 .. 
 t1 In t2 In . . . . .
 
 . .. .. .. 
 .. . . . 
t1 In t2 In · · · ··· t k In
Proof: To show this use Theorem 31.23. The components of Btj are indepen-
dent and normally distributed because Btj is distributed as y → p (tj , x, y) which
is defined above. The off diagonal terms of the correlation matrix are zero and so
by Theorem 31.25 the components are independent and all normally distributed.
Denote by Btj r the rth component of Btj . Thus the mean of Btj r is P xr and the
variance of Btj r is tj . Also a · Btj is normally distributed with mean ar xr . To
verify Z is normally distributed, it suffices to show that a · Z is normally distributed
for a = (a1 , · · ·, ak ). Consider the case where k = 2. Then Z has values in R2n . I
will directly calculate the characteristic function for Z in this case and then note
that a similar pattern will hold for larger k.
E (exp(iu · Z))
Z Z
= p (t1 , x, y1 ) p (t2 − t1 , y1 , y2 ) eiu1 ·y1 eiu2 ·y2 dy2 dy1
Z Z
= p (t1 , x, y1 ) eiu1 ·y1 p (t2 − t1 , y1 , y2 ) eiu2 ·y2 dy2 dy1
Z µ µ µ ¶¶¶
iu1 ·y1 1 ∗
= p (t1 , x, y1 ) e exp iu2 · y1 + − (u2 (t2 − t1 ) Iu2 ) dy1
2
µ ¶Z
1
= exp − (u∗2 (t2 − t1 ) Iu2 ) p (t1 , x, y1 ) eiu1 ·y1 (exp (iu2 · y1 )) dy1
2
µ ¶Z
1 ∗
= exp − (u2 (t2 − t1 ) Iu2 ) p (t1 , x, y1 ) ei(u1 +u2 )·y1 dy1
2
µ ¶ µ ¶
1 ∗ 1 ∗
= exp − (u2 (t2 − t1 ) Iu2 ) exp − (u1 + u2 ) t1 I (u1 + u2 )
2 2
· exp (i (u1 + u2 ) · x)
µ ¶
1£ ∗ ¤
= exp − (u∗2 (t2 − t1 ) Iu2 ) + (u1 + u2 ) t1 I (u1 + u2 )
2
· exp (i (u1 + u2 ) · x) .
∗
The expression (u∗2 (t2 − t1 ) Iu2 ) + (u1 + u2 ) t1 I (u1 + u2 ) equals
µ ¶µ ¶
¡ ¢ t1 I t 1 I u1
u1 u2
t1 I t 2 I u2
and the expression i (u1 + u2 ) · x equals
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
i u1 u2 · x x
and
¡ so in
¢ the case that k = 2, this shows Z is normally distributed with mean
x x and covariance µ ¶
t1 I t1 I
.
t1 I t2 I
The pattern continues in this way. In general the mean is
¡ ¢
x ··· x
and the covariance is of the form

 
t1 Ik t1 Ik t 1 Ik ··· t1 Ik
 t1 Ik t2 Ik t 2 Ik ··· t2 Ik 
 
 .. .. 
 t1 Ik t2 Ik . . 
 
 . .. .. .. 
 .. . . . 
t 1 Ik t2 Ik ··· ··· t k Ik
Continuing to follow [42],
³ ´ X
n ³ ´ X
n
2 2
E |Bt − x| = E (Btr − xr ) = t = nt.
r=1 r=1
Then let s < t.

¡ ∗ ¢
E (Bt − x) (Bs − x)
Z Z
= p (s, x, y1 ) p (t − s, y1 , y2 ) (y1 − x) · (y2 − x) dy1 dy2
Z Z
= p (s, x, y1 ) (y1 − x) · p (t − s, y1 , y2 ) (y2 − x) dy2 dy1
Consider the inner integral.

Z
p (t − s, y1 , y2 ) (y2 − x) dy2
Z
= p (t − s, y1 , y2 ) ((y2 − y1 ) + (y1 − x)) dy2
Z
= p (t − s, y1 , y2 ) (y1 − x) dy2 = (y1 − x) .
Therefore,
Z
¡ ∗ ¢ 2
E (Bt − x) (Bs − x) = p (s, x, y1 ) |y1 − x| dy1
³ ´
2
= E |Bs − x| = ns
Now for t ≥ s,
³ ´ ³ ´
2 2 2
E |Bt − Bs | = E |Bt − x| + |Bs − x| − 2 (Bt − x) · (Bs − x)
= nt + ns − 2ns = n (t − s) .
Lemma 31.38 Bt has independent increments. This means if t1 < t2 < · · · < tk ,
the random variables,
Bt1 , Bt2 − Bt1 , · · ·, Btk − Btk−1
are independent. In addition, these random variables are normally distributed.
Proof: Bt1 is normal and so is each of the Btj . Also I claim that Btj − Btj−1
is normal with mean 0. I will show this next.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¢¢¢ ¡ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¢
E exp iu· Btj − Btj−1 = E exp iu · Btj exp −iu · Btj−1
Z Z
= p (tj−1 , x, y1 ) p (tj − tj−1 , y1 , y2 ) exp (−iu · y1 ) exp (iu · y2 ) dy2 dy1
Z Z
= p (tj−1 , x, y1 ) exp (−iu · y1 ) p (tj − tj−1 , y1 , y2 ) exp (iu · y2 ) dy2 dy1
Z µ ¶
1 2
= p (tj−1 , x, y1 ) exp (−iu · y1 ) exp (iu · y1 ) exp − (tj − tj−1 ) |u| dy1
2
µ ¶
1 2
= exp − (tj − tj−1 ) |u| . (31.23)
2
Therefore, Btj − ¡Btj−1 is normal with covariance ¢(tj − tj−1 ) I and mean 0.
Next let Z = Bt1 , Bt2 − Bt1 , · · ·, Btk − Btk−1 . I need to verify Z is normally
distributed. Let u = (u1 , · · ·, uk ) .
Ã k
!
Y ¡ ¡ ¢¢
E (exp (iu · Z)) = E exp (iu1 · Bt1 ) exp iur · Btr − Btr−1
r=2
Z Z
= ··· p (t1 , x, y1 ) p (t2 − t1 , y1 , y2 ) · · · p (tk − tk−1 , yk−1 , yk ) ·
Rn Rn
k
Y
exp (iu1 · y1 ) exp (iur · (yr − yr−1 )) dyk dyk−1 · · · dy1 .
r=2
The inside integral is

Z µ ¶
1 2
p (tk − tk−1 , yk−1 , yk ) exp (iuk · (yk − yk−1 )) = exp − (tk − tk−1 ) |uk |
2
which has no y variables left so I can factor it out and then work on the next inside
integral which gives µ ¶
1 2
exp − (tk−1 − tk−2 ) |uk−1 |
2
which also can be factored out. Continuing this way eventually obtains
k
Y µ ¶Z
1 2
exp − (tj − tj−1 ) |uk | p (t1 , x, y1 ) exp (iu1 · y1 ) dy1
j=1
2
k
Y µ ¶ µ ¶
1 2 1 2
= exp − (tj − tj−1 ) |uk | exp (iu1 · x) exp − t1 |u1 | .
j=1
2 2
Now let m = (x, 0, · · ·, 0) and let Σ be the matrix,

 
t1 In 0
 (t − t ) I 
 2 1 n 
= .. 
 . 
0 (tk − tk−1 ) In
Then the above reduces to

µ ¶
1
exp (iu · m) exp − u∗ Σu
2
which shows that Z is normally distributed with covariance Σ and mean m. It also
shows that since the covariance matrix is diagonal, the component functions of Z
are independent. This proves the lemma.
Next I will consider an estimate for the Brownian motion. By 31.23 the charac-
teristic function for Bt − Bs and t > s is
µ ¶
1 2
E (exp (iu· (Bt − Bs ))) = exp − (t − s) |u|
2
It follows upon taking a partial derivative with respect to uj
E (i (Btj − Bsj ) exp (iu· (Bt − Bs )))

µ ¶
1 2
= (−uj (t − s)) exp − (t − s) |u|
2
and then taking another partial derivative with respect to uj yields
³ ´
2
E − (Btj − Bsj ) exp (iu· (Bt − Bs ))
µ ¶
1 2
= (− (t − s) − uj (t − s)) exp − (t − s) |u|
2
µ ¶
2 1 2
+ (−uj (t − s)) exp − (t − s) |u|
2
This looks pretty good. Lets take another derivative with respect to uj
³ ´
3
E −i (Btj − Bsj ) exp (iu· (Bt − Bs ))
µ ¶
1 2
= (− (t − s)) exp − (t − s) |u| + (− (t − s) − uj (t − s)) (−uj (t − s)) ·
2
µ ¶
1 2
exp − (t − s) |u|
2
µ ¶ µ ¶
2 1 2 3 1 2
2uj (t − s) exp − (t − s) |u| + (−uj (t − s)) exp − (t − s) |u|
2 2
Finally take yet another derivative with respect to uj and then let u = 0.
³ ´
4 2 2 2
E (Btj − Bsj ) = (t − s) + 2 (t − s) = 3 (t − s) .
This shows  
n
X 4 2
E (Btj − Bsj )  = 3n (t − s) .
j=1
Pn 4 2
But also j=1 (Btj − Bsj ) ≥ (1/n) |Bt − Bs | and so
³ ´
4 2
E |Bt − Bs | ≤ 3n2 (t − s) . (31.24)
With more work, you can show the 3n2 can be replaced with n (n + 2) but it is the
inequality which is of interest here.
Before going further here is an interesting elementary lemma.
Lemma 31.39 Let D be a dense subset of an interval, I = [0, T ] and suppose

X : D → Rn satisfies
γ
|X (d) − X (d0 )| ≤ C |d − d0 |
for all d0 , d ∈ D. Then X extends uniquely to Y defined on [0, T ] such that
γ
|Y (t) − Y (t0 )| ≤ C |t − t0 | .
Proof: Let t ∈ I and let dk → t where dk ∈ D. Then {X (dk )} is a Cauchy

γ
sequence because |X (dk ) − X (dm )| ≤ C |dk − dm | . Therefore, X (dk ) converges.
The thing it converges to will be called Y (t) . Note this is well defined, giving X (t)
γ
if t ∈ D. Also, if dk → t and d0k → t, then |X (dk ) − X (d0k )| ≤ C |dk − d0k | and so
0
X (dk ) and X (dk ) converge to the same thing. Therefore, it makes sense to define
Y (t) ≡ limd→t X (d). It only remains to verify the estimate. But letting |d − t| and
|d0 − t0 | be small enough,
|Y (t) − Y (t0 )| = |X (d) − X (d0 )|

≤ C |d0 − d| + ε ≤ C |t − t0 | + 2ε.
Since ε is arbitrary, this proves the existence part of the lemma. Uniqueness follows
from observing that Y (t) must equal limd→t X (d). This proves the lemma.
The following is a very interesting theorem called the Kolmogorov Čentsov con-
tinuity theorem[33].
Theorem 31.40 Suppose Xt is a random vector for each t ∈ [0, ∞). Suppose also
that for all T > 0 there exists a constant, C and positive numbers, α, β such that
α 1+β
E (|Xt − Xs | ) ≤ C |t − s| (31.25)
Then there exist random vectors, Yt such that for a.e. ω, t → Yt (ω) is continuous
and P ([|Xt − Yt | > 0]) = 0.
¡ ¢ © ª2 m
Proof: Let rjm denote j 2Tm where j ∈ {0, 1, · · ·, 2m } . Also let Dm = rjm j=1
and D = ∪∞
m=1 Dm . Consider the set,
[|Xt − Xs | > δ]
for k = 1, 2, · · ·. By 31.25,
Z
α α
P ([|Xt − Xs | > δ]) δ ≤ |Xt − Xs | dP
[|Xt −Xs |>δ]
1+β
≤ C |t − s| . (31.26)
k
Letting t = rj+1 , s = rjk ,and δ = 2−γk where
µ ¶
β
γ ∈ 0, ,
α
this yields ³h¯ ¯ i´
¯ ¯ ¡ ¢1+β
P ¯Xrj+1
k − Xrjk ¯ > 2−γk ≤ C2αγk T 2−k .
There are 2k of these differences and so letting

h¯ ¯α i
¯ ¯
Ek = ¯Xrj+1 k − Xrjk ¯ > 2−γk for all j
it follows ¡ ¢1+β k
P (Ek ) ≤ C2αγk T 2−k 2 = C2k(αγ−β) T 1+β .
Since γ < β/α,
∞
X ∞
X
P (Ek ) ≤ CT 1+β 2k(αγ−β) < ∞
k=1 k=1
and so by the Borel Cantelli lemma, Lemma 31.2, there exists a set of measure
zero, E, such that if ω ∈
/ E, then ω is in only finitely many Ek . In other words, for
ω∈/ E, there exists N (ω) such that if k > N (ω) , then for each j,
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯Xrj+1
k (ω) − Xrjk (ω)¯ ≤ 2−γk . (31.27)
/ E and if d, d0 ∈ Dm for m > n such that

Claim: If n ≥ N (ω) for ω ∈
0 −n
|d − d | < T 2 , then
m
X
|Xd0 (ω) − Xd (ω)| ≤ 2 2−γj .
j=n+1
Proof of the claim: Suppose d0 < d. Suppose first m = n + 1. Then d =

(k + 1) T 2−(n+1) and d0 = kT 2−(n+1) . Then from 31.27
n+1
X
|Xd0 (ω) − Xd (ω)| ≤ 2−γ(n+1) ≤ 2 2−γj .
j=n+1
Suppose the claim is true for some m > n. Then let d, d0 ∈ Dm+1 with |d − d0 | <
T 2−n . Let d0 ≤ d01 ≤ d1 ≤ d where d1 , d01 are in Dm and d01 is the smallest element
of Dm which is at least as large as d0 and d1 is the largest element of Dm which is
no larger than d. Then |d0 − d01 | ≤ T 2−(m+1) and |d1 − d| ≤ T 2−(m+1) while all of
these are still in Dm+1 which contains Dm . Therefore, from 31.27 and induction,
|Xd0 (ω) − Xd (ω)|
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
≤ ¯Xd0 (ω) − Xd0 (ω)¯ + ¯Xd0 (ω) − Xd (ω)¯ + |Xd (ω) − Xd (ω)|
1 1 1 1
m
X m+1
X
≤ 2 × 2−γ(m+1) + 2 2−γj = 2 2−γj
j=n+1 j=n+1
which proves the claim.

From this estimate, it follows that if d, d0 ∈ D and |d − d0 | < T 2−n where
n ≥ N (ω) , then d, d0 are both in some Dm where m > n and so
m
X ∞
X
|Xd0 (ω) − Xd (ω)| ≤ 2 2−γj ≤ 2 2−γj
j=n+1 j=n+1
2 ¡ −γ ¢n+1
= −γ
2 . (31.28)
1−2
Now let d, d0 ∈ D and suppose |d − d0 | < T 2−N (ω) . Then let n ≥ N (ω) such that
T 2−(n+1) ≤ |d − d0 | < T 2−n
Then from 31.28,
2 ¡ −n+1 ¢γ
|Xd0 (ω) − Xd (ω)| ≤ T2
T γ (1 − 2−γ )
2 γ
≤ (|d − d0 |)
T (1 − 2−γ )
γ
which shows t → Xt (ω) is Holder continuous on D.

By Lemma 31.39, one can define Yt (ω) to be the unique function which extends
d → Xd (ω) off D for ω ∈ / E and let Yt (ω) = 0 if ω ∈ E. Then ω → Yt (ω) is
measurable because it is the pointwise limit of measurable functions. It remains to
verify the claim that Yt (ω) = Xt (ω) a.e.
X[|Yt −Xt |>ε] (ω) ≤ lim inf X[|Xd −Xt |>ε] (ω)
d→t
and so by Fatou’s theorem

Z
P ([|Yt − Xt | > ε]) = X[|Yt −Xt |>ε] (ω) dP
Z
≤ lim inf X[|Xd −Xt |>ε] (ω) dP
d→t
Z
≤ lim inf X[|Xd −Xt |>ε] (ω) dP
d→t
C 1+β
≤ lim inf |d − t| = 0.
d→t εα
Therefore,
µ · ¸¶
∞ 1
P ([|Yt − Xt | > 0]) = P ∪k=1 |Yt − Xt | >
k
X∞ µ· ¸¶
1
≤ P |Yt − Xt | > = 0.
k
k=1
Definition 31.41 Let Xt and Yt be random vectors for each t ∈ [0, ∞). Then Yt
is said to be a version of Xt if there exists a set of measure zero, E such that for
ω∈ / E, Xt (ω) = Yt (ω) a.e. ω for all t ∈ [0, T ).
In terms of this definition, the following corollary follows.
Corollary 31.42 Letting Bt be Brownian motion defined above, Bt has a Holder

continuous version.
Proof: This follows from Theorem 31.40 and 31.24.

An important observation related to this corollary is the product measurability
of Brownian motion.
Corollary 31.43 Let B be the Borel sets on [0, T ] and let F be the σ algebra for
the underlying probability space. Then there exists a set of measure zero, N ∈ F
such that (t, ω) → XN (ω) Bt (ω) is B × F measurable.
Proof: Let N be the set of measure zero off which t → Bt (ω) is continuous.
Letting tm
k =2
−m
T k consider for ω ∈
/N
m
2
X
Bm
t (ω) ≡ Btm
k
(ω) X[tm m (t) .
k−1 ,tk )
k=1
Then this is a finite sum of B × F measurable functions and so Bm is itself B × F

measurable. Also, by continuity of t → Bt (ω) , it follows that limm→∞ XN (ω) Bm
t (ω) =
XN (ω) Bt (ω) and this shows the result.
From now on, when Bt is referred to, it will mean XN Bt so that (t, ω) → Bt (ω)
is product measurable and t → Bt (ω) will also be continuous.
Summary of properties of Brownian motion
The above development has proved the following theorem on Brownian motion.
Theorem 31.44 There exists a probability space, (Ω, F, P ) and random vectors,
B t for t ∈ [0, ∞) which satisfy the following properties.
1. For Z = (Bt1 , · · ·, Btk ) ∈ Rnk it follows Z is normally distributed. Its mean

is ¡ ¢
x · · · x ∈ Rnk
2. Bt has independent increments. This means if t1 < t2 < · · · < tk , the random
variables,
Bt1 , Bt2 − Bt1 , · · ·, Btk − Btk−1
are independent and normally distributed. Note this implies the k th compo-
nents must also be independent. Also Btj − Btj−1 is normal with covariance
(tj − tj−1 ) I and mean 0. In addition to this, the k th component of Bt is
normally distributed with density function
Ã !
2
1 |y − xk |
p (t, xk ,y) ≡ 1/2
exp −
(2πt) 2t
This follows from the distribution of Bt which has a density function

Ã !
2
1 |y − x|
p (t, x, y) ≡ n/2
exp −
(2πt) 2t
³ ´
4 2
3. E |Bt − Bs | ≤ 3n2 (t − s) , For t > s,
³ ´ ¡ ¢
2 ∗
E |Bt − Bs | = n (t − s) , E (Bt − x) (Bs − x) = ns
E (Bt − Bs ) = 0,
4. t → Bt (ω) is Holder continuous and (t, ω) → Bt (ω) is B × F measurable.

Conditional Expectation And
Martingales
32.1 Conditional Expectation

Definition 32.1 Let (Ω, M, P ) be a probability space and let S ⊆ F be two σ
algebras contained in M. Let f be F measurable and in L1 (Ω). Then E (f |S) ,
called the conditional expectation of f with respect to S is defined as follows:
E (f |S) is S measurable
For all E ∈ S, Z Z
E (f |S) dP = f dP
E E
Lemma 32.2 The above is well defined. Also, if S ⊆ F then
E (X|S) = E (E (X|F) |S) . (32.1)
If Z is bounded and measurable in F then
ZE (X|F) = E (ZX|F) . (32.2)
Proof: Let a finite measure on S, µ be given by

Z
µ (E) ≡ f dP.
E
Then µ ¿ P and so by the Radon Nikodym theorem, there exists a unique S

measurable function, E (f |S) such that
Z Z
f dP ≡ µ (E) = E (f |S) dP
E E
for all E ∈ S.
893
894 CONDITIONAL EXPECTATION AND MARTINGALES
Let F ∈ S. Then
Z Z
E (E (X|F) |S) dP ≡ E (X|F) dP
F
ZF Z
≡ XdP ≡ E (X|S) dP
F F
and so, by uniqueness, E (E (X|F) |S) = E (X|S). This shows 32.1.

To establish 32.2, note that if Z = XF where F ∈ F,
Z Z Z
XF E (X|F) dP = XF XdP = E (XF X|F) dP
which shows 32.2 in the case where Z is the characteristic function of a set in F.
It follows this also holds for simple functions. Let {sn } be a sequence of simple
functions which converges uniformly to Z and let F ∈ F. Then by what was just
shown, Z Z
sn E (X|F) dP = sn XdP.
F F
Then passing to the limit using the dominated convergence theorem, yields
Z Z Z
ZE (X|F) dP = ZXdP ≡ E (ZX|F) dP.
F F F
Since this holds for every F ∈ F, this shows 32.2.

The next major result is a generalization of Jensen’s inequality whose proof
depends on the following lemma about convex functions.
Lemma 32.3 Let I be an open interval on R and let φ be a convex function defined
on I. Then there exists a sequence {(an , bn )} such that
φ (x) = sup {an x + bn , n = 1, · · ·} .
Proof: Let x ∈ I and let t > x. Then by convexity of φ,
φ (x + λ (t − x)) − φ (x) φ (x) (1 − λ) + λφ (t) − φ (x)

≤
λ (t − x) λ (t − x)
φ (t) − φ (x)
= .
t−x
φ(t)−φ(x)
Therefore t → t−x is increasing if t > x. If t < x
φ (x + λ (t − x)) − φ (x) φ (x) (1 − λ) + λφ (t) − φ (x)

≥
λ (t − x) λ (t − x)
φ (t) − φ (x)
=
t−x
32.1. CONDITIONAL EXPECTATION 895
φ(t)−φ(x)
and so t → t−x is increasing for t 6= x. Let
½ ¾
φ (t) − φ (x)
ax ≡ inf :t>x .
t−x
Then if t1 < x, and t > x,
φ (t1 ) − φ (x) φ (t) − φ (x)

≤ ax ≤ .
t1 − x t−x
Thus for all t ∈ I,
φ (t) ≥ ax (t − x) + φ (x). (32.3)
Pick t2 > x. Then for all t ∈ (x, t2 )
φ (t) − φ (x) φ (t2 ) − φ (x)

ax ≤ ≤
t−x t2 − x
and so
µ ¶
φ (t2 ) − φ (x)
ax (t − x) + φ (x) ≤ φ (t) ≤ (t − x) + φ (x). (32.4)
t2 − x
Pick t3 < x. Then for t3 < t < x
φ (t) − φ (x) φ (t3 ) − φ (x)

ax ≥ ≥
t−x t3 − x
and so
µ ¶
φ (t3 ) − φ (x)
ax (t − x) + φ (x) ≤ φ (t) ≤ (t − x) + φ (x). (32.5)
t3 − x
32.4 and 32.5 imply φ is continuous. Let
ψ (x) ≡ sup {ar (x − r) + φ (r) : r ∈ Q ∩ I}.
Then ψ is convex on I so ψ is continuous. Also ψ (r) ≥ φ (r) so by 32.3,
ψ (x) ≥ φ (x) ≥ sup {ar (x − r) + φ (r)} ≡ ψ (x).
Thus ψ (x) = φ (x) and letting Q ∩ I = {rn }, an = arn and bn = arn rn + φ (rn ).
Lemma 32.4 If X ≤ Y, then E (X|S) ≤ E (Y |S) a.e. Also
X → E (X|S)
is linear.
Proof: Let A ∈ S. Z Z
E (X|S) dP ≡ XdP
A A
Z Z
≤ Y dP ≡ E (Y |S) dP.
A A
Hence E (X|S) ≤ E (Y |S) a.e. as claimed. It is obvious X → E (X|S) is linear.
Theorem 32.5 (Jensen’s inequality)Let X (ω) ∈ I and let φ : I → R be convex.

Suppose
E (|X|) , E (|φ (X)|) < ∞.
Then
φ (E (X|S)) ≤ E (φ (X) |S).
Proof: Let φ (x) = sup {an x + bn }. Letting A ∈ S,

Z Z
1 1
E (X|S) dP = XdP ∈ I a.e.
P (A) A P (A) A
whenever P (A) 6= 0. Hence E (X|S) (ω) ∈ I a.e. and so it makes sense to consider
φ (E (X|S)). Now
an E (X|S) + bn = E (an X + bn |S) ≤ E (φ (X) |S).
Thus
sup {an E (X|S) + bn }
= φ (E (X|S)) ≤ E (φ (X) |S) a.e.
32.2 Discrete Martingales

Definition 32.6 Let Sk be an increasing sequence of σ algebras which are subsets
of S and Xk be a sequence of real-valued random variables with E (|Xk |) < ∞ such
that Xk is Sk measurable. Then this sequence is called a martingale if
E (Xk+1 |Sk ) = Xk ,
a submartingale if
E (Xk+1 |Sk ) ≥ Xk ,
and a supermartingale if
E (Xk+1 |Sk ) ≤ Xk .
An upcrossing occurs when a sequence goes from a up to b. Thus it crosses the

interval, [a, b] in the up direction, hence upcrossing. More precisely,
32.2. DISCRETE MARTINGALES 897
I
Definition 32.7 Let {xi }i=1 be any sequence of real numbers, I ≤ ∞. Define
an increasing sequence of integers {mk } as follows. m1 is the first integer ≥ 1
such that xm1 ≤ a, m2 is the first integer larger than m1 such that xm2 ≥ b, m3
is the first integerª larger than m2 such that xm3 ≤ a, etc. Then each sequence,
©
xm2k−1 , · · ·, xm2k , is called an upcrossing of [a, b].
n
Proposition 32.8 Let {Xi }i=1 be a finite sequence of real random variables defined
on Ω where (Ω, S, P ) is a probability space. Let U[a,b] (ω) denote the number of
upcrossings of Xi (ω) of the interval [a, b]. Then U[a,b] is a random variable.
Proof: Let X0 (ω) ≡ a+1, let Y0 (ω) ≡ 0, and let Yk (ω) remain 0 for k = 0, ···, l
until Xl (ω) ≤ a. When this happens (if ever), Yl+1 (ω) ≡ 1. Then let Yi (ω) remain
1 for i = l + 1, · · ·, r until Xr (ω) ≥ b when Yr+1 (ω) ≡ 0. Let Yk (ω) remain 0 for
k ≥ r + 1 until Xk (ω) ≤ a when Yk (ω) ≡ 1 and continue in this way. Thus the
upcrossings of Xi (ω) are identified as unbroken strings of ones for Yk with a zero
at each end, with the possible exception of the last string of ones which may be
missing the zero at the upper end and may or may not be an upcrossing.
Note also that Y0 is measurable because it is identically equal to 0 and that if
Yk is measurable, then Yk+1 is measurable because the only change in going from
k to k + 1 is a change from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 on a measurable set determined
by Xk . Now let
½
1 if Yk (ω) = 1 and Yk+1 (ω) = 0,
Zk (ω) =
0 otherwise,
if k < n and ½
1 if Yn (ω) = 1 and Xn (ω) ≥ b,
Zn (ω) =
0 otherwise.
Thus Zk (ω) = 1 exactly when an upcrossing has been completed and each Zi is a
random variable.
n
X
U[a,b] (ω) = Zk (ω)
k=1
so U[a,b] is a random variable as claimed.

The following corollary collects some key observations found in the above con-
struction.
Corollary 32.9 U[a,b] (ω) ≤ the number of unbroken strings of ones in the se-
quence, {Yk (ω)} there being at most one unbroken string of ones which produces no
upcrossing. Also ³ ´
i−1
Yi (ω) = ψ i {Xj (ω)}j=1 , (32.6)
where ψ i is some function of the past values of Xj (ω).
Lemma 32.10 Let φ be a convex and increasing function and suppose
{(Xn , Sn )}
is a submartingale. Then if E (|φ (Xn )|) < ∞, it follows
{(φ (Xn ) , Sn )}
is also a submartingale.
Proof: It is given that E (Xn+1 , Sn ) ≥ Xn and so
φ (Xn ) ≤ φ (E (Xn+1 , Sn )) ≤ E (φ (Xn+1 ) |Sn )
by Jensen’s inequality.
The following is called the upcrossing lemma.
n
Lemma 32.11 (upcrossing lemma) Let {(Xi , Si )}i=1 be a submartingale and let
U[a,b] (ω) be the number of upcrossings of [a, b]. Then
¡ ¢ E (|Xn |) + |a|
E U[a,b] ≤ .
b−a
+
Proof: Let φ (x) ≡ a + (x − a) so that φ is an increasing convex function
always at least as large as a. By Lemma 32.10 it follows that {(φ (Xk ) , Sk )} is also
a submartingale.
k+r
X
φ (Xk+r ) − φ (Xk ) = φ (Xi ) − φ (Xi−1 )
i=k+1
k+r
X k+r
X
= (φ (Xi ) − φ (Xi−1 )) Yi + (φ (Xi ) − φ (Xi−1 )) (1 − Yi ).
i=k+1 i=k+1
Observe that Yi is Si−1 measurable from its construction in Proposition 32.8, Yi

depending only on Xj for j < i. Therefore, letting
Ai ≡ {ω : Yi (ω) = 0},
Ã k+r
!
X
E (φ (Xi ) − φ (Xi−1 )) (1 − Yi )
i=k+1
k+r
X Z
= (φ (Xi ) − φ (Xi−1 )) (1 − Yi ) dP
i=k+1 Ω
k+r
X Z
= (φ (Xi ) − φ (Xi−1 )) dP
i=k+1 Ai
because if Yi = 1, (φ (Xi ) − φ (Xi−1 )) (1 − Yi ) = 0. Continuing this chain of formu-

las, and using the fact that Ai is Si−1 measurable, it follows from the definition of
conditional expectation and the definition of a submartingale,
X Z
k+r Z
= E (φ (Xi ) , Si−1 ) dP − φ (Xi−1 ) dP
i=k+1 Ai Ai
k+r
X Z Z
≥ φ (Xi−1 ) dP − φ (Xi−1 ) dP = 0. (32.7)
i=k+1 Ai Ai
Now let the unbroken strings of ones for {Yi (ω)} be

{k1 , · · ·, k1 + r1 } , {k2 , · · ·, k2 + r2 } , · · ·, {km , · · ·, km + rm } (32.8)
where m = V (ω) ≡ the number of unbroken strings of ones in the sequence {Yi (ω)}.
By Corollary 32.9 V (ω) ≥ U[a,b] (ω).
φ (Xn (ω)) − φ (X1 (ω))
n
X
= (φ (Xk (ω)) − φ (Xk−1 (ω))) Yk (ω)
k=1
Xn
+ (φ (Xk (ω)) − φ (Xk−1 (ω))) (1 − Yk (ω)).
k=1
The first sum in the above reduces to summing over the unbroken strings of ones
because the terms in which Yi (ω) = 0 contribute nothing. implies
φ (Xn (ω)) − φ (X1 (ω))
≥ U[a,b] (ω) (b − a) + 0+
n
X
(φ (Xk (ω)) − φ (Xk−1 (ω))) (1 − Yk (ω)) (32.9)
k=1
where the zero on the right side results from a string of ones which does not
produce an upcrossing. It is here that it is important that φ (x) ≥ a. Such
a string begins with φ (Xk (ω)) = a and results in an expression of the form
φ (Xk+m (ω)) − φ (Xk (ω)) ≥ 0 since φ (Xk+m (ω)) ≥ a. If Xk had not been re-
placed with φ (Xk ) , it would have been possible for φ (Xk+m (ω)) to be less than a
and the zero in the above could have been a negative number This would have been
inconvenient.
Next take the expected value of both sides in 32.9. Using 32.7, this results in
¡ ¢
E (φ (Xn ) − φ (X1 )) ≥ (b − a) E U[a,b]
Ã n !
X
+E (φ (Xk ) − φ (Xk−1 )) (1 − Yk )
k=1
¡ ¢
≥ (b − a) E U[a,b]

The reason for this lemma is to prove the amazing submartingale convergence
theorem.
Theorem 32.12 (submartingale convergence theorem) Let

∞
{(Xi , Si )}i=1
be a submartingale with K ≡ sup E (|Xn |) < ∞. Then there exists a random

variable, X, such that E (|X|) ≤ K and
lim Xn (ω) = X (ω) a.e.

n→∞
n
Proof: Let a, b ∈ Q and let a < b. Let U[a,b] (ω) be the number of upcrossings
n
of {Xi (ω)}i=1 . Then let
n
U[a,b] (ω) ≡ lim U[a,b] (ω) = number of upcrossings of {Xi } .
n→∞
By the upcrossing lemma,

³ ´ E (|X |) + |a| K + |a|
n n
E U[a,b] ≤ ≤
b−a b−a
and so by the monotone convergence theorem,
¡ ¢ K + |a|
E U[a,b] ≤ <∞
b−a
¡ ¢
which shows U[a,b] (ω) is finite a.e., for all ω ∈
/ S[a,b] where P S[a,b] = 0. Define
© ª
S ≡ ∪ S[a,b] : a, b ∈ Q, a < b .
∞
Then P (S) = 0 and if ω ∈ / S, {Xk }k=1 has only finitely many upcrossings of every
interval having rational endpoints. Thus, for ω ∈
/ S,
lim sup Xk (ω) = lim inf Xk (ω)

k→∞ k→∞
= lim Xk (ω) ≡ X∞ (ω) .

k→∞
Letting X∞ (ω) = 0 for ω ∈ S, Fatou’s lemma implies

Z Z Z
|X∞ | dP = lim inf |Xn | dP ≤ lim inf |Xn | dP ≤ K
Ω Ω n→∞ n→∞ Ω
and so this proves the theorem.

Another very interesting result about submartingales is the Doob submartingale
estimate.
∞
Theorem 32.13 Let {(Xi , Si )}i=1 be a submartingale. Then
µ ¶ Z
1
P max Xk ≥ λ ≤ X + dP
1≤k≤n λ Ω n
Proof: Let
A1 ≡ [X1 ≥ λ] , A2 ≡ [X2 ≥ λ] \ A1 ,
¡ ¢
· · ·, Ak ≡ [Xk ≥ λ] \ ∪k−1
i=1 Ai · ··
Thus each Ak is Sk measurable, the Ak are disjoint, and their union equals [max1≤k≤n Xk ≥ λ] .
Therefore from the definition of a submartingale and Jensen’s inequality,
µ ¶ n
X n Z
1X
P max Xk ≥ λ = P (Ak ) ≤ Xk dP
1≤k≤n λ Ak
k=1 k=1
n Z
1X
≤ E (Xn |Sk ) dP
λ
k=1 Ak
Xn Z
1 +
≤ E (Xn |Sk ) dP
λ Ak
k=1
Xn Z
1 ¡ ¢
≤ E Xn+ |Sk dP
λ
k=1 Ak
Xn Z Z
1 1
= Xn+ dP = Xn+ dP.
λ Ak λ Ω
k=1

Filtrations And Martingales
Definition 33.1 Let (Ω, F, P ) be a probability space. A filtration is an increasing

collection of σ algebras contained in F, one for each t ∈ R, {Ft }t∈R . Let f :
[0, ∞) × Ω → R be B × F measurable where B is the σ algebra of Borel sets. Then f
is said to be Ft adapted if for each t, f (t, ·) is Ft measurable. A function is called
an adapted step function if it is of the form
∞
X
f (t, ω) = ej (ω) X[tj ,tj+1 ) (t)
j=0
where ej is Ftj measurable and ∪∞ j=0 [tj , tj+1 ) = R. Of course you can replace [0, ∞)
in the above with [0, T ] and this is the case of most interest. Another convention
followed will be to assume that (Ω, Ft , P ) is a complete measure space. Thus all sets
of measure zero from F are in Ft . If it is not complete, you simply replace it with
its completion. This goes for F as well.
The act of replacing the measure spaces with their completions is completely
harmless. The only important idea which needs consideration is that of indepen-
dence. Suppose the σ algebras, G and H are independent and you then consider
their completions. Will the new σ algebras also be independent?
Lemma 33.2 Suppose the σ algebras, G and H are independent and let G 0 and H0
be the σ algebras of the completions. Then G 0 and H0 are also independent.
Proof: Let E ∈ G 0 and F ∈ H0 . Then there exists A ⊇ E, B ⊇ F such that

A ∈ G and B ∈ H and P (A) = P (E) , P (F ) = P (B) . It follows that
P (E ∩ F ) = P (A ∩ B) = P (A) P (B) = P (E) P (F ) .

This rather simple lemma shows there is no difficulty in assuming that any
filtration contains the sets of measure zero. Next is an important lemma about
approximation with simple adapted functions. It is based on the proof outlined in
[33] which they say is from [38].
903
904 FILTRATIONS AND MARTINGALES
Lemma 33.3 Let Ft be a filtration as described above and suppose f is adapted,

B × F measurable, and uniformly bounded. Then there exists a sequence of uni-
formly bounded adapted step functions, fn such that
ÃZ !
T
2
lim P (f (t, ω) − fn (t, ω)) dt > ε = 0. (33.1)
n→∞ 0
Also in this case, there is a subsequence, fnk

Z Z T
2
lim (f (t, ω) − fnk (t, ω)) dtdP = 0.
k→∞ Ω 0
Proof: Extend f to equal 0 for t ∈ / [0, T ] . Let tj = j2−n and let φn (t) denote
−n
the step function which equals j2 on the interval [j2−n , (j + 1) 2−n ). It follows
easily that if s ≥ 0, then φn (t − s) + s ∈ [t − 2−n , t). Now let
fh (t) ≡ f ∗ ψ h (t)
where ψ h (t) equals 1/h on [0, h] and zero elsewhere. Thus

Z Z t
1
fh (t) = f (t − s) ψ h (s) ds = f (s) ds.
h t−h
From
R ∞ now on, ω ∈
/ E where E is the exceptional set of measure zero on which
2
−∞
f (t, ω) dt = ∞. Consider
Z T Z 1
2
|f (φn (t − s) + s, ω) − f (t, ω)| dsdt.
0 0
Z T Z 1
2
|f (φn (t − s) + s, ω) − f (t, ω)| dsdt ≤
0 0
ÃZ Z
T 1
2
3 |f (φn (t − s) + s, ω) − fh (φn (t − s) + s, ω)| dsdt (33.2)
0 0
Z T Z 1
2
+ |fh (φn (t − s) + s, ω) − fh (t, ω)| dsdt (33.3)
0 0
Z Z 1 !
T
2
+ |fh (t, ω) − f (t, ω)| dsdt (33.4)
0 0
Consider the term in 33.2. There are disjoint intervals such that φn (t − s) is con-
stant on these intervals. Therefore, the inside integral of this term must be of the
form
mn Z
X 2
|f (ck + s, ω) − fh (ck + s, ω)| ds
k=1 Ik
905
where the intervals, Ik are disjoint, ck is of the form j2−n , and the union of these
intervals equals [0, 1]. Therefore, there are other disjoint intervals, Jk such that this
term equals
mn Z
X Z
2 2
|f (s, ω) − fh (s, ω)| ds ≤ |f (s, ω) − fh (s, ω)| ds
k=1 Jk R
and this last converges to 0 by standard considerations as h → 0. Of course the

necessary smallness of h will depend on ω. To see this is so, use Jensen’s inequality
to obtain the term of 33.2 is dominated by
Z T Z
2
|f (s, ω) − fh (s, ω)| dsdt
0 R
Z ¯Z ¯2
¯ ¯
= T ¯ ¯
¯ (f (s, ω) − f (s − r, ω)) ψ h (r) dr¯ ds
R R
Z Z
2
≤ T |f (s, ω) − f (s − r, ω)| ψ h (r) drds
R R
Z h Z
2
≤ T ψ h (r) |f (s, ω) − f (s − r, ω)| dsdr
0 R
Z h
≤ T ψ h (r) εdr
0
by continuity of translation in L2 provided h is small enough. Therefore, this

converges to 0 as h → 0.
Next consider the term of 33.4
Z T Z 1 Z 1 Z T
2 2
|fh (t, ω) − f (t, ω)| dsdt = |fh (t, ω) − f (t, ω)| dtds
0 0 0 0
Z T
2
= |fh (t, ω) − f (t, ω)| dt
0
Z T ¯Z ¯2
¯ ¯
= ¯ (f (t − s, ω) − f (t, ω)) ψ h (s) ds¯ dt
¯ ¯
0
Z T Z
2
≤ (f (t − s, ω) − f (t, ω)) ψ h (s) dsdt
0
Z h Z
2
≤ ψ h (s) (f (t − s, ω) − f (t, ω)) dtds
0
Z h
≤ ψ h (s) εds = ε
0
whenever h is small enough due to continuity of translation in L2 . Thus the terms

in 33.2 and 33.4 both converge to 0 as h → 0.
Therefore, there exists small positive h such that

Z T Z 1
2
|f (φn (t − s) + s, ω) − f (t, ω)| dsdt
0 0
Z T Z 1
ε 2
≤ +3 |fh (φn (t − s) + s, ω) − fh (t, ω)| dsdt
2 0 0
Letting M be the uniform bound on f, and using the fact that |φn (t − s) + s − t| <
2−n , it follows the above expression is dominated by
ε M −n
+ 2 <ε
2 h
provided n is chosen large enough. Therefore, this has shown
Z T Z 1
2
lim |f (φn (t − s) + s, ω) − f (t, ω)| dsdt
n→∞ 0 0
Z 1 Z T
2
= lim |f (φn (t − s) + s, ω) − f (t, ω)| dtds = 0.
n→∞ 0 0
Therefore, if ε > 0 is given, the above expression is less than ε provided n is large
enough, depending on ω. However, this requires that for some sn ∈ [0, 1]
Z T
2
|f (φn (t − sn ) + sn , ω) − f (t, ω)| dt < ε.
0
I have now shown that for every ω ∈

/ E, the above expression holds for all n
sufficiently large. Therefore,
ÃZ !
T
2
lim P |f (φn (t − sn ) + sn , ω) − f (t, ω)| dt ≥ ε = 0.
n→∞ 0
Let fn (t, ω) = f (φn (t − sn ) + sn , ω) . Then fn is clearly a bounded adapted step

function.
It only remains to verify the last claim. From 33.1 there exists a subsequence,
nk such that ÃZ !
T
2 −k
P (fnk (t, ω) − f (t, ω)) dt ≥ 2 ≤ 2−k
0
h R i
T 2
Then letting Ak = ω : 0 (fnk (t, ω) − f (t, ω)) dt ≥ 2−k it follows from the Borel
Cantelli lemma that a.e. ω is in only finitely many of these Ak . Therefore, for each
ω off a set of measure zero E,
Z T
2
(fnk (t, ω) − f (t, ω)) dt < 2−k
0
907
for all k large enough. From the definition of these fnk given above, they are
uniformly bounded. Therefore, by the dominated convergence theorem,
Z Z T
2
lim (fnk (t, ω) − f (t, ω)) dtdP = 0.
k→∞ Ω 0

The following corollary is what is really desired. It removes the assumption that
f is uniformly bounded.
Corollary 33.4 Let Ft be a filtration as described above and suppose f is adapted

and B × F measurable such that for a.e. ω,
Z T
2
f (t, ω) dt < ∞. (33.5)
0
Then there exists a sequence of uniformly bounded adapted step functions, φn such
that ÃZ !
T
2
lim P (f (t, ω) − φn (t, ω)) dt > ε = 0. (33.6)
n→∞ 0
Thus
mX
n −1
φn (t, ω) = enj (ω) X[tnj ,tnj+1 ) (t)

j=0
where tn0 = 0 and enj is Ftnj measurable. Furthermore, if f is in L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) ,

© ª
there exists a subsequence φnk such that
Z Z T ¡ ¢2
lim f (t, ω) − φnk (t, ω) dtdP = 0
k→∞ Ω 0
Proof: Let fM be given by the following for M ∈ N


 M if f (t, ω) > M
fM (t, ω) = f (t, ω) if f (t, ω) ∈ [−M, M ]

−M if f (t, ω) < −M
Then fM satisfies all the conditions of Lemma 33.3. Letting ε > 0 be given, it
follows there exists φM a uniformly bounded adapted step function such that
ÃZ !
T
2 δ
P (fM (t, ω) − φM (t, ω)) dt > < ε.
0 4
Also for large enough M,

ÃZ !
T
δ 2
P (f (t, ω) − fM (t, ω)) dt > <ε (33.7)
0 4
This is because for E the set of measure zero such that 33.5 does not hold,
" Z #
T
∞ 2 δ
Ω \ E = ∪M =1 ω : (f (t, ω) − fM (t, ω)) dt ≤
0 2
Therefore, picking M large enough that 33.7 holds,

ÃZ !
T
2
P (f (t, ω) − φM (t, ω)) dt > δ
0
ÃZ !
T
2 δ
≤ P 2 (f (t, ω) − fM (t, ω)) dt >
0 2
ÃZ !
T
2δ
+P 2 (fM (t, ω) − φM (t, ω)) dt >
0 2
< ε + ε = 2ε.
Since ε is arbitrary, this proves the first part of the corollary.
Next suppose f ∈ L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) . By 33.7 there exists a subsequence, {fMk }
such that ÃZ !
T
2
P (f (t, ω) − fMk (t, ω)) dt > 2−k < 2−k
0
and so by the Borel Canelli lemma there exists a set of measure zero E such that
for ω ∈
/ E and all k large enough,
Z T
2
(f (t, ω) − fMk (t, ω)) dt ≤ 2−k .
0
Now by construction, |fMk | ≤ |f | and so the dominated convergence theorem implies

ÃZ Z !1/2
T
2
lim (f (t, ω) − fMk (t, ω)) dtdP = 0.
k→∞ Ω 0
Therefore, there exists a subsequence, {Mk } such that

ÃZ Z !1/2
T
< 2−(k̄+1) .
2
(f (t, ω) − fMk (t, ω)) dtdP
Ω 0
Then by Lemma 33.3 there exists an adapted bounded step function, φMk such that
ÃZ Z !1/2
T ¡ ¢2
fMk (t, ω) − φMk (t, ω) dtdP < 2−(k̄+1) .
Ω 0
It follows ÃZ Z !1/2
T ¡ ¢2
f (t, ω) − φMk (t, ω) dtdP < 2−k .
Ω 0
909

The following corollary states things a little differently.
Corollary 33.5 Let Ft be a filtration as described above and suppose f is adapted

and B × F measurable such that for a.e. ω,
Z T
2
f (t, ω) dt < ∞.
0
that ÃZ !
T
2 −n
lim P (f (t, ω) − φn (t, ω)) dt ≤ 2 = 1.
n→∞ 0
Proof: By Corollary 33.4, there exists a sequence of bounded adapted step

functions, {φn } such that
ÃZ !
T
2
lim P (f (t, ω) − φn (t, ω)) dt > ε = 0.
n→∞ 0
Therefore, selecting a sequence of ε as ε = 2−k , there exists a subsequence, φnk

such that ÃZ !
T ¡ ¢2 −k
P f (t, ω) − φnk (t, ω) dt > 2 < 2−k .
0
From the Borel Cantelli lemma ω which is in infinitely many of the sets
" Z #
T ¡ ¢2 −k
ω: f (t, ω) − φnk (t, ω) dt > 2
0
has measure zero. Therefore, for ω not in this set,

Z T
¡ ¢2
f (t, ω) − φnk (t, ω) dt ≤ 2−k
0
for all k sufficiently large and so

ÃZ !
T ¡ ¢2 −k
lim P f (t, ω) − φnk (t, ω) dt ≤ 2 = 1.
k→∞ 0

Note that virtually no change in the argument would yield the above results
with the exponent p ≥ 1 replacing 2. I will use this fact whenever convenient.
Definition 33.6 Let {Bt } be one dimensional Brownian motion as described in

Theorem 31.44. Let Ft be the smallest σ algebra which is complete and contains all
sets of the form
−1
(Bt1 , · · ·, Btk ) (F1 × · · · × Fk )
for all finite increasing sequences t1 , · · ·, tk such that 0 ≤ t1 < t2 · ·· < tk ≤ t and Fj
Borel. Thus Ft is a filtration. Another way to say it is that Ft is the smallest σ al-
gebra contained in F which is complete and such that for every increasing sequence,
t1 , · · ·, tk such that 0 ≤ t1 < t2 · ·· < tk ≤ t, it follows that (Bt1 , · · ·, Btk ) : Ω → Rn
is measurable with respect to Ft .
Recall Bt has independent increments. This is why the following lemma is so

significant.
Lemma 33.7 Ft also equals the smallest σ algebra which is complete and contains
all sets of the form
¡ ¢−1
Bt1 , Bt2 − Bt1 , · · ·, Btk − Btk−1 (F1 × · · · × Fk ) .
In other words, one can consider instead the independent increments when defining
Ft .
Proof: Ft0 is the smallest σ algebra such that (Bt1 , · · ·, Btk ) is measurable for
every increasing sequence, t1 , ···, tk such that 0 ≤ t1 < t2 ··· < tk ≤ t. The 0 function
is clearly measurable because 0−1 (E) = Ω if 0 ∈ E and if ¡0 ∈ / E, 0−1 (E) = ∅.¢
Therefore, for every increasing¡ sequence, as just described, 0,¢ −Bt1 , · · ·, −Btk−1
is Ft measurable. Therefore, Bt1 , Bt2 − Bt1 , ·¡· ·, Btk − Btk−1 is Ft0 measurable. ¢
Now suppose for all such increasing sequences, Bt1 , Bt2 − Bt1 , · · ·, Btk − Btk−1 is
Ft0 measurable. Then in particular,
(0, · · ·0, Bti , 0 · ··, 0)
must be Ft0 measurable because Bti is. Therefore, adding in k of these, it follows
(Bt1 , · · ·, Btk ) is Ft0 measurable. In other words, a σ algebra is measurable for all
(Bt1 , Bt2 , · · ·, Btk )
if and only if it is measurable for all sequences,

¡ ¢
Bt1 , Bt2 − Bt1 , · · ·, Btk − Btk−1
Taking the completion, this proves the lemma.
33.1 Continuous Martingales

Definition 33.8 Let (Ω, M, P ) be a probability space and let Mt be a filtration.
Then a stochastic process, Mt , t ≥ 0 is called a martingale if
Mt is Mt measurable for all t ≥ 0
Mt ∈ L1 (Ω) for all t ≥ 0

E (Ms |Mt ) = Mt whenever s ≥ t.
33.1. CONTINUOUS MARTINGALES 911
Theorem 33.9 Brownian motion for S ≤ t with respect to the filtration described
above is a martingale.
Proof: First, Bt is Ft measurable. It is necessary to verify Bt is in L1 (Ω) . But

by Theorem 31.44
Z Z
2
|Bt (ω)| dP ≤ |Bt (ω)| dP
Ω Ω
Z Z
2 2
≤ 2 |Bt − B0 | dP + 2 |B0 |
Ω Ω
Z
2
≤ 2n (t − s) + 2 |x| dP < ∞.
Ω
Next it must be shown that E (Bs |Ft ) = Bt whenever s ≥ t. Let F ∈ Ft and let
s ≥ t. Then
Z Z
E (Bs − Bt |Ft ) dP = (Bs −Bt ) XF dP
F
Z Z
= (Bs −Bt ) dP XF dP = 0.
Ω Ω
Hence
E (Bs |Ft ) = E (Bs − Bt |Ft ) + E (Bt |Ft )

= 0 + Bt
Lemma 33.10 Let Bt be real valued Brownian motion. Then Bt2 −t is a martingale.
Proof: The idea is to exploit the fact the increments (Bs − Bt ) for s > t are
independent of Ft . Thus you write things in terms of (Bs − Bt ) . It is easy to see
2
that (Bs − Bt ) − 2Bt2 + 2Bs Bt = Bs2 − Bt2 . Therefore, using the fact that Brownian
motion is a martingale,
¡ ¢ ³ ´
2
E Bs2 − Bt2 |Ft = E (Bs − Bt ) − 2Bt2 + 2Bs Bt |Ft
³ ´ ¡ ¢
2
= E (Bs − Bt ) |Ft + E −2Bt2 + 2Bs Bt |Ft
³ ´
2
= E (Bs − Bt ) |Ft − 2Bt2 + 2Bt E (Bs |Ft )
³ ´
2
= E (Bs − Bt ) |Ft − 2Bt2 + 2Bt2
³ ´
2
= E (Bs − Bt ) |Ft
Now for A ∈ Ft ,
Z ³ ´ Z
2 2
E (Bs − Bt ) |Ft dP ≡ (Bs − Bt ) dP
A A
Z Z Z
2
= XA dP (Bs − Bt ) dP = (s − t) dP.
A
³ ´
2
Since this holds for all A ∈ Ft , it follows E (Bs − Bt ) |Ft = (s − t) and so
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
E Bs2 − s|Ft = E Bs2 − Bt2 |Ft + Bt2 − s
= (s − t) + Bt2 − s = Bt2 − t.
Suppose Bt is one dimensional Brownian motion. Then the increments, Bs − Bt

for s > t are independent of Ft where Ft is the smallest complete σ algebra such
that (Bt1 , · · ·, Btk ) is measurable for every sequence 0 ≤ t1 < t2 < · · · < tk ≤ t.
m
Consider the problem of finding E ((Bs − Bt ) ) for various values of m. It was
shown earlier that for m = 1, the answer is 0 and for m = 2, the answer is s − t.
By independence,
¡ ¢ ³ ´ ¡ ¢
E eiBs u = E ei(Bs −Bt )u E eiBt u .
Therefore, from the earlier observations about the characteristic function of normaly
distributed random variables and using the fact the mean of Bt is x and the variance
is t,
1 2
eiux e− 2 u s ³ ´
i(Bs −Bt )u
1 2 = E e
eiux e− 2 u t
and so
³ ´ 1 2
E ei(Bs −Bt )u = e− 2 u (s−t) . (33.8)
Therefore,
³ ´ 1 2
E i (Bs − Bt ) ei(Bs −Bt )u = u (t − s) e 2 u (t−s)
³ ´ 1 2 1 2
2
E − (Bs − Bt ) ei(Bs −Bt )u = e2u (t−s)
t − e2u (t−s)
s
1 2 1 2
+u2 e 2 u (t−s) t2 − 2u2 e 2 u (t−s)
ts
1 2
+u2 e 2 u (t−s) s2 (33.9)
³ ´ 1 2 1 2
3
E −i (Bs − Bt ) ei(Bs −Bt )u = 3ue 2 u (t−s) 2
t − 6ue 2 u (t−s)
ts
1 2 1 2
+3ue 2 u (t−s) s2 + u3 e 2 u (t−s) t3
1 2 1 2
−3u3 e 2 u (t−s) t2 s + 3u3 e 2 u (t−s) ts2
1 2
−u3 e 2 u (t−s) 3
s (33.10)
33.1. CONTINUOUS MARTINGALES 913
³ ´ 1 2 1 2
4
E (Bs − Bt ) ei(Bs −Bt )u = 3e 2 u (t−s) 2
t + 6u2 e 2 u (t−s) 3
t
1 2 1 2
−18u2 e 2 u (t−s) t2 s − 6e 2 u (t−s) ts
1 2 1 2
2 2 u (t−s) 2 2 u (t−s)
+18u e ts + 3e s2
2 12 u2 (t−s) 3 4 12 u2 (t−s) 4
−6u e s +u e t
4 12 u2 (t−s) 3 4 21 u2 (t−s) 2 2
−4u e t s + 6u e t s
4 12 u2 (t−s) 3 4 12 u2 (t−s) 4
−4u e ts + u e s (33.11)
Now plug in u = 0 to get these expected values. Considering 33.9,

³ ´
2
− E (Bs − Bt ) = t − s (33.12)
which was already noted. Next let u = 0 in 33.10 to obtain

³ ´
3
− iE (Bs − Bt ) = 0. (33.13)
Finally, consider 33.11. This gives

³ ´
4
E (Bs − Bt ) = 3t2 − 6ts + 3s2
2
= 3 (s − t) . (33.14)
Clearly one could go on like this but this is enough for now. You might conjecture
m m/2
that E ((Bs − Bt ) ) = (m − 1) (s − t) for m even and 0 for m odd. Lets simply
call it gm (s − t) for now.
Example 33.11 Find a martingale which involves Bt3 .
It is the exploitation of the independence of the increments which is of signifi-

cance. The idea is to write Bs3 in terms of Bt and powers of increments, (Bs − Bt ) .
To aid in doing this, just write the Taylor series expansion of the function s3 . Thus
¡ ¢ 2 3
s3 = t3 + 3t2 (s − t) + 3t (s − t) + (s − t) .
It follows
2 3
Bs3 = Bt3 + 3Bt2 (Bs − Bt ) + 3Bt (Bs − Bt ) + (Bs − Bt ) .
Then for s > t,

¡ ¢ ³ ´
2 3
E Bs3 |Ft = E Bt3 + 3Bt2 (Bs − Bt ) + 3Bt (Bs − Bt ) + (Bs − Bt ) |Ft
³ ´ ³ ´
2 3
= Bt3 + Bt2 E (Bs − Bt |Ft ) + 3Bt E (Bs − Bt ) |Ft + E (Bs − Bt ) |Ft
³ ´ ³ ´
2 3
= Bt3 + 3Bt E (Bs − Bt ) |Ft + E (Bs − Bt ) |Ft (33.15)
m
Consider E ((Bs − Bt ) |Ft ) . If A ∈ Ft ,then by independence,
Z Z
m m
E ((Bs − Bt ) |Ft ) dP = (Bs − Bt ) dP
A
ZA Z
m
= XA dP (Bs − Bt ) dP
Z
= gm (s − t) dP
A
which shows
m
gm (s − t) = E ((Bs − Bt ) |Ft ) . (33.16)
Then considering 33.15 in light of 33.12 and 33.13, this leads to
¡ ¢
E Bs3 |Ft = Bt3 + 3 (s − t) Bt
It follows
¡ ¢
E Bs3 − 3Bs s|Ft = Bt3 + 3 (s − t) Bt − 3sE (Bs |Ft )
= Bt3 + 3 (s − t) Bt − 3sBt
= Bt3 − 3tBt
This shows Bt3 − 3tBt is a martingale.

Of course you can keep going this way. Here is yet another example.
Lemma 33.12 Bt4 − 6tBt2 + 3t2 is a martingale.
Proof: The Taylor series for y 4 − 6ty 2 + 3t2 considered a function of y expanded
about x is
¡ 4 ¢ ¡ ¢
x − 6tx2 + 3t2 + −12tx + 4x3 (y − x)
¡ ¢ 2 3 4
+ −6t + 6x2 (y − x) + 4x (y − x) + (y − x)
and so Bs4 − 6sBs2 + 3s2 equals

¡ 4 ¢ ¡ ¢
Bt − 6sBt2 + 3s2 + −12sBt + 4Bt3 (Bs − Bt )
¡ ¢ 2 3 4
+ −6s + 6Bt2 (Bs − Bt ) + 4Bt (Bs − Bt ) + (Bs − Bt )
Using
¡ 33.16 and taking¢conditional expectations using the formulas, 33.12 - 33.14,
E Bs4 − 6sBs2 + 3s2 |Ft equals
¡ 4 ¢ ¡ ¢ 2
Bt − 6sBt2 + 3s2 + −6s + 6Bt2 (s − t) + 3 (s − t)
and this simplifies to

Bt4 − 6Bt2 t + 3t2
33.2. DOOB’S MARTINGALE ESTIMATE 915
33.2 Doob’s Martingale Estimate

The next big result is an important inequality involving martingales which is due
to Doob. First here is a simple lemma.
Lemma 33.13 Let {Mt } be a filtration and let {Mt } be a real valued martingale
for t ∈ [S, T ] . Then for λ > 0 and any p ≥ 1, if At is a Mt measurable subset of
[|Mt | ≥ λ] , then
Z
1 p
P (At ) ≤ p |MT | dP.
λ At
Proof: From Jensen’s inequality,

Z Z
p p
λp P (At ) ≤ |Mt | dP = |E (MT |Mt )| dP
At At
Z Z
p p
≤ E (|MT | |Mt ) dP = |MT | dP
At At

The next theorem is the main result.
Theorem 33.14 Let {Mt } be a filtration and let {Mt } be a real valued continuous1
martingale for t ∈ [S, T ] . Then for all λ > 0 and p ≥ 1,
Ã" #! Z
1 p
P sup |Mt | ≥ λ ≤ |MT | dP
t∈[S,T ] λp Ω
Proof: Let S ≤ tm m m m m
0 < t1 < · · · < tNm = T where tj+1 − tj = (T − S) 2
−m
.
First consider m = 1.
n ¯ ¯ o n ¯ ¯ o
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
At10 ≡ ω ∈ Ω : ¯Mt10 (ω)¯ ≥ λ , At11 ≡ ω ∈ Ω : ¯Mt11 (ω)¯ ≥ λ \ At10
n ¯ ¯ o ³ ´
¯ ¯
At12 ≡ ω ∈ Ω : ¯Mt12 (ω)¯ ≥ λ \ At10 ∪ At10 .
n o2m
Do this type of construction for m = 2, 3, 4, · · · yielding disjoint sets, At m
j
j=0
whose union equals
∪t∈Dm [|Mt | ≥ λ]
1t → Mt (ω) is continuous for a.e. ω.

© ª2 m
where Dm = tm ∞
j j=0 . Thus Dm ⊆ Dm+1 . Then also, D ≡ ∪m=1 Dm is dense and
countable. From Lemma 33.13,
m
2
X ³ ´
P (∪t∈Dm [|Mt | ≥ λ]) = P Atm
j
j=0
2 Zm
1 X p
≤ |MT | dP
λp j=0 Atm
j
Z
1 p
≤ |MT | dP.
λp Ω
Let m → ∞ in the above to obtain
Z
1 p
P (∪t∈D [|Mt | ≥ λ]) ≤ |MT | dP. (33.17)
λp Ω
From now on, assume that for a.e. ω ∈ Ω, t → Mt (ω) is continuous. Then with
this assumption, the following claim holds.
Claim:For λ > ε > 0,
" #
∪t∈D [|Mt | ≥ λ − ε] ⊇ sup |Mt | ≥ λ
t∈[S,T ]
h i
Proof of the claim: Suppose ω ∈ supt∈[S,T ] |Mt | ≥ λ . Then there exists s
such that |Ms (ω)| > λ − ε. By continuity, this situation persists for all t near to s.
In particular, it is true for some t ∈ D. This proves the claim.
Letting P 0 denote the outer measure determined by P it follows from the claim
and 33.17 that
Ã" #!
P0 sup |Mt | ≥ λ ≤ P (∪t∈D [|Mt | ≥ λ − ε])
t∈[S,T ]
Z
1 p
≤ p |MT | dP.
(λ − ε) Ω
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows

Ã" #!Z
0 1 p
P sup |Mt | ≥ λ ≤ p |MT | dP.
t∈[S,T ] λ Ω
h i
It would be interesting to consider whether supt∈[S,T ] |Mt | ≥ λ is measurable.
However, this follows from the continuity of t → Mt (ω) which implies
" # · ¸
sup |Mt | ≥ λ = sup |Mt | ≥ λ ,
t∈[S,T ] t∈D
a measurable set due to countability of D. This proves the theorem.

The Itô Integral
In all this, Bt will be a martingale for the filtration, Ht and the increments, Bs − Bt
will be independent of Ht for s > t. I will define the Itô integral on [0, T ] where T
is arbitrary. In doing so, I will also define it on [0, t] . First the integral is defined
on uniformly bounded adapted step functions. Let φ be such a function. Thus
n−1
X
φ (t, ω) = φj (ω) X[tj ,tj+1 ) (t) . (34.1)
j=0
Then for t ∈ [tk , tk+1 ),
Z t k−1
X ¡ ¢
φdB (ω) ≡ φj (ω) Btj+1 (ω) − Btj (ω) + φk (ω) (Bt (ω) − Btk (ω)) . (34.2)
0 j=0
The verification that this is well defined and linear is essentially the same as it is
in the context of the Riemann integral from calculus. To show linearity on such
step functions, you simply take a common refinement and if s is one of the new
partition points in [ti , ti+1 ), you replace the term φi X[ti ,ti+1 ) (t) with the sum of the
two terms, φi X[ti ,s) (t) + φi X[s,,ti+1 ) (t) .
Lemma 34.1 Let s > t and let φ be bounded and Ht measurable. Then
µ ¶
1
exp (φ (Bs − Bt )) exp − φ2 (s − t) (34.3)
2
is a function in L1 (Ω) .
Proof: The given function is dominated by
h (ω) ≡ exp (M |Bs − Bt |)
917
918 THE ITÔ INTEGRAL
where |φ (ω)| < M. Then using the technique of the distribution function, Theorem
9.39 on Page 232,
Z Z ∞
hdP = P (h > λ) dλ
Ω
Z0 ∞
= P (exp (M |Bs − Bt |) > λ) dλ
Z0 ∞ µ ¶
ln (λ)
≤ P |Bs − Bt | > dλ
0 M
Z ∞ µ ¶
ln (λ)
= P |Bs − Bt | > dλ
1 M
Z 1
+ P (|Bs − Bt | > nonpositive) dλ
0
Z ∞Z ∞
2 x2
= 1+ p e− 2(s−t) dxdλ
2π (s − t) 1 ln(λ)/M
Z ∞ Z eM x 2
Z ∞
x x2
− 2(s−t)
= 1+C e dλdx ≤ 1 + C e− 2(s−t) eM x dx < ∞.
0 1 0
Lemma 34.2 Let φ be a uniformly bounded adapted step function on [0, T ] . Let
µZ t Z t ¶
1 2
ξ (t) ≡ exp φdB − φ dr
0 2 0
Then ξ (t) is a continuous Ht martingale.
Proof: That ξ (t) is continuous follows from the fact φ is bounded and the
continuity of Bt . It remains to verify it is a martingale. Let φ be given by 34.1 and
suppose tj ≤ t < s < tj+1 . Then
µ ¶ µ ¶
ξ (s) ξ (s)
E (ξ (s) |Ht ) = E ξ (t) |Ht = ξ (t) E |Ht . (34.4)
ξ (t) ξ (t)
From the definition of the integral on step functions given above and using the
assumption on t and s just mentioned, it follows this equals
 ¡R s R ¢ 
1 s 2
exp φdB − φ dr
ξ (t) E  ³R0
t
2 0
Rt ´ |Ht 
exp 0 φdB − 12 0 φ2 dr
µ µ ¶ ¶
¡ ¢ 1 2
= ξ (t) E exp φj (Bs − Bt ) exp − φj (s − t) |Ht .
2
919
Letting A be Ht measurable, it follows from independence of the increment, Bs −Bt

and Ht that
Z µ µ ¶ ¶
¡ ¢ 1 2
E exp φj (Bs − Bt ) exp − φj (s − t) |Ht dP
A 2
Z µ ¶
¡ ¢ 1 2
= XA exp φj (Bs − Bt ) exp − φj (s − t) dP
Ω 2
Z Z µ ¶
¡ ¢ 1 2
= XA dP exp φj (Bs − Bt ) exp − φj (s − t) dP. (34.5)
Ω Ω 2
Since φj is bounded and measurable in Htj , there exists a sequence of simple func-
tions, {αn } which converges to φj uniformly. Say
mn
X
αn (ω) = ci XEi (ω)
i=1
where each Ei ∈ Ht (In fact, Ei ∈ Htj .). Then by the dominated convergence
theorem, or simply the boundedness of φj and the uniform convergence of αn to φj ,
Z µ ¶
1 2
lim exp (αn (Bs − Bt )) exp − αn (s − t) dP
n→∞ Ω 2
Z µ ¶
¡ ¢ 1 2
= exp φj (Bs − Bt ) exp − φj (s − t) dP.
Ω 2
However, by independence of the increments again
Z µ ¶
1 2
exp (αn (Bs − Bt )) exp − αn (s − t) dP
Ω 2
m
X n Z µ ¶
1
= exp (ci (Bs − Bt )) exp − c2i (s − t) dP
i=1 Ei
2
m
X n Z Z µ ¶
1 2
= dP exp (ci (Bs − Bt )) exp − ci (s − t) dP.
i=1 Ei Ω 2
However,
Z µ ¶
1
exp (ci (Bs − Bt )) exp − c2i (s − t) dP
2
ZΩ
1 x2 1 2
= p e− 2(s−t) eci x e− 2 ci (s−t) dx = 1
R 2π (s − t)
which follows from completing the square in the exponents and recognizing
³ the inte-
´
R
grand as a normal distribution. Therefore, 34.5 reduces to A dP and so E ξ(s)
ξ(t) |Ht =
1 which shows from 34.4 that
E (ξ (s) |Ht ) = ξ (t) .

The next case is when s = tj+1 and t ∈ (tj , tj+1 ) . The argument goes the same
way. In this case, µ ¶
ξ (s)
E |Ht
ξ (t)
¡ ¡ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¢
= E exp φj Btj+1 − Btj − φj Bt − Btj ·
µ ¶ ¶
1¡ 2 2
¢
exp − φj (tj+1 − tj ) − φj (t − tj ) |Ht
2
µ µ ¶ ¶
¡ ¡ ¢¢ 1
= E exp φj Btj+1 − Bt exp − φ2j (tj+1 − t) |Ht .
2
Now it is just a repeat of the above argument to show this is 1.
All other cases follow easily from this. For example, suppose tj−1 ≤ t < tj <
tj+1 ≤ s < tj+2 . Then from the two cases considered above,
¡ ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢ ¢
E (ξ (s) |Ht ) = E E E ξ (s) |Htj+1 |Htj |Ht
¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
= E E ξ (tj+1 ) |Htj |Ht
= E (ξ (tj ) |Ht ) = ξ (t) .
Continuing in this way shows ξ (t) is a martingale. This proves the lemma.
Note also that this shows
E (ξ (T )) = E (ξ (T ) |H0 ) = ξ (0) = 1.
Now from Doob’s martingale estimate, Theorem 33.14,
µ ¶
1 1
P max ξ (t) ≥ λ ≤ E (ξ (T )) = .
t∈[0,T ] λ λ
If φ were replaced by αφ and ξ α were obtained by replacing φ with αφ, the same
estimate would follow. Thus
µ µZ t Z ¶ ¶
α t 2
P max φdB − φ ds > λ
t 0 2 0
µ µZ t Z ¶ ¶
1 t 2
= P max αφdB − (αφ) ds > αλ
t 0 2 0
µ µ µZ t Z ¶¶ ¶
1 t 2
= P max exp αφdB − (αφ) ds > eαλ
t 0 2 0
³ ´ 1
= P max (ξ α (t)) > eαλ ≤ αλ E (ξ α (T )) = e−αλ (34.6)
t e
Summarizing this gives the following very significant inequality in which α, λ are
two arbitrary positive constants independent of φ.
µ µZ t Z ¶ ¶
α t 2
P max φdB − φ ds > λ ≤ e−αλ . (34.7)
t 0 2 0
Now recall how adapted functions can be approximated by adapted step func-
tions. This was proved in Corollary 33.4 which is stated here for convenience.
921
Corollary 34.3 Let Ft be a filtration and suppose f is adapted and B × F mea-

surable such that for a.e. ω,
Z T
2
f (t, ω) dt < ∞. (34.8)
0
that ÃZ !
T
2
lim P (f (t, ω) − φn (t, ω)) dt > ε = 0. (34.9)
n→∞ 0
Thus
mX
n −1

j=0
where tn0 = 0 and enj is Ftnj measurable. Furthermore, if f is in L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) ,

© ª
Z Z T ¡ ¢2
k→∞ Ω 0
From this corollary, the following fundamental lemma will make possible the
definition of the Itô integral. It pertains to the filtration, Ht with respect to which
Bt is a martingale and such that for s > t, Bs − Bt is independent of Ht .
Lemma 34.4 Suppose f is Ht adapted and B × F measurable such that for a.e. ω,
Z T
2
f (t, ω) dt < ∞. (34.10)
0
Then there exists a sequence of bounded adapted step functions, {φk } and a set of
measure zero, E, such that for ω ∈/ E,
Z T
2
(f (t, ω) − φk (t, ω)) dt ≤ 2−k
0
for all k sufficiently large (depending on ω ∈

/ E). Also, for ω ∈
/ E, there exists
K (ω) such that if k > l ≥ K (ω) , then
Z T
2
(φk (s, ω) − φl (s, ω)) ds < 2−(k−2) .
0
Proof: By Corollary 33.4© stated ª above, there exists a subsequence, of the {φn }
mentioned in this corollary, φnk such that
ÃZ !
T ¡ ¢2 −k
P f (t, ω) − φnk (t, ω) dt > 2 < 2−k .
0
h R ¡ ¢2 i
T
Now let Ak ≡ ω : 0 f (t, ω) − φnk (t, ω) dt > 2−k . Then from the above,
∞
X
P (Ak ) < ∞
k=1
and so by the Borel Cantelli lemma, the set, E of points ω contained in infinitely
many of the Ak has measure zero. Therefore, for ω ∈ / E, there exists K (ω) such
that for k > K (ω) , ω ∈
/ Ak and so
Z T
¡ ¢2
f (t, ω) − φnk (t, ω) dt ≤ 2−k
0
Denote φk = φnk .
For ω ∈
/ E and l > k > K (ω) described above, and t ≤ T,
Z t Z t
2 2
(φk (s, ω) − φl (s, ω)) ds ≤ 2 (φk (s, ω) − f (s, ω)) ds
0 0
Z t
2
+2 (f (s, ω) − φl (s, ω)) ds ≤ 2k−1 + 2l−1 ≤ 2k−2 .
0

Now recall the fundamental estimate, 34.7,
µ µZ t Z ¶ ¶
α t 2
P max φdB − φ ds > λ ≤ e−αλ . (34.11)
t 0 2 0
which was valid for bounded adapted step functions, φ. This lemma makes possible
the following theorem which is the basis for the definition of the Itô integral.
Theorem 34.5 Suppose f is Ht adapted and B × F measurable such that for a.e.
ω,
Z T
2
f (t, ω) dt < ∞,
0
and let {φn } be a sequence of bounded adapted step functions such that off a set of
measure zero E,
Z T
2
(f (t, ω) − φn (t, ω)) dt ≤ 2−n (34.12)
0
for all n sufficiently large, the existence of such a sequence being provided by Lemma
34.4; then there exists a set of measure zero E, such that if ω ∈ / E, then
½Z t ¾
φn dB (ω)
0
is uniformly Cauchy for t ∈ [0, T ]. Furthermore, if {ψ n } is another sequence of

bounded adapted step functions satisfying 34.12, then for ω off a set of measure
zero, µ ¯Z t Z t ¯¶
¯ ¯
lim max ¯ ¯ φn dB (ω) − ψ n dB (ω)¯¯ = 0.
n→∞ t 0 0
923
Proof: By Lemma 34.4, for ω ∈ / E the exceptional set of measure zero, there
exists N (ω) such that if n > m ≥ N (ω) ,
Z T
2
(φn (s, ω) − φm (s, ω)) ds < 2−(m−2)
0
In the estimate 34.11 let

µ ¶m−2
−αλ −m 3
e =θ , α=
2
¡ ¢m−2
where θ > 1. Hence λ = 32 m ln θ. Thus for n > m ≥ N (ω) ,
³ ³R ¡ ¢m−2 R t ´
t 2
P max 0 (φn − φm ) dB − 12 32 0
(φn − φm ) ds
t
¡ 2 ¢m−2 ´
> 3 m ln θ < θ−m
By the Borel Cantelli lemma again, there exists a set of measure zero E containng
the earlier exceptional set such that for ω ∈
/ E there exists N (ω) large enough that
for n > m ≥ N (ω) ,
ÃZ µ ¶m−2 Z t ! µ ¶
t m−2
1 3 2 2
max (φn − φm ) dB (ω) − (φn − φm ) ds ≤ m ln θ
t 0 2 2 0 3
Z T
2
(φn − φm ) ds < 2−(m−2) .
0
Therefore for such ω,
ÃZ µ ¶m−2 ! µ ¶
t m−2
1 3 −(m−2) 2
max (φn − φm ) dB (ω) − 2 ≤ m ln θ
t 0 2 2 3
and switching φn and φm ,

ÃZ µ ¶m−2 ! µ ¶
t m−2
1 3 2
max (φm − φn ) dB (ω) − 2−(m−2) ≤ m ln θ.
t 0 2 2 3
Therefore,
Ã¯Z ¯ µ ¶m−2 µ ¶m−2 !
¯ t ¯ 2 1 3
max ¯¯ (φm − φn ) dB (ω)¯¯ ≤ m ln θ + .
t 0 3 2 4
nR o
t
It follows that for ω off a set of measure zero, 0 φn dB (ω) is a Cauchy sequence.
Adjusting the above constants, there exists a constant, r < 1 and a positive con-
stant, C such that
µ¯Z t ¯ ¶
¯ ¯
max ¯ ¯ ¯
(φm − φn ) dB (ω)¯ ≤ Cr m
t 0
whenever n > m and m large enough.

If {ψ n } is another such sequence satisfying 34.12 then for n large enough,
Z T
2
(φn (s, ω) − ψ n (s, ω)) ds < 2−(n−2)
0
and so the same estimate yields, for all ω off a set of measure zero,
µ¯Z t ¯ ¶
¯ ¯
max ¯¯ (ψ n − φn ) dB (ω)¯¯ ≤ Crn
t 0
which shows that for ω off a set of measure zero,

µ ¯Z t Z t ¯¶
¯ ¯
lim max ¯ ¯ φn dB (ω) − ψ n dB (ω)¯¯ = 0.
n→∞ t 0 0

Note there is no loss of generality in starting the integral at 0. All the above
works with no change for integrals on the interval, [S, T ] with no significant change.
With this theorem the following definition and conclusion is well defined.
Definition 34.6 Suppose f is Ht adapted and B × F measurable such that for

ω∈
/ E a set of measure zero,
Z T
2
f (t, ω) dt < ∞.
S
Then there exists a sequence of adapted bounded step functions, {φn } satisfying
Z T
2
(f (t, ω) − φn (t, ω)) dt ≤ 2−n
S
for ω ∈
/ E, a set of measure zero. Then for t ∈ [S, T ] , the Itô integral is defined by
Z t Z t
f dB (ω) = lim φn dB (ω) .
S n→∞ S
Rt
Furthermore, for these ω, t → S f dB (ω) is continuous because by Theorem 34.5
Rt
the convergence of S φn dB (ω) is uniform on [0, T ].
Definition 34.7 Suppose f is Ht adapted and B × F measurable such that for a.e.
ω,
Z T
2
f (t, ω) dt < ∞.
S
I will denote such functions by saying they are in W (H) .

34.1. PROPERTIES OF THE ITÔ INTEGRAL 925
34.1 Properties Of The Itô Integral

Theorem 34.8 Let f, g ∈ W (H) and let 0 ≤ S ≤ U ≤ T. Then the following hold.
Z T Z U Z T
f dB = f dB + f dB (34.13)
S S U
Z T Z T Z T
(af + bg) dB = a f dB + b f dB (34.14)
S S S
Z T
f dB is HT measurable. (34.15)
S
ÃZ !
T
E f dB =0 (34.16)
S
if for some sequence of adapted step functions, {φn } ,

ÃZ ! ÃZ !
T T
lim E φn dB = E f dB .
n→∞ S S
Proof: This holds essentially because it holds for any φ a step function. For
example, if
n
X
φ (t, ω) = ej (ω) X[tj ,tj+1 ) (t) ,
j=1
Then without loss of generality it can be assumed U is one of the tj say tk . Therefore,
Z T k−1
X ¡ ¢
φdB = ej (ω) Btj+1 (ω) − Btj (ω)
S j=1
Xn
¡ ¢
+ ej (ω) Btj+1 (ω) − Btj (ω)
j=k
Z U Z T
= φdB + φdB
S U
It follows 34.13 must hold in the limit. 34.14 is somewhat more obvious. Consider
34.16. Let φ be as above. Then recall that ej is Htj measurable and so
 
Xn n
X
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
E ej (ω) Btj+1 (ω) − Btj (ω)  = E (ej ) E Btj+1 − Btj
j=1 j=1
n
X
= E (ej ) 0 = 0
j=1
What is used here is the independence of the increments, Bs − Bt to Ht .

RT
34.15 must also hold because if φ is as above, S φdB is HT measurable and
RT
S
f dB is a pointwise a.e. limit of these.
The next theorem is called the Itô isometry. It pertains to the case where
f ∈ L2 ([S, T ] × Ω) . Thus
Z Z T
2
f (t, ω) dtdP < ∞
Ω 0
which says more than just

ÃZ !
T
2
P f (t, ω) dt < ∞ = 1.
0
Recall Corollary 33.4 again.
Corollary 34.9 Let Ft be a filtration and suppose f is adapted and B × F mea-

surable such that for a.e. ω,
Z T
2
f (t, ω) dt < ∞. (34.17)
0
that ÃZ !
T
2
lim P (f (t, ω) − φn (t, ω)) dt > ε = 0. (34.18)
n→∞ 0
Thus
mX
n −1

j=0
where tn0
= 0 and enjis Ftnj measurable. Furthermore, if f is in L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) ,
© ª
Z Z T ¡ ¢2
k→∞ Ω 0
The following theorem is the Itô isometry.All of this is still in the context of the
filtration, Ht with respect to which Bt is a martingale and the increments, Bs − Bt
are independent of Ht whenever s > t.
Theorem 34.10 Let f be Ht adapted and in L2 ([S, T ] × Ω) . Then

¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ T ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f dB ¯¯ = ||f ||L2 ([0,T ]×Ω) .
¯¯ S ¯¯ 2
L (Ω)
Pn−1
Proof: First let φ (t, ω) = j=0 ej (ω) X[tj ,tj+1 ) (t) be a uniformly bounded
adapted step function. Then
Z T n−1
X ¡ ¢
φdB = ej Btj+1 − Btj .
S j=0
Then ÃZ !2
T X ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
φdB = ej Btj+1 − Btj ei Bti+1 − Bti .
S i,j
Consider these terms. First consider one in which i 6= j, say

¡ ¢¡ ¢
ei ej Bti+1 − Bti Btj+1 − Btj .
By independence of the increments, it follows

Z
¡ ¢¡ ¢
ei ej Bti+1 − Bti Btj+1 − Btj dP
ZΩ Z
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= ei ej Bti+1 − Bti dP Btj+1 − Btj dP = 0.
Ω Ω
Therefore,
Z ÃZ T
!2 Z n−1
X ¡ ¢2
φdB dP = e2j Btj+1 − Btj dP
Ω S Ω j=0
XZ
n−1
¡ ¢2
= e2j Btj+1 − Btj dP
j=0 Ω
XZ
n−1 Z
¡ ¢2
= e2j dP Btj+1 − Btj dP
j=0 Ω Ω
XZ
n−1 Z Z T
= e2j dP (tj+1 − tj ) dP = φ2 dtdP.
j=0 Ω Ω 0
This proves the Itô isometry on bounded adapted step functions.

By Corollary 33.4, there exists a sequence of adapted bounded step functions,
{φn } which converges to f in L2 ([S, T ] × Ω) such that also
Z T Z T
f dB (ω) = lim φn dB (ω) a.e.
S n→∞ S
Therefore, from what was just shown

(Z )∞
T
φn dB
S
n=1
is a Cauchy sequence in L2 (Ω) . Therefore, a subsequence of it converges a.e. How-

RT
ever, this requires the thing to which it converges in L2 (Ω) must be S f dB (ω) .
Therefore,
¯¯Z ¯¯ ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ T ¯¯ ¯¯ T ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f dB ¯¯ = lim ¯¯ φn dB ¯¯
¯¯ S ¯¯ 2 n→∞ ¯¯ S ¯¯
L (Ω)
= lim ||φn ||L2 ([S,T ]×Ω) = ||f ||L2 ([S,T ]×Ω) .
n→∞

This theorem also gives another way to define the Itô integral when
f ∈ L2 ([S, T ] × Ω)
in addition to being in W (H).
Lemma 34.11 If f ∈ W (H) and is in L2 ([S, T ] × Ω) , let {φn } be any sequence

of bounded adapted step functions converging to f in L2 ([S, T ] × Ω). Then
Z T Z T
f dB = lim φn dB
S n→∞ S
in L2 (Ω) .
Proof: This is immediate from the following.

¯¯Z Z T ¯¯ ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ T ¯¯ ¯¯ T ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f dB − φn dB ¯¯ = ¯¯ (f − φn ) dB ¯¯
¯¯ S S ¯ ¯ 2
¯ ¯ S ¯¯
L (Ω) L2 (Ω)
= ||f − φn ||L2 ([S,T ]×Ω)
which converges to 0. Rt
Letting f ∈ W (H) , one can consider the stochastic process S f (s, ω) dB (ω) .
From the construction of the Itô integral above, this is a continuous function of t for
a.e. ω. It turns out that if f is also in L2 ([S, T ] × Ω) , then this stochastic process
is also an Ht martingale.
Rt
Theorem 34.12 I (t, ω) ≡ S f (s, ω) dB (ω) is an Ht martingale if
f ∈ L2 ([S, T ] × Ω) .
Proof: Let Z t
In (t, ω) = φn (s, ω) dB (ω) .
S
where φn is a bounded adapted step function such that
Z t Z t
f dB = lim φn dB
S n→∞ S
in L2 (Ω) for each t ∈ [S, T ] and for ω not in a suitable set of measure zero,
Z t Z t
I (t, ω) ≡ f dB (ω) = lim φn dB (ω) (34.19)
S n→∞ S
uniformly for t ∈ [S, T ] .

In fact, In (t, ω) is a martingale. Let s > t. Then
µZ t Z s ¶
E (In (s, ω) |Ft ) = E φn dB + φn dB|Ft .
S t
Rt
Now S
φn dB is measurable in Ft and so this reduces to
 
Z t X ¡ ¢
φn dB + E  enj Btj+1 − Btj |Ft  .
S t≤tn n
j <tj+1 ≤s
By Lemma 32.2,
   
Z t X ¡ ¢
= φn dB + E E  enj Btj+1 − Btj |Ftj  |Ft 
S t≤tn n
j <tj+1 ≤s
 
Z t X ¡¡ ¢ ¢
= φn dB + E  E enj Btj+1 − Btj |Ftj |Ft 
S t≤tn n
j <tj+1 ≤s
 
Z t X ¡¡ ¢ ¢
= φn dB + E  enj E Btj+1 − Btj |Ftj |Ft 
S t≤tn n
j <tj+1 ≤s
 
Z t X Z t
= φn dB + E  enj · 0|Ft  = φn dB = In (t, ω) .
S t≤tn n S
j <tj+1 ≤s
Thus In (t, ω) is a martingale. Let s > t. Since In (r, ·) → I (r, ·) in L2 (Ω) for
each r, Jensen’s inequality implies
Z
|E (In (s, ω) |Ft ) − E (I (s, ω) |Ft )| dP
ZΩ
≤ E (|In (s, ω) − I (s, ω)| |Ft ) dP
Ω
Z
= |In (s, ω) − I (s, ω)| dP
Ω
which converges to 0. It follows that for F ∈ Ft , and s > t,

Z Z
I (t, ω) dP = lim In (t, ω) dP
F k→∞ F
Z
= lim E (In (s, ω) |Ft ) dP
k→∞ F
Z
= E (I (s, ω) |Ft ) dP.
F
What about the measurability of I? This follows from the pointwise convergence
described in 34.19 the measurability of In and completness of the measure. This
proves the theorem.
Rt
Example 34.13 Find 0 Bs (ω) dB (ω) assuming B0 (0) = 0.
Pn
Let φn (s, ω) = j=0 Btj (ω) X[tj ,tj+1 ) (s) where |tj+1 − tj | is constant in j and
equals t/n. Then φn → Bs in L2 ([0, t] × Ω) and it is clear that φn is adapted.
Therefore,
Z T Z T
φn (t, ω) dB (ω) → Bt (ω) dB (ω)
S S
in L2 (Ω) . But by definition,
Z T n
X ¡ ¢
φn (t, ω) dB (ω) = Btj (ω) Btj+1 (ω) − Btj (ω)
S j=0
and a little algebra shows this equals

1³ ´ X
n
X n
1¡ ¢2
Bt2j+1 − Bt2j − Btj+1 − Btj
j=0
2 j=0
2
n
1 2 1 X¡ ¢2
= Bt (ω) − Btj+1 − Btj .
2 2 j=0
Now ¯ ¯2
Z ¯X ¯
¯ n ¡ ¢2 ¯
¯ B − B − t ¯ dP
¯ tj+1 tj ¯
Ω ¯ j=0 ¯
Z X X¡
¡ ¢2 ¡ ¢2 ¢2
= Btj+1 − Btj Bti+1 − Bti − 2t Btj+1 − Btj + t2 dP
Ω i,j j
X X
= (tj+1 − tj ) (ti+1 − ti ) − 2t (tj+1 − tj ) + t2 = t2 − 2t2 + t2 = 0
i,j j
and so
¯ ¯
Z ¯ Xn µ ¶¯2
¯1 ¡ ¢ 1 ¯
¯ Bt (ω)2 − 1 Btj+1 − Btj −
2 1
Bt (ω) − t ¯¯ dP = 0
2
¯2 2 j=0 2 2 ¯
Ω¯
which shows Z T
1 2 1
Bt (ω) dB (ω) = Bt (ω) − t.
S 2 2
This is contrary to what any student would know; that from the symbols in-
volved,
Z T
1 2 1 2 1 2
Bt (ω) dBt (ω) = Bt (ω) − B0 (ω) = Bt (ω) .
S 2 2 2
Here you get the extra term, − 12 t.
Stochastic Processes
35.1 An Important Filtration

Recall the theorem about Brownian motion which is listed here for convenience.
Theorem 35.1 There exists a probability space, (Ω, F, P ) and random vectors, B t
for t ∈ [0, ∞) which satisfy the following properties.
1. For Z = (Bt1 , · · ·, Btk ) ∈ Rnk it follows Z is normally distributed. Its mean
is ¡ ¢
x · · · x ∈ Rnk
2. Bt has independent increments. This means if t1 < t2 < · · · < tk , the random
variables,
Bt1 , Bt2 − Bt1 , · · ·, Btk − Btk−1
are independent and normally distributed. Note this implies the k th compo-
nents must also be independent. Also Btj − Btj−1 is normal with covariance
(tj − tj−1 ) I and mean 0. In addition to this, the k th component of Bt is
normally distributed with density function
Ã !
2
1 |y − xk |
p (t, xk ,y) ≡ 1/2
exp −
(2πt) 2t
This follows from the distribution of Bt which has a density function

Ã !
2
1 |y − x|
p (t, x, y) ≡ n/2
exp −
(2πt) 2t
³ ´
4 2
3. E |Bt − Bs | ≤ 3n2 (t − s) , For t > s,
³ ´
2
E |Bt − Bs | = n (t − s) ,
¡ ∗ ¢
E (Bt − x) (Bs − x) = ns,
E (Bt − Bs ) = 0,
933
934 STOCHASTIC PROCESSES
4. t → Bt (ω) is Holder continuous.
Observation 35.2 Let Bt be n dimensional Brownian motion as discussed above.

Then considering the k th component of Bt , Bkt , it follows Bkt is one dimensional
Brownian motion. Letting Ht denote the completion of the smallest σ algebra con-
taining
−1
(Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (B)
for all B a Borel set in Rnk for all sequences, 0 ≤ s1 < s2 · ·· < sk ≤ t, it follows
that for s > t, Bks − Bkt is independent of Ht . Also, from the fact discussed above
in Theorem 33.9 that Bt is a martingale, it follows the same is true of Bkt . Thus
all the above theory can be applied for this Ht and integrating with respect to one of
the components of n dimensional Brownian motion.
One other thing should be pointed out although it was mentioned above and
that is the distribution of Bs − Bt for s > t. The density for Bt as described above
is Ã !
2
1 |y − x|
n/2
exp −
(2πt) 2t
and so by Theorem 31.22 on Page 868
¡ ¢ 1 ∗
E eiu·Bt = eiu·x e− 2 u tIu .
Recall also from the above that Bs − Bt is independent to Bt . Therefore,

¡ ¢ ³ ´
E eiu·Bs = E eiu·Bt eiu·(Bs −Bt )
¡ ¢ ³ ´
= E eiu·Bt E eiu·(Bs −Bt )
and so
³ ´ 1
eiu·x e− 2 u
∗
sIu
E eiu·(Bs −Bt ) = − 12 u∗ tIu
eiu·x e
1 ∗
= e− 2 u (s−t)Iu .
This implies the following lemma.
Lemma 35.3 Let Bt = (B1t , · · ·, Bnt ) be n dimensional Brownian motion. Then

for s > t, Bis − Bit and Bjs − Bjt are linearly independent if j 6= i.
Proof: The covariance matrix of the distribution of Bs − Bt is (s − t) times the

identity and so the components of this vector are linearly independent.
Lemma 35.4 Letting Ht denote the completion of the smallest σ algebra containing
−1
(Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (B)
35.1. AN IMPORTANT FILTRATION 935
for all B a Borel set in Rnk for all sequences, 0 ≤ s1 < s2 · ·· < sk ≤ t as defined
above, Ht is also equal to the completion of the smallest σ algebra containing
−1
(Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (B)
for all B an open set in Rnk for all sequences, 0 ≤ s1 < s2 · ·· < sk ≤ t. In addition
to this, Ht is equal to the completion of the smallest σ algebra containing
−1
(Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (B)
nk
for all B an open set in R for all sequences, 0 ≤ s1 < s2 · ·· < sk ≤ t such that
the sj are rational numbers.
Proof: The first claim reducing to inverse images of open sets is not hard.
−1
Define Gt to be the smallest σ algebra such that (Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (U ) ∈ Gt for U
open and 0 ≤ s1 < s2 · ·· < sk ≤ t. Now let
n o
−1
S(s1 ,···,sk ) ≡ E Borel such that (Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (E) ∈ Gt
Then S(s1 ,···,sk ) contains the open sets and so it also contains the Borel sets because
−1
it is a σ algebra. Hence Gt contains all sets of the form (Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (E) for all E
Borel and 0 ≤ s1 < s2 · ·· < sk ≤ t. It follows Gt is the smallest σ algebra containing
−1
the sets of the form (Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (B) for B Borel and so its completion equals
Ht .
The second claim is more interesting. In this claim, it suffices to consider fi-
nite increasing sequences of rational numbers, rather than just finite increasing
sequences. Let 0 ≤ s1 < s2 · ·· < sk ≤ t and let 0 ≤ tn1 < tn2 · ·· < tnk ≤ t be an
increasing sequence of rational numbers such that limn→∞ tnk = sk . It has been
proven that off a set of measure zero, t → Bt (ω) is continuous. To simplify the
presentation, I will assume without loss of generality that this set of measure zero
is empty. If not, you could simply delete it and consider a slightly modified Ω.
Another way to see this is not a loss of generality is that Ht is complete and so
contains all subsets of sets of measure zero. Let O be an open set and let
O = ∪∞
m=1 Om , · · ·Om ⊆ Om ⊆ Om+1 · ··
Then by continuity of t → Bt (ω) ,

¡ ¢ ³ ´−1
−1
(Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) Om ⊇ ∪∞
l=1 ∩p≥l Bt1 , · · ·, Btk
p p (Om )
−1
⊇ (Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (Om )
It follows upon taking the union over all m,
−1 −1 ¡ ¢
(Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (O) = ∪m (Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) Om
³ ´−1
⊇ ∪m ∪l ∩p≥l Btp1 , · · ·, Btpk (Om )
−1
⊇ ∪m (Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (Om )
−1
= (Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (O)
Thus ³ ´−1
−1
∪m ∪l ∩p≥l Btp1 , · · ·, Btpk (Om ) = (Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (O)
−1
and so the smallest σ algebra containing (Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (B) for B open and 0 ≤
s1 < s2 · ·· < sk ≤ t an arbitrary sequence of numbers is the same as the smallest
−1
σ algebra containing (Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (B) for B open and 0 ≤ s1 < s2 · ·· < sk ≤ t
an increasing sequence of rational numbers.
35.2 Itô Processes

Let B = (B1 , · · ·, Bn ) be n dimensional Brownian motion and let Ht be the filtration
defined above. Thus Bk is a martingale with respect to Ht and the increments,
Bks − Bkt are independent of Ht whenever s > t. Let Xk for k = 1, 2, · · ·, m be a
stochastic process satisfying for t ∈ [0, T ] ,
Z t n Z
X t
Xkt − Xk0 = uk (s, ω) ds + vkl (s, ω) dBl . (35.1)
0 l=1 0
Written in simpler form,

Z t Z t
Xt − X0 = u (s) ds + V (s) dB (35.2)
0 0
where V (s) is an m × n matrix. For now, assume uk and vkl are all Ht adapted
uniformly bounded step functions.
Also assume g is a C 2 function defined
© r ªnon R × Rm for which all partial deriva-
r
tives are uniformly bounded and let tj j=0 be partitions of [0, T ] such that for
© ª
∆ (r) ≡ supj trj+1 − trj , limr→∞ ∆ (r) = 0 and also all discontinuities of all the
© ªn r
step functions, vkl and uk are contained in trj j=0 . Then suppressing the super-
script on trj for the sake of simpler notation,
nX
r −1
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
g (T, XT ) − g (0, X0 ) = g tj+1 , Xtj+1 − g tj , Xtj
j=0
nX
r −1
∂g ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= tj , Xtj ∆tj + D2 g tj , Xtj ∆Xtj
j=0
∂t
µ
∂2g ¡
1 ¢
+ 2
tj + θ∆tj , Xtj + θ∆Xtj ∆t2j (35.3)
2
∂t
¡ ¡ ¢¡ ¢¢
+D2 D2 g tj + θ∆tj , Xtj + θ∆Xtj ∆Xtj ∆Xtj
µ ¶ ¶
∂g ¡ ¢
+ 2D2 tj + θ∆tj , Xtj + θ∆Xtj ∆tj ∆Xtj . (35.4)
∂t
35.2. ITÔ PROCESSES 937
Now from 35.2 and the assumptions that all discontinuities of all step functions are
in the partition, it follows the matrix, V and the vector, u must be of the form
nX
r −1 nX
r −1
j
V (s, ω) = V (ω) X[tj ,tj+1 ) (s) , u (s, ω) = uj (ω) V[tj ,tj+1 ) (s)
j=0 j=0
∆Xtj = uj ∆tj + V j ∆Btj (35.5)
It follows from this that 35.3 - 35.4 can be written as

nX
r −1
∂g ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¡ ¢
= tj , Xtj ∆tj + D2 g tj , Xtj uj ∆tj + V j ∆Btj (35.6)
j=0
∂t
µ 2
1 ∂ g¡ ¢
+ 2
tj + θ∆tj , Xtj + θ∆Xtj ∆t2j (35.7)
2 ∂t
µ ¶
∂g ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
+2D2 tj + θ∆tj , Xtj + θ∆Xtj ∆tj uj ∆tj + V j ∆Btj (35.8)
∂t
¡ ¡ ¢¡ j ¢¢
+D2 D2 g tj + θ∆tj , Xtj + θ∆Xtj u ∆tj + V j ∆Btj · (35.9)
¡ j j
¢¢
u ∆tj + V ∆Btj . (35.10)
Since ∆ (r) → 0 as r → ∞, this simplifies to an expression of the form
nX
r −1
∂g ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¡ ¢
= e (r) + tj , Xtj ∆tj + D2 g tj , Xtj uj ∆tj + V j ∆Btj
j=0
∂t
µ µ ¶
1 ∂g ¡ ¢
+ 2D2 tj + θ∆tj , Xtj + θ∆Xtj V j ∆tj ∆Btj
2 ∂t
¡ ¢T
+ uj ∆tj + V j ∆Btj
¡ ¢¡ ¢
H tj + θ∆tj , Xtj + θ∆Xtj uj ∆tj + V j ∆Btj (35.11)
where e (r) → 0 as r → ∞ and H is the Hessian matrix of second partial derivatives

of g taken with respect to the x variables. The e (r) in the above is obtained by the
inclusion of all the terms which have a ∆t2j in them. There are lots of other terms
which are of the form
nX
r −1
aj ∆tj ∆Bktj
j=0
where aj is bounded independent of r. In fact, all such terms can be included in

e (r) off a set of measure zero. I will show this now.

¯ ¯
Z ¯nX ¯ Z nX
¯ r −1 j ¯ r −1
¯ ¯
¯ a ∆t ∆B ¯ dP ≤ C ∆tj ¯∆Bktj ¯ dP
¯ j ktj ¯
Ω ¯ j=0 ¯ Ω j=0
nX
r −1 Z
¯ ¯
≤ C ∆tj ¯∆Bktj ¯ dP
j=0 Ω
nX
r −1 µZ ¶1/2
¯ ¯
= C ∆tj ¯∆Bktj ¯2 dP
j=0 Ω
1/2
≤ C∆ (r) T
which converges to 0. Therefore, there exists a set of measure zero off which terms
of this form converge to 0 as r → ∞ upon taking a further subsequence if necessary.
Therefore, the above expression simplifies further and yields
g (T, XT ) − g (0, X0 ) =
nX
r −1
∂g ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¡ ¢
e (r) + tj , Xtj ∆tj + D2 g tj , Xtj uj ∆tj + V j ∆Btj
j=0
∂t
1 ³¡ j ¢´
nX
r −1
¢T ¡ ¢¡
+ V ∆Btj H tj + θ∆tj , Xtj + θ∆Xtj V j ∆Btj (35.12)
j=0
2
where e (r) → 0 off a set of measure zero. Consider the last term. This term is of
the form
1 ³¡ j ¢´ nX
nXr −1 r −1
¢T ¡ ¢¡ 1
V ∆Btj H tj , Xtj V j ∆Btj + · (35.13)
j=0
2 j=0
2
³¡ ¢T ¡ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¢ ¡ j ¢´
V j ∆Btj H tj + θ∆tj , Xtj + θ∆Xtj − H tj , Xtj V ∆Btj . (35.14)
Now the term in 35.14 is of the form

nX
r −1
∆BTtj Mr ∆Btj
j=0
where Mr → 0 as r → ∞ and is uniformly bounded. It follows that for a.e. ω, the

above expression converges to 0 and also
¯ ¯
¯nr −1 ¯ nXr −1
¯X ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ∆B T
M ∆B ¯ ≤ C ¯∆Btj ¯2 . (35.15)
¯ tj r tj ¯
¯ j=0 ¯ j=0
Now by independence of the increments,

 2
Z nX
r −1 Z X
¯ ¯2 ¯ ¯
 ¯∆Btj ¯  dP = ¯∆Btj ¯2 |∆Bti |2 dP
Ω j=0 Ω i,j
XZ ¯ ¯
Z r −1 Z
nX
¯ ¯
= ¯∆Btj ¯2 dP 2
|∆Bti | dP + ¯∆Btj ¯4 dP
i6=j Ω Ω i=1 Ω
X nX
r −1
2
≤ (tj+1 − tj ) (ti+1 − ti ) + 3n2 (tj+1 − tj )
i,j i=1
2 2
≤ T + 3n ∆ (r) T.
Thus ¯ ¯
¯¯nX
r −1
¯
¯
¯ ∆B T
M ∆B ¯
¯¯ tj r tj ¯
j=0 ¯
r
is uniformly integrable and so by the Vitali convergence theorem,
¯ ¯
Z ¯nX ¯
¯ r −1 ¯
lim ¯ ∆Btj Mr ∆Btj ¯¯ dP = 0.
T
r→∞ Ω ¯¯ ¯
j=0
Passing to a further subsequence, 35.12 is of the form
g (T, XT ) − g (0, X0 ) =
nX
r −1
∂g ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¡ ¢
e (r) + tj , Xtj ∆tj + D2 g tj , Xtj uj ∆tj + V j ∆Btj
j=0
∂t
1³ ´
nX
r −1
¡ ¢T ¡ ¢
+ ∆BTtj V j H tj , Xtj V j ∆Btj (35.16)
j=0
2
where for a.e. ω, e (r) → 0. It remains to consider the last term in the above as
r → ∞. Denote by Aj the symmetric matrix
¡ ¢T ¡ ¢
Vj H tj , Xtj V j
in the above. Note this is measurable in Htj .

¡ ¢T ¡ ¢
Claim: Letting Aj = V j H tj , Xtj V j , there exists a subsequence, r → ∞
and a set of measure zero such that for ω not in this set of measure zero,
r −1 ³
nX ´ nX
r −1
¡ ¢
∆BTtj Aj ∆Btj − tr Aj ∆tj → 0.
j=0 j=0
Proof of the claim:

 2
Z r −1 ³
nX ´ n−1
X ¡ ¢
 ∆BTt Aj ∆Btj − tr Aj ∆tj  dP
j
Ω j=0 j=0
XZ ³ ¡ ¢ ´¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
= ∆BTtj Aj ∆Btj − tr Aj ∆tj ∆BTti Ai ∆Bti − tr Ai ∆ti dP (35.17)
i,j Ω
Consider a term in which j > i. The integrand is of the form

¡ ¢
∆BTtj Aj ∆Btj ∆BTti Ai ∆Bti − tr Ai ∆ti ∆BTtj Aj ∆Btj
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
−tr Aj ∆tj ∆BTti Ai ∆Bti + tr Aj ∆tj tr Ai ∆ti (35.18)
Consider the first term.

Z
∆BTtj Aj ∆Btj ∆BTti Ai ∆Bti dP
Ω
 Ã !
Z X X
 j
= ∆Bαtj Aαβ ∆Bβtj  i
∆Bσti Aστ ∆Bτ ti dP
Ω α,β σ,τ
X Z
= ∆Bαtj Ajαβ ∆Bβtj ∆Bσti Aiστ ∆Bτ ti dP
α,β,σ,τ Ω
X Z Z
= ∆Bαtj ∆Bβtj dP ∆Bσti Ajαβ Aiστ ∆Bτ ti dP
α,β,σ,τ Ω Ω
Therefore, using independence of the components of n dimensional Brownian motion

which independence results from the covariance matrix for the joint distribution
being diagonal along with the independence of increments in time, this reduces to
X Z Z
2
= ∆Bαt j
dP Ajαα ∆Bσti Aiστ ∆Bτ ti dP
α,σ,τ Ω Ω
X Z X
= (tj+1 − tj ) Ajαα ∆Bσti Aiστ ∆Bτ ti dP
σ,τ Ω α
Z
¡ ¢X
= (tj+1 − tj ) tr Aj ∆Bσti Aiστ ∆Bτ ti dP
Ω σ,τ
Z
¡ ¢
= ∆tj tr Aj ∆BTti Ai ∆Bti dP
Ω
which shows that this term in the case where j > i cancels with the third term of
35.18. Now consider the second term of 35.18 again in the case where j > i. This
yields
Z
¡ ¢
− tr Ai ∆ti ∆BTtj Aj ∆Btj dP
ZΩ X
¡ ¢
= − tr Ai ∆ti ∆Bαtj Ajαβ ∆Bβtj dP
Ω α,β
XZ Z
¡ ¢
=− ∆Bαtj ∆Bβtj dP tr Ai ∆ti Ajαβ dP
α,β Ω Ω
XZ Z
¡ ¢
2
= − ∆Bαt j
dP tr Ai ∆ti Ajαα dP
α Ω Ω
Z X
¡ ¢
= − (∆tj ) tr Ai ∆ti Ajαα dP
Ω α
Z
¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
= − (∆tj ) tr A ∆ti tr Aj dP
i
Ω
and so this second term cancels with the last term of 35.18. It follows the only
terms to consider in 35.17 are those for which j = i. Thus 35.17 is of the form
X Z ³¡ ¢2 ¡ ¢ ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2 ´
∆BTti Ai ∆Bti − 2∆BTti Ai ∆Bti tr Ai ∆ti + tr Ai ∆ti dP.
i Ω
(35.19)
First consider the second term.
Z
¡ ¢
∆BTti Ai ∆Bti tr Ai ∆ti dP
Ω
XZ ¡ ¢
= ∆Bαti Aiαβ ∆Bβti tr Ai ∆ti dP
α,β Ω
XZ Z
¡ ¢
= ∆Bαti ∆Bβti dP Aiαβ tr Ai ∆ti dP
α,β Ω Ω
XZ Z
¡ ¢
2
= ∆Bαt i
dP Aiαα tr Ai ∆ti dP
α Ω Ω
Z ÃX !
¡ ¢
= ∆ti Aiαα tr Ai ∆ti dP
Ω α
Z
¡ ¢2
= tr Ai ∆t2i dP ≥ 0
Ω
It follows 35.17 is dominated above by

X Z ³¡ ¢2 ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢2 ´
∆BTti Ai ∆Bti + tr Ai ∆ti dP
i Ω
Consider the first term.

Z
¡ ¢2
∆BTti Ai ∆Bti dP
Ω
 Ã !
Z X X
=  ∆Bαti Aαβ ∆Bβti 
i i
∆Bσti Aστ ∆Bτ ti dP
Ω α,β σ,τ
X Z
= ∆Bαti Aiαβ ∆Bβti ∆Bσti Aiστ ∆Bτ ti dP
α,β,σ,τ Ω
X Z Z
= Aiαβ Aiστ dP ∆Bαti ∆Bβti ∆Bσti ∆Bτ ti dP. (35.20)
α,β,σ,τ Ω Ω
There are two ways in which the term of this sum will not equal zero. One way is
for α = β and σ = τ . In this situation, the above is dominated by
XZ Z
i i 2 2
Aαα Aσσ dP ∆Bαt i
∆Bσt i
dP
α,σ Ω Ω
XZ XZ ¡ ¢2 2
= Aiαα Aiσσ dP ∆t2i + Aiαα dP 3 (∆ti )
α6=σ Ω α Ω
XZ XZ ¡ ¢2 2
≤ Aiαα Aiσσ dP ∆t2i + Aiαα dP 3 (∆ti )
α,σ Ω α Ω
Z Z X
¡ ¢2 ¡ ¢2 2
= tr Ai dP ∆t2i + 3 Aiαα dP (∆ti )
Ω Ω α
The other way in which the expression in 35.20 is not zero is for α = σ and β = τ .
If this happens, the expression is of the form
XZ Z
i i
Aαβ Aαβ dP ∆Bαti ∆Bβti ∆Bαti ∆Bβti dP
α,β Ω Ω
XZ Z
= Aiαβ Aiαβ dP 2
∆Bαti
2
∆Bβt i
dP
α,β Ω Ω
XZ Z Z
= Aiαβ Aiαβ dP 2
∆Bαt i
dP 2
∆Bβt i
dP
α±β Ω Ω Ω
XZ ¡ ¢2
+ Aiαα dP 3∆t2i
α Ω
XZ XZ ¡ ¢2
= Aiαβ Aiαβ dP ∆t2i + Aiαα dP 3∆t2i .
α±β Ω α Ω
Thus the expression in 35.20 is dominated by

nX
r −1
C ∆t2i
i=1
which converges to 0 as r → ∞. This proves the claim.

Now returning to 35.16 first note that
nX
r −1 Z T
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
lim tr Aj ∆tj = tr V T H (t, Xt ) V dt.
r→∞ 0
j=0
Therefore, there exists a subsequence, still denoted by r and a set of measure zero
off of which the last term of 35.16 converges to
Z T
1 ¡ ¢
tr V T H (t, Xt ) V dt.
2 0
It follows that off a set of measure zero, you can pass to the limit in 35.16 and
conclude
g (T, XT ) − g (0, X0 ) =
Z T µ ¶
∂g 1 ¡ T ¢
(t, Xt ) + D2 g (t, Xt ) u+ tr V H (t, Xt ) V dt
0 ∂t 2
Z T
+ D2 g (t, Xt ) V dB
0
This lengthy computation has mostly proved the following lemma.
Lemma 35.5 Let Ht be the filtration defined above and let B be n dimensional
Brownian motion. Suppose Xt is a vector valued stochastic process for t ∈ [0, T ]
defined by the following for a.e. ω
Z t Z t
Xt − X0 = u (s, ·) ds + V (s, ·) dB
0 0
where all entries of u and V are Ht adapted uniformly bounded step functions.
Then if g is a C 2 function such that all partial derivatives are uniformly bounded,
then for all t ∈ [0, T ] ,
g (t, Xt ) − g (0, X0 ) =
Z tµ ¶
∂g 1 ¡ T ¢
(s, Xs ) + D2 g (s, Xs ) u+ tr V H (s, Xs ) V ds
0 ∂t 2
Z t
+ D2 g (s, Xs ) V dB
0
Proof: Let {tk } be the rational numbers in [0, T ] . The above computation
shows that for each tk , there exists a set of measure zero, Ek such that if ω ∈
/ Ek ,
then
g (tk , Xtk ) − g (0, X0 ) =
Z tk µ ¶
∂g ¡ T ¢
(s, Xs ) + D2 g (s, Xs ) u+tr V H (s, Xs ) V ds
0 ∂t
Z tk
+ D2 g (s, Xs ) V dB
0
Letting E = ∪∞ k=1 Ek , it follows E has measure zero and the above formula holds for
all tk . By continuity the above must hold for all t ∈ [0, T ] . This proves the lemma.
Now let V (t, ω) and u (t, ω) will be B × F measurable, both u and V are Ht
adapted, and the components of V and u satisfy
ÃZ ! ÃZ !
T T
2
P vij ds < ∞ = 1, P |uk | ds < ∞ = 1. (35.21)
0 0
Definition 35.6 Xt is called an Itô process if for, u, V described above and a

measurable function, X0 such that
Z t Z t
Xt − X0 = u (s, ω) ds + V (s, ω) dB.
0 0
Lemma 35.5 shows that if g is a C 2 function defined on R × Rm which has all

the second partial derivatives uniformly bounded, then if u and V have components
which are uniformly bounded adapted step functions, then g (t, X) is also an Itô
process as described in that lemma. The next step is to remove the assumption
that u and V are step functions.
Lemma 35.7 Let Ht be the filtration defined above and let B be n dimensional
Z t Z t
Xt − X0 = u (s, ·) ds + V (s, ·) dB (35.22)
0 0
where all entries of u and V are Ht adapted and satisfy 35.21. Then if g is a C 2
function such that all second order partial derivatives are uniformly bounded, then
for all t ∈ [0, T ] ,
g (t, Xt ) − g (0, X0 ) =
Z tµ ¶
∂g 1 ¡ T ¢
(s, Xs ) + D2 g (s, Xs ) u+ tr V H (s, Xs ) V ds
0 ∂t 2
Z t
+ D2 g (s, Xs ) V dB (35.23)
0
where H is the Hessian matrix of g whose ij th entry is
∂2g
(s, Xs (ω)) .
∂xi ∂xj
© ª∞ © ª∞
Proof: From 35.21 there exist sequences, ul l=1 and V l l=1 such that the
entries of ul and V l are adapted step functions and in addition there is a set of
measure zero, E, such that if ω ∈ / E, then the components of ul and V l satisfy
Z T Z T
¯ l ¯ ¯ l ¯
¯uk − uk ¯ dt < 2−l , ¯vkj − vkj ¯2 dt < 2−l (35.24)
0 0
for all l large enough, depending on ω of course. Then from 35.22 define
Z t Z t
Xlt − Xl0 = ul (s, ·) ds + V l (s, ·) dB
0 0
and it follows that for ω ∈

/ E, and all t ∈ [0, T ] ,
lim Xlt (ω) = Xt (ω) . (35.25)

l→∞
In addition to this, it follows from 35.24 it follows there is a subsequence such that
for ω ∈
/ E,
V l (t, ω) → V (t, ω) , ul (t, ω) → u (t, ω) a.e. t.
By Lemma 35.5 for a.e. ω,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
g t, Xlt − g 0, Xl0 =
Z tµ ¶
∂g ¡ l
¢ ¡ l
¢ l 1 ¡ lT ¡ l
¢ l¢
s, Xs + D2 g s, Xs u + tr V H s, Xs V ds
0 ∂t 2
Z t
¡ ¢
+ D2 g s, Xls V l dB (35.26)
0
R T ¯¯ ¯¯2
/ E, 0 ¯¯V l ¯¯ dt is uniformly
for all t ∈ [0, T ] . Now 35.24 implies for each ω ∈
bounded independent of l. Consider the third term.
Z T
¯ ¡ lT ¡ ¢ ¢ ¡ ¢¯
¯tr V H s, Xls V l − tr V T H (s, Xs ) V ¯ dt (35.27)
0
Z T ¯ ¡ lT ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¢¯
≤ ¯tr V H s, Xls V l − V T H s, Xls V ¯ dt
0
Z T ¯ ¡ T¡ ¡ ¢ ¢ ¢¯
+ ¯tr V H s, Xls − H (s, Xs ) V ¯ dt
0
The second term in the above expression converges

¯ ¡ to 0 by the dominated conver-
¢¯
gence theorem. It can be dominated by C ¯tr V T V ¯ , a function in L1 where here
C does not depend on l but on the uniform bound of the second derivatives of g.
Consider the first term. The integrand is dominated by
¯ ¡¡ lT ¢ ¢¯ ¯ ¡ ¡ ¢¢¯
¯tr V − V T HV l ¯ + ¯tr V T H V l − V ¯
The integral of both of these converges to 0. Consider the first one.

Z T Z T
¯ ¡¡ lT ¢ ¢¯ ¯¯ l ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯tr V − V T HV l ¯ dt ≤ C ¯¯V − V ¯¯ ¯¯V l ¯¯ dt
0 0
Z T ¯¯ l ¯¯
≤ C0 ¯¯V − V ¯¯2 dt
0
which converges to 0 as l → ∞. This shows that for each t ∈ [0, T ] , one can pass
to the limit in the third term of 35.26 and eliminate the superscript, l. Passing to
the limit
¡ in¢ the second term of 35.26 follows from 35.24 and the boundedness of
D2 g s, Xls which results from the assumption that all the partial derivatives of g
are uniformly bounded. Passing to the limit in the first term of 35.26 follows from
35.25. The last term involving dB is of the form
Z t XZ t¡
¡ l
¢ l ¡ ¢ ¢
D2 g s, X V dB = D2 g s, Xl V l ij dBj .
0 j 0
Then from the definition of the Itô integral given above, there is a subsequence still
denoted by l such that for a.e. ω, the above converges uniformly in t to
XZ t
(D2 g (s, X) V )ij dBj
j 0
Thus for a dense subset of [0, T ] , D, there exists an exceptional set of measure zero
such that 35.23 holds for all t ∈ D. By continuity of the Ito integral, this continues
to hold for all t ∈ [0, T ] . This proves the lemma.
It remains to remove the assumption that the partial derivatives of g are bounded.
This results in the following theorem which is the main result.
Theorem 35.8 Let Ht be the filtration defined above and let B be n dimensional
Z t Z t
Xt − X0 = u (s, ·) ds + V (s, ·) dB (35.28)
0 0
where all entries of u and V are Ht adapted and satisfy 35.21. Then if g is a C 2
function with values in Rp , it follows that for a.e. ω and for all t ∈ [0, T ] ,
gk (t, Xt ) − gk (0, X0 ) =
Z tµ ¶
∂gk 1 ¡ T ¢
(s, Xs ) + D2 gk (s, Xs ) u+ tr V Hk (s, Xs ) V ds
0 ∂t 2
Z t
+ D2 gk (s, Xs ) V dB (35.29)
0
where Hk is the Hessian matrix of gk whose ij th entry is

∂ 2 gk
(s, Xs (ω)) .
∂xi ∂xj
Proof: There is no loss of generality in proving it only for the case where g has
values in R because you obtain the above formula by simply considering the k th
component of g. Assume then that g has values in R. Let ψ N ∈ Cc∞ (B (0,2N ))
such that ψ N equals 1 on B (0, N ) and ψ N has values in [0, 1] . Then let gN ≡ gψ N .
Thus gN has uniformly bounded derivatives. By Lemma 35.7, there exists a set of
measure zero, EN such that for ω ∈ / EN , and all t ∈ [0, T ] ,
gN (t, Xt ) − gN (0, X0 ) =
Z tµ ¶
∂gN 1 ¡ T ¢
(s, Xs ) + D2 gN (s, Xs ) u+ tr V HN (s, Xs ) V ds
0 ∂t 2
Z t
+ D2 gN (s, Xs ) V dB (35.30)
0
Let E = ∪∞ N =1 EN . Then for ω ∈ / E, the above formula holds for all N. By continuity
of X, it follows that for all N large enough, the values of X (t, ω) are in B (0,N )
and so you can delete the subscript of N in the above. This proves the theorem.
How do people remember this? Letting Y (t, ω) ≡ g (t, X (t, ω)) , 35.29 can be
considered formally as
µ ¶
∂gk 1 ¡ ¢
dYk = (t, Xt ) + D2 gk (t, Xt ) u+ tr V T Hk (t, Xt ) V dt
∂t 2
+D2 gk (t, Xt ) dB
and 35.28 can be written as
dXt = udt + V dB.
I think this is not too bad but one can write an easier to remember formula which
reduces to this one,
∂gk 1
dYk = (t, Xt ) dt + D2 gk (t, Xt ) dXt + dXTt Hk (t, Xt ) dXt
∂t 2
under the convention that dtdBk = 0, dt2 = 0, and, dBi dBj = δ ij dt.
Example 35.9 Let g (t, x) = x2 and let Xt = Bt where B0 = 0.
In this case,
Yt = Bt2
and so
1
dYt = 2Bt dBt + · 2dBt2
2
and so
Z t Z t
Bt2 − 0 = 2 BdB + dt
0 0
Z t
= 2 BdB + t.
0
This yields
Z t
1¡ 2 ¢
BdB = Bt − t
0 2
which was encountered earlier.
Example 35.10 Let g (t, x) = x3 and Xt = Bt , Yt = Xt3 where B0 = 0.
Then
1
dYt = 3Xt2 dXt + 6Xt dXt2
2 ¡ ¢
= 3Xt2 dBt + 3Bt dBt2
= 3Bt2 dBt + 3Bt dt
and so µZ Z ¶
t t
Bt3 = 3 B 2 dB + Bdt
0 0
Example 35.11 Let Yt = tBt where Xt = Bt and where B0 = 0. Then

1
dYt = Bt dt + tdBt + 0dBt2
2
= Bt dt + tdBt
and so Z Z
t t
Yt = tBt = Bdt + tdB
0 0
35.3 Some Representation Theorems

First recall the following important lemma, Lemma 35.4 on Page 934 which has to
do with the filtrations described above involving n dimensional Brownian motion.
The most important part of this lemma is that one can consider only the increasing
lists of rational numbers rather than all increasing lists of real numbers in defining
the filtration. Here is the lemma.
Lemma 35.12 Letting Ht denote the completion of the smallest σ algebra contain-
ing
−1
(Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (B)
35.3. SOME REPRESENTATION THEOREMS 949
for all B a Borel set in Rnk for all sequences, 0 ≤ s1 < s2 · ·· < sk ≤ t as defined
above, Ht is also equal to the completion of the smallest σ algebra containing
−1
(Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (B)
for all B an open set in Rnk for all sequences, 0 ≤ s1 < s2 · ·· < sk ≤ t. In addition
to this, Ht is equal to the completion of the smallest σ algebra containing
−1
(Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (B)
for all B an open set in Rnk for all sequences, 0 ≤ s1 < s2 · ·· < sk ≤ t such that
the sj are rational numbers.
Also recall the Doob Dynkin theorem, Theorem 31.19 on Page 866 which is
listed here.
Lemma 35.13 Suppose X, Y1 , Y2 , · · ·, Yk are random vectors, X having values in

Rn and Yj having values in Rpj and
X, Yj ∈ L1 (Ω) .
Suppose X is H(Y1 ,···,Yk ) measurable. Thus

 
© −1 ª  −1
k
Y 
X (E) : E Borel ⊆ (Y1 , · · ·, Yk ) (F ) : F is Borel in Rpj
 
j=1
Qk
Then there exists a Borel function, g : j=1 Rpj → Rn such that
X = g (Y) .
Also recall the submartingale convergence theorem, Theorem 32.12 on Page 900
reviewed below.
Theorem 35.14 (submartingale convergence theorem) Let

∞
{(Xi , Si )}i=1
be a submartingale with K ≡ sup E (|Xn |) < ∞. Then there exists a random

variable, X, such that E (|X|) ≤ K and
lim Xn (ω) = X (ω) a.e.

n→∞
Also here is a generalization of the Itô isometry presented earlier.
Lemma 35.15 Let f be Ht adapted in the sense that every component is Ht adapted
and f ∈ L2 (Ω; Rn ). Here Ht is the filtration defined in Lemma 35.12. Then
¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ T ¯¯
¯¯ T ¯¯
¯¯ f (s) dB¯¯ = ||f ||L2 (Ω×[0,T ];Rn ) .
¯¯ 0 ¯¯ 2
L (Ω)
Proof: Let f an adapted bounded step function. Say

m−1
X
f (t) = ai X[ti ,ti+1 ) (t) .
i=0
Then
¯¯Z ¯¯2
¯¯ T ¯¯
¯¯ T ¯¯
¯¯ f (s) dB¯¯
¯¯ 0 ¯¯ 2
L (Ω)
Z X
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= ai Bti+1 − Bti aTj Btj+1 − Btj dP
T
Ω i,j
For a mixed term in which i 6= j, this integrates to 0 by independence of the

increments. Thus this reduces to
Z X
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
aTi Bti+1 − Bti aTi Bti+1 − Bti dP.
Ω i
Next one uses the independence of the increments of different components of n

dimensional Brownian motion. Thus the above equals
XZ X
air (∆Bti r ) ais (∆Bti s ) dP
i Ω r,s
XZ X 2
= a2ir (∆Bti r ) dP
i Ω r
XZ X XZ 2
= a2ir dP ∆ti = |ai | dP ∆ti
i Ω r i Ω
Z T Z
2
= |f | dP dt.
0 Ω
∞
This proves the lemma for step functions. Now for f as given, let {fk }k=1 be a
sequence of step functions for which
Z T Z T
f T dB = lim fkT dB a.e., ||fk − f ||L2 (Ω×[0,T ];Rn ) → 0.
0 k→∞ 0
nR o
T
Then by what was just shown, 0
fkT dB is Cauchy in L2 (Ω) . Therefore, it
converges in L2 (Ω) to some g ∈ L2 (Ω) . A subsequence converges to g pointwise
RT
which shows g = 0 f T dB. Therefore,
¯¯Z ¯¯ ¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ T ¯¯ ¯¯ T ¯¯
¯¯ T ¯¯ ¯¯ T ¯¯
¯¯ f dB¯¯ = lim ¯¯ fk dB¯¯
¯¯ 0 ¯¯ 2 k→∞ ¯¯ 0 ¯¯ 2
L (Ω) L (Ω)
= lim ||fk ||L2 (Ω×[0,T ];Rn ) = ||f ||L2 (Ω×[0,T ];Rn )
k→∞
and this proves this higher dimensional version of Itô’s isometry.

Now with these lemmas and theorem, it is possible to prove a really interesting
lemma about density of certain kinds of functions in L2 (Ω, HT , P ) .
Lemma 35.16 Let Ht be the filtration alluded to in Lemma 35.12 defined in terms
of the n dimensional Brownian motion. Then random variables of the form
φ (Bt1 , · · ·, Btk )
where t1 ¡< t¢2 · ·· < tk is a finite increasing sequence of rational points in [0, T ] and
φ ∈ Cc∞ Rk are dense in L2 (Ω, HT , P ). Here the set of random variables includes
all such finite increasing lists of rational points of [0, T ].
∞
Proof: Let g ∈ L2 (Ω, HT , P ) . Also let {tj }j=1 be the rational points of [0, T ] .
Now letting {s1 , · · ·, sn } = {t1 , · · ·, tn } such that s1 < s2 < · · · < sn , let Hn denote
the smallest σ algebra which contains
−1
(Bs1 , · · ·, Bsn ) (U )
for all U an open subset of Rn . By Lemma 35.12 HT must be the completion of

the σ algebra, ∪∞ ∞
n=1 Hn and so g has a representative which is ∪n=1 Hn measurable.
∞
Therefore, without loss of generality, one can assume g is ∪n=1 Hn measurable.
Now consider the martingale,
∞
{E (gM |Hn )}n=1
where 
 g (ω) if g (ω) ∈ [−M, M ]
gM (ω) ≡ M if g (ω) > M

−M if g (ω) < −M
and M is chosen large enough that
||g − gM ||L2 (Ω) < ε/4. (35.31)
Now the terms of this martingale are uniformly bounded by M because
|E (gM |Hn )| ≤ E (|gM | |Hn ) ≤ E (M |Hn ) = M.
It follows the martingale is certainly bounded in L1 and so the martingale con-

vergence theorem stated above can be applied, and so there exists f measurable
in ∪∞n=1 Hn such that E (gM |Hn ) (ω) → f (ω) a.e. Also |f (ω)| ≤ M. Now letting
A ∈ ∪∞ n=1 Hn , it follows from the dominated convergence theorem that
Z Z Z
f dP = lim E (gM |Hn ) dP = gM dP
A n→∞ A A
Since A is an arbitrary set in ∪∞

n=1 Hn ,
this shows f = gM . Also, the functions,
∞
{E (gM |Hn )}n=1 are uniformly bounded and so they are bounded in Lp (Ω, ∪∞
n=1 Hn , P )
for p > 2. Therefore, these functions are uniformly integrable and so by the Vitali
convergence theorem,
µZ ¶1/2
2
(gM − E (gM |Hn )) dP →0
Ω
as n → ∞. It follows m can be chosen large enough that
||E (gM |Hm ) − gM ||L2 (Ω) < ε/4. (35.32)
Now by the Doob Dynkin lemma listed above, there exists a Borel measurable,
h : Rnm → R such that
E (gM |Hm ) = h (Bt1 , · · ·, Btm ) a.e.
Of course h is not in Cc∞ (Rnm ) . Let λ(Bt ) be the distribution of the random
1 ,···,Btm
vector (Bt1 , · · ·, Btm ) . Thus λ(Bt ,···,Bt ) is a Radon measure and so there exists
1 m
φ ∈ Cc (Rnm ) such that
µZ ¶1/2
2
|E (gM |Hm ) − φ (Bt1 , · · ·, Btm )| dP
Ω
µZ ¶1/2
2
= |h (Bt1 , · · ·, Btm ) − φ (Bt1 , · · ·, Btm )| dP
Ω
µZ ¶1/2
2
= |h (x1 , · · ·, xm ) − φ (x1 , · · ·, xm )| dλ(Bt ,···,Bt ) < ε/4.
nm 1 m
R
By convolving with a mollifier, one can assume that φ ∈ Cc∞ (Rnm ) also. It follows
from 35.31 and 35.32 that
||g − φ (Bt1 , · · ·, Btm )||L2

≤ ||g − gM ||L2 + ||gM − E (gM |Hm )||L2
+ ||E (gM |Hm ) − φ (Bt1 , · · ·, Btm )||L2
³ε´
≤ 3 <ε
4
In this lemma and the following theorems, HT continues to be the completion
of the smallest σ algebra which contains
−1
(Bs1 , · · ·, Bsk ) (B)
for all increasing sequences, s1 < · · · < sk and B a Borel set of Rnk .
Lemma 35.17 Let h (t) be a deterministic step function of the form

m−1
X
h (t) = ai X[ti ,ti+1 ) .
i=0
Then for h of this form, linear combinations of functions of the form
ÃZ Z !
T T
T 1
exp h dB − h · hdt (35.33)
0 2 0
are dense in L2 (Ω, HT , P ) .
Proof: I will show in the process of the proof that functions of the form 35.33
are in L2 (Ω, P ). If the conclusion of the lemma is not true, there exists nonzero
g ∈ L2 (Ω, HT , P ) such that
Z ÃZ Z !
T
1 T T
g (ω) exp h dB − h · hdt dP
Ω 0 2 0
Ã Z !Z ÃZ !
1 T T
T
= exp − h · hdt g (ω) exp h dB dP = 0
2 0 Ω 0
for all such h. Letting h be given as above,
Z T m−1
X ¡ ¢
hT dB = aTi Bti+1 − Bti (35.34)
0 i=0
m
X m−1
X
= aTi−1 Bti − aTi Bti
i=1 i=0
m−1
X ¡ ¢
= aTi−1 − aTi Bti + aT0 Bt0 + aTn−1 Btn . (35.35)
i=1
³R ´
T
Also 35.34 shows exp 0 hT dB is in L2 (Ω, P ) . To see this recall the Bti+1 − Bti
are independent and the density of Bti+1 − Bti is
Ã !
2
1 |x|
C (n, ∆ti ) exp −
2 (ti+1 − ti )
so
Z Ã ÃZ
T
!!2 Z Ã Z
T
!
T T
exp h dB dP = exp 2 h dB dP
Ω 0 Ω 0
Z Ãm−1 !
X ¡ ¢
= exp 2aTi Bti+1 − Bti dP
Ω i=0
Z m−1
Y ¡ ¡ ¢¢
Ω i=0
YZ
m−1
¡ ¡ ¢¢
i=0 Ω
Ã !
YZ
m−1
¡ 1 |x| ¢ 2
= C (n, ∆ti ) exp 2aTi x exp − dx < ∞
i=0 Rn 2 ∆ti
Choosing the ai appropriately in 35.35, the formula in 35.35 is of the form

m−1
X
yiT Bti
i=0
where yi is an arbitrary vector in R . It follows that for all choices of yj ∈ Rn ,

n
 
Z m−1
X
g (ω) exp  yjT Btj (ω) dP = 0.
Ω j=0
Now the mapping

 
Z m−1
X
y = (y1 , · · ·, ym ) → g (ω) exp  yjT Btj (ω) dP
Ω j=0
is analytic on Cmn and equals zero on Rnm so from standard complex variable the-
ory, this analytic function must equal zero on Cnm , not just on Rnm . In particular,
for all y = (y1 , · · ·, ym ) ∈ Rnm ,
 
Z m−1
X
g (ω) exp  iyjT Btj (ω) dP = 0. (35.36)
Ω j=0
Now pick φ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) . Thus φ is in the Schwartz class and from the theory of
Fourier transforms,
Z
1
φ (x) = mn/2
eiy·x F φ (y) dy.
(2π) Rmn
In particular,
¡ ¢
φ Bt0 (ω) , · · ·, Btm−1 (ω)
 
Z m−1
X
1
= mn/2
exp  iyjT Btj (ω) F φ (y) dy.
(2π) R mn
j=0
Therefore, Z
¡ ¢
g (ω) φ Bt0 (ω) , · · ·, Btm−1 (ω) dP
Ω
 
Z Z m−1
X
1
= mn/2
g (ω) exp  iyjT Btj (ω) F φ (y) dydP
(2π) Ω Rmn j=0
 
Z Z m−1
X
1
= mn/2
g (ω) exp  iyjT Btj (ω) dP F φ (y) dy
(2π) Rmn Ω j=0
Z
1
= mn/2
0F φ (y) dy = 0
(2π) Rmn
which shows by Lemma 35.16 that g = 0 after all, contrary to assumption. This
proves the lemma.
Why such a funny lemma? It is because of the following computation which
depends on Itô’s formula. First lets review Itô’s formula. For
dXt = udt + V dB
where u is a vector and V a matrix, and Y = g (t, X) ,
∂gk 1
dYk = (t, Xt ) dt + D2 gk (t, Xt ) dXt + dXTt Hk (t, Xt ) dXt
∂t 2
where dtdBk = 0, dt2 = 0, and, dBi dBj = δ ij dt. In the above, Hk is the hessian
matrix of gk . Thus this reduces to
∂gk
dYk = (t, Xt ) dt + D2 gk (t, Xt ) (udt + V dB)
∂t
1 T
+ (udt + V dB) Hk (t, Xt ) (udt + V dB)
µ 2 ¶
∂gk 1 ¡ ¢
= (t, Xt ) + D2 gk (t, Xt ) u + tr V T Hk V dt + D2 gk (t, Xt ) V dB
∂t 2
In the above case, referring to 35.33, let
Z t Z
1 t
X= hT dB − h · hdt
0 2 0
and g (x) = ex so Y = eX . Then in this case, g is a scalar valued function of one
variable and so the above formula reduces to
µ ³ ´¶
1 2 1
dY = − eX |h| + eX tr hhT dt + eX hT dB
2 2
µ ¶
1 2 1 2
= − eX |h| + eX |h| dt + eX hT dB
2 2
= Y hT dB
Hence
Z t
Y = Y0 + Y hT dB
0
Z t
= 1+ Y hT dB.
0
Now here is the interesting part of this formula.

µZ t ¶
T
E Y h dB = 0
0
¡ ¢
because the integrand is an adapted step function and E Btj+1 − Btj = 0. There-
fore, letting F = Y,
Z T
T
F = E (F ) + f (t, ω) dB (35.37)
0
It follows that for F ∈ L2 (Ω, HT , P ) of the special form described in Lemma 35.17,
there exists an adapted function in L2 (Ω; Rn ), f such that 35.37 holds. Does such a
function f exist for all F ∈ L2 (Ω, HT , P )? The answer is yes and this is the content
of the next theorem which is called the Itô representation theorem.
Theorem 35.18 Let F ∈ L2 (Ω, HT , P ) . Then there exists a unique Ht adapted

f ∈ L2 (Ω × [0, T ] ; Rn ) such that
Z T
T
F = E (F ) + f (s, ω) dB.
0
Proof: By Lemma 35.17, functions of the form

ÃZ Z !
T T
T 1
exp h dB − h · hdt
0 2 0
where h is a vector valued deterministic step function of the sort described in this
∞
lemma, are dense in L2 (Ω, HT , P ). Given F ∈ L2 (Ω, HT , P ) , {Gk }k=1 be functions
in the subspace of linear combinations of the above functions which converge to F in
L2 (Ω, HT , P ). For each of these functions there exists fk an adapted step function
such that
Z T
T
Gk = E (Gk ) + fk (s, ω) dB.
0
2
Then from the Itô isometry, and the observation that E (Gk − Gl ) → 0 as k, l → ∞
by the above definition of Gk in which the Gk converge to F in L2 (Ω) ,
³ ´
2
0 = lim E (Gk − Gl )
k,l→∞
Ã Ã !!2 
Z T Z T
T T
= lim E  E (Gk ) + fk (s, ω) dB− E (Gl ) + fl (s, ω) dB 
k,l→∞ 0 0
( Z Z T
2 T
= lim E (Gk − Gl ) + 2E (Gk − Gl ) (fk − fl ) dBdP
k,l→∞ Ω 0

Z ÃZ T
!2

T
+ (fk − fl ) dB dP
Ω 0 
 
 Z ÃZ T
!2

2 T
= lim E (Gk − Gl ) + (fk − fl ) dB dP
k,l→∞  Ω 0 
Z ÃZ T
!2
T
= lim (fk − fl ) dB dP = lim ||fk − fl ||L2 (Ω×[0,T ];Rn ) (35.38)
k,l→∞ Ω 0 k,l→∞
R RT T
Going from the third to the fourth equations, is justified because Ω 0 (fk − fl ) dBdP =
0 thanks to the independence of the integrals and the fact fk − fl is an adapted step
function.
∞
This shows {fk }k=1 is a Cauchy sequence in L2 (Ω × [0, T ] ; Rn ) . It follows there
exists a subsequence and f ∈ L2 (Ω × [0, T ] ; Rn ) such that fk converges to f point-
wise and in L2 (Ω × [0, T ] ; Rn ) with f B ×HT measurable. Then by the Itô isometry
and the equation
Z T
T
Gk = E (Gk ) + fk (s, ω) dB
0
you can pass to the limit as k → ∞ and obtain
Z T
T
F = E (F ) + f (s, ω) dB
0
where f is adapted because of the pointwise convergence. Thus if N is the B × HT

measurable set of m × P measure zero, where convergence does not take place,
Z TZ
XN (t, ω) dP dt = 0
0 Ω
R
and so for a.e. t, Ω XN dP = 0 and so fk (t, ω) → f (t, ω) for a.e. ω except for t in a
set of measure zero. Now each fk (t, ·) is Ht measurable and since Ht is complete,
it follows f (t, ·) is also Ht measurable. Now redefine f (t, ω) ≡ 0 for all t in this
exceptional set of measure zero. Then the resulting f must be Ht adapted. This
proves the existence part of this theorem.
It remains to consider the uniqueness. Suppose then that

Z T Z T
T T
F = E (F ) + f (t, ω) dB = E (F ) + f1 (t, ω) dB.
0 0
Then Z Z
T T
T T
f (t, ω) dB = f1 (t, ω) dB
0 0
and so Z T ³ ´
T T
f (t, ω) − f1 (t, ω) dB = 0
0
and by the Itô isometry,
¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ T ³ ´ ¯¯
¯¯ T T ¯¯
0 = ¯¯ f (t, ω) − f1 (t, ω) dB¯¯ = ||f − f 1 ||L2 (Ω×[0,T ];Rn )
¯¯ 0 ¯¯
L2 (Ω)
which proves uniqueness. This proves the theorem.

With the above major result, here is another interesting representation theorem.
Recall that if you have an Ht adapted function, f and f ∈ L2 (Ω × [0, T ]) , then
Rt T
0
f dB is a martingale. This was proved in Theorem 34.12 for the case of one
dimensional Brownian motion but it will end up being true for the general case
also. The next theorem is sort of a converse. It starts with an Ht martingale and
represents it as an Itô integral. In this theorem, Ht continues to be the filtration
determined by n dimensional Brownian motion.
Theorem 35.19 Let Mt be an Ht martingale and suppose Mt ∈ L2 (Ω) for all

t ≥ 0. Then there exists a unique stochastic process, g (s, ω) such that g is Ht
adapted and in L2 (Ω × [0, t]) for each t > 0, and for all t ≥ 0,
Z t
Mt = E (M0 ) + gT dB
0
Proof: First suppose f is an adapted function of the sort that g is. Then the
following claim is the first step in the proof.
Claim: Let t1 < t2 . Then
µZ t2 ¶
T
E f dB|Ht1 = 0
t1
Proof of claim: First consider the claim in the case that f is an adapted step
function of the form
n−1
X
f (t) = ai X[ti ,ti+1 ) (t)
i=0
Then
Z t2 n−1
X ¡ ¢
f T dB (ω) = aTi (ω) Bti+1 (ω) − Bti (ω) .
t1 i=0
Now letting A ∈ Ht1

Z µZ t2 ¶
T
E f dB|Ht1 dP
A t1
Z Z t2 Z n−1
X
T
¡ ¢
≡ f dBdP = aTi (ω) Bti+1 (ω) − Bti (ω) dP
A t1 A i=0
XZ
n−1
¡ ¢
= XA (ω) aTi (ω) Bti+1 (ω) − Bti (ω) dP
i=0 Ω
XZ
n−1 Z
¡ ¢
= XA (ω) aTi (ω) dP Bti+1 (ω) − Bti (ω) dP = 0.
i=0 Ω Ω
³R ´
t
Since A is arbitrary, E t12 f T dB|Ht1 = 0. This proves the claim in the case that
f is an adapted step function. The general case follows from this in the usual way.
If f is not a step function, there is a sequence of adapted step functions, {fk } such
that Z Z t2 t2
fkT dB → f T dB
t1 t1
in L2 (Ω, P ) and ||fk − f ||L2 (Ω×[t1 ,t2 ];Rn ) → 0. Then using the Itô isometry,
Z µ µZ t2 ¶ µZ t2 ¶¶2
E fkT dB|Ht1 −E T
f dB|Ht1 dP
Ω t1 t1
Z µZ t2 Z t2 ¶2
= E fkT dB − T
f dB|Ht1 dP
Ω t1 t1
Z µZ t2 Z t2 ¶2 Z µZ t2 ¶2
¡ ¢
= fkT dB − f dBT
dP = fkT −f T dB dP
Ω t1 t1 Ω t1
= ||fk − f ||L2 (Ω×[t1 ,t2 ];Rn ) → 0
Thus the desired conclusion holds in the general case as well.

Now to prove the theorem, it follows from Theorem 35.18 and the assumption
that Mt is a martingale that for t > 0 there exists f t ∈ L2 (Ω × [0, T ] ; Rn ) such that
Z t
T
Mt = E (Mt ) + f t (s, ·) dB
0
Z t
T
= E (M0 ) + f t (s, ·) dB.
0
Now let t1 < t2 . Then since Mt is a martingale,

µ Z t2 ¶
t2 T
Mt1 = E (Mt2 |Ht1 ) = E E (M0 ) + f (s, ·) dB|Ht1
0
µZ t1 Z t2 ¶
t2 T t2 T
= E (M0 ) + E f (s, ·) dB+ f (s, ·) dB|Ht1
0 t1
µZ t1 ¶
T
= E (M0 ) + E f t2 (s, ·) dB|Ht1
0
Z t1
T
= E (M0 ) + f t2 (s, ·) dB
0
R t1 T
because 0
f t2 (s, ·) dB is Ht1 measurable. Thus
Z t1 Z t1
T T
Mt1 = E (M0 ) + f t2 (s, ·) dB = E (M0 ) + f t1 (s, ·) dB
0 0
and so Z Z
t1 t1
t1 T T
0= f (s, ·) dB− f t2 (s, ·) dB
0 0
and so by the Itô isometry,

¯¯ t ¯¯
¯¯f 1 − f t 2 ¯¯ 2 = 0.
L (Ω×[0,t1 ];Rn )
Letting N ∈ N, it follows that

Z t
T
Mt = E (M0 ) + f N (s, ·) dB
0
for all t ≤ N. Let g = f N for t ∈ [0, N ] . Then asside from a set of measure zero,
this is well defined and for all t ≥ 0
Z t
T
Mt = E (M0 ) + g (s, ·) dB
0

Surely this is an incredible theorem. Note it implies all the martingales which
are in L2 for each t must be continuous a.e. Also, any such martingale satisfies
M0 = E (M0 ) . Isn’t that amazing?
35.4 Stochastic Differential Equations

35.4.1 Gronwall’s Inequality
The fundamental tool in estimating differential equations is Gronwall’s inequality.
It is a very elementary result but of enormous significance. I will first give a proof
of this important theorem. Also, I will write X (t) rather than Xt .
35.4. STOCHASTIC DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 961
Lemma 35.20 Let k ≥ 0 and suppose u (t) is a Lebesgue measurable function in

L1 ([0, T ]) which satisfies
Z t
u (t) ≤ u0 + ku (s) ds.
0
Then
u (t) ≤ u0 ekt .
Proof: Let µ Z t ¶
kt
f (t) = u0 e − u0 + ku (s) ds .
0
Then f (0) = 0 and
f 0 (t) = ku0 ekt − ku (t)

µ Z t ¶
≥ ku0 ekt − k u0 + ku (s) ds
0
= kf (t)
and so f 0 (t) − kf (t) ≥ 0 and so
d ¡ −kt ¢
e f (t) ≥ 0
dt
which implies f (t) ≥ 0. Hence
Z t
u (t) ≤ u0 + ku (s) ds ≤ u0 ekt .
0
This proves Gronwall’s inequality.
35.4.2 Review Of Itô Integrals And A Filtration

Next recall the definition of the Itô integral. The context is that Ht is a filtration,
Bt is a martingale for Ht , and if s > t, Bs − Bt is independent of Ht .

ω∈
Z T
2
f (t, ω) dt < ∞.
S
Z T
2
(f (t, ω) − φn (t, ω)) dt ≤ 2−n
S
for ω ∈
Z t Z t
S n→∞ S
Rt
Rt
In what follows Bt will be m dimensional Brownian motion and the filtration

will be denoted by Ht where Ht is the completion of the smallest σ algebra which
contains
−1
(Bt0 , · · ·, Btk ) (U )
whenever 0 ≤ t0 < · · · < tk ≤ t and U is a Borel set. Also, Z, a measurable Rn
valued function will be independent of Ht for all t > 0. Then HtZ will denote the
completion of the smallest σ algebra which contains
¡ ¢−1
Z, Bt0 , · · ·, Btk (U )
whenever 0 ≤ t0 < · · · < tk ≤ t and U is a Borel set. Then the following lemma is
what is needed to consider certain Itô integrals.
Lemma 35.22 Bt is an HtZ martingale and if s > t, the increments Bs − Bt are

independent of HtZ .
Proof: Let A, Uk , V for k = 0, · · ·, p be open sets and let s > t and

¡ ¢−1 −1
D = Z, Bt0 , · · ·, Btp (A × U0 × · · · × Up ) , E = (Bs − Bt ) (V ) .
I need to verify that P (D ∩ E) = P (D) P (E) .
D ∩ E = Z−1 (A) ∩ ∩pi=0 B−1

ti (Ui ) ∩ E
From independence of Z to Ht for all t > 0, and independence of the increments,

Bs − Bt to Ht ,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
P (D ∩ E) = P Z−1 (A) P ∩pi=0 B−1 ti (Ui ) ∩ E
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= P Z−1 (A) P ∩pi=0 B−1 ti (Ui ) P (E)
¡ ¢
= P Z−1 (A) ∩ ∩pi=0 B−1 ti (Ui ) P (E)
= P (D) P (E) .
It follows that for all D an inverse image of an open set and E of the above form
where V is open, P (D ∩ E) = P (D) P (E). It follows easily this holds for all D
−1
and E inverse images of Borel sets. If D ∈ Ht and E = (Bs − Bt ) (V ) then there
exists D1 an inverse image of a Borel set such that D1 ⊇ D and P (D1 \ D) = 0 so
P (D ∩ E) = P (D1 ∩ E)
= P (D1 ) P (E) = P (D) P (E) .
This verifies the independence.

Now let A ∈ HtZ . Then from the above independence result,
Z Z
¡ Z
¢
E Bs − Bt |Ht dP = Bs − Bt dP
A
ZA Z
= dP Bs − Bt dP = 0
A Ω
and so
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
E Bs |HtZ = E Bs − Bt + Bt |HtZ
¡ ¢
= 0 + E Bt |HtZ = Bt .
35.4.3 A Function Space

¡ p¢
Lemma 35.23 Let C [0, T ] ; L2 (Ω) denote the space of ¡continuous functions
p p¢
with values in L2 (Ω) and for each λ ≥ 0, denote for X ∈ C [0, T ] ; L2 (Ω)
n o
||X||λ ≡ max e−λt ||X (t)||L2 (Ω)p : t ∈ [0, T ]
¡ ¡ p¢ ¢
Then all these norms are equivalent and C [0, T ] ; L2 (Ω) , ||·||λ is a Banach
space. Suppose also that Gt is a filtration and that X (t) is Gt measurable. Then by
changing X (t) There exists a B × F measurable function, Y such that for each
t, Y (t) is Gt measurable and for all t not in a Borel measurable set of mea-
p
sure ¡zero, X (t) = ¢Y (t) in L2 (Ω) .Furthermore, if VG denotes those functions
2 p
in C [0, T ] ; L (Ω) which are Gt adapted, then VG is a closed subspace of
¡ p¢
C [0, T ] ; L2 (Ω) .
Proof: The assertion about the norms and the Banach space are all obvious.
The main message is about the measurability assertions. Let P ≡ {t0 , · · ·, tn } be
a partition
¡ of [0, T ] of¢the usual sort where 0 = t0 < t1 < · · · < tn = T. Then for
p
X ∈ C [0, T ] ; L2 (Ω) and Gt adapted, consider
n
X
XP (t) ≡ X (tk−1 ) X[tk−1 ,tk ) (t) .
k=1
By the assumption of continuity of X, it follows ||X − XP ||λ → 0 as ||P || → 0

where ||P || is the norm of the partition given by max {|ti+1 − ti |} . Picking λ = 0
for convenience, it follows there exists a sequence of partitions, {Pn } such that
||X − XPn ||0 < 2−n . Therefore, for each t ∈ [0, T ] , XPn (t) (ω) → X (t) (ω) a.e. ω.
It follows X (t) is Gt measurable.
Now each XPn is B × F measurable because it is a finite sum of such functions.

p
It follows {XPn } is a Cauchy sequence in L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) and so there exists Y
p
which is B × F measurable and XPn converges to Y in L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) . Now
Z
2
t→ |XPn − Y| dP
Ω
is measurable and so taking the limit as n → ∞, it follows

Z
2
t→ |X − Y| dP
Ω
is also measurable. Also

Z TZ
2
|X − Y| dP dt
0
ÃZ Ω Z Z Z !
T T
2 2
≤ 2 |X − XPn | dP dt + |XPn − Y| dP dt
0 Ω 0 Ω
and both these integrals converge to 0 as n → ∞. Therefore, there is a Borel set of

measure zero, N ⊆ [0, T ] such that for t ∈
/ N,
Z
2
|X (t) −Y (t)| dP = 0
Ω
and it follows that for such t,

p
X (t) = Y (t) in L2 (Ω) .
For t in the exceptional set, modify Y (t) by setting it equal to 0. Then Y is Gt

adapted.
∞
It only remains to consider the last claim about VG . Suppose {Xn }n=1 ⊆ VG and
||Xn − Y||λ → 0. I need to verify Y is Gt adapted. However, taking a subsequence,
still called n and letting λ = 0 for convenience, it can be assumed
||Xn − Y||0 < 2−n
and so it follows for each t ∈ [0, T ] , Xn (t) (ω) → Y (t) (ω) a.e. ω. It follows since
(Ω, Gt , P ) is complete, Y (t) is Gt measurable for each t. This proves the lemma.
35.4.4 An Extension Of The Itô Integral

Now I will give a definition of the Itô integral on VG . It is assumed here that
Gt is a filtration with the property that m dimensional Brownian motion, Bt is a
martingale for it and if Rs > t, Bs − Bt is independent of Gt so it makes sense to
t
speak of an Itô integral, 0 XT dB given X is Gt adapted, B × F measurable and in
2 m
L ([0, T ] × Ω) . Here is the definition.
Definition 35.24 Let X ∈ VG . Then

Z t Z t
T p
X dB ≡ YT dB in L2 (Ω)
0 0
where Y is a Gt adapted function which is B × F measurable and Y (t) = X (t) in

p
L2 (Ω) for a.e. t ∈ [0, T ].
Proof: Suppose both Y and Y1 work as described in the definition. Then
||Y − Y1 ||L2 ([0,T ]×Ω)p = 0
and so by the Itô isometry,

¯¯Z t ¯¯
¯¯ ¡ T ¢ ¯¯
¯¯ Y − Y1 dB¯¯¯¯
T
=0
¯¯
0 L2 (Ω)p
Rt Rt p
which shows 0 YT dB = 0 Y1T dB in L2 (Ω) . This proves the lemma.
p m
For x ∈ R , b (t, x) ∈ R and σ (t, x) will be an p × m matrix. It is assumed
that for given x, y ∈ Rp the following measurability and Lipschitz conditions hold.
t → b (t, x) , t → σ (t, x) are Lebesgue measurable, (35.39)
|b (t, x) − b (t, y)| + |σ (t, x) − σ (t, y)| ≤ K |x − y| , (35.40)

|b (t, x)| + |σ (t, x)| ≤ C (1 + |x|) . (35.41)
In the above, it suffices to have the components of b and σ measurable. Also,the
norm refers to any convenient norm. This does not matter because all the norms
on a finite dimensional vector space are equivalent.
Definition 35.26 Let Gt be a filtration for which Bt is a martingale and such that
for s > t, Bs − Bt is independent of Gt . For X product measurable in B × F and
Gt adapted define
µZ t ¶ Z t
σ (s, X) dB ≡ (σ (s, X))k dB
0 k 0
where (σ (s, X))k refers to the k th row of the matrix, σ.
35.4.5 A Vector Valued Deterministic Integral

¡ p¢
Lemma 35.27 Let X ∈ C [0, T ] ; L2 (Ω) and let b be given as above. Then
Z
t→ b (t, X (t)) dP
Ω
is Lebesgue measurable. It is also possible to define an integral, having values in

p
L2 (Ω) according to the following formula in which [a, b] ⊆ [0, T ].
ÃZ ! Z
b b
b (t, X (t)) dt, h ≡ (b (t, X (t)) , h)L2 (Ω)p dt
a a
L2 (Ω)p
The integral defined in this way satisfies all the usual algebraic properties for inte-
grals and
Z t
t→ b (s, X (s)) ds
a
p
is continuous as a function with values in L2 (Ω) . Also if X is Gt adapted for Gt a
filtration, then
Z b
b (s, X (s)) ds
a
is Gb measurable.
Proof: Let XPn (t) be the sequence of step functions converging to X (t) which
is described in Lemma 35.23. Then on [tj , tj+1 ),
Z Z
b (t, XPn (t)) dP = b (t, X (tj )) dP
Ω Ω
p
where X (tj ) P ∈ L2 (Ω) . It follows X (tj ) is the pointwise limit of simple functions
m 2 p
of the form k=1 ck XEk (ω) which also converge to X (tj ) in L (Ω) . Thus for
t ∈ [tj , tj+1 ),
Z Ã m ! m Z
X X
b t, ck XEk (ω) dP = b (t, ck ) dP,
Ω k=1 k=1 Ek
a measurable function of t. Now let {Sn } be a sequence of these simple functions

p
converging to X (tj ) in L2 (Ω) . Then
¯Z Z ¯ Z
¯ ¯
¯ b (t, X (tj )) dP − b (t, S ) dP ¯ ≤ K |Sn − X (tj )| dP
¯ n ¯
Ω Ω Ω
≤ K ||Sn − X (tj )||L2 (Ω)p
R
and so Ω b (t, X (tj ))R dP is a pointwise limit of Lebesgue measurable functions on
[tj , tj+1 ). It follows Ω b (t, XPn (t)) dP is Lebesgue Rmeasurable. Using a similar
argument to what was just done, this converges to Ω b (t, X (t)) dP, and so this
last integral is also Lebesgue measurable in t. By a repeat of the above arguments
or by simple specializing to b having real values, it follows
Z
t→ |b (t, X (t))| dP
Ω
is Lebesgue measurable.
¡ Also,¢ using the properties of b and Holder’s inequality, if
p
Xn → X in C [0, T ] ; L2 (Ω) ,
¯Z Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ |b (t, X (t))|2 dt − |b (t, X (t))|
2
dt¯ ≤ C ||X (t) − Xn (t)||2 2 p .
¯ n ¯ L (Ω)
Ω Ω
Therefore, exploiting the same sorts of arguments involving first

R approximating by
2
step functions and then by simple functions, it follows t → Ω |b (t, X (t))| dt is
Lebesgue measurable.
Next consider the definition of the integral. From the first part,
t → (b (t, X (t)) , h)L2 (Ω)p
is Lebesgue measurable and also
¯Z ¯ Z
¯ b ¯ b
¯ ¯ 2
¯ (b (t, X (t)) , h)L2 (Ω)p dt¯ ≤ ||b (t, X (t))||L2 (Ω)p dt ||h||L2 (Ω)p .
¯ a ¯ a
Rb
Letting Λ (h) ≡ a (b (t, X (t)) , h)L2 (Ω)p dt, it follows Λ is a continuous linear func-
p
tional on L2 (Ω) and so by the Riesz representation theorem, there exists a unique
p
element of L2 (Ω) denoted by
Z b
b (t, X (t)) dt
a
such that
ÃZ ! Z
b b
b (t, X (t)) dt, h = (b (t, X (t)) , h)L2 (Ω)p dt.
a a
L2 (Ω)p
This completes the definition of the integral.

It is obvious the integral satisfies all the usual algebraic properties. Consider
the claim about continuity. Let s < t. Then
¯µZ Z t ¶ ¯
¯ s ¯
¯ ¯
¯ b (r, X (r)) dr − b (r, X (r)) dr, h ¯
¯ a a L2 (Ω)p
¯
¯µZ ¶ ¯ Z
¯ t ¯ t¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
≤¯ b (r, X (r)) , h ¯≤ ¯(b (r, X (r)) , h)L2 (Ω)p ¯ dr
¯ s L2 (Ω) p ¯ s
Z t
≤C ||b (r, X (r))||L2 (Ω)p dr ||h||L2 (Ω)p
s
1/2
≤ C 0 (t − s) ||h||L2 (Ω)p .
It follows
¯¯Z s Z t ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ b (r, X (r)) dr − b (r, X (r)) dr¯¯¯¯
1/2
≤ C 0 |t − s| .
¯¯
a a L2 (Ω)p
The last assertion follows from approximating by step functions as in Lemma

35.23, noting the step functions are Gb measurable and then passing to a limit to
obtain the desired conclusion. This proves the lemma.
35.4.6 The Existence And Uniqueness Theorem

In the next lemma, the two integrals are as defined above.
Lemma 35.28 Let b and σ satisfy 35.39 - 35.41. Let Z be a random vector which
is either independent of Ht for all t > 0 or else is measurable with respect to Ht for
all t and suppose Z
2
|Z| dP < ∞
Ω
Let Gt = HtZ in the first case and let Gt = Ht in the second. Then there exists a
unique solution, X ∈ VG to the integral equation,
Z t Z t
X (t) = Z + b (s, X (s)) ds + σ (s, X (s)) dB.
0 0
Proof: For X ∈ VG , supplied with the norm ||·||λ described above, let
Z t Z t
ΦX (t) ≡ Z + b (s, X (s)) ds + σ (s, X (s)) dB
0 0
It follows from Corollary 31.43 on Page 890 and Lemmas 34.8 on Page 925 and
Lemma 35.27 that ΦX is Gt adapted and B × F measurable. The deterministic
p
integral is a continuous function of t with values in L2 (Ω) by Lemma 35.27. The
same is true of the Itô integral. To see this, let Y be adapted and product measur-
able and equal to X for a.e. t. Then by the Itô isometry and the above definition
of this integral of functions in VG ,
¯¯Z t Z s ¯¯2
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ σ (r, X (r)) dB− σ (r, X (r)) dB¯¯¯¯
¯¯
0 0 2 L (Ω)p
¯¯Z t Z s ¯¯2
¯¯ ¯¯
= ¯¯ σ (r, Y (r)) dB− σ (r, Y (r)) dB¯¯¯¯
¯¯
0 0 L2 (Ω)p
¯¯Z t ¯¯2 Z tZ
¯¯ ¯¯
= ¯¯ σ (r, Y (r)) dB ¯¯ =
2
|σ (r, Y (r))| dP dr
¯¯ ¯¯ 2 p
s L (Ω) s Ω
Z tZ ³ ´ Z tZ ³ ´
2 2
≤ 2C 1 + |Y (r)| dP dr = 2C 1 + |X (r)| dP dr
s Ω s Ω
which converges to 0 as s → t. Thus Φ : VG → VG .

In fact, if λ is large enough, Φ is a contraction mapping. I will show this next.
Let X, Y ∈ VG and let X1 , Y1 be corresponding measurable representatives as
above. By the Itô isometry,

¯¯ µZ t Z t ¶¯¯2
¯¯ −λt ¯¯
¯¯e σ (s, X (s)) dB− σ (s, Y (s)) dB ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ 2
0 0 L (Ω)p
Z tZ
2
≤ e−λt |σ (s, X1 (s)) − σ (s, Y1 (s))| dP ds
0 Ω
Z tZ
−λt 2
≤ Ke |X1 (s) − Y1 (s)| dP ds
0 Ω
Z t µ Z ¶
−λt λs −λs 2
= Ke e e |X (s) − Y (s)| dP ds
0 Ω
Z t
1
≤ K eλ(s−t) ds ||X − Y||λ ≤ K ||X − Y||λ .
0 λ
Thus if λ is large enough, this term is a contraction. Similar but easier reasoning
applies to the deterministic integral in the definition of Φ. Therefore, by the usual
contraction mapping theorem, Φ has a unique fixed point in VG . This proves the
lemma.
Theorem 35.29 Let b and σ satisfy 35.39 - 35.41. Let Z be a random vector
which is either independent of Ht for all t > 0 or else is measurable with respect to
Ht for all t and suppose Z
2
|Z| dP < ∞
Ω
p
B × F measurable function, Y ∈ L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) and a set of measure zero, N such
that for ω ∈
/ N,
Z t Z t
Y (t) (ω) = Z + b (s, Y (s) (ω)) ds + σ (s, Y (s)) dB (ω)
0 0
for all t ∈ [0, T ].
Proof: Let X be the solution of Lemma 35.28. Thus

Z t Z t
X (t) = Z + b (s, X (s)) ds + σ (s, X (s)) dB.
0 0
Now let Y e be B × F measurable, adapted, in L2 ([0, T ] × Ω)p , and Y e (t) = X (t)

p
a.e. t. Letting h ∈ L2 (Ω) , the definition of the first integral in the above implies
¯µZ Z t ³ ¶ ¯
¯ t ´ ¯
¯ e (s) (·) ds, h ¯
¯ b (s, X (s)) ds − b s, Y ¯
¯ 0 0 2
L (Ω) p¯
Z t³ ³ ´ ´
≤ e (s) , h
b (s, X (s)) − b s, Y ds
0 L2 (Ω)p
Z t ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ e (s)¯¯¯¯
≤ K ¯¯X (s) − Y ds ||h||L2 (Ω)p = 0
0 L2 (Ω)p
and so Z Z
t t ³ ´
b (s, X (s)) ds = e (s) ds in L2 (Ω)p .
b s, Y
0 0
p
It follows that in L2 (Ω) ,
Z t ³ ´ Z t ³ ´
X (t) = Z + e
b s, Y (s) ds + e (s) dB
σ s, Y (35.42)
0 0
where now the first integral on the right is the usual thing given by
Z t ³ ´ Z t ³ ´
e (s) ds (ω) =
b s, Y e (s) (ω) ds
b s, Y
0 0
Also, for a.e. ω, t³→ Y e (t) (ω) is a function in L2 (0, T ) and from the theory of
Rt ´
the Itô integral, 0 σ s, Ye (s) dB is a continuous function of t for ω not in a set of
measure zero. Therefore, for ω off a set of measure zero, the right side of 35.42 is
continuous in t. It also delivers an adapted product measurable function, Y. Thus
for a.e. ω, Y (t) (ω) is a continuous function of t and
Z t ³ ´ Z t ³ ´
Y (t) = Z + b s, Ye (s) ds + σ s, Y e (s) dB
0 0
p
and so Y (t) = X (t) in L2 (Ω) for all t. Now this also shows Y (t) = Y e (t) for a.e.
p
t. Hence by the Itô isometry, the right side of the above is unchanged in L2 (Ω) if Ye
is replaced by Y. By the argument just given, the resulting right side is continuous
in t for a.e. ω and so there exists a set of measure zero such that for ω not in this
set, Z Z
t t
Y (t) (ω) = Z + b (s, Y (s) (ω)) ds + σ (s, Y (s)) dB (ω)
0 0
and both sides are continuous functions of t. This proves the theorem.
Note there were two cases given for the initial condition in the above theorem.
The second is not very interesting. If Z is H0 measurable, then since B0 = x, a
constant, it follows H0 = {∅, Ω} so Z is a constant. However, if Z is a constant,
then it satisfies the first condition.
Not surprisingly, the solution to the above theorem is unique. This is stated as
the following corollary which is the main result.
Corollary 35.30 Let b and σ satisfy 35.39 - 35.41. Let Z be a random vector
which is independent of Ht for all t > 0 and suppose
Z
2
|Z| dP < ∞
Ω
n
Then there exists a unique HtZ adapted solution, X ∈ L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) to the integral
equation,
Z t Z t
X (t) = Z + b (s, X (s)) ds + σ (s, X (s)) dB a.e. ω (35.43)
0 0
e is another solution, then there exists a set of measure zero,

in the sense that if X
N such that for ω ∈ e (t) = X (t) for all t ∈ [0, T ].
/ N, X
Proof: The existence part of this proof is already done. Let N denote the union
of the exceptional sets corresponding to X and X e . Then from 35.43 and the various
assumptions on b and σ,it follows that for ω ∈ / N,
¯ ¯2 Z t¯ ¯2
¯ e (t)¯¯ ≤ 2K 2 T ¯ e (s)¯¯ ds
¯X (t) − X ¯X (s) − X
0
¯Z t ³ ³ ´´ ¯2
¯ ¯
+2 ¯¯ e (s) dB¯ .
σ (s, X (s)) − σ s, X ¯
0
Then by the Itô isometry, this implies

¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ e (t)¯¯¯¯
¯¯X (t) − X
L2 (Ω)n
Z t ¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ e (s)¯¯¯¯
≤ 2K 2 T ¯¯X (s) − X ds
0 L2 (Ω)n
Z t ¯¯ ³ ´¯¯2
¯¯ e (s) ¯¯¯¯ ds
+2 ¯¯σ (s, X (s)) − σ s, X
0
Z t ¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ e (s)¯¯¯¯
≤ CT ¯¯X (s) − X n
ds (35.44)
2L (Ω)
0
¯¯ ¯¯2
e are in L2 ([0, T ] × Ω)n so t → ¯¯¯¯X (t) − X
and by assumption both X and X e (t)¯¯¯¯
L2 (Ω)n
1 e (t) = X (t) in L (Ω) for all t. It fol-
is in L ([0, T ]). By Gronwall’s inequality, X 2 n
lows there exists a set of measure zero, N1 such that for ω ∈ / N1 ,

Z T ¯ ¯2
¯e ¯
¯X (t) − X (t)¯ dt = 0
0
But for ω ∈/ N, the functions, X e and X are continuous and so if ω ∈ e (t) =

/ N1 ∪ N, X
X (t) for all t. This proves the corollary.
Note that if different initial conditions had been given, say Z and Z1 , the above
argument for uniqueness also gives a continuous dependence result with no effort.
In fact, 35.44 then would take the form
¯¯ ¯¯2 Z t ¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ e (t)¯¯¯¯ 2 ¯¯ e (s)¯¯¯¯
¯¯X (t) − X 2 n
≤ 3 ||Z − Z 1 || 2
L (Ω) n + CT ¯ ¯ X (s) − X n
ds
L (Ω) 0 L2 (Ω)
and Gronwall’s inequality would then imply

¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ e (t)¯¯¯¯ 2
¯¯X (t) − X ≤ C ||Z − Z1 ||L2 (Ω)n
2 L (Ω)n
for some constant, C.

The equivalent form of the above integral equation,
Z t Z t
X (t) = Z + b (s, X (s)) ds + σ (s, X (s)) dB
0 0
is
dX = b (t, X) dt + σ (t, X (t)) dB, X (0) = Z.
35.4.7 Some Simple Examples

Here are some examples of simple stochastic differential equations which are solved
using the Itô formula.
Example 35.31 In this example, m = n = 1 and B is one dimensional Brownian

motion. The differential equation is
dX = h (t) XdB, X (0) = 1
Obviously, one would want to do something like dX X = h (t) dB. However, you
have to follow the rules. Let g (x) = ln (x) and Y = g (X) . Then by the Itô formula,
µ ¶
1 1 −1
dY = dX + dX 2
X 2 X2
1 1 1 2
= h (t) XdB − h (t) X 2 dB 2
X 2 X2
1 2
= h (t) dB − h (t) dt
2
Rt 1
Rt 2
and also Y (0) = 0. Therefore, Y (t) = ln (X (t)) = 0 h (s) dB − 2 0
h (t) dt and
so
µZ t Z ¶
1 t 2
X (t) = exp h (s) dB − h (s) ds
0 2 0
Rt 2
Note the extra term, − 12 0 h (s) ds.
Example 35.32 Let m = n = 1.
dX = f (t) Xdt + h (t) XdB, X (0) = 1.

In this case it is a lot like the above example but it has an extra f (t) Xdt. This
suggests something useful might be obtained by letting Y = ln (X) as was done
earlier. Thus
µ ¶
1 1 −1 2
dY = (Xf (t) dt + h (t) XdB) + (f (t) dt + h (t) XdB)
X 2 X2
µ ¶
1 1 −1 2
= (Xf (t) dt + h (t) XdB) + h (t) X 2 dB 2
X 2 X2
µ ¶
1 1 2
= Xf (t) dt − Xh (t) dt + h (t) XdB
X 2
µ ¶
1 2
= f (t) − h (t) dt + h (t) dB
2
Rt³ 2
´ Rt
and so ln (X) = 0 f (s) − 12 h (s) ds + 0 h (s) dB and so
µZ t µ ¶ Z t ¶
1 2
X (t) = exp f (s) − h (s) ds + h (s) dB
0 2 0
The next example is a model for stock prices. Learn this model and get rich.
Example 35.33 For P (t) the price of stock,
dP = µP dt + σP dB
In this model, µ is called the drift and σ is called the volatility.
It is just a special case of the above model in which f (t) = µ and h (t) = σ.
Then from the above,
µ ¶
1 2
P (t) = exp tµ − tσ + σBt
2
Example 35.34 This example is called the Brownian bridge.
−X
dX = + dB, X (0) = 0.
1−t
This is also a special case in which f (t) = 1/ (t − 1) and h (t) = 1. Thus the
solution is
µZ t µ ¶ ¶
1 1
X (t) = exp − ds + Bt
0 t−1 2
µ Z tµ ¶ ¶
1 t−3
= exp ds + Bt
2 0 t−1
µ µ ¶ ¶
1 t−3
= exp t + Bt
2 t−1
Before doing another example I will give a simple lemma on integration by parts.
In this lemma B will denote m dimensional Brownian motion.
Lemma 35.35 Let (t, ω) → g (t, ω) be an Gt adapted measurable function such that
µZ t ¶
2
P |g (s, ω)| ds < ∞ = 1
0
where Bt is a martingale with respect to the filtration Gt Rand the increments, Bs −Bt
t
for s > t are independent of Gt so that the Itô integral, 0 gT dB is defined. Suppose
also that t → g (t, ω) is C 1 and B0 = 0. Then
Z t Z t
∂gT
gT (s, ω) dB = gT (t, ω) Bt (ω) − (s, ω) B (s) ds a.e.
0 0 ∂t
Pn−1
Proof: Let gn (t) ≡ k=0 g (tk ) X[tk ,tk+1 ) (t) where tk = k (t/n) . Then by the
definition of the Itô integral,
Z t Z t n−1
X T ¡ ¢
gT dB = lim gnT dB = lim g (tk ) Btk+1 − Btk
0 n→∞ 0 n→∞
k=0
Ã n n−1
!
X T
X T
= lim g (tk−1 ) Btk − g (tk ) Btk
n→∞
k=1 k=0
" #
³ ´ X³
n−1 ´
T T T
= lim g (tn−1 ) Bt − g (tk ) − g (tk−1 ) Btk
n→∞
k=1
Z t
∂gT
= g (t, ω) Bt (ω) − (s, ω) B (s, ω) ds a.e. ω.
0 ∂t
Example 35.36 Linear systems of equations. Here B is m dimensional Brownian
motion. The equation of interest is
dX = (AX + h (t)) dt + KdB, X (0) = X0
where X0 is a random vector in Rm which is independent of Ht for all t ≥ 0 and
A, K are constant m × m matrices. Then I will show
µ Z t ¶
At
¡ −As −As
¢ −At
X (t) = e X0 + e h (s) + e AKB (s) ds + e KB (t)
0
−At
Let Y (t) = e X (t) . Then from the above,
1
dY = −Ae−At X + e−At IdX+ e−At dXT 0dX
2
−At −At
= −Ae X+e I ((AX + h (t)) dt + KdB)
= e−At h (t) dt + e−At KdB.
Hence using integration by parts,
Z t Z t
e−At X (t) − X0 = e−As h (s) ds + e−As KdB
0 0
Z t Z t
= e−As h (s) ds + e−At KB (t) + A e−As KB (s) ds
0 0
35.5. A DIFFERENT PROOF OF EXISTENCE AND UNIQUENESS 975
and so
µ Z t Z t ¶
At −As −At −As
X (t) = e X0 + e h (s) ds + e KB (t) + A e KB (s) ds
0 0
µ Z t ¶
¡ −As ¢
= eAt X0 + e h (s) + e−As AKB (s) ds + e−At KB (t) (. 35.45)
0
In this formula e−As is the matrix, M (t) which solves M 0 = AM, M (0) = I.
Note that formally differentiating the above equation gives
µ Z t ¶
0 At
¡ −As −As
¢ −At
X = Ae X0 + e h (s) + e AKB (s) ds + e KB (t)
0
µ ¶
At
¡ −At −At
¢ −At −At dB
+e e h (t) + e AKB (t) − Ae KB (t) + e K
dt
and so
dB
X0 = AX + h (t) + AKB (t) − AKB (t) + K
dt
dB
= AX + h (t) + K .
dt
Of course this is total nonsense because B is known to not be differentiable. How-
ever, multiplying by dt gives
dX = (AX + h (t)) dt + KdB
and the formula 35.45 shows X (0) = X0 . This was the original differential equation.
Note that it was not necessary to assume very much about X0 to write 35.45.
35.5 A Different Proof Of Existence And Unique-

ness
The proof given here is much longer and uses Picard Iteration directly. However, it
requires much less background material so the over all presentation is shorter.
35.5.1 Gronwall’s Inequality

The fundamental tool in estimating differential equations is Gronwall’s inequality.
It is a very elementary result but of enormous significance. I will first give a proof
of this important theorem. Also, I will write X (t) rather than Xt .
Lemma 35.37 Let k ≥ 0 and suppose u (t) is a Lebesgue measurable function in

L1 ([0, T ]) which satisfies
Z t
u (t) ≤ u0 + ku (s) ds.
0
Then
u (t) ≤ u0 ekt .
Proof: Let µ Z t ¶
kt
f (t) = u0 e − u0 + ku (s) ds .
0
Then f (0) = 0 and
f 0 (t) = ku0 ekt − ku (t)

µ Z t ¶
≥ ku0 ekt − k u0 + ku (s) ds
0
= kf (t)
and so f 0 (t) − kf (t) ≥ 0 and so

d ¡ −kt ¢
e f (t) ≥ 0
dt
which implies f (t) ≥ 0. Hence
Z t
u (t) ≤ u0 + ku (s) ds ≤ u0 ekt .
0
This proves Gronwall’s inequality.
35.5.2 Review Of Itô Integrals

Next recall the definition of the Itô integral. The context is that Ht is a filtration,
Bt is a martingale for Ht , and if s > t, Bs − Bt is independent of Ht .

ω∈
Z T
2
f (t, ω) dt < ∞.
S
Z T
2
(f (t, ω) − φn (t, ω)) dt ≤ 2−n
S
for ω ∈
Z t Z t
S n→∞ S
Rt
Rt
In what follows Bt will be m dimensional Brownian motion and the filtration

will be denoted by Ht where Ht is the completion of the smallest σ algebra which
contains
−1
(Bt0 , · · ·, Btk ) (U )
whenever 0 ≤ t0 < · · · < tk ≤ t and U is a Borel set. Also, Z, a measurable Rn
valued function will be independent of Ht for all t > 0. Then HtZ will denote the
completion of the smallest σ algebra which contains
¡ ¢−1
Z, Bt0 , · · ·, Btk (U )
whenever 0 ≤ t0 < · · · < tk ≤ t and U is a Borel set. Then the following lemma is
what is needed to consider certain Itô integrals.
Lemma 35.39 Bt is an HtZ martingale and if s > t, the increments Bs − Bt are

independent of HtZ .
Proof: Let A, Uk , V for k = 0, · · ·, p be open sets and let s > t and

¡ ¢−1 −1
D = Z, Bt0 , · · ·, Btp (A × U0 × · · · × Up ) , E = (Bs − Bt ) (V ) .
I need to verify that P (D ∩ E) = P (D) P (E) .
D ∩ E = Z−1 (A) ∩ ∩pi=0 B−1

ti (Ui ) ∩ E
From independence of Z to Ht for all t > 0, and independence of the increments,

Bs − Bt to Ht ,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
P (D ∩ E) = P Z−1 (A) P ∩pi=0 B−1 ti (Ui ) ∩ E
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= P Z−1 (A) P ∩pi=0 B−1 ti (Ui ) P (E)
¡ ¢
= P Z−1 (A) ∩ ∩pi=0 B−1 ti (Ui ) P (E)
= P (D) P (E) .
It follows that for all D an inverse image of an open set and E of the above form
where V is open, P (D ∩ E) = P (D) P (E). It follows easily this holds for all D
−1
and E inverse images of Borel sets. If D ∈ Ht and E = (Bs − Bt ) (V ) then there
exists D1 an inverse image of a Borel set such that D1 ⊇ D and P (D1 \ D) = 0 so
P (D ∩ E) = P (D1 ∩ E)
= P (D1 ) P (E) = P (D) P (E) .
This verifies the independence.

Now let A ∈ HtZ . Then from the above independence result,
Z Z
¡ ¢
E Bs − Bt |HtZ dP = Bs − Bt dP
A A
Z Z
= dP Bs − Bt dP = 0
A Ω
and so
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
E Bs |HtZ = E Bs − Bt + Bt |HtZ
¡ ¢
= 0 + E Bt |HtZ = Bt .

For x ∈ Rn , b (t, x) ∈ Rm and σ (t, x) will be an n × m matrix. It is assumed
that for given x, y ∈ Rn the following measurability and Lipschitz conditions hold.
t → b (t, x) , t → σ (t, x) are Lebesgue measurable, (35.46)
|b (t, x) − b (t, y)| + |σ (t, x) − σ (t, y)| ≤ K |x − y| , (35.47)

|b (t, x)| + |σ (t, x)| ≤ C (1 + |x|) . (35.48)
In the above, it suffices to have the components of b and σ measurable. Also,the
norm refers to any convenient norm. This does not matter because all the norms
on a finite dimensional vector space are equivalent.
Definition 35.40 Let Gt be a filtration for which Bt is a martingale and such that
for s > t, Bs − Bt is independent of Gt . For X product measurable in B × F and
Gt adapted define
µZ t ¶ Z t
σ (s, X) dB ≡ (σ (s, X))k dB
0 k 0
where (σ (s, X))k denotes the k th row of the matrix, σ.
35.5.3 The Existence And Uniqueness Theorem

Theorem 35.41 Let b and σ satisfy 35.46 - 35.48. Let Z be a random vector
which is either independent of Ht for all t > 0 or else is measurable with respect to
Ht for all t and suppose Z
2
|Z| dP < ∞
Ω
solution, X to the integral equation,
Z t Z t
X (t) = Z + b (s, X (s)) ds + σ (s, X (s)) dB a.e. ω
0 0
n
This solution satisfies X ∈ L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) .
Proof: Let iterates be defined as follows.

Z t Z t
X1 (t) ≡ Z + b (s, Z) ds + σ (s, Z) dB
0 0
The Itô integral on the right is well defined for all ω not in some set of measure
zero because Z is Gt adapted. Now also X1 is Gt adapted because both integrals in
the above yield Gt adapted functions of t by Theorem 34.8 on Page 925 and the Itô
integral yields B × F measurable function by Corollary 31.43 on Page 890 and the
convention mentioned after this corollary. Then
Z t Z t
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
X2 (t) ≡ Z + b s, X1 (s) ds + σ s, X1 (s) dB.
0 0
Continue this way. Each iteration involves a set of measure zero. Take the union of
all these sets, N . Then for ω ∈
/N
Z t Z t
k+1
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
X (t) ≡ Z + b s, Xk (s) ds + σ s, Xk (s) dB (35.49)
0 0
and each Xk is Gt adapted and B × F measurable. Now

Z
¯ k+1 ¯2
¯X (t) − Xk (t)¯ dP
Ω
Z Z t
¯ k ¯
≤ TK ¯X (s) − Xk−1 (s)¯2 ds
Ω 0
Z ¯Z t ¯2
¯ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¯
+ ¯ σ s, X k
(s) − σ s, X k−1
(s) dB ¯ dP.
¯ ¯
Ω 0
Using the Itô isometry,

Z tZ
¯ k ¯
≤ TK ¯X (s) − Xk−1 (s)¯2 dP ds
0 Ω
Z Z t
¯ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¯
+ ¯σ s, Xk (s) − σ s, Xk−1 (s) ¯2 dsdP
Ω 0
Z tZ
¯ k ¯
≤ TK ¯X (s) − Xk−1 (s)¯2 dP ds
0 Ω
Z tZ
¯ k ¯
+K ¯X (s) − Xk−1 (s)¯2 dP ds
0 Ω
Z tZ
¯ k ¯
≤ CT ¯X (s) − Xk−1 (s)¯2 dP ds
0 Ω
where CT is a constant depending on T and K. Then iterating this inequality yields

Z
¯ k+1 ¯2
¯X (t) − Xk (t)¯ dP
Ω
Z t Z t1 Z tk−1 Z
¯ 1 ¯
≤ CTk ··· ¯X (tk ) − Z¯2 dP dtk · · · dt1 .
0 0 0 Ω
Now
Z
¯ 1 ¯
¯X (tk ) − Z¯2 dP
Ω
ÃZ Z ³ !
T ´
2
≤ CT 1 + |Z| dP dt ≡ CZ < ∞.
0 Ω
Then it follows
µZ ¶1/2 µ Z tZ t1 Z tk−1 ¶1/2
¯ k+1 ¯2
¯X (t) − Xk (t)¯ dP ≤ CTk CZ ··· dtk · · · dt1
Ω 0 0 0
µ ¶1/2 µ ¶1/2
tk Tk
≤ CTk CZ ≤ CTk CZ .
k! k!
P∞ ³ k Tk
´1/2 © ª ¡ n¢
Since k=0 C T C Z k! < ∞, it follows Xk converges in C [0, T ] ; L2 (Ω)
© ª
to a function, X. f It follows Xk is also Cauchy in L2 ([0, T ] × Ω)n . Therefore,
there exists X, B × F measurable and in©L2 ([0, ª T ] × Ω) such that upon taking
a suitable subsequence still denoted by k, Xk converges to X pointwise and in
n R ¯¯ ¯2
¯
L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) . The function, t → Ω ¯X − Xk ¯ dP is Lebesgue measurable and
R ¯¯ ¯2
t → Ω ¯X−X e ¯¯ dP is the limit so it is also Lebesgue measurable. Also,
Z TZ ¯ ÃZ Z Z TZ ¯ !
¯2 T ¯ ¯2 ¯
¯ e ¯ ¯ k¯ ¯ k e ¯2
¯X−X¯ dP dt ≤ 2 ¯X − X ¯ dP dt + ¯X −X¯ dP dt
0 Ω 0 Ω 0 Ω
and both of these integrals converge to 0 as k → ∞, the first because of convergence

n
in L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) and the second because of the uniform convergence of Xk to X. e
e 2 n
Therefore, X (t) = X (t) in L (Ω) for a.e. t. Changing X (t) on this exceptional
set by setting it equal to 0, it follows X is product measurable and adapted because
it either is identically 0 on a set of measure zero or X (t) = X e (t) and it is clear Xe
is adapted.
Now recall 35.49.n Consider the Itô integral.
o By the Itô isometry and the Lips-
Rt ¡ ¢ Rt n
chitz property of σ, 0 σ s, Xk (s) dB converges to 0 σ (s, X (s)) dB in L2 (Ω)
for each t. Using the Lipschitz property of b, and passing to the limit in 35.49 the
n
following equation must hold in L2 (Ω) .
Z t Z t
Xe (t) ≡ Z + b (s, X (s)) ds + σ (s, X (s)) dB (35.50)
0 0
For a.e. ω, the right side of the above is a continuous function of t. This is true of
the Itô integral and it also follows for the deterministic integral because of the ob-
servation that for a.e. ω, s → X (s) (ω) is in L2 (0, T ) . For ω not in this exceptional
set of measure zero, define
Z t Z t
Y (t) (ω) ≡ Z + b (s, X (s) (ω)) ds + σ (s, X (s)) dB (ω) (35.51)
0 0
Thus Y (t) is adapted by Theorem 34.8 on Page 925 and Y is product measurable.
Also it follows from 35.50 that Y (t) = X e (t) in L2 (Ω)n and X (t) = Xe (t) for a.e. t
so Y (t) = X (t) a.e. t. It follows that
Z t Z t
Y (t) ≡ Z + b (s, Y (s)) ds + σ (s, Y (s)) dB (35.52)
0 0
n n
holds in L (Ω) for each t and so equality is also true in L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) . As before,
2
the right side is a continuous function of t for ω off a set of measure zero. Off a set
of measure zero, t → Y (t) (ω) is also continuous. This follows from the definition
of Y (t) in 35.51. Since both sides are product measurable, there exists a set of
measure zero, N such that for ω ∈ / N,
Z T¯ µ Z t Z t ¶¯2
¯ ¯
¯Y (t) − Z + b (s, Y (s)) ds + σ (s, Y (s)) dB ¯ dt = 0
¯ ¯
0 0 0
and the integrand is a continuous function. Therefore, 35.52 holds a.e. and both
sides are continuous for ω not in a suitable set of measure zero. This proves the
theorem.
Note there were two cases given for the initial condition in the above theorem.
The second is not very interesting. If Z is H0 measurable, then since B0 = x, a
constant, it follows H0 = {∅, Ω} so Z is a constant. However, if Z is a constant,
then it satisfies the first condition.
Not surprisingly, the solution to the above theorem is unique. This is stated as
the following corollary which is the main result.
Corollary 35.42 Let b and σ satisfy 35.46 - 35.48. Let Z be a random vector
which is independent of Ht for all t > 0 and suppose
Z
2
|Z| dP < ∞
Ω
n
Then there exists a unique HtZadapted solution, X ∈ L2 ([0, T ] × Ω) to the integral
equation,
Z t Z t
X (t) = Z + b (s, X (s)) ds + σ (s, X (s)) dB a.e. ω (35.53)
0 0
e is another solution, then there exists a set of measure zero,

in the sense that if X
N such that for ω ∈ e (t) = X (t) for all t ∈ [0, T ].
/ N, X
Proof: The existence part of this proof is already done. Let N denote the union
of the exceptional sets corresponding to X and X e . Then from 35.53 and the various
assumptions on b and σ,it follows that for ω ∈ / N,
¯ ¯2 Z t¯ ¯2
¯ e (t)¯¯ ≤ 2K 2 T ¯ e (s)¯¯ ds
¯X (t) − X ¯X (s) − X
0
¯Z t ³ ³ ´´ ¯2
¯ ¯
¯
+2 ¯ e
σ (s, X (s)) − σ s, X (s) dB¯¯ .
0
Then by the Itô isometry, this implies

¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ e (t)¯¯¯¯
¯¯X (t) − X
L2 (Ω)n
Z t ¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ e (s)¯¯¯¯
≤ 2K 2 T ¯¯X (s) − X ds
0 L2 (Ω)n
Z t ¯¯ ³ ´¯¯2
¯¯ e (s) ¯¯¯¯ ds
+2 ¯¯σ (s, X (s)) − σ s, X
0
Z t ¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ e (s)¯¯¯¯
≤ CT ¯¯X (s) − X 2 n
ds (35.54)
0 L (Ω)
¯¯ ¯¯2
e are in L2 ([0, T ] × Ω)n so t → ¯¯¯¯X (t) − X
and by assumption both X and X e (t)¯¯¯¯
2 L (Ω)n
1 e (t) = X (t) in L2 (Ω)n for all t. It fol-
is in L ([0, T ]). By Gronwall’s inequality, X
lows there exists a set of measure zero, N1 such that for ω ∈ / N1 ,
Z T ¯ ¯2
¯e ¯
¯X (t) − X (t)¯ dt = 0
0
But for ω ∈ / N, the functions, X e and X are continuous and so if ω ∈ / N1 ∪ N, Xe (t) =

X (t) for all t. This proves the corollary.
Note that if different initial conditions had been given, say Z and Z1 , the above
argument for uniqueness also gives a continuous dependence result with no effort.
In fact, 35.54 then would take the form
¯¯ ¯¯2 Z t ¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ e ¯¯ 2 ¯¯ e (s)¯¯¯¯
¯¯ X (t) − X (t)¯¯ 2 n ≤ 3 ||Z − Z ||
1 L2 (Ω) n + C T ¯¯X (s) − X n
ds
L (Ω) 2
L (Ω)
0
and Gronwall’s inequality would then imply

¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯ e (t)¯¯¯¯ 2
¯¯X (t) − X ≤ C ||Z − Z1 ||L2 (Ω)n
2 L (Ω)n
for some constant, C.

The equivalent form of the above integral equation,
Z t Z t
X (t) = Z + b (s, X (s)) ds + σ (s, X (s)) dB
0 0
is
dX = b (t, X) dt + σ (t, X (t)) dB, X (0) = Z.
35.5.4 Some Simple Examples

Here are some examples of simple stochastic differential equations which are solved
using the Itô formula.
Example 35.43 In this example, m = n = 1 and B is one dimensional Brownian

motion. The differential equation is
dX = h (t) XdB, X (0) = 1
Obviously, one would want to do something like dX X = h (t) dB. However, you
have to follow the rules. Let g (x) = ln (x) and Y = g (X) . Then by the Itô formula,
µ ¶
1 1 −1
dY = dX + dX 2
X 2 X2
1 1 1 2
= h (t) XdB − h (t) X 2 dB 2
X 2 X2
1 2
= h (t) dB − h (t) dt
2
Rt Rt 2
and also Y (0) = 0. Therefore, Y (t) = ln (X (t)) = 0 h (s) dB − 12 0 h (t) dt and
so µZ t Z ¶
1 t 2
X (t) = exp h (s) dB − h (s) ds
0 2 0
R t 2
Note the extra term, − 12 0 h (s) ds.
Example 35.44 Let m = n = 1.
dX = f (t) Xdt + h (t) XdB, X (0) = 1.
In this case it is a lot like the above example but it has an extra f (t) Xdt. This
suggests something useful might be obtained by letting Y = ln (X) as was done
earlier. Thus
µ ¶
1 1 −1 2
dY = (Xf (t) dt + h (t) XdB) + (f (t) dt + h (t) XdB)
X 2 X2
µ ¶
1 1 −1 2
= (Xf (t) dt + h (t) XdB) + h (t) X 2 dB 2
X 2 X2
µ ¶
1 1 2
= Xf (t) dt − Xh (t) dt + h (t) XdB
X 2
µ ¶
1 2
= f (t) − h (t) dt + h (t) dB
2
Rt³ 2
´ Rt
and so ln (X) = 0 f (s) − 12 h (s) ds + 0 h (s) dB and so
µZ t µ ¶ Z t ¶
1 2
X (t) = exp f (s) − h (s) ds + h (s) dB
0 2 0
The next example is a model for stock prices. Learn this model and get rich.
Example 35.45 For P (t) the price of stock,
dP = µP dt + σP dB
In this model, µ is called the drift and σ is called the volatility.
It is just a special case of the above model in which f (t) = µ and h (t) = σ.
Then from the above,
µ ¶
1 2
P (t) = exp tµ − tσ + σBt
2
Example 35.46 This example is called the Brownian bridge.
−X
dX = + dB, X (0) = 0.
1−t
This is also a special case in which f (t) = 1/ (t − 1) and h (t) = 1. Thus the
solution is
µZ t µ
¶ ¶
1 1
X (t) = exp − ds + Bt
0 t−1 2
µ Z tµ ¶ ¶
1 t−3
= exp ds + Bt
2 0 t−1
µ µ ¶ ¶
1 t−3
= exp t + Bt
2 t−1
Before doing another example I will give a simple lemma on integration by parts.
In this lemma B will denote m dimensional Brownian motion.
Lemma 35.47 Let (t, ω) → g (t, ω) be an Gt adapted measurable function such that
µZ t ¶
2
P |g (s, ω)| ds < ∞ =1
0
where Bt is a martingale with respect to the filtration Gt Rand the increments, Bs −Bt
t
for s > t are independent of Gt so that the Itô integral, 0 gT dB is defined. Suppose
also that t → g (t, ω) is C 1 and B0 = 0. Then
Z t Z t
T T ∂gT
g (s, ω) dB = g (t, ω) Bt (ω) − (s, ω) B (s) ds a.e.
0 0 ∂t
Pn−1
Proof: Let gn (t) ≡ k=0 g (tk ) X[tk ,tk+1 ) (t) where tk = k (t/n) . Then by the
definition of the Itô integral,
Z t Z t n−1
X T ¡ ¢
gT dB = lim gnT dB = lim g (tk ) Btk+1 − Btk
0 n→∞ 0 n→∞
k=0
Ã n n−1
!
X T
X T
= lim g (tk−1 ) Btk − g (tk ) Btk
n→∞
k=1 k=0
" #
³ ´ X³
n−1 ´
T T T
= lim g (tn−1 ) Bt − g (tk ) − g (tk−1 ) Btk
n→∞
k=1
Z t
∂gT
= g (t, ω) Bt (ω) − (s, ω) B (s, ω) ds a.e. ω.
0 ∂t
Example 35.48 Linear systems of equations. Here B is m dimensional Brownian

motion. The equation of interest is
dX = (AX + h (t)) dt + KdB, X (0) = X0
where X0 is a random vector in Rm which is independent of Ht for all t ≥ 0 and

A, K are constant m × m matrices. Then I will show
µ Z t ¶
¡ −As ¢
X (t) = eAt X0 + e h (s) + e−As AKB (s) ds + e−At KB (t)
0
Let Y (t) = e−At X (t) . Then from the above,
1
dY = −Ae−At X + e−At IdX+ e−At dXT 0dX
2
= −Ae−At X + e−At I ((AX + h (t)) dt + KdB)
= e−At h (t) dt + e−At KdB.
Hence using integration by parts,

Z t Z t
e−At X (t) − X0 = e−As h (s) ds + e−As KdB
0 0
Z t Z t
= e−As h (s) ds + e−At KB (t) + A e−As KB (s) ds
0 0
and so
µ Z t Z t ¶
At −As −At −As
X (t) = e X0 + e h (s) ds + e KB (t) + A e KB (s) ds
0 0
µ Z t ¶
At
¡ −As −As
¢ −At
= e X0 + e h (s) + e AKB (s) ds + e KB (t) (. 35.55)
0
In this formula e−As is the matrix, M (t) which solves M 0 = AM, M (0) = I.
Note that formally differentiating the above equation gives
µ Z t ¶
0 At
¡ −As −As
¢ −At
X = Ae X0 + e h (s) + e AKB (s) ds + e KB (t)
0
µ ¶
At
¡ −At −At
¢ −At −At dB
+e e h (t) + e AKB (t) − Ae KB (t) + e K
dt
and so
dB
X0 = AX + h (t) + AKB (t) − AKB (t) + K
dt
dB
= AX + h (t) + K .
dt
Of course this is total nonsense because B is known to not be differentiable. How-
ever, multiplying by dt gives
dX = (AX + h (t)) dt + KdB
and the formula 35.55 shows X (0) = X0 . This was the original differential equation.
Note that it was not necessary to assume very much about X0 to write 35.55.
Probability In Infinite
Dimensions
I am following the book by Da Prato and Zabczyk for much of this material. [15].
36.1 Expected Value Covariance And Correlation

Let (Ω, F, P ) be a probability space. First recall the notion of expected value for a
scalar valued random variable, X denoted by
Z Z
E (X) ≡ X (ω) dP = xdλX
Ω R
where λX is a Radon measure which satisfies
λX (G) ≡ P (X (ω) ∈ G) .
To speak of the expected value, it is necessary that X ∈ L1 (Ω; R) . Now the variance
is defined as ³ ´ Z
2 2
E (X − E (X)) ≡ (X (ω) − E (X)) dP
Ω
2
and it is necessary that X ∈ L (Ω; R) .
What about random vectors where X has values in Rp ? In this case, the expected
value would be a vector in Rp given by
Z
E (X) ≡ X (ω) dP
Ω
and the thing which takes the place of the variance is the covariance. This is a
linear transformation mapping Rp to Rp just as the variance could be considered a
linear transformation mapping R to R. The covariance is defined as
¡ ∗¢
E (X−E (X)) (X−E (X))
987
988 PROBABILITY IN INFINITE DIMENSIONS
Written in terms of the tensor product, this is
E ((X−E (X)) ⊗ (X−E (X))) .
Recall the way this works.
u ⊗ v (w) ≡ (w, v) u.
If there are two random vectors, X and Y, X having values in Rp and Y having
values in Rq , the correlation is the linear transformation defined by
E ((X−E (X)) ⊗ (Y−E (Y)))
or in terms of matrices,
¡ ∗¢
E (X−E (X)) (Y−E (Y))
This all makes sense provided X and Y are in L2 (Ω; Rr ) where r = p or q because
you can simply integrate the entries of the matrix which results when you write
∗
(X−E (X)) (Y−E (Y)) .
What does it all mean in the case where X ∈ L2 (Ω; H) and Y ∈ L2 (Ω; G) for
H, G separable Hilbert spaces? In this case there is no “matrix”. This involves the
notion of a Hilbert Schmidt operator.
Definition 36.1 Let H and G be two separable Hilbert spaces and let T map H to
G be continuous and linear. Then T is called a Hilbert Schmidt operator if there
exists some orthonormal basis for H, {ej } such that
X 2
||T ej || < ∞.
j
The collection of all such linear maps will be denoted by L2 (H, G) .
For convenience I have restated Theorem 14.40 on Page 14.40 here.
Theorem 36.2 L2 (H, G) ⊆ L (H, G) and L2 (H, G) is a separable Hilbert space

with norm given by
Ã !1/2
X 2
||T ||L2 ≡ ||T ek ||
k
where {ek } is some orthonormal basis for H. Also
||T || ≤ ||T ||L2 . (36.1)
All Hilbert Schmidt opearators are compact. Also if X ∈ H and Y ∈ G, then
Y ⊗ X ∈ L2 (H, G) ,
and
||Y ⊗ X||L2 = ||X||H ||Y ||G . (36.2)
36.1. EXPECTED VALUE COVARIANCE AND CORRELATION 989
Now if X ∈ L1 (Ω, H) ,
Z
E (X) ≡ XdP.
Ω
There is no problem here. Next, consider the correlation.
Theorem 36.3 Suppose X ∈ L2 (Ω; H) and Y ∈ L2 (Ω; G) where H and G are

separable Hilbert spaces. Then (Y − E (Y )) ⊗ (X − E (X)) ∈ L1 (Ω; L2 (H, G)) and
the correlation is defined by
cor (Y, X) ≡ E ((Y − E (Y )) ⊗ (X − E (X)))

∈ L2 (H, G)
while the covariance is defined by
cov (X, X) ≡ E ((X − E (X)) ⊗ (X − E (X)))

∈ L2 (H, H) .
Proof: It suffices to verify the claim about cor (Y, X). First consider the issue
of measurability. I need to verify that ω → (Y (ω) − E (Y )) ⊗ (X (ω) − E (X)) is
measurable. Since L2 (H, G) is a separable Hilbert space, it suffices to use the Pettis
theorem and verify
ω → ((Y (ω) − E (Y )) ⊗ (X (ω) − E (X)) , A)L2
is measurable for every A ∈ L2 (H, G). Therefore, letting {ek } be an orthonormal

basis in H ,
((Y (ω) − E (Y )) ⊗ (X (ω) − E (X)) , A)L2

X
≡ ((Y (ω) − E (Y )) ⊗ (X (ω) − E (X)) (ek ) , A (ek ))
k
X
= (ek , X (ω) − E (X)) ((Y (ω) − E (Y )) , A (ek )) .
k
Each term in this sum is measurable and so this shows measurability.

Finally, from Theorem 14.40,
Z
||(Y (ω) − E (Y )) ⊗ (X (ω) − E (X))||L2 dP
Ω
Z
≤ ||Y (ω) − E (Y )|| ||X (ω) − E (X)|| dP
Ω
≤ ||X − E (X)||L2 (Ω;H) ||Y − E (Y )||L2 (Ω;G) .

36.2 Independence
Recall that for X a random variable, σ (X) is the smallest σ algebra containing all
the sets of the form X −1 (F ) where F© is Borel. Since such sets, −1
ª X (F ) for F Borel
form a σ algebra it follows σ (X) = X −1 (F ) : F is Borel .
Definition 36.4 Let (Ω, F, P ) be a probability space. A finite set of random vec-
n
tors, {Xk }k=1 is independent if whenever Fk ∈ σ (Xk ) ,
n
Y
P (∩nk=1 Fk ) = P (Fk ) .
k=1
More generally, if {Fj }j∈J are σ algebras, they are said to be independent if when-
ever I ⊆ J is a finite set of indices and Ai ∈ Fi ,
Y
P (∩i∈I Ai ) = P (Ai ) .
i∈I
Recall the following lemma.
r
Lemma 36.5 If {Xk }k=1 are independent and if gk is a Borel measurable function,
n
then {gk (Xk )}k=1 is also independent. Furthermore, if the random variables have
values in R and they are all bounded, then
Ã r
! r
Y Y
E Xi = E (Xi ) .
i=1 i=1
r
Proof: First consider the claim about {gk (Xk )}k=1 . Letting O be an open set
in R,
−1 ¡ ¢
(gk ◦ Xk ) (O) = Xk−1 gk−1 (O) = Xk−1 (Borel set) ∈ σ (Xk ) .
−1
It follows (gk ◦ Xk ) (E) is in σ (Xk ) whenever E is Borel. Thus σ (gk ◦ Xk ) ⊆
σ (Xk ) and ©thisªproves the first part of the lemma.
∞
Now let sin n=1 be a bounded sequence of simple functions measurable in σ (Xi )
which converges to Xi uniformly. (Since Xi is bounded, such a sequence exists by
breaking Xi into positive and negative parts and using Theorem 8.27 on Page 190.)
Say
mn
X
sin (ω) = cn,i
k XE n,i (ω) k
k=1
where the Ek are disjoint elements of σ (Xi ) and some might be empty. This is for
convenience in keeping the same index on the top of the sum. Then since all the
random variables are bounded, there is no problem about existence of any of the
36.2. INDEPENDENCE 991
above. Then from the assumption that the Xi are independent,

Ã r ! Z Y r Z Y r
Y
E Xi = Xi (ω) dP = lim sin (ω) dP
Ω i=1 n→∞ Ω i=1
i=1
Z Y mn
r X
= lim cn,i
k XE n,i (ω) dP
n→∞ Ω i=1 k=1 k
Z X
= lim cn,1 n,2 n,r
n,r
n→∞ Ω k ,k ,···,k
k1 k2 r
1 2 r
X Z
= lim cn,1 n,2 n,r
n,r
n→∞ Ω
k1 k2 r
k1 ,k2 ,···,kr
X r
Y ³ ´
= lim cn,1 n,2 n,r
k1 ck2 · · · ckr P Ekn,i
i
n→∞
k1 ,k2 ,···,kr i=1
Yr Z r
Y
= lim sin (ω) dP = E (Xi ) .
n→∞
i=1 Ω i=1

Next consider the case where you have an independent set of σ algebras. First
here are some preliminary results.
Definition 36.6 Let Ω be a set and let K be a collection of subsets of Ω. Then K

is called a π system if ∅ ∈ K and whenever A, B ∈ K, it follows A ∩ B ∈ K.
Obviously an example of a π system is the set of measurable rectangles. Note

how simple this definition is. It does not involve an algebra. Now recall the funda-
mental lemma on π systems, Lemma 9.72 on Page 257.
The following lemma is helpful when you try to verify such a set of σ algebras is
independent. It says you only need to check things on π systems contained in the
σ algebras.
Lemma 36.7 Suppose {Fi }i∈I is a set of σ algebras contained in F where F is

a σ algebra of sets of Ω. Suppose that Ki ⊆ Fi is a π system and Fi = σ (Ki ).
Suppose also that whenever J is a finite subset of I and Aj ∈ Kj for j ∈ J, it
follows Y
P (∩j∈J Aj ) = P (Aj ) .
j∈J
Then {Fi }i∈I is independent.
Proof: I need to verify that for all n ∈ N, if {j1 , j2 , · · ·, jn } ⊆ I and Ajk ⊆ Fjk ,
then
Yn
P (∩nk=1 Ajk ) = P (Ajk ) .
k=1
¡ ¢
Pick Aj1 · ··, Ajn−1 ∈ Kj1 × · · ·, Kjn−1 and let
( n
)
Y
G(Aj ···,Aj ) ≡ Ajn ∈ Fjn : P (∩nk=1 Ajk ) = P (Ajk )
1 n−1
k=1
Then by hypothesis, Kjn ⊆ G(Aj ···,Aj ) . If Ajn ∈ G(Aj ···,Aj ) ,

1 n−1 1 n−1
n−1
Y ¡ ¢
P (Ajk ) = P ∩n−1
k=1 Ajk
k=1
¡¡ ¢ ¡ n−1 ¢¢
= P ∩n−1 C
k=1 Ajk ∩ Ajn ∪ ∩k=1 Ajk ∩ Ajn
¡ ¢ ¡ n−1 ¢
= P ∩n−1 C
k=1 Ajk ∩ Ajn + P ∩k=1 Ajk ∩ Ajn
n
¡ ¢ Y
= P ∩n−1
k=1 A j k
∩ A C
jn + P (Ajk )
k=1
and so
n−1
Y
¡ n−1 ¢
P ∩k=1 Ajk ∩ AC
jn = P (Ajk ) (1 − P (Ajn ))
k=1
n−1
Y ¡ ¢
= P (Ajk ) P AC
jn
k=1
showing if Ajn ∈ G(Aj ···,Aj ) , then so is AC jn . It is clear that G(Aj1 ···,Ajn−1 ) is

1 n−1
closed with respect to disjoint unions also. Therefore, by Lemma 9.72 G(Aj ···,Aj ) =
1 n−1
Fjn . ¡ ¢
Next fix Ajn ∈ Fjn and Aj1 · ··, Ajn−2 ∈ Kj1 × · · ·, Kjn−2 . Let
( n
)
Y
n
G(Aj ···,Aj ) ≡ Ajn−1 ∈ Fjn−1 : P (∩k=1 Ajk ) = P (Ajk )
1 n−2
k=1
It was just shown G(Aj ···,Aj ) ⊇ Kjn−1 . Also by similar reasoning to the above, it
1 n−2
follows G(Aj ···,Aj ) satisfies the conditions needed to apply Lemma 9.72 on Page
1 n−2
257 and so whenever Ajn , Ajn−1 are in Fjn and Fjn−1 respectively and
¡ ¢
Aj1 · ··, Ajn−2 ∈ Kj1 × · · ·, Kjn−2 ,
Qn
it follows P (∩nk=1 Ajk ) = k=1 P (Ajk ) . Continue this way to obtain the desired
result. This proves the lemma.
What is a useful π system for B (E) where E is a Banach space?
Recall the fundamental lemma used to prove the Pettis theorem. It was proved
on Page 579 but here I want to show that in addition, the set D0 can be taken as a
subset of a given dense subspace, M of E 0 . Thus I will present next a generalization
of that important lemma. You might consider whether the following lemma can be
generalized even more.
Lemma 36.8 If E is a separable Banach space with B 0 the closed unit ball in E 0 ,
and if M is a dense subspace of E 0 , then there exists a sequence {fn }∞ 0
n=1 ≡ D ⊆
0
B ∩ M with the property that for every x ∈ E,
||x|| = sup |f (x)|

f ∈D 0
The set, D0 also has the property that if f ∈ D0 then −f ∈ D0 .
Proof: Let {an } ≡ D be a dense subset of E. Define a subset of Cn , Cn by
{(f (a1 ) , · · ·, f (an )) : f ∈ B 0 ∩ M }
Then Cn is a bounded subset of Cn and so it is separable. Note each f delivers a

∞
point in Cn . Now let {fkn }k=1 ⊆ B 0 ∩ M be such that the points
∞
{(fkn (a1 ) , · · ·, fkn (an ))}k=1
∞
are dense in Cn . Then D0 ≡ ∪∞ n
n=1 {fk }k=1 .
It remains to verify D works. Pick x ∈ E. I need to show there exists fkn such
0
that ||x|| < |fkn (x)| + ε. By a standard exercise in the Hahn Banach theorem, there
exists f ∈ B 0 such that f (x) = ||x|| . Next choose an ∈ D such that ||x − an ||E <
ε/4. Since M is dense, there exists g ∈ M ∩ B 0 such that |g (an ) − f (an )| < ε/4.
Finally, there exists fkn ∈ D0 such that |fkn (an ) − g (an )| < ε/4. Then
|||x|| − |fkn (x)|| = ||f (x)| − |fkn (x)||

≤ ||f (x)| − |f (an )|| + ||f (an )| − |g (an )||
+ ||g (an )| − |fkn (an )|| + ||fkn (an )| − |fkn (x)||
ε ε ε ε
< + + + = ε.
4 4 4 4
It follows ||x|| < |fkn (x)| + ε and this proves the lemma because for every f ∈ D0
you can simply include −f .
Lemma 36.9 Let E be a separable real Banach space. Sets of the form
{x ∈ E : x∗i (x) ≤ αi , i = 1, 2, · · ·, m}
where x∗i ∈ M, a dense subspace of E 0 and αi ∈ [−∞, ∞) are a π system, and

denoting this π system by K, it follows σ (K) = B (E).
Proof: The sets described are obviously a π system. I want to show σ (K)
contains the closed balls because then σ (K) contains the open balls and hence the
open sets and the result will follow. Let D0 ⊆ B 0 ∩ M be described in Lemma 36.8.
Then
{x ∈ E : ||x − a|| ≤ r}
( )
= x ∈ E : sup |f (x − a)| ≤ r
f ∈D 0
( )
= x ∈ E : sup |f (x) − f (a)| ≤ r
f ∈D 0
= ∩f ∈D0 {x ∈ E : f (a) − r ≤ f (x) ≤ f (a) + r}

= ∩f ∈D0 {x ∈ E : f (x) ≤ f (a) + r and (−f ) (x) ≤ r − f (a)}
which equals a countable intersection of sets of the given π system. Therefore,

every closed ball is contained in σ (K). It follows easily that every open ball is also
contained in σ (K) because
µ ¶
1
B (a, r) = ∪∞
n=1 B a, r − .
n
Since the Banach space is separable, it is completely separable and so every open
set is the countable union of balls. This shows the open sets are in σ (K) and
so σ (K) ⊇ B (E) . However, all the sets in the π system are closed hence Borel
because they are inverse images of closed sets. Therefore, σ (K) ⊆ B (E) and so
σ (K) = B (E). This proves the lemma.
Next suppose you have some random variables having values in a separable
Banach space, E, {Xi }i∈I . How can you tell if they are independent? To show they
are independent, you need to verify that
n
¡ ¢ Y ¡ ¢
P ∩nk=1 Xi−1
k
(F ik
) = P Xi−1
k
(Fik )
k=1
whenever the Fik are Borel sets in E. It is desirable to find a way to do this easily.
Lemma 36.10 Let K be a π system of sets of E, a separable real Banach space

and let (Ω, F, P ) be a probability space and X : Ω → E be a random variable. Then
¡ ¢
X −1 (σ (K)) = σ X −1 (K)
−1 −1
Proof: First¡ note that
¢ X (σ (K)) is a σ algebra which contains X (K) and
−1
so it contains σ X (K) . Now let
© ¡ ¢ª
G ≡ A ∈ σ (K) : X −1 (A) ∈ σ X −1 (K)
Then G ⊇ K. If A ∈ G, then
¡ ¢
X −1 (A) ∈ σ X −1 (K)
and so ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
C
X −1 (A) = X −1 AC ∈ σ X −1 (K)
¡ ¢
because σ X −1 (K) is a σ algebra. Hence AC ∈ G. Finally suppose {Ai } is a
sequence of disjoint sets of G. Then
¡ ¢
X −1 (∪∞ ∞
i=1 Ai ) = ∪i=1 X
−1
(Ai ) ∈ σ X −1 (K)
¡ ¢
again because σ X −1 (K) is a σ algebra. It follows from Lemma 9.72 on ¡ Page 257
¢
−1 −1
that G ⊇ σ (K) and this¡ shows that
¢ whenever A ∈ σ (K) , X (A) ∈ σ X (K) .
Thus X −1 (σ (K)) ⊆ σ X −1 (K) and this proves the lemma.
With this lemma, here is the desired result about independent random variables.
Essentially, you can reduce to the case of random vectors having values in Rn .
Theorem 36.11 The random variables, {Xi }i∈I are independent if whenever
{i1 , · · ·, in } ⊆ I,
m
mi1 , · · ·, min are positive integers, and gmi1 , · · ·, gmin are respectively in (M ) i1 , · ·
n on
m
·, (M ) n for M a dense subspace of E 0 , gmij ◦ Xij are independent random
j=1
vectors having values in Rmi1 , · · ·, Rmin respectively.
Proof: Let K denote sets of the form
{x ∈ E : x∗i (x) ≤ αi , i = 1, 2, · · ·m}
as described in Lemma 36.9. Then as proved in this lemma, σ (K) = B (E). Then
the random vectors are independent if whenever
{i1 , · · ·, in } ⊆ I
and Ai1 , · · ·, Ain sets of σ (Xi1 ) , · · ·, σ (Xin ) respectively,

n
¡ ¢ Y ¡ ¢
P ∩nj=1 Aij = P Aij .
j=1
¡ ¢
By¡ Lemma
¢ 9.72
¡ ¢on Page 257 if Kij is a π system contained in σ Xij such that
σ Kij = σ Xij , then it suffices to check only the case where the Aij is in Kij .
So what will serve for such a collection of π systems? Let
n o
Kij ≡ Xi−1
j
(K) ≡ X −1
i j
(A) : A ∈ K .
¡ ¢
This is clearly a π system contained in σ Xij and by Lemma 36.10
¡ ¢ ³ ´ ¡ ¢
σ Kij = σ Xi−1
j
(K) = Xi−1
j
(σ (K)) ≡ σ Xij .
Thus it suffices to show that whenever Bi1 , · · ·, Bin are sets of K,

³ ¡ ¢´ Y n ³ ¡ ¢´
P ∩nj=1 Xi−1
j
Bij = P Xi−1
j
B ij
j=1
n o Qmj
Let Bij = x ∈ E : gmij (x) ∈ Aij where Aij = j=1 (−∞, αi ] and gmj ∈ M mj .
It follows
¡ ¢ ³ ´−1 ¡ ¢
Xi−1j
Bij = gmij ◦ Xij Ai j .
Then by the assumption the random vectors gmij ◦ Xij are independent,
³ µ ´−1 ¡ ¢¶
¡ ¢´ ³
P ∩nj=1 Xi−1
j
B ij = P ∩n
j=1 g mij ◦ Xij Aij
n
Y µ³ ´−1 ¡ ¢¶
= P gmij ◦ Xij Aij
j=1
Yn ³ ¡ ¢´
= P Xi−1
j
B ij
j=1

Procedure 36.12 Suppose you have random vectors, {Xi }i∈I having values in a
real separable Banach space, E. Then they are independent if the Rk valued random
vectors, {g◦Xi }i∈I,g∈M k are independent for M a dense subspace of E 0 . You check
whether these are independent to determine whether {Xi }i∈I are independent.
The above assertion also goes the other way as you may want to show.
So how can you determine whether random vectors having values in Rn are
independent? Recall an earlier proposition which relates independence of random
vectors with characteristic functions. It is proved starting on Page 865.
n
Proposition 36.13 Let {Xk }k=1 be random vectors such that Xk has values in
Rpk . Then the random vectors are independent if and only if
n
Y
¡ iP
¢ ¡ ¢
E e = E eitj ·Xj
j=1
Pn pj
where P ≡ j=1 tj · Xj for tj ∈ R .
36.3 Conditional Expectation

Let (Ω, F, P ) be a probability space and let X ∈ L1 (Ω; R). Also let G ⊆ F where
G is also a σ algebra. Then the usual conditional expectation is defined by
Z Z
XdP = E (X|G) dP
A A
where E (X|G) is G measurable and A ∈ G is arbitrary. Recall this is an application

of the Radon Nikodym theorem. Also recall E (X|G) is unique up to a set of measure
zero.
I want to do something like this here. Denote by L1 (Ω; E, G) those functions in
L1 (Ω; E) which are measurable with respect to G.
Theorem 36.14 Let E be a separable Banach space and let X ∈ L1 (Ω; E, F) where
X is measurable with respect to F. Then there exists a unique Z ∈ L1 (Ω; E, G) such
that for all A ∈ G, Z Z
XdP = ZdP
A A
Denoting this Z as E (X|G) , it follows
||E (X|G)|| ≤ E (||X|| |G) .
Proof: First consider uniqueness. Suppose Z 0 is another in L1 (Ω; E, G) which

works. Then let A ≡ {ω : ||Z (ω) − Z 0 (ω)|| > δ} where δ >¡0. Now let¢D = {ak }
be a countable dense subset of E and consider the balls B ak , 14 ||ak || ≡ Bk for
which ||ak || > δ. Since each of these balls has radius larger than δ/4 and the {ak }
are dense, it follows the union of these balls includes {x ∈ E : ||x|| > δ}.
Now let
Ak ≡ {ω : ||Z (ω) − Z 0 (ω)|| > δ}

½ ¾
1
∩ ω : ||Z (ω) − Z 0 (ω) − ak || < ||ak || .
2
If P (A) > 0, then for some k, P (Ak ) > 0 because the balls Bk cover the set
{x : ||x|| > δ} . Then
Z
1
||ak || P (Ak ) ≥ ||Z 0 − Z + ak || dP
2 Ak
¯¯Z ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯
≥ ¯¯¯ (Z − Z + ak ) dP ¯¯¯¯
0
A
¯¯Z k ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯
= ¯¯¯ ak dP ¯¯¯¯ = ||ak || P (Ak )
Ak
which is a contradiction. Hence P (A) = 0 after all. It follows Z 0 = Z a.e. because

δ > 0 is arbitrary. This establishes the uniqueness part of the theorem.
Next I will show Z exists. To do this recall Theorem 21.19 on Page 588 which
is stated below for convenience.
Theorem 36.15 An E valued function, X, is Bochner integrable if and only if X

is strongly measurable and
Z
||X (ω)|| dP < ∞. (36.3)
Ω
In this case there exists a sequence of simple functions {Xn } satisfying

Z
||Xn (ω) − Xm (ω)|| dP → 0 as m, n → ∞. (36.4)
Ω
Xn (ω) converging pointwise to X (ω),
||Xn (ω)|| ≤ 2 ||X (ω)|| (36.5)
and Z
lim ||X (ω) − Xn (ω)|| dP = 0. (36.6)
n→∞ Ω
Now let {Xn } be the simple functions just defined and let
m
X
Xn (ω) = xk XFk (ω)
k=1
where Fk ∈ F, the Fk being disjoint. Then define

m
X
Zn ≡ xk E (XFk |G) .
k=1
Thus, if A ∈ G,
Z m
X Z
Zn dP = xk E (XFk |G) dP
A k=1 A
Xm Z
= xk XFk dP
k=1 A
Xm Z
= xk P (Fk ) = Xn dP (36.7)
k=1 A
Then since E (XFk |G) ≥ 0,

m
X Z
E (||Zn ||) ≤ ||xk || E (XFk |G) dP
k=1
Xm Z
= ||xk || XFk dP = E (||Xn ||) .
k=1
Similarly,
E (||Zn − Zm ||) ≤ E (||Xn − Xm ||)
and this last term converges to 0 as n, m → ∞ by the properties of the Xn . There-
fore, {Zn } is a Cauchy sequence in L1 (Ω; E; G) . It follows it converges to Z in
L1 (Ω; E, G) . Then letting A ∈ G, and using 36.7,

Z Z
ZdP = XA ZdP
A
Z
= lim XA Zn dP
n→∞
Z
= lim Zn dP
n→∞ A
Z
= lim Xn dP
n→∞ A
Z
= XdP.
A
It remains to verify ||E (X|G)|| ≤ E (||X|| |G) . This follows similar to the above.
Letting Zn and Z have the same meaning as above and A ∈ G,
Z ¯¯¯¯Xm
¯¯
¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
E (XA ||Zn ||) = ¯¯ xk E (XFk |G)¯¯ dP
¯ ¯
A k=1 ¯¯
Xm Z
≤ ||xk || E (XFk |G) dP
k=1 A
Xm Z
= ||xk || XFk dP
k=1 A
Z X
m
= ||xk || XFk dP
A k=1
= E (XA ||Xn ||) .
Therefore,
Z Z
||Z|| dP = XA ||Z|| dP
A
Z
= lim XA ||Zn || dP
n→∞
≤ lim E (XA ||Xn ||)

n→∞
Z
= ||X|| dP
A
Thus for all A ∈ G,

Z Z Z
||E (X|G)|| dP ≤ ||X|| dP = E (||X|| |G) dP
A A A
which shows
||E (X|G)|| ≤ E (||X|| |G)
as claimed. This proves the theorem.

In the case where E is reflexive, one could also use Corollary 21.48 on Page 617
to get the above result. You would define a vector measure on G,
Z
ν (F ) ≡ XdP
F
and then you would use the fact that reflexive separable Banach spaces have the
Radon Nikodym property to obtain Z ∈ L1 (Ω; E, G) such that
Z Z
ν (F ) = XdP = ZdP.
F F
The function, Z whose existence and uniqueness is guaranteed by Theorem 36.15

is called E (X|G).
36.4 Probability Measures And Tightness

Here and in what remains, B (E) will denote the Borel sets of E where E is a topo-
logical space, usually at least a Banach space. Because of the fact that probability
measures are finite, you can use a simpler definition of what it means for a measure
to be regular. Recall that there were two ingredients, inner regularity which said
that the measure of a set is the supremum of the measures of compact subsets and
outer regularity which says that the measure of a set is the infimum of the measures
of the open sets which contain the given set. Here the definition will be similar
but instead of using compact sets, closed sets are substituted. Thus the following
definition is a little different than the earlier one. I will show, however, that in many
interesting cases, this definition of regularity is actually the same as the earlier one.
Definition 36.16 A measure, µ defined on B (E) will be called inner regular if for
all F ∈ B (E) ,
µ (F ) = sup {µ (K) : K ⊆ F and K is closed}
A measure, µ defined on B (E) will be called outer regular if for all F ∈ B (E) ,
µ (F ) = inf {µ (V ) : V ⊇ F and V is open}
When a measure is both inner and outer regular, it is called regular.
For probability measures, regularity tends to come free.
Lemma 36.17 Let µ be a finite measure defined on B (E) where E is a metric

space. Then µ is regular.
Proof: First note every open set is the countable union of closed sets and every
closed set is the countable intersection of open sets. Here is why. Let V be an open
set and let © ¡ ¢ ª
Kk ≡ x ∈ V : dist x, V C ≥ 1/k .
36.4. PROBABILITY MEASURES AND TIGHTNESS 1001
Then clearly the union of the Kk equals V. Next, for K closed let
Vk ≡ {x ∈ E : dist (x, K) < 1/k} .
Clearly the intersection of the Vk equals K. Therefore, letting V denote an open set
and K a closed set,
µ (V ) = sup {µ (K) : K ⊆ V and K is closed}

µ (K) = inf {µ (V ) : V ⊇ K and V is open} .
Also since V is open and K is closed,
µ (V ) = inf {µ (U ) : U ⊇ V and V is open}

µ (K) = sup {µ (L) : L ⊆ K and L is closed}
In words, µ is regular on open and closed sets. Let
F ≡ {F ∈ B (E) such that µ is regular on F } .
Then F contains the open sets. I want to show F is a σ algebra and then it will
follow F = B (E).
First I will show F is closed with respect to complements. Let F ∈ F . Then
since µ is finite and F is inner regular,
¡ ¢ exists K ⊆ F such that µ (F \ K) < ε.
there
But K C \ F C = F \ K and so µ K C \ F C < ε showning that F C is outer regular.
I have just approximated the measure of F C with the measure of K C , an open set
containing F C . A similar argument works to show F C is inner regular. You start
with
¡ CV ⊇ CF¢ such that µ (V \ F ) < ε, note F C \ V C = V \ F, and then conclude
µ F \V < ε, thus approximating F with the closed subset, V C .
C
Next I will show F is closed with respect to taking countable unions. Let {Fk }
be a sequence of sets in F. Then µ is inner regular on each of these so there exist
{Kk } such that Kk ⊆ Fk and µ (Fk \ Kk ) < ε/2k+1 . First choose m large enough
that
ε
µ ((∪∞ m
k=1 Fk ) \ (∪k=1 Fk )) < .
2
Then
m
X ε ε
µ ((∪m m
k=1 Fk ) \ (∪k=1 Kk )) ≤ <
2k+1 2
k=1
and so
µ ((∪∞ m
k=1 Fk ) \ (∪k=1 Kk )) ≤ µ ((∪∞ m
k=1 Fk ) \ (∪k=1 Fk ))
+µ ((∪m m
k=1 Fk ) \ (∪k=1 Kk ))
ε ε
< + =ε
2 2
showing µ is inner regular on ∪∞ k=1 Fk . Since µ is outer regular on Fk , there exists

Vk such that µ (Vk \ Fk ) < ε/2k . Then
∞
X
µ ((∪∞ ∞
k=1 Vk ) \ (∪k=1 Fk )) ≤ µ (Vk \ Fk )
k=1
X∞
ε
< =ε
2k
k=1
and this shows µ is outer regular on ∪∞

k=1 Fk and this proves the lemma.
Lemma 36.18 Let µ be a finite measure on B (E) , the Borel sets of E, a separable
complete metric space. Then if C is a closed set,
µ (C) = sup {µ (K) : K ⊆ C and K is compact.}

¡ 1
¢
Proof: Let {ak } be a countable dense subset of C. Thus ∪∞ k=1 B ak , n ⊇ C.
Therefore, there exists mn such that
Ã µ ¶!
mn 1 ε
µ C \ ∪k=1 B ak , ≡ µ (C \ Cn ) < n .
n 2
Now let K = C ∩ (∩∞ n=1 Cn ) . Then K is a subset of Cn for each n and so for each
ε > 0 there exists an ε net for K since Cn has a 1/n net, namely a1 , · · ·, amn . Since
K is closed, it is complete and so it is also compact. Now
X∞
ε
µ (C \ K) = µ (∪∞
n=1 (C \ Cn )) < n
= ε.
n=1
2
Thus µ (C) can be approximated by µ (K) for K a compact subset of C. This proves
the lemma.
This shows that for a finite measure on the Borel sets of a separable metric
space, the above definition of regular coincides with the earlier one.
Now here is a definition of what it means for a set of measures to be tight.
Definition 36.19 Let Λ be a set of probability measures defined on the Borel sets
of a topological space. Then Λ is “tight” if for all ε > 0 there exists a compact set,
Kε such that
µ ([x ∈
/ Kε ]) < ε
for all µ ∈ Λ.
Lemma 36.18 implies a single probability measure on the Borel sets of a separable
metric space is tight. The proof of that lemma generalizes slightly to give a simple
criterion for a set of measures to be tight.
Lemma 36.20 Let E be a separable complete metric space and let Λ be a set of
Borel probability measures. Then Λ is tight if and only if for every ε > 0 and r > 0
m
there exists a finite collection of balls, {B (ai , r)}i=1 such that
³ ´
µ ∪m i=1 B (ai , r) > 1 − ε
for every µ ∈ Λ.
Proof: If Λ is tight, then there exists a compact set, Kε such that
µ (Kε ) > 1 − ε
for all µ ∈ Λ. Then consider the open cover, {B (x, r) : x ∈ Kε } . Finitely many of
these cover Kε and this yields the above condition.
Now suppose the above condition and let
Cn ≡ ∪ m n
i=1 B (ai , 1/n)
n
satisfy µ (Cn ) > 1 − ε/2n for all µ ∈ Λ. Then let Kε ≡ ∩∞

n=1 Cn . Then as in Lemma
36.18 µ (Kε ) > 1 − ε for all µ ∈ Λ.
Prokhorov’s theorem is an important result which also involves tightness. In
order to give a proof of this important theorem, it is necessary to consider some
simple results from topology which are interesting for their own sake.
Theorem 36.21 Let H be a compact metric space. Then there exists a compact
subset of [0, 1] , K and a continuous function, θ which maps K onto H.
Proof: Without loss of generality, it can be assumed H is an infinite set since

otherwise the conclusion is trivial. You could pick finitely many points of [0, 1] for
K.
Since H is compact, it is totally bounded. Therefore, there exists a 1 net for
m1
H {hi }i=1 . Letting Hi1 ≡ B (hi , 1), it follows Hi1 is also a compact metric space
© iª
1 mi
and so there exists a 1/2 net for each Hi , hj j=1 . Then taking the intersection
¡ ¢
of B hij , 12 with Hi1 to obtain sets denoted by Hj2 and continuing this way, one
© ª
can obtain compact subsets of H, Hki which satisfies: each Hji is contained in
some Hki−1 , each Hji is compact with diameter less than i−1 , each Hji is the union
© ªm i
of sets of the form Hki+1 which are contained in it. Denoting by Hji j=1 those
sets corresponding to a superscript of i, it can also be assumed mi © < m ªmi+1 . If
this is not so, simply add in another point to the i−1 net. Now let Iji j=1 be
i
disjoint closed intervals in [0, 1] each of length no longer than 2−mi which have the
property that Iji is contained in Iki−1 for some k. Letting Ki ≡ ∪m i
j=1 Ij , it follows
i
∞
Ki is a sequence of nested compact sets. Let K = ∩i=1 Ki . Then © eachª∞ x ∈ K is
the intersection of a unique sequence of these closed intervals, Ijkk k=1 . Define
θx ≡ ∩∞ k i
k=1 Hjk . Since the diameters of the Hj converge to 0 as i → ∞, this function
is well defined. It is continuous because if xn → x, then ultimately xn and x are
both in Ijkk , the k th closed interval in the sequence whose intersection is x. Hence,
d (θxn , θx) ≤ diameter(Hjkk ) ≤ 1/k. To see the map is onto, let h ∈ H. Then
© ª∞
from the construction, there exists a sequence Hjkk k=1 of the above sets whose
¡ ¢
intersection equals h. Then θ ∩∞ k
i=1 Ijk = h. This proves the theorem.
Note θ is maybe not one to one.
As an important corollary, it follows that the continuous functions defined on
any compact metric space is separable.
Corollary 36.22 Let H be a compact metric space and let C (H) denote the con-
tinuous functions defined on H with the usual norm,
||f ||∞ ≡ max {|f (x)| : x ∈ H}
Then C (H) is separable.
Proof: The proof is by contradiction. Suppose C (H) is not separable. Let
Hk denote a maximal collection of functions of C (H) with the property that if
f, g ∈ Hk , then ||f − g||∞ ≥ 1/k. The existence of such a maximal collection of
functions is a consequence of a simple use of the Hausdorff maximallity theorem.
Then ∪∞k=1 Hk is dense. Therefore, it cannot be countable by the assumption that
C (H) is not separable. It follows that for some k, Hk is uncountable. Now by
Theorem 36.21 there exists a continuous function, θ defined on a compact subset,
K of [0, 1] which maps K onto H. Now consider the functions defined on K
Gk ≡ {f ◦ θ : f ∈ Hk } .
Then Gk is an uncountable set of continuous functions defined on K with the prop-
erty that the distance between any two of them is at least as large as 1/k. This
contradicts separability of C (K) which follows from the Weierstrass approximation
theorem in which the separable countable set of functions is the restrictions of poly-
nomials that involve only rational coefficients. This proves the corollary. Now here
is Prokhorov’s theorem.
∞
Theorem 36.23 Let Λ = {µn }n=1 be a sequence of probability measures defined
on B (E) where E is a separable Banach space. If Λ is tight then there exists a
∞ ∞
probability measure, λ and a subsequence of {µn }n=1 , still denoted by {µn }n=1
such that whenever φ is a continuous bounded complex valued function defined on
E, Z Z
lim φdµn = φdλ.
n→∞
Proof: By tightness, there exists an increasing sequence of compact sets, {Kn }

such that
1
µ (Kn ) > 1 −
n
for all µ ∈ Λ. Now letting µ ∈ Λ and φ ∈ C (Kn ) such that ||φ||∞ ≤ 1, it follows
¯Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ φdµ¯¯ ≤ µ (Kn ) ≤ 1
¯
Kn
and so the restrictions of the measures of Λ to Kn are contained in the unit ball of
0
C (Kn ) . Recall from the Riesz representation theorem, the dual space of C (Kn )
is a space of complex Borel measures. Theorem 13.37 on Page 356 implies the unit
0
ball of C (Kn ) is weak ∗ sequentially compact. This follows from the observation
that C (Kn ) is separable which is proved in Corollary 36.22 and leads to the fact
0
that the unit ball in C (Kn ) is actually metrizable by Theorem 13.37 on Page 356.
Therefore, there exists a subsequence of Λ, {µ1k } such that their restrictions to K1
0
converge weak ∗ to a measure, λ1 ∈ C (K1 ) . That is, for every φ ∈ C (K1 ) ,
Z Z
lim φdµ1k = φdλ1
k→∞ K1 K1
By the same reasoning, there exists a further subsequence {µ2k } such that the
0
restrictions of these measures to K2 converge weak ∗ to a measure λ2 ∈ C (K2 )
etc. Continuing this way,
0
µ11 , µ12 , µ13 , · · · → Weak ∗ in C (K1 )
0
µ21 , µ22 , µ23 , · · · → Weak ∗ in C (K2 )
0
µ31 , µ32 , µ33 , · · · → Weak ∗ in C (K3 )
..
.
th
Here the j th sequence is a subsequence of the (j − 1) . Let λn denote the measure
0 ∞
in C (Kn ) to which the sequence {µnk }k=1 converges weak∗. Let {µn } ≡ {µnn } ,
the diagonal sequence. Thus this sequence is ultimately a subsequence of every one
0
of the above sequences and so µn converges weak∗ in C (Km ) to λm for each m.
Claim: For p > n, the restriction of λp to the Borel sets of Kn equals λn .
Proof of claim: Let H be a compact subset of Kn . Then there are sets, Vl open
in Kn which are decreasing and whose intersection equals H. This follows because
this is a metric space. Then let H ≺ φl ≺ Vl . It follows
Z Z
λn (Vl ) ≥ φl dλn = lim φl dµk
Kn k→∞ K
Z Z n
= lim φl dµk = φl dλp ≥ λp (H) .

k→∞ Kp Kp
Now considering the ends of this inequality, let l → ∞ and pass to the limit to
conclude
λn (H) ≥ λp (H) .
Similarly,
Z Z
λn (H) ≤ φl dλn = lim φl dµk
Kn k→∞ K
Z Z n
= lim φl dµk = φl dλp ≤ λp (Vl ) .
k→∞ Kp Kp
Then passing to the limit as l → ∞, it follows

λn (H) ≤ λp (H) .
Thus the restriction of λp , λp |Kn to the compact sets of Kn equals λn . Then by
inner regularity it follows the two measures, λp |Kn , and λn are equal on all Borel
sets of Kn . Recall that for finite measures on separable metric spaces, regularity is
obtained for free.
It is fairly routine to exploit regularity of the measuresR to verify that λm (F ) ≥
0 for all F a Borel subset of Km . (Whenever φ ≥ 0, Km φdλm ≥ 0 because
R
Km
φdµk ≥ 0. Now you can approximate XF with a suitable nonnegative φ using
regularity of the measure.) Also, letting φ ≡ 1,
1
1 ≥ λm (Km ) ≥ 1 − . (36.8)
m
Define for F a Borel set,
λ (F ) ≡ lim λn (F ∩ Kn ) .
n→∞
The limit exists because the sequence on the right is increasing due to the above
observation that λn = λm on the Borel subsets of Km whenever n > m. Thus for
n>m
λn (F ∩ Kn ) ≥ λn (F ∩ Km ) = λm (F ∩ Km ) .
Now let {Fk } be a sequence of disjoint Borel sets. Then
λ (∪∞
k=1 Fk ) ≡ lim λn (∪∞ ∞
k=1 Fk ∩ Kn ) = lim λn (∪k=1 (Fk ∩ Kn ))
n→∞ n→∞
∞
X ∞
X
= lim λn (Fk ∩ Kn ) = λ (Fk )
n→∞
k=1 k=1
the last equation holding by the monotone convergence theorem.

It remains to verify Z Z
lim φdµk = φdλ
k→∞
for every φ bounded and continuous. This is where tightness is used again. Suppose
||φ||∞ < M . Then as noted above,
λn (Kn ) = λ (Kn )
because for p > n, λp (Kn ) = λn (Kn ) and so letting p → ∞, the above is obtained.
Also, from 36.8,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
λ KnC = lim λp KnC ∩ Kp
p→∞
≤ lim sup (λp (Kp ) − λp (Kn ))
p→∞
≤ lim sup (λp (Kp ) − λn (Kn ))
p→∞
µ µ ¶¶
1 1
≤ lim sup 1 − 1 − =
p→∞ n n
36.5. A MAJOR EXISTENCE AND CONVERGENCE THEOREM 1007
Consequently,
¯Z Z ¯ ¯¯Z Z ÃZ Z !¯
¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ φdµk − φdλ¯ ≤ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ C φdµk + φdµk − φdλ +
C
φdλ ¯
¯
Kn Kn Kn Kn
¯Z Z ¯ ¯¯Z Z ¯
¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
≤ ¯¯ φdµk − φdλn ¯¯ + ¯ φdµk − φdλ¯
Kn Kn ¯ KnC C
Kn ¯
¯Z Z ¯ ¯¯Z ¯ ¯Z
¯ ¯
¯
¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
≤ ¯¯ φdµk − ¯
φdλn ¯ + ¯ φdµk ¯ + ¯ φdλ¯
Kn Kn ¯ KnC ¯ ¯ KnC ¯
¯Z Z ¯
¯ ¯ M M
≤ ¯¯ φdµk − φdλn ¯¯ + +
Kn Kn n n
First let n be so large that 2M/n < ε/2 and then pick k large enough that the
above expression is less than ε. This proves the theorem.
Definition 36.24 Let E be a Banach space and let µ and the sequence of probability
measures, {µn } defined on B (E) satisfy
Z Z
lim φdµn = φdµ.
n→∞
for every φ a bounded continuous function. Then µn is said to converge weakly to

µ.
36.5 A Major Existence And Convergence Theo-

rem
Here is an interesting lemma about weak convergence.
Lemma 36.25 Let µn converge weakly to µ and let U be an open set with µ (∂U ) =
0. Then
lim µn (U ) = µ (U ) .
n→∞
Proof: Let {ψ k } be a sequence of bounded continuous functions which decrease

to XU . Also let {φk } be a sequence of bounded continuous functions which increase
to XU . For example, you could let
+
ψ k (x) ≡ (1 − k dist (x, U )) ,
¡ ¡ ¢¢+
φk (x) ≡ 1 − 1 − k dist x, U C .
Let ε > 0 be given. Then since µ (∂U ) = 0, the dominated convergence theorem
implies there exists ψ = ψ k and φ = φk such that
Z Z
ε > ψdµ − φdµ
Next use the weak convergence to pick N large enough that if n ≥ N,

Z Z Z Z
ψdµn ≤ ψdµ + ε, φdµn ≥ φdµ − ε.
Therefore, for n this large,

·Z Z ¸
µ (U ) , µn (U ) ∈ φdµ − ε, ψdµ + ε
and so
|µ (U ) − µn (U )| < 3ε.
since ε is arbitrary, this proves the lemma.
Definition 36.26 Let (Ω, F, P ) be a probability space and let X : Ω → E be a

random variable where here E is some topological space. Then one can define a
probability measure, λX on B (E) as follows:
λX (F ) ≡ P ([X ∈ F ])
More generally, if µ is a probability measure on B (E) , and X is a random variable

defined on a probability space, L (X) = µ means
µ (F ) ≡ P ([X ∈ F ]) .
The following amazing theorem is due to Skorokhod. It starts with a measure,

µ on B (E) and produces a random variable, X for which L (X) = µ. It also has
something to say about the convergence of a sequence of such random variables.
Theorem 36.27 Let E be a separable Banach space and let {µn } be a sequence
of Borel probability measures defined on B (E) such that µn converges weakly to µ
another probability measure on B (E). Then there exist random variables, Xn , X
defined on the probability space, ([0, 1), B ([0, 1)) , m) where m is one dimensional
Lebesgue measure such that
L (X) = µ, L (Xn ) = µn , (36.9)
each random variable, X, Xn is continuous off a set of measure zero, and
Xn (ω) → X (ω) m a.e.
Proof: Let {ak } be a countable dense subset of E.
Construction of sets in E
First I will describe a construction. Letting C ∈ B (E) and r > 0,
C1r ≡ C ∩ B (a1 , r) , C2r ≡ B (a2 , r) ∩ C \ C1r , · · ·,

¡ ¢
Cnr ≡ B (an , r) ∩ C \ ∪n−1 r
k=1 Ck .
Thus the sets, Ckr for k = 1, 2, · · · are disjoint Borel sets whose union is all of C.
Now let C = E, the whole Banach space. Also let {rk } be a decreasing sequence of
positive numbers which converges to 0. Let
Ak ≡ Ekr1 , k = 1, 2, · · ·
Thus {Ak } is a sequence of Borel sets, Ak ⊆ B (ak , r1 ) , and the union of the Ak
equals E. For (i1 , · · ·, im ) ∈ Nm , suppose Ai1 ,···,im has been defined. Then for
k ∈ N,
r
Ai1 ,···,im k ≡ (Ai1 ,···,im )km+1
Thus Ai1 ,···,im k ⊆ B (ak , rm+1 ), is a Borel set, and
∪∞
k=1 Ai1 ,···,im k = Ai1 ,···,im . (36.10)
Also note that Ai1 ,···,im could be empty. This is because Ai1 ,···,im k ⊆ B (ak , rm+1 )
but Ai1 ,···,im ⊆ B (aim , rm ) which might have empty intersection with B (ak , rm+1 ) .
However, applying 36.10 repeatedly,
E = ∪i1 · · · ∪im Ai1 ,···,im
and also, the construction shows the Borel sets, Ai1 ,···,im are disjoint.
Construction of intervals depending on the measure
Next I will construct intervals, Iiν1 ,···,in in [0, 1) corresponding to these Ai1 ,···,in .
In what follows, ν = µn or µ. These intervals will depend on the measure chosen
as indicated in the notation.
" j−1 j
!
X X
ν ν
I1 ≡ [0, ν (A1 )), · · ·, Ij ≡ ν (Ak ) , ν (Ak )
k=1 k=1
for j = 1, 2, · · ·. Note these are disjoint intervals whose union is [0, 1). Also note
¡ ¢
m Ijν = ν (Aj ) .
The endpoints of these intervals as well as their lengths depend on the measures of
the sets Ak . Now supposing Iiν1 ,···,im = [α, β) where β − α = ν (Ai1 ···,im ) , define
" j−1 j
!
X X
ν
Ii1 ···,im ,j ≡ α + ν (Ai1 ···,im ,k ) , α + ν (Ai1 ···,im ,k )
k=1 k=1
¡ ¢
Thus m Iiν1 ···,im ,j = ν (Ai1 ···,im ,j ) and
∞
X ∞
X ¡ ¢
ν (Ai1 ···,im ) = ν (Ai1 ···,im ,k ) = m Iiν1 ···,im ,k = β − α,
k=1 k=1
the intervals, Iiν1 ···,im ,j being disjoint and

Iiν1 ···,im = ∪∞ ν
j=1 Ii1 ···,im ,j .
Choosing the sequence {rk } in an auspicious manner
There are at most countably many positive numbers, r such that for ν = µn
or µ, ν (∂B (ai , r)) > 0. This is because ν is a finite measure. Taking the count-
able union of these countable sets, there are only countably many r such that
ν (∂B (ai , r)) > 0 for some ai . Let the sequence avoid all these bad values of r.
Thus for
F ≡ ∪∞ ∞
m=1 ∪k=1 ∂B (ak , rm )
and ν = µ or µn , ν (F ) = 0.
Claim 1: ∂Ai1 ,···,ik ⊆ F.
Proof of claim: Suppose C is a Borel set for which ∂C ⊆ F. I need to show
∂Ckri ∈ F. First consider k = 1. Then C1ri ≡ B (a1 , ri ) ∩ C. If x ∈ ∂C1ri , then
C
B (x, δ) contains points of B (a1 , ri ) ∩ C and points of B (a1 , ri ) ∪ C C for every
δ > 0. First suppose x ∈ B (a1 , ri ) . Then a small enough neighborhood of x has no
C
points of B (a1 , ri ) and so every B (x, δ) has points of C and points of C C so that
x ∈ ∂C ⊆ F by assumption. If x ∈ ∂C1ri , then it can’t happen that ||x − a1 || > ri
because then there would be a neighborhood of x having no points of C1ri . The
only other case to consider is that ||x − ai || = ri but this says x ∈ F. Now assume
∂Cjri ⊆ F for j ≤ k − 1 and consider ∂Ckri .
Ckri ≡ B (ak , ri ) ∩ C \ ∪k−1 ri

j=1 Cj
³ ¡ ri ¢ C ´
= B (ak , ri ) ∩ C ∩ ∩k−1
j=1 Cj (36.11)
Consider x ∈ ∂Ckri . If x ∈ int (B (ak , ri ) ∩ C) (int ≡ interior) then a small enough

C
ball about x contains no points of (B (ak , ri ) ∩ C) and so every ball about x must
contain points of
³ ¡ ri ¢C Ć ri
∩k−1
j=1 Cj = ∪k−1
j=1 Cj
Since there are only finitely many sets in the union, there exists s ≤ k − 1 such that
every ball about x contains points of Csri but from 36.11, every ball about x contains
C
points of (Csri ) which implies x ∈ ∂Csri ⊆ F by induction. It is not possible that
||x − ak || > ri and yet have x in ∂Ckri . This follows from the description in 36.11.
If ||x − ak || = ri then by definition, x ∈ F. The only other case to consider is
that x ∈ / int (B (ak , ri ) ∩ C) but x ∈ B (ak , ri ). From 36.11, every ball about x
contains points of C. However, since x ∈ B (ak , ri ) , a small enough ball is contained
in B (ak , ri ) . Therefore, every ball about x must also contain points of C C since
otherwise, x ∈ int (B (ak , ri ) ∩ C) . Thus x ∈ ∂C ⊆ F by assumption. Now apply
what was just shown to the case where C = E, the whole space. In this case,
∂E ⊆ F because ∂E = ∅. Then keep applying what was just shown to the Ai1 ,···,in .
From the claim, ν (int (Ai1 ,···,in )) = ν (Ai1 ,···,in ) whenever ν = µ or µn .
Some functions on [0, 1)

By the axiom of choice, there exists xi1 ,···,im ∈ int (Ai1 ,···,im ) whenever int (Ai1 ,···,im ) 6=
∅. For ν = µn or µ, define the following functions. For ω ∈ Iiν1 ,···,im
ν
Zm (ω) ≡ xi1 ,···,im .
µ µ
This defines the functions, Zmn and Zm . Note these functions have the same values
but on slightly different intervals. Here is an important claim.
µ µ
Claim 2: For a.e. ω ∈ [0, 1), limn→∞ Zmn (ω) = Zm (ω) .
Proof of the claim: This follows from the weak convergence of µn to µ and
Lemma 36.25. This lemma implies µn (int (Ai1 ,···,im )) → µ (int (Ai1 ,···,im )) . Thus
by the construction described above, µn (Ai1 ,···,im ) → µ (Ai1 ,···,im ) because of claim
1 and the construction
¡ of¢ F in which it is always a set of measure ¡ zero. It
¢ follows
µ
that if ω ∈ int Iiµ1 ,···,im , then for all n large enough, ω ∈ int Ii1n,···,im and so
µ µ
Zmn (ω) = Zm (ω) . Note this convergence is very far from being uniform.
ν ∞
Claim 3: For ν = µn or µ, {Zm }m=1 is uniformly Cauchy independent of n.
Proof of the claim: For ω ∈ Iiν1 ,···,im , then by the construction, ω ∈ Iiν1 ,···,im ,im+1 ···,in
ν
for some im+1 · ··, in . Therefore, Zm (ω) and Znν (ω) are both contained in Ai1 ,···,im
which is contained in B (aim , rm ) . Since ω ∈ [0, 1) was arbitrary, and rm → 0, it
follows these functions are uniformly Cauchy as claimed.
Let X ν (ω) = limm→∞ Zm ν
(ω). Since each Zm ν
is continuous off a set of measure
zero, it follows from the uniform convergence that X ν is also continuous off a set of
measure zero.
Claim 4: For a.e. ω,
lim X µn (ω) = X µ (ω) .

n→∞
Proof of the claim: From Claim 3 and letting ε > 0 be given, there exists m
large enough that for all n,
µn
||Zm − X µn ||∞ < ε/3, ||Zm
µ
− X µ ||∞ < ε/3.
Now pick ©ω ∈ [0, 1)ªsuch that ω is not equal to any of the end points of any of the
intervals, Iiν1 ,···,im ¯,¯ a set of measure zero.
¯¯ Then by Claim 2, there exists N such
¯ ¯ µn µ ¯ ¯
that if n ≥ N, then Zm (ω) − Zm (ω) E < ε/3. Therefore, for such n and this ω,
||X µn (ω) − X µ (ω)||E ≤ ||X µn (ω) − Zm

µn µn
(ω)||E + ||Zm µ
(ω) − Zm (ω)||E
µ µ
+ ||Zm (ω) − X (ω)||
< ε/3 + ε/3 + ε/3 = ε.
Showing L (X ν ) = ν.
ν
This has mostly proved the theorem except³for the claim that L ´ (X ) = ν for
−1
ν = µn and µ. To do this, I will first show m (X ν ) (∂Ai1 ,···,im ) = 0. By the
construction, ν (∂Ai1 ,···,im ) = 0. Let ε > 0 be given and let δ > 0 be small enough
that
Hδ ≡ {x ∈ E : dist (x, ∂Ai1 ,···,im ) ≤ δ}
is a set of measure less than ε/2. Denote by Gk the sets of the form Ai1 ,···,ik
where (i1 , · · ·, ik ) ∈ Nk . Recall also that corresponding to Ai1 ,···,ik is an interval,
Iiν1 ,···,ik having length equal to ν (Ai1 ,···,ik ) . Denote by Bk those sets of Gk which
have nonempty intersection with Hδ and let the corresponding intervals be denoted
by Ikν . If ω ∈ / ∪Ikν , then from the construction, Zpν (ω) is at a distance of at least
δ from ∂Ai1 ,···,im for all p ≥ k and so, passing to the limit as p → ∞, it follows
X ν (ω) ∈ / ∂Ai1 ,···,im . Therefore,
−1
(X ν ) (∂Ai1 ,···,im ) ⊆ ∪Ikν
Recall that Ai1 ,···,ik ⊆ B (aik , rk ) and the rk → 0. Therefore, if k is large enough,
ν (∪Bk ) < ε
because ∪Bk approximates Hδ closely (In fact, ∩∞

k=1 (∪Bk ) = Hδ .). Therefore,
³ ´
−1
m (X ν ) (∂Ai1 ,···,im ) ≤ m (∪Ikν )
X ¡ ¢
= m Iiν1 ,···,ik
Iiν ∈Ikν
1 ,···,ik
X
= ν (Ai1 ,···,ik )
Ai1 ,···,ik ∈Bk
= ν (∪Bk ) < ε.
³ ´
−1
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this shows m (X ν ) (∂Ai1 ,···,im ) = 0.
If ω ∈ Iiν1 ,···,im , then from the construction, Zpν (ω) ∈ int (Ai1 ,···,im ) for all p ≥ k.
Therefore, taking a limit, as p → ∞,
X ν (ω) ∈ int (Ai1 ,···,im ) ∪ ∂Ai1 ,···,im
and so
−1
Iiν1 ,···,im ⊆ (X ν ) (int (Ai1 ,···,im ) ∪ ∂Ai1 ,···,im )
but also, if X ν (ω) ∈ int (Ai1 ,···,im ) , then Zpν (ω) ∈ int (Ai1 ,···,im ) for all p large
enough and so
−1
(X ν ) (int (Ai1 ,···,im ))
⊆ Iiν1 ,···,im
ν −1
⊆ (X ) (int (Ai1 ,···,im ) ∪ ∂Ai1 ,···,im )
Therefore,
³ ´
−1
m (X ν ) (int (Ai1 ,···,im ))
¡ ¢
≤ m Iiν1 ,···,im
³ ´ ³ ´
−1 −1
≤ m (X ν ) (int (Ai1 ,···,im )) + m (X ν ) (∂Ai1 ,···,im )
³ ´
−1
= m (X ν ) (int (Ai1 ,···,im ))
which shows
³ ´ ¡ ¢
−1
m (X ν ) (int (Ai1 ,···,im )) = m Iiν1 ,···,im = ν (Ai1 ,···,im ) . (36.12)
Also
³ ´
−1
m (X ν ) (int (Ai1 ,···,im ))
³ ´
−1
≤ m (X ν ) (Ai1 ,···,im )
³ ´
−1
≤ m (X ν ) (int (Ai1 ,···,im ) ∪ ∂Ai1 ,···,im )
³ ´
−1
= m (X ν ) (int (Ai1 ,···,im ))
Hence from 36.12,

³ ´
−1
ν (Ai1 ,···,im ) = m (X ν ) (int (Ai1 ,···,im ))
³ ´
−1
= m (X ν ) (Ai1 ,···,im ) (36.13)
Now let U be an open set in E. Then letting
© ¡ ¢ ª
Hk = x ∈ U : dist x, U C ≥ rk
it follows
∪k Hk = U.
Next consider the sets of Gk which have nonempty intersection with Hk , Hk . Then
Hk is covered by Hk and every set of Hk is contained in U, the sets of Hk also being
disjoint. Then from 36.13,
³ ´ X ³ ´
−1 −1
m (X ν ) (∪Hk ) = m (X ν ) (A)
A∈Hk
X
= ν (A) = ν (∪Hk ) .
A∈Hk
Therefore, letting k → ∞ and passing to the limit in the above,

³ ´
−1
m (X ν ) (U ) = ν (U ) .
Since this holds for every open set, it is routine to verify using regularity that it
holds for every Borel set and so L (X ν ) = ν as claimed. This proves the theorem.
36.6 Characteristic Functions

Recall the characteristic function for a random variable having values in Rn . I will
give a review of this to begin with. Then the concept will be generalized to random
variables (vectors) which have values in a real separable Banach space.
Definition 36.28 Let X be a random variable. The characteristic function is

Z Z
¡ ¢
φX (t) ≡ E eit·X ≡ eit·X(ω) dP = eit·x dλX
Ω Rp
the last equation holding by Lemma 31.4 on Page 858.
Recall the following fundamental lemma and definition, Lemma 19.12 on Page
522.

¡ ¢
F T (φ) ≡ T (F φ) , F −1 T (φ) ≡ T F −1 φ
Lemma 36.30 F and F −1 are both one to one, onto, and are inverses of each
other.
The main result on characteristic functions is the following is in Theorem 31.10

on Page 860 which is stated here for convenience.
Theorem
¡ it·X ¢ 36.31 Let¢ X and Y be random vectors with values in Rp and suppose
¡ it·Y
E e =E e for all t ∈ Rp . Then λX = λY .
I want to do something similar for random variables which have values in a

separable real Banach space, E instead of Rp .
Corollary 36.32 Let K be a π system of subsets of Ω and suppose two probability

measures, µ and ν defined on σ (K) are equal on K. Then µ = ν.
Proof: This follows from the Lemma 9.72 on Page 257. Let
G ≡ {E ∈ σ (K) : µ (E) = ν (E)}
Then K ⊆ G, since µ and ν are both probability measures, it follows that if E ∈ G,

then so is E C . Since these are measures, if {Ai } is a sequence of disjoint sets from
G then X X
µ (∪∞i=1 Ai ) = µ (Ai ) = ν (Ai ) = ν (∪∞
i=1 A)
i i
and so from Lemma 9.72, G = σ (K) . This proves the corollary.

Next recall the following fundamental lemma used to prove Pettis’ theorem. It
is proved on Page 579 but is stated here for convenience.
36.6. CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTIONS 1015
Lemma 36.33 If E is a separable Banach space with B 0 the closed unit ball in E 0 ,
then there exists a sequence {fn }∞ 0 0
n=1 ≡ D ⊆ B with the property that for every
x ∈ E,
||x|| = sup |f (x)|
f ∈D 0
Definition 36.34 Let E be a separable real Banach space. A cylindrical set is one
which is of the form
{x ∈ E : x∗i (x) ∈ Γi , i = 1, 2, · · ·, m}
where here x∗i ∈ E 0 and Γi is a Borel set in R.
It is obvious that ∅ is a cylindrical set and that the intersection of two cylindrical
sets is another cylindrical set. Thus the cylindrical sets form a π system. What is
∞
the smallest σ algebra containing the cylindrical sets? Letting {fn }n=1 = D0 be the
sequence of Lemma 36.33 it follows that
{x ∈ E : ||x − a|| ≤ δ}
( )
= x ∈ E : sup |f (x − a)| ≤ δ
f ∈D 0
( )
= x ∈ E : sup |f (x) − f (a)| ≤ δ
f ∈D 0
n o
= ∩∞
n=1 x ∈ E : fn (x) ∈ B (fn (a) , δ)
which yields a countable intersection of cylindrical sets. It follows the smallest σ

algebra containing the cylindrical sets contains the closed balls and hence the open
balls and consequently the open sets and so it contains the Borel sets. However,
each cylindrical set is a Borel set and so in fact this σ algebra equals B (E).
From Corollary 36.32 it follows that two probability measures which are equal
on the cylindrical sets are equal on the Borel sets, B (E).
Definition 36.35 Let µ be a probability measure on a real separable Banach space,

E. Then for x∗ ∈ E 0 ,
Z
∗
φµ (x∗ ) ≡ eix (x) dµ (x) .
E
φµ is called the characteristic function for the measure µ.
Note this is a little different than earlier when the symbol φX (t) was used and
X was a random variable. Here the focus is more on the measure than a random
variable, X such that L (X) = µ but it does not matter much because of Skorokhod’s
theorem presented above. The fundamental result is the following theorem.
Theorem 36.36 Let µ and ν be two probability measures on B (E) where E is a

separable real Banach space. Suppose
φµ (x∗ ) = φν (x∗ )
for all x∗ ∈ E 0 . Then µ = ν.
Proof: Let x∗1 , · · ·, x∗n be in E 0 and define for A a Borel set of Rn ,
µ
e (A) ≡ µ ({x ∈ E : (x∗1 (x) , · · ·, x∗n (x)) ∈ A}) ,
νe (A) ≡ ν ({x ∈ E : (x∗1 (x) , · · ·, x∗n (x)) ∈ A}) . (36.14)
Note these sets in the parentheses are cylindrical sets. Letting λ ∈ Rn , consider in
the definition of the characteristic function, λ1 x∗1 + · · · + λn x∗n ∈ E 0 . Thus
Z Z
i(λ1 x∗ (x)+···+λn x∗ (x)) ∗ ∗
e 1 n dµ = ei(λ1 x1 (x)+···+λn xn (x)) dν
E E
n
Now if F is a Borel measurable subset of R ,
Z
XF (y) de
µ (y) = µ
e (F )
Rn
≡ µ ({x ∈ E : (x∗1 (x) , · · ·, x∗n (x)) ∈ F })

Z
= XF (x∗1 (x) , · · ·, x∗n (x)) dµ
E
and using the usual approximations involving simple functions, it follows that for
any f bounded and Borel measurable,
Z Z
f (y) de
µ (y) = f ((x∗1 (x) , · · ·, x∗n (x))) dµ (x) .
Rn E
Similarly, Z Z
f (y) de
ν (y) = f ((x∗1 (x) , · · ·, x∗n (x))) dν (x) ,
Rn E
Therefore,
Z Z
∗ ∗
eiλ·y de
µ (y) = ei(λ1 x1 (x)+···+λn xn (x)) dµ
Rn
ZE
∗ ∗
= ei(λ1 x1 (x)+···+λn xn (x)) dν
ZE
= eiλ·y de
ν (y)
Rn
which shows from Theorem 36.31 that νe = µ e on the Borel sets of Rn . However,
from the definition of these measures in 36.14 this says nothing more than µ = ν
36.6. CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTIONS 1017
on any cylindrical set. Hence by Corollary 36.32 this shows µ = ν on B (E) . This
proves the theorem.
Finally, I will consider the relation between the characteristic function and in-
dependence of random variables. Recall an earlier proposition which relates inde-
pendence of random vectors with characteristic functions. It is proved starting on
Page 865 in the case of two random variables and concludes with the observation
that the general case is entirely similar but more tedious to write down.
n
Proposition 36.37 Let {Xk }k=1 be random vectors such that Xk has values in
Rpk . Then the random vectors are independent if and only if
n
¡ ¢ Y ¡ ¢
E eiP = E eitj ·Xj
j=1
Pn
where P ≡ j=1 tj · Xj for tj ∈ Rpj .
It turns out there is a generalization of the above proposition to the case where
the random variables have values in a real separable Banach space. Before proving
this recall an earlier theorem which had to do with reducing to the case where the
random variables had values in Rn . It is restated here for convenience.
Theorem 36.38 The random variables, {Xi }i∈I are independent if whenever
{i1 , · · ·, in } ⊆ I,
m m
mi1 , · · ·, min are positive integers, and gmi1 , · · ·, gmin are in (E 0 ) i1 , · · ·, (E 0 ) n re-
n on
spectively, gmij ◦ Xij are independent random vectors having values in Rmi1 , ··
j=1
·, Rmin respectively.
Now here is the theorem about independence and the characteristic functions.
n
Theorem 36.39 Let {Xk }k=1 be random variables having values in E, a real sep-
arable Banach space. Then the random variables are independent if and only if
¡ ¢ Y n ³ ∗ ´
E eiP = E eitj (Xj )
j=1
Pn ∗
where P ≡ j=1 tj (Xj ) for t∗j ∈ E 0 .
Proof: If the random variables are independent, then so are the random vari-
ables, t∗j (Xj ) and so the equation follows.
The interesting case is when the equation holds. Can you draw the conclusion
the random variables are independent? By Theorem 36.38, it suffices to show the
n
random variables {gmk ◦ Xk }k=1 are independent. This happens if whenever tmk ∈
Rmk and
Xn
P = tmk · (gmk ◦ Xk ) ,
k=1
it follows
¡ ¢ Y n ³ ´
E eiP = E eitmk ·(gmk ◦Xk ) . (36.15)
j=1
Now consider one of these terms in the exponent on the right.

mk
X
tmk · (gmk ◦ Xk ) (ω) = tj x∗j (Xk (ω))
j=1
= yk∗ (Xk (ω))
P mk
where y ∗ ≡ ∗
j=1 tj xj . Therefore, 36.15 reduces to
³ Pn ∗ ´ Yn ³ ∗ ´
E ei k=1 yk (Xk ) = E eiyk (Xk )
k=1
which is assumed to hold. Therefore, the random variables are independent. This
proves the theorem.
There is an obvious corollary which is useful.
n
Corollary 36.40 Let {Xk }k=1 be random variables having values in E, a real sep-
arable Banach space. Then the random variables are independent if and only if
¡ ¢ Y n ³ ∗ ´
E eiP = E eitj (Xj )
j=1
Pn ∗
where P ≡ j=1 tj (Xj ) for t∗j ∈ M where M is a dense subset of E 0 .
Proof: The easy direction follows from Theorem 36.39. © Suppose

ª then the above
equation holds for all t∗j ∈ M. Then let t∗j ∈ E 0 and let t∗nj be a sequence in M
such that
lim t∗nj = t∗j in E 0
n→∞
Then define
n
X n
X
P ≡ t∗j Xj , Pn ≡ t∗nj Xj .
j=1 j=1
It follows
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
E eiP = lim E eiPn
n→∞
n
Y ³ ∗ ´
= lim E eitnj (Xj )
n→∞
j=1
n
Y ³ ∗ ´
= E eitj (Xj )
j=1

36.7. CONVOLUTION 1019
36.7 Convolution
Lemma 36.18 on Page 1002 makes possible a definition of convolution of two prob-
ability measures defined on B (E) where E is a separable Banach space as well as
some other interesting theorems which held earlier in the context of locally compact
spaces. I will first show a little theorem about density of continuous functions in
Lp (E) and then define the convolution of two finite measures. First here is a simple
technical lemma.
Lemma 36.41 Suppose K is a compact subset of U an open set in E a metric

space. Then there exists δ > 0 such that
¡ ¢
dist (x, K) + dist x, U C ≥ δ for all x ∈ E.
Proof: For each x ∈ K, there exists a ball, B (x, δ x ) such that B (x, 3δ x ) ⊆ U .
m
Finitely many of these balls cover K because K is compact, say {B (xi , δ xi )}i=1 .
Let
0 < δ < min (δ xi : i = 1, 2, · · ·, m) .
Now pick any x ∈ K. Then x ∈ B (x¡i , δ xi ) ¢for some xi and so B (x, δ) ⊆ B (xi , 2δ xi ) ⊆
C
U. Therefore,¡ forC any
¢ x ∈ K, dist x, U ≥ δ. If x ∈ B (xi , 2δ xi ) for some xi , it
follows dist x, U ≥ δ because then B (x, δ) ⊆ B (xi , 3δ xi ) ⊆ U. If x ∈/ B (xi , 2δ xi )
for any of the xi , then x ∈/ B (y, δ) for any y ∈ K because all these sets are contained
in some B (xi , 2δ xi ) . Consequently dist (x, K) ≥ δ. This proves the lemma.
From this lemma, there is an easy corollary.
Corollary 36.42 Suppose K is a compact subset of U, an open set in E a metric

space. Then there exists a uniformly continuous function f defined on all of E,
having values in [0, 1] such that f (x) = 0 if x ∈
/ U and f (x) = 1 if x ∈ K.
Proof: Consider
¡ ¢
dist x, U C
f (x) ≡ .
dist (x, U C ) + dist (x, K)
Then some algebra yields

|f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤
1 ¡¯¯ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¯ ¢
dist x, U C − dist x0 , U C ¯ + |dist (x, K) − dist (x0 , K)|
δ
where δ is the constant of Lemma 36.41. Now it is a general fact that
|dist (x, S) − dist (x0 , S)| ≤ d (x, x0 ) .
Therefore,
2
|f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤ d (x, x0 )
δ
Now suppose µ is a finite measure defined on the Borel sets of a separable Banach
space, E. It was shown above that µ is inner and outer regular. Lemma 36.18 on
Page 1002 shows that µ is inner regular in the usual sense with respect to compact
sets. This makes possible the following theorem.
Theorem 36.43 Let µ be a finite measure on B (E) where E is a separable Banach

space and let f ∈ Lp (E; µ) . Then for any ε > 0, there exists a uniformly continuous,
bounded g defined on E such that
||f − g||Lp (E) < ε.
Proof: As usual in such situations, it suffices to consider only f ≥ 0. Then

by Theorem 8.27 on Page 190 and an application of the monotone convergence
theorem, there exists a simple measurable function,
m
X
s (x) ≡ ck XAk (x)
k=1
such that ||f − s||Lp (E) < ε/2. Now by regularity of µ there exist compact sets,
Pm 1/p
Kk and open sets, Vk such that 2 k=1 |ck | µ (Vk \ K) < ε/2 and by Corollary
36.42 there exist uniformly continuous functions gk having values in [0, 1] such that
gk = 1 on Kk and 0 on VkC . Then consider
m
X
g (x) = ck gk (x) .
k=1
This function is bounded and uniformly continuous. Furthermore,

ÃZ ¯ m ¯p !1/p
¯X X m ¯
¯ ¯
||s − g||Lp (E) ≤ ¯ ck XAk (x) − ck gk (x)¯ dµ
E ¯k=1 k=1
¯
ÃZ Ã m !p !1/p
X
≤ |ck | |XAk (x) − gk (x)|
E k=1
m
X µZ ¶1/p
p
≤ |ck | |XAk (x) − gk (x)| dµ
k=1 E
m
ÃZ !1/p
X
p
≤ |ck | 2 dµ
k=1 Vk \Kk
Xm
1/p
= 2 |ck | µ (Vk \ K) < ε/2.
k=1
Therefore,
||f − g||Lp ≤ ||f − s||Lp + ||s − g||Lp < ε/2 + ε/2.
Lemma 36.44 Let A ∈ B (E) where µ is a finite measure on B (E) for E a sepa-
rable Banach space. Also let xi ∈ E for i = 1, 2, · · ·, m. Then for x ∈ E m ,
Ã m
! Ã m
!
X X
x →µ A + xi , x → µ A − xi
i=1 i=1
are Borel measurable functions. Furthermore, the above functions are
B (E) × · · · × B (E)
measurable where the above denotes the product measurable sets as described in
Theorem 9.75 on Page 260.
Proof: First consider the case where A = U, an open set. Let

( Ã m
! )
X
y ∈ x ∈ Em : µ U + xi > α (36.16)
i=1
Pm
Then from Lemma 36.18 on Page 1002 there exists a compact set, K ⊆ U + Pi=1 yi
m
such that µ (K) > α. Then if y is close enough to y, it follows K ⊆ U + i=1 yi0
0
0
also. Therefore, for all y close enough to y,
Ã m
!
X
µ U+ yi0 ≥ µ (K) > α.
i=1
Pm
In other words the set described in 36.16 is an open set and so y → µ (U + i=1 yi )
is Borel measurable whenever U is an open set in E.
Define a π system, K to consist of all open sets in E. Then define G as
( Ã m
! )
X
A ∈ σ (K) = B (E) : y → µ A + yi is Borel measurable
i=1
I just showed G ⊇ K. Now suppose A ∈ G. Then

Ã m
! Ã m
!
X X
µ AC + yi = µ (E) − µ A + yi
i=1 i=1
and so AC ∈ G whenever A ∈ G. Next suppose {Ai } is a sequence of disjoint sets

of G. Then
    
m
X m
X
µ (∪∞
i=1 Ai ) + yj  = µ ∪∞ i=1
Ai + y j 
j=1 j=1
 
∞
X m
X
= µ  Ai + yj 
i=1 j=1
and so ∪∞ i=1 Ai ∈ G because it is the sum of Borel measurable functions. By the

lemma on π systems,³ Lemma 9.72´ on Page 257, it follows G = σ (K) = B (E) .
Pm
Similarly, x → µ A − j=1 xj is also Borel measurable whenever A ∈ B (E).
Finally note that
B (E) × · · · × B (E)
contains the open sets of E m because the separability of E implies the existence of
a countable basis for the topology of E m consisting of sets of the form
m
Y
Ui
i=1
where the Ui come from a countable basis for E. Since every open set is the countable
union of sets like the above, each being a measurable box, the open sets are contained
in
B (E) × · · · × B (E)
which implies B (E m ) ⊆ B (E) × · · · × B (E) also. This proves the lemma.
With this lemma, it is possible to define the convolution of two finite measures.
Definition 36.45 Let µ and ν be two finite measures on B (E) , for E a separable
Banach space. Then define a new measure, µ ∗ ν on B (E) as follows
Z
µ ∗ ν (A) ≡ ν (A − x) dµ (x) .
E
This is well defined because of Lemma 36.44 which says that x → ν (A − x) is Borel
measurable.
Here is an interesting theorem about convolutions. However, first here is a little
lemma. The following picture is descriptive of the set described in the following
lemma.
@ E
@
@ @
@ @
@ SA@
@ @
@ @ E
@ A @
@ @
@
Lemma 36.46 For A a Borel set in E, a separable Banach space, define

SA ≡ {(x, y) ∈ E × E : x + y ∈ A}
Then SA ∈ B (E) × B (E) , the σ algebra of product measurable sets, the smallest σ
algebra which contains all the sets of the form A × B where A and B are Borel.
Proof: Let K denote the open sets in E. Then K is a π system. Let
G ≡ {A ∈ σ (K) = B (E) : SA ∈ B (E) × B (E)} .
Then K ⊆ G because if U ∈ K then SU is an open set in E × E and all open sets

are in B (E) × B (E) because a countable basis for the topology of E × E are sets
of the form B × C where B and C come from a countable basis for E. Therefore,
K ⊆ G. Now let A ∈ G. For (x, y) ∈ E × E, either x + y ∈ A or x + y ∈ / A. Hence
E × E = SA ∪ SAC which shows that if A ∈ G then so is AC . Finally if {Ai } is a
sequence of disjoint sets of G
S∪∞
i=1 Ai
= ∪∞
i=1 SAi
and this shows that G is also closed with respect to countable unions of disjoint
sets. Therefore, by the lemma on π systems, Lemma 9.72 on Page 257 it follows
G = σ (K) = B (E) . This proves the lemma.
Theorem 36.47 Let µ, ν, and λ be finite measures on B (E) for E a separable

Banach space. Then
µ∗ν =ν∗µ (36.17)
(µ ∗ ν) ∗ λ = µ ∗ (ν ∗ λ) (36.18)
If µ is the distribution for an E valued random variable, X and if ν is the distribution
for an E valued random variable, Y, and X and Y are independent, then µ ∗ ν is
the distribution for the random variable, X + Y .
Proof: First consider 36.17. Letting A ∈ B (E) , the following computation

holds from Fubini’s theorem and Lemma 36.46
Z Z Z
µ ∗ ν (A) ≡ ν (A − x) dµ (x) = XSA (x, y) dν (y) dµ (x)
ZE Z E E
= XSA (x, y) dµ (x) dν (y) = ν ∗ µ (A) .

E E
Next consider 36.18. Using 36.17 whenever convenient,

Z
(µ ∗ ν) ∗ λ (A) ≡ (µ ∗ ν) (A − x) dλ (x)
ZE Z
= ν (A − x − y) dµ (y) dλ (x)
E E
while
Z
µ ∗ (ν ∗ λ) (A) ≡ (ν ∗ λ) (A − y) dµ (y)
ZE Z
= ν (A − y − x) dλ (x) dµ (y)
E E
Z Z
= ν (A − y − x) dµ (y) dλ (x) .
E E
The necessary product measurability comes from Lemma 36.44.

Recall
Z
(µ ∗ ν) (A) ≡ ν (A − x) dµ (x) .
E
Pn
Therefore, if s is a simple function, s (x) = k=1 ck XAk (x) ,
Z Xn Z
sd (µ ∗ ν) = ck ν (Ak − x) dµ (x)
E k=1 E
Z X
n
= ck ν (Ak − x) dµ (x)
E k=1
Z Z
= s (x + y) dν (x) dµ (y)
E E
Approximating with simple functions it follows that whenever f is bounded and

measurable or nonnegative and measurable,
Z Z Z
f d (µ ∗ ν) = f (x + y) dν (y) dµ (x) (36.19)
E E E
Therefore, letting Z = X + Y, and λ the distribution of Z, it follows from indepen-

dence of X and Y that for t∗ ∈ E 0 ,
³ ∗ ´ ³ ∗ ´ ³ ∗ ´ ³ ∗ ´
φλ (t∗ ) ≡ E eit (Z) = E eit (X+Y ) = E eit (X) E eit (Y )
But also, it follows from 36.19

Z
∗
∗
φ(µ∗ν) (t ) = eit (z)
d (µ ∗ ν) (z)
E
Z Z
∗
= eit (x+y)
dν (y) dµ (x)
E E
Z Z
∗
(x) it∗ (y)
= eit e
dν (y) dµ (x)
E E
µZ ¶ µZ ¶
it∗ (y) it∗ (x)
= e dν (y) e dµ (x)
³E ∗ ´ ³ ∗ E ´
= E eit (X) E eit (Y )
Since φλ (t∗ ) = φ(µ∗ν) (t∗ ) , it follows λ = µ ∗ ν. This proves the theorem.

Note the last part of this argument shows the characteristic function of a con-
volution equals the product of the characteristic functions.
36.8 The Multivariate Normal Distribution

Here I give a review of the main theorems and definitions about multivariate normal
random variables. Recall that for a random vector (variable), X having values in
Rp , λX is the law of X defined by
P ([X ∈ E]) = λX (E)
for all E a Borel set in Rp . In different notaion, L (X) = λX . Then the following
definitions and theorems are proved and presented starting on Page 867
Definition 36.48 A random vector, X, with values in Rp has a multivariate nor-

mal distribution written as X ∼Np (m, Σ) if for all Borel E ⊆ Rp ,
Z
1 −1 ∗ −1
λX (E) = XE (x) p/2 1/2
e 2 (x−m) Σ (x−m) dx
Rp (2π) det (Σ)
for µ a given vector and Σ a given positive definite symmetric matrix.
Theorem 36.49 For X ∼ Np (m, Σ) , m = E (X) and

¡ ∗¢
Σ = E (X − m) (X − m) .
Theorem 36.50 Suppose X1 ∼ Np (m1 , Σ1 ) , X2 ∼ Np (m2 , Σ2 ) and the two ran-

dom vectors are independent. Then
X1 + X2 ∼ Np (m1 + m2 , Σ1 + Σ2 ). (36.20)
Also, if X ∼ Np (m, Σ) then −X ∼ Np (−m, Σ) . Furthermore, if X ∼ Np (m, Σ)

then ¡ ¢ 1 ∗
E eit·X = eit·m e− 2 t Σt (36.21)
¡ ¢
Also if a is a constant and X ∼ Np (m, Σ) then aX ∼ Np am, a2 Σ .
Following [42] a random vector has a generalized normal distribution if its char-
acteristic function is given as
1 ∗
eit·m e− 2 t Σt (36.22)
where Σ is symmetric and has nonnegative eigenvalues. For a random real valued
variable, m is scalar and so is Σ so the characteristic function of such a generalized
normally distributed random variable is
1 2
σ2
eitm e− 2 t (36.23)
These generalized normal distributions do not require Σ to be invertible, only that

the eigenvalues by nonnegative. In one dimension this would correspond the charac-
teristic function of a dirac measure having point mass 1 at m. In higher dimensions,
it could be a mixture of such things with more familiar things. I will often not
bother to distinguish between generalized normal and normal distributions.
Here are some other interesting results about normal distributions found in [42].
The next theorem has to do with the question whether a random vector is normally
distributed in the above generalized sense. It is proved on Page 870.

variable. Then X is normallyPdistributed in the above generalized sense if and only
p
mean of X is
m = (E (X1 ) , · · ·, E (Xp ))
Σjk = E ((Xj − mj ) (Xk − mk ))
where mj = E (Xj ).
Also proved there is the interesting corollary listed next.

both multivariate normal random vectors with the same mean and variance.
Theorem 36.53 Suppose X = (X1 , · · ·, Xp ) is normally distributed with mean m

and covariance Σ. Then if X1 is uncorrelated with any of the Xi ,
E ((X1 − m1 ) (Xj − mj )) = 0 for j > 1
then X1 and (X2 , · · ·, Xp ) are both normally distributed and the two random vectors
are independent. Here mj ≡ E (Xj ) .
Next I will consider the question of existence of independent random variables

having a given law.
Lemma 36.54 Let µ be a probability measure on B (E) , the Borel subsets of a

separable real Banach space. Then there exists a probability space (Ω, F, P ) and two
independent random variables, X, Y mapping Ω to E such that L (X) = L (Y ) = µ.
Proof: First note that if A, B are Borel sets of E then A × B is a Borel set in
E × E where the norm on E × E is given by
||(x, y)|| ≡ max (||x|| , ||y||) .
This can be proved by letting A be open and considering
G ≡ {B ∈ B (E) : A × B ∈ B (A × B)} .
Show G is a σ algebra and it contains the open sets. Therefore, this will show A × B
is in B (A × B) whenever A is open and B is Borel. Next repeat a similar argument
to show that this is true whenever either set is Borel. Since E is separable, it is
completely separable and so is E × E. Thus every open set in E × E is the union
of balls from a countable set. However, these balls are of the form B1 × B2 where
Bi is a ball in E. Now let
K ≡ {A × B : A, B are Borel}
Then K ⊆ B (E × E) as was just shown and also every open set from E × E is in
σ (K). It follows σ (K) equals the σ algebra of product measurable sets, B (E)×B (E)
and you can consider the product measure, µ×µ. By Skorokhod’s theorem, Theorem
36.27, there exists (X, Y ) a random variable with values in E × E and a probability
space, (Ω, F, P ) such that L ((X, Y )) = µ × µ. Then for A, B Borel sets in E
P (X ∈ A, Y ∈ B) = (µ × µ) (A × B) = µ (A) µ (B) .
Also, P (X ∈ A) = P (X ∈ A, Y ∈ E) = µ (A) and similarly, P (Y ∈ B) = µ (B)

showing L (X) = L (Y ) = µ and X, Y are independent.
Now here is an interesting theorem in [15].
Theorem 36.55 Suppose ν is a probability measure on the Borel sets of R and

suppose that ξ and ζ are independent random variables such that L (ξ) = L (ζ) = ν
and whenever α2 + β 2 = 1 it follows L (αξ + βζ) = ν. Then
¡ ¢
L (ξ) = N 0, σ 2
¡ ¢
for some σ ≥ 0. Also if L (ξ) = L (ζ) = N 0, σ 2 where ξ, ζ are independent, then
¡ ¢
if α2 + β 2 = 1, it follows L (αξ + βζ) = N 0, σ 2 .
Proof: Let ξ, ζ be independent random variables with L (ξ) = L (ζ) = ν and

whenever α2 + β 2 = 1 it follows L (αξ + βζ) = ν.
By independence of ξ and ζ,
φν (t) ≡ φαξ+αζ (t)

³ ´
= E eit(αξ+βζ)
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= E eitαξ E eitβζ
= φξ (αt) φζ (βt)
≡ φν (αt) φν (βt)
In simpler terms and suppressing the subscript,
φ (t) = φ (cos (θ) t) φ (sin (θ) t) . (36.24)
Since ν is a probability measure, φ (0) = 1. Also, letting θ = π/4, this yields

Ã √ !2
2
φ (t) = φ t (36.25)
2
and so if φ has real values, then φ (t) ≥ 0.

Next I will show φ is real. To do this, it follows from the definition of φν ,

Z Z
−itx
φν (−t) ≡ e dν = eitx dν = φν (t).
R R
Then letting θ = π,
φ (t) = φ (−t) · φ (0) = φ (−t) = φ (t)
showing φ has real values. It is positive near 0 because φ (0) = 1 and φ is a
continuous function of t thanks to the dominated convergence theorem. However,
this and 36.25 implies it is positive everywhere. Here is why. If not, let tm be the
smallest positive value of t where φ (t) = 0. Then tm > 0 by continuity. Now from
36.25, an immediate contradiction results. Therefore, φ (t) > 0 for all t > 0. Similar
reasoning yields the same conclusion for t < 0.
Next note that φ (t) = φ (−t) also implies φ depends only on |t| because it takes
2
the same value for t as for −t. More simply, ¡ 2φ¢ depends only on t . Thus one can
define a new function of the form φ (t) = f t and 36.24 implies the following for
α ∈ [0, 1] . ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡¡ ¢ ¢
f t2 = f α 2 t2 f 1 − α 2 t2 .
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Taking ln of both sides, one obtains the following for g t2 ≡ ln f t2 .
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡¡ ¢ ¢
ln f t2 = ln f α2 t2 + ln f 1 − α2 t2 .
¡ ¢
Now letting x = α2 t2 and y = 1 − α2 t2 , it follows that for all x ≥ 0
ln f (x + y) = ln f (x) + ln f (y) .
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ 2
Hence ln f (x) = kx and so ln f t2 = kt2 and so φ (t) = f t2 = ekt for all t.
The constant, k must be nonpositive because φ (t) is bounded due to its definition.
Therefore, the characteristic function of ν is
1 2
σ2
φν (t) = e− 2 t
for some σ ≥ 0. That is, ν is the law of a generalized normal random variable.
Note the other direction of the implication is obvious. If ξ, ζ ∼ N (0, σ) and
they are independent, then if α2 + β 2 = 1, it follows
¡ ¢
αξ + βζ ∼ N 0, σ 2
because
³ ´ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
E eit(αξ+βζ) = E eitαξ E eitβζ
2 2 2
1 1
σ2
= e− 2 (αt) σ e− 2 (βt)
1 2 2
= e− 2 t σ ,
the characteristic function for a random variable which is N (0, σ). This proves the
theorem.
The next theorem is a useful gimick for showing certain random variables are
independent in the context of normal distributions.
Theorem 36.56 Let X and Y be random vectors having values in Rp and Rq

respectively. Suppose also that (X, Y) is multivariate normally distributed and
¡ ∗¢
E (X−E (X)) (Y−E (Y)) = 0.
Then X and Y are independent random vectors.
Proof: Let Z = (X, Y) , m = p + q. Then by hypothesis, the characteristic

function of Z is of the form
¡ ¢ 1 ∗
E eit·Z = eit·m e− 2 it Σt
where m = (mX , mY ) = E (Z) = E (X, Y) and

µ ¡ ∗¢ ¶
E (X−E (X)) (X−E (X)) ¡ 0 ¢
Σ = ∗
0 E (Y − E (Y)) (Y − E (Y))
µ ¶
ΣX 0
≡ .
0 ΣY
Therefore, letting t = (u, v) where u ∈ Rp and v ∈ Rq

¡ ¢ ³ ´ ³ ´
E eit·Z = E ei(u,v)·(X,Y) = E ei(u·X+v·Y)
1 ∗ 1 ∗
= eiu·mX e− 2 u ΣX u eiv·mY e− 2 v ΣY v
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= E eiu·X E eiv·Y . (36.26)
Where the last equality needs to be justified. When this is done it will follow from
Proposition 36.37 on Page 1017 which is proved on Page 996 that X and Y are
independent. Thus all that remains is to verify
¡ ¢ 1 ∗ ¡ ¢ 1 ∗
E eiu·X = eiu·mX e− 2 u ΣX u , E eiv·Y = eiv·mY e− 2 v ΣY v .
However, this follows from 36.26. To get the first formula, let v = 0. To get the
second, let u = 0. This proves the Theorem.
Note that to verify the conclusion of this theorem, it suffices to show
E (Xi − E (Xi ) (Yj − E (Yj ))) = 0.
Next are some technical lemmas. The first is like an earlier result but will require
more work because it will not be assumed a certain function is bounded.
Lemma 36.57 Let (Ω, F, P ) be a probability space and let X : Ω → E be a random

variable, where E is a real separable Banach space. Also let L (X) = µ, a probability
measure defined on B (E) , the Borel sets of E. Suppose h : E → R is continuous
and also suppose h ◦ X is in L1 (Ω) . Then
Z Z
(h ◦ X) dP = h (x) dµ.
Ω E
∞ ¡ ¢
Proof: Let {ai }i=1 be a countable dense subset of R. Let Bin ≡ B ai , n1 ⊆ R
and define Borel sets, Ani ⊆ E as follows:
¡ n ¢ ¡ k ¢
An1 = h−1 (B1n ) , Ank+1 ≡ h−1 Bk+1 \ ∪i=1 Ani .
∞
Thus {Ani }i=1 ¡are disjoint
¢ Borel sets, with h (Ani ) ⊆ Bin . Also let bni denote the
1
endpoint of B ai , n which is closer to 0.
½ n
bi if h−1 (Bin ) 6= ∅
hni ≡
0 if h−1 (Bin ) = ∅
Then define
∞
X
hn (x) ≡ hni XAni (x)
i=1
Thus |h (x)| ≤ |h (x)| for all x ∈ E and |hn (x) − h (x)| ≤ 1/n for all x ∈ E. Then
n
hn ◦ X is in L1 (Ω) and for all n,
|hn ◦ X (ω)| ≤ |h ◦ X (ω)| .
Let
k
X
hnk (x) ≡ hni XAni (x) .
i=1
∞
Then from the construction in which the {Ani }i=1 are disjoint,
|hnk (X (ω))| ≤ |h (X (ω))| , |hnk (x)| ≤ |h (x)|
and |hnk (x)| is increasing in k.

Z Z X
k
|hnk (X (ω))| dP = |hni | XAni (X (ω)) dP
Ω Ω i=1
Z X
k
= |hni | XX −1 (An ) (ω) dP
i
Ω i=1
k
X ¡ ¢
= |hni | P X −1 (Ani )
i=1
k
X
= |hni | µ (Ani )
Zi=1
= |hnk (x)| dµ.
E
By the monotone convergence theorem, and letting k → ∞,

Z Z
|hn (X (ω))| dP = |hn (x)| dµ.
Ω E
36.9. GAUSSIAN MEASURES 1031
Now by the uniform convergence in the construction, you can let n → ∞ and obtain
Z Z
|h (X (ω))| dP = |h (x)| dµ.
Ω E
1
Thus h ∈ L (E, µ). It is obviously Borel measurable, being the limit of a sequence
of Borel measurable functions. Now similar reasoning to the above and using the
dominated convergence theorem when necessary yields
Z Z
hn (X (ω)) dP = hn (x) dµ
Ω E
Now another application of the dominated convergence theorem yields

Z Z
h (X (ω)) dP = h (x) dµ.
Ω E
36.9 Gaussian Measures

36.9.1 Definitions And Basic Properties
First suppose X is a random vector having values in Rn and its distribution function
is N (m,Σ) where m is the mean and Σ is the covariance. Then the characteristic
function of X or equivalently, the characteristic function of its distribution is
1 ∗
eit·m e− 2 t Σt
What is the distribution of a · X where a ∈ Rn ? In other words, if you take a

linear functional and do it to X to get a scalar valued random variable, what is the
distribution of this scalar valued random variable? Let Y = a · X. Then
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
E eitY = E eita·X
which from the above formula is

∗
1
Σat2
eia·mt e− 2 a
which is the characteristic function of a random variable whose distribution is

N (a · m, a∗ Σa) . In other words, it is normally distributed having mean equal to
a · m and variance equal to a∗ Σa. Obviously such a concept generalizes to a Banach
space in place of Rn and this motivates the following definition.
Definition 36.58 Let E be a real separable Banach space. A probability measure,

µ defined on B (E) is called a Gaussian measure if for every h ∈ E 0 , the law of h
considered as a random variable defined on the probability space, (E, B (E) , µ) is
normal. That is, for A ⊆ R a Borel set,
¡ ¢
λh (A) ≡ µ h−1 (A)
is given by Z
1 1 2
√ e− 2σ2 (x−m) dx
A 2πσ
for some σ and m. A Gaussian measure is called symmetric if m is always equal
to 0.
Lemma 36.59 Let µ = L (X) where X is a random variable defined on a proba-

bility space, (Ω, F, P ) which has values in E, a Banach space. Suppose also that
for all φ ∈ E 0 , φ ◦ X is normally distributed. Then µ is a Gaussian measure. Con-
versely, suppose µ is a Gaussian measure on B (E) and X is a random variable
having values in E such that L (X) = µ. Then for every h ∈ E 0 , h ◦ X is normally
distributed.
Proof: First suppose µ is a Gaussian measure and X is a random variable such

that L (X) = µ. Then if F is a Borel set in R, and h ∈ E 0
³ ´ ¡ ¡ ¢¢
−1
P (h ◦ X) (F ) = P X −1 h−1 (F )
¡ ¢
= µ h−1 (F )
Z
1 |x−m|2
= √ e− 2σ2 dx
2πσ F
for some m and σ 2 showing that h ◦ X is normally distributed.

Next suppose h ◦ X is normally distributed whenever h ∈ E 0 and L (X) = µ.
Then letting F be a Borel set in R, I need to verify
Z
¡ ¢ 1 |x−m|2
µ h−1 (F ) = √ e− 2σ2 dx.
2πσ F
However, this is easy because

¡ ¢ ¡ ¡ ¢¢
µ h−1 (F ) = P X −1 h−1 (F )
³ ´
−1
= P (h ◦ X) (F )
which is given to equal Z

1 |x−m|2
√ e− 2σ 2 dx
2πσ F
for some m and σ 2 . This proves the lemma.

Here is another important observation. Suppose X is as just described, a random
variable having values in E such that L (X) = µ and suppose h1 , · · ·, hn are each in
E 0 . Then for scalars, t1 , · · ·, tn ,
t1 h1 ◦ X + · · · + tn hn ◦ X
= (t1 h1 + · · · + tn hn ) ◦ X
36.10. GAUSSIAN MEASURES FOR A SEPARABLE HILBERT SPACE 1033
and this last is assumed to be normally distributed because (t1 h1 + · · · + tn hn ) ∈

E 0 . Therefore, by Theorem 36.51
(h1 ◦ X, · · ·, hn ◦ X)
is distributed as a multivariate normal.

Obviously there exist examples of Gaussian measures defined on E, a Banach
space. Here is why. Let ξ be a random variable defined on a probability space,
(Ω, F, P ) which is normally distributed with mean 0 and variance σ 2 . Then let
X (ω) ≡ ξ (ω) e where e ∈ E. Then let µ ≡ L (X) . For A a Borel set of R and
h ∈ E0,
µ ([h (x) ∈ A]) ≡ P ([X (ω) ∈ [x : h (x) ∈ A]])

= P ([h ◦ X ∈ A]) = P ([ξ (ω) h (e) ∈ A])
Z
1 − 1
x2
= √ e 2|h(e)|2 σ2 dx
|h (e)| σ 2π A
2
because h (e) ξ is a random variable which has variance |h (e)| σ 2 and mean 0. Thus
µ is indeed a Gaussian measure. Similarly, one can consider finite sums of the form
n
X
ξ i (ω) ei
i=1
where the ξ i are independent normal random variables having mean 0 for conve-
nience. However, this is a rather trivial case. It is much more interesting to consider
the case of infinite sums of random variables.
36.10 Gaussian Measures For A Separable Hilbert

Space
First recall the Kolmogorov extension theorem, Theorem 11.11 on Page 310 which
is stated here for convenience. In this theorem, I is an ordered index set, possibly
infinite, even uncountable.
J = (t1 , · · ·, tn ) ⊆ I,

sets of t∈J Mt where Mt is a locally compact metric space such that if
(t1 , · · ·, tn ) ⊆ (s1 , · · ·, sp ) ,
then ¡ ¢
then Gsi = Msi . Then there exists a probability space, (Ω, P, F) and measurable

∞
Lemma 36.61 There exists a sequence, {ξ k }k=1 of random variables such that
L (ξ k ) = N (0, 1)
∞
and {ξ k }k=1 is independent.
Proof: Let i1 < i2 · ·· < in be positive integers and define

Z
1 2
µi1 ···in (F1 × · · · × Fn ) ≡ ¡√ ¢n e−|x| /2 dx.
2π F1 ×···×Fn
Then for the index set equal to N the measures satisfy the necessary consistency
condition for the Kolmogorov theorem above. Therefore, there exists a probability
space, (Ω, P, F) and measurable functions, ξ k : Ω → R such that
¡£ ¤ £ ¤ £ ¤¢
P ξ i1 ∈ Fi1 ∩ ξ i2 ∈ Fi2 · · · ∩ ξ in ∈ Fin
= µi1 ···in (F1 × · · · × Fn )
¡£ ¤¢ ¡£ ¤¢
= P ξ i1 ∈ Fi1 · · · P ξ in ∈ Fin
which shows the random variables are independent as well as normal with mean 0
and variance 1. This proves the Lemma.
Now let H be a separable Hilbert space. Consider
∞
X
λk e k ⊗ e k
k=1
where {ek } is a complete orthonormal set of vectors and

∞
X
λk < ∞, λk ≥ 0.
k=1
P∞
Thus if A = k=1 λk ek ⊗ ek , it follows A is a nuclear operator and Aek = λk ek .
Now define for a ∈ H,
∞ p
X
X (ω) ≡ a + λk ξ k (ω) ek (36.29)
k=1
Claim: The series converges a.e. and inPL2 (Ω)

√.
n
Proof of claim: Let Xn (ω) ≡ a + k=1 λk ξ k (ω) ek . Then
n p
X
Xn (ω) = a + λk ξ k (ω) ek
k=1
36.10. GAUSSIAN MEASURES FOR A SEPARABLE HILBERT SPACE 1035
≡ a + Yn (ω) . (36.30)
For n > m,
n
X
2 2
|Yn (ω) − Ym (ω)|H = λk ξ k (ω) (36.31)
k=m
and Z X
∞ ∞
X
2
λk ξ k (ω) dP = λk < ∞
Ω k=1 k=1
and so for a.e. ω, 36.31 shows {Yn (ω)} is a Cauchy sequence in H and therefore,
converges.
The series also converges in L2 (Ω; H) because
 
Z Xn p n
X p
 λk ξ k (ω) ek , λj ξ j (ω) ej  dP
Ω k=m j=m
Z X
n n
X ∞
X
2
= λk |ξ k (ω)| dP = λk ≤ λk
Ω k=m k=m k=m
which by assumption converges to 0 as m → ∞. Thus the partial sums form a

Cauchy sequence in L2 (Ω; H) . This proves the claim.
Letting
Xn p
(h, X (ω))n ≡ (h, a) + λk ξ k (ω) (h, ek )
k=1
it follows
(h, X (ω))n → (h, X (ω)) a.e.
and an application of the dominated convergence theorem, shows that since the ξ k
are normal and independent, it follows from Theorem 36.50 and the description of
the characteristic function of a normally distributed random variable,
³ ´ ³ ´
E eit(h,X) = lim E eit(h,X)n
n→∞
2 Pn
λk (h,ek )2
= lim eit(h,a) e−t k=1
n→∞
2 P∞
λk (h,ek )2
= eit(h,a) e−t k=1
and this is the characteristic function for a random variable with mean (h, a) and
P∞ 2
variance k=1 λk (h, ek ) , this last series converging because
M
X ∞
X
2 2 2
λk (h, ek ) ≤ C (h, ek ) = C |h| .
k=1 k=1
0
Thus for every h ∈ H , h ◦ X is normally distributed. Therefore, Lemma 36.59
implies the following theorem.
Theorem 36.62 Let X (ω) be given by 36.29 as described above. Then letting
µ ≡ L (X) , it follows µ is a Gaussian measure on the separable Hilbert space, H.
36.11 Abstract Wiener Spaces

This material follows [11], [30] and [25]. More can be found on this subject in these
references. Here H will be a separable Hilbert space.
Definition 36.63 Cylinder sets in H are of the form
{x ∈ H : ((x, e1 ) , · · ·, (x, en )) ∈ F }
where F ∈ B (Rn ) , the Borel sets of Rn and {ek } are orthonormal. Denote this
collection of cylinder sets as C.
Lemma 36.64 σ (C) , the smallest σ algebra containing C, contains the Borel sets
of H, B (H).
Proof: It follows from the definition of these cylinder sets that if fi (x) ≡ (x, ei ) ,
so that fi ∈ H 0 , then with respect to σ (C) , each fi is measurable. It follows that
every linear combination of the fi is also measurable with respect to σ (C). However,
this set of linear combinations is dense in H 0 and so the conclusion of the lemma
follows from Lemma 36.9 on Page 993. This proves the lemma.
Definition 36.65 Define ν on the cylinder sets, C by the following rule. For {ek }
a complete orthonormal set in H,
ν ({x ∈ H : ((x, e1 ) , · · ·, (x, en )) ∈ F })

Z
1 2
≡ n/2
e−|x| /2 dx.
(2π) F
Proof: Let {fk } be another orthonormal set such that
{x ∈ H : ((x, e1 ) , · · ·, (x, en )) ∈ F }
= {x ∈ H : ((x, f1 ) , · · ·, (x, fn )) ∈ G}
Then it needs to be the case that ν gives the same result for the two equal cylinder
sets. Let X
L= ei ⊗ f i .
i
Thus Lfi = ei and L maps H one to one and onto and preserves norms and
X
L∗ = fi ⊗ ei
i
and maps ei to fi and has the same properties of being one to one and onto H and
preserving norms.
Let
x ∈ {x ∈ H : ((x, e1 ) , · · ·, (x, en )) ∈ F } ≡ A.
36.11. ABSTRACT WIENER SPACES 1037
Then by definition,
((x, e1 ) , · · ·, (x, en )) ∈ F
and so
((x, Lf1 ) , · · ·, (x, Lfn )) ∈ F
which implies
((L∗ x, f1 ) , · · ·, (L∗ x, fn )) ∈ F
Thus, since L, L∗ are one to one and onto,
A = {x ∈ H : ((x, e1 ) , · · ·, (x, en )) ∈ F }
= {x ∈ H : ((L∗ x, f1 ) , · · ·, (L∗ x, fn )) ∈ F }
= {x ∈ LH : ((L∗ x, f1 ) , · · ·, (L∗ x, fn )) ∈ F }
= {L∗ x ∈ H : ((L∗ x, f1 ) , · · ·, (L∗ x, fn )) ∈ F }
= {y ∈ H : ((y, f1 ) , · · ·, (y, fn )) ∈ F }
= {x ∈ H : ((x, f1 ) , · · ·, (x, fn )) ∈ G}
If α ∈ F, then there exists y ∈ H such that
((y, f1 ) , · · ·, (y, fn )) ∈ F
and this y must be in the set,
{x ∈ H : ((x, f1 ) , · · ·, (x, fn )) ∈ G}
which shows
((y, f1 ) , · · ·, (y, fn )) ∈ G.
Hence F ⊆ G. Similarly, G ⊆ F and ν is well defined. This proves the lemma.
It would be natural to try to extend ν to the σ algebra determined by C and
obtain a measure defined on this σ algebra. However, this is always impossible if
the Hilbert space, H is infinite dimensional.
Proposition 36.67 ν cannot be extended to a measure defined on σ (C) whenever

H is infinite dimensional.
Proof: Let {en } be a complete orthonormal set of vectors in H. Then first note
that H is a cylinder set.
H = {x ∈ H : (x, e1 ) ∈ R}
and so Z
1 2
ν (H) = √ e−x /2
dx = 1.
2π R
However, H is also equal to the countable union of the sets,
An ≡ {x ∈ H : ((x, e1 )H , · · ·, (x, ean )H ) ∈ B (0, n)}

where an → ∞.
Z
1 2
ν (An ) ≡ ¡√ ¢ an e−|x| /2
dx
2π B(0,n)
Z n Z n
1 2
≤ ¡√ ¢ an ··· e−|x| /2
dx1 · · · dxan
2π −n −n
ÃR n 2 !an
−n
e−x /2 dx
= √
2π
Now pick an so large that the above is smaller than 1/2n+1 . This can be done
because for no matter what choice of n,
Rn 2
−n
e−x /2 dx
√ < 1.
2π
Then
∞
X ∞
X 1 1
ν (An ) ≤ n+1
= .
n=1 n=1
2 2
This proves the proposition and shows something else must be done to get a measure
from ν.
Definition 36.68 Let H be a separable Hilbert space and let ||·|| be a norm defined
on H which has the following property. Whenever {en } is an orthonormal sequence
of vectors in H and F ({en }) consists of the set of all orthogonal projections onto
the span of finitely many of the ek the following condition holds. For every ε > 0
there exists Pε ∈ F ({en }) such that if P ∈ F ({en }) and P Pε = 0, then
ν ({x ∈ H : ||P x|| > ε}) < ε.
Then ||·|| is called Gross measurable.
The following lemma is a fundamental result about Gross measurable norms.

It is about the continuity of ||·|| . It is obvious that with respect to the topology
determined by ||·|| that x → ||x|| is continuous. However, it would be interesting if
this were the case with respect to the topology determined by the norm on H, |·| .
This lemma shows this is the case and so the funny condition above implies x → ||x||
is a continuous, hence Borel measurable function.
Lemma 36.69 Let ||·|| be Gross measurable. Then there exists c > 0 such that
||x|| ≤ c |x|
for all x ∈ H. Furthermore, the above definition is well defined.

Proof: First it is important to consider the question whether the above defi-
nition is well defined. To do this note that on P H, the two norms are equivalent
because P H is a finite dimensional space. Let G = {y ∈ P H : ||y|| > ε} so G is an
open set in P H. Then
{x ∈ H : ||P x|| > ε}
equals
{x ∈ H : P x ∈ G}
which equals a set of the form
{x ∈ H : ((x, ei1 )H , · · ·, (x, eim )H ) ∈ G0 }
for G0 an open set in Rm and so everything makes sense in the above definition.
Now it is necessary to verify ||·|| ≤ c |·|. If it is not so, there exists e1 such that
||e1 || ≥ 1, |e1 | = 1.
n
Suppose {ek }k=1 have been chosen such that each is a unit vector in H and ||ek || ≥ k.
⊥ ⊥
Then considering span (e1 , · · ·, en ) if for every x ∈ span (e1 , · · ·, en ) , ||x|| ≤ c |x| ,
then if z ∈ H is arbitrary, z = x + y where y ∈ span (e1 , · · ·, en ) and so since the two
norms are equivalent on a finite dimensional subspace, there exists c0 corresponding
to span (e1 , · · ·, en ) such that
2 2 2 2
||z|| ≤ (||x|| + ||y||) ≤ 2 ||x|| + 2 ||y||
2 2
≤ 2c2 |x| + 2c0 |y|
¡ 2 ¢³ 2 2
´
≤ 2c + 2c02 |x| + |y|
¡ 2 ¢ 2
= 2c + 2c02 |z|
and the lemma is proved. Therefore it can be assumed, there exists
⊥
en+1 ∈ span (e1 , · · ·, en )
such that |en+1 | = 1 and ||en+1 || ≥ n + 1.
This constructs an orthonormal set of vectors, {ek } . Letting 0 < ε < 12 , it
follows since ||·|| is measurable, there exists Pε ∈ F ({en }) such that if P Pε = 0
where P ∈ F ({en }) , then
ν ({x ∈ H : ||P x|| > ε}) < ε.
Say Pε is the projection onto the span of finitely many of the ek , the last one being
eN . Then for n > N and Pn the projection onto en , it follows Pε Pn = 0 and from
the definition of ν,
ε > ν ({x ∈ H : ||Pn x|| > ε})
= ν ({x ∈ H : |(x, en )| ||en+1 || > ε})
= ν ({x ∈ H : |(x, en )| > ε/ ||en+1 ||})
≥ ν ({x ∈ H : |(x, en )| > ε/ (n + 1)})
Z ∞
1 2
> √ e−x /2 dx
2π ε/(n+1)
which yields a contradiction for all n large enough. This proves the lemma.
What are examples of Gross measurable norms defined on a separable Hilbert
space, H? The following lemma gives an important example.
Lemma 36.70 Let H be a separable Hilbert space and let A ∈ L2 (H, H) , a Hilbert
Schmidt operator. Thus A is a continuous linear operator with the property that for
any orthonormal set, {ek } ,
∞
X 2
|Aek | < ∞.
k=1
Then define ||·|| by

||x|| ≡ |Ax|H .
Then if ||·|| is a norm, it is measurable1 .
Proof: Let {ek } be an orthonormal sequence. Let Pn denote the orthogonal

projection onto span (e1 , · · ·, en ) . Let ε > 0 be given. Since A is a Hilbert Schmidt
operator, there exists N such that
∞
X 2
|Aek | < α
k=N
where α is chosen very small. In fact, α is chosen such that α < ε2 /r2 where r is
sufficiently large that
Z ∞
2 2
√ e−t /2 dt < ε. (36.32)
2π r
Let P denote an orthogonal projection in F ({ek }) such that P PN = 0. Thus P is

the projection on to span (ei1 , · · ·, eim ) where each ik > N . Then
ν ({x ∈ H : ||P x|| > ε})

= ν ({x ∈ H : |AP x| > ε})
Pm ¡ ¢
Now P x = j=1 x, eij eij and the above reduces to
 ¯ ¯ 
 ¯m ¯ 
¯X ¡ ¢ ¯
ν x∈H : ¯¯ x, eij Aeij ¯¯ > ε  ≤
 ¯ j=1 ¯ 
1 If it is only a seminorm, it satisfies the same conditions.

  1/2  1/2 

 m
X ¯¡ X¯m 

 ¢¯2 ¯2 
ν x∈H :  ¯ x, eij ¯   ¯ Aeij ¯  >ε 

 

j=1 j=1
  1/2 

 m
X ¯¡


 ¢¯
≤ ν x∈H : ¯ x, ei ¯2  α1/2 > ε  


j


j=1
  1/2 

 
ε 
Xm
 ¯¡ ¢¯2
= ν x∈H :  ¯ x, eij ¯  > 1/2 

 α  
j=1
µ½ ³ ¾¶
ε Ć
= ν x ∈ H : ((x, ei1 ) , · · ·, (x, eim )) ∈ B 0, 1/2
α
µ½ ¾¶
©¯¡ ¢¯ª ε
≤ ν x ∈ H : max ¯ x, eij ¯ > √
mα1/2
This is no larger than

Z Z Z
1 2
¡√ ¢m ··· e−|t| /2 dtm · · · dt1
2π ε ε
|t1 |> √m√α |t2 |> √m√α ε
|tm |> √m√α
 R∞ 2
m
2 ε/(√mα1/2 ) e−t /2 dt
= √ 
2π
which by Jensen’s inequality is no larger than

R∞ 2 R∞ 2
2 √
ε/( mα1/2 )
e−mt /2 dt 2 √1m ε/(α1/2 )
e−t /2 dt
√ = √
2π 2π
R∞ 2
2 ε/(ε/r)
e−t /2
dt
≤ √
2π
R∞ −t2 /2
2 r
e dt
= √ <ε
2π
By 36.32. This proves the lemma.
Definition 36.71 A triple, (i, H, B) is called an abstract Wiener space if B is a

separable Banach space and H is a separable Hilbert space such that H is dense and
continuously embedded in B and the norm ||·|| on B is Gross measurable.
Next consider a weaker norm for H which comes from the inner product
∞
X 1
(x, y)E ≡ (x, ek )H (y, ek )H .
k2
k=1
Then let E be the completion of H with respect to this new norm. Thus {kek }
is a complete orthonormal basis for E. This follows from the density of H in E
along with the obvious observation that in the above inner product, {kek } is an
orthonormal set of vectors.
Lemma 36.72 There exists a countably additive Gaussian measure, λ defined on

B (E). This measure is the law of the random variable,
∞
X
X (ω) ≡ ξ k (ω) ek ,
k=1
where {ξ k } denotes a sequence of independent normally distributed random variables

having mean 0 and variance 1, the series converging pointwise a.e. in E. Also
k 2 (X (ω) , ek )E = ξ k (ω) a.e.

P∞
Proof: Observe that k=1 k12 (kek ) ⊗ (kek ) is a nuclear operator on the Hilbert
space, E. Letting {ξ k } be a sequence of independent random variables each normally
distributed with mean 0 and variance 1, it follows as in Theorem 36.62 that
∞
X ∞
X
1
X (ω) ≡ ξ k (ω) kek = ξ k (ω) ek (36.33)
k
k=1 k=1
is a random variable with values in E and L (X) is a Gaussian measure on B (E) ,

the series converging pointwise a.e. in E. Let λ be the name of this Gaussian
measure and denote the probability space on which the ξ k are defined as (Ω, F, P ).
Thus for F ∈ B (E) ,
λ (F ) ≡ P ({ω ∈ Ω : X (ω) ∈ F })
Finally, denoting by XN , the partial sum,

N
X
XN (ω) ≡ ξ k (ω) ek ,
k=1
the definition of (·, ·)E on H and a simple computation yields
ξ k (ω) = lim k 2 (XN (ω) , ek )E

N →∞
2
= k (X (ω) , ek )E . (36.34)
One can pass to the limit because XN (ω) converges to X (ω) in E. This proves the
lemma.
Theorem 36.73 Let (i, H, B) be an abstract Wiener space. Then there exists a
Gaussian measure on the Borel sets of B.
Proof: Let E be defined above as the completion of H with respect to that

weaker norm. Then from Lemma 36.72 and X (ω) given above in 36.33,
k 2 (X (ω) , ek )E = ξ k (ω) a.e. ω.
Let {en } be a complete orthonormal set for H. There exists an increasing

sequence of projections, {Qn } ⊆ F ({en }) such that Qn x → x in H for each x ∈
H. Say Qn is the orthogonal projection onto span (e1 , · · ·, epn ) . Then since ||·|| is
measurable, these can be chosen such that if Q is the orthogonal projection onto
span (e1 , · · ·, ek ) for some k > pn then
¡© ª¢
ν x : ||Qx − Qn x|| > 2−n < 2−n .
In particular, ¡© ª¢
ν x : ||Qn x − Qm x|| > 2−m < 2−m
whenever n ≥ m.
I would like to consider the infinite series,
∞
X
S (ω) ≡ k 2 (X (ω) , ek )E ek ∈ B.
k=1
converging in B but of course this might make no sense because the series might
not converge. It was shown above that the series converges in E but it has not been
shown to converge in B.
Suppose the series did converge a.e. Then let f ∈ B 0 and consider the random
variable f ◦ S which maps Ω to R. I would like to verify this is normally distributed.
First note that the following finite sum is weakly measurable and separably valued
so it is strongly measurable with values in B.
pn
X
Spn (ω) ≡ k 2 (X (ω) , ek )E ek ,
k=1
Since f ∈ B which is a subset of H 0 due to the assumption that H is dense in B,

0
there exists a unique v ∈ H such that f (x) = (x, v) for all x ∈ H. Then from the
above sum,
pn
X
f (Spn (ω)) = (Spn (ω) , v) = k 2 (X (ω) , ek )E (ek , v)
k=1
which by Lemma 36.72 equals

pn
X
(ek , v)H ξ k (ω)
k=1
a finite linear combination of the independent N (0, 1) random variables, ξ k (ω) .

Then it follows
ω → f (Spn (ω))
is also normally distributed and has mean 0 and variance equal to

pn
X 2
(ek , v)H .
k=1
Then it seems reasonable to suppose

¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
E eitf ◦S = lim E eitf ◦Spn
n→∞
2 Ppn 2
= lim e−t k=1 (ek ,v)H
n→∞
P
−t2 ∞ 2
k=1 (ek ,v)H
= e
2 2
= e−t |v|H (36.35)
³ ´
2
the characteristic function of a random variable which is N 0, |v|H . Thus at least
formally, this would imply for all f ∈ B 0 , f ◦ S is normally distributed and so if
µ = L (S) , then by Lemma 36.59 it follows µ is a Gaussian measure.
What is missing to make the above a proof? First of all, there is the issue of the
sum. Next there is the problem of passing to the limit in the little argument above
in which the characteristic function is used.
First consider the the sum. Note that Qn X (ω) ∈ H. Then for any n > pm ,
¡© ª¢
P ω ∈ Ω : ||Sn (ω) − Spm (ω)|| > 2−m
 ¯¯ ¯¯ 
 ¯¯ n ¯¯ 
¯¯ X ¯ ¯
= P  ω ∈ Ω : ¯¯¯¯ k 2 (X (ω) , ek )E ek ¯¯¯¯ > 2−m 
 ¯¯k=pm +1 ¯¯ 
 ¯¯ ¯¯ 
 ¯¯ n ¯¯ 
¯¯ X ¯¯
= P  ω ∈ Ω : ¯¯¯¯ ξ k (ω) ek ¯¯¯¯ > 2−m  (36.36)
 ¯¯k=pm +1 ¯¯ 
Let Q be the orthogonal projection onto span (e1 , · · ·, en ) . Define

© ª
F ≡ x ∈ (Q − Qm ) H : ||x|| > 2−m
Then continuing the chain of equalities ending with 36.36,

 
 Xn 
=P ω∈Ω: ξ k (ω) ek ∈ F 
 
k=pm +1
¡© ¡ ¢ ª¢
= P ω ∈ Ω : ξ n (ω) , · · ·, ξ pm +1 (ω) ∈ F 0
¡© ¡ ¢ ª¢
= ν x ∈ H : (x, en )H , · · ·, (x, epm +1 )H ∈ F 0
= ν ({x ∈ H : Q (x) − Qm (x) ∈ F })
¡© ª¢
= ν x ∈ H : ||Q (x) − Qm (x)|| > 2−m < 2−m .
This has shown that

¡© ª¢
P ω ∈ Ω : ||Sn (ω) − Spm (ω)|| > 2−m < 2−m (36.37)
for all n > pm . In particular, the above is true if n = pn for n > m.
If {Spn (ω)} fails to converge, then ω must be contained in the set,
© ª
A ≡ ∩∞ ∞
m=1 ∪n=m ω ∈ Ω : ||Spn (ω) − Spm (ω)|| > 2
−m
(36.38)
because if ω is in the complement of this set,
© ª
∪∞ ∞
m=1 ∩n=m ω ∈ Ω : ||Spn (ω) − Spm (ω)|| ≤ 2
−m
,
∞
it follows {Spn (ω)}n=1 is a Cauchy sequence and so it must converge. However, the
set in 36.38 is a set of measure 0 because of 36.37 and the observation that for all
m,
∞
X ¡© ª¢
P (A) ≤ P ω ∈ Ω : ||Spn (ω) − Spm (ω)|| > 2−m
n=m
X∞
1
≤ m
n=m
2
Thus the subsequence {Spn } of the sequence of partial sums of the above series
does converge pointwise in B and so the dominated convergence theorem also verifies
that the computations involving the characteristic function in 36.35 are correct.
The random variable obtained as the limit of the partial sums, {Spn (ω)} de-
scribed above is strongly measurable because each Spn (ω) is strongly measurable
due to each of these being weakly measurable and separably valued. Thus the
measure given as the law of S defined as
S (ω) ≡ lim Spn (ω)
n→∞
is defined on the Borel sets of B.This proves the theorem.

Also, there is an important observation from the proof which I will state as the
following corollary.
Corollary 36.74 Let (i, H, B) be an abstract Wiener space. Then there exists a
Gaussian measure on the Borel sets of B. This Gaussian measure equals L (S)
where S (ω) is the a.e. limit of a subsequence of the sequence of partial sums,
pn
X
Spn (ω) ≡ ξ k (ω) ek
k=1
for {ξ k } a sequence of independent random variables which are normal with mean
0 and variance 1 which are defined on a probability space, (Ω, F, P ). Furthermore,
for any k > pn ,
¡© ª¢
P ω ∈ Ω : ||Sk (ω) − Spn (ω)|| > 2−n < 2−n .
36.12 White Noise

In an abstract Wiener space as discussed above there is a Gaussian measure, µ
defined on the Borel sets of B. This measure is the law of a random variable having
values in B which is the limit of a subsequence of a sequence of partial sums. I will
show here that the sequence of partial sums also converges pointwise a.e.
First is a simple definition and lemma about random variables whose distribution
is symmetric.
Definition 36.75 Let X be a random variable defined on a probability space, (Ω, F, P )

having values in a Banach space, E. Then it has a symmetric distribution if when-
ever A is a Borel set,
P ([X ∈ A]) = P ([X ∈ −A])
In terms of the distribution,
λX = λ−X .
It is good to observe that if X, Y are independent random variables defined on a

probability space, (Ω, F, P ) such that each has symmetric distribution, then X + Y
also has symmetric distribution. Here is why. Let A be a Borel set in E. Then by
Theorem 36.47 on Page 1023,
Z
λX+Y (A) = λX (A − z) dλY (z)
ZE
= λ−X (A − z) dλ−Y (z)
E
= λ−(X+Y ) (A)
By induction, it follows that if you have n independent random variables each having
symmetric distribution, then their sum has symmetric distribution.
Here is a simple lemma about random variables having symmetric distributions.
It will depend on Lemma 36.57 on Page 1029.
Lemma 36.76 Let X ≡ (X1 , · · ·, Xn ) and Y be random variables defined on a

probability space, (Ω, F, P ) such that Xi , i = 1, 2, ···, n and Y have values in E a sep-
arable Banach space. Thus X has values in E n . Suppose also that {X1 , · · ·, Xn , Y }
are independent and that Y has symmetric distribution. Then if A ∈ B (E n ) , it
follows
Ã "¯¯ n ¯¯ #!
¯¯X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
P [X ∈ A] ∩ ¯¯ Xi + Y ¯¯ < r
¯¯ ¯¯
i=1
Ã "¯¯ n ¯¯ #!
¯¯X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
= P [X ∈ A] ∩ ¯¯ Xi − Y ¯¯ < r
¯¯ ¯¯
i=1
You can also change the inequalities in the obvious way, < to ≤ , > to ≥.
36.12. WHITE NOISE 1047
Proof: Denote by λX and λY the distribution measures for X and Y respec-

tively. Since the random variables are independent, the distribution for the random
variable, (X, Y ) mapping into E n+1 is λX ×λY where this denotes product measure.
Since the Banach space is separable, the Borel sets are contained in the product
measurable sets. Then by symmetry of the distribution of Y
Ã "¯¯ n ¯¯ #!
¯¯X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
P [X ∈ A] ∩ ¯¯ Xi + Y ¯¯ < r
¯¯ ¯¯
i=1
Z Ã n !
X
= XA (x) XB(0,r) xi + y d (λX × λY ) (x,y)
E n ×E i=1
Z Z Ã n
!
X
= XA (x) XB(0,r) xi + y dλX dλY
E En i=1
Z Z Ã n !
X
= XA (x) XB(0,r) xi + y dλX dλ−Y
E En i=1
Z Ã n !
X
= XA (x) XB(0,r) xi + y d (λX × λ−Y ) (x,y)
E n ×E i=1
Ã "¯¯ n ¯¯ #!
¯¯X ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
= P [X ∈ A] ∩ ¯¯ Xi + (−Y )¯¯ < r
¯¯ ¯¯
i=1
This proves the lemma. Other cases are similar.

Now here is a really interesting lemma.
Lemma 36.77 Let E be a real separable Banach space. Assume ξ 1 , · · ·, ξ N are
independent random variables having values P in E, a separable Banach space which
k
have symmetric distributions. Also let Sk = i=1 ξ i . Then for any r > 0,
µ· ¸¶
P sup ||Sk || > r ≤ 2P ([||SN || > r]) .
k≤N
Proof: First of all,

µ· ¸¶
P sup ||Sk || > r
k≤N
µ· ¸¶
= P sup ||Sk || > r and ||SN || > r
k≤N
µ· ¸¶
+P sup ||Sk || > r and ||SN || ≤ r
k≤N −1
µ· ¸¶
≤ P ([||SN || > r]) + P sup ||Sk || > r and ||SN || ≤ r . (36.39)
k≤N −1
I need to estimate the second of these terms. Let

A1 ≡ [||S1 || > r] , · · ·, Ak ≡ [||Sk || > r, ||Sj || ≤ r for j < k] .
Thus Ak consists of those ω where ||Sk (ω)|| > r for the first time at k. Thus
· ¸
sup ||Sk || > r and ||SN || ≤ r = ∪N −1
j=1 Aj ∩ [||SN || ≤ r]
k≤N −1
and the sets in the above union are disjoint. Consider Aj ∩ [||SN || ≤ r] . For ω in
this set,
||Sj (ω)|| > r, ||Si (ω)|| ≤ r if i < j.
Since ||SN (ω)|| ≤ r in this set, it follows
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ XN ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯Sj (ω) + ξ i (ω)¯¯¯¯ ≤ r
¯¯
¯¯ i=j+1 ¯¯
and so from the symmetry of the distributions and Lemma 36.76 the following
computation is valid.
P (Aj ∩ [||SN || ≤ r]) (36.40)
 ¯¯ ¯¯ 
¯¯ N ¯¯
¯¯ X ¯¯
= P ∩j−1 [||S || ≤ r] ∩ [||S || > r] ∩ ¯ ¯ S + ξ ¯¯
i ¯¯ ≤ r
 (36.41)
i=1 i j ¯¯ j
¯¯ i=j+1 ¯¯
Now ∩j−1
i=1 [||Si || ≤ r] ∩ [||Sj || > r] is of the form
£¡ ¢ ¤
ξ 1 , · · ·, ξ j ∈ A
PN
for some Borel set, A. Then letting Y = i=j+1 ξ i in Lemma 36.76 and Xi = ξ i ,
36.41 equals
 ¯¯ ¯¯ 
¯¯ N ¯¯
¯ ¯ X ¯ ¯
j−1
P ∩i=1 [||Si || ≤ r] ∩ [||Sj || > r] ∩ ¯¯¯¯Sj − ξ i ¯¯¯¯ ≤ r
¯¯ i=j+1 ¯¯
³ ´
= P ∩j−1
i=1 [||Si || ≤ r] ∩ [||Sj || > r] ∩ [||Sj − (SN − Sj )|| ≤ r]
³ ´
= P ∩j−1
i=1 [||S i || ≤ r] ∩ [||S j || > r] ∩ [||2S j − SN || ≤ r]
Now since ||Sj (ω)|| > r,
[||2Sj − SN || ≤ r] ⊆ [2 ||Sj || − ||SN || ≤ r]

⊆ [2r − ||SN || < r]
= [||SN || > r]
and so, referring to 36.40, this has shown
P (Aj ∩ [||SN || ≤ r])

36.12. WHITE NOISE 1049
³ ´
j−1
= P ∩i=1 [||Si || ≤ r] ∩ [||Sj || > r] ∩ [||2Sj (ω) − SN (ω)|| ≤ r]
³ ´
j−1
≤ P ∩i=1 [||Si || ≤ r] ∩ [||Sj || > r] ∩ [||SN (ω)|| > r]
= P (Aj ∩ [||SN (ω)|| > r]) .
It follows that
µ· ¸¶ N
X −1
P sup ||Sk || > r and ||SN || ≤ r = P (Aj ∩ [||SN || ≤ r])
k≤N −1 i=1
N
X −1
≤ P (Aj ∩ [||SN || > r])
i=1
≤ P ([||SN || > r])
and using 36.39, this proves the lemma.

This interesting lemma will now be used to prove the following which concludes
a sequence of partial sums converges given a subsequence of the sequence of partial
sums converges.
Lemma 36.78 Let {ζ k } be a sequence of random variables having values in a

separable
Pk real Banach space, E whose distributions are symmetric. Letting Sk ≡
i=1 ζ i , suppose {Snk } converges a.e. Also suppose that for every m > nk ,
¡£ ¤¢
P ||Sm − Snk ||E > 2−k < 2−k . (36.42)
Then in fact,
Sk (ω) → S (ω) a.e.ω (36.43)
Proof: Let nk ≤ l ≤ m. Then by Lemma 36.77

µ· ¸¶
−k
¡£ ¤¢
P sup ||Sl − Snk || > 2 ≤ 2P ||Sm − Snk || > 2−k
nk <l≤m
In using this lemma, you could renumber the ζ i so that the sum
l
X
ζj
j=nk +1
corresponds to
l−n
Xk
ξj
j=1
where ξ j = ζ j+nk . Then using 36.42,

µ· ¸¶
−k
¡£ ¤¢
P sup ||Sl − Snk || > 2 ≤ 2P ||Sm − Snk || > 2−k < 2−(k−1)
nk <l≤m
If Sl (ω) fails to converge then ω must be in infinitely many of the sets,

· ¸
sup ||Sl − Snk || > 2−k
nk <l
each of which has measure no more than 2−(k−1) . Thus ω must be in a set of
measure zero. This proves the lemma.
Now with this preparation, here is the theorem about white noise.
Theorem 36.79 Let (i, H, B) be an abstract Wiener space. Then there exists a
Gaussian measure on the Borel sets of B. This Gaussian measure equals L (S)
where S (ω) is the a.e. limit of the sequence of partial sums,
n
X
Sn (ω) ≡ ξ k (ω) ek
k=1
for {ξ k } a sequence of independent random variables which are normal with mean
0 and variance 1 which are defined on a probability space, (Ω, F, P ) and {ek } is a
complete orthonormal sequence in H.
Proof: By Corollary 36.74 there is a subsequence, {Spn } of these partial sums

which converge pointwise a.e. to S (ω). However, this corollary also states that
¡© ª¢
P ω ∈ Ω : ||Sk (ω) − Spn (ω)|| > 2−n < 2−n
whenever k > pn and so by Lemma 36.78 the original sequence of partial sums
also converges a.e. The reason this lemma applies is that ξ k (ω) ek has symmetric
distribution. This proves the corollary.
36.13 Existence Of Abstract Wiener Spaces

It turns out that if E is a separable Banach space, then it is the top third of an
abstract Wiener space. This is what will be shown in this section. Therefore, it
follows from the above that there exists a Gaussian measure on E which is the law
of an a.e. convergent series as discussed above. First here is a little lemma which
is interesting for its own sake.
Lemma 36.80 Let E be a separable Banach space. Then there exists an increasing
sequence of subspaces, {Fn } such that dim (Fn+1 ) − dim (Fn ) ≤ 1 and equals 1 for
all n if the dimension of E is infinite. Also ∪∞
n=1 Fn is dense in E.
Proof: Since E is separable, so is ∂B (0, 1) , the boundary of the unit ball. Let
∞
{wk }k=1 be a countable dense subset of ∂B (0, 1).
Let z1 = w1 . Let F1 = Fz1 . Suppose Fn has been obtained and equals span (z1 , · · ·, zn )
where {z1 , · · ·, zn } is independent, ||zk || = 1, and if n 6= m,
1
||zm − zn || ≥ .
2
36.13. EXISTENCE OF ABSTRACT WIENER SPACES 1051
Claim: Fn is closed. Let

n
X
yk ≡ ckj zj (36.44)
j=1
¡ ¢
be such that yk → y. I need to verify y ∈ Fn . Let ck = ck1 , · · ·, ckn . Suppose first
{ck } is unbounded in Fn . Then taking a subsequence, still denoted by ck , it can be
assumed |ck | → ∞. Therefore,
Xn
yk ckj
0 = lim = lim zj . (36.45)
k→∞ |ck | k→∞ |ck |
j=1
Then taking another subsequence it can also be assumed that

ck
→ c, |c| = 1.
|ck |
but then 36.45 implies

n
X
0= cj zj
j=1
and this is a contradiction since the zj are independent.

Thus it must be the case that {ck } is bounded in Fn . But now, taking a suitable
subsequence such that ck → c, it follows from 36.44 that
n
X
y≡ cj zj
j=1
so y ∈ Fn . This shows Fn is closed and this proves the claim.

If Fn contains {wk } , let Fm = Fn for all m > n. Otherwise, pick w ∈ {wk } to
be the point of {wk } having the smallest subscript which is not contained in Fn .
Then w is at a positive distance, λ from Fn because Fn is closed. Therefore, there
w−y
exists y ∈ Fn such that λ ≤ ||y − w|| ≤ 2λ. Let zn+1 = ||w−y|| . It follows
w = ||w − y|| zn+1 + y ∈ span (z1 , · · ·, zn+1 ) ≡ Fn+1
Then if m < n + 1,
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ w − y ¯¯
||zn+1 − zm || = ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ||w − y|| − zm ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ w − y ||w − y|| zm ¯¯¯¯
= ¯¯
¯¯ ||w − y|| − ||w − y|| ¯¯
1
≥ ||w − y − ||w − y|| zm ||
2λ
λ 1
≥ = .
2λ 2
This has shown the existence of an increasing sequence of subspaces, {Fn } as de-
scribed above. It remains to show the union of these subspaces is dense. First note
that the union of these subspaces must contain the {wk } because if wm is miss-
ing, then it would contradict the construction at the mth step. That one should
have been chosen. However, {wk } is dense in ∂B (0, 1). If x ∈ E and x 6= 0, then
x
||x|| ∈ ∂B (0, 1) then there exists
wm ∈ {wk } ⊆ ∪∞
n=1 Fn
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ x ¯¯ ε
such that ¯¯wm − ||x|| ¯¯ < ||x|| . But then
||||x|| wm − x|| < ε
and so ||x|| wm is a point of ∪∞ ∞

n=1 Fn which is within ε of x. This proves ∪n=1 Fn is
dense as desired. This proves the lemma.
Lemma 36.81 Let E be a separable Banach space. Then there exists a sequence
{en } of points of E such that whenever |β| ≤ 1 for β ∈ Fn ,
n
X
β k ek ∈ B (0, 1)
k=1
the unit ball in E.
Proof: By Lemma 36.80, let {z1 , · · ·, zn } be a basis for Fn where ∪∞ n=1 Fn is

dense in E. Then let α1 be such that e1 ≡ α1 z1 ∈ B (0, 1) . Thus |β 1 e1 | ∈ B (0, 1)
whenever |β 1 | ≤ 1. Suppose αi has been chosen for i = 1, 2, · · ·, n such that for all
β ∈ Dn ≡ {α ∈ Fn : |α| ≤ 1} , it follows
n
X
β k αk zk ∈ B (0, 1) .
k=1
Then ( )
n
X
Cn ≡ β k αk zk : β ∈ Dn
k=1
is a compact subset of B (0, 1) and so it is at a positive distance from the complement

of B (0, 1) , δ. Now let 0 < αn+1 < δ/ ||zn+1 || . Then for β ∈ Dn+1 ,
n
X
β k αk zk ∈ Cn
k=1
and so
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯n+1 n ¯¯
¯¯ X X ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ β k αk zk − β k αk zk ¯¯ = ¯¯β n+1 αn+1 zn+1 ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
k=1 k=1
< ||αn+1 zn+1 || < δ
36.13. EXISTENCE OF ABSTRACT WIENER SPACES 1053
which shows
n+1
X
β k αk zk ∈ B (0, 1) .
k=1
This proves the lemma. Let ek ≡ αk zk .

Now the main result is the following. It says that any separable Banach space
is the upper third of some abstract Wiener space.
Theorem 36.82 Let E be a real separable Banach space with norm ||·||. Then there
exists a separable Hilbert space, H such that H is dense in E and the inclusion map
is continuous. Furthermore, if ν is the Gaussian measure defined earlier on the
cylinder sets of H, ||·|| is Gross measurable.
Proof: Let {ek } be the points of E described in Lemma 36.81. Then let H0
denote the subspace of all finite linear combinations of the {ek }. It follows H0 is
dense in E. Next decree that {ek } is an orthonormal basis for H0 . Thus for
n
X n
X
ck ek , dj ek ∈ H0 ,
k=1 j=1
 
n
X n
X n
X
 ck ek , dj ej  ≡ ck dk
k=1 j=1 k=1
H0
this being well defined because the {ek } are linearly independent. Let the norm on
H0 be denoted by |·|H0 . Let H1 be the completion of H0 with respect to this norm.
I want to show that |·|H0 is stronger than ||·||. Suppose then that
¯ ¯
¯Xn ¯
¯ ¯
¯ β k ek ¯ ≤ 1.
¯ ¯
k=1 H0
It follows then from the definition of |·|H0 that

¯ n ¯2
¯X ¯ n
X
¯ ¯
¯ β k ek ¯ = β 2k ≤ 1
¯ ¯
k=1 H0 k=1
and so from the construction of the ek , it follows that

¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ X
n ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ β k e k ¯¯ < 1
¯¯ ¯¯
k=1
¯ ¯
Stated more simply, this has just shown that if h ∈ H0 then since ¯h/ |h|H0 ¯H ≤ 1,
0
it follows that
||h|| / |h|H0 < 1
and so
||h|| < |h|H0 .
It follows that the completion of H0 must lie in E because this shows that every
Cauchy sequence in H0 is a Cauchy sequence in E. Thus H1 embedds continuously
into E and is dense in E. Denote its norm by |·|H1 .
Now consider the Hilbert Schmidt operator,
∞
X
A= λk ek ⊗ ek
k=1
P
where each λk > 0 and k λ2k < ∞. This operator is clearly one to one. Let
H ≡ AH1 .
and for x ∈ H, define ¯ ¯

|x|H ≡ ¯A−1 x¯H .
1
Since each ek is in H it follows that H is dense in E. Note also that H ⊆ H1 because

A maps H1 to H1 .
∞
X
Ax ≡ λk (x, ek ) ek
k=1
and the series converges in H1 because
∞
Ã ∞
!1/2 Ã ∞
!1/2
X X X 2
λk |(x, ek )| ≤ λ2k |(x, ek )| < ∞.
k=1 k=1 k=1
Also H is a Hilbert space with inner product given by

¡ ¢
(x, y)H ≡ A−1 x, A−1 y H1 .
H is complete
© −1 ª because if {xn } is a Cauchy sequence in H, this is the same as
−1
A xn being a Cauchy sequence ¡ −1 in ¢H1 which implies A xn → y for some
y ∈ H1 . Then it follows xn = A A xn → Ay in H.
For x ∈ H ⊆ H1 ,
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
||x|| ≤ |x| = ¯AA−1 x¯ ≤ ||A|| ¯A−1 x¯ ≡ ||A|| |x|
H1 H1 H1 H
and so the embedding of H into E is continuous. Why is ||·|| a measurable norm

on H? Note first that for x ∈ H ⊆ H1 ,
¯ ¯
|Ax|H ≡ ¯A−1 Ax¯H1 = |x|H1 ≥ ||x||E . (36.46)
Therefore, if it can be shown A is a Hilbert Schmidt operator on H, the desired

measurability will follow from Lemma 36.70 on Page 1040.
Claim: A is a Hilbert Schmidt operator on H.
36.14. FERNIQUE’S THEOREM 1055
Proof of the claim: From the definition of the inner product in H, it follows
an orthonormal basis for H is {λk ek } . This is because
¡ ¢
(λk ek , λj ej )H ≡ λk A−1 ek , λj A−1 ej H1 = (ek , ej )H1 = δ jk .
To show that A is Hilbert Schmidt, it suffices to show that

X 2
|A (λk ek )|H < ∞
k
because this is the definition of an operator being Hilbert Schmidt. However, the
above equals X¯ X
¯
¯A−1 A (λk ek )¯2 = λ2k < ∞.
H1
k k

0
Now consider 36.46. By Lemma 36.70, it follows the norm ||x|| ≡ |Ax|H is Gross
measurable on H. Therefore, ||·||E is also Gross measurable because it is smaller.
Using Theorem 36.73 and Theorem 36.82 this proves the following important
corollary.
Corollary 36.83 Let E be any real separable Banach space and let {ξ k } be any
sequence of independent random variables such that L (ξ k ) = N (0, 1). Then there
exists a sequence, {ek } ⊆ E such that
∞
X
X (ω) ≡ ξ k (ω) ek
k=1
converges a.e. and its law is a Gaussian measure defined on B (E).
36.14 Fernique’s Theorem

The following is an interesting lemma.
Lemma 36.84 Suppose µ is a symmetric Gaussian measure on the real separable

Banach space, E. Then there exists a probability space, (Ω, F, P ) and independent
random variables, X and Y mapping Ω to E such that L (X) = L (Y ) = µ. Also,
the two random variables,
1 1
√ (X − Y ) , √ (X + Y )
2 2
are independent and
µ ¶ µ ¶
1 1
L √ (X − Y ) = L √ (X + Y ) = µ.
2 2
Proof: Letting X 0 ≡ √12 (X + Y ) and Y 0 ≡ √12 (X − Y ) , it follows from Theo-

rem 36.38 on Page 1017, that X 0 and Y 0 are independent if whenever h1 , ···, hm ∈ E 0
and g1 , · · ·, gk ∈ E 0 , the two random vectors,
(h1 ◦ X 0 , · · ·, hm ◦ X 0 ) and (g1 ◦ Y 0 , · · ·, gk ◦ Y 0 )
are linearly independent. Now consider linear combinations
m
X k
X
t j hj ◦ X 0 + si gi ◦ Y 0 .
j=1 i=1
This equals
m m
1 X 1 X
√ tj hj (X) + √ tj hj (Y )
2 j=1 2 j=1
k k
1 X 1 X
+√ si gi (X) − √ si gi (Y )
2 i=1 2 i=1
 
m
X k
X
1
= √  tj hj + si gi  (X)
2 j=1 i=1
 
Xm Xk
1
+√  t j hj − si gi  (Y )
2 j=1 i=1
and this is the sum of two independent normally distributed random variables so it
is also normally distributed. Therefore, by Theorem 36.51
(h1 ◦ X 0 , · · ·, hm ◦ X 0 , g1 ◦ Y 0 , · · ·, gk ◦ Y 0 )
is a random variable with multivariate normal distribution and by Theorem 36.56
the two random vectors
(h1 ◦ X 0 , · · ·, hm ◦ X 0 ) and (g1 ◦ Y 0 , · · ·, gk ◦ Y 0 )
are linearly independent if
E ((hi ◦ X 0 ) (gj ◦ Y 0 )) = 0
for all i, j. This is what I will show next.
E ((hi ◦ X 0 ) (gj ◦ Y 0 ))
1
= E ((hi (X) + hi (Y )) (gj (X) − gj (Y )))
4
1 1
= E (hi (X) gj (X)) − E (hi (X) gj (Y ))
4 4
1 1
+ E (hi (Y ) gj (X)) − E (hi (Y ) gj (Y )) (36.47)
4 4
Now from the above observation after the definition of Gaussian measure hi (X) gj (X)
and hi (Y ) gj (Y ) are both in L1 because each term in each product is normally dis-
tributed. Therefore, by Lemma 36.57,
Z
E (hi (X) gj (X)) = hi (Y ) gj (Y ) dP
ZΩ
= hi (y) gj (y) dµ
ZE
= hi (X) gj (X) dP
Ω
= E (hi (Y ) gj (Y ))
and so 36.47 reduces to

1
(E (hi (Y ) gj (X) − hi (X) gj (Y ))) = 0
4
because hi (X) and gj (Y ) are independent due to the assumption that X and Y
are independent. Thus
E (hi (X) gj (Y )) = E (hi (X)) E (gj (Y )) = 0
due to the assumption that µ is symmetric which implies the mean of these ran-
dom variables equals 0. The other term works out similarly. This has proved the
independence of the random variables, X 0 and Y 0 .
Next consider the claim they have the same law and it equals µ. To do this, I
will use Theorem 36.36 on Page 1016. Thus I need to show
³ ´ ³ ´ ³ ´
E eih(X ) = E eih(Y ) = E eih(X)
0 0
(36.48)
for all h ∈ E 0 . Pick such an h. Then h ◦ X is normally distributed and has mean 0.
Therefore, for some σ,
¡ ¢ 1 2 2
E eith◦X = e− 2 t σ .
Now since X and Y are independent,
³ ´ µ ³ ´ ¶
ith◦X 0 ith √12 (X+Y )
E e = E e
µ ³ ´ ¶ µ ³ ´ ¶
ith √12 X ith √12 Y
= E e E e
the product of two characteristic functions of two random variables, √12 X and √12 Y.
The variance of these two random variables which are normally distributed with
zero mean is 12 σ 2 and so
³ ´ ¡ ¢
E eith◦X = e− 2 ( 2 σ ) e− 2 ( 2 σ ) = e− 2 σ = E eith◦X .
0 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2
³ 0
´ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Similar reasoning shows E eith◦Y = E eith◦Y = E eith◦X . Letting t = 1, this
yields 36.48. This proves the lemma.
With this preparation, here is an incredible theorem due to Fernique.
Theorem 36.85 Let µ be a symmetric Gaussian measure on B (E) where E is a

real separable Banach space. Then for λ sufficiently small and positive,
Z
2
eλ||x|| dµ < ∞.
R
More specifically, if λ and r are chosen such that

 
µ ([x : ||x|| > r])
ln  ³ ´  + 25λr2 < −1,
µ B (0, r)
then Z
2 ¡ ¢ e2
eλ||x|| dµ ≤ exp λr2 + .
R e2 − 1
Proof: Let X, Y be independent random variables having values in E such that

L (X) = L (Y ) = µ. Then by Lemma 36.84
1 1
√ (X − Y ) , √ (X + Y )
2 2
are also independent and have the same law. Now let 0 ≤ s ≤ t and use indepen-
dence of the above random variables along with the fact they have the same law as
X and Y to obtain
P (||X|| ≤ s, ||Y || > t) = P (||X|| ≤ s) P (||Y || > t)
µ¯¯ ¯¯ ¶ µ¯¯ ¯¯ ¶
¯¯ 1 ¯¯ ¯¯ 1 ¯¯
= ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
P ¯¯ √ (X − Y )¯¯ ≤ s P ¯¯ √ (X + Y )¯¯ > t¯ ¯
2 2
µ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¶
¯¯ 1 ¯¯ ¯¯ 1 ¯¯
= ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
P ¯¯ √ (X − Y )¯¯ ≤ s, ¯¯ √ (X + Y )¯¯ > t
2 2
µ ¶
1 1
≤ P √ |||X|| − ||Y ||| ≤ s, √ (||X|| + ||Y ||) > t .
2 2
Now consider the following picture in which the region, R represents the points,
(||X|| , ||Y ||) such that
1 1
√ |||X|| − ||Y ||| ≤ s and √ (||X|| + ||Y ||) > t.
2 2
¡
¡ ¡
¡R ¡
t−s - r¡ ¡
( √2 , ?) ¡
r¡(?, t−s
√ )
2
¡
Therefore, continuing with the chain of inequalities above,

P (||X|| ≤ s) P (||Y || > t)
µ ¶
t−s t−s
≤ P ||X|| > √ , ||Y || > √
2 2
µ ¶2
t−s
= P ||X|| > √ .
2
Since X, Y have the same law, this can be written as
³ ´2
P ||X|| > t−s
√
2
P (||X|| > t) ≤ .
P (||X|| ≤ s)
√
Now define a sequence as follows. t0 ≡ r > 0 and tn+1 ≡ r + 2tn . Also, in the
above inequality, let s ≡ r and then it follows
³ ´2
P ||X|| > tn+1√
2
−r
P (||X|| > tn+1 ) ≤

P (||X|| ≤ r)
2
P (||X|| > tn )
= .
P (||X|| ≤ r)
Let
P (||X|| > tn )
αn (r) ≡ .
P (||X|| ≤ r)
Then it follows
2 P (||X|| > r)
αn+1 (r) ≤ αn (r) , α0 (r) = .
P (||X|| ≤ r)
2n
Consequently, αn (r) ≤ α0 (r) and also
P (||X|| > tn ) = αn (r) P (||X|| ≤ r)
2n
≤ P (||X|| ≤ r) α0 (r)
n
= P (||X|| ≤ r) eln(α0 (r))2 . (36.49)
Now using the distribution function technique and letting λ > 0,

Z Z ∞ ³h i´
λ||x||2 2
e dµ = µ eλ||x|| > t dt
E 0
Z ∞ ³h i´
2
= 1+ µ eλ||x|| > t dt
Z1 ∞ ³h i´
2
= 1+ P eλ||X|| > t dt. (36.50)
1
From 36.49,
³h ³ ´ ¡ ¢i´ n
2
P exp λ ||X|| > exp λt2n ≤ P ([||X|| ≤ r]) eln(α0 (r))2 .
¡ ¡ 2¢ ¡ 2 ¢¢
Now split the above improper ³hintegral into
iíntervals, exp λt n , exp λtn+1 for
λ||X||2
n = 0, 1, · · · and note that P e > t is decreasing in t. Then from 36.50,
Z ∞ Z exp(λt2n+1 ) ³h i´
2 ¡ ¢ X 2
eλ||x|| dµ ≤ exp λr2 + P eλ||X|| > t dt
E n=0 exp(λt2n )
¡ ¢ ∞
X ³h 2 ¡ ¢i´ ¡ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¢
2
≤ exp λr + P eλ||X|| > exp λt2n exp λt2n+1 − exp λt2n
n=0
X∞
¡ ¢ n ¡ ¢
≤ exp λr2 + P ([||X|| ≤ r]) eln(α0 (r))2 exp λt2n+1
n=0
X∞
¡ 2
¢ n ¡ ¢
≤ exp λr + eln(α0 (r))2 exp λt2n+1 .
n=0
It remains to estimate tn+1 . From the description of the tn ,

Ã n ³
! ¡√ ¢n+1 √
X √ ´k 2 −1 2 ³√ ń
tn = 2 r=r √ ≤√ r 2
k=0
2−1 2−1
and so ³√ ń
tn+1 ≤ 5r 2
Therefore,
Z ∞
2 ¡ ¢ X n 2 n
eλ||x|| dµ ≤ exp λr2 + eln(α0 (r))2 +λ25r 2 .
E n=0
Now first pick r large enough that ln (α0 (r)) < −2 and then let λ be small enough
that 25λr2 < 1 or some such scheme and you obtain ln (α0 (r)) + λ25r2 < −1. Then
36.15. REPRODUCING KERNELS 1061
for this choice of r and λ, or for any other choice which makes ln (α0 (r)) + λ25r2 <
−1,
Z ∞
2 ¡ ¢ X n
eλ||x|| dµ ≤ exp λr2 + e−2
E n=0
∞
¡ ¢ X
≤ exp λr2 + e−2n
n=0
¡ ¢ e2
= exp λr2 + .
e2 −1
Note this theorem implies all moments exist for Gaussian measures.
36.15 Reproducing Kernels

Suppose µ is a symmetric Gaussian measure on ¡ a real
¢ separable Banach space, E.
Recall this means that for φ ∈ E 0 , L (φ) = N 0, σ 2 for some σ 2 . So what is σ 2 in
terms of φ? By definition
Z
2
¡ 2¢ 2
σ =E φ = φ (x) dµ (36.51)
E
and so φ ∈ L2 (E) . Thus you can consider E 0 ⊆ L2 (E) . Let E 0 denote the closure
of E 0 in L2 (E). Then E 0 is a Hilbert space with inner product given by
Z
(φ, ψ) ≡ φ (x) ψ (x) dµ.
E
For φ ∈ L2 (E) , denote by R−1 φ the element of E given by the Bochner integral,
Z
R−1 φ ≡ xφ (x) dµ. (36.52)
E
It is necessary to verify this integral makes sense. By Fernique’s theorem, Theorem

36.85, Z Z
2 2
||x|| dµ ≤ C eλ||x|| dµ < ∞
E E
and so by the Cauchy Schwarz inequality,

Z µZ ¶1/2 µZ ¶1/2
2 2
||xφ (x)|| dµ ≤ ||x|| dµ |φ (x)| dµ < ∞.
E E E
Also in 36.52 the integrand is weakly measurable and is separably valued so the
Bochner integral makes sense as claimed and the integrand is in L1 (E; E).
The map, R−1 is clearly linear and it is also one to one on E 0 because if R−1 φ =
0, then there exists a sequence {φn } ⊆ E 0 converging to φ in L2 (E) . Therefore,
µZ ¶ Z Z
2
0 = φn xφ (x) dµ = φn (x) φ (x) dµ → φ (x) dµ
E E E
and so φ (x) = 0 a.e. x.

Now define © ª
H ≡ R−1 φ : φ ∈ E 0
and let an inner product be given by
Z
¡ ¢
R−1 φ, R−1 ψ H
≡ φ (x) ψ (x) dµ.
E
Since R−1 is one to one, the inner product is well defined and the map, R−1 : E 0 →
H is one to one, onto, and preserves norms. Therefore, H is also a Hilbert space.
Now before making the next observation, note that by Fernique’s theorem, The-
orem 36.85, there exists λ > 0 such that
Z Z Z
2 1 2 1 2
||x|| dµ = λ ||x|| dµ ≤ eλ||x|| dµ ≡ Cµ < ∞.
E λ E λ E
This implies H embedds continuously into E because

¯¯Z ¯¯ Z
¯¯ −1 ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯R φ ¯¯ ¯ ¯
= ¯¯ xφ (x) dµ¯¯ ≤¯ ¯ ||x||E |φ (x)| dµ
E
E E E
µZ ¶1/2 µZ ¶1/2
2 2
≤ ||x|| dµ φ (x) dµ
E E
µZ ¶1/2
¯¯ ¯¯
≡ Cµ ¯¯R−1 φ¯¯H
2
= Cµ φ (x) dµ
E
Now it follows from all this that H is a Hilbert space which embedds continuously
into E and for φ ∈ E 0 ,
||i∗ φ||H 0 ≡ sup φ (h)

|h|H ≤1,h∈H
¡ ¢
= sup φ R−1 (ψ)
|R−1 ψ|H ≤1,ψ∈E 0
µZ ¶
= sup φ xψ (x) dµ
|R−1 ψ|H ≤1,ψ∈E 0 E
Z
= sup φ (x) ψ (x) dµ
||ψ||L2 (E) ≤1,ψ∈E 0 E
= ||φ||L2 (E) = σ.
by 36.51.
Finally, I claim that H must be dense in E. To see this, suppose it is not the
case. Then by a standard use of the Hahn Banch theorem, there would exist φ ∈ E 0
such that φ (H) = 0 but φ 6= 0. But then
µZ ¶ Z
¡ −1 ¢ 2
0=φ R φ ≡φ xφ (x) dµ = φ (x) dµ
E E
which is a contradiction. In fact, this shows even more than H is dense in E. It

also shows that R−1 (E) ≡ H 0 ⊆ H is dense in E.
Definition 36.86 Let µ be a symmetric Gaussian measure on a real separable Ba-
nach space, E. Then a Hilbert space, H is said to be a reproducing kernel space for
µ if H ⊆ E with the inclusion map continuous, and for every φ ∈ E 0 ,
L (φ) = N (0, |φ|H )
where
||i∗ φ||H 0 ≡ sup φ (h) = ||φ||L2 (E)
||h||H ≤1,h∈H
Implicit in this definition are the inclusions,

H ⊆ E, E 0 ⊆ H 0 ⊆ L2 (E, µ)
where i is the inclusion map of H into E.
Now I need a technical lemma before proving the next theorem.
Lemma 36.87 Suppose A is a reflexive Banach space and A ⊆ B with the inclusion
map, i continuous. Also suppose M is a subset of B 0 which separates the points of
A. Then i∗ M is dense in A0 .
¡ ¢
Proof: Suppose that i∗ M is not dense in A0 . Then there exists a∗ ∈ A0 \ i∗ M .
It follows from a standard construction using the Hahn Banach theorem there exists
a∗∗ ∈ A00 such that a∗∗ (a∗ ) 6= 0 but a∗∗ (i∗ b∗ ) = 0 for all b∗ ∈ M . Since A is
reflexive, there exists a 6= 0 such that a ∈ A and Ja = a∗∗ where J is the James
map from A to A∗∗ given by Ja (a∗ ) ≡ a∗ (a) . Then for all b∗ ∈ M,
0 = a∗∗ (i∗ b∗ ) = Ja (i∗ b∗ ) = i∗ b∗ (a) ≡ b∗ (a) .
Since M separates the points, this implies that a = 0 contrary to a 6= 0. This proves
the lemma.
The above discussion proves the existence part of the following theorem.
Theorem 36.88 If µ is a symmetric Gaussian measure on E, a real separable
Banach space, then there exists a unique reproducing kernel space, H satisfying the
above properties of Definition 36.86. Also it must be the case that H is dense in E
and that the inverse Riesz map, R−1 from H 0 to H is given by
Z
−1
R φ≡ xφ (x) dµ
E
Proof: For φ ∈ L2 (E, µ) define

Z
S −1 φ ≡ xφ (x) dµ.
E
The integrand is weakly measurable and separably valued and Fernique’s theorem
implies
Z µZ ¶1/2 µZ ¶1/2
2 2
||x||E |φ (x)| dµ ≤ ||x|| dµ |φ (x)| dµ <∞
E E E
so S −1 is defined on all of L2 (E, µ).

S −1
¡ (E
0
) is dense
¢ in E because if not, there would exist φ ∈ E 0 such that φ 6= 0
−1 0
but φ S (E ) = 0 but then
µZ ¶ Z
¡ ¢ 2
0 = φ S −1 (φ) = φ xφ (x) dµ = φ (x) dµ,
E E
a contradiction to φ 6= 0.
Now suppose H1 and H are two reproducing kernel spaces for µ. Let φ ∈
H10 ⊆ L2 (E, µ). Since the norm on H 0 equals the L2 (E) norm, it follows that for
φ ∈ E 0 , ψ ∈ H 0 and R the Riesz map from H to H 0 ,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¡ ¢
φ R−1 (ψ) = R R−1 (φ) R−1 ψ
¡ ¢
= R−1 φ, R−1 ψ H = (φ, ψ)H 0
Z
¡ ¢
= φ (x) ψ (x) dµ = φ S −1 (ψ) .
E
Therefore, R−1 = S −1 on H 0 . A similar conclusion holds for H1 .

By Lemma 36.87, E 0 must be dense in H10 and also dense in H 0 . Thus S −1 (E 0 )
is dense in both H and H1 . Letting φ ∈ H10 there exists {φn } a sequence in E 0
which converges to φ in H10 . Which implies φn → φ in L2 (E, µ) because the norms
are the same. But then φn is also a Cauchy sequence in H 0 which shows φ ∈ H 0 .
Thus H10 ⊆ H 0 and similarly, H 0 ⊆ H10 . It follows H = S −1 (H 0 ) = S −1 (H10 ) = H1 .
Definition 36.89 For µ a symmetric Gaussian measure on E a real separable Ba-

nach space, denote by Hµ the reproducing kernel Hilbert space described in Definition
36.86.
Here is an interesting formula. Letting E be a real separable Banach space and

µ a symmetric Gaussian measure on B (E) , with Hµ the reproducing kernel space,
consider h, g ∈ Hµ . Then letting φh , φg ∈ Hµ0 such that R−1 φh = h and R−1 φg = g,
Z
(h, g)Hµ ≡ φh (x) φg (x) dµ. (36.53)
E
Also, for x ∈ H, ¡ ¢
(h, x)Hµ = R−1 φh , x Hµ ≡ φh (x) ,
a similar formula holding for g in place of h. Now using this in 36.53 yields the
following interesting formula.
Z
(h, g)Hµ ≡ (h, x)Hµ (g, x)Hµ dµ.
E
Next consider the question of how to identify reproducing kernels and how to
tell whether a given probability measure is a Gaussian measure.
Before the next theorem is proved, recall the following two theorems proved on
Pages 1029 and 1027 respectively.
Theorem 36.90 Let X and Y be random vectors having values in Rp and Rq

respectively. Suppose also that (X, Y) is normally distributed and
¡ ∗¢
E (X − E (X)) (Y − E (Y)) = 0.
Then X and Y are independent random vectors.

¡ ¢
L (ξ) = N 0, σ 2
¡ ¢
¡ ¢
Also recall the following theorem and corollary proved on Page 870.

variable. Then X is normallyPdistributed in the above generalized sense if and only
p
mean of X is
m = (E (X1 ) , · · ·, E (Xp ))
Σjk = E ((Xj − mj ) (Xk − mk ))
where mj = E (Xj ).

both multivariate normal random vectors with the same mean and covariance.
Lemma 36.94 Let M ⊆ E 0 , where E is a real separable Banach space, be such that
σ (M ) = B (E) . Also suppose
³ X, Y´ are two
³ E valued
´ random variables such that for
all n ∈ N, and ~φ ∈ M n , L ~φ ◦ X = L ~φ ◦ Y . That is, for all F ∈ B (Rn ) ,
³h i´ ³h i´
P ~φ ◦ X ∈ F = P ~φ ◦ Y ∈ F
Then L (X) = L (Y ).
Proof: Define F as the π system which consists of cylindrical sets of the form
( m
)
Y
x ∈ E : ~φ (x) ∈ Gi , Gi ∈ B (R)
i=1
where ~φ ∈ M m for some m ∈ N. Thus σ (F) = σ (M ) = B (E) and F is clearly a π

system.
Now define
G ≡ {F ∈ σ (F) = B (E) : P ([X ∈ F ]) = P ([Y ∈ F ])} .
First suppose F ∈ F . Then

Ãm !
−1 Y
F = ~φ Gi
i=1
where each Gi is in B (R). Thus

Ã" Ãm !#!
−1 Y
P ([X ∈ F ]) = P X ∈ ~φ Gi
i=1
Ã" Ãm !#!
Y
= P ~φ (X) ∈ Gi
i=1
Ã" Ãm !#!
Y
= P ~φ (Y ) ∈ Gi
i=1
= P ([Y ∈ F ])
and so F ⊆ G. If A ∈ G then
¡£ ¤¢
P X ∈ AC = 1 − P ([X ∈ A])
¡£ ¤¢
= 1 − P ([Y ∈ A]) = P Y ∈ AC
and so G is closed under complements. Next, if {Ai } is a sequence of disjoint sets

of G,
P ([X ∈ ∪∞
i=1 Ai ]) = P (∪∞
i=1 [X ∈ Ai ])
X∞
= P ([X ∈ Ai ])
i=1
∞
X
= P ([Y ∈ Ai ])
i=1
= P ([Y ∈ ∪∞
i=1 Ai ]) .
It follows from the lemma about π systems, Lemma 9.72 on Page 257 that G = σ (F) =
B (E) and this says L (X) = L (Y ). This proves the lemma.
So when do ³the conditions
´ ³of this´ lemma hold? It seems a fairly strong assump-
tion to have L ~φ ◦ X = L ~φ ◦ Y for all ~φ ∈ M n for any n ∈ N. In the next
corollary, this condition will hold. This corollary says that if σ (M ) = B (E) , then
in verifying a probability measure is Gaussian, you only need to consider φ ∈ M
rather than all φ ∈ E 0 .
Corollary 36.95 Suppose E is a real separable Banach space and µ is a probability

measure on B (E) . Suppose M is a subspace of E 0 with the property that σ (M )2 =
B (E) such that each φ ∈ M considered as a random variable on the probability
2
space, (E, B (E) , µ) is normally distributed with mean 0 and variance ||φ||L2 (E) .
Then µ is a symmetric Gaussian measure.
Proof: Let X, Y be independent random variables having values in E such

that L (X) = L (Y ) = µ. As indicated earlier, such a thing exists. You apply
Skorokhod’s theorem to the product measure µ × µ to find (X, Y ) having values in
E × E such that L ((X, Y )) = µ × µ. ¡ ¢
I want to show that for all φ ∈ E 0 , L (φ) = N 0, σ 2 for some σ. I know this is
true for φ ∈ M. Therefore, by Theorem 36.91, if φ ∈ M and α2 + β 2 = 1, then
L (φ (αX + βY )) = L (φ (X)) ,
and both random variables are normally distributed with 0 mean. Now take ~φ ∈ M n
and consider a· ~φ which is also in M because M is a subspace. Then from the above,
³ ´ ³ ³ ´´ ³ ´
L a · ~φ (αX + βY ) = L a · α~φ (X) + β~φ (Y ) = L a · ~φ (X) .
³ ´
and the random variables, a · ~φ (X) and a · α~φ (X) + β~φ (Y ) are both normally
distributed with 0 mean and have the same distribution. Then by Corollary 36.93
³ ´ ³ ´
L ~φ (X) = L α~φ (X) + β~φ (Y )
³ ´
= L ~φ (αX + βY )
2 Recall this means the smallest σ algebra such that each function in M is measurable.
and both are equal to a multvariate normal distribution. Now applying Lemma
36.94, it follows
L (X) = L (αX + βY ) = µ (36.54)
whenever α2 + β 2 = 1. ³ ´
2
I want to verify L (φ) = N 0, ||φ||L2 (E) for all φ ∈ E 0 . I have just shown that
whenever X, Y are independent with L (X) = L (Y ) = µ, then if α2 + β 2 = 1, it
follows 36.54 holds. Now take an arbitrary φ ∈ E 0 . It follows
L (φ (X)) = L (φ (αX + βY )) = L (αφ (X) + βφ (Y )) (36.55)

whenever X, Y are independent having L (X) = L (Y ) = µ and α2 + β 2 = 1. This
is a good time to state Theorem 36.91 again. Here it is:

¡ ¢
L (ξ) = N 0, σ 2
¡ ¢
¡ ¢
Fixing φ ∈ E 0 , define ν (F ) ≡ µ ([φ (X) ∈ F ]) = µ ([φ (Y ) ∈ F ]) so ν is a proba-
bility measure on the Borel sets of R and L (φ ◦ X) = L (φ ◦ X) = ν. Furthermore,
from 36.55 ν = L (αφ (X) + βφ (Y )) whenever α2 + β 2 = 1 ¡and φ¢◦ X and φ ◦ Y are
independent. Therefore by Theorem 36.91 L (φ ◦ X) = N 0, σ 2 . In other words,
letting (Ω, F, P ) be the probability space on which X is defined,
Z Z
1 2 2
eitφ(x) dµ = eitφ(X(ω)) dP = e− 2 σ t
E Ω
¡ 2
¢
which shows L (φ) = N 0, σ because the characteristic function of the random ¡ ¢
variable, φ equals the characteristic function of one which has law equal to N 0, σ 2 .
In the above corollary, you could say µ was Gaussian by verifying it worked as
it should with regard to φ ∈ M where M was a suitable subset of E 0 . In this next
theorem, this result will be combined with one which also gives a way to identify
the reproducing kernel space.
Theorem 36.97 Suppose E is a real separable Banach space and µ is a probability

measure on B (E) . Suppose M is a subspace of E 0 with the property that σ (M ) =
B (E) such that each φ ∈ M considered as a random variable on the probability space,
2
(E, B (E) , µ) is normally distributed with mean 0 and variance ||φ||L2 (E) . Then µ
is a symmetric Gaussian measure. Next also assume M separates the points of E
and that H is a Hilbert space continuously embedded in E with the property that for
every φ ∈ M,
||i∗ φ||H 0 = ||φ||L2 (E) .
Then it follows
||i∗ φ||H 0 = ||φ||L2 (E)
for all φ ∈ E 0 and H is the reproducing kernel space for µ.
Proof: By Corollary 36.95 it follows µ is a Gaussian measure. It remains to

verify the assertion that H is the reproducing kernel space. To do this I will first
show M = E 0 where the closure is taken in L2 (E; µ) . If this is not so, then there
exists φ ∈ E 0 \ M . Then there exists φ0 ∈ M such that φ − φ0 6= 0 is orthogonal
to M , the orthogonality being in L2 (E). Furthermore, there exists a sequence,
{φ0n } ⊆ M such that φ0n → φ0 in L2 (E). ³ ´
2
From the first part, whenever ψ ∈ E 0 , L (ψ) = N 0, ||φ||L2 (E) .(This is what
it means for µ to be Gaussian.) Let {ψ 1 , · · ·, ψ m } ⊆ M. Then an arbitrary linear
combination of these ψ j and φ − φ0n is another function in E 0 and so its law is
normal with zero mean. It follows from Theorem 36.92 that
(φ − φ0n , ψ 1 , · · ·, ψ m ) (36.56)
is a multivariate normal random vector having values in Rm+1 . Now the random
vector,
(φ − φ0 , ψ 1 , · · ·, ψ m ) (36.57)
is the limit in L2 (E) as n → ∞ of the random vectors in 36.56 and so the means
and covariances of the vectors in 36.56 converge. Thus the vector in 36.57 is also a
multivariate normal random vector. By Theorem 36.90 it follows the two random
vectors, φ − φ0 and (ψ 1 , · · ·, ψ m ) are independent. Now it is easy to see that
σ (M ) = ∪F ⊆M,F finite σ (F ) .
Therefore, σ (φ − φ0 ) and σ (M ) = B (E) are independent. This implies φ − φ0 = 0.

Here is why. Since φ − φ0 is the limit in L2 (E) of continuous functions, and since µ
is regular by Lemma 36.17 on Page 1000 it can be assumed by changing φ − φ0 on
a set of measure zero that φ − φ0 is Borel measurable. Now here is an interesting
lemma.
Lemma 36.98 Suppose G and F are two σ algebras on a probability space, (Ω, S, P )
and suppose they are independent and that G ⊆ F. Then if A ∈ G it follows either
P (A) = 0 or P (A) = 1.
Proof of the lemma: Let A ∈ G. Then

Z Z
2
XA (ω) dP = XA (ω) dP
Ω Ω
µZ ¶ µZ ¶
= XA dP XA dP
Ω Ω
2
and so P (A) = P (A) . This proves the lemma.
Now continuing with the proof of Theorem 36.97, σ (φ − φ0 ) ⊆ B (E) and the
two are independent so every set in σ (φ − φ0 ) has measure either 0 or 1. Thus
µ ([|φ − φ0 | > α])

³h i´
2
always equals either 0 or 1. However, t → µ |φ − φ0 | > t is a decreasing
function and so if t is large enough this function equals 0 since otherwise it always
equals 1 and Z ∞ ³h i´
2
µ |φ − φ0 | > t dt = ∞
0
contrary to φ − φ0 being in L2 . Therefore, there exists M such that
µ ([x ∈ E : |φ (x) − φ0 (x)| ≤ M ]) = 1
This is impossible if the distribution of φ − φ0 is normal having positive variance

which is the case if φ − φ0 6= 0 in L2 (E). Therefore, φ = φ0 which shows that
M = E 0 in L2 (E) as claimed.
With this, it is time to show ||i∗ φ||H 0 = ||φ||L2 (E) whenever φ ∈ E 0 given this
holds for φ ∈ M . It is here that the assumption that M separates the points of E
is used for the first time. Thus, assume
||i∗ φ||H 0 = ||φ||L2 (E) (36.58)
for all φ ∈ M . Let f ∈ E 0 . Then i∗ f ∈ H 0 . By Lemma 36.87 there exists a

sequence, {φn } ⊆ M such that i∗ φn → i∗ f in H 0 . Hence by 36.58 it is also the case
that φn → f in L2 (E). Let φ, ψ ∈ M. Then by 36.58 it is routine to verify
Z
(i∗ φ, i∗ ψ)H 0 = φ (x) ψ (x) dµ.
E
Also recall that by Fernique’s theorem and f ∈ E 0

Z Z
2
||x|| |f (x)| dµ ≤ ||f || ||x|| dµ < ∞
E E
Therefore, letting φ ∈ M,
µZ ¶ Z
φ xf (x) dµ = φ (x) f (x) dµ
E E
Z
= lim φ (x) φn (x) dµ
n→∞
= lim (i∗ φ, i∗ φn )H 0 = (i∗ φ, i∗ f )H 0

n→∞
¡ −1 ∗ ¢
= φ R (i f )
where R−1 is the inverse of the Riesz map, R from H to H 0 which is defined by
Rx (y) = (x, y)H .

36.16. REPRODUCING KERNELS AND WHITE NOISE 1071
Now here is where M separates the points is used. The above equation shows
since φ is arbitrary that Z
xf (x) dµ = R−1 (i∗ f )
E
for any f ∈ E . This also shows that for all f, g ∈ E 0

0
Z
(i∗ f, i∗ g)H 0 = f (x) g (x) dµ
E
because
¡ −1 ∗ ¢
(i∗ f, i∗ g)H 0 = R (i f ) , R−1 (i∗ g) H
µZ ¶
¡ ¢
= i∗ f R−1 (i∗ g) = f xg (x) dµ
E
Z
= f (x) g (x) dµ.
E
Therefore, letting f ∈ E 0 , and noting that by Lemma 36.87 i∗ E 0 is dense in H 0

¡ ¢
||i∗ f ||H 0 ≡ sup f (h) = sup f R−1 ψ
||h||H ≤1 ||ψ||H 0 ≤1
¡ ¢
= sup f R−1 i∗ ψ
||i∗ ψ||H 0 ≤1,ψ∈E 0
Z
= sup f (x) ψ (x) dµ = ||f ||L2 (E)
||ψ||L2 (E) ≤1,ψ∈E 0 E
and this proves the theorem. Since H has the properties of the reproducing kernel
space, it equals Hµ .
36.16 Reproducing Kernels And White Noise

Consider the case where E is a real separable Banach space and µ is a symmetric
Gaussian measure on the Borel sets of E. Then as discussed in Theorem 36.88 there
exists a unique reproducing kernel space, Hµ such that Hµ is a dense subset of
E, E 0 is a dense subset of Hµ0 , and the norm on Hµ0 is the same as the norm in
L2 (E, µ) , Hµ being a closed subspace of L2 (E, µ). Thus
Hµ ⊆ E, E 0 ⊆ Hµ0 ⊆ L2 (E, µ) .
Also recall Hµ0 ≡ R−1 (E 0 ) where R is the Riesz map from Hµ to Hµ0 satisfying
Rx (y) ≡ (x, y)Hµ .
Then the theorem about white noise to be proved here is the following.
Theorem 36.99 Let E be a real separable Banach space and let µ be a Gaussian
measure defined on the Borel sets of E and let Hµ be the reproducing kernel space for
E. Suppose also that there exists an orthonormal complete basis for Hµ , {en } ⊆ Hµ0
0 −1 0
such
© that
ª for φn ∈ E defined by en = R φn , span ({φn }) is also dense in E . Then
if ξ j is a sequence of independent random variables having mean 0 and variance
1, which are defined on a probability space, (Ω, F, P ) it follows
∞
X
X (ω) ≡ ξ i (ω) ei (36.59)
i=1
converges in E a.e. and L (X) = µ.
Proof: Let φi = R (ei ) where R is the Riesz map from Hµ to Hµ0 . Then it
follows φi is normally distributed with mean 0 and variance σ 2 . What is σ 2 ? By
definition, and the properties of the reproducing kernel space,
Z
σ2 = φ2i (x) dµ ≡ (φi , φi )H 0
µ
E
¡ −1 −1
¢
= R φi , R φi Hµ = (ei , ei )Hµ = 1.
I claim
Ppthat it is also the case that {φi } are independent. First note that if αi ∈ R,
then i=1 αi φ³ni ∈ E 0 and so´ is also normally distributed. Hence by Theorem 31.23
on Page 870, φn1 , · · ·, φnp is multivariate normal. Now
³ ´ Z
E φnj φnk ≡ φnj (x) φnk (x) dµ
³E ´ ¡ ¢
= φnj , φnk 0 = enj , enk H = δ jk
Hµ µ
and so thencovariance
op matrix is a diagonal. It follows from Theorem 31.25 on Page
872 that φnj is independent. This establishes the claim and shows that a
j=1
special case of the theorem involves the consideration of
∞
X
φk (x) ek . (36.60)
k=1
Here the probability space is E and the measure is µ. Now this special case is easier
to work with and the plan is to consider this special case first, showing that the
above sum in 36.60 converges to x for a.e. x ∈ E and then extending to the general
case. The advantage of considering this special case first is that you have a candidate
for the function to which the series converges
PN which has known distribution.
Let S (x) ≡ x and let SN (x) ≡ n=1 φn (x) en . First of all, observe that
(E, B (E) , µ) is a probability space and S maps E to E and L (S) = µ. Thus
S has known distribution and it is reasonable to try and get SN (x) to converge to
S (x).
Let
L (SN ) ≡ µN , L (S − SN ) ≡ µ⊥
N.
First note that SN and SM − SN for M > N are independent random variables by
the first part of this argument. Letting φ ∈ span ({φn })
Ã N
! N
X X
φ φn (x) en = φn (x) φ (en )
k=1 k=1
and this series converges for each x ∈ E as N → ∞ because φk (en ) = (ek , en )Hµ =
δ kn which implies that if n is sufficiently large φ (en ) = 0 so the above sequence of
partial sums is eventually constant.
Therefore, letting φ ∈ span ({φn }) ,
E (exp (iφ (S − SN ))) E (exp (iφ (SN )))

= lim E (exp (iφ (SM − SN ))) E (exp (iφ (SN )))
M →∞
= lim E (exp (iφ (SM − SN )) exp (iφ (SN )))
M →∞
= E (exp (iφ (S − SN )) exp (iφ (SN )))
Now span ({φn }) is dense in E 0 by assumption and so it follows from Corollary 36.40
on Page 1018 that S − SN and SN are independent random variables.
It follows from Theorem 36.47 on Page 1023 that
µ = µN ∗ µ⊥
N (36.61)
because S = SN + (S − SN ) and the two random variables, SN and S − SN were

just shown to be independent. © ª
Next I will show the measures µ⊥ N are tight. This will set things up for an
application of Prokhorov’s theorem. Let ε > 0 be given. Since µ is a finite measure
and E is separable, it follows from Lemmas 36.17 and 36.18 there exists a compact
set, K ⊆ E such that
µ (K) ≥ 1 − ε.
By 36.61, Z
1 − ε ≤ µ (K) = µ⊥
N (K − x) dµN (x)
E
and so there exists xN ∈ E such that µ⊥

(K − xN ) ≥ 1 − ε. However, each φk has a
N
symmetric distribution since they are each normally distributed with mean 0. Also,
S has a symmetric distribution and so it follows so does S − SN . Thus
µ⊥ ⊥
N (−K + xN ) = µN (K − xN ) ≥ 1 − ε.
Now note
K −K
(−K + xN ) ∩ (K − xN ) ⊆
2
because if x ∈ (−K + xN ) ∩ (K − xN ) , then x = −k1 + xN = k2 − xN and so
2x = k2 − k1 ∈ K − K.
Therefore,
µ ¶
K −K
µ⊥
N ≥ µ⊥
N ((−K + xN ) ∩ (K − xN )) ≥ 1 − 2ε.
2
This follows easily because

³ ´
C C
µ⊥N (−K + xN ) ∪ (K − xN )
³ ´ ³ ´
C C
≤ µ⊥ N (−K + xN ) + µ⊥
N (K − x N ) ≤ 2ε.
Now note that K−K 2 is a compact set because if f : E ×E → E is given by f (x, y) =

x−y
2 then f is continuous and so it maps the compact subset of E × E, K©× Kª to
the compact set K−K 2 . Since this set is not dependent on N this shows µN
⊥
is
tight.
© ⊥Byª Prokhorov’s theorem, Theorem 36.23 on Page 1004 every subsequence of
µN has a subsequence which converges weakly. I will show they all converge
weakly to the measure δ 0 defined by δ 0 (F ) = 1 if 0 ∈ F and δ 0 (F ) = 0 if 0 ∈ /
F . From this it will follow that µ⊥ N must converge weakly to δ 0 . When this is
established, it will lead to the desired
© ⊥ ª conclusion.
ª φ ∈ span ({φn }) and let µk denote a weakly convergent subsequence of
© ⊥Let
µN . Say this converges weakly to ν. Then recall that since φ ∈ span ({φn }) ,
lim φ (S (x) − Sk (x)) = 0

k→∞
and so letting Y : E → E be given by Y (x) ≡ 0,
1 = E (exp (iφ (Y ))) = lim E (exp (iφ (S − Sk )))

k→∞
Z Z
⊥
≡ lim exp (iφ (x)) dµk (x) = exp (iφ (x)) dν.
k→∞ E E
0
By density of span ({φn }) in E , it follows that
Z
1 = E (exp (iφ (Y ))) = exp (iφ (x)) dν
E
for all φ ∈ E 0 . If λ = L (Y ) , then for all φ ∈ E 0 ,

Z Z
exp (iφ (x)) dλ = E (exp (iφ (Y ))) = exp (iφ (x)) dν
E E
By Theorem 36.36 it follows ©λ = ªν and so ν = L (Y ) where Y (x) ≡ 0. As discussed

above, this has shown that µ⊥ N converges weakly to ν where ν = L (Y ). Also,
ν = δ 0 because by Theorem 36.36 the two measures, ν and δ 0 , have the same
characteristic functions. ³ ³ ´´
C C
Now consider B (0, ε) ⊆ E. δ 0 ∂ B (0, ε) = 0 and so it follows by Lemma
36.25 on Page 1007 that
³ ´ ³ ´
C C
lim µ⊥N B (0, ε) = δ 0 B (0, ε) = 0.
N →∞
Therefore,
³ ´
C
0 = lim µ⊥
N B (0, ε)
N →∞
³h i´
C
= lim µ S − SN ∈ B (0, ε)
N →∞
= lim µ ([||S − SN ||E ≥ ε]) .
N →∞
Which shows SN converges in probability to S. In particular, there exists a subse-

quence nk such that for all m > nk ,
¡£ ¤¢
µ ||S − Snk || > 2−k < 2−k
¡£ ¤¢
µ ||Sm − Snk || > 2−k < 2−k (36.62)
Then {Snk } converges pointwise a.e. to S. Now it follows from Lemma 36.78 on
Page 1049 it follows that since the distributions of the φk are symmetric that {Sn }
converges pointwise a.e. to S. Letting φ ∈ E 0 ,
n
X
φ (Sn (x)) = φk (x) φ (ek )
k=1
Pn 2
which is a normally distributed random variable having mean 0 and variance k=1 φ (ek ) .
Therefore, Pn
1 2 2
E (exp (itφ (Sn ))) = e− 2 t k=1 φ(ek )
and so, passing to the limit, yields
1 2
P∞
φ(ek )2
E (exp (itφ (S))) = e− 2 t k=1
the series in the last term converging because it equals

∞
X ¡ −1 ¢2 ¯ ¯2
R φ, ek = ¯R−1 φ¯Hµ = |φ|Hµ0 = ||φ||L2 (E,µ) .
2 2
k=1
2
Thus φ (S) is normally distributed with mean 0 and variance ||φ||L2 (E) . Hence
L (S) = µ because if ν = L (S) , the above has just shown, for ψ ∈ E 0 ,
− 21 ||ψ||2L2 (E)
φν (ψ) = e
while Z
− 12 ||ψ||2L2 (E)
φµ (ψ) ≡ eiψ(x) dµ = e
E
due to the observation that since µ is Gaussian, each ψ ∈ E 0 is normal with mean 0
2
and variance equal to ||ψ||L2 (E) . Since the two measures have the same characteristic
functions, they are equal by Theorem 36.36.
It only remains to consider the general case described in 36.59. Consider the
sum,
X n
Xn (ω) ≡ ξ i (ω) ei .
i=1
Letting ν nm = L (Xn − Xm ) for m < n, I would like to show that ν nm = L (Sn − Sm )

defined above in terms of the sums involving the φk . The reason for this is that if
these are the same, then
¡£ ¤¢ ¡ ¢
µ ||Sm − Snk || > 2−k = P ||Xm − Xnk || > 2−k < 2−k (36.63)
and the pointwise a.e. convergence of {Xn } will follow as above using Lemma 36.78
on Page 1049 and then the same characteristic function argument will show X (ω)
defined in 36.59 has L (X) = µ. But the ξ i are given to be independent and normally
distributed with mean 0 and variance 1 so
Pn
1
φ(ek )2
E (exp (iφ (Xn − Xm ))) = e− 2 k=m+1
which is the same as the result of
E (exp (iφ (Sn − Sm )))

∞
and this implies the desired result. Thus 36.63 implies {Xnk }k=1 converges point-
wise a.e. and then Lemma 36.78 on Page 1049 applies again to conclude {Xn }
converges pointwise a.e. That L (X) = µ follows as before from a characteristic
function argument. This proves the theorem.
Part V
Sobolev Spaces
1077
Weak Derivatives
37.1 Weak ∗ Convergence

A very important sort of convergence in applications of functional analysis is the
concept of weak or weak ∗ convergence. It is important because it allows you to
assert the existence of a convergent subsequence of a given bounded sequence. The
only problem is the convergence is very weak so it does not tell you as much as
you would like. Nevertheless, it is a very useful concept. The big theorems in the
subject are the Eberlein Smulian theorem and the Banach Alaoglu theorem about
the weak or weak ∗ compactness of the closed unit balls in either a Banach space
or its dual space. These theorems are proved in Yosida [52]. Here I will present a
special case which turns out to be by far the most important in applications and it
is not hard to get from the Riesz representation theorem for Lp . First I define weak
and weak ∗ convergence.
Definition 37.1 Let X 0 be the dual of a Banach space X and let {x∗n } be a sequence
of elements of X 0 . Then x∗n converges weak ∗ to x∗ if and only if for all x ∈ X,
lim x∗n (x) = x∗ (x) .

n→∞
A sequence in X, {xn } converges weakly to x ∈ X if and only if for all x∗ ∈ X 0
lim x∗ (xn ) = x∗ (x) .

n→∞
The main result is contained in the following lemma.
Lemma 37.2 Let X 0 be the dual of a Banach space, X and suppose X is separa-
ble. Then if {x∗n } is a bounded sequence in X 0 , there exists a weak ∗ convergent
subsequence.
Proof: Let D be a dense countable set in X. Then the sequence, {x∗n (x)} is
bounded for all x and in particular for all x ∈ D. Use the Cantor diagonal process to
obtain a subsequence, still denoted by n such that x∗n (d) converges for each d ∈ D.
1079
1080 WEAK DERIVATIVES
Now let x ∈ X be completely arbitrary. In fact {x∗n (x)} is a Cauchy sequence. Let
ε > 0 be given and pick d ∈ D such that for all n
ε
|x∗n (x) − x∗n (d)| < .
3
This is possible because D is dense. By the first part of the proof, there exists Nε
such that for all m, n > Nε ,
ε
|x∗n (d) − x∗m (d)| < .
3
Then for such m, n,
|x∗n (x) − x∗m (x)| ≤ |x∗n (x) − x∗n (d)| + |x∗n (d) − x∗m (d)|
ε ε ε
+ |x∗m (d) − x∗m (x)| < + + = ε.
3 3 3
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows {x∗n (x)} is a Cauchy sequence for all x ∈ X.
Now define f (x) ≡ limn→∞ x∗n (x). Since each x∗n is linear, it follows f is also
linear. In addition to this,
|f (x)| = lim |x∗n (x)| ≤ K ||x||

n→∞
where K is some constant which is larger than all the norms of the x∗n . Such a
constant exists because the sequence, {x∗n } was bounded. This proves the lemma.
The lemma implies the following important theorem.
Theorem 37.3 Let Ω be a measurable subset of Rn and let {fk } be a bounded

sequence in Lp (Ω) where 1 < p ≤ ∞. Then there exists a weak ∗ convergent
subsequence.
0
Proof: Since Lp (Ω) is separable, this follows from the Riesz representation
theorem.
Note that from the Riesz representation theorem, it follows that if p < ∞, then
the sequence converges weakly.
37.2 Test Functions And Weak Derivatives

In elementary courses in mathematics, functions are often thought of as things
which have a formula associated with them and it is the formula which receives
the most attention. For example, in beginning calculus courses the derivative of a
function is defined as the limit of a difference quotient. You start with one function
which tends to be identified with a formula and, by taking a limit, you get another
formula for the derivative. A jump in abstraction occurs as soon as you encounter
the derivative of a function of n variables where the derivative is defined as a certain
linear transformation which is determined not by a formula but by what it does to
vectors. When this is understood, it reduces to the usual idea in one dimension. The
37.2. TEST FUNCTIONS AND WEAK DERIVATIVES 1081
idea of weak partial derivatives goes further in the direction of defining something
in terms of what it does rather than by a formula, and extra generality is obtained
when it is used. In particular, it is possible to differentiate almost anything if
the notion of what is meant by the derivative is sufficiently weak. This has the
advantage of allowing the consideration of the weak partial derivative of a function
without having to agonize over the important question of existence but it has the
disadvantage of not being able to say much about the derivative. Nevertheless, it
is the idea of weak partial derivatives which makes it possible to use functional
analytic techniques in the study of partial differential equations and it is shown in
this chapter that the concept of weak derivative is useful for unifying the discussion
of some very important theorems. Certain things which shold be true are.
Let Ω ⊆ Rn . A distribution on Ω is defined to be a linear functional on Cc∞ (Ω),
called the space of test functions. The space of all such linear functionals will be
denoted by D∗ (Ω). Actually, more is sometimes done here. One imposes a topology
on Cc∞ (Ω) making it into a topological vector space, and when this has been done,
D0 (Ω) is defined as the dual space of this topological vector space. To see this,
consult the book by Yosida [52] or the book by Rudin [46].
Example: The space L1loc (Ω) may be considered as a subset of D∗ (Ω) as
follows. Z
f (φ) ≡ f (x) φ (x) dx
Ω
for all φ ∈ Cc∞ (Ω). Recall that f ∈ L1loc (Ω) if f XK ∈ L1 (Ω) whenever K is
compact.
Example: δ x ∈ D∗ (Ω) where δ x (φ) ≡ φ (x).
It will be observed from the above two examples and a little thought that D∗ (Ω)
is truly enormous. The derivative of a distribution will be defined in such a way that
it agrees with the usual notion of a derivative on those distributions which are also
continuously differentiable functions. With this in mind, let f be the restriction to
Ω of a smooth function defined on Rn . Then Dxi f makes sense and for φ ∈ Cc∞ (Ω)
Z Z
Dxi f (φ) ≡ Dxi f (x) φ (x) dx = − f Dxi φdx = −f (Dxi φ).
Ω Ω
This motivates the following definition.
Definition 37.4 For T ∈ D∗ (Ω)
Dxi T (φ) ≡ −T (Dxi φ).
Of course one can continue taking derivatives indefinitely. Thus,

¡ ¢
Dxi xj T ≡ Dxi Dxj T
and it is clear that all mixed partial derivatives are equal because this holds for
the functions in Cc∞ (Ω). In this weak sense, the derivative of almost anything
exists, even functions that may be discontinuous everywhere. However the notion
of “derivative” is very weak, hence the name, “weak derivatives”.
Example: Let Ω = R and let

½
1 if x ≥ 0,
H (x) ≡
0 if x < 0.
Then Z
DH (φ) = − H (x) φ0 (x) dx = φ (0) = δ 0 (φ).
Note that in this example, DH is not a function.

What happens when Df is a function?
Theorem 37.5 Let Ω = (a, b) and suppose that f and Df are both in L1 (a, b).
Then f is equal to a continuous function a.e., still denoted by f and
Z x
f (x) = f (a) + Df (t) dt.
a
In proving Theorem 37.5 the following lemma is useful.
Lemma 37.6 Let T ∈ D∗ (a, b) and suppose DT = 0. Then there exists a constant
C such that Z b
T (φ) = Cφdx.
a
Proof: T (Dφ) = 0 for all φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b) from the definition of DT = 0. Let
Z b
φ0 ∈ Cc∞ (a, b) , φ0 (x) dx = 1,
a
and let Z ÃZ !
x b
ψ φ (x) = [φ (t) − φ (y) dy φ0 (t)]dt
a a
for φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b). Thus ψ φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b) and

ÃZ !
b
Dψ φ = φ − φ (y) dy φ0 .
a
Therefore, ÃZ !
b
φ = Dψ φ + φ (y) dy φ0
a
and so
ÃZ ! Z
b b
T (φ) = T (Dψ φ ) + φ (y) dy T (φ0 ) = T (φ0 ) φ (y) dy.
a a
Let C = T φ0 . This proves the lemma.

37.2. TEST FUNCTIONS AND WEAK DERIVATIVES 1083
Proof of Theorem 37.5 Since f and Df are both in L1 (a, b),

Z b
Df (φ) − Df (x) φ (x) dx = 0.
a
Consider Z (·)
f (·) − Df (t) dt
a
and let φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b). Ã !

Z (·)
D f (·) − Df (t) dt (φ)
a
Z b Z b µZ x ¶
0
≡− f (x) φ (x) dx + Df (t) dt φ0 (x) dx
a a a
Z b Z b
= Df (φ) + Df (t) φ0 (x) dxdt
a t
Z b
= Df (φ) − Df (t) φ (t) dt = 0.
a
By Lemma 37.6, there exists a constant, C, such that

Ã Z (·) ! Z b
f (·) − Df (t) dt (φ) = Cφ (x) dx
a a
for all φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b). Thus

Z b µ Z x ¶
{ f (x) − Df (t) dt − C}φ (x) dx = 0
a a
for all φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b). It follows from Lemma 37.9 in the next section that
Z x
f (x) − Df (t) dt − C = 0 a.e. x.
a
Thus let f (a) = C and write

Z x
f (x) = f (a) + Df (t) dt.
a
This proves Theorem 37.5.

Theorem 37.5 says that
Z x
f (x) = f (a) + Df (t) dt
a
Rx
whenever it makes sense to write a Df (t) dt, if Df is interpreted as a weak deriva-
tive. Somehow, this is the way it ought to be. It follows from the fundamental
theorem of calculus that f 0 (x) exists for a.e. x where the derivative is taken in the
sense of a limit of difference quotients and f 0 (x) = Df (x). This raises an inter-
esting question. Suppose f is continuous on [a, b] and f 0 (x) exists in the classical
sense for a.e. x. Does it follow that
Z x
f (x) = f (a) + f 0 (t) dt?
a
The answer is no. To see an example, consider Problem 4 on Page 445 which gives
an example of a function which is continuous on [0, 1], has a zero derivative for
a.e. x but climbs from 0 to 1 on [0, 1]. Thus this function is not recovered from
integrating its classical derivative.
In summary, if the notion of weak derivative is used, one can at least give
meaning to the derivative of almost anything, the mixed partial derivatives are
always equal, and, in one dimension, one can recover the function from integrating
its derivative. None of these claims are true for the classical derivative. Thus weak
derivatives are convenient and rule out pathologies.
37.3 Weak Derivatives In Lploc

Definition 37.7 Let U be an open set in Rn .f ∈ Lploc (U ) if f XK ∈ Lp whenever
K is a compact subset of U .
Definition 37.8 For α = (k1 , · · ·, kn ) where the ki are nonnegative integers, define
n
X ∂ |α| f (x)
|α| ≡ |kxi |, Dα f (x) ≡ .
i=1
∂xk11 ∂xk22 · · · ∂xknn
¡ ¢ R
Also define
¡ be a mollifier if spt (φk ) ⊆ B 0, k1 , φk ≥ 0, φk dx = 1, and
φ¡k to ¢¢
φk ∈ Cc∞ B 0, k1 . In the case a GreekR letter like δ or ε is used as a subscript,
it will mean spt (φδ ) ⊆ B (0, δ) , φδ ≥ 0, φδ dx = 1, and φδ ∈ RCc∞ (B (0, δ)) . You
can always get a mollifier by letting φ ≥ 0, φ ∈ Cc∞ (B (0, 1)) , φdx = 1,and¡ then¢
defining φk (x) ≡ k n φ (kx) or in the case of a Greek subscript, φδ (x) = δ1n φ xδ .
Consider the case where u and Dα u for |α| = 1 are each in Lploc (Rn ). The next
lemma is the one alluded to in the proof of Theorem 37.5.
Lemma 37.9 Suppose f ∈ L1loc (U ) and suppose

Z
f φdx = 0
for all φ ∈ Cc∞ (U ). Then f (x) = 0 a.e. x.

37.3. WEAK DERIVATIVES IN LPLOC 1085
Proof: Without loss of generality f is real valued. Let

E ≡ {x : f (x) > ε}
and let
Em ≡ E ∩ B(0, m).
Is m (Em ) = 0? If not, there exists an open set, V , and a compact set K satisfying
K ⊆ Em ⊆ V ⊆ B (0, m) , m (V \ K) < 4−1 m (Em ) ,
Z
|f | dx < ε4−1 m (Em ) .
V \K
Let H and W be open sets satisfying
K⊆H⊆H⊆W ⊆W ⊆V
and let
H≺g≺W
where the symbol, ≺, in the above implies spt (g) ⊆ W, g has all values in [0, 1] ,
and g (x) = 1 on H. Then let φδ be a mollifier and let h ≡ g ∗ φδ for δ small enough
that
K ≺ h ≺ V.
Thus
Z Z Z
0 = f hdx = f dx + f hdx
K V \K
−1
≥ εm (K) − ε4 m (Em )
¡ ¢
≥ ε m (Em ) − 4−1 m (Em ) − ε4−1 m (Em )
≥ 2−1 εm(Em ).
Therefore, m (Em ) = 0, a contradiction. Thus
∞
X
m (E) ≤ m (Em ) = 0
m=1
and so, since ε > 0 is arbitrary,

m ({x : f (x) > 0}) = 0.
Similarly m ({x : f (x) < 0}) = 0. This proves the lemma.
This lemma allows the following definition.
Definition 37.10 Let U be an open subset of Rn and let u ∈ L1loc (U ) . Then Dα u ∈
L1loc (U ) if there exists a function g ∈ L1loc (U ), necessarily unique by Lemma 37.9,
such that for all φ ∈ Cc∞ (U ),
Z Z
|α|
gφdx = Dα u (φ) ≡ (−1) u (Dα φ) dx.
U U
α
Then D u is defined to equal g when this occurs.
Lemma 37.11 Let u ∈ L1loc (Rn ) and suppose u,i ∈ L1loc (Rn ), where the subscript
on the u following the comma denotes the ith weak partial derivative. Then if φε is
a mollifier and uε ≡ u ∗ φε , it follows uε,i ≡ u,i ∗ φε .
Proof: If ψ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ), then

Z Z
u (x − y) ψ ,i (x) dx = u (z) ψ ,i (z + y) dz
Z
= − u,i (z) ψ (z + y) dz
Z
= − u,i (x − y) ψ (x) dx.
Therefore,
Z Z Z
uε,i (ψ) = − uε ψ ,i = − u (x − y) φε (y) ψ ,i (x) d ydx
Z Z
= − u (x − y) ψ ,i (x) φε (y) dxdy
Z Z
= u,i (x − y) ψ (x) φε (y) dxdy
Z
= u,i ∗ φε (x) ψ (x) dx.
The technical questions about product measurability in the use of Fubini’s theorem
may be resolved by picking a Borel measurable representative for u. This proves
the lemma.
What about the product rule? Does it have some form in the context of weak
derivatives?
Lemma 37.12 Let U be an open set, ψ ∈ C ∞ (U ) and suppose u, u,i ∈ Lploc (U ).

Then (uψ),i and uψ are in Lploc (U ) and
(uψ),i = u,i ψ + uψ ,i .
Proof: Let φ ∈ Cc∞ (U ) then

Z
(uψ),i (φ) ≡ − uψφ,i dx
ZU
= − u[(ψφ),i − φψ ,i ]dx
U
Z
¡ ¢
= u,i ψφ + uψ ,i φ dx
ZU
¡ ¢
= u,i ψ + uψ ,i φdx
U

37.4. MORREY’S INEQUALITY 1087
Recall the notation for the gradient of a function.

T
∇u (x) ≡ (u,1 (x) · · · u,n (x))
thus
Du (x) v =∇u (x) · v.
37.4 Morrey’s Inequality

The following inequality will be called Morrey’s inequality. It relates an expression
which is given pointwise to an integral of the pth power of the derivative.
Lemma 37.13 Let u ∈ C 1 (Rn ) and p > n. Then there exists a constant, C,
depending only on n such that for any x, y ∈ Rn ,
|u (x) − u (y)|
ÃZ !1/p
³ ´
p
≤C |∇u (z) | dz | x − y|(1−n/p) . (37.1)
B(x,2|x−y|)
Proof: In the argument C will be a generic constant which depends on n.

Consider the following picture.
U xr W ry V
This is a picture of two balls of radius r in Rn , U and V having centers at x and

y respectively, which intersect in the set, W. The center of U is on the boundary
of V and the center of V is on the boundary of U as shown in the picture. There
exists a constant, C, independent of r depending only on n such that
m (W ) m (W )
= = C.
m (U ) m (V )
You could compute this constant if you desired but it is not important here.
Define the average of a function over a set, E ⊆ Rn as follows.
Z Z
1
− f dx ≡ f dx.
E m (E) E
Then
Z
|u (x) − u (y)| = − |u (x) − u (y)| dz
ZW Z
≤ − |u (x) − u (z)| dz + − |u (z) − u (y)| dz
W W
·Z Z ¸
C
= |u (x) − u (z)| dz + |u (z) − u (y)| dz
m (U ) W W
·Z Z ¸
≤ C − |u (x) − u (z)| dz + − |u (y) − u (z)| dz
U V
Now consider these two terms. Using spherical coordinates and letting U0 denote
the ball of the same radius as U but with center at 0,
Z
− |u (x) − u (z)| dz
U
Z
1
= |u (x) − u (z + x)| dz
m (U0 ) U0
Z r Z
1 n−1
= ρ |u (x) − u (ρw + x)| dσ (w) dρ
m (U0 ) 0 n−1
Z r ZS Z ρ
1 n−1
≤ ρ |∇u (x + tw) · w| dtdσdρ
m (U0 ) 0 n−1
Z r ZS Z0 ρ
1
≤ ρn−1 |∇u (x + tw)| dtdσdρ
m (U0 ) 0 n−1
Z rZ Z r S 0
1
≤ C |∇u (x + tw)| dtdσdρ
r 0 S n−1 0
Z Z Z r
1 r |∇u (x + tw)| n−1
= C t dtdσdρ
r 0 S n−1 0 tn−1
Z Z r
|∇u (x + tw)| n−1
= C t dtdσ
n−1 tn−1
ZS 0
|∇u (x + z)|
= C n−1 dz
U0 |z|
µZ ¶1/p µZ ¶1/p0
p p0 −np0
≤ C |∇u (x + z)| dz |z|
U0 U
µZ ¶1/p µZ Z r ¶(p−1)/p
p p0 −np0 n−1
= C |∇u (z)| dz ρ ρ dρdσ
U S n−1 0
µZ ¶1/p ÃZ Z r
!(p−1)/p
p 1
= C |∇u (z)| dz n−1 dρdσ
U S n−1 0 ρ p−1
37.4. MORREY’S INEQUALITY 1089
µ ¶(p−1)/p µZ ¶1/p
p−1 p n
= C |∇u (z)| dz r1− p
p−n U
µ ¶(p−1)/p µZ ¶1/p
p−1 p 1− n
= C |∇u (z)| dz |x − y| p
p−n U
Similarly,
Z µ ¶(p−1)/p µZ ¶1/p
p−1 p 1− n
− |u (y) − u (z)| dz ≤ C |∇u (z)| dz |x − y| p
V p−n V
Therefore,
µ ¶(p−1)/p ÃZ !1/p
p−1 p 1− n
|u (x) − u (y)| ≤ C |∇u (z)| dz |x − y| p
p−n B(x,2|x−y|)
because B (x, 2 |x − y|) ⊇ V ∪ U. This proves the lemma.

The following corollary is also interesting
Corollary 37.14 Suppose u ∈ C 1 (Rn ) . Then
|u (y) − u (x) − ∇u (x) · (y − x)|
Ã Z !1/p
1 p
≤C |∇u (z) − ∇u (x) | dz | x − y|. (37.2)
m (B (x, 2 |x − y|)) B(x,2|x−y|)
Proof: This follows easily from letting g (y) ≡ u (y) − u (x) − ∇u (x) · (y − x) .
Then g ∈ C 1 (Rn ), g (x) = 0, and ∇g (z) = ∇u (z) − ∇u (x) . From Lemma 37.13,
|u (y) − u (x) − ∇u (x) · (y − x)|

= |g (y)| = |g (y) − g (x)|
ÃZ !1/p
1− n
≤ C |∇u (z) − ∇u (x) |p dz |x − y| p
B(x,2|x−y|)
Ã Z !1/p
1
= C |∇u (z) − ∇u (x) |p dz | x − y|.
m (B (x, 2 |x − y|)) B(x,2|x−y|)

It may be interesting at this point to recall the definition of differentiability
on Page 115. If you knew the above inequality held for ∇u having components in
L1loc (Rn ) , then at Lebesgue points of ∇u, the above would imply Du (x) exists.
This is exactly the approach taken below.
37.5 Rademacher’s Theorem

The inequality of Corollary 37.14 can be extended to the case where u and u,i are
in Lploc (Rn ) for p > n. This leads to an elegant proof of the differentiability a.e. of
a Lipschitz continuous function as well as a more general theorem.
Theorem 37.15 Suppose u and all its weak partial derivatives, u,i are in Lploc (Rn ).
Then there exists a set of measure zero, E such that if x, y ∈
/ E then inequalities
37.2 and 37.1 are both valid. Furthermore, u equals a continuous function a.e.
Proof: Let u ∈ Lploc (Rn ) and ψ k ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) , ψ k ≥ 0, and ψ k (z) = 1 for all
z ∈ B (0, k). Then it is routine to verify that
uψ k , (uψ k ),i ∈ Lp (Rn ).
Here is why:
Z
(uψ k ),i (φ) ≡ − uψ k φ,i dx
n
ZR Z Z
= − uψ k φ,i dx − uψ k,i φdx + uψ k,i φdx
Rn Rn Rn
Z Z
= − u (ψ k φ),i dx + uψ k,i φdx
n Rn
Z R
¡ ¢
= u,i ψ k + uψ k,i φdx
Rn
which shows
(uψ k ),i = u,i ψ k + uψ k,i
as expected.
Let φε be a mollifier and consider
(uψ k )ε ≡ uψ k ∗ φε .
By Lemma 37.11 on Page 1086,
(uψ k )ε,i = (uψ k ),i ∗ φε .
Therefore
(uψ k )ε,i → (uψ k ),i in Lp (Rn ) (37.3)
and
(uψ k )ε → uψ k in Lp (Rn ) (37.4)
as ε → 0. By 37.4, there exists a subsequence ε → 0 such that for |z| < k and for
each i = 1, 2, · · ·, n
(uψ k )ε,i (z) → (uψ k ),i (z) = u,i (z) a.e.

37.5. RADEMACHER’S THEOREM 1091
(uψ k )ε (z) → uψ k (z) = u (z) a.e. (37.5)

Denoting the exceptional set by Ek , let
∞
x, y ∈
/ ∪k=1 Ek ≡ E
and let k be so large that
B (0,k) ⊇ B (x,2|x − y|).
Then by 37.1 and for x, y ∈

/ E,
|(uψ k )ε (x) − (uψ k )ε (y)|

ÃZ !1/p
(1−n/p)
≤C |∇(uψ k )ε |p dz |x − y|
B(x,2|y−x|)
where C depends only on n. Similarly, by 37.2,
|(uψ k )ε (x) − (uψ k )ε (y) − ∇ (uψ k )ε (x) · (y − x)| ≤

Ã Z !1/p
1 p
C |∇ (uψ k )ε (z) − ∇ (uψ k )ε (x) | dz | x − y|.
m (B (x, 2 |x − y|)) B(x,2|x−y|)
Now by 37.5 and 37.3 passing to the limit as ε → 0 yields

ÃZ !1/p
p (1−n/p)
|u (x) − u (y)| ≤ C |∇u| dz |x − y| (37.6)
B(x,2|y−x|)
and
|u (y) − u (x) − ∇u (x) · (y − x)|
Ã Z !1/p
1 p
≤C |∇u (z) − ∇u (x) | dz | x − y|. (37.7)
m (B (x, 2 |x − y|)) B(x,2|x−y|)
Redefining u on the set of mesure zero, E yields 37.6 for all x, y. This proves the
theorem.
Corollary 37.16 Let u, u,i ∈ Lploc (Rn ) for i = 1, · · ·, n and p > n. Then the
representative of u described in Theorem 37.15 is differentiable a.e.
|u (y) − u (x) − ∇u (x) · (y − x)|

Ã Z !1/p
1 p
≤C |∇u (z) − ∇u (x) | dz | x − y|. (37.8)
m (B (x, 2 |x − y|)) B(x,2|x−y|)
and at every Lebesgue point, x of ∇u

Ã Z !1/p
1 p
lim |∇u (z) − ∇u (x) | dz =0
y→x m (B (x, 2 |x − y|)) B(x,2|x−y|)
and so at each of these points,

|u (y) − u (x) − ∇u (x) · (y − x)|
lim =0
y→x |x − y|
which says that u is differentiable at x and Du (x) (v) = ∇u (x) · (v) . See Page 115.
Definition 37.17 Now suppose u is Lipschitz on Rn ,
|u (x) − u (y)| ≤ K |x − y|
for some constant K. Define Lip (u) as the smallest value of K that works in this
inequality.
The following corollary is known as Rademacher’s theorem. It states that every
Lipschitz function is differentiable a.e.
Corollary 37.18 If u is Lipschitz continuous then u is differentiable a.e. and
||u,i ||∞ ≤ Lip (u).
Proof: This is done by showing that Lipschitz continuous functions have weak
derivatives in L∞ (Rn ) and then using the previous results. Let
Dehi u (x) ≡ h−1 [u (x + hei ) − u (x)].
Then Dehi u is bounded in L∞ (Rn ) and
||Dehi u||∞ ≤ Lip (u).

It follows that Dehi u is contained in a ball in L∞ (Rn ), the dual space of L1 (Rn ).
By Theorem 37.3 on Page 1080, there is a subsequence h → 0 such that
Dehi u * w, ||w||∞ ≤ Lip (u)
where the convergence takes place in the weak ∗ topology of L∞ (Rn ). Let φ ∈
Cc∞ (Rn ). Then Z Z
wφdx = lim Dehi uφdx
h→0
Z
(φ (x − hei ) − φ (x))
= lim u (x) dx
h→0 h
Z
= − u (x) φ,i (x) dx.
Thus w = u,i and u,i ∈ L∞ (Rn ) for each i. Hence u, u,i ∈ Lploc (Rn ) for all p > n
and so u is differentiable a.e. by Corollary 37.16. This proves the corollary.
37.6. CHANGE OF VARIABLES FORMULA LIPSCHITZ MAPS 1093
37.6 Change Of Variables Formula Lipschitz Maps

With Rademacher’s theorem, one can give a general change of variables formula
involving Lipschitz maps.
Definition 37.19 Let E be a Lebesgue measurable set.x ∈ E is a point of density

if
m(E ∩ B(x, r))
lim = 1.
r→0 m(B(x, r))
You see that if x were an interior point of E, then this limit will equal 1.
However, it is sometimes the case that the limit equals 1 even when x is not an
interior point. In fact, these points of density make sense even for sets that have
empty interior.
Lemma 37.20 Let E be a Lebesgue measurable set. Then there exists a set of
measure zero, N , such that if x ∈ E \ N , then x is a point of density of E.
Proof: Consider the function, f (x) = XE (x). This function is in L1loc (Rn ).
Let N C denote the Lebesgue points of f . Then for x ∈ E \ N ,
Z
1
1 = XE (x) = lim XE (y) dmn
r→0 mn (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
mn (B (x, r) ∩ E)
= lim .
r→0 mn (B (x, r))
In this section, Ω will be a Lebesgue measurable set in Rn and h : Ω → Rn will

be Lipschitz. Recall the following definition and theorems. See Page 10.17 for the
proofs and more discussion.
Definition 37.21 Let F be a collection of balls that cover a set, E, which have
the property that if x ∈ E and ε > 0, then there exists B ∈ F, diameter of B < ε
and x ∈ B. Such a collection covers E in the sense of Vitali.
Theorem 37.22 Let E ⊆ Rn and suppose mn (E) < ∞ where mn is the outer
measure determined by mn , n dimensional Lebesgue measure, and let F, be a col-
lection of closed balls of bounded radii such that F covers E in the sense of Vitali.
Then there exists a countable collection of disjoint balls from F, {Bj }∞
j=1 , such that
mn (E \ ∪∞ j=1 Bj ) = 0.
Now this theorem implies a simple lemma which is what will be used.
Lemma 37.23 Let V be an open set in Rr , mr (V ) < ∞. Then there exists a

sequence of disjoint open balls {Bi } having radii less than δ and a set of measure
0, T , such that
V = (∪∞i=1 Bi ) ∪ T.
As in the proof of the change of variables theorem given earlier, the first step
is to show that h maps Lebesgue measurable sets to Lebesgue measurable sets. In
showing this the key result is the next lemma which states that h maps sets of
measure zero to sets of measure zero.
Lemma 37.24 If mn (T ) = 0 then mn (h (T )) = 0.
Proof: Let V be an open set containing T whose measure is less than ε. Now
using the Vitali covering theorem, there exists a sequence of disjoint balls {Bi },
Bi =o B (xi , ri ) which are contained in V such that the sequence of enlarged balls,
n
Bbi , having the same center but 5 times the radius, covers T . Then
³ ³ ´´
mn (h (T )) ≤ mn h ∪∞ b
i=1 Bi
∞
X ³ ³ ´´
≤ bi
mn h B
i=1
∞
X ∞
X
n n
≤ α (n) (Lip (h)) 5n rin = 5n (Lip (h)) mn (Bi )
i=1 i=1
n n
≤ (Lip (h)) 5n mn (V ) ≤ ε (Lip (h)) 5n.
Since ε is arbitrary, this proves the lemma.

With the conclusion of this lemma, the next lemma is fairly easy to obtain.
Lemma 37.25 If A is Lebesgue measurable, then h (A) is mn measurable. Fur-

thermore,
n
mn (h (A)) ≤ (Lip (h)) mn (A). (37.9)
Proof: Let Ak = A ∩ B (0, k) , k ∈ N. Let V ⊇ Ak and let mn (V ) < ∞. By

Lemma 37.23, there is a sequence of disjoint balls {Bi } and a set of measure 0, T ,
such that
V = ∪∞i=1 Bi ∪ T, Bi = B(xi , ri ).
By Lemma 37.24,
mn (h (Ak )) ≤ mn (h (V ))
≤ mn (h (∪∞
i=1 Bi )) + mn (h (T )) = mn (h (∪∞
i=1 Bi ))
∞
X ∞
X
≤ mn (h (Bi )) ≤ mn (B (h (xi ) , Lip (h) ri ))
i=1 i=1
∞
X ∞
X
n n n
≤ α (n) (Lip (h) ri ) = Lip (h) mn (Bi ) = Lip (h) mn (V ).
i=1 i=1
Therefore,
n
mn (h (Ak )) ≤ Lip (h) mn (V ).
Since V is an arbitrary open set containing Ak , it follows from regularity of Lebesgue

measure that
n
mn (h (Ak )) ≤ Lip (h) mn (Ak ). (37.10)
Now let k → ∞ to obtain 37.9. This proves the formula. It remains to show h (A)
is measurable.
By inner regularity of Lebesgue measure, there exists a set, F , which is the
countable union of compact sets and a set T with mn (T ) = 0 such that
F ∪ T = Ak .
Then h (F ) ⊆ h (Ak ) ⊆ h (F ) ∪ h (T ). By continuity of h, h (F ) is a countable

union of compact sets and so it is Borel. By 37.10 with T in place of Ak ,
mn (h (T )) = 0
and so h (T ) is mn measurable. Therefore, h (Ak ) is mn measurable because mn

is a complete measure and this exhibits h (Ak ) between two mn measurable sets
whose difference has measure 0. Now
h (A) = ∪∞
k=1 h (Ak )
so h (A) is also mn measurable and this proves the lemma.

in Rudin [45], will be important for the following arguments. A slightly more precise
version was presented earlier on Page 462 but this version given below will suffice
in this context. The idea is that if a continuous function mapping a ball in Rk to
Rk doesn’t move any point very much, then the image of the ball must contain a
slightly smaller ball.

|F (v) −v| < εr

¡ ¢
F B ⊇ B (0, r (1 − ε)).
¡ ¢
Proof: Suppose a ∈ B (0, r (1 − ε)) \ F B and let
r (a − F (v))
G (v) ≡ .
|a − F (v)|
Then by the Brouwer fixed point theorem, G (v) = v for some v ∈ B. Using the
formula for G, it follows |v| = r. Taking the inner product with v,
2 r
(G (v) , v) = |v| = r2 = (a − F (v) , v)
|a − F (v)|
r
= (a − v + v − F (v) , v)
|a − F (v)|
r
= [(a − v, v) + (v − F (v) , v)]
|a − F (v)|
r h i
2
= (a, v) − |v| + (v − F (v) , v)
|a − F (v)|
r £ 2 ¤
≤ r (1 − ε) − r2 +r2 ε = 0,
|a − F (v)|
¡ ¢
a contradiction. Therefore, B (0, r (1 − ε)) \ F B = ∅ and this proves the lemma.
Now let Ω be a Lebesgue measurable set and suppose h : Rn → Rn is Lipschitz
continuous and one to one on Ω. Let
N ≡ {x ∈ Ω : Dh (x) does not exist} (37.11)

n o
−1
S ≡ x ∈ Ω \ N : Dh (x) does not exist (37.12)
Lemma 37.27 Let x ∈ Ω \ (S ∪ N ). Then if ε ∈ (0, 1) the following hold for all r
small enough.
³ ³ ´´
mn h B (x,r) ≥ mn (Dh (x) B (0, r (1 − ε))), (37.13)
h (B (x, r)) ⊆ h (x) + Dh (x) B (0, r (1 + ε)), (37.14)

³ ³ ´´
mn h B (x,r) ≤ mn (Dh (x) B (0, r (1 + ε))) (37.15)
If x ∈ Ω \ (S ∪ N ) is also a point of density of Ω, then

mn (h (B (x, r) ∩ Ω))
lim = 1. (37.16)
r→0 mn (h (B (x, r)))
If x ∈ Ω \ N , then
mn (h (B (x, r)))
|det Dh (x)| = lim a.e. (37.17)
r→0 mn (B (x,r))
−1
h (x + v) = h (x) + Dh (x) v+o (|v|) (37.18)

 
=o(|v|)
 z }| {
h (x) + Dh (x)  
−1
= v+ Dh (x) o (|v|) (37.19)
Consequently, when r is small enough, 37.14 holds. Therefore, 37.15 holds. From
−1
37.19, and the assumption that Dh (x) exists,
−1 −1
Dh (x) h (x + v) − Dh (x) h (x) − v =o(|v|). (37.20)
Letting
−1 −1
F (v) = Dh (x) h (x + v) − Dh (x) h (x),
apply Lemma 37.26 in 37.20 to conclude that for r small enough, whenever |v| < r,
−1 −1
Dh (x) h (x + v) − Dh (x) h (x) ⊇ B (0, (1 − ε) r).
Therefore, ³ ´
h B (x,r) ⊇ h (x) + Dh (x) B (0, (1 − ε) r)
which implies
³ ³ ´´
mn h B (x,r) ≥ mn (Dh (x) B (0, r (1 − ε)))
which shows 37.13.

Now suppose that x is a point of density of Ω as well as being a point where
−1
Dh (x) and Dh (x) exist. Then whenever r is small enough,
mn (h (B (x, r) ∩ Ω))
1−ε< ≤1
mn (h (B (x, r)))
and so
¡ ¡ ¢¢
mn h B (x, r) ∩ ΩC mn (h (B (x, r) ∩ Ω))
1−ε < +
mn (h (B (x, r))) mn (h (B (x, r)))
¡ ¡ C
¢¢
mn h B (x, r) ∩ Ω
≤ + 1.
mn (h (B (x, r)))
which implies
mn (B (x,r) \ Ω) < εα (n) rn. (37.21)
Then for such r,
mn (h (B (x, r) ∩ Ω))
1≥
mn (h (B (x, r)))
mn (h (B (x, r))) − mn (h (B (x,r) \ Ω))
≥ .
mn (h (B (x, r)))
From Lemma 37.25, 37.21, and 37.13, this is no larger than
n
Lip (h) εα (n) rn
1− .
mn (Dh (x) B (0, r (1 − ε)))
By the theorem on the change of variables for a linear map, this expression equals
n
Lip (h) εα (n) rn
1− n ≡ 1 − g (ε)
|det (Dh (x))| rn α (n) (1 − ε)
where limε→0 g (ε) = 0. Then for all r small enough,
mn (h (B (x, r) ∩ Ω))
1≥ ≥ 1 − g (ε)
mn (h (B (x, r)))
which shows 37.16 since ε is arbitrary. It remains to verify 37.17.

In case x ∈ S, for small |v| ,
h (x + v) = h (x) + Dh (x) v+o (|v|)
where |o (|v|)| < ε |v| . Therefore, for small enough r,
h (B (x, r)) − h (x) ⊆ K + B (0, rε)
where K is a compact subset of an n−1 dimensional subspace contained in Dh (x) (Rn )

which has diameter no more than 2 ||Dh (x)|| r. By Lemma 10.33 on Page 285,
mn (h (B (x, r))) = mn (h (B (x, r)) − h (x))

n−1
≤ 2n εr (2 ||Dh (x)|| r + rε)
and so, in this case, letting r be small enough,

n−1
mn (h (B (x, r))) 2n εr (2 ||Dh (x)|| r + rε)
≤ ≤ Cε.
mn (B (x,r)) α (n) rn
Since ε is arbitrary, the limit as r → 0 of this quotient equals 0.

If x ∈
/ S, use 37.13 - 37.15 along with the change of variables formula for linear
maps. This proves the Lemma.
Since h is one to one, there exists a measure, µ, defined by
µ (E) ≡ mn (h (E))
on the Lebesgue measurable subsets of Ω. By Lemma 37.25 µ ¿ mn and so by the

Radon Nikodym theorem, there exists a nonnegative function, J (x) in L1loc (Rn )
such that whenever E is Lebesgue measurable,
Z
µ (E) = mn (h (E ∩ Ω)) = J (x) dmn . (37.22)
E∩Ω
Extend J to equal zero off Ω.
Lemma 37.28 The function, J (x) equals |det Dh (x)| a.e.

Proof: Define
Q ≡ {x ∈ Ω : x is not a point of density of Ω} ∪ N ∪
{x ∈ Ω : x is not a Lebesgue point of J}.

Then Q is a set of measure zero and if x ∈
/ Q, then by 37.17, and 37.16,
|det Dh (x)|
mn (h (B (x, r)))
= lim
r→0 mn (B (x, r))
mn (h (B (x, r))) mn (h (B (x, r) ∩ Ω))
= lim
r→0 mn (h (B (x, r) ∩ Ω)) mn (B (x, r))
Z
1
= lim J (y) dmn
r→0 mn (B (x, r)) B(x,r)∩Ω
Z
1
= lim J (y) dmn = J (x) .
r→0 mn (B (x, r)) B(x,r)
the last equality because J was extended to be zero off Ω. This proves the lemma.
Here is the change of variables formula for Lipschitz mappings. It is a special
case of the area formula.
Theorem 37.29 Let Ω be a Lebesgue measurable set, let f ≥ 0 be Lebesgue mea-

surable. Then for h a Lipschitz mapping defined on Rn which is one to one on
Ω, Z Z
f (y) dmn = f (h (x)) |det Dh (x)| dmn . (37.23)
h(Ω) Ω
Proof: Let F be a Borel set. It follows that h−1 (F ) is a Lebesgue measurable

set. Therefore, by 37.22,
¡ ¡ ¢¢
mn h h−1 (F ) ∩ Ω (37.24)
Z Z
= XF (y) dmn = Xh−1 (F ) (x) J (x) dmn
h(Ω) Ω
Z
= XF (h (x)) J (x) dmn .
Ω
What if F is only Lebesgue measurable? Note there are no measurability problems

with the above expression because x →XF (h (x)) is Borel measurable due to the
assumption that h is continuous while J is given to be Lebesgue measurable. How-
ever, if F is Lebesgue measurable, not necessarily Borel measurable, then it is no
longer clear that x → XF (h (x)) is measurable. In fact this is not always even true.
However, x →XF (h (x)) J (x) is measurable and 37.24 holds.
Let F be Lebesgue measurable. Then by inner regularity, F = H ∪ N where N
has measure zero, H is the countable union of compact sets so it is a Borel set, and
H ∩ N = ∅. Therefore, letting N 0 denote a Borel set of measure zero which contains

N,
b (x) ≡ XH (h (x)) J (x) ≤ XF (h (x)) J (x)
= XH (h (x)) J (x) + XN (h (x)) J (x)

≤ XH (h (x)) J (x) + XN 0 (h (x)) J (x) ≡ u (x)
Now since N 0 is Borel,

Z Z
(u (x) − b (x)) dmn = XN 0 (h (x)) J (x) dmn
Ω Ω
¡ ¡ ¢¢
= mn h h−1 (N 0 ) ∩ Ω = mn (N 0 ∩ h (Ω)) = 0
and this shows XH (h (x)) J (x) = XF (h (x)) J (x) except on a set of measure zero.
By completeness of Lebesgue measure, it follows x →XF (h (x)) J (x) is Lebesgue
measurable and also since h maps sets of measure zero to sets of measure zero,
Z Z
XF (h (x)) J (x) dmn = XH (h (x)) J (x) dmn
Ω Ω
Z
= XH (y) dmn
h(Ω)
Z
= XF (y) dmn .
h(Ω)
It follows that if s is any nonnegative Lebesgue measurable simple function,

Z Z
s (h (x)) J (x) dmn = s (y) dmn (37.25)
Ω h(Ω)
and now, if f ≥ 0 is Lebesgue measurable, let sk be an increasing sequence of

Lebesgue measurable simple functions converging pointwise to f . Then since 37.25
holds for sk , the monotone convergence theorem applies and yields 37.23. This
proves the theorem.
It turns out that a Lipschitz function defined on some subset of Rn always has a
Lipschitz extension to all of Rn . The next theorem gives a proof of this. For more
on this sort of theorem see Federer [22]. He gives a better but harder theorem than
what follows.
Theorem 37.30 If h : Ω → Rm is Lipschitz, then there exists h : Rn → Rm which

extends h and is also Lipschitz.
Proof: It suffices to assume m = 1 because if this is shown, it may be applied

to the components of h to get the desired result. Suppose
|h (x) − h (y)| ≤ K |x − y|. (37.26)

Define
h (x) ≡ inf{h (w) + K |x − w| : w ∈ Ω}. (37.27)
If x ∈ Ω, then for all w ∈ Ω,
h (w) + K |x − w| ≥ h (x)
by 37.26. This shows h (x) ≤ h (x). But also you could take w = x in 37.27 which
yields h (x) ≤ h (x). Therefore h (x) = h (x)¯ if x ∈ Ω. ¯
Now suppose x, y ∈ Rn and consider ¯h (x) − h (y)¯. Without loss of gener-
ality assume h (x) ≥ h (y) . (If not, repeat the following argument with x and y
interchanged.) Pick w ∈ Ω such that
h (w) + K |y − w| − ε < h (y).
Then ¯ ¯
¯h (x) − h (y)¯ = h (x) − h (y) ≤ h (w) + K |x − w| −
[h (w) + K |y − w| − ε] ≤ K |x − y| + ε.
Since ε is arbitrary, ¯ ¯
¯h (x) − h (y)¯ ≤ K |x − y|

This yields a simple corollary to Theorem 37.29.
Corollary 37.31 Let h : Ω → Rn be Lipschitz continuous and one to one where Ω

is a Lebesgue measurable set. Then if f ≥ 0 is Lebesgue measurable,
Z Z
¯ ¯
f (y) dmn = f (h (x)) ¯det Dh (x)¯ dmn . (37.28)
h(Ω) Ω
where h denotes a Lipschitz extension of h.

The Area And Coarea
Formulas
38.1 The Area Formula Again

Recall the area formula presented earlier. For convenience, here it is.
function and A is a Lebesgue measurable set which satisfies 17.8 - 17.10. That is,
U is an open set in Rn on which h is defined and A ⊆ U is a Lebesgue measurable
set, m ≥ n, and
Also assume that for every x ∈ A, there exists rx and Lx such that for all y, z ∈
B (x, rx ) ,
|h (z) − h (y)| ≤ Lx |x − y| (38.3)
Then
x → (g ◦ h) (x) J (x)
Z Z
n
g (y) dH = g (h (x)) J (x) dm
h(A) A
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
Obviously, one can obtain improved versions of this important theorem by using
Rademacher’s theorem and condition 38.3. As mentioned earlier, a function which
satisfies 38.3 is called locally Lipschitz at x. Here is a simple lemma which is in the
spirit of similar lemmas presented in the chapter on Hausdorff measures.
Lemma 38.2 Let U be an open set in Rn and let h : U → Rm where m ≥ n.
Let A ⊆ U and let h be locally Lipschitz at every point of A. Then if N ⊆ A has
Lebesgue measure zero, it follows that Hn (h (N )) = 0.
1103
1104 THE AREA AND COAREA FORMULAS
Proof: Let Nk be defined as
Nk ≡ {x ∈ N : for some Rx > 0, |h (z) − h (y)| ≤ k |z − y| for all y, z ∈ B (x,Rx )}
Thus Nk ↑ N. Let ε > 0 be given and let U ⊇ Vk ⊇ N be open and mn (Vk ) < 5nεkn .
¡δ ¢
Now fix δ > 0. For x ∈ Nk let B (x, 5rx ) ⊆ Vk such that rx < min 5k , Rx . By
∞
the Vitali covering
n o∞ theorem, there exists a disjoint sequence of these balls, {Bi }i=1
such that B ci , the corresponding sequence of balls having the same centers
i=1 ³ ´ n ³ ó∞
but five times the radius covers Nk . Then diam B ci < 2δ/k. Hence h B ci
³ ³ ´´ i=1
covers h (Nk ) and diam h B ci < 2δ. It follows
∞
X ³ ³ ´ń
n
H2δ (h (Nk )) ≤ ci
α (n) r h B
i=1
∞
X n
≤ α (n) k n 5n r (Bi )
i=1
∞
X
= 5n k n mn (Bi ) ≤ 5n k n mn (Vk ) < ε
i=1
n
Since δ was arbitrary, this shows H (h (Nk )) ≤ ε. Since k was arbitrary, this
shows Hn (h (N )) = limk→∞ Hn (h (Nk )) ≤ ε. Since ε is arbitrary, this shows
Hn (h (N )) = 0. This proves the lemma.
Now with this lemma, here is one of many possible generalizations of the area
formula.
Theorem 38.3 Let U be an open set in Rn and h : U → Rm . Let h be locally

Lipschitz and one to one on A, a Lebesgue measurable subset of U and let g :
h (A) → R be a nonnegative Hn measurable function. Then
x → (g ◦ h) (x) J (x)

Z Z
g (y) dHn = g (h (x)) J (x) dmn
h(A) A
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
Proof: For x ∈ A, there exists a ball, Bx on which h is Lipschitz. By

Rademacher’s theorem, h is differentiable a.e. on Bx . There is a countable cover
of A consisting of such balls on which h is Lipschitz. Therefore, h is differentiable
on A0 ⊆ A where mn (A \ A0 ) = 0. Then by the earlier area formula,
Z Z
n
g (y) dH = g (h (x)) J (x) dmn
h(A0 ) A0
38.1. THE AREA FORMULA AGAIN 1105
By Lemma 38.2
Z Z
n
g (y) dH = g (y) dHn
h(A) h(A0 )
Z Z
= g (h (x)) J (x) dmn = g (h (x)) J (x) dmn
A0 A

Note how a special case of this occurs when h is one to one and C 1 . Of course
this yields the earlier change of variables formula as a still more special case.
In addition to this, recall the divergence theorem, Theorem 17.50 on Page 492.
This theorem was stated for bounded open sets which have a Lipschitz boundary.
This definition of Lipschitz boundary involved an assumption that certain Lips-
chitz mappings had a derivative a.e. Rademacher’s theorem makes this assumption
redundant. Therefore, the statement of Theorem 17.50 remains valid with the fol-
lowing definition of a Lipschitz boundary.
Definition 38.4 A bounded open set, U ⊆ Rn is said to have a Lipschitz boundary

and to lie on one side of its boundary if the following conditions hold. There exist
open boxes, Q1 , · · ·, QN ,
Yn
¡ i i¢
Qi = aj , bj
j=1
such that ∂U ≡ U \ U is contained in their union. Also, for each Qi , there exists k
and a Lipschitz function, gi such that U ∩ Qi is of the form

 k−1
Y ¡ i i¢
x : (x1 , · · ·, xk−1 , xk+1 , · · ·, xn ) ∈ aj , bj ×

j=1

n
Y ¡ i i¢ 
aj , bj and aik < xk < gi (x1 , · · ·, xk−1 , xk+1 , · · ·, xn ) (38.4)

j=k+1
or else of the form


 k−1
Y¡ ¢
x : (x1 , · · ·, xk−1 , xk+1 , · · ·, xn ) ∈ aij , bij ×

j=1

n
Y ¡ ¢ 
aij , bj
i
and gi (x1 , · · ·, xk−1 , xk+1 , · · ·, xn ) < xk < bij . (38.5)

j=k+1
Also, there exists an open set, Q0 such that Q0 ⊆ Q0 ⊆ U and U ⊆ Q0 ∪Q1 ∪···∪QN .
38.2 Mappings That Are Not One To One

Next I will consider the case where h is not necessarily one to one. Recall the
major theorem presented earlier on which the proof of the area formula depended,
Theorem 17.25 on Page 466. Here it is.
Theorem 38.5 Let h : U → Rm where U is an open set in Rn for n ≤ m and
U. Also suppose that for every x ∈ A, Dh (x) exists. Then for x ∈ A,
Hn (h (B (x, r)))
J (x) = lim , (38.6)
r→0 mn (B (x,r))
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
The next lemma is a version of Sard’s lemma.
Lemma 38.6 Let h : U → Rm where U is an open set in Rn for n ≤ m and
U. Let
N ≡ {x ∈ A : Dh (x) does not exist} (38.7)
and let
S ≡ {x ∈ A0 ≡ A \ N : J (x) = 0} (38.8)
n
Then H (h (S ∪ N )) = 0.
Proof: By Rademacher’s theorem, N has measure 0. Therefore, Hn (h (N )) = 0
by Lemma 38.2.
It remains to show Hn (h (S)) = 0. Let Sk = B (0, k) ∩ S for k a positive integer
large enough that Sk 6= ∅. By Theorem 17.25 on Page 466 stated above, if x ∈ Sk ,
there exists rx such that 5rx < min (Rx , 1) and if r ≤ 5rx ,
Hn (h (B (x, r))) ε
< n n , B (x, r) ⊆ B (0,k) ∩ U (38.9)
mn (B (x,r)) 5 k
Then by the Vitali covering theorem, there exists a sequence of disjoint balls of this
∞
sort,
n o{B i }i=1 such that the
n ³ballsóhaving 5 times the radius but the same center,
∞ ∞
c
Bi cover Sk . Then h Bic covers h (Sk ) . Then from 38.9
i=1 i=1
∞
X ³ ³ ´´ X∞
Hn (h (Sk )) ≤ ci
Hn h B ≤ 5n Hn (h (Bi ))
i=1 i=1
∞
X ε ε
≤ 5n n n mn (Bi ) ≤ n mn (B (0, k)) = εα (n)
i=1
5 k k
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, it follows Hn (h (Sk )) = 0 and now letting k → 0, it follows

Hn (h (S)) = 0. This proves the lemma.
The following very technical lemma provides the necessary theory to generalize
to functions which are not one to one.
38.2. MAPPINGS THAT ARE NOT ONE TO ONE 1107
Lemma 38.7 Let h : U → Rm where U is an open set in Rn for n ≤ m and

U. Let
N ≡ {x ∈ A : Dh (x) does not exist}
and let
S ≡ {x ∈ A0 ≡ A \ N : J (x) = 0}
∞
Let B = A \ (S ∪ N ) . Then there exist measurable disjoint sets, {Ei }i=1 such that
A = ∪∞i=1 Ei and h is one to one on Ei . Furthermore, h
−1
is Lipschitz on h (Ei ) .
Proof: Let C be a dense countable subset of B and let F be a countable

dense subset of the invertible elements of L (Rn , Rn ). For i a positive integer and
T ∈ F, c ∈ C
½ µ ¶ ¾
1
E (c, T, i) ≡ b ∈ B c, ∩ B : (a) , (b) both hold
i
where (a) , (b) are given by
2
|T v| ≤ |U (b) v| for all v (a)
3
1
|h (a) − h (b) − Dh (b) (a − b)| ≤ |T (a − b)| . (b)
2
¡ ¢
for all a ∈ B b, 2i .
6
2
i
br
1 rc
i¡ a
¡
ª
First I will show these sets, E (c, T, i) cover B and that they are measurable
sets. To begin with consider the measurability question. Inequality (a) is the same
as saying
2
|T v| ≤ |Dh (b) v| for all v
3
which is the same as saying
2 ¯ ¯
|v| ≤ ¯Dh (b) T −1 v¯ for all v.
3
Let {vi } denote a dense countable subset of Rn . Letting

½ ¾
2 ¯ ¯
Si ≡ b : |vi | ≤ ¯Dh (b) T −1 vi ¯
3
it follows easily that Si is measurable because the component functions of the matrix
of Dh (b) are limits of difference quotients of continuous functions so they are Borel
measurable. (Note that if B were Borel, then Si would also be Borel.) Now by
continuity,
½ ¾
2 ¯ ¯
∞ ¯ −1 ¯
∪i=1 Si = b : |v| ≤ Dh (b) T v for all v
3
and so this set is measurable also. Inequality (b) also determines a measurable set
by similar reasoning. It is the same as saying that for all |v| < 2/i,
1
|h (b + v) − h (b) − Dh (b) (v)| ≤ |T (v)|
2
Use {vi } a countable dense subset of B (0,2/i) in a similar fashion to (a)¡ . ¢
Next¡ I need to¢ show these sets cover B. Let x ∈ B. Then pick ci ∈ B x, 1i and
Ti ∈ B U (x) ¯,¯1i . I need¯¯to show that x ∈ E (ci , Ti , i) for i large enough. For i
¯¯ −1 ¯¯
large enough, ¯¯Ti U (x) ¯¯ < 32 . Therefore, for such i
¯ ¯ 3
¯ −1 ¯
¯Ti U (x) (v)¯ < |v|
2
for all v and so
3
|Ti w| < |U (x) w|
2
for all w. Next consider (b). An equivalent norm is v → |U (x) v| and so, for i large
enough,
1
|h (a) − h (x) − Dh (x) (a − x)| ≤ |U (x) (a − x)| (38.10)
8
¯¯ ¯¯
whenever |a − x| < 2/i. Now also, for i large enough, ¯¯U (x) Ti−1 ¯¯ < 4 and so for
all w,
¯ ¯
¯U (x) T −1 w¯ < 4 |w|
i
which implies
|U (x) v| < 4 |Ti v| .
Applying this in 38.10 yields
1
|h (a) − h (x) − Dh (x) (a − x)| ≤ |Ti (a − x)|
2
with implies x ∈ E (ci , Ti , i) .
38.2. MAPPINGS THAT ARE NOT ONE TO ONE 1109
Next I need to show h is one to one on E (c, T, i) . Suppose b1 , b2 ∈ E (c, T, i) .

From (b) and (a) ,
3 3
|T (b2 − b1 )| ≤ |U (b1 ) (b2 − b1 )| = |Dh (b1 ) (b2 −b1 )|
2 2
31
≤ |T (b2 − b1 )|
22
which is a contradiction unless b2 = b1 .
∞
There are clearly countably many E (c, T, i) . Denote them as {Fi }i=1 . Then let
E1 = F1 and if E1 , · · ·, Em have been chosen, let
Em+1 = Fm+1 \ ∪m
i=1 Ei .
Thus the Ei are disjoint measurable sets whose union is B and h is one to one on
each Ei .
Now consider one of the Ei . This is a subset of some E (c, T, i) . Let a, b ∈ Ei .
Then using (a) and (b) ,
3
|T (a − b)| ≤ |U (b) (a − b)|
2
3
= |Dh (b) (a − b)|
2
3 3
≤ |h (a) − h (b)| + |T (a − b)| .
2 4
Hence
1 3
|T (a − b)| ≤ |h (a) − h (b)|
4 2
Since v → |T v| is an equivalent norm, there exists some r > 0 such that |T v| ≥ r |v|
for all v. Therefore,
6
|a − b| ≤ |h (a) − h (b)| .
r
In other words,
¯ −1 ¯
¯h (h (a)) − h−1 (h (b))¯ = |a − b| ≤ 6 |h (a) − h (b)| .
r
which completes the proof.
With these lemmas, here is the main theorem which is a generalization of The-
orem 38.3. First remember that from Lemma 17.18 on Page 462 a locally Lipschitz
function maps Lebesgue measurable sets to Hausdorff measurable sets.
Theorem 38.8 Let U be an open set in Rn and h : U → Rm . Let h be locally

Lipschitz on A, a Lebesgue measurable subset of U and let g : h (A) → R be a
nonnegative Hn measurable function. Also let
# (y) ≡ Number of elements of h−1 (y)

Then # is Hn measurable,
x → (g ◦ h) (x) J (x)
is Lebesgue measurable, and
Z Z
# (y) g (y) dHn = g (h (x)) J (x) dmn
h(A) A
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
Proof: Let B = A \ (S ∪ N ) where S is the set of points where J (x) = 0 and
N is the set of points, x of A where Dh (x) does not exist. Also from Lemma 38.7
∞
there exists {Ei }i=1 , a sequence of disjoint measurable sets whose union equals B
such that h is one to one on each Ei . Then from Theorem 38.3
Z
g (h (x)) J (x) dmn
A
Z ∞ Z
X
= g (h (x)) J (x) dmn = g (h (x)) J (x) dmn
B i=1 Ei
∞ Z Z Ã∞ !
X X
n
= g (y) dH = Xh(Ei ) (y) g (y) dHn . (38.11)
i=1 h(Ei ) h(B) i=1
¡P∞ ¢ n
Now # (y) = i=1 Xh(Ei ) (y) on h (B) and # differs from this H measurable
n
function only on h (S ∪ N ) , which by Lemma 38.6 is a set of H measure zero.
Therefore, # is Hn measurable and the last term of 38.11 equals
Z Ã∞ ! Z
X
n
Xh(Ei ) (y) g (y) dH = # (y) g (y) dHn .
h(A) i=1 h(A)
38.3 The Coarea Formula

The coarea formula involves a function, h which maps a subset of Rn to Rm where
m ≤ n instead of m ≥ n as in the area formula. The symbol, Lip (h) will denote
the Lipschitz constant for h.
It is possible to obtain the coarea formula as a computation involving the area
formula and some simple linear algebra and this is the approach taken here. To
begin with, here is the necessary linear algebra.
Theorem 38.9 Let A be an m × n matrix and let B be an n × m matrix for m ≤ n.
Then
pBA (t) = tn−m pAB (t) ,
so the eigenvalues of BA and AB are the same including multiplicities except that
BA has n − m extra zero eigenvalues.
38.3. THE COAREA FORMULA 1111
Proof: Use block multiplication to write

µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
AB 0 I A AB ABA
=
B 0 0 I B BA
µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
I A 0 0 AB ABA
= .
0 I B BA B BA
Therefore,
µ ¶−1 µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
I A AB 0 I A 0 0
=
0 I B 0 0 I B BA
µ ¶ µ ¶
0 0 AB 0
It follows that and have the same characteristic polyno-
B BA B 0
mials because the two matrices are simlar. Thus
µ ¶ µ ¶
tI − AB 0 tI 0
det = det
−B tI −B tI − BA
and so noting that BA is an n × n matrix and AB is an m × m matrix,
tm det (tI − BA) = tn det (tI − AB)
and so det (tI − BA) = pBA (t) = tn−m det (tI − AB) = tn−m pAB (t) . This proves
the theorem.
The following corollary is what will be used to prove the coarea formula.
Corollary 38.10 Let A be an m × n matrix. Then
det (I + AA∗ ) = det (I + A∗ A) .
Proof: Assume m ≤ n. From Theorem 38.9 AA∗ and A∗ A have the eigenval-
ues, λ1 , · · .λm , necessarily nonnegative, with the same multiplicities and some zero
eigenvalues which have differing multiplicities. The eigenvalues, λ1 , · · .λm are the
zeros of pAA∗ (t) . Thus there is an orthogonal transformation, P such that
 
λ1
 .. 
 . 0 
 
 λ  ∗
∗
A A=P  m P .
0 
 
 . 
 0 . . 
0
Therefore,
 
λ1 + 1
 .. 
 . 0 
 
 λm + 1  ∗
I + A∗ A = P 

P

 1 
 .. 
 0 . 
1
and so
 
λ1 + 1 0
 .. 
det (I + A∗ A) = det  .
∗
 = det (I + AA ) .
0 λm + 1

The other main ingredient is the following version of the chain rule.
Theorem 38.11 Let h and g be locally Lipschitz mappings from Rn to Rn with

h (g (x)) = x on A, a Lebesgue measurable set. Then for a.e. x ∈ A, Dg (h (x)),
Dh (x), and D (h ◦ g) (x) all exist and
I = D (g ◦ h) (x) = Dg (h (x)) Dh (x).
The proof of this theorem is based on the following lemma.
Lemma 38.12 If h : Rn → Rn is locally Lipschitz, then if h (x) = 0 for all x ∈

A, then det (Dh (x)) = 0 a.e.
Proof: By theR case of the Area

R formula which involves mappings which are not
one to one, 0 = {0} # (y) dy = A |det (Dh (x))| dx and so det (Dh (x)) = 0 a.e.
Proof of the theorem: On A, g (h (x)) − x = 0 and so by the lemma, there
exists a set of measure zero, N1 such that if x ∈/ N1 , D (g ◦ h) (x) − I = 0. Let M
be the set of measure zero of points in h (Rn ) where g fails to be differentiable and
let N2 ≡ g (M ) ∩ A, also a set of measure zero because locally Lipschitz maps take
sets of measure zero to sets of measure zero. Finally let N3 be the set of points
where h fails to be differentiable. Then if x ∈
/ N1 ∪ N2 ∪ N3 , the chain rule implies
I = D (g ◦ h) (x) = Dg (h (x)) Dh (x). This proves the theorem.
Lemma 38.13 Let h : Rp → Rm be Lipschitz continuous and δ > 0. Then if

A ⊆ Rp is either open or compact,
¡ ¢
y → Hδs A ∩ h−1 (y)
is Borel measurable.
Proof: Suppose first that A is compact and suppose for δ > 0,

¡ ¢
Hδs A ∩ h−1 (y) < t
Then there exist sets Si , satisfying
diam (Si ) < δ, A ∩ h−1 (y) ⊆ ∪∞

i=1 Si ,
and
∞
X s
α (s) (r (Si )) < t.
i=1
I claim these sets can be taken to be open sets. Choose λ > 1 but close enough to
1 that
X∞
s
α (s) (λr (Si )) < t
i=1
Replace Si with Si + B (0, η i ) where η i is small enough that
diam (Si ) + 2η i < λ diam (Si ) .
Then
diam (Si + B (0, η i )) ≤ λ diam (Si )
and so r (Si + B (0, η i )) ≤ λr (Si ) . Thus
∞
X s
α (s) r (Si + B (0, η i )) < t.
i=1
Hence you could replace Si with Si + B (0, η i ) and so one can assume the sets Si
are open.
Claim: If z is close enough to y, then A ∩ h−1 (z) ⊆ ∪∞ i=1 Si .
Proof: If not, then there exists a sequence {zk } such that
zk → y,
and
xk ∈ (A ∩ h−1 (zk )) \ ∪∞
i=1 Si .
By compactness of A, there exists a subsequence still denoted by k such that
zk → y, xk → x ∈ A \ ∪∞
i=1 Si .
Hence
h (x) = lim h (xk ) = lim zk = y.
k→∞ k→∞
But x ∈/ ∪∞
i=1 Si contrary to the assumption that A ∩ h−1 (y) ⊆ ∪∞ i=1 Si .
It follows from this claim that whenever z is close enough to y,
¡ ¢
Hδs A ∩ h−1 (z) < t.
This shows © ¡ ¢ ª
z ∈ Rp : Hδs A ∩ h−1 (z) < t
¡ ¢
is an open set and so y →Hδs A ∩ h−1 (y) is Borel measurable whenever A is
compact. Now let V be an open set and let
Ak ↑ V, Ak compact.
Then ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Hδs V ∩ h−1 (y) = lim Hδs Ak ∩ h−1 (y)
k→∞
¡ ¢
so y →Hδs V ∩ h−1 (y) is Borel measurable for all V open. This proves the lemma.
Lemma 38.14 Let h : Rp → Rm¡be Lipschitz ¢continuous. Suppose A is either open

or compact in Rp . Then y → Hs A ∩ h−1 (y) is also Borel measurable and
Z
¡ ¢ m α (s) α (m) s+m
Hs A ∩ h−1 (y) dy ≤ 2m (Lip (h)) H (A)
Rm α (s + m)
In particular, if s = n − m and p = n
Z
¡ ¢ m α (n − m) α (m)
Hn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) dy ≤ 2m (Lip (h)) mn (A)
R m α (n)
¡ ¢
Proof: From Lemma 38.13 y → Hδs A ∩ h−1 (y) is Borel measurable for each
δ > 0. Without loss of generality, Hs+m (A) < ∞. Now let Bi be closed sets with
diam (Bi ) < δ, A ⊆ ∪∞i=1 Bi , and
∞
X s+m
Hδs+m (A) + ε > α (s + m) r (Bi ) .
i=1
¡ ¢
Note each Bi is compact so y → Hδs Bi ∩ h−1 (y) is Borel measurable. Thus
Z
¡ ¢
Hδs A ∩ h−1 (y) dy
m
ZR X
¡ ¢
≤ Hδs Bi ∩ h−1 (y) dy
Rm i
XZ ¡ ¢
= Hδs Bi ∩ h−1 (y) dy
i Rm
XZ
≤ Hδs (Bi ) dy
i h(Bi )
X
= mm (h (Bi )) Hδs (Bi )
i
X m m s
≤ (Lip (h)) 2m α (m) r (Bi ) α (s) r (Bi )
i
m α (m) α (s) m X m+s

= (Lip (h)) 2 α (s + m) r (Bi )
α (m + s) i
m α (m) α (s) m s+m

≤ (Lip (h)) 2 H (A)
α (m + s)
Taking a limit as δ → 0 this proves the lemma.

Next I will show that whenever A is Lebesgue measurable,
¡ ¢
y → Hn−m A ∩ h−1 (y)
is mm measurable and the above estimate holds.

Lemma 38.15 Let A be a Lebesgue measurable subset of Rn and let h : Rn → Rm

be Lipschitz. Then ¡ ¢
y → Hn−m A ∩ h−1 (y)
is Lebesgue measurable. Furthermore, for all A Lebesgue measurable,
Z
¡ ¢ m α (n − m) α (m)
Hn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) dy ≤ 2m (Lip (h)) mn (A)
R m α (n)
Proof: Let A be a bounded Lebesgue measurable set in Rn . Then by inner and
outer regularity of Lebesgue measure there exists an increasing sequence of compact
sets, {Kk } contained in A and a decreasing sequence of open sets, {Vk } containing
A such that mn (Vk \ Kk ) < 2−k . Thus mn (V1 ) ≤ mn (A) + 1. By Lemma 38.14
Z
¡ ¢ m α (n − m) α (m)
Hδn−m V1 ∩ h−1 (y) dy < 2m (Lip (h)) (mn (A) + 1) .
Rm α (n)
Then
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Hδn−m Kk ∩ h−1 (y) ≤ Hδn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) ≤ Hδn−m Vk ∩ h−1 (y) (38.12)
By Lemma 38.14
Z
¡ n−m ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¢
= Hδ Vk ∩ h−1 (y) − Hδn−m Kk ∩ h−1 (y) dy
m
ZR
¡ ¢
= Hδn−m (Vk − Kk ) ∩ h−1 (y) dy
Rm
m α (n − m) α (m)
≤ 2m (Lip (h)) mn (Vk \ Kk )
α (n)
m α (n − m) α (m) −k
< 2m (Lip (h)) 2
α (n)
Let the Borel measurable functions, g and f be defined by
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
g (y) ≡ lim Hδn−m Vk ∩ h−1 (y) , f (y) ≡ lim Hδn−m Kk ∩ h−1 (y)
k→∞ k→∞
It follows from the dominated convergence theorem and 38.12 that

¡ ¢
f (y) ≤ Hδn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) ≤ g (y)
and Z
(g (y) − f (y)) dy = 0.
Rm
¡ ¢
By completness of mm , this establishes y →Hδn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) is Lebesgue mea-
surable. Then by Lemma 38.14 again,
Z
¡ ¢ m α (n − m) α (m)
Hδn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) dy ≤ 2m (Lip (h)) mn (A) .
Rm α (n)
Letting δ → 0 and ¡using the monotone¢ convergence theorem yields the desired
inequality for Hn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) .
The case where A is not bounded can be handled by considering Ar = A∩B (0, r)
and letting r → ∞. This proves the lemma.
By fussing with the isodiametric inequality one can remove the factor of 2m in
the above inequalities obtaining much more attractive formulas. This is done in
[20]. See also [36] which follows [20] and [22]. This last reference probably has the
most complete treatment of these topics.
With these lemmas, it is now possible to give a proof of the coarea formula.
Define Λ (n, m) as all possible ordered lists of m numbers taken from {1, 2, · · ·, n} .
Lemma 38.16 Let A be a measurable set in Rn and let h : Rn → Rm be a Lipschitz

map where m ≤ n which is differentiable at every point of A and for which
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
Jh (x) ≡ det Dh (x) Dh (x) 6= 0.
Then the following formula holds along with all measurability assertions needed for
it to make sense.
Z Z
¡ ¢
Hn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) dy = Jh (x) dx (38.13)
Rm A
Proof: For x ∈ Rn , and i ∈ Λ (n, m), with i = (i1 , · · ·, im ), define xi ≡ (xi1 ,

· · ·, xim ), and π i x ≡ xi . Also for i ∈ Λ (n, m), let ic ∈ Λ (n, n − m) consist of
the remaining indices taken in order. For h : Rn → Rm where m ≤ n, define
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
Jh (x) ≡ det Dh (x) Dh (x) . For each i ∈ Λ (n, m), define
µ ¶
i h (x)
h (x) ≡ .
xic
© ª∞
By Lemma 38.7, there exist disjoint measurable sets Fji j=1 such that hi is one
¡ ¢−1 ¡ ¢
to one on Fji , hi is Lipschitz on hi Fji , and
© ¡ i ¢ ª
∪∞ i
j=1 Fj = x ∈ A : det Dh (x) 6= 0 .
For ¡x ∈ A,¢ det (Dxi h (x)) =

6 0 for some i ∈ Λ (n, m). But det (Dxi h (x)) =
det Dhi (x) and so x ∈ Fji for some i and j. Hence
∪i,j Fji = A.
© ª
Now let Eji be measurable sets such that Eji ⊆ Fki for some k, the sets are
disjoint, and their union coincides with ∪i,j Fji . Then
Z X ∞ Z
X ¡ ∗ ¢1/2
Jh (x) dx = det Dh (x) Dh (x) dx. (38.14)
A i ∈Λ(n,m) j=1 Eji ∩A
¡ ¢−1
Let g : Rn → Rn be a Lipschitz extension of hi so g ◦ hi (x) = x for all x ∈
i
Ej . First, using Theorem 38.11, and the fact that Lipschitz mappings take sets of
measure zero to sets of measure zero, replace Eji with a measurable set, E ei ⊆ E i
j j
such that Eji \ Ee i has measure zero and
j
Dhi (g (y)) Dg (y) = I

³ ´
on hi Ee i . Changing the variables using the area formula, the expression in 38.14
j
equals
Z
Jh (x) dx =
A
X ∞ Z
X ¡ ∗ ¢1/2 ¯¯ ¯−1
det Dh (g (y)) Dh (g (y)) det Dhi (g (y))¯ dy.
i ∈Λ(n,m) j=1 hi (E
e i ∩A)
j
(38.15)
Note the integrands are all Borel measurable functions because they are continu-
ous functions of the entries of matrices which entries come from taking limits of
difference quotients of continuous functions. Thus,
Z
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
det Dh (x) Dh (x) dx =
e i ∩A
Ej
Z
¡ ∗ ¢1/2 ¯¯ ¯−1
Xhi (Eei ∩A) (y) det Dh (g (y)) Dh (g (y)) det Dhi (g (y))¯ dy
j
Rn
Z Z
¡ ∗ ¢1/2 −1
= det Dh (g (y)) Dh (g (y)) |det Dhxi (g (y))| dy2 dy1
Rm π ic (h−1 (y1 )∩E
e i ∩A)
j
(38.16)
where y1 = h (x) and y2 = xic . Thus
¡ ¢
y2 = π ic g (y) = π ic g hi (x) = xic . (38.17)
Now consider the inner integral in 38.16 in which y1 is fixed. The integrand
equals
· µ ∗ ¶¸1/2
¡ ¢ Dxi h (g (y)) −1
det Dxi h (g (y)) Dxic h (g (y)) ∗ |det Dhxi (g (y))| .
Dxic h (g (y))
(38.18)
I want to massage the above expression slightly. Since y1 is fixed, and y1 =
h (π i g (y) , π ic g (y)) = h (g (y)), it follows from 38.17 that
0 = Dxi h (g (y)) Dy2 π i g (y) + Dxic h (g (y)) Dy2 π ic g (y)

= Dxi h (g (y)) Dy2 π i g (y) + Dxic h (g (y)).
Letting A ≡ Dxi h (g (y)) and B ≡ Dy2 π i g (y) and using the above formula, 38.18
is of the form
· µ ¶¸1/2
¡ ¢ A∗ −1
det A −AB |det A|
−B ∗ A∗
1/2 −1
= det [A∗ A + ABB ∗ A∗ ] |det A|
1/2 −1
= det [A∗ (I + BB ∗ ) A] |det A|
1/2
= det (I + BB ∗ ) ,
1/2
which, by Corollary 38.10, equals det (I + B ∗ B) . (Note the size of the identity
changes in these two expressions, the first being an m × m matrix and the second
being a n − m × n − m matrix.)
By 38.17 π ic g (y) = y2 and so,
· µ ¶¸1/2
∗ 1/2 ¡ ∗ ¢ B
det (I + B B) = det B I
I
· µ ¶¸1/2
¡ ∗ ∗ ¢ Dy2 π i g (y)
= det Dy2 π i g (y) Dy2 π ic g (y)
Dy2 π ic g (y)
¡ ∗ ¢ 1/2
= det Dy2 g (y) Dy2 g (y) .
Therefore, 38.16 reduces to
Z
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
det Dh (x) Dh (x) dx =
e i ∩A
Ej
Z Z
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
det Dy2 g (y) Dy2 g (y) dy2 dy1 . (38.19)
Rm π ic (h−1 (y1 )∩E
e i ∩A)
j
By the area formula applied to the inside integral, this integral equals
³ ´
Hn−m h−1 (y1 ) ∩ E eji ∩ A
and so
Z
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
det Dh (x) Dh (x) dx
e i ∩A
E j
Z ³ ´
= eji ∩ A dy1 .
Hn−m h−1 (y1 ) ∩ E
Rm
ei
Using Lemma 38.15, along with the inner regularity of Lebesgue measure, Ej
i
can be replaced with Ej . Therefore, summing the terms over all i and j,
Z Z
¡ ∗ ¢1/2 ¡ ¢
det Dh (x) Dh (x) dx = Hn−m h−1 (y) ∩ A dy.
A Rm

Now the following is the Coarea formula.
Corollary 38.17 Let A be a measurable set in Rn and let h : Rn → Rm be a

Lipschitz map where m ≤ n. Then the following formula holds along with all mea-
surability assertions needed for it to make sense.
Z Z
n−m
¡ −1
¢
H A ∩ h (y) dy = Jh (x) dx (38.20)
Rm A
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
where Jh (x) ≡ det Dh (x) Dh (x) .
Proof: By Lemma 38.15 again, this formula is true for all measurable A ⊆
Rn \ S. It remains to verify the formula for all measurable sets, A, whether or not
they intersect S.
Consider the case where
A ⊆ S ≡ {x : J (Dh (x)) = 0}.

¡ ¢
Let A be compact so that by Lemma 38.14, y →Hn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) is Borel. For
ε > 0, define k, p : Rn × Rm → Rm by
k (x, y) ≡ h (x) + εy, p (x, y) ≡ y.
Then
Dk (x, y) = (Dh (x) , εI) = (U R, εI)
where the dependence of U and R on x has been suppressed. Thus
µ ∗ ¶
2 R U ¡ ¢
Jk = det (U R, εI) = det U 2 + ε2 I
εI
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= det Q∗ DQQ∗ DQ + ε2 I = det D2 + ε2 I
m
Y ¡ 2 ¢
= λi + ε2 ∈ [ε2m , C 2 ε2 ] (38.21)
i=1
since one of the λi equals 0. All the eigenvalues must be bounded independent of
x, since ||Dh (x)|| is bounded independent of x due to the assumption that h is
Lipschitz. Since Jk 6= 0, the first part of the argument implies
³ ´ Z
εCmn+m A × B (0,1) ≥ |Jk| dmn+m
A×B(0,1)
Z ³ ´
= Hn k−1 (y) ∩ A × B (0,1) dy
Rm
Which by Lemma 38.14,
Z Z ³ ´
≥ Cnm Hn−m k−1 (y) ∩ p−1 (w) ∩ A × B (0,1) dwdy (38.22)
Rm Rm
α(n)
where Cnm = α(n−m)α(m) .
Claim: ³ ´
Hn−m k−1 (y) ∩ p−1 (w) ∩ A × B (0,1)
¡ ¢
≥ XB(0,1) (w) Hn−m h−1 (y − εw) ∩ A .
Proof of the claim: If w ∈

/ B (0,1), there is nothing to prove so assume w ∈
B (0,1). For such w,
(x, w1 ) ∈ k−1 (y) ∩ p−1 (w) ∩ A × B (0,1)
if and only if h (x) + εw1 = y, w1 = w, and x ∈ A, if and only if
(x, w1 ) ∈ h−1 (y − εw) ∩ A × {w}.
Therefore for w ∈ B (0,1),

³ ´
Hn−m k−1 (y) ∩ p−1 (w) ∩ A × B (0,1)
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
≥ Hn−m h−1 (y − εw) ∩ A × {w} = Hn−m h−1 (y − εw) ∩ A .
(Actually equality holds in the claim.) From the claim, 38.22 is at least as large as
Z Z
¡ ¢
Cnm Hn−m h−1 (y − εw) ∩ A dwdy (38.23)
Rm B(0,1)
Z Z
¡ ¢
= Cnm Hn−m h−1 (y − εw) ∩ A dydw
B(0,1) Rm
Z
α (n) ¡ ¢
= Hn−m h−1 (y) ∩ A dy. (38.24)
α (n − m) Rm
The use of Fubini’s theorem is justified because the integrand is Borel measurable.
Now by 38.24, it follows since ε > 0 is arbitrary,
Z Z
¡ ¢
Hn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) dy = 0 = Jh (x) dx.
Rm A
Since this holds for arbitrary compact sets in S, it follows from Lemma 38.15 and
inner regularity of Lebesgue measure that the equation holds for all measurable
subsets of S. This completes the proof of the coarea formula.There is a simple
corollary to this theorem in the case of locally Lipschitz maps.
Corollary 38.18 Let h : Rn → Rm where m ≤ n and h is locally Lipschitz. Then

the Coarea formula, 38.13, holds for h.
Proof: The assumption that h is locally Lipschitz implies that for each r > 0 it
follows h is Lipschitz on B (0, r) . To see this, cover the compact set, B (0, r) with
finitely many balls on which h is Lipschitz.
38.4. A NONLINEAR FUBINI’S THEOREM 1121
Let A ⊆ B (0,r) and let hr be Lipschitz with
h (x) = hr (x)
for x ∈ B (0,r + 1) . Then

Z Z Z
¡ ¢
J (Dh (x)) dx = J(Dhr (x))dx = Hn−m A ∩ h−1
r (y) dy
A A Rm
Z Z
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= Hn−m A ∩ h−1
r (y) dy = Hn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) dy
hr (A) h(A)
Z
¡ ¢
= Hn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) dy
Rm
Now for arbitrary measurable A the above shows for k = 1, 2, · · ·

Z Z
¡ ¢
J (Dh (x)) dx = Hn−m A ∩ B (0,k) ∩ h−1 (y) dy.
A∩B(0,k) Rm
Use the monotone convergence theorem to obtain 38.13.

From the definition of Hausdorff measure it follows H0 (E) equals the number
of elements in E. Thus, if n = m, the Coarea formula implies
Z Z Z
¡ ¢
J (Dh (x)) dx = H0 A ∩ h−1 (y) dy = # (y) dy
A h(A) h(A)
This gives a version of Sard’s theorem by letting S = A.
38.4 A Nonlinear Fubini’s Theorem

Coarea formula holds for h : Rn → Rm , n ≥ m if whenever A is a Lebesgue
measurable subset of Rn ,the following formula is valid.
Z Z
¡ ¢
Hn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) dy = Jh (x) dx (38.25)
Rm A
Note this is the same as

Z Z
¡ ¢
J(Dh (x))dx = Hn−m A ∩ h−1 (y) dy
A h(A)
/ h (A) , then h−1 (y) = ∅. Now let

because if y ∈
p
X
s (x) = ci XEi (x)
i=1
where Ei is measurable and ci ≥ 0. Then

Z p
X Z
s (x) J ((Dh (x))) dx = ci J (Dh (x)) dx
Rn i=1 Ei
Xp Z
¡ ¢
= ci Hn−m Ei ∩ h−1 (y) dy
i=1 h(Ei )
Z p
X ¡ ¢
= ci Hn−m Ei ∩ h−1 (y) dy
h(Rn ) i=1
Z "Z #
n−m
= s dH dy
h(Rn ) h−1 (y)
Z "Z #
n−m
= s dH dy. (38.26)
h(Rn ) h−1 (y)
Theorem 38.19 Let g ≥ 0 be Lebesgue measurable and let
h : Rn → Rm , n ≥ m
satisfy the Coarea formula. For example, it could be locally Lipschitz. Then
Z Z "Z #
g (x) J ((Dh (x))) dx = g dHn−m dy.
Rn h(Rn ) h−1 (y)
Proof: Let si ↑ g where si is a simple function satisfying 38.26. Then let i → ∞

and use the monotone convergence theorem to replace si with g. This proves the
change of variables formula.
Note that this formula is a nonlinear version of Fubini’s theorem. The “n −
m dimensional surface”, h−1 (y), plays the role of Rn−m and Hn−m is like n −
m dimensional Lebesgue measure. The term, J ((Dh (x))), corrects for the error
occurring because of the lack of flatness of h−1 (y).
Integration On Manifolds
You can do integration on various manifolds by using the Hausdorff measure of an

appropriate dimension. However, it is possible to discuss this through the use of
the Riesz representation theorem and some of the machinery for accomplishing this
is interesting for its own sake so I will present this alternate point of view.
39.1 Partitions Of Unity

This material has already been mostly discussed starting on Page 481. However,
that was a long time ago and it seems like it might be good to go over it again and
so, for the sake of convenience, here it is again.
Definition 39.1 Let C be a set whose elements are subsets of Rn .1 Then C is said
to be locally finite if for every x ∈ Rn , there exists an open set, Ux containing x
such that Ux has nonempty intersection with only finitely many sets of C.
Lemma 39.2 Let C be a set whose elements are open subsets of Rn and suppose
∞
∪C ⊇ H, a closed set. Then there exists a countable list of open sets, {Ui }i=1 such
that each Ui is bounded, each Ui is a subset of some set of C, and ∪∞i=1 Ui ⊇ H.
Proof: Let Wk ≡ B (0, k) , W0 = W−1 = ∅. For each x ∈ H ∩ Wk there exists

an open set, Ux such that Ux is a subset of some set of C and Ux ⊆ Wk+1 \ Wk−1 .
© ªm(k)
Then since H ∩ Wk is compact, there exist finitely many of these sets, Uik i=1
whose union contains H ∩ Wk . If H ∩ Wk = ∅, let m (k) = 0 and there are no such
© k ªm(k)
sets obtained.The desired countable list of open sets is ∪∞ k=1 Ui i=1 . Each open
set in this list is bounded. Furthermore, if x ∈ Rn , then x ∈ Wk where k is the
first positive integer with x ∈ Wk . Then Wk \ Wk−1 is an open set containing x and
© ªm(k)
this open set can have nonempty intersection only with with a set of Uik i=1 ∪
© k−1 ªm(k−1) © k ªm(k)
Ui i=1
, a finite list of sets. Therefore, ∪∞
k=1 Ui i=1 is locally finite.
∞
The set, {Ui }i=1 is said to be a locally finite cover of H. The following lemma
gives some important reasons why a locally finite list of sets is so significant. First
1 The definition applies with no change to a general topological space in place of Rn .
1123
1124 INTEGRATION ON MANIFOLDS
∞
of all consider the rational numbers, {ri }i=1 each rational number is a closed set.
∞
Q = {ri }i=1 = ∪∞ ∞
i=1 {ri } 6= ∪i=1 {ri } = R
The set of rational numbers is definitely not locally finite.
Lemma 39.3 Let C be locally finite. Then

© ª
∪C = ∪ H : H ∈ C .
Next suppose the elements of C are open sets and that for each U ∈ C, there exists a
differentiable function, ψ U having spt (ψ U ) ⊆ U. Then you can define the following
finite sum for each x ∈ Rn
X
f (x) ≡ {ψ U (x) : x ∈ U ∈ C} .
Furthermore, f is also a differentiable function2 and

X
Df (x) = {Dψ U (x) : x ∈ U ∈ C} .
Proof: Let p be a limit point of ∪C and let W be an open set which intersects
only finitely many
© sets ofªC. Then p must©be a limit ª point of one of these sets. It
follows p ∈ ∪ H : H ∈ C and so ∪C ⊆ ∪ H : H ∈ C . The inclusion in the other
direction is obvious.
Now consider the second assertion. Letting x ∈ Rn , there exists an open set, W
intersecting only finitely many open sets of C, U1 , U2 , · · ·, Um . Then for all y ∈ W,
m
X
f (y) = ψ Ui (y)
i=1
and so the desired result is obvious. It merely says that a finite sum of differentiable
functions is differentiable. Recall the following definition.
Definition 39.4 Let K be a closed subset of an open set, U. K ≺ f ≺ U if f is

continuous, has values in [0, 1] , equals 1 on K, and has compact support contained
in U .
Lemma 39.5 Let U be a bounded open set and let K be a closed subset of U. Then
there exist an open set, W, such that W ⊆ W ⊆ U and a function, f ∈ Cc∞ (U )
such that K ≺ f ≺ U .
Proof: The set, K is compact so is at a positive distance from U C . Let

© ¡ ¢ª
W ≡ x : dist (x, K) < 3−1 dist K, U C .
2 If each ψ
U were only continuous, one could conclude f is continuous. Here the main interest
is differentiable.
39.1. PARTITIONS OF UNITY 1125
Also let © ¡ ¢ª
W1 ≡ x : dist (x, K) < 2−1 dist K, U C
Then it is clear
K ⊆ W ⊆ W ⊆ W1 ⊆ W1 ⊆ U
Now consider the function,
¡ ¢
dist x, W1C
h (x) ≡ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
dist x, W1C + dist x, W
Since W is compact it is at a positive distance from W1C and so h is a well defined

continuous function which has compact support contained in W 1 , equals 1 on W,
and has values in [0, 1] . Now let φk be a mollifier. Letting
¡ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¢
k −1 < min dist K, W C , 2−1 dist W 1 , U C ,
it follows that for such k,the function, h ∗ φk ∈ Cc∞ (U ) , has values in [0, 1] , and
equals 1 on K. Let f = h ∗ φk .
The above lemma is used repeatedly in the following.
∞
Lemma 39.6 Let K be a closed set and let {Vi }i=1 be a locally finite list of bounded
open sets whose union contains K. Then there exist functions, ψ i ∈ Cc∞ (Vi ) such
that for all x ∈ K,
∞
X
1= ψ i (x)
i=1
and the function f (x) given by

∞
X
f (x) = ψ i (x)
i=1
is in C ∞ (Rn ) .
Proof: Let K1 = K \ ∪∞
i=2 Vi . Thus K1 is compact because K1 ⊆ V1 . Let
K 1 ⊆ W 1 ⊆ W 1 ⊆ V1
Thus W1 , V2 , · · ·, Vn covers K and W 1 ⊆ V1 . Suppose W1 , · · ·, Wr have been defined

such that Wi ⊆ Vi for each i, and W1 , · · ·, Wr , Vr+1 , · · ·, Vn covers K. Then let
¡ ¢ ¡ r ¢
Kr+1 ≡ K \ ( ∪∞i=r+2 Vi ∪ ∪j=1 Wj ).
It follows Kr+1 is compact because Kr+1 ⊆ Vr+1 . Let Wr+1 satisfy
Kr+1 ⊆ Wr+1 ⊆ W r+1 ⊆ Vr+1

∞
Continuing this way defines a sequence of open sets, {Wi }i=1 with the property
W i ⊆ Vi , K ⊆ ∪ ∞
i=1 Wi .
∞ ∞
Note {Wi }i=1 is locally finite because the original list, {Vi }i=1 was locally finite.
Now let Ui be open sets which satisfy
W i ⊆ Ui ⊆ U i ⊆ Vi .
∞
Similarly, {Ui }i=1 is locally finite.
Wi Ui Vi
∞ ∞
Since the set, {Wi }i=1 is locally finite, it follows ∪∞
i=1 Wi = ∪i=1 Wi and so it
is possible to define φi and γ, infinitely differentiable functions having compact
support such that
U i ≺ φi ≺ Vi , ∪∞ ∞
i=1 W i ≺ γ ≺ ∪i=1 Ui .
Now define
½ P∞ P∞
ψ i (x) = P∞
0 if j=1 φj (x) = 0.
P∞
If x is such that j=1 φj (x) = 0, then x ∈ / ∪∞i=1 Ui because φi equals one on Ui .
Consequently γ (y) = 0 for all y near x thanks to the fact that ∪∞ i=1 Ui is closed
and
P∞ so ψ i (y) = 0 for all y near x. Hence ψ i is infinitely differentiable at such x. If
j=1 φj (x) 6= 0, this situation persists near x because each φj is continuous and so
ψ i is infinitely differentiable at such points also thanks to LemmaP39.3. Therefore
∞
ψ i is infinitely differentiable. If x ∈ K, then γ (x) = 1 and so j=1 ψ j (x) = 1.
The method of proof of this lemma easily implies the following useful corollary.
Corollary 39.7 If H is a compact subset of Vi for some Vi there exists a partition

of unity such that ψ i (x) = 1 for all x ∈ H in addition to the conclusion of Lemma
39.6.
Theorem 39.8 Let H be any closed set and let C be any open cover of H. Then
∞
there exist functions {ψ i }i=1 such that spt (ψ i ) is contained in some
Pset of C and ψ i
∞
is infinitely differentiable having values
P∞ in [0, 1] such that on H, i=1 ψ i (x) = 1.
Furthermore, the function, f (x) ≡ i=1 ψ i (x) is infinitely differentiable on Rn .
∞
Also, spt (ψ i ) ⊆ Ui where Ui is a bounded open set with the property that {Ui }i=1
is locally finite and each Ui is contained in some set of C.
39.2. INTEGRATION ON MANIFOLDS 1127
Proof: By Lemma 39.2 there exists an open cover of H composed of bounded

open sets, Ui such that each Ui is a subset of some set of C and the collection,
∞
{Ui }i=1 is locally finite. Then the result follows from Lemma 39.6 and Lemma
39.3.
m
Corollary 39.9 Let H be any closed set and let {Vi }i=1 be a finite open cover of
m
H. Then there exist functions {φi }i=1 such that sptP (φi ) ⊆ Vi and φi is infinitely
m
differentiable having values in [0, 1] such that on H, i=1 φi (x) = 1.
∞
Proof: By Theorem 39.8 there exists a set of functions, {ψ i }i=1 having the
m
properties listed in this theorem relative ¡to the
¢ open covering, {Vi }i=1 . Let φ1 (x)
equal the sum of all ψ j (x) such that spt ψ j ⊆ V1 . Next let φ2 (x) equal the sum
¡ ¢
of all ψ j (x) which have not already been included and for which spt ψ j ⊆ V2 .
∞
Continue in this manner. Since the open sets, {Ui }i=1 mentioned in Theorem 39.8
are locally finite, it follows from Lemma 39.3 that each φi is infinitely differentiable
having support in Vi . This proves the corollary.
39.2 Integration On Manifolds

Manifolds are things which locally appear to be Rn for some n. The extent to
which they have such a local appearance varies according to various analytical
characteristics which the manifold possesses.
Definition 39.10 Let U ⊆ Rn be an open set and let h : U → Rm . Then for

r ∈ [0, 1), h ∈ C k,r (U ) for k a nonnegative integer means that Dα h exists for all
|α| ≤ k and each Dα h is Holder continuous with exponent r. That is
r
|Dα h (x) − Dα h (y)| ≤ K |x − y| .
¡ ¢
Also h ∈ C k,r U if it is the restriction of a function of C k,r (Rn ) to U .
Definition 39.11 Let Γ be a closed subset of Rp where p ≥ n. Suppose Γ = ∪∞ i=1 Γi

∞
where Γi = Γ∩Wi for Wi a bounded open set. Suppose also {Wi }i=1 is locally finite.
This means every bounded open set intersects only finitely many. Also suppose there
are open bounded sets, Ui having Lipschitz boundaries and functions hi : Ui → Γi
which are one to one, onto, and in C m,1 (Ui ) . Suppose also there exist functions,
gi : Wi → Ui such that gi is C m,1 (Wi ) , and gi ◦ h©¡
i = id on
¢ªUi while hi ◦ gi = id on
Γi . The collection of sets, Γj and mappings, gj , Γj , gj is called an atlas and
¡ ¢
an individual entry in the atlas is called a chart. Thus Γj , gj is a chart. Then Γ
as just described is called a C m,1 manifold. The number, m is just a nonnegative
integer. When m = 0 this would be called a Lipschitz manifold, the least smooth of
the manifolds discussed here.
For example, take p = n + 1 and let

T
hi (u) = (u1 , · · ·, ui , φi (u) , ui+1 , · · ·, un )
T
for u = (u1 , · · ·, ui , ui+1 , · · ·, un ) ∈ Ui for φi ∈ C m,1 (Ui ) and gi : Ui × R → Ui
given by
gi (u1 , · · ·, ui , y, ui+1 , · · ·, un ) ≡ u
for i = 1, 2, · · ·, p. Then for u ∈ Ui , the definition gives
gi ◦ hi (u) = gi (u1 , · · ·, ui , φi (u) , ui+1 , · · ·, un ) = u

T
and for Γi ≡ hi (Ui ) and (u1 , · · ·, ui , φi (u) , ui+1 , · · ·, un ) ∈ Γi ,
hi ◦ gi (u1 , · · ·, ui , φi (u) , ui+1 , · · ·, un )

T
= hi (u) = (u1 , · · ·, ui , φi (u) , ui+1 , · · ·, un ) .
This example can be used to describe the boundary of a bounded open set and since
φi ∈ C m,1 (Ui ) , such an open set is said to have a C m,1 boundary. Note also that
in this example, Ui could be taken to be Rn or if Ui is given, both hi and and gi
can be taken as restrictions of functions defined on all of Rn and Rp respectively.
The symbol, I will refer to an increasing list of n indices taken from {1, · · ·, p} .
Denote by Λ (p, n) the set of all such increasing lists of n indices.
Let
 Ã ¡ ¢ !2 1/2
X ∂ xi1 · · · xin
Ji (u) ≡  
∂ (u1 · · · un )
I∈Λ(p,n)
where here the sum is taken over all possible¡ ¢ increasing lists of n indices, I, from
{1, · · ·, p} and x = hi u. Thus there are np terms in the sum. In this formula,
∂ (xi1 ···xin )
∂(u1 ···un ) is defined to be the determinant of the following matrix.
 
∂xi1 ∂xi1
∂u1 ··· ∂un
 .. .. 
 .
 . . 
∂xin ∂xin
∂u1 ··· ∂un
Note that if p = n there is only one term in the sum, the absolute value of the
determinant of Dx (u). Define a positive linear functional, Λ on Cc (Γ) as follows:
∞
First let {ψ i } be a C
P partition of unity subordinate to the open sets, {Wi } . Thus
∞
ψ i ∈ Cc (Wi ) and i ψ i (x) = 1 for all x ∈ Γ. Then
∞ Z
X
Λf ≡ f ψ i (hi (u)) Ji (u) du. (39.1)
i=1 gi Γi
Is this well defined?
Lemma 39.12 The functional defined in 39.1 does not depend on the choice of
atlas or the partition of unity.
Proof: In 39.1, let {ψ i } be a C ∞ partition of unity which is associated with

the atlas (Γi , gi ) and let {η i } be a C ∞ partition of unity associated in the same
manner with the atlas (Γ0i , gi0 ). In the following argument, the local finiteness of
the Γ
¡ i implies
¢ that all sums are finite. Using the change of variables formula with
u = gi ◦ h0j v
∞ Z
X
ψ i f (hi (u)) Ji (u) du = (39.2)
i=1 gi Γi
X ∞ Z
∞ X ∞ Z
∞ X
X
η j ψ i f (hi (u)) Ji (u) du = ·
i=1 j=1 gi Γi i=1 j=1 gj0 (Γi ∩Γ0j )
¯ ¡ ¯
¡ 0 ¢ ¡ 0 ¢ ¡ 0 ¢ ¯ ∂ u1 · · · un ¢ ¯
¯ ¯
η j hj (v) ψ i hj (v) f hj (v) Ji (u) ¯ ¯ dv
¯ ∂ (v 1 · · · v n ) ¯
X∞ X ∞ Z
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= η j h0j (v) ψ i h0j (v) f h0j (v) Jj (v) dv. (39.3)
i=1 j=1 gj (Γi ∩Γj )
0 0
Thus
the definition of Λf using (Γi , gi ) ≡
X∞ Z
ψ i f (hi (u)) Ji (u) du =
i=1 gi Γi
∞ Z
∞ X
X ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
η j h0j (v) ψ i h0j (v) f h0j (v) Jj (v) dv
i=1 j=1 gj0 (Γi ∩Γ0j )
∞ Z
X ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= η j h0j (v) f h0j (v) Jj (v) dv
j=1 gj0 (Γ0j )
the definition of Λf using (Vi , gi0 ) .

This lemma and the Riesz representation theorem for positive linear functionals
implies the part of the following theorem which says the functional is well defined.
Theorem 39.13 Let Γ be a C m,1 manifold. Then there exists a unique Radon
measure, µ, defined on Γ such that whenever f is a continuous function having
compact support which is defined on Γ and (Γi , gi ) denotes an atlas and {ψ i } a
partition of unity subordinate to this atlas,
Z X∞ Z
Λf = f dµ = ψ i f (hi (u)) Ji (u) du. (39.4)
Γ i=1 gi Γi
Also, a subset, A, of Γ is µ measurable if and only if for all r, gr (Γr ∩ A) is ν r

measurable where ν r is the measure defined by
Z
ν r (gr (Γr ∩ A)) ≡ Jr (u) du
gr (Γr ∩A)
Proof: To begin, here is a claim.

Claim : A set, S ⊆ Γi , has µ measure zero if and only if gi S has measure zero
in gi Γi with respect to the measure, ν i .
Proof of the claim: Let ε > 0 be given. By outer regularity, there exists a
set, V ⊆ Γi , open3 in Γ such that µ (V ) < ε and S ⊆ V ⊆ Γi . Then gi V is open in
Rn and contains gi S. Letting h ≺ gi V and h1 (x) ≡ h (gi (x)) for x ∈ Γi it follows
h1 ≺ V . By Corollary 39.7 on Page 1126 there exists a partition of unity such that
spt (h1 ) ⊆ {x ∈ Rp : ψ i (x) = 1}. Thus ψ j h1 (hj (u)) = 0 unless j = i when this
reduces to h1 (hi (u)). It follows
Z Z
ε ≥ µ (V ) ≥ h1 dµ = h1 dµ
V Γ
∞ Z
X
= ψ j h1 (hj (u)) Jj (u) du
j=1 gj Γj
Z Z
= h1 (hi (u)) Ji (u) du = h (u) Ji (u) du
gi Γi gi Γi
Z
= h (u) Ji (u) du
gi V
Now this holds for all h ≺ gi V and so

Z
Ji (u) du ≤ ε.
gi V
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows gi V has measure no more than ε with respect to the
measure, ν i . Since ε is arbitrary, gi S has measure zero.
Consider the converse. Suppose gi S has ν i measure zero. Then there exists an
open set, O ⊆ gi Γi such that O ⊇ gi S and
Z
Ji (u) du < ε.
O
Thus hi (O) is open in Γ and contains S. Let h ≺ hi (O) be such that

Z
hdµ + ε > µ (hi (O)) ≥ µ (S) (39.5)
Γ
As in the first part, Corollary 39.7 on Page 1126 implies there exists a partition of
unity such that h (x) = 0 off the set,
{x ∈ Rp : ψ i (x) = 1}
3 This means V is the intersection of an open set with Γ. Equivalently, it means that V is an
open set in the traditional way regarding Γ as a metric space with the metric it inherits from Rm .
and so as in this part of the argument,

Z ∞ Z
X
hdµ ≡ ψ j h (hj (u)) Jj (u) du
Γ j=1 gj Uj
Z
= h (hi (u)) Ji (u) du
gi Γi
Z
= h (hi (u)) Ji (u) du
O∩gi Γi
Z
≤ Ji (u) du < ε (39.6)
O
and so from 39.5 and 39.6 µ (S) ≤ 2ε. Since ε is arbitrary, this proves the claim.
For the last part of the theorem, it suffices to let A ⊆ Γr because otherwise, the
above argument would apply to A ∩ Γr . Thus let A ⊆ Γr be µ measurable. By
the regularity of the measure, there exists an Fσ set, F and a Gδ set, G such that
Γr ⊇ G ⊇ A ⊇ F and µ (G \ F ) = 0.(Recall a Gδ set is a countable intersection
of open sets and an Fσ set is a countable union of closed sets.) Then since Γr is
compact, it follows each of the closed sets whose union equals F is a compact set.
Thus if F = ∪∞ ∞
k=1 Fk , gr (Fk ) is also a compact set and so gr (F ) = ∪k=1 gr (Fk ) is
a Borel set. Similarly, gr (G) is also a Borel set. Now by the claim,
Z
Jr (u) du = 0.
gr (G\F )
Since gr is one to one,

gr G \ gr F = gr (G \ F )
and so
gr (F ) ⊆ gr (A) ⊆ gr (G)
where gr (G) \ gr (F ) has measure zero. By completeness of the measure, ν r , gr (A)
is measurable. It follows that if A ⊆ Γ is µ measurable, then gr (Γr ∩ A) is ν r
measurable for all r. The converse is entirely similar. This proves the theorem.
Corollary 39.14 Let f ∈ L1 (Γ; µ) and suppose f (x) = 0 for all x ∈

/ Γr where
(Γr , gr ) is a chart. Then
Z Z Z
f dµ = f dµ = f (hr (u)) Jr (u) du. (39.7)
Γ Γr gr Γr
Furthermore, if {(Γi , gi )} is an atlas and {ψ i } is a partition of unity as described

earlier, then for any f ∈ L1 (Γ, µ),
Z ∞ Z
X
f dµ = ψ r f (hr (u)) Jr (u) du. (39.8)
Γ r=1 gr Γr
Proof: Let f ∈ L1 (Γ, µ) with f = 0 off Γr . Without loss of generality assume

f ≥ 0 because if the formulas can be established for this case, the same formulas are
obtained for an arbitrary complex valued function by splitting it up into positive
and negative parts of the real and imaginary parts in the usual way. Also, let
K ⊆ Γr a compact set. Since µ is a Radon measure there exists a sequence of
continuous functions, {fk } , fk ∈ Cc (Γr ), which converges to f in L1 (Γ, µ) and for
µ a.e. x. Take the partition of unity, {ψ i } to be such that
K ⊆ {x : ψ r (x) = 1} .
Therefore, the sequence {fk (hr (·))} is a Cauchy sequence in the sense that
Z
lim |fk (hr (u)) − fl (hr (u))| Jr (u) du = 0
k,l→∞ gr (K)
It follows there exists g such that

Z
|fk (hr (u)) − g (u)| Jr (u) du → 0,
gr (K)
and
g ∈ L1 (gr K; ν r ) .
By the pointwise convergence and the claim used in the proof of Theorem 39.13,
g (u) = f (hr (u))
for µ a.e. hr (u) ∈ K. Therefore,
Z Z Z
f dµ = lim fk dµ = lim fk (hr (u)) Jr (u) du
K k→∞ K k→∞ g (K)
r
Z Z
= g (u) Jr (u) du = f (hr (u)) Jr (u) du. (39.9)
gr (K) gr (K)
Now let · · ·Kj ⊆ Kj+1 · ·· and ∪∞

j=1 Kj = Γr where Kj is compact for all j. Replace
K in 39.9 with Kj and take a limit as j → ∞. By the monotone convergence
theorem, Z Z
f dµ = f (hr (u)) Jr (u) du.
Γr gr (Γr )

To establish 39.8, let f ∈ L1 (Γ, µ) and let {(Γi , gi )} be an atlas and {ψ i } be a
partition of unity. Then f ψ i ∈ L1 (Γ, µ) and is zero off Γi . Therefore, from what
was just shown,
Z X∞ Z
f dµ = f ψ i dµ
Γ i=1 Γi
X∞ Z
= ψ r f (hr (u)) Jr (u) du
r=1 gr (Γr )
39.3. COMPARISON WITH HN 1133
39.3 Comparison With Hn

The above gives a measure on a manifold, Γ. I will now show that the measure
obtained is nothing more than Hn , the n dimensional Hausdorff measure. Recall
Λ (p, n) was the set of all increasing lists of n indices taken from {1, 2, · · ·, p}
Recall  Ã ¡ ¢ !2 1/2
X ∂ xi1 · · · xin
Ji (u) ≡  
∂ (u1 · · · un )
I∈Λ(p,n)
where here the sum is taken over all possible increasing lists of n indices, I, from
{1, · · ·, p} and x = hi u and the functional was given as
∞ Z
X
Λf ≡ f ψ i (hi (u)) Ji (u) du (39.10)
i=1 gi Γi
∞ ∞
where the {ψ i }i=1 was a partition of unity subordinate to the open sets, {Wi }i=1
as described above. I will show
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
Ji (u) = det Dh (u) Dh (u)
and then use the area formula. The key result is really a special case of the Binet
Cauchy theorem and this special case is presented in the next lemma.
Lemma 39.15 Let A = (aij ) be a real p×n matrix in which p ≥ n. For I ∈ Λ (p, n)
denote by AI the n × n matrix obtained by deleting from A all rows except for those
corresponding to an element of I. Then
X 2
det (AI ) = det (A∗ A)
I∈Λ(p,n)
Proof: For (j1 , · · ·, jn ) ∈ Λ (p, n) , define θ (jk ) ≡ k. Then let for {k1 , · · ·, kn } =
{j1 , · · ·, jn } define
sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) ≡ sgn (θ (k1 ) , · · ·, θ (kn )) .
Then from the definition of the determinant and matrix multiplication,
X p
X p
X
∗
det (A A) = sgn (i1 , · · ·, in ) ak1 i1 ak1 1 ak2 i2 ak2 2
i1 ,···,in k1 =1 k2 =1
X p
··· akn in akn n
kn =1
X X X
= sgn (i1 , · · ·, in ) ak1 i1 ak1 1 ak2 i2 ak2 2 · · · akn in akn n
J∈Λ(p,n) {k1 ,···,kn }=J i1 ,···,in
X X X
= sgn (i1 , · · ·, in ) ak1 i1 ak2 i2 · · · akn in · ak1 1 ak2 2 · · · akn n
J∈Λ(p,n) {k1 ,···,kn }=J i1 ,···,in
X X
= sgn (k1 , · · ·, kn ) det (AJ ) ak1 1 ak2 2 · · · akn n
J∈Λ(p,n) {k1 ,···,kn }=J
X
= det (AJ ) det (AJ )
J∈Λ(p,n)

It follows from this lemma that
¡ ∗ ¢1/2
Ji (u) = det Dh (u) Dh (u) .
From 39.10 and the area formula, the functional equals
∞ Z
X
Λf ≡ f ψ i (hi (u)) Ji (u) du
i=1 gi Γi
X∞ Z Z
= f ψ i (y) dHn = f (y) dHn .
i=1 Γi Γ
n
Now H is a Borel measure defined on Γ which is finite on all compact subsets of Γ.
This finiteness follows from the above formula. If K is a compact subset of Γ, then
there exists an open set, W whose closure is compact and a continuous
R function
with compact support, f such that K ≺ f ≺ W . Then Hn (K) ≤ Γ f (y) dHn < ∞
because of the above formula.
Lemma 39.16 µ = Hn on every µ measurable set.
Proof: The Riesz representation theorem shows that
Z Z
f dµ = f dHn
Γ Γ
for every continuous function having compact support. Therefore, since every open
set is the countable union of compact sets, it follows µ = Hn on all open sets. Since
compact sets can be obtained as the countable intersection of open sets, these two
measures are also equal on all compact sets. It follows they are also equal on all
countable unions of compact sets. Suppose now that E is a µ measurable set of finite
measure. Then there exist sets, F, G such that G is the countable intersection of
open sets each of which has finite measure and F is the countable union of compact
sets such that µ (G \ F ) = 0 and F ⊆ E ⊆ G. Thus Hn (G \ F ) = 0,
Hn (G) = µ (G) = µ (F ) = Hn (F )
By completeness of Hn it follows E is Hn measurable and Hn (E) = µ (E) . If
E is not of finite measure, consider Er ≡ E ∩ B (0, r) . This is contained in the
compact set Γ ∩ B (0, r) and so µ (Er ) if finite. Thus from what was just shown,
Hn (Er ) = µ (Er ) and so, taking r → ∞ Hn (E) = µ (E) .
This shows you can simply use Hn for the measure on Γ.
Basic Theory Of Sobolev
Spaces
Definition 40.1 Let U be an open set of Rn . Define X m,p (U ) as the set of all
functions in Lp (U ) whose weak partial derivatives up to order m are also in Lp (U )
where 1 ≤ p. The norm1 in this space is given by
 1/p
Z X
p
||u|| ≡
m,p |Dα u| dx .
U |α|≤m
P ¡ ¢
where α = (α1 , · · ·, αn ) ∈ Nn and |α| ≡ αi . Here D0 u ≡ u. C ∞ U is defined
to be the ¡set¢of functions which are restrictions to U of a function in Cc∞ (Rn ).
Thus C ∞ U ⊆ W m,p (U ) . The Sobolev space, W m,p (U ) is defined to be the clo-
¡ ¢
sure of C ∞ U in X m,p (U ) with respect to the above norm. Denote this norm by
||u||W m,p (U ) , ||u||X m,p (U ) , or ||u||m,p,U when it is important to identify the open set,
U.
Also the following notation will be used pretty consistently.
Definition 40.2 Let u be a function defined on U. Define
½
u (x) if x ∈ U
ue (x) ≡ .
0 if x ∈
/U
Theorem 40.3 Both X m,p (U ) and W m,p (U ) are separable reflexive Banach spaces
provided p > 1.
w
Proof: Define Λ : X m,p (U ) → Lp (U ) where w equals the number of multi
w
indices, α, such that |α| ≤ m as follows. Letting {αi }i=1 be the set of all multi
indices with α1 = 0,
Λ (u) ≡ (Dα1 u, Dα2 u, · · ·, Dαw u) = (u, Dα2 u, · · ·, Dαw u) .
1 You
P α
could also let the norm be given by ||u||m,p ≡ |α|≤m ||D u||p or ||u||m,p ≡
n o
α p
max ||D u||p : |α| ≤ m because all norms are equivalent on R where p is the number of multi
indices no larger than m. This is used whenever convenient.
1135
1136 BASIC THEORY OF SOBOLEV SPACES
Then Λ is one to one because one of the multi indices is 0. Also Λ (X m,p (U ))
w
is a closed subspace of Lp (U ) . To see this, suppose (uk , Dα2 uk , · · ·, Dαw uk ) →
w
(f1 , f2 , · · ·, fw ) in Lp (U ) . Then uk → f1 in Lp (U ) and Dαj uk → fj in Lp (U ) .
Therefore, letting φ ∈ Cc∞ (U ) and letting k → ∞,
R |α| R |α| R
U
(Dαj uk ) φdx = (−1) U
uk Dαj φdx → (−1) U
f1 Dαj φdx ≡ Dαj (f1 ) (φ)
R ↓
f φdx
U j
It follows Dαj (f1 ) = fj and so Λ (X m,p (U )) is closed as claimed. This is clearly

w
also a subspace of Lp (U ) and so it follows that Λ (X m,p (U )) is a reflexive Banach
w
space. This is because Lp (U ) , being the product of reflexive Banach spaces, is
reflexive and any closed subspace of a reflexive Banach space is reflexive. Now
Λ is an isometry of X m,p (U ) and Λ (X m,p (U )) which shows that X m,p (U ) is a
reflexive Banach space. Finally, W m,p (U ) is a closed subspace of the reflexive
Banach space, X m,p (U ) and so it is also reflexive. To see X m,p (U ) is separable,
w
note that Lp (U ) is separable because it is the finite product of the separable hence
w
completely separable metric space, Lp (U ) and Λ (X m,p (U )) is a subset of Lp (U ) .
m,p m,p
Therefore, Λ (X (U )) is separable and since Λ is an isometry, it follows X (U )
is separable also. Now W m,p (U ) must also be separable because it is a subset of
X m,p (U ) .
The following theorem is obvious but is worth noting because it says that if a
function has a weak derivative in Lp (U ) on a large open set, U then the restriction
of this weak derivative is also the weak derivative for any smaller open set.
Theorem 40.4 Suppose U is an open set and U0 ⊆ U is another open set. Suppose
also Dα u ∈ Lp (U ) . Then for all ψ ∈ Cc∞ (U0 ) ,
Z Z
α |α|
(D u) ψdx = (−1) u (Dα ψ) .
U0 U0
The following theorem is a fundamental approximation result for functions in

X m,p (U ) .
Theorem 40.5 Let ¡ U be ¢an open set and let U0 be an open subset of U with the
property that dist U0 , U C > 0. Then if u ∈ X m,p (U ) and u e denotes the zero
extention of u off U,
lim ||e
u ∗ φl − u||X m,p (U0 ) = 0.
l→∞
¡ ¢
Proof: Always assume l is large enough that 1/l < dist U0 , U C . Thus for
x ∈ U0 ,
Z
u
e ∗ φl (x) = u (x − y) φl (y) dy. (40.1)
B (0, 1l )
1137
The theorem is proved if it can be shown that Dα (e u ∗ φl ) → Dα u in Lp (U0 ) . Let

∞
ψ ∈ Cc (U0 )
Z
α |α|
D (eu ∗ φl ) (ψ) ≡ (−1) u ∗ φl ) (Dα ψ) dx
(e
U0
Z Z
|α|
= (−1) e (y) φl (x − y) (Dα ψ) (x) dydx
u
U
Z 0 Z
|α|
= (−1) u (y) φl (x − y) (Dα ψ) (x) dxdy.
U U0
Also,
³ ´ Z µZ ¶
g
D αu ∗ φ
l (ψ) ≡
gα
D u (y) φl (x − y) dy ψ (x) dx
U0
Z µZ ¶
α
= D u (y) φl (x − y) dy ψ (x) dx
U0 U
Z µZ ¶
= u (y) (Dα φl ) (x − y) dy ψ (x) dx
U U
Z 0 Z
= u (y) (Dα φl ) (x − y) ψ (x) dxdy
U U0
Z Z
|α|
= (−1) u (y) φl (x − y) (Dα ψ) (x) dxdy.
U U0
³ ´
It follows that Dα (eu ∗ φl ) = D g αu ∗ φ ∞
l as weak derivatives defined on Cc (U0 ) .
Therefore,
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ g
α u ∗ φ − D α u¯¯¯¯
||Dα (e
u ∗ φl ) − Dα u||Lp (U0 ) = ¯¯D l
Lp (U0 )
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ g g ¯ ¯
≤ ¯¯Dα u ∗ φl − D α u¯¯ → 0.
p n
L (R )

As part of the proof of the theorem, the following corollary was established.
Corollary 40.6 Let U0 and U be as in the above theorem. Then for all l large
enough and φl a mollifier,
³ ´
Dα (e
u ∗ φl ) = Dgαu ∗ φ
l (40.2)
as distributions on Cc∞ (U0 ) .
Definition 40.7 Let U be an open set. C ∞ (U ) denotes the set of functions which
are defined and infinitely differentiable on U.
Note that f (x) = x1 is a function in C ∞ (0, 1) . However, it is not equal to

the restriction to (0, 1) of some function Cc¡∞ (R)
¡ ¢ which is in ∞ ¢ . This illustrates the
∞ ∞
distinction between C (U ) and C U . The set, C U is a subset of C ∞ (U ) .
The following theorem is known as the Meyer Serrin theorem.
Theorem 40.8 (Meyer Serrin) Let U be an open subset of Rn . Then if δ > 0 and
u ∈ X m,p (U ) , there exists J ∈ C ∞ (U ) such that ||J − u||m,p,U < δ.
Proof: Let ···Uk ⊆ Uk ⊆ Uk+1 ··· be a sequence of open subsets of U whose union
equals U such that Uk is compact for all k. Also let U−3 = U−2 = U−1 = U0 = ∅.
∞
Now define Vk ≡ Uk+1 \ Uk−1 . Thus {Vk }k=1 is an open cover of U. Note the open
cover is locally finite and therefore, there exists a partition of unity subordinate to
∞
this open cover, {η k }k=1 such that each spt (η k ) ∈ Cc (Vk ) . Let ψ m denote the sum
of all the η k which are non zero at some point of Vm . Thus
∞
X
spt (ψ m ) ⊆ Um+2 \ Um−2 , ψ m ∈ Cc∞ (U ) , ψ m (x) = 1 (40.3)
m=1
for all x ∈ U, and ψ m u ∈ W m,p (Um+2 ) .

Now let φl be a mollifier and consider
∞
X
J≡ uψ m ∗ φlm (40.4)
m=0
where lm is chosen large enough that the following two conditions hold:
¡ ¢
spt uψ m ∗ φlm ⊆ Um+3 \ Um−3 , (40.5)
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ δ
¯¯(uψ m ) ∗ φl − uψ m ¯¯ = ¯¯(uψ m ) ∗ φlm − uψ m ¯¯m,p,U < , (40.6)
m m,p,U m+3 2m+5
where 40.6 is obtained from Theorem 40.5. Because of 40.3 only finitely many terms
of the series in 40.4 are nonzero and therefore, J ∈ C ∞ (U ) . Now let N > 10, some
large value.
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ X
N
¡ ¢¯¯¯¯
¯¯
||J − u||m,p,UN −3 = ¯¯ uψ k ∗ φlk − uψ k ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
k=0 m,p,UN −3
N
X ¯¯ ¯¯
≤ ¯¯uψ k ∗ φl − uψ k ¯¯
k m,p,UN −3
k=0
N
X δ
≤ < δ.
2m+5
k=0
Now apply the monotone convergence theorem to conclude that ||J − u||m,p,U ≤ δ.
1139
Note that J = 0 on ∂U. Later on, you will see that this is pathological.
In the study of partial differential equations it is the space W m,p (U ) which
¡ ¢is
of the most use, not the space X m,p (U ) . This is because of the density of C ∞ U .
Nevertheless, for reasonable open sets, U, the two spaces coincide.
Definition 40.9 An open set, U ⊆ Rn is said to satisfy the segment condition if

for all z ∈ U , there exists an open set Uz containing z and a vector a such that
U ∩ U z + ta ⊆ U
for all t ∈ (0, 1) .
Uz
u
z
T
Uz U + ta
You can imagine open sets which do not satisfy the segment condition. For
example, a pair of circles which are tangent at their boundaries. The condition in
the above definition breaks down at their point of tangency.
Here is a simple lemma which will be used in the proof of the following theorem.
Lemma 40.10 If u ∈ W m,p (U ) and ψ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) , then uψ ∈ W m,p (U ) .
Proof: Let |α| ≤ m and let φ ∈ Cc∞ (U ) . Then

Z
(Dxi (uψ)) (φ) ≡ − uψφ,xi dx
U
Z ³ ´
= − u (ψφ),xi − φψ ,xi dx
U
Z
= (Dxi u) (ψφ) + uψ ,xi φdx
U
Z
¡ ¢
= ψDxi u + uψ ,xi φdx
U
Therefore, Dxi (uψ) = ψDxi u + uψ ,xi ∈ Lp (U ) . In other words, the product rule
holds. Now considering the terms in the last expression, you can do the same
argument with each of these as long as they all have derivatives in Lp (U ) . Therefore,
continuing this process the lemma is proved.
Theorem 40.11 Let U be an open set and suppose there exists a locally finite
∞
covering2 of U which is of the form {Ui }i=1 such that each Ui is a bounded open set
which satisfies the conditions of Definition 40.9. Thus there exist vectors, ai such
that for all t ∈ (0, 1) ,
Ui ∩ U + tai ⊆ U.
¡ ¢
Then C ∞ U is dense in X m,p (U ) and so W m,p (U ) = X m,p (U ) .
∞
Proof: Let {ψ i }i=1 be a partition of unity subordinate to the given open cover
with ψ i ∈ Cc∞ (Ui ) and let u ∈ X m,p (U ) . Thus
∞
X
u= ψ k u.
k=1
Consider Uk for some k. Let ak be the special vector associated with Uk such that
tak + U ∩ Uk ⊆ U (40.7)
for all t ∈ (0, 1) and consider only t small enough that
spt (ψ k ) − tak ⊆ Uk (40.8)
Pick l (t) > 1/t which is also large enough that

µ ¶ µ ¶
1 1
tak + U ∩ Uk + B 0, ⊆ U, spt (ψ k ) + B 0, − tak ⊆ Uk . (40.9)
l (t) l (tk )
This can be done because tak + U ∩ Uk is a compact subset of U and so has positive
distance to U C and spt (ψ k )−tak is a compact subset of Uk having positive distance
to UkC . Let tk be such a value for t and for φl a mollifier, define
Z
vtk (x) ≡ u
e (x + tk ak − y) ψ k (x + tk ak − y) φl(tk ) (y) dy (40.10)
Rn
where as usual, u e is the zero extention of u off

³ U. For´ vtk (x) 6= 0, it is necessary
that x + tk ak − y ∈ spt (ψ k ) for some y ∈ B 0, l(t1k ) . Therefore, using 40.9, for
vtk (x) 6= 0, it is necessary that
µ ¶
1
x ∈ y − tk ak + U ∩ spt (ψ k ) ⊆ B 0, + spt (ψ k ) − tk ak
l (tk )
µ ¶
1
⊆ B 0, + spt (ψ k ) − tk ak ⊆ Uk
l (tk )
2 This is never a problem in Rn . In fact, every open covering has a locally finite subcovering in
Rn or more generally in any metric space due to Stone’s theorem. These are issues best left to
you in case you are interested. I am usually interested in bounded sets, U, and for these, there is
a finite covering.
1141
showing that vtk has compact support in Uk . Now change variables in 40.10 to
obtain Z
vtk (x) ≡ u
e (y) ψ k (y) φl(tk ) (x + tk ak − y) dy. (40.11)
Rn
For x ∈ U ∩ Uk , the above equals zero unless
µ ¶
1
y − tk ak − x ∈ B 0,
l (tk )
which implies by 40.9 that
µ ¶
1
y ∈ tk ak + U ∩ Uk + B 0, ⊆U
l (tk )
Therefore, for such x ∈ U ∩ Uk ,40.11 reduces to
Z
vtk (x) = u (y) ψ k (y) φl(tk ) (x + tk ak − y) dy
n
ZR
= u (y) ψ k (y) φl(tk ) (x + tk ak − y) dy.
U
It follows that for |α| ≤ m, and x ∈ U ∩ Uk

Z
Dα vtk (x) = u (y) ψ k (y) Dα φl(tk ) (x + tk ak − y) dy
ZU
= Dα (uψ k ) (y) φl(tk ) (x + tk ak − y) dy
U
Z
= Dα^ (uψ k ) (y) φl(tk ) (x + tk ak − y) dy
Rn
Z
= Dα^ (uψ k ) (x + tk ak − y) φl(tk ) (y) dy. (40.12)
Rn
Actually, this formula holds for all x ∈ U. If x ∈ U but x ∈ / Uk , then the left
side of the above formula equals zero because, as noted above, spt (vtk ) ⊆ Uk . The
integrand of the right side equals zero unless
µ ¶
1
x ∈ B 0, + spt (ψ k ) − tk ak ⊆ Uk
l (tk )
by 40.9 and here x ∈
/ Uk .
Next an estimate is obtained for ||Dα vtk − Dα (uψ k )||Lp (U ) . By 40.12,
||Dα vtk − Dα (uψ k )||Lp (U )
µZ µZ ¯ ¯ ¶p ¶1/p
¯ α^ ^
α ¯
≤ ¯D (uψ k ) (x + tk ak − y) − D (uψ k ) (x)¯ φl(tk ) (y) dy dx
U Rn
Z µZ ¯ ¯p ¶1/p
¯ α^ ^
α ¯
≤ φl(tk ) (y) ¯ D (uψ k ) (x + t a
k k − y) − D (uψ k ) (x) ¯ dx dy
Rn U
ε
≤
2k
whenever tk is taken small enough. Pick tk this small and let wk ≡ vtk . Thus
ε
||Dα wk − Dα (uψ k )||Lp (U ) ≤ k
2
and wk ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) . Now let
∞
X
J (x) ≡ wk .
k=1
Since the Uk are locally finite and spt (wk ) ⊆ Uk for each k, it follows Dα J =
P ∞ α
k=0 D wk and the sum is always finite. Similarly,
∞
X ∞
X
Dα (ψ k u) = Dα (ψ k u)
k=1 k=1
and the sum is always finite. Therefore,

¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ X∞ ¯¯
¯ ¯ ¯¯
||Dα J − Dα u||Lp (U ) = ¯¯ Dα wk − Dα (ψ k u)¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
k=1 Lp (U )
∞
X ∞
X ε
≤ ||Dα wk − Dα (ψ k u)||Lp (U ) ≤ = ε.
2k
k=1 k=1
By choosing tk small enough, such an inequality can be obtained for

¯¯ β ¯¯
¯¯D J − Dβ u¯¯ p
L (U )
for each multi index, β such that |β| ≤ m. Therefore, there exists J ∈ Cc∞ (Rn )
such that
||J − u||W m,p (U ) ≤ εK
where K equals the number of multi indices no larger than m. Since ε is arbitrary,
this proves the theorem.
Corollary 40.12 Let U be an open set which has the segment property. Then
W m,p (U ) = X m,p (U ) .
Proof: Start with an open covering of U whose sets satisfy the segment condition
and obtain a locally finite refinement consisting of bounded sets which are of the
sort in the above theorem.
Now consider a situation where h : U → V where U and V are two open sets
in Rn and Dα h exists and is continuous and bounded if |α| < m − 1 and Dα h is
Lipschitz if |α| = m − 1.
Definition 40.13 Whenever h : U → V, define h∗ mapping the functions which
are defined on V to the functions which are defined on U as follows.
h∗ f (x) ≡ f (h (x)) .
h : U → V is bilipschitz if h is one to one, onto and Lipschitz and h−1 is also one
to one, onto and Lipschitz.
1143
Theorem 40.14 Let h : U → V be one to ¡ one¢ and onto where U and V are two
open sets. Also suppose that Dα h and Dα h−1 exist and are Lipschitz continuous
if |α| ≤ m − 1 for m a positive integer. Then
h∗ : W m,p (V ) → W m,p (U )
is continuous,¡linear,
¢∗ one to one, and has an inverse with the same properties, the
inverse being h−1 .
Proof: It is clear that h∗ is linear. It is required to show it is one to one and
continuous. First suppose h∗ f = 0. Then
Z
p
0= |f (h (x))| dx
V
and so f (h (x)) = 0 for a.e. x ∈ U. Since h is Lipschitz, it takes sets of measure
zero to sets of measure zero. Therefore, f (y) = 0 a.e. This shows h∗ is one to one.
By the Meyer Serrin theorem, Theorem 40.8, it suffices to verify that h∗ is
continuous on functions in C ∞ (V ) . Let f be such a function. Then using the chain
rule and product rule, (h∗ f ),i (x) = f,k (h (x)) hk,i (x) ,
(h∗ f ),ij (x) = (f,k (h (x)) hk,i (x)),j
= f,kl (h (x)) hl,j (x) hk,i (x) + f,k (h (x)) hk,ij (x)
etc. In general, for |α| ≤ m − 1, succsessive applications of the product rule and
chain rule yield that Dα (h∗ f ) (x) has the form
X ¡ ¢
Dα (h∗ f ) (x) = h∗ Dβ f (x) gβ (x)
|β|≤|α|
where gβ is a bounded Lipschitz function with Lipschitz constant dependent on h

and its derivatives. It only remains to take one more derivative of the functions,
Dα f for |α| = m − 1. This can be done again but this time you have to use
Rademacher’s theorem which assures you that the derivative of a Lipschitz function
exists a.e. in order to take the partial derivative of the gβ (x) . When this is done,
the above formula remains valid for all |α| ≤ m. Therefore, using the change of
variables formula for multiple integrals, Corollary 37.31 on Page 1101,
Z X Z ¯ ¡ ¢ ¯
p
|Dα (h∗ f ) (x)| dx ≤ Cm,p,h ¯h∗ Dβ f (x)¯p dx
U |β|≤m U
X Z ¯¡ ¢ ¯
= Cm,p,h ¯ Dβ f (h (x))¯p dx
|β|≤m U
X Z ¯¡ ¢ ¯ ¯ ¯
= Cm,p,h ¯ Dβ f (y)¯p ¯det Dh−1 (y)¯ dy
|β|≤m V
≤ Cm,p,h,h−1 ||f ||m,p,V

This shows h∗ is continuous on C ∞ (V ) ∩ W m,p (U ) and since
¡ this
¢∗ set is dense,
this proves h∗ is continuous. The same argument applies to h−1 and now the
¡ ¢∗
definitions of h∗ and h−1 show these are inverses.
40.1 Embedding Theorems For W m,p (Rn )

Recall Theorem 37.15 which is listed here for convenience.
Theorem 40.15 Suppose u, u,i ∈ Lploc (Rn ) for i = 1, · · ·, n and p > n. Then u has
a representative, still denoted by u, such that for all x, y ∈Rn ,
ÃZ !1/p
p (1−n/p)
|u (x) − u (y)| ≤ C |∇u| dz |x − y| . (40.13)
B(x,2|y−x|)
This amazing result shows that every u ∈ W m,p (Rn ) has a representative which
is continuous provided p > n.
Using the above inequality, one can give an important embedding theorem.
Definition 40.16 Let X, Y be two Banach spaces and let f : X → Y be a function.

Then f is a compact map if whenever S is a bounded set in X, it follows that f (S)
is precompact in Y .
n
Theorem 40.17 Let U be a bounded open set and for u a function ¡ ¢defined on R ,
1,p n
let rU u (x) ≡ u (x) for x ∈ U . Then if p > n, rU : W (R ) → C U is continuous
and compact.
Proof: First suppose uk → 0 in W 1,p (Rn ) . Then if rU uk does not converge

to 0, it follows there exists a sequence, still denoted by k and ε > 0 such that
uk → 0 in W 1,p (Rn ) but ||rU uk ||∞ ≥ ε. Selecting a further subsequence which is
still denoted by k, you can also assume uk (x) → 0 a.e. Pick such an x0 ∈ U where
this convergence takes place. Then from 40.13, for all x ∈ U ,
|uk (x)| ≤ |uk (x0 )| + C ||uk ||1,p,Rn diam (U )
showing that uk converges uniformly to 0 on U contrary to ||rU uk ||∞ ≥ ε. Therefore,

rU is continuous as claimed.
Next let S be a bounded subset of W 1,p (Rn ) with ||u||1,p < M for all u ∈ S.
Then for u ∈ S
Z
p p
r mn ([|u| > r] ∩ U ) ≤ |u| dmn ≤ M p
[|u|>r]∩U
and so
Mp
mn ([|u| > r] ∩ U ) ≤ .
rp
Now choosing r large enough, M p /rp < mn (U ) and so, for such r, there exists
xu ∈ U such that |u (xu )| ≤ r. Therefore from 40.13, whenever x ∈ U,
1−n/p
|u (x)| ≤ |u (xu )| + CM diam (U )
1−n/p
≤ r + CM diam (U )
¡ ¢
40.1. EMBEDDING THEOREMS FOR W M,P RN 1145
showing that {rU u : u ∈ S} is uniformly bounded. But also, for x, y ∈ U ,40.13

implies
1− n
|u (x) − u (y)| ≤ CM |x − y| p
showing that {rU u : u ∈ S} is equicontinuous. By the Ascoli Arzela theorem, it
follows rU (S) is precompact and so rU is compact.
Definition 40.18 Let α ∈ (0, 1] and K a compact subset of Rn
C α (K) ≡ {f ∈ C (K) : ρα (f ) + ||f || ≡ ||f ||α < ∞}
where
||f || ≡ ||f ||∞ ≡ sup{|f (x)| : x ∈ K}
and ½ ¾
|f (x) − f (y)|
ρα (f ) ≡ sup α : x, y ∈ K, x 6= y .
|x − y|
Then (C α (K) , ||·||α ) is a complete normed linear space called a Holder space.
The verification that this is a complete normed linear space is routine and is left
for you. More generally, one considers the following class of Holder spaces.
Definition 40.19 Let K be a compact subset of Rn and let λ ∈ (0, 1]. C m,λ (K)
denotes the set of functions, u which are restrictions of functions defined on Rn to
Ksuch that for |α| ≤ m,
Dα u ∈ C (K)
and if |α| = m,
Dα u ∈ C λ (K) .
Thus C 0,λ (K) = C λ (K) . The norm of a function in C m,λ (K) is given by
X
||u||m,λ ≡ sup ρλ (Dα u) + ||Dα u||∞ .
|α|=m
|α|≤m
Lemma 40.20 Let m be a positive integer, K a compact subset of Rn , and let

0 < β < λ ≤ 1. Then the identity map from C m,λ (K) into C m,β (K) is compact.
Proof: First note that the containment is obvious because for any function, f,
if ( )
|f (x) − f (y)|
ρλ (f ) ≡ sup λ
: x, y ∈ K, x 6= y < ∞,
|x − y|
Then
( )
|f (x) − f (y)|
ρβ (f ) ≡ sup β
: x, y ∈ K, x 6= y
|x − y|
( )
|f (x) − f (y)| λ−β
= sup λ
|x − y| : x, y ∈ K, x 6= y
|x − y|
( )
|f (x) − f (y)| λ−β
≤ sup λ
diam (K) : x, y ∈ K, x 6= y < ∞.
|x − y|
Suppose the identity map, id, is not compact. Then there exists ε > 0 and a
∞
sequence, {fk }k=1 ⊆ C m,λ (K) such that ||fk ||m,λ < M for all k but ||fk − fl ||β ≥ ε
whenever k 6= l. By the AscoliPArzela theorem, there exists a subsequence of this,
still denoted by fk such that |α|≤m ||Dα (fl − fk )||∞ < δ where δ satisfies
µ ³ ´³ ¶
ε ε ε ´β/(λ−β)
0 < δ < min , . (40.14)
2 8 8M
Therefore, sup|α|=m ρβ (Dα (fk − fl )) ≥ ε−δ for all k 6= l. It follows that there exist
pairs of points and a multi index, α with |α| = m, {xkl , ykl , α} such that
ε−δ |(Dα fk − Dα fl ) (xkl ) − ((Dα fk − Dα fl ) (ykl ))| λ−β
< β
≤ 2M |xkl − ykl |
2 |xkl − ykl |
(40.15)
and so considering the ends of the above inequality,
µ ¶1/(λ−β)
ε−δ
< |xkl − ykl | .
4M
P
Now also, since |α|≤m ||Dα (fl − fk )||∞ < δ, it follows from the first inequality in
40.15 that
ε−δ 2δ
<¡ ¢ .
2 ε−δ β/(λ−β)
4M
Since δ < ε/2, this implies
ε 2δ
<¡ ¢
4 ε β/(λ−β)
8M
and so ³ ε ´ ³ ε ´β/(λ−β)
<δ
8 8M
contrary to 40.14. This proves the lemma.
Corollary 40.21 Let p > n, U and rU be as in Theorem ¡ ¢ 40.17 and let m be a
nonnegative integer. Then rU : W m+1,p (Rn ) → C m,λ U is continuous as a map
¡ ¢
into C m,λ U for all λ ∈ [0, 1 − np ] and rU is compact if λ < 1 − np .
n
Proof: Suppose uk → 0 in W m+1,p (Rn ) . Then from 40.13, if λ ≤ 1 − p and
|α| = m
1− n −λ
ρλ (Dα uk ) ≤ C ||Dα uk ||1,p diam (U ) p .
Therefore, ρλ (Dα uk ) → 0. From Theorem 40.17 it follows that for |α| ≤ m,
||Dα uk ||∞ → 0
and so ||uk ||m,λ → 0. This proves the claim about continuity. The claim about
compactness for λ < 1 − np follows from Lemma 40.20 and this.
rU n ¡ ¢ id ¡ ¢
(Bounded in W m,p (Rn ) → Bounded in C m,1− p U → Compact in C m,λ U .)
It is just as important to consider the case where p < n. To do this case the
following lemma due to Gagliardo [23] will be of interest. See also [1].
¡ ¢
Lemma 40.22 Suppose n ≥ 2 and wj does not depend on the j th component of x,

xj . Then
Z n
Y n µZ
Y ¶1/(n−1)
n−1
|wj (x)| dmn ≤ |wj (x)| dmn−1 .
Rn j=1 i=1 Rn−1
In this inequality, assume all the functions are continuous so there can be no mea-
surability questions.
Proof: First note that for n = 2 the inequality reduces to the statement
Z Z Z Z
|w1 (x2 )| |w2 (x1 )| dx1 dx2 ≤ |w1 (x2 )| dx2 |w2 (x1 )| dx1
which is obviously true. Suppose then that the inequality is valid for some n. Using
Fubini’s theorem, Holder’s inequality, and the induction hypothesis,
Z n+1
Y
|wj (x)| dmn+1
Rn+1 j=1
Z Z n
Y
= |wn+1 (x)| |wj (x)| dmn dxn+1
R Rn j=1
Z Z Yn
= |wn+1 (x)| |wj (x)| dxn+1 dmn
Rn R j=1
 1/n
Z n Z
Y n
= |wn+1 (x)|  |wj (x)| dxn+1  dmn
Rn j=1 R
Z n µZ
Y ¶1/n
n
= |wn+1 (x)| |wj (x)| dxn+1 dmn
Rn j=1 R
µZ ¶1/n
n
≤ |wn+1 (x)| dmn ·
Rn
  n/(n−1) (n−1)/n
Z n µZ
Y ¶1/n
  n  
 |wj (x)| dxn+1 dmn 
Rn j=1 R
µZ ¶1/n
n
= |wn+1 (x)| dmn ·
Rn
 (n−1)/n
Z n µZ
Y ¶1/(n−1)
 n
|wj (x)| dxn+1 dmn 
Rn j=1 R
µZ ¶1/n
n
≤ |wn+1 (x)| dmn ·
Rn
 (n−1)/n
n µZ
Y µZ ¶ ¶1/(n−1)
 n 
|wj (x)| dxn+1 dmn−1
j=1 Rn−1 R
µZ n µZ
¶1/n Y ¶1/n
n n
= |wn+1 (x)| dmn |wj (x)| dmn
Rn j=1 Rn
Y µZ
n+1
n
¶1/n
= |wj (x)| dmn
j=1 Rn
Lemma 40.23 If φ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) and n ≥ 1, then

n ¯¯ ¯¯
1 X ¯¯¯¯ ∂φ ¯¯¯¯
||φ||n/(n−1) ≤ √ .
n
n j=1 ¯¯ ∂xj ¯¯1
Proof: The case where n = 1 is obvious if n/ (n − 1) is interpreted as ∞.

Assume then that n > 1 and note that for ai ≥ 0,
 n
Yn Xn
n ai ≤  ai 
i=1 j=1
In fact, the term on the left is one of many terms of the expression on the right.
Therefore, taking nth roots
n
Y n
1/n 1 X
ai ≤ √ ai .
i=1
n
n j=1
Then observe that for each j = 1, 2, · · ·, n,

Z ∞
¯ ¯
|φ (x)| ≤ ¯φ,j (x)¯ dxj
−∞
so Z
n/(n−1) n/(n−1)
||φ||n/(n−1) ≡ |φ (x)| dmn
Rn
Z n µZ
Y ∞ ¶1/(n−1)
¯ ¯
≤ ¯φ,j (x)¯ dxj dmn
Rn j=1 −∞
and from Lemma 40.22 this is dominated by

Yn µZ ¶1/(n−1)
¯ ¯
≤ ¯ ¯
φ,j (x) dmn .
j=1 Rn
¡ ¢
Qn 1/n 1
Pn
Hence i=1 ai ≤ √
n n j=1 ai
n µZ
Y ¶1/n
¯ ¯
||φ||n/(n−1) ≤ ¯φ,j (x)¯ dmn
j=1 Rn
n Z
1 X ¯ ¯
¯φ,j (x)¯ dmn
≤ √
n
n j=1 Rn
n
X
1 ¯¯ ¯¯
= √ ¯¯φ,i ¯¯
n
n 1
j=1

The above lemma is due to Gagliardo and Nirenberg.
With this lemma, it is possible to prove a major embedding theorem which
follows.
1 1
Theorem 40.24 Let 1 ≤ p < n and q = p − n1 . Then if f ∈ W 1,p (Rn ) ,
1 (n − 1) p
||f ||q ≤ √ ||f ||1,p,Rn .
n
n n−p
Proof: From the definition of W 1,p (Rn ) , Cc1 (Rn ) is dense in W 1,p . Here
Cc1 (Rn ) is the space of continuous functions having continuous derivatives which
have compact support. The desired inequality will be established for such φ and
then the density of this set in W 1,p (Rn ) will be exploited to obtain the inequality
for all f ∈ W 1,p (Rn ). First note that the case where p = 1 follows immediately
from the above lemma and so it is only necessary to consider the case where p > 1.
r
Let φ ∈ Cc1 (Rn ) and consider |φ| where r > 1. Then a short computation shows
r
|φ| ∈ Cc1 (Rn ) and
¯ ¯
¯ r¯ r−1 ¯¯ ¯
¯|φ| ¯ = r |φ| ,i φ,i ¯ .
Therefore, from Lemma 40.23,

µZ ¶(n−1)/n
rn
|φ| n−1
dmn
n Z
r X r−1 ¯ ¯
¯φ,i ¯ dmn
≤ √ |φ|
n
n i=1
n µZ ¶1/p µZ ³ ´p/(p−1) ¶(p−1)/p
r X ¯ ¯p
¯φ,i ¯ r−1
≤ √ |φ| dmn .
n
n i=1
Now choose r such that

(r − 1) p rn
= .
p−1 n−1
p(n−1) rn np
That is, let r = n−p > 1 and so n−1 = n−p . Then this reduces to
µZ ¶(n−1)/n n µZ ¶1/p µZ ¶(p−1)/p
np r X ¯ ¯p
¯φ,i ¯
np
|φ| n−p
dmn ≤ √ |φ| n−p
dmn .
n
n i=1
n−1 p−1 n−p

Also, n − p = np and so, dividing both sides by the last term yields
µZ ¶ n−p n µZ ¶1/p
np np
r X ¯ ¯p
¯φ,i ¯ r
|φ| n−p
dmn ≤ √ ≤ √ ||φ||1,p,Rn .
n
n i=1 n
n
np 1 n−p 1 1
Letting q = n−p , it follows q = np = p − n and
r
||φ||q ≤ √ ||φ||1,p,Rn .
n
n
Now let f ∈ W m,p (Rn ) and let ||φk − f ||1,p,Rn → 0 as k → ∞. Taking another
subsequence, if necessary, you can also assume φk (x) → f (x) a.e. Therefore, by
Fatou’s lemma,
µZ ¶1/q
q
||f ||q ≤ lim inf |φk (x)| dmn
k→∞ Rn
r
≤ lim inf √ ||φk ||1,p,Rn = ||f ||1,p,Rn .
k→∞ n n

np
Corollary 40.25 Suppose mp < n. Then W m,p (Rn ) ⊆ Lq (Rn ) where q = n−mp
and the identity map, id : W m,p (Rn ) → Lq (Rn ) is continuous.
Proof: This is true if m = 1 according to Theorem 40.24. Suppose it is true for

m − 1 where m > 1. If u ∈ W m,p (Rn ) and |α| ≤ 1, then Dα u ∈ W m−1,p (Rn ) so by
induction, for all such α,
np
Dα u ∈ L n−(m−1)p (Rn ) .
Thus u ∈ W 1,q1 (Rn ) where
np
q1 =
n − (m − 1) p
By Theorem 40.24, it follows that u ∈ Lq (Rn ) where
1 n − (m − 1) p 1 n − mp
= − = .
q np n np

There is another similar corollary of the same sort which is interesting and useful.
¡ ¢
Corollary 40.26 Suppose m ≥ 1 and j is a nonnegative integer satisfying jp < n.

Then
W m+j,p (Rn ) ⊆ W m,q (Rn )
for
np
q≡ (40.16)
n − jp
and the identity map is continuous.
Proof: If |α| ≤ m, then Dα u ∈ W j,p (Rn ) and so by Corollary 40.25, Dα u ∈

L (Rn ) where q is given above. This means u ∈ W m,q (Rn ).
q
The above corollaries imply yet another interesting corollary which involves em-
beddings in the Holder spaces.
Corollary 40.27 Suppose jp < n < (j + 1) p and let m be a positive integer. Let
U be any bounded open set ¡in ¢Rn . Then letting rU denote the restriction to U ,
rU : W m+j,p (Rn ) → C m−1,λ U is continuous for every λ ≤ λ0 ≡ (j + 1) − np and
if λ < (j + 1) − np , then rU is compact.
Proof: From Corollary 40.26 W m+j,p (Rn ) ⊆ W m,q (Rn ) where q is given by
40.16. Therefore,
np
>n
n − jp
¡ ¢
and so by Corollary 40.21, W m,q (Rn ) ⊆ C m−1,λ U for all λ satisfying
(n − jp) n p (j + 1) − n n
0<λ<1− = = (j + 1) − .
np p p
The assertion
¡ ¢about compactness
¡ ¢ follows from the compactness of the embedding
of C m−1,λ0 U into C m−1,λ U for λ < λ0 . See Lemma 40.20.
There are other embeddings of this sort available. You should see Adams [1] for a
more complete listing of these. Next are some theorems about compact embeddings.
This requires some consideration of which subsets of Lp (U ) are compact. The main
theorem is the following. See [1].
Theorem 40.28 Let K be a bounded subset of Lp (U ) and suppose that for all
ε > 0, there exist a δ > 0 such that if |h| < δ, then
Z
p
|e
u (x + h) − ue (x)| dx < εp (40.17)
Rn
Suppose also that for each ε > 0 there exists an open set, G ⊆ U such that G is
compact and for all u ∈ K,
Z
p
|u (x)| dx < εp (40.18)
U \G
Then K is precompact in Lp (Rn ).

Proof: To save fussing first consider the case where U = Rn so that u

e = u.
Suppose the two conditions hold and let φk be a mollifier of the form φk (x) =
k n φ (kx) where spt (φ) ⊆ B (0, 1) . Consider
Kk ≡ {u ∗ φk : u ∈ K} .
and verify the conditions for the Ascoli Arzela theorem for these functions defined
on G. Say ||u||p ≤ M for all u ∈ K.
First of all, for u ∈ K and x ∈ Rn ,
µZ ¶p
p
|u ∗ φk (x)| ≤ |u (x − y) φk (y)| dy
µZ ¶p
= |u (y) φk (x − y)| dy
Z
p
≤ |u (y)| φk (x − y) dy
µ ¶Z µ ¶
≤ sup φk (z) |u (y)| dy ≤ M sup φk (z)
z∈Rn z∈Rn
showing the functions in Kk are uniformly bounded.

Next suppose x, x1 ∈ Kk and consider
|u ∗ φk (x) − u ∗ φk (x1 )|
Z
≤ |u (x − y) − u (x1 −y)| φk (y) dy
µZ ¶1/p µZ ¶q
p q
≤ |u (x − y) − u (x1 −y)| dy φk (y) dy
which by assumption 40.17 is small independent of the choice of u whenever |x − x1 |

is small enough. ¡ Note
¢ that k is fixed in the above. Therefore, the set, Kk is
precompact in C G thanks to the Ascoli Arzela theorem. Next consider how well
u ∈ K is approximated by u ∗ φk in Lp (Rn ) . By Minkowski’s inequality,
µZ ¶1/p
p
|u (x) − u ∗ φk (x)| dx
µZ µZ ¶p ¶1/p
≤ |u (x) − u (x − y)| φk (y) dy dx
Z µZ ¶1/p
p
≤ φk (y) |u (x) − u (x − y)| dx dy.
B (0, k
1
)
Now let η > 0 be given. From 40.17 there exists k large enough that for all u ∈ K,
Z µZ ¶1/p Z
p
φk (y) |u (x) − u (x − y)| dx dy ≤ φk (y) η dy = η.
B (0, k
1
) B (0, k
1
)
¡ ¢
Now let ε > 0 be given and let δ and G correspond to ε as given in the hypotheses
and let 1/k < δ and also k is large enough that for all u ∈ K,
||u − u ∗ φk ||p < ε
as in the above inequality. By the Ascoli Arzela theorem there exists an

Ã !1/p
ε
¡ ¢
m G + B (0, 1)
¡ ¢ m
net for Kk in C G . That is, there exist {ui }i=1 ⊆ K such that for any u ∈ K,
Ã !1/p
ε
||u ∗ φk − uj ∗ φk ||∞ < ¡ ¢
m G + B (0, 1)
m
for some j. Letting u ∈ K be given, let uj ∈ {ui }i=1 ⊆ K be such that the above
inequality holds. Then
||u − uj ||p ≤ ||u − u ∗ φk ||p + ||u ∗ φk − uj ∗ φk ||p + ||uj ∗ φk − uj ||p

< 2ε + ||u ∗ φk − uj ∗ φk ||p
ÃZ !1/p
p
≤ 2ε + |u ∗ φk − uj ∗ φk | dx
G+B(0,1)
ÃZ !1/p
p
+ |u ∗ φk − uj ∗ φk | dx
Rn \(G+B(0,1))
≤ 2ε + ε1/p
ÃZ µZ ¶p !1/p
+ |u (x − y) − uj (x − y)| φk (y) dy dx
Rn \(G+B(0,1))
≤ 2ε + ε1/p
Z ÃZ !1/p
p
+ φk (y) (|u (x − y)| + |uj (x − y)|) dx dy
Rn \(G+B(0,1))
Z ÃZ !1/p
1/p p
≤ 2ε + ε + φk (y) (|u (x)| + |uj (x)|) dx dy
Rn \G
Z ÃZ !1/p
p p
≤ 2ε + ε1/p + 2p−1 φk (y) (|u (x)| + |uj (x)| ) dx dy
Rn \G
≤ 2ε + ε1/p + 2p−1 21/p ε

and since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this shows that K is totally bounded and is therefore
precompact.
Now for an arbitrary open set, U and K given in the hypotheses of the theorem,
e ≡ {e
let K u : u ∈ K} and observe that K e is precompact in Lp (Rn ) . But this is the
same as saying that K is precompact in Lp (U ) . This proves the theorem.
Actually the converse of the above theorem is also true [1] but this will not be
needed so I have left it as an exercise for anyone interested.
Lemma 40.29 Let u ∈ W 1,1 (U ) for U an open set and let φ ∈ Cc∞ (U ) . Then
there exists a constant,
³ ´
C φ, ||u||1,1,U ,
n
depending
¡ only on¢ the indicated quantities such that whenever v ∈ R with |v| <
C
dist spt (φ) , U , it follows that
Z ¯ ¯ ³ ´
¯f f (x)¯¯ dx ≤ C φ, ||u||
¯φu (x + v) − φu 1,1,U |v| .
Rn
¡ ¢
Proof: First suppose u ∈ C ∞ U . Then for any x ∈ spt (φ) ∪ (spt (φ) − v) ≡
Gv , the chain rule implies
Z n ¯
1X ¯
¯ ¯
|φu (x + v) − φu (x)| ≤ ¯(φu),i (x + tv) vi ¯ dt
0 i=1
Z 1Xn
¯¡ ¢ ¯
≤ ¯ φ,i u + u,i φ (x + tv)¯ dt |v| .
0 i=1
Therefore, for such u,

Z ¯ ¯
¯f f (x)¯¯ dx
¯φu (x + v) − φu
n
ZR
= |φu (x + v) − φu (x)| dx
Gv
Z Z n
1X ¯¡ ¢ ¯
≤ ¯ φ,i u + u,i φ (x + tv)¯ dtdx |v|
Gv 0 i=1
Z 1 Z n
X ¯¡ ¢ ¯
≤ ¯ φ,i u + u,i φ (x + tv)¯ dxdt |v|
0 Gv i=1
³ ´
≤ C φ, ||u||1,1,U |v|
¡ ¢
where C is a continuous function of ||u||1,1,U . Now for general u ∈ W 1,1 (U ) , let

¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
uk → u in W 1,1 (U ) where uk ∈ C ∞ U . Then for |v| < dist spt (φ) , U C ,
Z ¯ ¯
¯f f (x)¯¯ dx
¯φu (x + v) − φu
n
ZR
= |φu (x + v) − φu (x)| dx
Gv
Z
= lim |φuk (x + v) − φuk (x)| dx
k→∞ G
³v ´
≤ lim C φ, ||uk ||1,1,U |v|
k→∞
³ ´
= C φ, ||u||1,1,U |v| .
Lemma 40.30 Let U be a bounded open set and define for p > 1
n o
S ≡ u ∈ W 1,1 (U ) ∩ Lp (U ) : ||u||1,1,U + ||u||Lp (U ) ≤ M (40.19)
and let φ ∈ Cc∞ (U ) and

S1 ≡ {uφ : u ∈ S} . (40.20)
Then S1 is precompact in Lq (U ) where 1 ≤ q < p.
Proof: This depends on Theorem 40.28. The second condition is satisfied by

taking G ≡ spt (φ). Thus, for w ∈ S1 ,
Z
q
|w (x)| dx = 0 < εp .
U \G
It remains to satisfy the first condition. It is necessary to verify there exists δ > 0
such that if |v| < δ, then
Z ¯ ¯q
¯f f (x)¯¯ dx < εp .
¯φu (x + v) − φu (40.21)
Rn
Let spt (φ) ∪ (spt (φ) − v) ≡ Gv . Now if h is any measurable function, and if
θ ∈ (0, 1) is chosen small enough that θq < 1,
Z Z
q θq (1−θ)q
|h| dx = |h| |h| dx
Gv Gv
µZ ¶θq µZ ³ ´ 1−θq
1 ¶1−θq
(1−θ)q
≤ |h| dx |h|
Gv Gv
µZ ¶θq µZ ¶1−θq
(1−θ)q
= |h| dx |h| 1−θq
. (40.22)
Gv Gv
Now let θ also be small enough that there exists r > 1 such that
(1 − θ) q
r =p
1 − θq
and use Holder’s inequality in the last factor of the right side of 40.22. Then 40.22
is dominated by
µZ ¶θq µZ ¶ 1−θq
r
µZ ¶1/r0
p
|h| dx |h| 1dx
Gv Gv Gv
³ ´ µZ ¶θq
= C ||h||Lp (Gv ) , mn (Gv ) |h| dx .
Gv
Therefore, for u ∈ S,
Z ¯ ¯q Z
¯f f ¯ q
¯φu (x + v) − φu (x)¯ dx = |φu (x + v) − φu (x)| dx
Rn Gv
³ ´ µZ ¶θq
≤ C ||φu (·+v) − φu (·)||Lp (Gv ) , mn (Gv ) |φu (x + v) − φu (x)| dx
Gv
³ ´ µZ ¶θq
≤ C 2 ||φu (·)||Lp (U ) , mn (U ) |φu (x + v) − φu (x)| dx
Gv
µZ ¶θq
≤ C (φ, M, mn (U )) |φu (x + v) − φu (x)| dx
Gv
µZ ¯ ¯ ¶θq
¯f f ¯
= C (φ, M, mn (U )) ¯ φu (x + v) − φu (x)¯ dx . (40.23)
Rn
Now by Lemma 40.29,

Z ¯ ¯ ³ ´
¯f f (x)¯¯ dx ≤ C φ, ||u||
¯φu (x + v) − φu 1,1,U |v| (40.24)
Rn
and so from 40.23 and 40.24, and adjusting the constants

Z ¯ ¯q ³ ³ ´ ´θq
¯f f (x)¯¯ dx ≤ C (φ, M, mn (U )) C φ, ||u||
¯φu (x + v) − φu 1,1,U |v|
Rn
θq
= C (φ, M, mn (U )) |v|
which verifies 40.21 whenever |v| is sufficiently small. This proves the lemma be-
cause the conditions of Theorem 40.28 are satisfied.
Theorem 40.31 Let U be a bounded open set and define for p > 1
n o
S ≡ u ∈ W 1,1 (U ) ∩ Lp (U ) : ||u||1,1,U + ||u||Lp (U ) ≤ M (40.25)
Then S is precompact in Lq (U ) where 1 ≤ q < p.

40.2. AN EXTENSION THEOREM 1157
∞
Proof: If suffices to show that every sequence, {uk }k=1 ⊆ S has a subsequence
∞
which converges in Lq (U ) . Let {Km }m=1 denote a sequence of compact subsets
of U with the property that Km ⊆ Km+1 for all m and ∪∞ m=1 Km = U. Now let
φm ∈ Cc∞ (U ) such that φm (x) ∈ [0, 1] and φm (x) = 1 for all x ∈ Km . Let
∞
Sm ≡ {φm u : u ∈ S}. By Lemma 40.30 there exists a subsequence of {uk }k=1 ,
∞ ∞
denoted here by {u1,k }k=1 such that {φ1 u1,k }k=1 converges in Lq (U ) . Now S2 is
∞
also precompact in Lq (U ) and so there exists a subsequence of {u1,k }k=1 , denoted
∞ ∞
by {u2,k }k=1 such that {φ2 u2,k }k=1 converges in L2 (U ) . Thus it is also the case that
∞
{φ1 u2,k }k=1 converges in Lq (U ) . Continue taking subsequences in this manner such
∞ ∞ ∞
that for all l ≤ m, {φl um,k }k=1 converges in Lq (U ). Let {wm }m=1 = {um,m }m=1 so
∞ ∞ ∞
that {wk }k=m is a subsequence of {um,k }k=1 . Then it follows for all k, {φk wm }m=1
q
must converge in L (U ) . For u ∈ S,
Z
q q q
||u − φk u||Lq (U ) = |u| (1 − φk ) dx
U
µZ ¶q/p µZ ¶1/r
p qr
≤ |u| dx (1 − φk ) dx
U U
µZ ¶1/r
qr
≤ M (1 − φk ) dx
U
where q/p + 1/r = 1. Now φl (x) → XU (x) and so the integrand in the last integral
converges to 0 by the dominated convergence theorem. Therefore, k may be chosen
large enough that for all u ∈ S,
³ ε ´q
q
||u − φk u||Lq (U ) ≤ .
3
Fix such a value of k. Then
||wq − wp ||Lq (U ) ≤
||wq − φk wq ||Lq (U ) + ||φk wq − φk wp ||Lq (U ) + ||wp − φk wp ||Lq (U )
2ε
≤ + ||φk wq − φk wp ||Lq (U ) .
3
∞
But {φk wm }m=1 converges in Lq (U ) and so the last term in the above is less than
∞
ε/3 whenever p, q are large enough. Thus {wm }m=1 is a Cauchy sequence and must
q
therefore converge in L (U ). This proves the theorem.
40.2 An Extension Theorem

Definition 40.32 An open subset, U , of Rn has a Lipschitz boundary if it satisfies
the following conditions. For each p ∈ ∂U ≡ U \ U , there exists an open set,
Q, containing p, an open interval (a, b), a bounded open box B ⊆ Rn−1 , and an
orthogonal transformation R such that
RQ = B × (a, b), (40.26)

R (Q ∩ U ) = {y ∈ Rn : y
b ∈ B, a < yn < g (b
y)} (40.27)
© ª
where g is Lipschitz continuous on B, a < min g (x) : x ∈ B , and
b ≡ (y1 , · · ·, yn−1 ).
y
Letting W = Q ∩ U the following picture describes the situation.
¶ ZZ b
Q ¶ Z R(Q)
¶ ZZ
¶ ¶
¶ ¶
Z W R - R(W )
Z ¶
xZ ¶ a
Z y
Z¶
The following lemma is important.
Lemma 40.33 If U is an open subset of Rn which has a Lipschitz boundary, then

it satisfies the segment condition and so X m,p (U ) = W m,p (U ) .
Proof: For x ∈ ∂U, simply look at a single open set, Qx described in the above
which contains x. Then consider an open set whose intersection with U is of the
form RT ({y :b y ∈ B, g (b
y ) − ε < yn < y)}) and ªa vector of the form εRT (−en )
© g (b
where ε is chosen smaller than min g (x) : x ∈ B − a. There is nothing to prove
for points of U.
One way to extend many of the above theorems to more general open sets than
Rn is through the use of an appropriate extension theorem. In this section, a fairly
general one will be presented.
Lemma 40.34 Let B × (a, b) be as described in Definition 40.32 and let
V − ≡ {(b y)} , V + ≡ {(b

y, yn ) : yn < g (b y, yn ) : yn > g (b
y)},
for g a Lipschitz function of the sort described in this definition. Suppose u+ and
u− are Lipschitz functions defined on V + and V − respectively and suppose that
u+ (b y)) = u− (b
y, g (b y, g (b b ∈ B. Let
y)) for all y
½
u+ (b y , yn ) ∈ V +
y, yn ) if (b
u (b
y , yn ) ≡ −
u (b y , yn ) ∈ V −
y, yn ) if (b
and suppose spt (u) ⊆ B × (a, b). Then extending u to be 0 off of B × (a, b), u is
continuous and the weak partial derivatives, u,i , are all in L∞ (Rn ) ∩ Lp (Rn ) for
all p > 1 and u,i = (u+ ),i on V + and u,i = (u− ),i on V − .
Proof: Consider the following picture which is descriptive of the situation.
spt(u)
¡¡
b ¡
¡
a
B
Note ¡ firsti ¢that u is Lipschitz continuous. To see this, consider |u (y1 ) − u (y2 )|
where y bi , yn = yi . There are various cases to consider depending on whether
yni is above g (b yi ) . Suppose yn1 < g (b y1 ) and yn2 > g (b y2 ) . Then letting K ≥
+ −
max (Lip (u ) , Lip (u )) ,
¯ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¯ ¯ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¯ ¯ ¡ ¢ ¯
¯u yb1 , yn1 − u y b2 , yn2 ¯ ≤ ¯u y b1 , yn1 − u y b2 , yn1 ¯ + ¯u y b2 , yn1 − u (b y2 ))¯
y2 , g (b
¯ ¡ ¢¯
+ ¯u (by2 , g (by2 )) − u y b2 , yn2 ¯
£ ¤
≤ K |b y1 − y b2 | + K g (b y2 ) − yn1 + yn2 − g (by2 )
¡ ¯ ¯¢ √
= K |b y1 − y b2 | + ¯yn1 − yn2 ¯ ≤ K n |y1 − y2 |
The other cases are similar. Thus u is a Lipschitz continuous function which has
compact support. By Corollary 37.18 on Page 1092 it follows that u,i ∈ L∞ (Rn ) ∩
Lp (Rn ) for all p > 1. It remains to verify u,i = (u+ ),i on V + and u,i = (u− ),i on
V − . The last claim is obvious from the definition of weak derivatives.
³ ´
Lemma 40.35 In the situation of Lemma 40.34 let u ∈ C 1 V − ∩Cc1 (B × (a, b))3
and define

 u (b b ∈ B and yn ≤ g (b
y, yn ) if y y) ,
w (by , yn ) ≡ u (b
y, 2g (b b ∈ B and yn > g (b
y) − yn ) , if y y)

b∈
0 if y / B.
Then w ∈ W 1,p (Rn ) and there exists a constant, C depending only on Lip (g) and
dimension such that
||w||W 1,p (Rn ) ≤ C ||u||W 1,p (V − ) .
Denote w by E0 u. Thus E0 (u) (y) = u (y) for all y ∈ V − but E0 u = w is defined
on all of Rn . Also, E0 is a linear mapping.
Proof: As in the previous lemma, w is Lipschitz continuous and has compact

support so it is clear w ∈ W 1,p (Rn ) . The main task is to fine w,i for y
b ∈ B and
³ ´
3 This means that spt (u) ⊆ B × (a, b) and u ∈ C 1 V − .
yn > g (b
y) and then to extract an estimate of the right sort. Denote by U the set
of points of Rn with the property that (by, yn ) ∈ U if and only if yb∈ b∈B
/ B or y
∞
and yn > g (by) . Then letting φ ∈ Cc (U ) , suppose first that i < n. Then
Z
w (b
y, yn ) φ,i (y) dy
U
Z ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
u yb − hen−1
i , 2g yb − hen−1
i − yn − u (b
y, 2g (b
y) − yn )
≡ lim φ (y) dy
h→0 U h
(40.28)
½ Z
−1 £ ¡ ¢
= lim φ (y) D1 u (b y) − yn ) hen−1
y, 2g (b i
h→0 hU
¡ ¡ ¢ ¢¤
+2D2 u (b
y, 2g (b
y) − yn ) g yb − hen−1
i − g (by) dy
Z ¾
−1 £ ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢ ¤
+ φ (y) o g yb − hen−1
i − g (b
y) + o (h) dy
h U
where en−1
i is the unit vector in Rn−1 having all zeros except for a 1 in the ith
position. Now by Rademacher’s theorem, ¡ Dg (b ¢ for a.e. y
y) exists b and so except for
b − hen−1
a set of measure zero, the expression, g y i − g (b
y ) is o b
(h) and also for y
not in the exceptional set,
¡ ¢
g yb − hen−1
i − g (b y) en−1
y) = −hDg (b i + o (h) .
Therefore, since the integrand in 40.28 has compact support and because of the
Lipschitz continuity of all the functions, the dominated convergence theorem may
be applied to obtain
Z
w (b
y, yn ) φ,i (y) dy =
U
Z
£ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¤
φ (y) −D1 u (b y) − yn ) en−1
y, 2g (b i + 2D2 u (b
y, 2g (b y) en−1
y) − yn ) Dg (b i dy
U
Z · ¸
∂u ∂u ∂g (b
y)
= φ (y) − (b
y, 2g (b
y) − yn ) + 2 (b
y, 2g (b
y) − yn ) dy
U ∂yi ∂yn ∂yi
and so
∂u ∂u ∂g (b
y)
w,i (y) = (b
y, 2g (b
y) − yn ) − 2 (b
y, 2g (b
y) − yn ) (40.29)
∂yi ∂yn ∂yi
whenever i < n which is what you would expect from a formal application of the
chain rule. Next suppose i = n.
Z
w (b
y, yn ) φ,n (y) dy
U
Z
u (b
y, 2g (by) − (yn − h)) − u (by, 2g (b
y) − yn )
= lim φ (y) dy
h→0 U h
Z
D2 u (by, 2g (b
y) − yn ) h + o (h)
= lim φ (y) dy
h→0 U h
Z
∂u
= (b
y, 2g (by) − yn ) φ (y) dy
U ∂yn
showing that
−∂u
w,n (y) = (b
y, 2g (b
y) − yn ) (40.30)
∂yn
which is also expected.
From the definnition, for y ∈ Rn \ U ≡ {(b

y, yn ) : yn ≤ g (b
y)} it follows w,i = u,i
p
and on U, w,i is given by 40.29 and 40.30. Consider ||w,i ||Lp (U ) for i < n. From
40.29
Z ¯ ¯p
¯ ∂u ∂u y) ¯¯
∂g (b
p
||w,i ||Lp (U ) = ¯ (b
y, 2g (b
y) − yn ) − 2 (b
y, 2g (b
y ) − yn ) dy
¯ ∂yi ¯
U ∂yi ∂yn
Z ¯ ¯p
¯ ∂u ¯
≤ 2p−1 ¯ y) − yn )¯¯
¯ ∂yi (b
y, 2g (b
¯ U ¯p
¯
p ¯ ∂u
¯
y) − yn )¯¯ Lip (g) dy
p
+2 ¯ (b
y, 2g (b
∂yn
Z ¯ ¯p
¯ ∂u ¯
≤ p
4 (1 + Lip (g) )
p ¯ y) − yn )¯¯
¯ ∂yi (b y, 2g (b
U
¯ ¯p
¯ ∂u ¯
+¯ ¯ (b
y, 2g (b y) − yn )¯¯ dy
∂yn
Z Z ∞ ¯ ¯p
¯ ∂u ¯
= 4p (1 + Lip (g) )
p ¯ (b
y , 2g (b
y ) − y )¯
¯ ∂yi n ¯
B g(b y)
¯ ¯p
¯ ∂u ¯
+¯ ¯ (b
y, 2g (b y) − yn )¯¯ dyn db y
∂yn
Z Z g(by) ¯ ¯p
¯ ∂u ¯
= p
4 (1 + Lip (g) )
p ¯ y, zn )¯¯
¯ ∂yi (b
B −∞
¯ ¯p
¯ ∂u ¯
+ ¯¯ y, zn )¯¯ dzn db
(b y
∂yn
Z Z g(by) ¯ ¯p
¯ ∂u ¯
= p
4 (1 + Lip (g) )
p ¯ y, zn )¯¯
¯ ∂yi (b
¯ ¯p B a
¯ ∂u ¯
+ ¯¯ y, zn )¯¯ dzn db
(b y
∂yn
p p
≤ 4p (1 + Lip (g) ) ||u||1,p,V −
Now by similar reasoning,

Z ¯ ¯p
¯ −∂u ¯
p
||w,n ||Lp (U ) = ¯ y) − yn )¯¯ dy
¯ ∂yn (b y, 2g (b
U
Z Z ∞ ¯ ¯p
¯ −∂u ¯
= ¯ y) − yn )¯¯ dyn db
¯ ∂yn (b y, 2g (b y
B g(by)
Z Z g(by) ¯ ¯p
¯ −∂u ¯
= ¯ y, zn )¯¯ dzn db
p
¯ ∂yn (b y = ||u,n ||1,p,V − .
B a
It follows
p p p
||w||1,p,Rn = ||w||1,p,U + ||u||1,p,V −
p p p
≤ 4p n (1 + Lip (g) ) ||u||1,p,V − + ||u||1,p,V −
and so
p p p
||w||1,p,Rn ≤ 4p n (2 + Lip (g) ) ||u||1,p,V −
which implies
p 1/p
||w||1,p,Rn ≤ 4n1/p (2 + Lip (g) ) ||u||1,p,V −
It is obvious that E0 is a linear mapping. This proves the theorem.

Now recall Definition 40.32, listed here for convenience.
Definition 40.36 An open subset, U , of Rn has a Lipschitz boundary if it satisfies

the following conditions. For each p ∈ ∂U ≡ U \ U , there exists an open set,
Q, containing p, an open interval (a, b), a bounded open box B ⊆ Rn−1 , and an
orthogonal transformation R such that
RQ = B × (a, b), (40.31)
R (Q ∩ U ) = {y ∈ Rn : y
b ∈ B, a < yn < g (b
y)} (40.32)
© ª
where g is Lipschitz continuous on B, a < min g (x) : x ∈ B , and
b ≡ (y1 , · · ·, yn−1 ).
y
Letting W = Q ∩ U the following picture describes the situation.
¶ZZ b
Q ¶ Z R(Q)
¶ ZZ
¶ ¶
¶ ¶
Z W R - R(W )
Z ¶
xZ ¶ a
Z y
Z¶
¡ ¢
Lemma 40.37 In the situation of Definition 40.32 let u ∈ C 1 U ∩ Cc1 (Q) and
define ¡ ¢∗
Eu ≡ R∗ E0 RT u.
¡ ¢∗
where RT maps W 1,p (U ∩ Q) to W 1,p (R (W )) . Then E is linear and satisfies
||Eu||W 1,p (Rn ) ≤ C ||u||W 1,p (Q∩U ) , Eu (x) = u (x) for x ∈ Q ∩ U.
where C depends only on the dimension and Lip (g) .
Proof: This follows from Theorem 40.14 and Lemma 40.35.

The following theorem is a general extension theorem for Sobolev spaces.
Theorem 40.38 Let U be a bounded ¡ open set which has¢Lipschitz boundary. Then
for each p ≥ 1, there exists E ∈ L W 1,p (U ) , W 1,p (Rn ) such that Eu (x) = u (x)
a.e. x ∈ U.
Proof: Let ∂U ⊆ ∪pi=1 Qi Where the Qi are as described in Definition 40.36.

Also let Ri be the orthogonal trasformation and gi the Lipschitz functions associated
with Qi as in this definition. Now let Q0 ⊆ Q0 ⊆ U be such that U ⊆ ∪pi=0 Qi , and
Pp ¡ ¢
let ψ i ∈ Cc∞ (Qi ) with ψ i (x) ∈ [0, 1] and i=0 ψ i (x) = 1 on U . For u ∈ C ∞ U ,
let E 0 (ψ 0 u) ≡ ψ 0 u on Q0 and 0 off Q0 . Thus
¯¯ 0 ¯¯
¯¯E (ψ 0 u)¯¯ = ||ψ 0 u||1,p,U .
1,p,Rn
For i ≥ 1, let ¡ ¢∗
E i (ψ i u) ≡ Ri∗ E0 RT (ψ i u) .
Thus, by Lemma 40.37
¯¯ 1 ¯¯
¯¯E (ψ i u)¯¯ ≤ C ||ψ i u||1,p,Qi ∩U
1,p,Rn
¡ ¢
where the constant depends on Lip (gi ) but is independent of u ∈ C ∞ U . Now
define E as follows.
X p
Eu ≡ E i (ψ i u) .
i=0
∞
¡ ¢
Thus for u ∈ C U , it follows Eu (x) = u (x) for all x ∈ U. Also,
p
X p
¯¯ i ¯¯ X
||Eu||1,p,Rn ≤ ¯¯E (ψ i u)¯¯ ≤ Ci ||ψ i u|| 1,p,Qi ∩U
i=0 i=0
Xp p
X
= Ci ||ψ i u||1,p,U ≤ Ci ||u||1,p,U
i=0 i=0
p
X
≤ (p + 1) Ci ||u||1,p,U ≡ C ||u||1,p,U . (40.33)
i=0
¡ ¢
where C depends on the ψ i and the gi but is independent of u ∈ C ∞ U . Therefore,
¡ ¢
by density of C ∞ U in W 1,p (U ) , E has a unique continuous extension to W 1,p (U )
still denoted by E satisfying the inequality determined by the ends of 40.33. It
remains to verify that Eu (x) = u (x) a.e. for¡ x ¢∈ U .
Let uk → u in W 1,p (U ) where uk ∈ C ∞ U . Therefore, by 40.33, Euk → Eu
in W 1,p (Rn ) . Since Euk (x) = uk (x) for each k,
||u − Eu||Lp (U ) = lim ||uk − Euk ||Lp (U )

k→∞
= lim ||Euk − Euk ||Lp (U ) = 0
k→∞
which shows u (x) = Eu (x) for a.e. x ∈ U as claimed. This proves the theorem.
Definition 40.39 Let U be an open set. Then W0m,p (U ) is the closure of the set,
Cc∞ (U ) in W m,p (U ) .
Corollary 40.40 Let U be a bounded open set which has Lipschitz boundary and
let³ W be an open set ´
containing U . Then for each p ≥ 1, there exists EW ∈
1,p 1,p
L W (U ) , W0 (W ) such that EW u (x) = u (x) a.e. x ∈ U.
40.3. GENERAL EMBEDDING THEOREMS 1165
Proof: Let ψ ∈ Cc∞ (W ) and ψ = 1 on U. Then let EW u ≡ ψEu where E is

the extension operator of Theorem 40.38.
Extension operators of the above sort exist for many open sets, U, not just for
bounded ones. In particular, the above discussion would apply to an open set, U,
not necessarily bounded, if you relax the condition that the Qi must be bounded
p
but require the existence of a finite partition of unity {ψ i }i=1 having the property
that ψ i and ψ i,j are uniformly bounded for all i, j. The proof would be identical
to the above. My main interest is in bounded open sets so the above theorem will
suffice. Such an extension operator will be referred to as a (1, p) extension operator.
40.3 General Embedding Theorems

With the extension theorem it is possible to give a useful theory of embeddings.
Theorem 40.41 Let 1 ≤ p < n and 1q = p1 − n1 and let U be any open set for
which there exists a (1, p) extension operator. Then if u ∈ W 1,p (U ) , there exists a
constant independent of u such that
||u||Lq (U ) ≤ C ||u||1,p,U .
If U is bounded and r < q, then id : W 1,p (U ) → Lr (U ) is also compact.
Proof: Let E be the (1, p) extension operator. Then by Theorem 40.24 on Page
1149
1 (n − 1) p
||u||Lq (U ) ≤ ||Eu||Lq (Rn ) ≤ √ ||Eu||1,p,Rn
n
n (n − p)
≤ C ||u||1,p,U .
It remains to prove the assertion about compactness. If S ⊆ W 1,p (U ) is bounded

then n o
sup ||u||1,1,U + ||u||Lq (U ) < ∞
u∈S
and so by Theorem 40.31 on Page 1156, it follows S is precompact in Lr (U ) .This

proves the theorem.
Corollary 40.42 Suppose mp < n and U is an open set satisfying the segment con-
dition which has a (1, p) extension operator for all p. Then id ∈ L (W m,p (U ) , Lq (U ))
np
where q = n−mp .
Proof: This is true if m = 1 according to Theorem 40.41. Suppose it is true for

m − 1 where m > 1. If u ∈ W m,p (U ) and |α| ≤ 1, then Dα u ∈ W m−1,p (U ) so by
induction, for all such α,
np
Dα u ∈ L n−(m−1)p (U ) .
Thus, since U has the segment condition, u ∈ W 1,q1 (U ) where

np
q1 =
n − (m − 1) p
By Theorem 40.41, it follows u ∈ Lq (Rn ) where
1 n − (m − 1) p 1 n − mp
= − = .
q np n np

There is another similar corollary of the same sort which is interesting and useful.
Corollary 40.43 Suppose m ≥ 1 and j is a nonnegative integer satisfying jp < n.

Also suppose U has a (1, p) extension operator for all p ≥ 1 and satisfies the segment
condition. Then ¡ ¢
id ∈ L W m+j,p (U ) , W m,q (U )
where
np
q≡ . (40.34)
n − jp
If, in addition to the above, U is bounded and 1 ≤ r < q, then
¡ ¢
id ∈ L W m+j,p (U ) , W m,r (U )
and is compact.
Proof: If |α| ≤ m, then Dα u ∈ W j,p (U ) and so by Corollary 40.42, Dα u ∈

q
L (U ) where q is given above. Since U has the segment property, this means
u ∈ W m,q (U ). It remains to verify the assertion about compactness of id.
Let S be bounded in W m+j,p (U ) . Then S is bounded in W m,q (U ) by the
∞
first part. Now let {uk }k=1 be any sequence in S. The corollary will be proved
if it is shown that any such sequence has a convergent subsequence in W m,r (U ).
Let {α1 , α2 , · · ·, αh } denote the indices satisfying |α| ≤ m. Then for each of these
indices, α, n o
sup ||Dα u||1,1,U + ||Dα u||Lq (U ) < ∞
u∈S
and so for each such α, satisfying |α| ≤ m, it follows from Lemma 40.30 on Page 1155
that {Dα u : u ∈ S} is precompact in Lr (U ) . Therefore, there exists a subsequence,
still denoted by uk such that Dα1 uk converges in Lr (U ) . Applying the same lemma,
there exists a subsequence of this subsequence such that both Dα1 uk and Dα2 uk
converge in Lr (U ) . Continue taking subsequences until you obtain a subsequence,
∞ ∞
{uk }k=1 for which {Dα uk }k=1 converges in Lr (U ) for all |α| ≤ m. But this must
be a convergent subsequence in W m,r (U ) and this proves the corollary.
Theorem 40.44 Let U be a bounded open ¡ ¢ set having a (1, p) extension operator
and let p > n. Then id : W 1,p (U ) → C U is continuous and compact.
40.3. GENERAL EMBEDDING THEOREMS 1167
¡ ¢
Proof: Theorem 40.17 on Page 40.17 implies rU : W 1,p (Rn ) → C U is con-
tinuous and compact. Thus
||u||∞,U = ||Eu||∞,U ≤ C ||Eu||1,p,Rn ≤ C ||u||1,p,U .
This proves continuity. If S is a bounded set in W 1,p (U ) , then define S1 ≡

{Eu : u ∈ S} . Then S1 is a bounded set in W 1,p (Rn ) and so by Theorem 40.17
the set of restrictions to U, is precompact. However, the restrictions to U are just
the functions of S. Therefore, id is compact as well as continuous.
Corollary 40.45 Let p > n, let U be a bounded open set having a (1, p) extension
operator which also satisfies the segment
¡ ¢condition, and let m be a nonnegative
integer. Then id : W m+1,p (U ) → C m,λ U is continuous for all λ ∈ [0, 1 − np ] and
id is compact if λ < 1 − np .
Proof: Let uk → 0 in W m+1,p (U ) . Then it follows that for each |α| ≤ m,

D uk → 0 in W 1,p (U ) . Therefore,
α
E (Dα uk ) → 0 in W 1,p (Rn ) .

n
Then from Morrey’s inequality, 40.13 on Page 1144, if λ ≤ 1 − p and |α| = m
1− n
p −λ
ρλ (E (Dα uk )) ≤ C ||E (Dα uk )||1,p,Rn diam (U ) .
Therefore, ρλ (E (Dα uk )) = ρλ (Dα uk ) → 0. From Theorem 40.44 it follows that

for |α| ≤ m, ||Dα uk ||∞ → 0 and so ||uk ||m,λ → 0. This proves the claim about
continuity. The claim about compactness for λ < 1 − np follows from Lemma 40.20
id n ¡ ¢ id
on Page 1145 and this. (Bounded in W m,p (U ) → Bounded in C m,1− p U →
¡ ¢
Compact in C m,λ U .)
Theorem 40.46 Suppose jp < n < (j + 1) p and let m be a positive integer. Let
U be any bounded open set in Rn which has ¡a (1, p) extension operator
¡ ¢¢ for each
p ≥ 1 and the segment property. Then id ∈ L W m+j,p (U ) , C m−1,λ U for every
λ ≤ λ0 ≡ (j + 1) − np and if λ < (j + 1) − np , id is compact.
Proof: From Corollary 40.43 W m+j,p (U ) ⊆ W m,q (U ) where q is given by 40.34.

Therefore,
np
>n
n − jp
¡ ¢
and so by Corollary 40.45, W m,q (U ) ⊆ C m−1,λ U for all λ satisfying
(n − jp) n p (j + 1) − n n
0<λ<1− = = (j + 1) − .
np p p
The assertion
¡ ¢about compactness
¡ ¢ follows from the compactness of the embedding
of C m−1,λ0 U into C m−1,λ U for λ < λ0 , Lemma 40.20 on Page 1145.
40.4 More Extension Theorems

The theorem about the existence of a (1, p) extension is all that is needed to obtain
general embedding theorems for Sobolev spaces. However, a more general theory
is needed in order to tie the theory of Sobolev spaces presented thus far to a very
appealing description using Fourier transforms. First the problem of extending
W k,p (H) to W k,p (Rn ) is considered for H − a half space
H − ≡ {y ∈ Rn : yn < 0} . (40.35)
I am following Adams [1].
Lemma 40.47 Let H − be a half space as in 40.35. Let H + be the half space in
which yn < 0 is replaced with yn > 0. Also let (y0 , yn ) = y
½ + 0
u (y , yn ) if y ∈ H +
u (y0 , yn ) ≡ ,
u− (y0 , yn ) if y ∈ H −
³ ´ ³ ´
suppose u+ ∈ C ∞ H + and u− ∈ C ∞ H − , and that for l ≤ k − 1,
Dlen u+ (y0 , 0) = Dlen u− (y0 , 0) .

Then u ∈ W k,p (Rn ). Furthermore,
½ α + 0
α 0 D u (y , yn ) if y ∈ H +
D u (y , yn ) ≡
Dα u− (y0 , yn ) if y ∈ H −
Proof: Consider the following for φ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) and |α| ≤ k.
µZ Z ∞ Z Z 0 ¶
|α| + α 0 − α 0
(−1) u D φdyn dy + u D φdyn dy .
Rn−1 0 Rn−1 −∞
Integrating by parts, this yields

µZ Z ∞
|α| |β|
(−1) (−1) Dβ u+ Dαn en φdyn dy 0
Rn−1 0
Z Z 0 ¶
β − α n en 0
+ D u D φdyn dy
Rn−1 −∞
where β ≡ (α1 , α2 , · · ·αn−1 , 0) . Do integration by parts on the inside integral and

by assumption, the boundary terms will cancel and the whole thing reduces to
µZ Z ∞
|α| |β| α
(−1) (−1) (−1) n Dα u+ φdyn dy 0
Rn−1 0
Z Z 0 ¶
α − 0
+ D u φdyn dy
Rn−1 −∞
µZ Z ∞ Z Z 0 ¶
α + 0 α − 0
= D u φdyn dy + D u φdyn dy
Rn−1 0 Rn−1 −∞

40.4. MORE EXTENSION THEOREMS 1169
³ ´
Lemma 40.48 Let H − be the half space in 40.35 and let u ∈ C ∞ H − . Then
there exists a mapping,
³ ´
E : C ∞ H − → W k,p (Rn )
³ ´
and a constant, C which is independent of u ∈ C ∞ H − such that E is linear and
for all l ≤ k,
||Eu||l,p,Rn ≤ C ||u||l,p,H − . (40.36)
Proof: Define
½
0 u (x0 , xn ) if xn < 0
Eu (x , xn ) ≡ Pk 0
j=1 λj u (x , −jxn ) if xn ≥ 0
where the λj are chosen in such a way that for l ≤ k − 1,

 
k
X
Dlen u (x0 , 0) − Dlen  λj u (x0 , 0) = 0
j=1
so that Lemma 40.47 may be applied. Do there exist such λj ? It is necessary to

have the following hold for each r = 0, 1, · · ·, k − 1.
k
X r
(−j) λj Dren u (x0 , 0) = Dren u (x0 , 0) .
j=1
This is satisfied if
k
X r
(−j) λj = 1
j=1
for r = 0, 1, · · ·, k − 1. This is a system of k equations for the k variables, the λj .

The matrix of coefficients is of the form
 
1 1 1 ··· 1
 −1 −2 −3 ··· −k 
 
 1 4 9 ··· k2 
 
 .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . 
k k k k
(−1) (−2) (−3) ··· (−k)
This matrix has an inverse because its determinant is nonzero.
Now from Lemma 40.47, it follows from the above description of E that for
|α| ≤ k,
½ α
α 0 D u (x0 , xn ) if xn < 0
D (Eu) (x , xn ) ≡ Pk αn
j=1 λj (−j) (Dα u) (x0 , −jxn ) if xn ≥ 0
It follows that E is linear and there exists a constant, C independent of u such that
40.36 holds. This proves the lemma.
Corollary 40.49 Let H − be the half space of 40.35. There exists E with the prop-
erty that E : W l,p (H − ) → W l,p (Rn ) and is linear and continuous for each l ≤ k.
³ ´ ³ ´
Proof: This immediate from the density of Cc∞ H − in W k,p H − and
Lemma 40.48.
There is nothing sacred about a half space or this particular half space. It is
clear that everything works as well for a half space of the form
Hk− ≡ {x : xk < 0} .
Thus the half space featured in the above discussion is Hn− .
Corollary 40.50 Let {k1 , · · ·, kr } ⊆ {1, · · ·, n} where the ki are distinct and let
Hk−1 ···kr ≡ Hk−1 ∩ Hk−2 ∩ · · · ∩ Hk−r . (40.37)
¡ ¢
Then there exists E : W k,p Hk−1 ···kr → W k,p (Rn ) such that E is linear and con-
tinuous.
Proof: Follow the above argument with minor modifications to first extend
from Hk−1 ···kr to Hk−1 ···kr−1 and then from from Hk−1 ···kr−1 to Hk−1 ···kr−2 etc.
This easily implies the ability to extend off bounded open sets which near their
boundaries look locally like an intersection of half spaces.
Theorem 40.51 Let U be a bounded open set and suppose U0 , U1 , · · ·, Um are open
sets with the property that U ⊆ ∪m m
k=0 Uk , U0 ⊆ U, and ∂U ⊆ ∪k=1 Uk . Suppose also
n n
there exist one to one and onto functions, hk : R → R , hk (Uk ∩ U ) = Wk where
Wk equals the intersection of a bounded open set with a finite intersection of half
spaces, Hk−1 ···kr , as in 40.37 such that hk (∂U ∩ Uk ) ⊆ ∂Hk−1 ···kr . Suppose also that
for all |α| ≤ k − 1,
Dα hk and Dα h−1 k
exist and are Lipschitz continuous. Then there letting W be an open set which con-
tains U , there exists E : W k,p (U ) → W k,p (W ) such that E is a linear continuous
map from W l,p (U ) to W l,p (W ) for each l ≤ k.
Pm
Proof: Let ψ j ∈ Cc∞ (Uj ), ψ j (x) ∈ [0, 1] for all x ∈ Rn , and j=0 ψ j (x) = 1
¡ ¢∗
on U . This is a C ∞ partition of unity on U . By Theorem 40.14 h−1 j uψ j ∈
k,p −
W (W ) . By the assumption that hj (∂U ∩ Uj ) ⊆ ∂Hk1 ···kr , the zero extension of
¡ −1 ¢∗ j ¡ ¢
hj uψ j to the rest of Hk−1 ···kr results in an element of W k,p Hk−1 ···kr . Apply
¡ ¢
Corollary 40.50 to conclude there exists Ej : W k,p Hk−1 ···kr → W k,p (Rn ) which is
¡ −1 ¢∗
continuous and linear. Abusing notation slightly, by using hj uψ j as the above
³¡ ¢ ∗
´
zero extension, it follows Ej h−1 j uψ j ∈ W k,p (Rn ) . Now let η be a function in
¡ ¢
Cc∞ (h (W )) such that η (y) = 1 on h U . Then Define
m
X ³¡ ¢∗ ¡ ¢´
Eu ≡ h∗j ηEj h−1
j uψ j .
j=0
40.4. MORE EXTENSION THEOREMS 1171
Clearly Eu (x) = u (x) if x ∈ U. It is also clear that E is linear. It only remains

to verify E is continuous. In what follows, Cj will denote a constant which is
independent of u which may change from line to line. By Theorem 40.14,
m ¯¯
X ¯¯ ∗
³¡ ¢∗ ¡ ¢´¯¯¯¯
||Eu||k,p,W ≤ ¯¯hj ηEj h−1
j uψ j ¯¯
k,p,W
j=0
Xm ¯¯ ³¡ ¢∗ ¡ ¢´¯¯¯¯
¯¯
≤ Cj ¯¯ηEj h−1
j uψ j ¯¯
k,p,h(W )
j=0
Xm ¯¯ ³¡ ¢∗ ¡ ¢´¯¯¯¯
¯¯
= Cj ¯¯ηEj h−1
j uψ j ¯¯
k,p,Rn
j=0
Xm ¯¯ ³ ¡ ¢∗ ¡ ¢´¯¯¯¯
¯¯
≤ Cj ¯¯Ej h−1
j uψ j ¯¯
k,p,Rn
j=0
Xm ¯¯¡ ¢∗ ¡ ¢¯¯¯¯
¯¯
≤ Cj ¯¯ h−1
j uψ j ¯¯
k,p,hj (U ∩Uj )
j=0
Xm
¯¯ ¯¯
≤ Cj ¯¯uψ j ¯¯k,p,U ∩U
k
j=0
 
m
X m
X
≤ Cj ||u||k,p,U ∩Uk ≤  Cj  ||u||k,p,U .
j=0 j=0
Similarly E : W l,p (U ) → W l,p (U ) for l ≤ k. This proves the theorem.
Definition 40.52 When E is a linear continuous map from W l,p (U ) to W l,p (Rn )
for each l ≤ k. it is called a strong (k, p) extension map.
There is also a very easy sort of extension theorem for the space, W0m,p (U ) which
does not require any assumptions on the boundary of U other than mn (∂U ) = 0.
First here is the definition of W0m,p (U ) .
Definition 40.53 Denote by W0m,p (U ) the closure of Cc∞ (U ) in W m,p (U ) .
Theorem 40.54 For u ∈ W0m,p (U ) , define

½
u (x) if x ∈ U
Eu (x) ≡
0 if x ∈
/U
Then E is a strong (k, p) extension map.
Proof: Letting l ≤ m, it is clear that for |α| ≤ l,

½ α
α D u for x ∈ U
D Eu = .
0 for x ∈
/U
This follows
³ C´ because, since mn (∂U ) = 0 it suffices to consider φ ∈ Cc∞ (U ) and
∞
φ ∈ Cc U . Therefore, ||Eu||l,p,Rn = ||u||l,p,U .
There are many other extension theorems and if you are interested in pursuing
this further, consult Adams [1]. One of the most famous which is discussed in this
reference is due to Calderon and depends on the theory of singular integrals.
Sobolev Spaces Based On L2
41.1 Fourier Transform Techniques

Much insight can be obtained easily through the use of Fourier transform methods.
This technique will be developed in this chapter. When this is done, it is necessary
to use Sobolev spaces of the form W k,2 (U ) , those Sobolev spaces which are based
on L2 (U ) . It is true there are generalizations which use Fourier transform methods
in the context of Lp but the spaces so considered are called Bessel potential spaces.
They are not really Sobolev spaces. Furthermore, it is Mihlin’s theorem rather
than the Plancherel theorem which is the main tool of the analysis. This is a hard
theorem.
It is convenient to consider the Schwartz class of functions,S. These are func-
tions which have infinitely many derivatives and vanish quickly together with their
derivatives as |x| → ∞. In particular, Cc∞ (Rn ) is contained in S which is not true of
the functions, G used earlier in defining the Fourier transforms which are a suspace
of S. Recall the following definition.
Definition 41.1 f ∈ S, the Schwartz class, if f ∈ C ∞ (Rn ) and for all positive
integers N ,
ρN (f ) < ∞
where
2
ρN (f ) = sup{(1 + |x| )N |Dα f (x)| : x ∈ Rn , |α| ≤ N }.
Thus f ∈ S if and only if f ∈ C ∞ (Rn ) and
sup{|xβ Dα f (x)| : x ∈ Rn } < ∞ (41.1)
for all multi indices α and β.
Thus all partial derivatives of a function in S are in Lp (Rn ) for all p ≥ 1.

Therefore, for f ∈ S, the Fourier and inverse Fourier transforms are given in the
usual way,
µ ¶n/2 Z µ ¶n/2 Z
1 −it·x −1 1
F f (t) = f (x) e dx, F f (t) = f (x) eit·x dx.
2π Rn 2π Rn
1173
1174 SOBOLEV SPACES BASED ON L2
Also recall that the Fourier transform and its inverse are one to one and onto maps
from S to S.
To tie the Fourier transform technique in with what has been done so far, it is
necessary to make the following assumption on the set, U. This assumption is made
so that it is possible to consider elements of W k,2 (U ) as restrictions of elements of
W k,2 (Rn ) .
Assumption 41.2 Assume U satisfies the segment condition and that for any m of
m,p
interest,
¡ k,p there exists E∈¢ L (W (U ) , W m,p (Rn )) such that for each k ≤ m, E ∈
k,p n
L W (U ) , W (R ) . That is, there exists a stong (m, p) extension operator.
Lemma 41.3 The Schwartz class, S, is dense in W m,p (Rn ) .
Proof: The set, Rn satisfies the segment condition and so Cc∞ (Rn ) is dense in
m,p
W (Rn ) . However, Cc∞ (Rn ) ⊆ S. This proves the lemma.
Recall now Plancherel’s theorem which states that ||f ||0,2,Rn = ||F f ||0,2,Rn when-
ever f ∈ L2 (Rn ) . Also it is routine to verify from the definition of the Fourier
transform that for u ∈ S,
F ∂k u = ixk F u.
From this it follows that
||Dα u||0,2,Rn = ||xα F u||0,2,Rn .
Here xα denotes the function x → xα . Therefore,

 1/2
Z X 2
||u||m,2,Rn = x2α
1
1
· · · x2α
n
n
|F u (x)| dx .
Rn |α|≤m
Also, it is not hard to verify that

 m
X n
X X
x2α
1
1
· · · x2α
n
n
≤ 1 + x2j  ≤ C (n, m) x2α
1
1
· · · x2α
n
n
|α|≤m j=1 |α|≤m
where C (n, m) is the largest of the multinomial coefficients obtained in the expan-
sion,  m
X n
1 + x2j  .
j=1
Therefore, for all u ∈ S,

µZ ³ ´m ¶1/2
2 2
||u||m,2,Rn ≤ 1 + |x| |F u (x)| dx ≤ C (n, m) ||u||m,2,Rn . (41.2)
Rn
This motivates the following definition.

41.1. FOURIER TRANSFORM TECHNIQUES 1175
Definition 41.4 Let H m (Rn ) ≡

( µZ ¶1/2 )
³ ´m
2 n 2 2
u ∈ L (R ) : ||u||H m (Rn ) ≡ 1 + |x| |F u (x)| dx < ∞ . (41.3)
Rn
Lemma 41.5 S is dense in H m (Rn ) and H m (Rn ) = W 2,m (Rn ). Furthermore,

the norms are equivalent.
Proof: First it is´shown that S is dense in H m (Rn ) . Let u ∈ H m (Rn ) . Let

R ³ 2
m
µ (E) ≡ E 1 + |x| dx. Thus µ is a regular measure and u ∈ H m (Rn ) just
means that F u ∈ L2 (µ) , the space of functions which are in L2 (Rn ) with respect
to this measure, µ. Therefore, from the regularity of the measure, µ, there exists
uk ∈ Cc (Rn ) such that
||uk − F u||L2 (µ) → 0.
Now let ψ ε be a mollifier and pick εk small enough that
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯uk ∗ ψ ε − uk ¯¯ 2 < 1 .
k L (µ) 2k
Then uk ∗ ψ εk ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) ⊆ S. Therefore, there exists wk ∈ G such that F wk =
uk ∗ ψ εk . It follows
||F wk − F u||L2 (µ) ≤ ||F wk − uk ||L2 (µ) + ||uk − F u||L2 (µ)
and these last two terms converge to 0 as k → ∞. Therefore, wk → u in H m (Rn )

and this proves the first part of this lemma.
Now let u ∈ H m (Rn ) . By what was just shown, there exists a sequence, uk → u
in H m (Rn ) where uk ∈ S. It follows from 41.2 that
||uk − ul ||H m ≥ ||uk − ul ||m,2,Rn
and so {uk } is a Cauchy sequence in W m,2 (Rn ) . Therefore, there exists w ∈

W m,2 (Rn ) such that
||uk − w||m,2,Rn → 0.
But this implies
0 = lim ||uk − w||0,2,Rn = lim ||uk − u||0,2,Rn

k→∞ k→∞
showing u = w which verifies H m (Rn ) ⊆ W 2,m (Rn ) . The opposite inclusion is

proved the same way, using density of S and the fact that the norms in both spaces
are larger than the norms in L2 (Rn ). The equivalence of the norms follows from
the density of S and the equivalence of the norms on S. This proves the lemma.
The conclusion of this lemma with the density of S and 41.2 implies you can
use either norm, ||u||H m (Rn ) or ||u||m,2,Rn when working with these Sobolev spaces.
What of open sets satisfying Assumption 41.2? How does W m,2 (U ) relate to
the Fourier transform?
Definition 41.6 Let U be an open set in Rn . Then
H m (U ) ≡ {u : u = v|U for some v ∈ H m (Rn )} (41.4)
Here the notation, v|U means v restricted to U. Define the norm in this space by
n o
||u||H m (U ) ≡ inf ||v||H m (Rn ) : v|U = u . (41.5)
Lemma 41.7 H m (U ) is a Banach space.
Proof: First it is necessary to verify that the given norm really is a norm.
Suppose then that u = 0. Is ||u||H m (U ) = 0? Of course it is. Just take v ≡ 0.
Then v|U = u and ||v||H m = 0. Next suppose ||u||H m (U ) = 0. Does it follow that
u = 0? Letting ε > 0 be given, there exists v ∈ H m (Rn ) such that v|U = u and
||v||H m (Rn ) < ε. Therefore,
||u||0,U ≤ ||v||0,Rn ≤ ||v||H m (U ) < ε.
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, it follows u = 0 a.e. Next suppose ui ∈ H m (U ) for i = 1, 2.

There exists vi ∈ H m (Rn ) such that
||vi ||H m (Rn ) < ||ui ||H m (U ) + ε.
Therefore,
||u1 + u2 ||H m (U ) ≤ ||v1 + v2 ||H m (Rn ) ≤ ||v1 ||H m (Rn ) + ||v2 ||H m (Rn )
≤ ||u1 ||H m (U ) + ||u2 ||H m (U ) + 2ε
and since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this shows the triangle inequality.

The interesting question is the one about completeness. Suppose then {uk } is
a Cauchy sequence in H m (U ) . There exists Nk such that if k, l ≥ Nk , it follows
||uk − ul ||H m (U ) < 21k and the numbers, Nk can be taken to be strictly increasing in
k. Thus for l ≥ Nk , ||ul − uNk ||H m (U ) < 1/2l . Therefore, there exists wl ∈ H m (Rn )
such that
1
wl |U = ul − uNk , ||wl ||H m (Rn ) < l .
2
Also let vNk |U = uNk with vNk ∈ H m (Rn ) and
1
||vNk ||H m (Rn ) < ||uNk ||H m (U ) + .
2k
Now for l > Nk , define vl by vl − vNk = wNk so that ||vl − vNk ||H m (Rn ) < 1/2k . In
particular, ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯v N − vNk ¯¯H m (Rn ) < 1/2k
k+1
∞
which shows that {vNk }k=1 is a Cauchy sequence. Consequently it must converge
to v ∈ H m (Rn ) . Let u = v|U . Then
||u − uNk ||H m (U ) ≤ ||v − vNk ||H m (Rn )

41.1. FOURIER TRANSFORM TECHNIQUES 1177
which shows the subsequence, {uNk }k converges to u. Since {uk } is a Cauchy se-
quence, it follows it too must converge to u. This proves the lemma.
The main result is next.
Theorem 41.8 Suppose U satisfies Assumption 41.2. Then for m a nonnegative
integer, H m (U ) = W m,2 (U ) and the two norms are equivalent.
Proof: Let u ∈ H m (U ) . Then there exists v ∈ H m (Rn ) such that v|U = u.
Hence v ∈ W k,2 (Rn ) and so all its weak derivatives up to order m are in L2 (Rn ) .
Therefore, the restrictions of these weak derivitves are in L2 (U ) . Since U satisfies
the segment condition, it follows u ∈ W m,2 (U ) which shows H m (U ) ⊆ W m,2 (U ) .
Next take u ∈ W m,2 (U ) . Then Eu ∈ W m,2 (Rn ) = H m (Rn ) and this shows
u ∈ H m (U ) . This has shown the two spaces are the same. It remains to verify their
norms are equivalent. Let u ∈ H m (U ) and let v|U = u where v ∈ H m (Rn ) and
||u||H m (U ) + ε > ||v||H m (Rn ) .
Then recalling that ||·||H m (Rn ) and ||·||m,2,Rn are equivalent norms for H m (Rn ) ,
there exists a constant, C such that
||u||H m (U ) + ε > ||v||H m (Rn ) ≥ C ||v||m,2,Rn ≥ C ||u||m,2,U
Now consider the two Banach spaces,
³ ´ ³ ´
H m (U ) , ||·||H m (U ) , W m,2 (U ) , ||·||m,2,U .
³ ´
The above inequality shows since ε > 0 is arbitrary that id : H m (U ) , ||·||H m (U ) →
³ ´
W m,2 (U ) , ||·||m,2,U is continuous. By the open mapping theorem, it follows id
is continuous in the other direction. Thus there exists a constant, K such that
||u||H m (U ) ≤ K ||u||k,2,U . Hence the two norms are equivalent as claimed.
Specializing Corollary 40.43 and Theorem 40.46 starting on Page 1166 to the case
of p = 2 while also assuming more on U yields the following embedding theorems.
Theorem 41.9 Suppose m ≥ 0 and j is a nonnegative integer satisfying 2j <
n.¡ Also suppose U is an ¢ open set which satisfies Assumption 41.2. Then id ∈
L H m+j (U ) , W m,q (U ) where
2n
q≡ . (41.6)
n − 2j
If, in addition to the above, U is bounded and 1 ≤ r < q, then
¡ ¢
id ∈ L H m+j (U ) , W m,r (U )
and is compact.
Theorem 41.10 Suppose for j a nonnegative integer, 2j < n < 2 (j + 1) and let m
n
be a positive integer. Let¡U be any bounded open¡ ¢¢set in R which satisfies Assump-
tion 41.2. Then id ∈ L H m+j
(U ) , C m−1,λ
U for every λ ≤ λ0 ≡ (j + 1) − n2
n
and if λ < (j + 1) − 2 , id is compact.
41.2 Fractional Order Spaces

What has been gained by all this? The main thing is that H m+s (U ) makes sense
for any s ∈ (0, 1) and m an integer. You simply replace m with m + s in the above
for s ∈ (0, 1). This gives what is meant by H m+s (Rn )
Definition 41.11 For m an integer and s ∈ (0, 1) , let H m+s (Rn ) ≡

( µZ ³ ¶1/2 )
´m+s
2 n 2 2
u ∈ L (R ) : ||u||H m+s (Rn ) ≡ 1 + |x| |F u (x)| dx <∞ .
Rn
(41.7)
You could also simply refer to H t (Rn ) where t is a real number replacing the m + s
in the above formula with t but I want to emphasize the notion that t = m + s where
m is a nonnegative integer. Therefore, I will often write m + s. Let U be an open
set in Rn . Then
© ª
H m+s (U ) ≡ u : u = v|U for some v ∈ H m+s (Rn ) . (41.8)
Define the norm in this space by

n o
||u||H m+s (U ) ≡ inf ||v||H m+s (Rn ) : v|U = u . (41.9)
Lemma 41.12 H m+s (U ) is a Banach space.
Proof: Just repeat the proof of Lemma 41.7.

The theorem about density of S also remains true in H m+s (Rn ) . Just repeat
the proof of that part of Lemma 41.5 replacing the integer, m, with the symbol,
m + s.
Lemma 41.13 S is dense in H m+s (Rn ).
In fact, more can be said.
Corollary 41.14 Let U be an open set and let S|U denote the restrictions of func-
tions of S to U. Then S|U is dense in H t (U ) .
Proof: Let u ∈ H t (U ) and let v ∈ H t (Rn ) such that v|U = u a.e. Then since
S is dense in H t (Rn ) , there exists w ∈ S such that
||w − v||H t (Rn ) < ε.
It follows that
||u − w||H t (U ) ≤ ||u − v||H t (U ) + ||v − w||H t (U )

≤ 0 + ||v − w||H t (Rn ) < ε.
These fractional order spaces are important when trying to understand the trace
on the boundary. The Fourier transform description also makes it very easy to
establish interesting inequalities such as interpolation inequalities.
41.2. FRACTIONAL ORDER SPACES 1179
Lemma 41.15 Let 0 ≤ r < s < t. Then if u ∈ H t (Rn ) ,

θ 1−θ
||u||H s (Rn ) ≤ ||u||H r (Rn ) ||u||H t (Rn )
where θ is a positve number such that θr + (1 − θ) t = s.

Proof: This follows from Holder’s inequality applied to the measure µ given by
Z
2
µ (E) = |F u| dx
E
Thus
Z ³ ´s
2 2
1 + |x| |F u| dx
Z ³ ´rθ ³ ´(1−θ)t
2 2 2
= 1 + |x| 1 + |x| |F u| dx
µZ ³ ´r ¶θ µZ ³ ´(1−θ)t ¶1−θ
2 2 2 2
≤ 1 + |x| |F u| dx 1 + |x| |F u| dx
2θ 2(1−θ)
= ||u||H r (Rn ) ||u||H t (Rn ) .
Taking square roots yields the desired inequality.

Corollary 41.16 Let U be an open set satisfying Assumption 41.2 and let p < q
where p, q are two nonnegative integers. Also let t ∈ (p, q) . Then exists a constant,
C independent of u ∈ H q (U ) such that for all u ∈ H q (U ) ,
θ 1−θ
||u||H t (U ) ≤ C ||u||H p (U ) ||u||H q (U )
where θ is such that t = θp + (1 − θ) q.

Proof: Let E ∈ L (H q¡(U ) , H q (Rn )) such
¢ that for all positive integers, l less
than or equal to q, E ∈ L H l (U ) , H l (Rn ) . Then Eu|U = u and Eu ∈ H t (Rn ) .
Therefore, by Lemma 41.15,
θ 1−θ
||u||H t (U ) ≤ ||Eu||H t (Rn ) ≤ ||Eu||H p (Rn ) ||Eu||H q (Rn )
θ 1−θ
≤ C ||u||H p (U ) ||u||H q (U ) .
Now recall the very important Theorem 40.14 on Page 1143 which is listed here
for convenience.
Theorem 41.17 Let h : U → V be one to ¡ one¢ and onto where U and V are two
open sets. Also suppose that Dα h and Dα h−1 exist and are Lipschitz continuous
if |α| ≤ m − 1 for m a positive integer. Then
h∗ : W m,p (V ) → W m,p (U )
Is there something like this for the fractional order spaces? Yes there is. How-
ever, in order to prove it, it is convenient to use an equivalent norm for H m+s (Rn )
which does not depend explicitly on the Fourier transform. The following theorem
is similar to one in [28]. It describes the norm in H m+s (Rn ) in terms which are
free of the Fourier transform. This is also called an intrinsic norm [1].
Theorem 41.18 Let s ∈ (0, 1) and let m be a nonnegative integer. Then an equiv-
alent norm for H m+s (Rn ) is
2 2
X Z Z 2 −n−2s
|||u|||m+s ≡ ||u||m,2,Rn + |Dα u (x) − Dα u (y)| |x − y| dxdy.
|α|=m
Also if |β| ≤ m, there are constants, m (s) and M (s) such that
Z Z Z
2 ¯¯ β ¯¯2 2s ¯ β ¯
¯D u (x) − Dβ u (y)¯2 |x − y|−n−2s dxdy
m (s) |F u (z)| z |z| dz ≤
Z
2¯ ¯2 2s
≤ M (s) |F u (z)| ¯zβ ¯ |z| dz (41.10)
Proof: Let u ∈ S which is dense in H m+s (Rn ). The Fourier transform of the
function, y → Dα u (x + y) − Dα u (y) equals
¡ ix·z ¢
e − 1 F Dα u (z) .
Now by Fubini’s theorem and Plancherel’s theorem along with the above, taking
|α| = m, Z Z
2 −n−2s
|Dα u (x) − Dα u (y)| |x − y| dxdy
Z Z
2 −n−2s
= |Dα u (y + t) − Dα u (y)| |t| dtdy
Z Z
−n−2s 2
= |t| |Dα u (y + t) − Dα u (y)| dydt
Z Z
¯¡ it·z ¢ ¯2
= |t|
−n−2s ¯ e − 1 F Dα u (z)¯ dzdt
Z µZ ¶
−n−2s ¯¯¡ it·z ¢¯2
− 1 ¯ dt dz.
2
= |F Dα u (z)| |t| e (41.11)
Consider the inside integral, the one taken with respect to t.

µZ ¶
−n−2s ¯¯¡ it·z ¢¯2
G (z) ≡ |t| e − 1 ¯ dt .
The essential thing to notice about this function of z is that it is a positive real
number whenever z 6= 0. This is because for small |t| , the integrand is dominated
−n+2(1−s)
by C |t| . Changing to polar coordinates, you see that
Z
−n−2s ¯¯¡ it·z ¢¯2
|t| e − 1 ¯ dt < ∞
[|t|≤1]
−n−2s
Next, for |t| > 1, the integrand is bounded by 4 |t| , and changing to polar
coordinates shows
Z Z
−n−2s ¯¯¡ it·z ¢¯2
¯ −n−2s
|t| e − 1 dt ≤ 4 |t| dt < ∞.
[|t|>1] [|t|>1]
Now for α > 0,

Z
¯¡ it·αz ¢¯2
G (αz) =
−n−2s
|t| ¯ e − 1 ¯ dt
Z
−n−2s ¯¯¡ iαt·z ¢¯2
= |t| e − 1 ¯ dt
Z ¯ ¯−n−2s
¯r¯ ¯¡ ir·z ¢¯2 1
= ¯ ¯ ¯ e − 1 ¯ n dr
α α
Z
¯ ¡ ¢¯
= α2s |r|
−n−2s ¯ eir·z − 1 ¯2 dr = α2s G (z) .
Also G is continuous and strictly positive. Letting

0 < m (s) = min {G (w) : |w| = 1}
and
M (s) = max {G (w) : |w| = 1} ,
it follows from this, and letting α = |z| , w ≡ z/ |z| , that
³ ´
2s 2s
G (z) ∈ m (s) |z| , M (s) |z| .
More can be said but this will suffice. Also observe that for s ∈ (0, 1) and b > 0,
s s
(1 + b) ≤ 1 + bs , 21−s (1 + b) ≥ 1 + bs .
In what follows, C (s) will denote a constant which depends on the indicated quan-
tities which may be different on different lines of the argument. Then from 41.11,
Z Z
2 −n−2s
Z
2 2s
≤ M (s) |F Dα u (z)| |z| dz
Z
2 2 2s
= M (s) |F u (z)| |zα | |z| dz.
No referrence was made to |α| = m and so this establishes the top half of 41.10.
Therefore,
2 2
X Z Z 2 −n−2s
|||u|||m+s ≡ ||u||m,2,Rn + |Dα u (x) − Dα u (y)| |x − y| dxdy
|α|=m
Z ³ ´m Z X
2 2 2 2 2s
≤ C 1 + |z| |F u (z)| dz + M (s) |F u (z)| |zα | |z| dz
|α|=m
Recall that
 m
X n
X X
z12α1 · · · zn2αn ≤ 1 + zj2  ≤ C (n, m) z12α1 · · · zn2αn . (41.12)
|α|≤m j=1 |α|≤m
Therefore, where C (n, m) is the largest of the multinomial coefficients obtained in

the expansion,  m
X n
1 + zj2  .
j=1
Therefore,
2
|||u|||m+s
Z ³ ´m Z X
2 2 2 2 2s
≤ C 1 + |z| |F u (z)| dz + M (s) |F u (z)| |zα | |z| dz
|α|=m
Z ³ ´m+s Z ³ ´m
2 2 2 2 2s
≤ C 1 + |z| |F u (z)| dz + M (s) |F u (z)| 1 + |z| |z| dz
Z ³ ´m+s
2 2
≤ C 1 + |z| |F u (z)| dz = C ||u||H m+s (Rn ) .
It remains to show the other inequality. From 41.11,

Z Z
2 −n−2s
Z
2 2s
≥ m (s) |F Dα u (z)| |z| dz
Z
2 2 2s
= m (s) |F u (z)| |zα | |z| dz.
No reference was made to |α| = m and so this establishes the bottom half of 41.10.
2
|||u|||m+s
Z ³ ´m Z X
2 2 2 2 2s
≥ C 1 + |z| |F u (z)| dz + m (s) |F u (z)| |zα | |z| dz
|α|=m
Z ³ ´m Z ³ ´m
2 2 2 2 2s
≥ C 1 + |z| |F u (z)| dz + C |F u (z)| 1 + |z| |z| dz
Z ³ ´m ³ ´
2 2s 2
= C 1 + |z| 1 + |z| |F u (z)| dz
Z ³ ´m ³ ´s
2 2 2
≥ C 1 + |z| 1 + |z| |F u (z)| dz
Z ³ ´m+s
2 2
= C 1 + |z| |F u (z)| dz = ||u||H m+s (Rn ) .

With the above intrinsic norm, it becomes possible to prove the following version
of Theorem 41.17.
n n α
Lemma¡ 41.19
¢ Let h : R → R be one to one and onto. Also suppose that D h
α −1
and D h exist and are Lipschitz continuous if |α| ≤ m for m a positive integer.
Then
h∗ : H m+s (Rn ) → H m+s (Rn )
Proof: Let u ∈ S. From Theorem 41.17 and the equivalence of the norms in
W m,2 (Rn ) and H m (Rn ) ,
2 RRP 2 −n−2s
||h∗ u||H m (Rn ) + |α|=m |Dα h∗ u (x) − Dα h∗ u (y)| |x − y| dxdy
2 RRP 2 −n−2s
≤ C ||u||H m (Rn ) + |Dα h∗ u (x) − Dα h∗ u (y)| |x − y|
|α|=m dxdy
RRP ¯ ¡ β(α) ¢
2 ¯P ∗
= C ||u||H m (Rn ) + |α|=m ¯ |β(α)|≤m h D u gβ(α) (x)
¡ ¢ ¯2
−h∗ Dβ(α) u gβ(α) (y)¯ |x − y|
−n−2s
dxdy
R R P P ¯ ¡ ¢
2
≤ C ||u||H m (Rn ) + C ¯ ∗ Dβ(α) u gβ(α) (x)
|α|=m |β(α)|≤m h
¡ ¢ ¯2
−h∗ Dβ(α) u gβ(α) (y)¯ |x − y|
−n−2s
dxdy
(41.13)
A single term in the last sum corresponding to a given α is then of the form,
Z Z
¯ ∗¡ β ¢ ¡ ¢ ¯
¯h D u gβ (x) − h∗ Dβ u gβ (y)¯2 |x − y|−n−2s dxdy (41.14)
·Z Z
¯ ∗¡ β ¢ ¡ ¢ ¯
≤ ¯h D u (x) gβ (x) − h∗ Dβ u (y) gβ (x)¯2 |x − y|−n−2s dxdy +
Z Z ¸
¯ ∗¡ β ¢ ¡ ¢ ¯
¯h D u (y) gβ (x) − h∗ Dβ u (y) gβ (y)¯2 |x − y|−n−2s dxdy
· Z Z
¯ ∗¡ β ¢ ¡ ¢ ¯
≤ C (h) ¯h D u (x) − h∗ Dβ u (y)¯2 |x − y|−n−2s dxdy +
Z Z ¸
¯ ∗¡ β ¢ ¯
¯h D u (y)¯2 |gβ (x) − gβ (y)|2 |x − y|−n−2s dxdy .
Changing variables, and then using the names of the old variables to simplify the
notation,
· Z Z
¡ ¢ ¯¡ β ¢ ¡ ¢ ¯
≤ C h, h−1 ¯ D u (x) − Dβ u (y)¯2 |x − y|−n−2s dxdy +
Z Z ¸
¯ ∗¡ β ¢ ¯
¯h D u (y)¯2 |gβ (x) − gβ (y)|2 |x − y|−n−2s dxdy .
By 41.10,
Z
2¯ ¯2 2s
≤ C (h) |F (u) (z)| ¯zβ ¯ |z| dz
Z Z
¯ ∗¡ β ¢ ¯
+ ¯h D u (y)¯2 |gβ (x) − gβ (y)|2 |x − y|−n−2s dxdy.
In the second term, let t = x − y. Then this term is of the form

Z Z
¯ ∗¡ β ¢ ¯
¯h D u (y)¯2 |gβ (y + t) − gβ (y)|2 |t|−n−2s dtdy (41.15)
Z
¯ ∗¡ β ¢ ¯
≤ C ¯h D u (y)¯2 dy ≤ C ||u||2 m n . (41.16)
H (R )
because the inside integral equals a constant which depends on the Lipschitz con-
stants and bounds of the function, gβ and these things depend only on h. The
reason this integral is finite is that for |t| ≤ 1,
2 −n−2s 2 −n−2s
|gβ (y + t) − gβ (y)| |t| ≤ K |t| |t|
and using polar coordinates, you see
Z
2 −n−2s
|gβ (y + t) − gβ (y)| |t| dt < ∞.
[|t|≤1]
−n−2s
Now for |t| > 1, the integrand in 41.15 is dominated by 4 |t| and using polar
coordinates, this yields
Z Z
2 −n−2s −n−2s
|gβ (y + t) − gβ (y)| |t| dt ≤ 4 |t| dt < ∞.
[|t|>1] [|t|>1]
It follows 41.14 is dominated by an expression of the form

Z
2¯ ¯2 2s
C (h) |F (u) (z)| ¯zβ ¯ |z| dz + C ||u||H m (Rn )
2
and so the sum in 41.13 is dominated by

Z X ¯ ¯2
2
C (m, h) |F (u) (z)| |z|
2s ¯zβ ¯ dz + C ||u||2 m n
H (R )
|β|≤m
Z ³ ´s ³ ´m
2 2 2 2
≤ C (m, h) |F (u) (z)| 1 + |z| 1 + |z| dz + C ||u||H m (Rn )
2
≤ C ||u||H m+s (Rn ) .
This proves the theorem because the assertion about h−1 is obvious. Just replace
h with h−1 in the above argument.
Next consider the case where U is an open set.
Lemma 41.20 Let h (U ) ⊆ V where U and V are open subsets of Rn and sup-
pose that h, h−1 : Rn → Rn are both functions in C m,1 (Rn ) . Recall this means
Dα h and Dα h−1 exist and are Lipschitz continuous for all |α| ≤ m. Then h∗ ∈
L (H m+s (V ) , H m+s (U )).
Proof: Let u ∈ H m+s (V ) and let v ∈ H m+s (Rn ) such that v|V = u. Then
from the above, h∗ v ∈ H m+s (Rn ) and so h∗ u ∈ H m+s (U ) because h∗ u = h∗ v|U .
||h∗ u||H m+s (U ) ≤ ||h∗ v||H m+s (Rn ) ≤ C ||v||H m+s (Rn )
Since this is true for all v ∈ H m+s (Rn ) , it follows that
||h∗ u||H m+s (U ) ≤ C ||u||H m+s (V ) .
With harder work, you don’t need to have h, h−1 defined on all of Rn but I
don’t feel like including the details so this lemma will suffice.
Another interesting application of the intrinsic norm is the following.
Lemma 41.21 Let φ ∈ C m,1 (Rn ) and suppose spt (φ) is compact. Then there
exists a constant, Cφ such that whenever u ∈ H m+s (Rn ) ,
||φu||H m+s (Rn ) ≤ Cφ ||u||H m+s (Rn ) .
Proof: It is a routine exercise in the product rule to verify that ||φu||H m (Rn ) ≤
Cφ ||u||H m (Rn ) . It only remains to consider the term involving the integral. A typical
term is
Z Z
2 −n−2s
|Dα φu (x) − Dα φu (y)| |x − y| dxdy.
This is a finite sum of terms of the form

Z Z
¯ γ ¯
¯D φ (x) Dβ u (x) − Dγ φ (y) Dβ u (y)¯2 |x − y|−n−2s dxdy
where |γ| and |β| ≤ m.

Z Z
2¯ ¯2
|Dγ φ (x)| ¯Dβ u (x) − Dβ u (y)¯ |x − y|
−n−2s
≤ 2 dxdy
Z Z
¯ β ¯
+2 ¯D u (y)¯2 |Dγ φ (x) − Dγ φ (y)|2 |x − y|−n−2s dxdy
By 41.10 and the Lipschitz continuity of all the derivatives of φ, this is dominated
by
Z
2¯ ¯2 2s
CM (s) |F u (z)| ¯zβ ¯ |z| dz
Z Z
¯ β ¯
+K ¯D u (y)¯2 |x − y|2 |x − y|−n−2s dxdy
Z
2¯ ¯2 2s
= CM (s) |F u (z)| ¯zβ ¯ |z| dz
Z Z
¯ β ¯2
+K ¯ D u (y) ¯ |t|
−n+2(1−s)
dtdy
µZ Z ¶
2¯ ¯2 2s ¯ ¯2
≤ C (s) |F u (z)| ¯zβ ¯ |z| dz + K ¯Dβ u (y)¯ dy
Z ³ ´m+s
2 2
≤ C (s) 1 + |y| |F u (y)| dy.
Since there are only finitely many such terms, this proves the lemma.
Corollary 41.22 Let t = m + s for s ∈ [0, 1) and let U, V be open sets. Let
φ ∈ Ccm,1 (V ). This means spt (φ) ⊆ V and φ ∈ C m,1 (Rn ) . Then if u ∈ H t (U ) it
follows that uφ ∈ H t (U ∩ V ) and ||uφ||H t (U ∩V ) ≤ Cφ ||u||H t (U ) .
Proof: Let v|U = u a.e. where v ∈ H t (Rn ) . Then by Lemma 41.21, φv ∈

H (Rn ) and φv|U ∩V = φu a.e. Therefore, φu ∈ H t (U ∩ V ) and
t
||φu||H t (U ∩V ) ≤ ||φv||H t (Rn ) ≤ Cφ ||v||H t (Rn ) .
Taking the infimum for all such v whose restrictions equal u, this yields
||φu||H t (U ∩V ) ≤ Cφ ||u||H t (U ) .
41.3 Embedding Theorems

The Fourier transform description of Sobolev spaces makes possible fairly easy
proofs of various embedding theorems.
Definition 41.23 Let Cbm (Rn ) denote the functions which are m times continu-
ously differentiable and for which
sup sup |Dα u (x)| ≡ ||u||C m (Rn ) < ∞.

b
|α|≤m x∈Rn
¡ ¢
For U an open set, C m U denotes the functions which are restrictions of Cbm (Rn )
to U.
41.3. EMBEDDING THEOREMS 1187
It is clear this is a Banach space, the proof being a simple exercise in the use
of the fundamental theorem of calculus along with standard results about uniform
convergence.
Lemma 41.24 Let u ∈ S and let n2 + m < t. Then there exists C independent of
u such that
||u||C m (Rn ) ≤ C ||u||H t (Rn ) .
b
Proof: Using the fact that the Fourier transform maps S to S and the definition
of the Fourier transform,
|Dα u (x)| ≤ C ||F Dα u||L1 (Rn )

Z
= C |xα | |F u (x)| dx
Z ³ ´|α|/2
2
≤ C 1 + |x| |F u (x)| dx
Z ³ ´m/2 ³ ´−t/2 ³ ´t/2
2 2 2
≤ C 1 + |x| 1 + |x| 1 + |x| |F u (x)| dx
µZ ³ ´m−t ¶1/2 µZ ³ ´t ¶1/2
2 2 t
≤ C 1 + |x| dx 1 + |x| |F u (x)|
≤ C ||u||H t (Rn )
because for the given values of t and m the first integral is finite. This follows from
a use of polar coordinates. Taking sup over all x ∈ Rn and |α| ≤ m, this proves the
lemma.
Corollary 41.25 Let u ∈ H t (Rn ) where t > m + n2 . Then u is a.e. equal to a

function of Cbm (Rn ) still denoted by u. Furthermore, there exists a constant, C
independent of u such that
||u||C m (Rn ) ≤ C ||u||H t (Rn ) .

b
Proof: This follows from the above lemma. Let {uk } be a sequence of functions
of S which converges to u in H t and a.e. Then by the inequality of the above
lemma, this sequence is also Cauchy in Cbm (Rn ) and taking the limit,
||u||C m (Rn ) = lim ||uk ||C m (Rn ) ≤ C lim ||uk ||H t (Rn ) = C ||u||H t (Rn ) .
b k→∞ b k→∞
What about open sets, U ?
Corollary 41.26 Let t > m + n2 and let U be an open set with u ∈ H t (U ) . Then
¡ ¢
u is a.e. equal to a function of C m U still denoted by u. Furthermore, there exists
a constant, C independent of u such that
||u||C m (U ) ≤ C ||u||H t (U ) .
Proof: Let u ∈ H t (U ) and let v ∈ H t (Rn ) such that v|U = u. Then
||u||C m (U ) ≤ ||v||C m (Rn ) ≤ C ||v||H t (Rn ) .

b
Now taking the inf for all such v yields
||u||C m (U ) ≤ C ||u||H t (U ) .
41.4 The Trace On The Boundary Of A Half Space

It is important to consider the restriction of functions in a Sobolev space onto a
smaller dimensional set such as the boundary of an open set.
Definition 41.27 For u ∈ S, define γu a function defined on Rn−1 by γu (x0 ) ≡

u (x0 , 0) where x0 ∈ Rn−1 is defined by x = (x0 , xn ).
The following elementary lemma featuring trig. substitutions is the basis for the
proof of some of the arguments which follow.
Lemma 41.28 Consider the integral,

Z
¡ 2 ¢−t
a + x2 dx.
R
for a > 0 and t > 1/2. Then this integral is of the form Ct a−2t+1 where Ct is some
constant which depends on t.
Proof: Letting x = a tan θ,

Z Z π/2
¡ ¢−t
a2 + x2 dx = a−2t+1 cos2t−2 (θ) dθ
R −π/2
and since t > 1/2 the last integral is finite. This yields the desired conclusion and
proves the lemma.
Lemma 41.29 Let u ∈ S. Then there exists a constant, Cn , depending on n but

independent of u ∈ S such that
Z
F γu (x0 ) = Cn F u (x0 , xn ) dxn .
R
Proof: Using the dominated convergence theorem,

Z Z
2
F u (x0 , xn ) dxn ≡ lim e−(εxn ) F u (x0 , xn ) dxn
R ε→0 R
41.4. THE TRACE ON THE BOUNDARY OF A HALF SPACE 1189
Z µ ¶n/2 Z
1
e−i(x ·y +xn yn ) u (y0 , yn ) dy 0 dyn dxn
2 0 0
≡ lim e−(εxn )
ε→0 R 2π Rn
µ ¶n/2 Z Z
1 0 0 2
= lim u (y0 , yn ) e−ix ·y e−(εxn ) e−ixn yn dxn dy 0 dyn .
ε→0 2π Rn R
2 ¡ ¢2 y2
Now − (εxn ) − ixn yn = −ε2 xn + iy2n − ε2 4n and so the above reduces to an
expression of the form
Z Z Z
1 −ε2 yn2 0 0 0 0
lim Kn e 4 u (y0 , yn ) e−ix ·y dy 0 dyn = Kn u (y0 , 0) e−ix ·y dy 0
ε→0 R ε R n−1 Rn
= Kn F γu (x0 )
and this proves the lemma with Cn ≡ Kn−1 .

Earlier H t (Rn ) was defined and then for U an open subset of Rn , H t (U ) was
defined to be the space of restrictions of functions of H t (Rn ) to U and a norm
was given which made H t (U ) into a Banach space. The next task is to consider
Rn−1 ×{0} , a smaller dimensional subspace of Rn and examine the functions defined
on this set, denoted by Rn−1 for short which are restrictions of functions in H t (Rn ) .
You note this is somewhat different because heuristically, the dimension of the
domain of the function is changing. An open set in Rn is considered an n dimensional
thing but Rn−1 is only n−1 dimensional. I realize this is vague because the standard
definition of dimension requires a vector space and an open set is not a vector space.
However, think in terms of fatness. An open set is fat in n directions whereas Rn−1
is only fat in n − 1 directions. Therefore, something interesting is likely to happen.
Let S denote the Schwartz class of functions on Rn and S0 the Schwartz class of
functions on Rn−1 . Also, y0 ∈ Rn−1 while y ∈ Rn . Let u ∈ S. Then from Lemma
41.29 and s > 0,
Z ³ ´
2 s 2
1 + |y0 | |F γu (y0 )| dy 0
Rn−1
Z ³ ´ ¯Z ¯2
2 s ¯ ¯
= Cn 1 + |y0 | ¯ F u (y0 , yn ) dyn ¯ dy 0
¯ ¯
Rn−1 R
Z ³ ´s ¯Z ³ ´t/2 ³ ´−t/2 ¯2
0 2
¯ ¯
= Cn 1 + |y | ¯ F u (y0 , yn ) 1 + |y|2 1 + |y|
2
dyn ¯¯ dy 0
¯
Rn−1 R
Then by the Cauchy Schwarz inequality,

Z ³ ´ Z ³ ´t Z ³ ´−t
2 s 2 2 2
≤ Cn 1 + |y0 | |F u (y0 , yn )| 1 + |y| dyn 1 + |y| dyn dy 0 .
Rn−1 R R
(41.17)
Consider Z ³ Z ³
´−t ´−t
2 2
1 + |y| dyn = 1 + |y0 | + yn2 dyn
R R
³ ´1/2
2
by Lemma 41.28 and taking a = 1 + |y0 | , this equals
µ³ ´1/2 ¶−2t+1 ³ ´
0 2 2 (−2t+1)/2
Ct 1 + |y | = Ct 1 + |y0 | .
Now using this in 41.17,

Z ³ ´
2 s 2
1 + |y0 | |F γu (y0 )| dy 0
Rn−1
Z ³ ´ Z ³ ´t
2 s 2 2
≤ Cn,t 1 + |y0 | |F u (y0 , yn )| 1 + |y| dyn ·
Rn−1 R
³ ´
2 (−2t+1)/2
1 + |y0 | dy 0
Z ³ ´ Z ³ ´t
2 s+(−2t+1)/2 2 2
= Cn,t 1 + |y0 | |F u (y0 , yn )| 1 + |y| dyn dy 0 .
Rn−1 R
2
What is the correct choice of t so that the above reduces to ||u||H t (Rn ) ? It is clearly
the one for which
s + (−2t + 1) /2 = 0
which occurs when t = s + 12 . Then for this choice of t, the following inequality is
obtained for any u ∈ S.
||γu||H t−1/2 (Rn−1 ) ≤ Cn,t ||u||H t (Rn ) . (41.18)
This has proved part of the following theorem.
Theorem 41.30 For each t > 1/2 there exists a unique mapping
³ ¡ ¢´
γ ∈ L H t (Rn ) , H t−1/2 Rn−1
which has the property that for u ∈ S, γu (x0 ) = u (x0

¡ ,t−1/2
0) . In
¡ addition
¢ to this,
¢ γ is
onto. In fact, there exists a continuous map, ζ ∈ L H Rn−1 , H t (Rn ) such
that γ ◦ ζ = id.
Proof: It only remains to verify that γ is onto and that the continuous map, ζ
exists. Now define
³ ´t−1/2
2
1 + |y0 |
φ (y) ≡ φ (y0 , yn ) ≡ ³ ´t .
2
1 + |y|
Then for u ∈ S0 , let

ζu (x) ≡ CF −1 (φF u) (x) =
³ ´t−1/2
Z 1 + |y0 |
2
C eiy·x ³ 0
´t F u (y ) dy (41.19)
Rn 2
1 + |y|
Here the inside Fourier transform is taken with respect to Rn−1 because u is only
defined on Rn−1 and C will be chosen in such a way that γ ◦ ζ = id. First the
existence of C such that γ ◦ ζ = id will be shown. Since u ∈ S0 it follows
³ ´t−1/2
2
1 + |y0 |
0
y→ ³ ´t F u (y )
2
1 + |y|
is in S. Hence the inverse Fourier transform of this function is also in S and so
for u ∈ S0 , it follows ζu ∈ S. Therefore, to check γ ◦ ζ = id it suffices to plug in
xn = 0. From Lemma 41.28 this yields
γ (ζu) (x0 , 0)
³ ´t−1/2
Z 1 + |y0 |
2
0 0
= C eiy ·x ³
0
´t F u (y ) dy
Rn 2
1 + |y|
Z ³ ´t−1/2 0 0 Z
0 2 iy ·x 10 0
= C 1 + |y | e F u (y )
³ ´t dyn dy
Rn−1 R 1 + |y|2
Z ³ ´ ³ ´ −2t+1
2 t−1/2 iy0 ·x0 2 2
= CCt 1 + |y0 | e F u (y0 ) 1 + |y0 | dy 0
n−1
ZR
0 0 n/2
= CCt eiy ·x F u (y0 ) dy 0 = CCt (2π) F −1 (F u) (x0 )
Rn−1
³ ´−1
n/2
and so the correct value of C is Ct (2π) to obtain γ ◦ ζ = id. It only remains
to verify that ζ is continuous. From 41.19, and Lemma 41.28,
2
||ζu||H t (Rn )
Z ³ ´t
2 2
= 1 + |x| |F ζu (x)| dx
R n
Z ³ ´t ¯ ¡ ¢¯
= C2 1 + |x|
2 ¯F F −1 (φF u) (x) ¯2 dx
Rn
Z ³ ´t
2 2
= C2 1 + |x| |φ (x) F u (x0 )| dx
Rn
¯³ ´t−1/2 ¯2
Z ¯ ¯
³ ´t ¯ 1 + |x0 |2 ¯
2 ¯ 0 ¯
= C2 1 + |x| ¯ ³ ´t F u (x )¯ dx
Rn ¯ 2 ¯
¯ 1 + |x| ¯
Z ³ ´−t ¯¯³ ´t−1/2 ¯2

¯
= C2 1 + |x| ¯ 1 + |x0 |2
2
F u (x 0 ¯
)
n
¯ ¯ dx
ZR ³ ´ Z ³ ´−t
2 2t−1 2 2
= C2 1 + |x0 | |F u (x0 )| 1 + |x| dxn dx0
Rn−1 R
Z ³ ´ ³ ´ −2t+1
2 2 2t−1 2 2 2
= C Ct 1 + |x0 | |F u (x0 )| 1 + |y0 | dx0
Rn−1
Z ³ ´
2 2 t−1/2 2 2
= C Ct 1 + |x0 | |F u (x0 )| dx0 = C 2 Ct ||u||H t−1/2 (Rn−1 ) .
Rn−1
This proves the theorem because S is dense in Rn .

Actually, the assertion that γu (x0 ) = u (x0 , 0) holds for more functions, u than
just u ∈ S. I will make no effort to obtain the most general description of such
functions but the following is a useful lemma which will be needed when the trace
on the boundary of an open set is considered.
Lemma 41.31 Suppose u is continuous and u ∈ H 1 (Rn ) . Then there ¡ exists
¢ a set
of m1 measure zero, N such that if xn ∈/ N, then for every φ ∈ L2 Rn−1
Z xn
(γu, φ)H + (u,n (·, t) , φ)H dt = (u (·, xn ) , φ)H
0
where here Z
(f, g)H ≡ f gdx0 ,
Rn−1
¡ ¢
just the inner product in L2 Rn−1 . Furthermore,
u (·, 0) = γu a.e. x0 .
Proof: Let {uk } be a sequence of functions from S which ¡ converges
¢ to u in
H 1 (Rn ) and let {φk } denote a countable dense subset of L2 Rn−1 . Then
Z xn
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
γuk , φj H + uk,n (·, t) , φj H dt = uk (·, xn ) , φj H . (41.20)
0
Now
µZ ¯¡ ¶1/2
∞
¯ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¯¯2
¯ uk (·, xn ) , φj H − u (·, xn ) , φj H ¯ dxn
0
µZ ¯¡ ¶1/2
∞
¯ ¢ ¯¯2
= ¯ uk (·, xn ) − u (·, xn ) , φj H ¯ dxn
0
µZ ∞ ¶1/2
¯ ¯2
≤ |uk (·, xn ) −
2
u (·, xn )|H ¯φj ¯ dxn
H
0
µZ ∞ ¶1/2
¯ ¯2
= ¯φj ¯ |uk (·, xn ) − u (·, xn )|H dxn
2
H
0
µZ ∞ Z ¶1/2
¯ ¯2 2
= ¯φj ¯ 0 0
|uk (x , xn ) − u (x , xn )| dx dxn 0
H
0 Rn−1
which converges to zero. Therefore, there exists a set of measure zero, Nj and a
subsequence, still denoted by k such that if xn ∈ / Nj , then
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
uk (·, xn ) , φj H → u (·, xn ) , φj H .
¡ ¢
Now by Theorem 41.30, γuk → γu in H = L2 Rn−1 . It only remains to consider
the term of 41.20 which involves an integral.
¯Z x n Z xn ¯
¯ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¯
¯ uk,n (·, t) , φj H dt − u,n (·, t) , φj H dt¯¯
¯
Z 0xn ¯ 0
¯¡ ¢ ¯¯
≤ ¯ uk,n (·, t) − u,n (·, t) , φj H ¯ dt
Z0 xn
¯ ¯
≤ |uk,n (·, t) − u,n (·, t)|H ¯φj ¯H dt
0
µZ xn ¶1/2 µZ xn ¶1/2
¯ ¯2
≤ |uk,n (·, t) −
2
u,n (·, t)|H dt ¯φj ¯ dt
H
0 0
µZ xn Z ¶1/2
¯ ¯ 2
= x1/2
n
¯φ j ¯ 0 0
|uk,n (x , t) − u,n (x , t)| dx 0
dt
H
0 Rn−1
and this converges to zero as k → ∞. Therefore, using a diagonal sequence ar-

gument, there exists a subsequence, still denoted by k and a set of measure zero,
N ≡ ∪∞ j=1 Nj such that for x ∈
0
/ N, you can pass to the limit in 41.20 and obtain
that for all φj ,
Z xn
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
γu, φj H + u,n (·, t) , φj H dt = u (·, xn ) , φj H .
0
© ª ¡ ¢
By density of φj , this equality holds for all φ ∈ L2 Rn−1 . In particular, the
¡ n−1 ¢
equality holds for every φ ∈ Cc R . Since u is uniformly continuous on the
compact set, spt (φ) × [0, 1] , there exists a sequence, (xn )k → 0 such that the above
equality holds for xn replaced with (xn )k and φ in place of φj . Now taking k → ∞,
this uniform continuity implies
(γu, φ)H = (u (·, 0) , φ)H
¡ n−1 ¢ ¡ ¢
This implies since Cc R is dense in L2 Rn−1 that γu = u (·, 0) a.e. and this
proves the lemma.
Lemma 41.32 Suppose U is an open subset of Rn of the form
U ≡ {u ∈ Rn : u0 ∈ U 0 and 0 < un < φ (u0 )}
where U 0 is an open subset of Rn−1 and φ (u0 ) is a positive function such that
φ (u0 ) ≤ ∞ and
inf {φ (u0 ) : u0 ∈ U 0 } = δ > 0
Suppose v ∈ H t (Rn ) such that v = 0 a.e. on U. Then γv = 0 mn−1 a.e. point of
U 0 . Also, if v ∈ H t (Rn ) and φ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) , then γvγφ = γ (φv) .
Proof: First consider the second claim. Let v ∈ H t (Rn ) and let vk → v in
H (Rn ) where vk ∈ S. Then from Lemma 41.21 and Theorem 41.30
t
||γ (φv) − γφγv||H t−1/2 (Rn−1 ) = lim ||γ (φvk ) − γφγvk ||H t−1/2 (Rn−1 ) = 0
k→∞
because each term in the sequence equals zero due to the observation that for vk ∈ S
and φ ∈ Cc∞ (U ) , γ (φvk ) = γvk γφ.
Now suppose v = 0 a.e. on U . Define for 0 < r < δ, vr (x) ≡ v (x0 , xn + r) .
Claim: If u ∈ H t (Rn ) , then
lim ||vr − v||H t (Rn ) = 0.

r→0
Proof of claim: First of all, let v ∈ S. Then v ∈ H m (Rn ) for all m and so by
Lemma 41.15,
θ 1−θ
||vr − v||H t (Rn ) ≤ ||vr − v||H m (Rn ) ||vr − v||H m+1 (Rn )
where t ∈ [m, m + 1] . It follows from continuity of translation in Lp (Rn ) that

θ 1−θ
lim ||vr − v||H m (Rn ) ||vr − v||H m+1 (Rn ) = 0
r→0
and so the claim is proved if v ∈ S. Now suppose u ∈ H t (Rn ) is arbitrary. By

density of S in H t (Rn ) , there exists v ∈ S such that
||u − v||H t (Rn ) < ε/3.
Therefore,
||ur − u||H t (Rn ) ≤ ||ur − vr ||H t (Rn ) + ||vr − v||H t (Rn ) + ||v − u||H t (Rn )
= 2ε/3 + ||vr − v||H t (Rn ) .
Now using what was just shown, it follows that for r small enough, ||ur − u||H t (Rn ) <
ε and this proves the claim.
Now suppose v ∈ H t (Rn ) . By the claim,
||vr − v||H t (Rn ) → 0
and so by continuity of γ,
¡ ¢
γvr → γv in H t−1/2 Rn−1 . (41.21)
Note vr = 0 a.e. on
Ur ≡ {u ∈ Rn : u0 ∈ U 0 and − r < un < φ (u0 ) − r}
Let φ ∈ Cc∞ (Ur ) and consider φvr . Then it follows φvr = 0 a.e. on Rn .¢ Let
¡ n−1
t−1/2
w ≡ 0. Then w ∈ S and so γw = 0 = γ (φvr ) = γφγvr in H R . It
follows that for mn−1 a.e. x0 ∈ [φ 6= 0] ∩ Rn−1 , γvr (x0 ) = 0. Now let U 0 = ∪∞
k=1 Kk
where the Kk are compact sets such that Kk ⊆ Kk+1 and let φk ∈ Cc∞ (U ) such
that φk has values in [0, 1] and φk (x0 ) = 1 if x0 ∈ Kk . Then from what was just
shown, γvr = 0 for a.e. point of Kk . Therefore, γvr = 0 for mn−1 a.e. point in U 0 .
Therefore, since each γvr = 0, it follows from 41.21 that γv = 0 also. This proves
the lemma.
41.5. SOBOLEV SPACES ON MANIFOLDS 1195
Theorem 41.33 Let t > 1/2 and let U be of the form
{u ∈ Rn : u0 ∈ U 0 and 0 < un < φ (u0 )}
where U 0 is an open subset of Rn−1 and φ (u0 ) is a positive function such that
φ (u0 ) ≤ ∞ and
inf {φ (u0 ) : u0 ∈ U 0 } = δ > 0.
Then there exists a unique
³ ´
γ ∈ L H t (U ) , H t−1/2 (U 0 )
which has the property that if u = v|U where v is continuous and also a function of
H 1 (Rn ) , then γu (x0 ) = u (x0 , 0) for a.e. x0 ∈ U 0 .
Proof: Let u ∈ H t (U ) . Then u = v|U for some v ∈ H t (Rn ) . Define
γu ≡ γv|U 0
Is this well defined? The answer is yes because if vi |U = u a.e., then γ (v1 − v2 ) = 0
a.e. on U 0 which implies γv1 = γv2 a.e. and so the two different versions of γu
differ only on a set of measure zero.
If u = v|U where v is continuous and also a function of H 1 (Rn ) , then for a.e.
x0 ∈ Rn−1 , it follows from Lemma 41.31 on Page 1192 that γv (x0 ) = v (x0 , 0) .
Hence, it follows that for a.e. x0 ∈ U 0 , γu (x0 ) ≡ u (x0 , 0).
In particular, γ is determined by γu (x0 ) = u (x0 , 0) on S|U and the density of
S|U and continuity of γ shows γ is unique.
It only remains to show γ is continuous. Let u ∈ H t (U ) . Thus there exists
v ∈ H t (Rn ) such that u = v|U . Then
||γu||H t−1/2 (U 0 ) ≤ ||γv||H t−1/2 (Rn−1 ) ≤ C ||v||H t (Rn )
for C independent of v. Then taking the inf for all such v ∈ H t (Rn ) which are
equal to u a.e. on U, it follows
||γu||H t−1/2 (U 0 ) ≤ C ||v||H t (Rn )
and this proves γ is continuous.
41.5 Sobolev Spaces On Manifolds

41.5.1 General Theory
The type of manifold, Γ for which Sobolev spaces will be defined on is:
Definition 41.34 1. Γ is a closed subset of Rp where p ≥ n.

2. Γ = ∪∞
i=1 Γi where Γi = Γ ∩ Wi for Wi a bounded open set.
∞
3. {Wi }i=1 is locally finite.
4. There are open bounded sets, Ui and functions hi : Ui → Γi which are one to
one, onto, and in C m,1 (Ui ) . There exists a constant, C, such that C ≥ Lip hr
for all r.
5. There exist functions, gi : Wi → Ui such that gi is C m,1 (Wi ) , and gi ◦hi = id

on Ui while hi ◦ gi = id on Γi .
This will be referred to as a C m,1 manifold.
Lemma 41.35 Let gi , hi , Ui , Wi , and Γi be as defined above. Then
gi ◦ hk : Uk ∩ h−1 −1
k (Γi ) → Ui ∩ hi (Γk )
is C m,1 . Furthermore, the inverse of this map is gk ◦ hi .
Proof: First it is well to show it does indeed map the given open sets. Let
x ∈ Uk ∩h−1 k (Γi ) . Then hk (x) ∈ Γk ∩Γi and so gi (hk (x)) ∈ Ui because hk (x) ∈ Γi .
Now since hk (x) ∈ Γk , gi (hk (x)) ∈ hi−1 (Γk ) also and this proves the mappings do
what they should in terms of mapping the two open sets. That gi ◦hk is C m,1 follows
immediately from the chain rule and the assumptions that the functions gi and hk
are C m,1 . The claim about the inverse follows immediately from the definitions of
the functions.
∞
Let {ψ i }i=1 be a partition of unity subordinate to the open cover {Wi } satisfying
ψ i ∈ Cc (Wi ) . Then the following definition provides a norm for H m+s (Γ) .
∞
Definition 41.36 Let s ∈ (0, 1) and m is a nonnegative integer. Also let µ denote
the surface measure for Γ defined in the last section. A µ measurable function, u
∞
is in H m+s (Γ) if whenever {Wi , ψ i , Γi , Ui , hi , gi }i=1 is described above, h∗i (uψ i ) ∈
m+s
H (Ui ) and
Ã ∞
!1/2
X 2
||u||H m+s (Γ) ≡ ||h∗i (uψ i )||H m+s (Ui ) < ∞.
i=1
Are there functions which are in H m+s (Γ)? The answer is yes. Just take the
restriction to Γ of any function, u ∈ Cc∞ (Rm ) . Then each h∗i (uψ i ) ∈ H m+s (Ui )
and the sum is finite because spt u has nonempty intersection with only finitely
many Wi . © ª∞
It is not at all obvious this norm is well defined. What if Wi0 , ψ 0i , Γ0i , Ui , h0i , gi0 i=1
is as described above? Would the two norms be equivalent? If they aren’t, then
this is not a good way to define H m+s (Γ) because it would depend on the choice of
partition of unity and functions, hi and choice of the open sets, Ui . To begin with
∞
pick a particular choice for {Wi , ψ i , Γi , Ui , hi , gi }i=1 .
Lemma 41.37 H m+s (Γ) as just described, is a Banach space.

∞ ∞
Proof: Let {uj }j=1 be a Cauchy sequence in H m+s (Γ) . Then {h∗i (uj ψ i )}j=1
is a Cauchy sequence in H m+s (Ui ) for each i. Therefore, for each i, there exists
wi ∈ H m+s (Ui ) such that
lim h∗i (uj ψ i ) = wi in H m+s (Ui ) . (41.22)

j→∞
It is required to show there exists u ∈ H m+s (Γ) such that wi = h∗i (uψ i ) for each i.
Now from Corollary 39.14 it follows easily by approximating with simple func-
tions that for ever nonnegative µ measurable function, f,
Z ∞ Z
X
f dµ = ψ r f (hr (u)) Jr (u) du.
Γ r=1 gr Γr
Therefore,
Z ∞ Z
X
2 2
|uj − uk | dµ = ψ r |uj − uk | (hr (u)) Jr (u) du
Γ r=1 gr Γr
X∞ Z
2
≤ C ψ r |uj − uk | (hr (u)) du
r=1 gr Γr
∞
X 2
= C ||h∗r (ψ r |uj − uk |)||0,2,Ur
r=1
≤ C ||uj − uk ||H m+s (Γ)
and it follows there exists u ∈ L2 (Γ) such that
||uj − u||0,2,Γ → 0.
and a subsequence, still denoted by uj such that uj (x) → u (x) for µ a.e. x ∈ Γ. It
is required to show that u ∈ H m+s (Γ) such that wi = h∗i (uψ i ) for each i. First of
all, u is measurable because it is the limit of measurable functions. The pointwise
convergence just established and the fact that sets of measure zero on Γi correspond
to sets of measure zero on Ui which was discussed in the claim found in the proof
of Theorem 39.13 on Page 1129 shows that
h∗i (uj ψ i ) (x) → h∗i (uψ i ) (x)
a.e. x. Therefore,
h∗i (uψ i ) = wi
and this shows that h∗i (uψ i ) ∈ H m+s (Ui ) . It remains to verify that u ∈ H m+s (Γ) .
This follows from Fatou’s lemma. From 41.22,
2 2
||h∗i (uj ψ i )||H m+s (Ui ) → ||h∗i (uψ i )||H m+s (Ui )
and so
∞
X ∞
X
2 2
||h∗i (uψ i )||H m+s (Ui ) ≤ lim inf ||h∗i (uj ψ i )||H m+s (Ui )
j→∞
i=1 i=1
2
= lim inf ||uj ||H m+s (Γ) < ∞.
j→∞

In fact any two such norms are equivalent. This follows from the open map-
ping theorem. Suppose ||·||1 and ||·||2 are two such norms and consider the norm
||·||3 ≡ max (||·||1 , ||·||2 ) . Then (H m+s (Γ) , ||·||3 ) is also a Banach space and the
identity map from this Banach space to (H m+s (Γ) , ||·||i ) for i = 1, 2 is continuous.
Therefore, by the open mapping theorem, there exist constants, C, C 0 such that for
all u ∈ H m+s (Γ) ,
||u||1 ≤ ||u||3 ≤ C ||u||2 ≤ C ||u||3 ≤ CC 0 ||u||1
Therefore,
||u||1 ≤ C ||u||2 , ||u||2 ≤ C 0 ||u||1 .
This proves the following theorem.
Theorem 41.38 Let Γ be described above. Defining H t (Γ) as in Definition 41.36,

any two norms like those given in this definition are equivalent.
Suppose (Γ, Wi , Ui , Γi , hi , gi ) are as defined above where hi , gi are C m,1 func-

tions. Take W , an open set in Rp and define Γ0 ≡ W ∩ Γ. Then letting
Wi0 ≡ W ∩ Wi , Γ0i ≡ Wi0 ∩ Γ,
and
Ui0 ≡ gi (Γ0i ) = h−1 0
i (Wi ∩ Γ) ,
it follows that Ui0 is an open set because hi is continuous and (Γ0 , Wi0 , Ui0 , Γ0i , h0i , gi0 )
is also a C m,1 manifold if you define h0i to be the restriction of hi to Ui0 and gi0 to
be the restriction of gi to Wi0 .
As a case of this, consider a C m,1 manifold, Γ where (Γ, Wi , Ui , Γi , hi , gi ) are as
described in Definition 41.34 and the submanifold consisting of Γi . The next lemma
shows there is a simple way to define a norm on H t (Γi ) which does not depend on
dragging in a partition of unity.
Lemma 41.39 Suppose Γ is a C m,1 manifold and (Γ, Wi , Ui , Γi , hi , gi ) are as de-

scribed in Definition 41.34. Then for t ∈ [m, m + s), it follows that if u ∈ H t (Γ) ,
then u ∈ H t (Γk ) and the restriction map is continuous. Also an equivalent norm
for H t (Γk ) is given by
|||u|||t ≡ ||h∗k u||H t (Uk ) .
Proof: Let u ∈ H t (Γ) and let (Γk , Wi0 , Ui0 , Γ0i , h0i , gi0 ) be the sets and functions
which define what is meant by Γk being a C m,1 manifold as described in Definition © ª
41.34. Also let (Γ, Wi , Ui , Γi , hi , gi ) be pertain to Γ in the same way and let φj
be a C ∞ partition of unity for the {Wj }. Since the {Wi0 } are locally finite, only
finitely many can intersect Γk , say {W10 , · · ·, Ws0 } . Also
© ªonly finitely many of the Wi
can intersect Γk , say {W1 , · · ·, Wq } . Then letting ψ 0i be a C ∞ partition of unity
subordinate to the {Wi0 } .
∞
X ¯¯ 0∗ ¡ 0 ¢¯¯
¯¯hi uψ i ¯¯
H t (Ui0 )
i=1
¯¯  ¯¯
Xs ¯¯ q ¯¯
¯¯ 0∗ X ¯¯
= ¯¯h i  φ uψ 0 ¯¯
¯¯ j i ¯¯
i=1 ¯¯ j=1 ¯¯
H t (Ui0 )
q
s X
X ¯¯ 0∗ ¯¯
≤ ¯¯hi φj uψ 0i ¯¯
H t (Ui0 )
i=1 j=1
Xq X s
¯¯ 0∗ ¯¯
= ¯¯hi φj uψ 0i ¯¯
H t (Ui0 )
j=1 i=1
Xq X s
¯¯ ¯¯
= ¯¯(gj ◦ h0i )∗ h∗j φj uψ 0i ¯¯ t .
H (Ui0 )
j=1 i=1
By Lemma 41.20 on page 1185, there exists a single constant, C such that the above
is dominated by
q X
X s
¯¯ ∗ ¯¯
C ¯¯hj φj uψ 0i ¯¯ .
H t (Uj )
j=1 i=1
Now by Corollary 41.22 on Page 1186, this is no larger than
q X
X s q X
X s
¯¯ ∗ ¯¯ ¯¯ ∗ ¯¯
C C ψ 0i
¯¯hj φj u¯¯ ≤ C ¯¯hj φj u¯¯ t
H t (Uj ) H (U j)
j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1
Xq
¯¯ ∗ ¯¯
≤ C ¯¯hj φj u¯¯ t < ∞.
H (Uj )
j=1
This shows that u restricted to Γk is in H t (Γk ). It also shows that the restriction
map of H t (Γ) to H t (Γk ) is continuous.
Now consider the norm |||·|||t . For u ∈ H t (Γk ) , let (Γk , Wi0 , Ui0 , Γ0i , h0i , gi0 ) be
sets and functions which define an atlas for Γk . Since the {Wi0 } are locally finite,
only finitely many can have nonempty intersection with Γk , say {W1 , · · ·, Ws } . Thus
i ≤ s for some finite s. The problem is to compare |||·|||t with ||·||H t (Γk ) . As above,
© ª © ª
let ψ 0i denote a C ∞ partition of unity subordinate to the Wj0 . Then
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ s ¯¯
¯ ¯ X ¯¯
∗ ¯ ¯
|||u|||t ≡ ||hk u||H t (Uk ) = ¯¯hk∗ 0 ¯¯
ψ j u¯¯
¯¯ j=1 ¯¯ t
H (Uk )
s
X ¯¯ ∗ ¡ 0 ¢¯¯
≤ ¯¯hk ψ j u ¯¯
H t (Uk )
j=1
s ¯¯
X ¯¯¡ 0 ¢∗ ¡ 0 ¢¯¯¯¯
= ¯¯ gj ◦ hk h0∗
j ψ j u ¯¯
H t (Uk )
j=1
s
X ¯¯ 0∗ ¡ 0 ¢¯¯
≤ C ¯¯hj ψ j u ¯¯ .
H t (Uj0 )
j=1
 1/2
Xs
¯¯ 0∗ ¡ 0 ¢¯¯2
≤ C ¯¯hj ψ j u ¯¯  = ||u||H t (Γk ) .
H t (Uj0 )
j=1
where Lemma 41.20 on page 1185 was used in the last step. Now also, from Lemma
41.20 on page 1185
 1/2
Xs
¯¯ 0∗ ¡ 0 ¢¯¯2
||u||H t (Γk ) =  ¯¯hj ψ j u ¯¯ t 0 
H (Uj )
j=1
 1/2
s ¯¯
X ¯¯¡ ¢∗ ¡ ¢¯¯¯¯2
=  ¯¯ gk ◦ h0j h∗k ψ 0j u ¯¯ 
H t (Uj0 )
j=1
 1/2
s
X ¯¯ ∗ ¡ 0 ¢¯¯2
≤ C ¯¯h k ψ j u ¯¯ 
H t (Uk )
j=1
 1/2
s
X 2
≤ C ||h∗k u||H t (Uk )  = Cs ||h∗k u||H t (Uk ) = |||u|||t .
j=1
41.5.2 The Trace On The Boundary

Definition 41.40 A bounded open subset, Ω, of Rn has a C m,1 boundary if it sat-
isfies the following conditions. For each p ∈ Γ ≡ Ω \ Ω, there exists an open set, W ,
containing p, an open interval (0, b), a bounded open box U 0 ⊆ Rn−1 , and an affine
orthogonal transformation, RW consisting of a distance preserving linear transfor-
mation followed by a translation such that
RW W = U 0 × (0, b), (41.23)
RW (W ∩ Ω) = {u ∈ Rn : u0 ∈ U 0 , 0 < un < φW (u0 )} ≡ UW (41.24)

¡ ¢
where φW ∈ C m,1 U 0 meaning¡ φW ¢is the restriction to U 0 of a function, still
denoted by φW which is in C m,1 Rn−1 and
inf {φW (u0 ) : u0 ∈ U 0 } > 0
The following picture depicts the situation.
¶ ZZ b
¶ W Z
¶ ZZ
¶ ¶
¶ T T
Z Ω W ¶ R RW (Ω W)
Z ¶ -
Z ¶ 0
Z
Z¶ u0 ∈ U 0
For the situation described in the above definition, let hW : U 0 → Γ ∩ W be

defined by
−1 0 −1
hW (u0 ) ≡ RW (u0 , φW (u0 )) , gW (x) ≡ (RW x) , HW (u) ≡ RW (u0 , φW (u0 ) − un ) .
where x0 ≡ (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) for x = (x1 , · · ·, xn ). Thus gW ◦ hW = id on U 0 and
hW ◦ gW = id on Γ ∩ W. Also note that HW is defined on all of Rn is C m,1 , and has
an inverse with the same properties. To see this, let GW (u) = (u0 , φW (u0 ) − un ) .
−1
Then HW = RW ◦ GW and G−1 0 0 −1 −1
W = (u , φW (u ) − un ) and so HW = GW ◦ RW .
Note also that as indicated in the picture,
RW (W ∩ Ω) = {u ∈ Rn : u0 ∈ U 0 and 0 < un < φW (u0 )} .
Since Γ = ∂Ω is compact, there exist finitely many of these open sets, W, denoted
q
by {Wi }i=1 such that Γ ⊆ ∪qi=1 Wi . Let the corresponding sets, U 0 be denoted by Ui0
q
and let the functions, φ be denoted by φi . Also let hi = hWi etc. Now let {ψ i }i=1
∞ q t
be a C partition of unity subordinate to the {Wi }i=1 . If u ∈ H (Ω) , then by
Corollary 41.22 on Page 1186 it follows that uψ i ∈ H t (Wi ∩ Ω) . Now
Hi : Ui ≡ {u ∈ Rn : u0 ∈ Ui0 , 0 < un < φi (u0 )} → Wi ∩ Ω
and Hi and its inverse are defined on Rn and are in C m,1 (Rn ) . Therefore, by
Lemma 41.20 on Page 1185,
¡ ¢
H∗i ∈ L H t (Wi ∩ Ω) , H t (Ui ) .
Now it is possible to define the trace on Γ ≡ ∂Ω. For u ∈ H t (Ω) ,
q
X
γu ≡ gi∗ (γH∗i (uψ i )) . (41.25)
i=1
I must show it satisfies what it should. Recall the definition of what it means for a
function to be in H t−1/2 (Γ) where t = m + s.
Definition 41.41 Let s ∈ (0, 1) and m is a nonnegative integer. Also let µ denote
the surface measure for Γ. A µ measurable function, u is in H m+s (Γ) if whenever
∞
{Wi , ψ i , Γi , Ui , hi , gi }i=1 is described above, h∗i (uψ i ) ∈ H m+s (Ui ) and
Ã ∞
!1/2
X 2
||u||H m+s (Γ) ≡ ||h∗i (uψ i )||H m+s (Ui ) < ∞.
i=1
Recall that all these norms which are obtained from various partitions of unity
and functions, hi and gi are equivalent. Here there are only finitely many Wi so
the sum is a finite sum. The theorem is the following.
Theorem 41.42 Let Ω be a bounded open set having C m,1 boundary as discussed
above in Definition 41.40. Then for t ≤ m + 1, there exists a unique
³ ´
γ ∈ L H t (Ω) , H t−1/2 (Γ)
which has the property that for µ the measure on the boundary,
γu (x) = u (x) for µ a.e. x ∈ Γwhenever u ∈ S|Ω . (41.26)

¡ t ¢
Proof: First consider the claim that γ ∈ L H (Ω) , H t−1/2 (Γ) . This involves
first showing that for u ∈ H t (Ω) , γu ∈ H t−1/2 (Γ) . To do this, use the above
definition.
q
X
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
h∗j ψ j (γu) = h∗j ψ j gi∗ (γH∗i (uψ i ))
i=1
q
X ¡ ¢¡ ∗ ∗ ¢
= h∗j ψ j hj (gi (γH∗i (uψ i )))
i=1
q
X ¡ ¢ ∗
= h∗j ψ j (gi ◦ hj ) (γH∗i (uψ i )) (41.27)
i=1
First note that

γH∗i (uψ i ) ∈ H t−1/2 (Ui0 )
¡ ¢
Now gi ◦ hj and its inverse, gj ◦ hi are both functions in C m,1 Rn−1 and
gi ◦ hj : Uj0 → Ui0 .
Therefore, by Lemma 41.20 on Page 1185,

∗ ¡ ¢
(gi ◦ hj ) (γH∗i (uψ i )) ∈ H t−1/2 Uj0
and ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯(gi ◦ hj )∗ (γH∗i (uψ i ))¯¯ ≤ Cij ||γH∗i (uψ i )||H t−1/2 (U 0 ) .
H t−1/2 (Uj0 ) i
¡ ¢
Also h∗j ψ j ∈ C m,1 Uj0 and has compact support in Uj0 and so by Corollary 41.22
on Page 1186 ¡ ∗ ¢ ¡ ¢
∗
hj ψ j (gi ◦ hj ) (γH∗i (uψ i )) ∈ H t−1/2 Uj0
and ¯¯¡ ∗ ¢ ¯¯
¯¯ hj ψ j (gi ◦ hj )∗ (γH∗i (uψ i ))¯¯
H t−1/2 (Uj0 )
¯¯ ¯¯
≤ Cij ¯¯(gi ◦ hj ) (γH∗i (uψ i ))¯¯H t−1/2 (U 0 )
∗
(41.28)
j
≤ Cij ||γH∗i (uψ i )||H t−1/2 (U 0 ) . (41.29)

i
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
This shows γu ∈ H t−1/2 (Γ) because each h∗j ψ j (γu) ∈ H t−1/2 Uj0 . Also
from 41.29 and 41.27
q
X ¯¯ ∗ ¡ ¢¯¯
2
||γu||H t−1/2 (Γ) ≤ ¯¯hj ψ j (γu) ¯¯2
H t−1/2 (Uj0 )
j=1
q
X ¯¯ ∗ ¡ ¢¯¯
= ¯¯hj ψ j (γu) ¯¯2
H t−1/2 (Uj0 )
j=1
¯¯ q
q ¯¯X
¯¯2
X ¡ ∗ ¢ ¯¯
¯¯ ∗ ∗ ¯¯
= ¯¯ hj ψ j (gi ◦ hj ) (γHi (uψ i ))¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
j=1 i=1 H t−1/2 (Uj0 )
q X
X q
¯¯¡ ∗ ¢ ¯¯
≤ Cq ¯¯ hj ψ j (gi ◦ hj )∗ (γH∗i (uψ i ))¯¯2
H t−1/2 (Uj0 )
j=1 i=1
q X
X q
2
≤ Cq Cij ||(γH∗i (uψ i ))||H t−1/2 (U 0 )
i
j=1 i=1
Xq
2
≤ Cq ||(γH∗i (uψ i ))||H t−1/2 (U 0 )
i
i=1
q
X 2
≤ Cq ||H∗i (uψ i )||H t (Ri (Wi ∩Ω))
i=1
q
X 2 2
≤ Cq ||uψ i ||H t (Wi ∩Ω) ≤ Cq ||u||H t (Ω) .
i=1
Does γ satisfy 41.26? Let x ∈ Γ and u ∈ S|Ω . Let
Ix ≡ {i ∈ {1, 2, · · ·, q} : x = hi (u0i ) for some u0i ∈ Ui0 } .

Then
X
γu (x) = (γH∗i (uψ i )) (gi (x))
i∈Ix
X
= (γH∗i (uψ i )) (gi (hi (u0i )))
i∈Ix
X
= (γH∗i (uψ i )) (u0i ) .
i∈Ix
Now because Hi is Lipschitz continuous and uψ ∈ S, it follows that H∗i (uψ i ) ∈

H 1 (Rn ) and is continuous and so by Theorem 41.33 on Page 1195 for a.e. u0i ,
X
= H∗i (uψ i ) (u0i , 0)
i∈Ix
X
= h∗i (uψ i ) (u0i )
i∈Ix
X
= (uψ i ) (hi (u0i )) = u (x) for µ a.e.x. (41.30)
i∈Ix
This verifies 41.26 and completes the proof of the theorem.

Weak Solutions
42.1 The Lax Milgram Theorem

The Lax Milgram theorem is a fundamental result which is useful for obtaining
weak solutions to many types of partial differential equations. It is really a general
theorem in functional analysis.
Definition 42.1 Let A ∈ L (V, V 0 ) where V is a Hilbert space. Then A is said to

be coercive if
2
A (v) (v) ≥ δ ||v||
for some δ > 0.
Theorem 42.2 (Lax Milgram) Let A ∈ L (V, V 0 ) be coercive. Then A maps one to
one and onto.
Proof: The proof that A is onto involves showing A (V ) is both dense and
closed.
Consider first the claim that A (V ) is closed. Let Axn → y ∗ ∈ V 0 . Then
2
δ ||xn − xm ||V ≤ ||Axn − Axm ||V 0 ||xn − xm ||V .
Therefore, {xn } is a Cauchy sequence in V. It follows xn → x ∈ V and since A is

continuous, Axn → Ax. This shows A (V ) is closed.
Now let R : V → V 0 denote the Riesz map defined by Rx (y) = (y, x) . Recall
that the Riesz map is one to one, onto, and preserves norms. Therefore, R−1 (A (V ))
¡ ¢⊥
is a closed subspace of V. If there R−1 (A (V )) 6= V, then R−1 (A (V )) 6= {0} .
¡ −1 ¢⊥
Let x ∈ R (A (V )) and x 6= 0. Then in particular,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ 2
0 = x, R−1 Ax = R R−1 (A (x)) (x) = A (x) (x) ≥ δ ||x||V ,
a contradiction to x 6= 0. Therefore, R−1 (A (V )) = V and so A (V ) = R (V ) = V 0 .

Since A (V ) is both closed and dense, A (V ) = V 0 . This shows A is onto.
2
If Ax = Ay, then 0 = A (x − y) (x − y) ≥ δ ||x − y||V , and this shows A is one
to one. This proves the theorem.
1205
1206 WEAK SOLUTIONS
Here is a simple example which illustrates the use of the above theorem. In the
example the repeated index summation convention is being used. That is, you sum
over the repeated indices.
Example 42.3 Let U be an open subset of Rn and let V be a closed subspace of

H 1 (U ) . Let αij ∈ L∞ (U ) for i, j = 1, 2, · · ·, n. Now define A : V → V 0 by
Z
¡ ij ¢
A (u) (v) ≡ α (x) u,i (x) v,j (x) + u (x) v (x) dx.
U
Suppose also that

2
αij vi vj ≥ δ |v|
whenever v ∈ Rn . Then A maps V to V 0 one to one and onto.
Here is why. It is obvious that A is in L (V, V 0 ) . It only remains to verify that

it is coercive.
Z
¡ ij ¢
A (u) (u) ≡ α (x) u,i (x) u,j (x) + u (x) u (x) dx
ZU
2 2
≥ δ |∇u (x)| + |u (x)| dx
U
2
≥ δ ||u||H 1 (U )
This proves coercivity and verifies the claim.

What has been obtained in the above example? This depends on how you
choose V. In Example 42.3 suppose U is a bounded open set with C 0,1 boundary
and V = H01 (U ) where
© ª
H01 (U ) ≡ u ∈ H 1 (U ) : γu = 0 .
Also suppose f ∈ L2 (U ) . Then you can consider F ∈ V 0 by defining

Z
F (v) ≡ f (x) v (x) dx.
U
According to the Lax Milgram theorem and the verification of its conditions in
Example 42.3, there exists a unique solution to the problem of finding u ∈ H01 (U )
such that for all v ∈ H01 (U ) ,
Z Z
¡ ij ¢
α (x) u,i (x) v,j (x) + u (x) v (x) dx = f (x) v (x) dx (42.1)
U U
In particular, this holds for all v ∈ Cc∞

(U ) . Thus for all such v,
Z ³ ´
¡ ¢
− αij (x) u,i (x) ,j + u (x) − f (x) v (x) dx = 0.
U
Therefore, in terms of weak derivatives,

¡ ¢
− αij u,i ,j + u = f
42.1. THE LAX MILGRAM THEOREM 1207
and since u ∈ H01 (U ) , it must be the case that γu = 0 on ∂U. This is why the
solution to 42.1 is referred to as a weak solution to the boundary value problem
¡ ¢
− αij (x) u,i (x) ,j + u (x) = f (x) , u = 0 on ∂U.
Of course you then begin to ask the important question whether ¡ u really has¢ two
derivatives. It is not immediately clear that just because − αij (x) u,i (x) ,j ∈
L2 (U ) it follows that the second derivatives of u exist. Actually this will often be
true and is discussed somewhat in the next section.
Next suppose you choose V = H 1 (U ) and let g ∈ H 1/2 (∂U ). Define F ∈ V 0 by
Z Z
F (v) ≡ f (x) v (x) dx + g (x) γv (x) dµ.
U ∂U
Everything works the same way and you get the existence of a unique u ∈ H 1 (U )
such that for all v ∈ H 1 (U ) ,
Z Z Z
¡ ij ¢
α (x) u,i (x) v,j (x) + u (x) v (x) dx = f (x) v (x) dx + g (x) γv (x) dµ
U U ∂U
(42.2)
is satisfied. It you pretend u has all second order derivatives in L2 (U ) and apply
the divergence theorem, you find that you have obtained a weak solution to
¡ ¢
− αij u,i ,j + u = f, αij u,i nj = g on ∂U
where nj is the j th component of n, the unit outer normal. Therefore, u is a weak

solution to the above boundary value problem.
The conclusion is that the Lax Milgram theorem gives a way to obtain existence
and uniqueness of weak solutions to various boundary value problems. The following
theorem is often very useful in establishing coercivity. To prove this theorem, here
is a definition.
Definition 42.4 Let U be an open set and δ > 0. Then
© ¡ ¢ ª
Uδ ≡ x ∈ U : dist x,U C > δ .
Theorem 42.5 Let U be a connected bounded open set having C 0,1 boundary such
that for some sequence, η k ↓ 0,
U = ∪∞
k=1 Uη k (42.3)
and Uηk is a connected open set. Suppose Γ ⊆ ∂U has positive surface measure and
that © ª
V ≡ u ∈ H 1 (U ) : γu = 0 a.e. on Γ .
Then the norm |||·||| given by
µZ ¶1/2
2
|||u||| ≡ |∇u| dx
U
is equivalent to the usual norm on V.

1208 WEAK SOLUTIONS
Proof: First it is necessary to verify this is actually a norm. It clearly satisfies

all the usual axioms of a norm except for the condition that |||u||| = 0 if and only
if u = 0. Suppose then that |||u||| = 0. Let δ 0 = η k for one of those η k mentioned
above and define Z
uδ (x) ≡ u (x − y) φδ (y) dy
B(0,δ)
where φδ is a mollifier having support in B (0, δ) . Then changing the variables, it

follows that for x ∈ Uδ0
Z Z
uδ (x) = u (t) φδ (x − t) dt = u (t) φδ (x − t) dt
B(x,δ) U
and so uδ ∈ C ∞ (Uδ0 ) and

Z Z
∇uδ (x) = u (t) ∇φδ (x − t) dt = ∇u (x − y) φδ (y) dy = 0.
U B(0,δ)
Therefore, uδ equals a constant on Uδ0 because Uδ0 is a connected open set and
uδ is a smooth function defined on this set which has its gradient equal to 0. By
Minkowski’s inequality,
ÃZ !1/2 Z ÃZ !1/2
2 2
|u (x) − uδ (x)| dx ≤ φδ (y) |u (x) − u (x − y)| dx dy
Uδ0 B(0,δ) Uδ 0
and this converges to 0 as δ → 0 by continuity of translation in L2 . It follows

there exists a sequence of constants, cδ ≡ uδ (x) such that {cδ } converges to u in
L2 (Uδ0 ) . Consequently, a subsequence, still denoted by uδ , converges to u a.e. By
Eggoroff’s theorem there exists a set, Nk having measure no more than 3−k mn (Uδ0 )
such that uδ converges to u uniformly on NkC . Thus u is constant on NkC . Now
P 1 ∞
k mn (Nk ) ≤ 2 mn (Uδ 0 ) and so there exists x0 ∈ Uδ 0 \ ∪k=1 Nk . Therefore, if
x∈ / Nk it follows u (x) = u (x0 ) and so, if u (x) 6= u (x0 ) it must be the case that
x ∈ ∩∞ k=1 Nk , a set of measure zero. This shows that u equals a constant a.e. on
Uδ0 = Uηk . Since k is arbitrary, 42.3 shows u is a.e. equal to a constant on U.
Therefore, u equals the restriction of a function of S to U and so γu equals this
constant in L2 (∂Ω) . Since the surface measure of Γ is positive, the constant must
equal zero. Therefore, |||·||| is a norm.
It remains to verify that it is equivalent to the usual norm. It is clear that
|||u||| ≤ ||u||1,2 . What about the other direction? Suppose it is not true that for
some constant, K, ||u||1,2 ≤ K |||u||| . Then for every k ∈ N, there exists uk ∈ V
such that
||uk ||1,2 > k |||uk ||| .
Replacing uk with uk / ||uk ||1,2 , it can be assumed that ||uk ||1,2 = 1 for all k.
Therefore, using the compactness of the embedding of H 1 (U ) into L2 (U ) , there
42.1. THE LAX MILGRAM THEOREM 1209
exists a subsequence, still denoted by uk such that

uk → u weakly in V, (42.4)
uk → u strongly in L2 (U ) , (42.5)
|||uk ||| → 0, (42.6)
uk → u weakly in (V, |||·|||) . (42.7)
From 42.6 and 42.7, it follows u = 0. Therefore, |uk |L2 (U ) → 0. This with 42.6
contradicts the fact that ||uk ||1,2 = 1 and this proves the equivalence of the two
norms.
The proof of the above theorem yields the following interesting corollary.
Corollary 42.6 Let U be a connected open set with the property that for some
sequence, η k ↓ 0,
U = ∪∞k=1 Uη k
for Uηk a connected open set and suppose u ∈ W 1,p (U ) and ∇u = 0 a.e. Then u
equals a constant a.e.
Example 42.7 Let U be a bounded open connected subset of Rn and let V be a
closed subspace of H 1 (U ) defined by
© ª
V ≡ u ∈ H 1 (U ) : γu = 0 on Γ
where the surface measure of Γ is positive.
Let αij ∈ L∞ (U ) for i, j = 1, 2, · · ·, n and define A : V → V 0 by
Z
A (u) (v) ≡ αij (x) u,i (x) v,j (x) dx.
U
for
2
αij vi vj ≥ δ |v|
whenever v ∈ Rn . Then A maps V to V 0 one to one and onto.
This follows from Theorem 42.5 using the equivalent norm defined there. Define
F ∈ V 0 by Z Z
f (x) v (x) dx + g (x) γv (x) dx
U ∂U \Γ
for f ∈ L2 (U ) and g ∈ H 1/2 (∂U ) . Then the equation,

Au = F in V 0
which is equivalent to u ∈ V and for all v ∈ V,
Z Z Z
αij (x) u,i (x) v,j (x) dx = f (x) v (x) dx + g (x) γv (x) dµ
U U ∂U \Γ
is a weak solution for the boundary value problem,

¡ ¢
− αij u,i ,j = f in U, αij u,i nj = g on ∂U \ Γ, u = 0 on Γ
as you can verify by using the divergence theorem formally.
1210 WEAK SOLUTIONS
Korn’s Inequality
A fundamental inequality used in elasticity to obtain coercivity and then apply the
Lax Milgram theorem or some other theorem is Korn’s inequality. The proof given
here of this fundamental result follows [41] and [19].
43.1 A Fundamental Inequality

The proof of Korn’s inequality depends on a fundamental inequality involving neg-
ative Sobolev space norms. The theorem to be proved is the following.
Theorem 43.1 Let f ∈ L2 (Ω) where Ω is a bounded Lipschitz domain. Then there
exist constants, C1 and C2 such that
Ã n ¯¯ ¯¯ !
X ¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
C1 ||f ||0,2,Ω ≤ ||f ||−1,2,Ω + ¯¯ ¯¯ ≤ C2 ||f ||0,2,Ω ,
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯
i=1 −1,2,Ω
where here ||·||0,2,Ω represents the L2 norm and ||·||−1,2,Ω represents the norm in
the dual space of H01 (Ω) , denoted by H −1 (Ω) .
Similar conventions will apply for any domain in place of Ω. The proof of this
theorem will proceed through the use of several lemmas.
Lemma 43.2 Let U − denote the set,
{(x,xn ) ∈ Rn : xn < g (x)}
where g : Rn−1 → R is Lipschitz and denote by U + the set
{(x,xn ) ∈ Rn : xn > g (x)} .
Let f ∈ L2 (U − ) and extend f to all of Rn in the following way.
f (x,xn ) ≡ −3f (x,2g (x) − xn ) + 4f (x, 3g (x) − 2xn ) .
1211
1212 KORN’S INEQUALITY
Then there is a constant, Cg , depending on g such that

n ¯¯ ¯¯ Ã n ¯¯ ¯¯ !
X ¯¯ ∂f ¯¯ X ¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
||f ||−1,2,Rn + ¯¯ ¯¯ ≤ Cg ||f ||−1,2,U − + ¯¯ ¯¯ .
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯ ¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯
i=1 −1,2,Rn i=1 −1,2,U −
Proof: Let φ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) . Then,

Z Z
∂φ ∂φ
f dx = [−3f (x,2g (x) − xn ) + 4f (x, 3g (x) − 2xn )] dx
Rn ∂x n U + ∂x n
Z
∂φ
+ f dx. (43.1)
U− ∂xn
Consider the first integral on the right in 43.1. Changing the variables, letting
yn = 2g (x) − xn in the first term of the integrand and 3g (x) − 2xn in the next, it
equals Z
∂φ
−3 (x,2g (x) − yn ) f (x,yn ) dyn dx
U − ∂xn
Z µ ¶
∂φ 3 yn
+2 x, g (x) − f (x,yn ) dyn dx.
U − ∂xn 2 2
For (x,yn ) ∈ U − , and defining
µ ¶
3 yn
ψ (x,yn ) ≡ φ (x,yn ) + 3φ (x,2g (x) − yn ) − 4φ x, g (x) − ,
2 2
it follows ψ = 0 when yn = g (x) and so

Z Z
∂φ ∂ψ
f dx = f (x,yn ) dxdyn .
R n ∂x n U − ∂y n
Now from the definition of ψ given above,
||ψ||1,2,U − ≤ Cg ||φ||1,2,U − ≤ Cg ||φ||1,2,Rn
and so ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ≡
¯¯ ∂xn ¯¯
−1,2,Rn
½Z ¾
∂φ
sup f dx : φ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) , ||φ||1,2,Rn ≤ 1 ≤
Rn ∂xn
½¯Z ¯ ¾
¯ ∂ψ ¯ ¡ ¢
sup ¯¯ f dxdyn ¯¯ : ψ ∈ H01 U − , ||ψ||1,2,U − ≤ Cg
U − ∂xn
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
= Cg ¯¯¯¯ ¯¯ (43.2)
∂xn ¯¯−1,2,U −
43.1. A FUNDAMENTAL INEQUALITY 1213
It remains to establish a similar inequality for the case where the derivatives are
taken with respect to xi for i < n. Let φ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) . Then
Z Z
∂φ ∂φ
f dx = f dx
R n ∂x i U − ∂x i
Z
∂φ
[−3f (x,g (x) − xn ) + 4f (x, 3g (x) − 2xn )] dx.
U + ∂xi
Changing the variables as before, this last integral equals

Z
−3 Di φ (x,2g (x) − yn ) f (x,yn ) dyn dx
U−
Z µ ¶
3 yn
+2 Di φ x, g (x) − f (x,yn ) dyn dx. (43.3)
U− 2 2
Now let
µ ¶
3 yn
ψ 1 (x,yn ) ≡ φ (x,2g (x) − yn ) , ψ 2 (x,yn ) ≡ φ x, g (x) − .
2 2
Then
∂ψ 1
= Di φ (x,2g (x) − yn ) + Dn φ (x,2g (x) − yn ) 2Di g (x) ,
∂xi
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂ψ 2 3 yn 3 yn 3
= Di φ x, g (x) − + Dn φ x, g (x) − Di g (x) .
∂xi 2 2 2 2 2
Also
∂ψ 1
(x,yn ) = −Dn φ (x,2g (x) − yn ) ,
∂yn
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂ψ 2 −1 3 yn
(x,yn ) = Dn φ x, g (x) − .
∂yn 2 2 2
Therefore,
∂ψ 1 ∂ψ
(x,yn ) = Di φ (x,2g (x) − yn ) − 2 1 (x,yn ) Di g (x) ,
∂xi ∂yn
µ ¶
∂ψ 2 3 yn ∂ψ
(x,yn ) = Di φ x, g (x) − − 3 2 (x,yn ) Di g (x) .
∂xi 2 2 ∂yn
Using this in 43.3, the integrals in this expression equal
Z · ¸
∂ψ 1 ∂ψ 1
−3 (x,yn ) + 2 (x,yn ) Di g (x) f (x,yn ) dyn dx+
U − ∂xi ∂yn
Z · ¸
∂ψ 2 ∂ψ 2
2 (x,yn ) + 3 (x,yn ) Di g (x) f (x,yn ) dyn dx
U − ∂xi ∂yn
·
Z ¸
∂ψ 1 (x,y) ∂ψ 2 (x,yn )
= −3 +2 f (x,yn ) dyn dx.
U− ∂xi ∂xi
Therefore, Z Z · ¸
∂φ ∂φ ∂ψ 1 ∂ψ 2
f dx = −3 +2 f dxdyn
Rn ∂xi U− ∂xi ∂xi ∂xi
and also
φ (x,g (x)) − 3ψ 1 (x,g (x)) + 2ψ 2 (x,g (x)) =
φ (x,g (x)) − 3φ (x,g (x)) + 2φ (x,g (x)) = 0
and so φ − 3ψ 1 + 2ψ 2 ∈ H01 (U − ) . It also follows from the definition of the functions,
ψ i and the assumption that g is Lipschitz, that
||ψ i ||1,2,U − ≤ Cg ||φ||1,2,U − ≤ Cg ||φ||1,2,Rn . (43.4)
Therefore, ¯¯ ¯¯ ½¯Z ¯ ¾
¯¯ ∂f ¯¯ ¯ ∂φ ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ≡ sup ¯ ¯ f dx¯ : ||φ||1,2,Rn ≤ 1
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯
−1,2,Rn Rn ∂xi
½¯Z · ¸ ¯ ¾
¯ ∂φ ∂ψ 1 ∂ψ 2 ¯
= sup ¯ ¯ f −3 +2 dx¯¯ : ||φ||1,2,Rn ≤ 1
U− ∂xi ∂xi ∂xi
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
≤ Cg ¯¯¯¯ ¯¯
∂xi ¯¯−1,2,U −
where Cg is a constant which depends on g. This inequality along with 43.2 yields
n ¯¯ ¯¯ Ã n ¯¯ ¯¯ !
X ¯¯ ∂f ¯¯ X ¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ≤ Cg ¯¯ ¯¯ .
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯ ¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯
i=1 −1,2,Rn i=1 −1,2,U −
The inequality,
||f ||−1,2,Rn ≤ Cg ||f ||−1,2,U −
follows from 43.4 and the equation,
Z Z Z
f φdx = f φdx − 3 f (x,yn ) ψ 1 (x,yn ) dxdyn
Rn U− U−
Z
+2 f (x,yn ) ψ 2 (x,yn ) dxdyn
U−
which results in the same way as before by changing variables using the definition
of f off U − . This proves the lemma.
The next lemma is a simple application of Fourier transforms.
Lemma 43.3 If f ∈ L2 (Rn ) , then the following formula holds.

Xn ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
Cn ||f ||0,2,Rn = ¯ ¯ ¯¯ + ||f ||−1,2,Rn
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯
i=1 −1,2,Rn
43.1. A FUNDAMENTAL INEQUALITY 1215
Proof: For φ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn )

µZ ³ ´ ¶1/2
2 2
||φ||1,2,Rn ≡ 1 + |t| |F φ| dt
Rn
is an equivalent norm to the usual Sobolev space norm for H01 (Rn ) and is used in
the³ following
´ argument which depends on Plancherel’s theorem and the fact that
∂φ
F ∂xi = ti F (φ) .
¯¯ ¯¯ ½¯Z ¯ ¾
¯¯ ∂f ¯¯ ¯ ∂φ ¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ≡ sup ¯ f dx ¯ : ||φ|| ≤ 1
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯ ¯ n ∂xi ¯ 1,2
−1,2,Rn R
½¯Z ¯ ¾
¯ ¯
= Cn sup ¯ ¯ ¯
ti (F φ) (F f )dt¯ : ||φ||1,2 ≤ 1
Rn
¯ ³ ´1/2 ¯ 
 ¯ ¯ 
¯Z ti (F φ) 1 + |t|2 ¯ 
¯ ¯
= Cn sup ¯ ³ ´ (F f )dt¯ : ||φ||1,2 ≤ 1

¯¯ Rn 2
1/2 ¯ 

1 + |t| ¯
 1/2
Z 2
|F f | t2i
= Cn  ³ ´ dt (43.5)
2
1 + |t|
Also, ½¯Z ¯ ¾
¯ ¯
||f ||−1,2 ≡ sup ¯¯ φf dx¯¯ : ||φ||1,2 ≤ 1
Rn
½¯Z ¯ ¾
¯ ¡ ¢ ¯
= Cn sup ¯ ¯ ¯
(F φ) F f dx¯ : ||φ||1,2 ≤ 1
Rn
¯ ³ ´1/2 ¯ 
 ¯ ¯ 
¯Z F φ 1 + |t|2 ¯ 
¯ ¯
= Cn sup ¯ ³ ´ (F f )dt¯ : ||φ||1,2 ≤ 1

¯¯ Rn 2
1/2 ¯ 

1 + |t| ¯
 1/2
Z 2
|F f |
= Cn  ³ ´ dt
2
Rn 1 + |t|
This along with 43.5 yields the conclusion of the lemma because
Xn ¯¯ ¯¯ Z
¯¯ ∂f ¯¯2
¯¯ ¯¯ 2
+ ||f ||−1,2 = Cn
2 2
|F f | dx = Cn ||f ||0,2 .
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯ n
i=1 −1,2 R
Now consider Theorem 43.1. First note that by Lemma 43.2 and U − defined
there, Lemma 43.3 implies that for f extended as in Lemma 43.2,
Ã n ¯¯ ¯¯ !
X ¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
||f ||0,2,U − ≤ ||f ||0,2,Rn = Cn ||f ||−1,2,Rn + ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯
i=1 −1,2,Rn
Ã n ¯¯ ¯¯ !
X ¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
≤ Cgn ||f ||−1,2,U − + ¯¯ ¯¯ . (43.6)
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯
i=1 −1,2,U −
Let Ω be a bounded open set having Lipschitz boundary which lies locally on
p
one side of its boundary. Let {Qi }i=0 be cubes of the sort used in the proof of
the divergence theorem such that Q0 ⊆ Ω and the other cubes cover the boundary
of Ω. Let {ψ i } be a C ∞ partition of unity with spt (ψ i ) ⊆ Qi and let f ∈ L2 (Ω) .
Then for φ ∈ Cc∞ (Ω) and ψ one of these functions in the partition of unity,
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯
¯¯ ∂ (f ψ) ¯¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ≤ sup ¯ f ∂ (ψφ) dx¯ + sup ¯ f φ ∂ψ dx¯
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ∂xi ¯
−1,2,Ω ||φ||1,2 ≤1 Ω ∂xi ||φ||1,2 ≤1 Ω
Now if ||φ||1,2 ≤ 1, then for a suitable constant, Cψ ,

¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ∂ψ ¯¯
¯ ¯
||ψφ||1,2 ≤ Cψ ||φ||1,2 ≤ Cψ , ¯¯φ ¯¯ ≤ C ψ .
∂xi ¯¯1,2
Therefore,
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯
¯¯ ∂ (f ψ) ¯¯ ¯ ∂η ¯¯ ¯ ¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ≤ sup ¯ f ¯ dx¯ + ¯
sup ¯ f ηdx¯¯
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯ ∂x i
−1,2,Ω ||η||1,2 ≤Cψ Ω ||η||1,2 ≤Cψ Ω
Ã ¯¯ ¯¯ !
¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
≤ Cψ ¯¯¯¯ ¯¯ + ||f ||−1,2,Ω . (43.7)
∂xi ¯¯−1,2,Ω
Now using 43.7 and 43.6
 ¯¯ ¢ ¯¯ 
n ¯¯ ¡
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ X ¯ ¯ ∂ f ψ j ¯¯¯¯
¯¯f ψ j ¯¯ ≤ Cg ¯¯f ψ j ¯¯−1,2,Ω + ¯¯ ¯¯ 
0,2,Ω ¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯
i=1 −1,2,Ω
Ã n ¯¯ ¯¯ !
X ¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
≤ Cψ j Cg ||f ||−1,2,Ω + ¯¯ ¯¯ .
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯
i=1 −1,2,Ω
Pp
Therefore, letting C = j=1 Cψj Cg ,
p
Ã n ¯¯ ¯¯ !
X ¯¯ ¯¯ X ¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
||f ||0,2,Ω ≤ ¯¯f ψ j ¯¯ ≤C ||f ||−1,2,Ω + ¯ ¯ ¯¯ . (43.8)
0,2,Ω ¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯
j=1 i=1 −1,2,Ω
This proves the hard half of the inequality of Theorem 43.1.

To complete the proof, let f denote the zero extension of f off Ω. Then
Xn ¯¯ ¯¯ Xn ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ∂f ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ∂f ¯¯
||f ||−1,2,Ω + ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
≤ f −1,2,Rn + ¯ ¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯ ¯¯ ∂xi ¯¯
i=1 −1,2,Ω i=1 −1,2,Rn
¯¯ ¯¯
≤ Cn ¯¯f ¯¯0,2,Rn = Cn ||f ||0,2,Ω .
This along with 43.8 proves Theorem 43.1.
43.2. KORN’S INEQUALITY 1217
43.2 Korn’s Inequality

The inequality in this section is known as Korn’s second inequality. It is also known
as coercivity of strains. For u a vector valued function in Rn , define
1
εij (u) ≡ (ui,j + uj,i )
2
This is known as the strain or small strain. Korn’s inequality says that the norm
given by,
 1/2
n
X n X
X n
2 2
|||u||| ≡  ||ui ||0,2,Ω + ||εij (u)||0,2,Ω  (43.9)
i=1 i=1 j=1
is equivalent to the norm,

 1/2
n
X n ¯¯
n X
X ¯¯
¯¯ ∂ui ¯¯2
||u|| ≡ 
2
||ui ||0,2,Ω + ¯¯ ¯¯  (43.10)
¯¯ ∂xj ¯¯
i=1 i=1 j=1 0,2,Ω
It is very significant because it is the strain as just defined which occurs in many of
the physical models proposed in continuum mechanics. The inequality is far from
obvious because the strains only involve certain combinations of partial derivatives.
Theorem 43.4 (Korn’s second inequality) Let Ω be any domain for which the con-
clusion of Theorem 43.1 holds. Then the two norms in 43.9 and 43.10 are equivalent.
Proof: Let u be such that ui ∈ H 1 (Ω) for each i = 1, · · ·, n. Note that
∂ 2 ui ∂ ∂ ∂
= (εik (u)) + (εij (u)) − (εjk (u)) .
∂xj , ∂xk ∂xj ∂xk ∂xi
Therefore, by Theorem 43.1,

¯¯ ¯¯ "¯¯ ¯¯ n ¯¯ ¯¯ #
¯¯ ∂ui ¯¯ ¯¯ ∂ui ¯¯ X ¯¯ ∂ 2 u i ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ≤ C ¯¯¯¯ ¯¯ + ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ∂xj ¯¯ ∂xj ¯¯−1,2,Ω ¯¯ ∂xj , ∂xk ¯¯
0,2,Ω k=1 −1,2,Ω
"¯¯ ¯¯ #
¯¯ ∂ui ¯¯ X ¯¯¯¯ ∂εrs (u) ¯¯¯¯
≤ C ¯¯¯¯ ¯¯ + ¯¯ ¯¯
∂xj ¯¯−1,2,Ω r,s,p ¯¯ ∂xp ¯¯−1,2,Ω
"¯¯ ¯¯ #
¯¯ ∂ui ¯¯ X
≤ C ¯¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ + ||εrs (u)||0,2,Ω .
∂xj ¯¯−1,2,Ω r,s
But also by this theorem,

X ¯¯¯ ∂ui ¯¯¯¯
¯
||ui ||−1,2,Ω + ¯¯ ¯¯ ≤ C ||ui ||0,2,Ω
¯¯ ∂xp ¯¯
p −1,2,Ω
and so ¯¯ ¯¯ " #
¯¯ ∂ui ¯¯ X
¯¯ ¯¯ ≤ C ||ui ||0,2,Ω + ||εrs (u)||0,2,Ω
¯¯ ∂xj ¯¯
0,2,Ω r,s

Note that Ω did not need to be bounded. It suffices to be able to conclude
the result of Theorem 43.1 which would hold whenever the boundary of Ω can be
covered with finitely many boxes of the sort to which Lemma 43.2 can be applied.
Elliptic Regularity And
Nirenberg Differences
44.1 The Case Of A Half Space

Regularity theorems are concerned with obtaining more regularity given a weak
solution. This extra regularity is essential in order to obtain error estimates for
various problems. In this section a regularity is given for weak solutions to various
elliptic boundary value problems. To save on notation, I will use the repeated index
summation convention. Thus you sum over repeated indices. Consider the following
picture.
R
Γ
¡
V ¡
¡
¡
ª
Rn−1
U1 U
Here V is an open set,

U ≡ {y ∈ V : yn < 0} , Γ ≡ {y ∈ V : yn = 0}
and U1 is an open set as shown for which U1 ⊆ V ∩ U. Assume also that V is
bounded. Suppose
f ∈ L2 (U ) ,
¡ ¢
αrs ∈ C 0,1 U , (44.1)
1219
1220 ELLIPTIC REGULARITY AND NIRENBERG DIFFERENCES
2
αrs (y) vr vs ≥ δ |v| , δ > 0. (44.2)
The following technical lemma gives the essential ideas.
Lemma 44.1 Suppose
w ∈ H 1 (U ) , (44.3)
rs
¡ ¢
α ∈ C 0,1 U , (44.4)
hs ∈ H 1 (U ) , (44.5)
f ∈ L2 (U ) . (44.6)
and Z Z Z
∂w ∂z ∂z
αrs (y) dy + hs (y) dy = f zdy (44.7)
U ∂y r ∂y s U ∂y s U
for all z ∈ H 1 (U ) having the property that spt (z) ⊆ V. Then w ∈ H 2 (U1 ) and for
some constant C, independent of f, w, and g, the following estimate holds.
Ã !
2 2 2
X 2
||w||H 2 (U1 ) ≤ C ||w||H 1 (U ) + ||f ||L2 (U ) + ||hs ||H 1 (U ) . (44.8)
s
Proof: Define for small real h,

1
Dkh l (y) ≡ (l (y + hek ) − l (y)) .
h
Let U1 ⊆ U1 ⊆ W ⊆ W ⊆ V and let η ∈ Cc∞ (W ) with η (y) ∈ [0, 1] , and η = 1 on

U1 as shown in the following picture.
R
Γ
¡
W V ¡
¡
¡
ª
U1 Rn−1
U
¡ ¢
For h small (3h < dist W , V C ), let
½ · ¸
1 2 w (y) − w (y − hek )
z (y) ≡ η (y−hek )
h h
44.1. THE CASE OF A HALF SPACE 1221
· ¸¾
2w (y + hek ) − w (y)
−η (y) (44.9)
h
−h
¡ 2 h ¢
≡ −Dk η Dk w , (44.10)
where here k < n. Thus z can be used in equation 44.7. Begin by estimating the
left side of 44.7.
Z
∂w ∂z
αrs (y) r s dy
U ∂y ∂y
Z ¡ ¢
1 rs ∂w ∂ η 2 Dkh w
= α (y + hek ) r (y + hek ) dy
h U ∂y ∂y s
Z ¡ ¢
− α (y) r dy
h U ∂y ∂y s
Z ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
rs ∂ Dkh w ∂ η 2 Dkh w
= α (y + hek ) dy+
U ∂y r ∂y s
Z ¡ ¢
1 rs rs ∂w ∂ η 2 Dkh w
(α (y + hek ) − α (y)) r dy (44.11)
h U ∂y ∂y s
Now ¡ ¢ ¡ h ¢
∂ η 2 Dkh w ∂η h 2 ∂ Dk w
= 2η s Dk w + η . (44.12)
∂y s ∂y ∂y s
therefore,
Z ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
∂ Dkh w ∂ Dkh w
= η 2 αrs (y + hek ) dy
U ∂y r ∂y s
(Z ¡ ¢
rs ∂ Dkh w ∂η
+ α (y + hek ) r
2η s Dkh wdy
W ∩U ∂y ∂y
Z ¡ ¢ )
rs
+ (α (y + hek ) − α (y)) r dy ≡ A. + {B.} . (44.13)
h W ∩U ∂y ∂y s
Now consider these two terms. From 44.2,
Z
¯ ¯2
A. ≥ δ η 2 ¯∇Dkh w¯ dy. (44.14)
U
Using the Lipschitz continuity of αrs and 44.12,

n¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
B. ≤ C (η, Lip (α) , α) ¯¯Dkh w¯¯L2 (W ∩U ) ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (W ∩U ;Rn ) +
¯¯ ¯¯
||η∇w||L2 (W ∩U ;Rn ) ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (W ∩U ;Rn )
¯¯ ¯¯ o
+ ||η∇w||L2 (W ∩U ;Rn ) ¯¯Dkh w¯¯L2 (W ∩U ) . (44.15)
³ ¯¯ ¯¯2 ´
≤ C (η, Lip (α) , α) Cε ¯¯Dkh w¯¯L2 (W ∩U ) + ||η∇w||L2 (W ∩U ;Rn ) +
2
³¯¯ ¯¯2 ¯¯ ¯¯2 ´

εC (η, Lip (α) , α) ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (W ∩U ;Rn ) + ¯¯Dkh w¯¯L2 (W ∩U ) . (44.16)
Now
¯¯ h ¯¯
¯¯Dk w¯¯ 2
≤ ||∇w||L2 (U ;Rn ) . (44.17)
L2 (W )
To see this, observe that if w is smooth, then
ÃZ ¯ ¯ !1/2
¯ w (y + hek ) − w (y) ¯2
¯ ¯ dy
¯ h ¯
W
 ¯ Z ¯2 1/2
Z ¯1 h ¯
 ¯ ¯
≤ ¯ ∇w (y + tek ) · ek dt¯ dy 
W ¯h 0 ¯
ÃZ µZ ¶1/2 !
h
2 dt
≤ |∇w (y + tek ) · ek | dy ≤ ||∇w||L2 (U ;Rn )
0 W h
so by density of such functions in H 1 (U ) , 44.17 holds. Therefore, changing ε, yields
¯¯ ¯¯2
B. ≤ Cε (η, Lip (α) , α) ||∇w||L2 (U ;Rn ) + ε ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (W ∩U ;Rn ) .
2
(44.18)
With 44.14 and 44.18 established, consider the other terms of 44.7.
¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¡ ¢ ¯
¯ f zdy ¯ ≤ ¯ f −D−h η 2 Dkh w dy ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ k ¯
U U
µZ ¶1/2 µZ ¶1/2
¯ −h ¡ 2 h ¢¯2
≤
2
|f | dy ¯ Dk η Dk w dy ¯
U
¯¯ ¡ 2 hU ¢¯¯
≤ ||f ||L2 (U ) ¯¯∇ η Dk w ¯¯L2 (U ;Rn )
³ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ´
≤ ||f ||L2 (U ) ¯¯2η∇ηDkh w¯¯L2 (U ;Rn ) + ¯¯η 2 ∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (U ;Rn )
¯¯ ¯¯
≤ C ||f ||L2 (U ) ||∇w||L2 (U ;Rn ) + ||f ||L2 (U ) ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (U ;Rn )
³ ´ ¯¯ ¯¯2
Cε ||f ||L2 (U ) + ||∇w||L2 (U ;Rn ) + ε ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (U ;Rn ) (44.19)
2 2
≤
¯Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ hs (y) ∂z dy ¯
¯ ∂y s ¯
¯Z U ¡ ¡ ¢¢ ¯¯
¯ ∂ −Dk−h η 2 Dkh w
¯ ¯
≤ ¯ hs (y) dy ¯
¯ U ∂y s ¯
¯Z ¡¡ ¢¢ ¯
¯ ∂ η 2 Dkh w ¯¯
¯
≤ ¯ Dkh hs (y) ¯
¯ U ∂y s ¯
Z ¯ ¯ Z ¯¯ Ã ¡ ¢ !¯¯
¯ h ∂η ¯ ¯ ¡ h ¢ ∂ D h
w ¯
≤ ¯Dk hs 2η D w¯ dy +
h
¯ ηDk hs η
k
¯ dy
¯ ∂y s k ¯ ¯ ∂y s ¯
U U
X ³ ¯¯ ¯ ¯ ´
≤ C ||hs || 1 ||w|| 1
H (U ) + ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯ 2
H (U ) n L (U ;R )
s
X ¯¯ ¯¯2
||hs ||H 1 (U ) + ||w||H 1 (U ) + ε ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (U ;Rn ) .
2 2
≤ Cε (44.20)
s
The following inequalities in 44.14,44.18, 44.19and 44.20 are summarized here.

Z
¯ ¯2
A. ≥ δ η 2 ¯∇Dkh w¯ dy,
U
¯¯ ¯¯2
B. ≤ Cε (η, Lip (α) , α) ||∇w||L2 (U ;Rn ) + ε ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (W ∩U ;Rn ) ,
2
¯Z ¯ ³ ´
¯ ¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
h ¯¯2
¯ f zdy ¯ ≤ Cε ||f ||2 2 2 ¯¯
¯ ¯ L (U ) + ||∇w||L2 (U ;Rn ) + ε η∇Dk w L2 (U ;Rn )
U
¯Z ¯
¯ ¯ X
¯ hs (y) ∂z dy ¯ ≤ Cε
2
||hs ||H 1 (U )
¯ ∂y s ¯
U s
¯¯ ¯¯2
+ ||w||H 1 (U ) + ε ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (U ;Rn ) .
2
Therefore,
¯¯ ¯¯2
δ ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (U ;Rn )
¯¯ ¯¯2
Cε (η, Lip (α) , α) ||∇w||L2 (U ;Rn ) + ε ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (U ;Rn )
2
≤
X ¯¯ ¯¯2
||hs ||H 1 (U ) + ||w||H 1 (U ) + ε ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (U ;Rn )
2 2
+Cε
s
³ ´ ¯¯ ¯¯2
+Cε ||f ||L2 (U ) + ||∇w||L2 (U ;Rn ) + ε ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (U ;Rn ) .
2 2
Letting ε be small enough and adjusting constants yields

¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯2
¯¯∇Dkh w¯¯2 2 ≤ ¯¯η∇Dkh w¯¯L2 (U ;Rn ) ≤
L (U1 ;Rn )
Ã !
2 2
X 2
C ||w||H 1 (U ) + ||f ||L2 (U ) + Cε ||hs ||H 1 (U )
s
where the constant, C, depends on η, Lip (α) , α, δ. Since this holds for all h small
∂w 1
enough, it follows ∂y k ∈ H (U1 ) and
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ∂w ¯¯2
¯¯∇ ¯¯ ≤
¯¯ ∂y k ¯¯ 2
L (U1 ;Rn )
Ã !
2 2
X 2
C ||w||H 1 (U ) + ||f ||L2 (U ) + Cε ||hs ||H 1 (U ) (44.21)
s
¯¯ 2 ¯¯2
¯¯ ¯¯
for each k < n. It remains to estimate ¯¯ ∂∂yw2 ¯¯ 2 . To do this return to 44.7
n L (U1 )
which must hold for all z ∈ Cc∞
(U1 ) . Therefore, using 44.7 it follows that for all
z ∈ Cc∞ (U1 ) ,
Z Z Z
rs ∂w ∂z ∂hs
α (y) r s dy = − s
zdy + f zdy.
U ∂y ∂y U ∂y U
Now from the Lipschitz assumption on αrs , it follows

X µ ¶
∂ rs ∂w
F ≡ α
∂y s ∂y r
r,s≤n−1
X ∂ µ ¶ X
ns ∂w ∂hs
+ α − +f
∂y s ∂y n s
∂y s
s≤n−1
∈ L2 (U1 )
and
Ã !
2 2
X 2
||F ||L2 (U1 ) ≤ C ||w||H 1 (U ) + ||f ||L2 (U ) + Cε ||hs ||H 1 (U ) . (44.22)
s
Therefore, from density of Cc∞ (U1 ) in L2 (U1 ) ,

µ ¶
∂ ∂w
− n αnn (y) n = F, no sum on n
∂y ∂y
and so
∂αnn ∂w ∂2w
− n n
− αnn 2 =F
∂y ∂y ∂ (y n )
By 44.2 αnn (y) ≥ δ and so it follows from 44.22 that there exists a constant,C
depending on δ such that
¯ ¯
¯ ∂2w ¯ ³ ´
¯ ¯
¯ 2 ¯ ≤ C |F |L2 (U1 ) + ||w||H 1 (U )
¯ ∂ (y n ) ¯ 2
L (U1 )
which with 44.21 and 44.22 implies the existence of a constant, C depending on δ
such that
Ã !
2 2 2
X 2
||w||H 2 (U1 ) ≤ C ||w||H 1 (U ) + ||f ||L2 (U ) + Cε ||hs ||H 1 (U ) ,
s
proving the lemma.

What if more regularity is known for f , hs , αrs and w? Could more be said
about the regularity of the solution? The answer is yes and is the content of the
next corollary.
First here is some notation. For α a multi-index with |α| = k − 1, α =
(α1 , · · ·, αn ) define
n
Y ¡ h ¢ αk
Dαh l (y) ≡ Dk l (y) .
k=1
Also, for α and τ multi indices, τ < α means τ i < αi for each i.
Corollary 44.2 Suppose in the context of Lemma 44.1 the following for k ≥ 1.
w ∈ H k (U ) ,
¡ ¢
αrs ∈ C k−1,1 U ,
hs ∈ H k (U ) ,
f ∈ H k−1 (U ) ,
and Z Z Z
rs ∂w ∂z ∂z
α (y) r s dy + hs (y) s dy = f zdy (44.23)
U ∂y ∂y U ∂y U
for all z ∈ H 1 (U ) or H01 (U ) such that spt (z) ⊆ V. Then there exists C independent
of w such that
Ã !
X
||w||H k+1 (U1 ) ≤ C ||f ||H k−1 (U ) + ||hs ||H k (U ) + ||w||H k (U ) . (44.24)
s
Proof: The proof involves the following claim which is proved using the conclu-
sion of Lemma 44.1 on Page 1220.
Claim : If α = (α0 , 0) where |α0 | ≤ k − 1, then there exists a constant indepen-
dent of w such that
Ã !
X
α
||D w||H 2 (U1 ) ≤ C ||f ||H k−1 (U ) + ||hs ||H k (U ) + ||w||H k (U ) . (44.25)
s
Proof of claim: First note that if |α| = 0, then 44.25 follows from Lemma 44.1
on Page 1220. Now suppose the conclusion of the claim holds for all |α| ≤ j − 1
where j < k. Let |α| = j and α = (α0 , 0) . Then for z ∈ H 1 (U ) having compact
support in V, it follows that for h small enough,
¡ ¢
Dα−h z ∈ H 1 (U ) , spt Dαh z ⊆ V.
Therefore, you can replace z in 44.23 with Dα−h z. Now note that you can apply the
following manipulation.
Z Z
p (y) Dα−h z (y) dy = Dαh p (y) z (y) dy
U U
and obtain
Z µ µ ¶ ¶ Z
∂w ∂z ∂z ¡¡ h ¢ ¢
Dαh αrs r s
+ Dα
h
(h s ) s
dy = Dα f z dy. (44.26)
U ∂y ∂y ∂y U
Letting h → 0, this gives

Z µ µ ¶ ¶ Z
α rs ∂w ∂z α ∂z
D α + D (h s ) dy = ((Dα f ) z) dy.
U ∂y r ∂y s ∂y s U
Now µ ¶ α X τ
α rs ∂w rs ∂ (D w) α−τ rs ∂ (D w)
D α = α + C (τ ) D (α )
∂y r ∂y r τ <α
∂y r
where C (τ ) is some coefficient. Therefore, from 44.26,

Z α Z ÃX τ
!
rs ∂ (D w) ∂z α−τ rs ∂ (D w) α ∂z
α dy + C (τ ) D (α ) + D (hs ) dy
U ∂y r ∂y s U τ <α
∂y r ∂y s
Z
= (Dα f ) zdy. (44.27)
U
b1 be as indicated in the following picture

Let U
b1
U U Rn−1
U1
Now apply the induction hypothesis to U b1 in order to write

¯¯ ¯ ¯
¯¯ ∂ (Dτ w) ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ τ
¯¯ ∂y r ¯¯ 1 b ≤ ||D w||H 2 (Ub1 )
H (U1 )
Ã !
X
≤C ||f ||H k−1 (U ) + ||hs ||H k (U ) + ||w||H k (U ) .
s
¡ ¢
Since αrs ∈ C k−1,1 U , it follows that each term from the sum in 44.27 satisfies
an inequality of the form
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ τ ¯¯
¯¯C (τ ) Dα−τ (αrs ) ∂ (D w) ¯¯
¯¯ ∂y r ¯¯ 1 b ≤
H (U1 )
Ã !
X
C ||f ||H k−1 (U ) + ||hs ||H k (U ) + ||w||H k (U )
s
and consequently,
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ X τ ¯¯
¯¯ α−τ rs ∂ (D w) α ¯¯
¯¯ C (τ ) D (α ) + D (hs )¯¯ ≤
¯¯τ <α ∂y r ¯¯
H1 (Ub1 )
Ã !
X
C ||f ||H k−1 (U ) + ||hs ||H k (U ) + ||w||H k (U ) . (44.28)
s
Now consider 44.27. The equation remains true if you replace U with U b1 and require
b
that spt (z) ⊆ U1 . Therefore, by Lemma 44.1 on Page 1220 there exists a constant,
C independent of w such that
³
||Dα w||H 2 (U1 ) ≤ C ||Dα f ||L2 (Ub1 ) + ||Dα w||H 1 (Ub1 ) +
¯¯ ¯¯ 
X ¯¯¯¯ X τ ¯¯
α−τ rs ∂ (D w) α ¯¯ 
+ ¯¯ C (τ ) D (α ) + D (h )
s ¯¯
s
¯ ¯ ∂y r ¯¯
τ <α H1 (Ub1 )
and by 44.28, this implies
Ã !
X
α
||D w||H 2 (U1 ) ≤ C ||f ||H k−1 (U ) + ||w||H k (U ) + ||hs ||H k (U )
s
which proves the Claim.

To establish 44.24 it only remains to verify that if |α| ≤ k + 1, then
Ã !
X
α
||D w||L2 (U1 ) ≤ C ||f ||H k−1 (U ) + ||w||H k (U ) + ||hs ||H k (U ) . (44.29)
s
If |α| < k + 1, there is nothing to show because it is given that w ∈ H k (U ) .

Therefore, assume |α| = k + 1. If αn equals 0 the conclusion follows from the claim
because in this case, you can subtract 1 from a pair of positive αi and obtain a new
multi index, β such that |β| = k − 1 and β n = 0 and then from the claim,
Ã !
¯¯ β ¯¯ X
α
||D w|| 2 ≤ ¯¯D w ¯¯ 2
L (U1 ) ≤ C ||f || k−1
H (U1 )
+ ||w|| k H + (U )||hs || k .
H (U ) H (U )
s
If αn = 1, then subtract 1 from some positive αi and consider
β = (α1 , · · ·, αi − 1, αi+1 , · · ·, αn−1 , 0)

Ã !
¯¯ ¯¯ X
α
||D w||L2 (U1 ) ≤ ¯¯D β w ¯¯ H 2 (U1 )
≤C ||f ||H k−1 (U ) + ||w||H k (U ) + ||hs ||H k (U ) .
s
Suppose 44.29 holds for αn ≤ j − 1 where j − 1 ≥ 1 and consider α for which

|α| = k + 1 and αn = j. Let
β ≡ (α1 , · · ·, αn−1 , αn − 2) .
Thus Dα = Dβ Dn2 . Restricting 44.23 to z ∈ Cc∞ (U1 ) and using the density of this
set of functions in L2 (U1 ) , it follows that
µ ¶
∂ ∂w ∂hs
− s αrs (y) r − s = f.
∂y ∂y ∂y
Therefore, from the product rule,
∂αrs ∂w ∂2w ∂hs

s r
+ αrs s r + s = −f
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
and so

∂αrs ∂w X X ∂2w
αnn Dn2 w = − + αrs +
∂y s ∂y r ∂y s ∂y r
r≤n−1 s≤n−1
!
X 2
∂ w X 2
ns rn ∂ w ∂hs
α s n
+ α n r
+ s +f .
s
∂y ∂y r
∂y ∂y ∂y
As noted earlier, the condition, 44.2 implies αnn (y) ≥ δ > 0 and so

1 ∂αrs ∂w X X 2
rs ∂ w
Dn2 w = − nn  s + α +
α ∂y ∂y r ∂y s ∂y r
r≤n−1 s≤n−1
!
X 2 X 2
ns ∂ w rn ∂ w ∂hs
α + α + s +f .
s
∂y s ∂y n r
∂y n ∂y r ∂y
44.2. THE CASE OF BOUNDED OPEN SETS 1229
It follows from Dα = Dβ Dn2 that

 
1 ∂αrs ∂w X X ∂2w
Dα w = Dβ − nn  s r
+ αrs +
α ∂y ∂y ∂y s ∂y r
r≤n−1 s≤n−1
!#
X ∂2w X 2
rn ∂ w ∂hs
αnss ∂y n
+ α n ∂y r
+ s +f .
s
∂y r
∂y ∂y
³ 2 ´
Now you note that terms like Dβ ∂y∂s ∂y w
n have αn = j − 1 and so, from the
induction hypothesis along with the assumptions on the given functions,
Ã !
X
α
||D w||L2 (U1 ) ≤ C ||f ||H k−1 (U ) + ||w||H k (U ) + ||hs ||H k (U ) .
s
44.2 The Case Of Bounded Open Sets

The main interest in all this is in the application to bounded open sets. Recall the
following definition.
Definition 44.3 A bounded open subset, Ω, of Rn has a C m,1 boundary if it satis-
fies the following conditions. For each p ∈ Γ ≡ Ω \ Ω, there exists an open set, W ,
containing p, an open interval (0, b), a bounded open box U 0 ⊆ Rn−1 , and an affine
orthogonal transformation, RW consisting of a distance preserving linear transfor-
mation followed by a translation such that
RW W = U 0 × (0, b), (44.30)
RW (W ∩ Ω) = {u ∈ Rn : u0 ∈ U 0 , 0 < un < φW (u0 )} (44.31)
m,1
¡ ¢ 0
where φW ∈ C 0
U meaning¡ φW ¢is the restriction to U of a function, still
denoted by φW which is in C m,1 Rn−1 and
inf {φW (u0 ) : u0 ∈ U 0 } > 0
The following picture depicts the situation.
¶ ZZ b
¶ W Z
¶ ZZ
¶ ¶
¶ T T
Z Ω W ¶ RW RW (Ω W)
Z ¶ -
Z ¶ 0
Z
Z¶ u0 ∈ U 0
For the situation described in the above definition, let hW : U 0 → Γ ∩ W be

defined by
−1 0 −1
hW (u0 ) ≡ RW (u0 , φW (u0 )) , gW (x) ≡ (RW x) , HW (u) ≡ RW (u0 , φW (u0 ) − un ) .
where x0 ≡ (x1 , · · ·, xn−1 ) for x = (x1 , · · ·, xn ). Thus gW ◦ hW = id on U 0 and
hW ◦ gW = id on Γ ∩ W. Also note that HW is defined on all of Rn is C m,1 , and has
an inverse with the same properties. To see this, let GW (u) = (u0 , φW (u0 ) − un ) .
−1
Then HW = RW ◦ GW and G−1 0 0 −1 −1
W = (u , φW (u ) − un ) and so HW = GW ◦ RW .
Note also that as indicated in the picture,
RW (W ∩ Ω) = {u ∈ Rn : u0 ∈ U 0 and 0 < un < φW (u0 )} .
Since Γ = ∂Ω is compact, there exist finitely many of these open sets, W, denoted
q
by {Wi }i=1 such that Γ ⊆ ∪qi=1 Wi . Let the corresponding sets, U 0 be denoted by Ui0
and let the functions, φ be denoted by φi . Also let hi = hWi , GWi = Gi etc. Now
let
Φi : Gi Ri (Ω ∩ W ) ≡ Vi → Ω ∩ Wi
be defined by
Φi (y) ≡ Ri−1 ◦ G−1
i (y) .
Thus Φi , Φ−1
i ∈ C m,1 (Rn ). The following picture might be helpful.
T
Φ−1
i (Ω Wi )
@
R y Φ−1 (spt(ψ i ))
U@
i ´ i
Z
¶W spt(ψ i ) ´
¶ i Z
0 +́´
Z Rn−1
¶
À Z Z
¶ ¶ Vi
¶ ¶
Z T
Z Ω Wi ¶
Z ¶ Ri ¢̧
Z @ ¢
Z¶ @ ¢
@ ¢ Gi
@ ¢
R
@ ¢
¢
b
T
Ri (Ω Wi )
¡
¡
ª
0
u0 ∈ U 0
Therefore, by Lemma 41.20 on Page 1185, it follows that for t ∈ [m, m + 1),
¡ ¢
Φ∗i ∈ L H t (Wi ∩ Ω) , H t (Vi ) .
Assume
2
aij (x) vi vj ≥ δ |v| . (44.32)
Lemma 44.4 Let W be one of the sets described in the above definition and let
m ≥ 1. Let W1 ⊆ W1 ⊆ W where W1 is an open set. Suppose also that
u ∈ H 1 (Ω) ,
rs
¡ ¢
α ∈ C 0,1 Ω ,
f ∈ L2 (Ω) ,
hk ∈ H 1 (Ω) ,
and that for all v ∈ H 1 (Ω ∩ W ) such that spt (v) ⊆ Ω ∩ W,

Z Z Z
aij (x) u,i (x) v,j (x) dx + hk (x) v,k (x) dx = f (x) v (x) dx. (44.33)
Ω Ω Ω
Then there exists a constant, C, independent of f, u, and g such that

Ã !
2 2 2
X 2
||u||H 2 (Ω∩W1 ) ≤ C ||f ||L2 (Ω) + ||u||H 1 (Ω) + ||hk ||H 1 (Ω) . (44.34)
k
Proof: Let © ª
E ≡ v ∈ H 1 (Ω ∩ W ) : spt (v) ⊆ W
u restricted to W ∩ Ω is in H 1 (Ω ∩ W ) and
Z Z Z
aij (x) u,i v,j dx + hk (x) v,k (x) dx = f (x) v (x) dx for all v ∈ E.
Ω∩W Ω Ω
(44.35)
Now let Φi (y) = x. For this particular W, denote Φi more simply by Φ, Ui ≡
Φi (Ω ∩ Wi ) by U, and Vi by V. Denoting the coordinates of V by y, and letting
u (x) ≡ w (y) and v (x) ≡ z (y) , it follows that in terms of the new coordinates,
44.35 takes the form
Z
∂w ∂y r ∂z ∂y s
aij (Φ (y)) r |det DΦ (y)| dy
U ∂y ∂xi ∂y s ∂xj
Z
∂z ∂y l
+ hk (Φ (y)) l k |det DΦ (y)| dx
∂y ∂x
Z U
= f (Φ (y)) z (y) |det DΦ (y)| dy
U
Let
∂y r ∂y s
αrs (y) ≡ aij (Φ (y)) |det DΦ (y)| , (44.36)
∂xi ∂xj
∂y l
hel (y) ≡ hk (Φ (y)) k |det DΦ (y)| , (44.37)
∂x
and
fe(y) ≡ Φ∗ f |det DΦ| (y) ≡ f (Φ (y)) |det DΦ (y)| . (44.38)
0,1
¡ ¢
Now the function on the right in 44.36 is in C U . This is because of the
assumption that m ≥ 1 in the statement of the ¡ ¢ lemma. This function is therefore a
finite product of bounded functions in C 0,1 U .
The function hel defined in 44.37 is in H 1 (U ) and
¯¯ ¯¯ X
¯¯ e ¯¯
¯¯hl ¯¯ 1 ≤C ||hk ||H 1 (Ω∩W )
H (U )
k
again because m ≥ 1.
Finally, the right side of 44.38 is a function in L¡2 (U¢ ) by Lemma 41.20 on Page
1185 and the observation that |det DΦ (·)| ∈ C 0,1 U which follows from the as-
sumption of the lemma that m ≥ 1 so Φ ∈ C 1,1 (Rn ). Also
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ e¯¯
¯¯f ¯¯ ≤ C ||f ||L2 (Ω∩W ) .
L2 (U )
Therefore, 44.35 is of the form

Z Z Z
rs
α (y) w,r z,s dy + e
hl z,l dy = fezdy, (44.39)
U U U
for all z in H 1 (U ) having support in V.

Claim: There exists r > 0 independent of y ∈ U such that for all y ∈ U ,
2
αrs (y) vr vs ≥ r |v| .
Proof of the claim: If this is not so, there exist vectors, vn , |vn | = 1, and
yn ∈ U such that αrs (yn ) vrn vsn ≤ n1 . Taking a subsequence, there exists y ∈ U and
|v| = 1 such that αrs (y) vr vs = 0 contradicting 44.32.
Therefore, by Lemma 44.1, there exists a constant, C, independent of f, g, and
w such that
Ã !
¯¯ ¯¯2 X ¯¯¯¯ ¯¯¯¯2
¯¯ e¯¯
¯¯hel ¯¯ 1
2 2
||w||H 2 (Φ−1 (W1 ∩Ω)) ≤ C ¯¯f ¯¯ + ||w||H 1 (U ) + .
2 L (U ) H (U )
l
Therefore,
Ã !
2 2 2
X 2
||u||H 2 (W1 ∩Ω) ≤ C ||f ||L2 (W ∩Ω) + ||w||H 1 (W ∩Ω) + ||hk ||H 1 (W ∩Ω)
k
Ã !
2 2
X 2
≤ C ||f ||L2 (Ω) + ||w||H 1 (Ω) + ||hk ||H 1 (Ω) .
k

With this lemma here is the main result.
Theorem 44.5 Let Ω be a bounded open set with C 1,1 boundary as in Definition
44.3, let f ∈ L2 (Ω) , hk ∈ H 1 (Ω), and suppose that for all x ∈ Ω,
2
aij (x) vi vj ≥ δ |v| .
Suppose also that u ∈ H 1 (Ω) and

Z Z Z
ij
a (x) u,i (x) v,j (x) dx + hk (x) v,k (x) dx = f (x) v (x) dx
Ω Ω Ω
for all v ∈ H 1 (Ω) . Then u ∈ H 2 (Ω) and for some C independent of f, g, and u,
Ã !
2 2 2
X 2
||u||H 2 (Ω) ≤ C ||f ||L2 (Ω) + ||u||H 1 (Ω) + ||hk ||H 1 (Ω) .
k
Proof: Let the Wi for i = 1, · · ·, l be as described in Definition 44.3. Thus

∂Ω ⊆ ∪lj=1 Wj . Then let C1 ≡ ∂Ω \ ∪li=2 Wi , a closed subset of W1 . Let D1 be an
open set satisfying
C1 ⊆ D1 ⊆ D1 ⊆ W1 .
¡ ¡ ¢¢
Then D1 , W2 , ···, Wl cover ∂Ω. Let C2 = ∂Ω\ D1 ∪ ∪li=3 Wi . Then C2 is a closed
subset of W2 . Choose an open set, D2 such that
C2 ⊆ D2 ⊆ D2 ⊆ W2 .
Thus D1 , D2 , W3 · ··, Wl covers ∂Ω. Continue in this way to get Di ⊆ Wi , and

∂Ω ⊆ ∪li=1 Di , and Di is an open set. Now let
D0 ≡ Ω \ ∪li=1 Di .
Also, let Di ⊆ Vi ⊆ Vi ⊆ Wi . Therefore, D0 , V1 , · · ·, Vl covers Ω. Then the same

estimation process used above yields
Ã !
2 2
X 2
||u||H 2 (D0 ) ≤ C ||f ||L2 (Ω) + ||u||H 1 (Ω) + ||hk ||H 1 (Ω) .
k
From Lemma 44.4

Ã !
2 2
X 2
||u||H 2 (Vi ∩Ω) ≤ C ||f ||L2 (Ω) + ||u||H 1 (Ω) + ||hk ||H 1 (Ω)
k
also. This proves the theorem since

l
X
||u||H 2 (Ω) ≤ ||u||H 2 (Vi ∩Ω) + ||u||H 2 (D0 ) .
i=1
What about the Dirichlet problem? The same differencing procedure as above
yields the following.
Theorem 44.6 Let Ω be a bounded open set with C 1,1 boundary as in Definition
44.3, let f ∈ L2 (Ω) , hk ∈ H 1 (Ω), and suppose that for all x ∈ Ω,
2
Suppose also that u ∈ H01 (Ω) and

Z Z Z
aij (x) u,i (x) v,j (x) dx + hk (x) v,k (x) dx = f (x) v (x) dx
Ω Ω Ω
for all v ∈ H01 (Ω) . Then u ∈ H 2 (Ω) and for some C independent of f, g, and u,
Ã !
2 2 2
X 2
||u||H 2 (Ω) ≤ C ||f ||L2 (Ω) + ||u||H 1 (Ω) + ||hk ||H 1 (Ω) .
k
What about higher regularity?
Lemma 44.7 Let W be one of the sets described in Definition 44.3 and let m ≥ k.
Let W1 ⊆ W1 ⊆ W where W1 is an open set. Suppose also that
u ∈ H k (Ω) ,
¡ ¢
αrs ∈ C k−1,1 Ω ,
f ∈ H k−1 (Ω) ,
hs ∈ H k (Ω) ,
and that for all v ∈ H 1 (Ω ∩ W ) such that spt (v) ⊆ Ω ∩ W,

Z Z Z
aij (x) u,i (x) v,j (x) dx + hs (x) v,s (x) dx = f (x) v (x) dx. (44.40)
Ω Ω Ω
Then there exists a constant, C, independent of f, u, and g such that

Ã !
2 2 2
X 2
||u||H k+1 (Ω∩W1 ) ≤ C ||f ||H k−1 (Ω) + ||u||H k (Ω) + ||hs ||H k (Ω) . (44.41)
s
Proof: Let © ª
E ≡ v ∈ H k (Ω ∩ W ) : spt (v) ⊆ W
u restricted to W ∩ Ω is in H k (Ω ∩ W ) and
Z Z
aij (x) u,i v,j dx + hs (x) v,s (x) dx
Ω∩W Ω
Z
= f (x) v (x) dx for all v ∈ E. (44.42)
Ω
Now let Φi (y) = x. For this particular W, denote Φi more simply by Φ, Ui ≡

Φi (Ω ∩ Wi ) by U, and Vi by V. Denoting the coordinates of V by y, and letting
u (x) ≡ w (y) and v (x) ≡ z (y) , it follows that in terms of the new coordinates,
44.35 takes the form
Z
∂w ∂y r ∂z ∂y s
aij (Φ (y)) r |det DΦ (y)| dy
U ∂y ∂xi ∂y s ∂xj
Z
∂z ∂y l
+ hk (Φ (y)) l k |det DΦ (y)| dx
∂y ∂x
Z U
= f (Φ (y)) z (y) |det DΦ (y)| dy
U
Let
∂y r ∂y s
αrs (y) ≡ aij (Φ (y)) |det DΦ (y)| , (44.43)
∂xi ∂xj
∂y l
hel (y) ≡ hk (Φ (y)) k |det DΦ (y)| , (44.44)
∂x
and
fe(y) ≡ Φ∗ f |det DΦ| (y) ≡ f (Φ (y)) |det DΦ (y)| . (44.45)
¡ ¢
Now the function on the right in 44.43 is in C k,1 U . This is because of the
assumption that m ≥ k in the statement of the ¡ ¢lemma. This function is therefore a
finite product of bounded functions in C k,1 U .
The function hel defined in 44.44 is in H k (U ) and
¯¯ ¯¯ X
¯¯ e ¯¯
¯¯h l ¯¯ k ≤C ||hs ||H k (Ω∩W )
H (U )
s
again because m ≥ k.
Finally, the right side of 44.45 is a function in H k−1 (U ¡ ) ¢by Lemma 41.20 on
Page 1185 and the observation that |det DΦ (·)| ∈ C k−1,1 U which follows from
the assumption of the lemma that m ≥ k so Φ ∈ C k−1,1 (Rn ). Also
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ e¯¯
¯¯f ¯¯ k−1 ≤ C ||f ||H k−1 (Ω∩W ) .
H (U )
Therefore, 44.42 is of the form

Z Z Z
αrs (y) w,r z,s dy + hel z,l dy = fezdy, (44.46)
U U U
for all z in H 1 (U ) having support in V.

Claim: There exists r > 0 independent of y ∈ U such that for all y ∈ U ,
2
αrs (y) vr vs ≥ r |v| .
Proof of the claim: If this is not so, there exist vectors, vn , |vn | = 1, and
yn ∈ U such that αrs (yn ) vrn vsn ≤ n1 . Taking a subsequence, there exists y ∈ U and
|v| = 1 such that αrs (y) vr vs = 0 contradicting 44.32.
Therefore, by Corollary 44.2, there exists a constant, C, independent of f, g, and

w such that
Ã !
¯¯ ¯¯2 X ¯¯¯¯ ¯¯¯¯2
¯¯ e¯¯
¯¯hel ¯¯
2 2
||w|| k+1 −1
H (Φ ≤ C ¯¯f ¯¯
(W1 ∩Ω)) + ||w|| k + H (U ) .
H k−1 (U ) H k (U )
l
Therefore,
Ã !
2 2 2
X 2
||u||H k+1 (W1 ∩Ω) ≤ C ||f ||H k−1 (W ∩Ω) + ||w||H k (W ∩Ω) + ||hs ||H k (W ∩Ω)
s
Ã !
2 2
X 2
≤ C ||f ||H k−1 (Ω) + ||w||H k (Ω) + ||hs ||H k (Ω) .
s

Now here is a theorem which generalizes the one above in the case where more
regularity is known.
Theorem 44.8 Let Ω be a bounded open set with C k,1 boundary as in Definition
44.3, let f ∈ H k−1 (Ω) , hs ∈ H k (Ω), and suppose that for all x ∈ Ω,
2
Suppose also that u ∈ H k (Ω) and

Z Z Z
ij
a (x) u,i (x) v,j (x) dx + hk (x) v,k (x) dx = f (x) v (x) dx
Ω Ω Ω
for all v ∈ H k (Ω) . Then u ∈ H k+1 (Ω) and for some C independent of f, g, and u,
Ã !
2 2 2
X 2
||u||H k+1 (Ω) ≤ C ||f ||H k−1 (Ω) + ||u||H k (Ω) + ||hs ||H k (Ω) .
s
Proof: Let the Wi for i = 1, · · ·, l be as described in Definition 44.3. Thus

∂Ω ⊆ ∪lj=1 Wj . Then let C1 ≡ ∂Ω \ ∪li=2 Wi , a closed subset of W1 . Let D1 be an
open set satisfying
C1 ⊆ D1 ⊆ D1 ⊆ W1 .
¡ ¡ ¢¢
Then D1 , W2 , ···, Wl cover ∂Ω. Let C2 = ∂Ω\ D1 ∪ ∪li=3 Wi . Then C2 is a closed
subset of W2 . Choose an open set, D2 such that
C2 ⊆ D2 ⊆ D2 ⊆ W2 .
Thus D1 , D2 , W3 · ··, Wl covers ∂Ω. Continue in this way to get Di ⊆ Wi , and

∂Ω ⊆ ∪li=1 Di , and Di is an open set. Now let
D0 ≡ Ω \ ∪li=1 Di .
Also, let Di ⊆ Vi ⊆ Vi ⊆ Wi . Therefore, D0 , V1 , · · ·, Vl covers Ω. Then the same

estimation process used above yields
Ã !
2 2
X 2
||u||H k+1 (D0 ) ≤ C ||f ||H k−1 (Ω) + ||u||H k (Ω) + ||hk ||H k (Ω) .
k
From Lemma 44.7

Ã !
2 2
X 2
||u||H k+1 (Vi ∩Ω) ≤ C ||f ||H k−1 (Ω) + ||u||H k (Ω) + ||hk ||H k (Ω)
k
also. This proves the theorem since

l
X
||u||H k+1 (Ω) ≤ ||u||H k+1 (Vi ∩Ω) + ||u||H k+1 (D0 ) .
i=1
Interpolation In Banach
Space
45.1 An Assortment Of Important Theorems

45.1.1 Weak Vector Valued Derivatives
In this section, several significant theorems are presented. Unless indicated other-
wise, the measure will be Lebesgue measure. First here is a lemma.
Lemma 45.1 Suppose g ∈ L1 ([a, b] ; X) where X is a Banach space. Then if

Rb
a
g (t) φ (t) dt = 0 for all φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b) , then g (t) = 0 a.e.
Proof: Let E be a measurable subset of (a, b) and let K ⊆ E ⊆ V ⊆ (a, b)

where K is compact, V is open and m (V \ K) < ε. Let K ≺ h ≺ V as in the proof
of the Riesz representation theorem for positive linear functionals. Enlarging K
slightly and convolving with a mollifier, it can be assumed h ∈ Cc∞ (a, b) . Then
¯Z ¯ ¯Z ¯
¯ b ¯ ¯ b ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ XE (t) g (t) dt¯ = ¯ (XE (t) − h (t)) g (t) dt¯
¯ a ¯ ¯ a ¯
Z b
≤ |XE (t) − h (t)| ||g (t)|| dt
Za
≤ ||g (t)|| dt.
V \K
Now let Kn ⊆ E ⊆ Vn with m (Vn \ Kn ) < 2−n . Then from the above,
¯Z ¯ Z
¯ b ¯ b
¯ ¯
¯ XE (t) g (t) dt¯ ≤ XVn \Kn (t) ||g (t)|| dt
¯ a ¯ a
and
P the integrand of the last integral converges to 0 a.e. as n → ∞ because
n m (Vn \ Kn ) < ∞. By the dominated convergence theorem, this last integral
1239
1240 INTERPOLATION IN BANACH SPACE
converges to 0. Therefore, whenever E ⊆ (a, b) ,

Z b
XE (t) g (t) dt = 0.
a
Since the endpoints have measure zero, it also follows that for any measurable E,
the above equation holds.
Now g ∈ L1 ([a, b] ; X) and so it is measurable. Therefore, g ([a, b]) is separable.
Let D be P
a countable dense subset and let E denote the set of linear combinations of
the form i ai di where ai is a rational point of F and di ∈ D. Thus E is countable.
Denote by Y the closure of E in X. Thus Y is a separable closed subspace of X
which contains all the values of g.
∞
Now let Sn ≡ g −1 (B (yn , ||yn || /2)) where E = {yn }n=1 . Therefore,
³ ∪ń Sn =
g −1 (X \ {0}) . This follows because if x ∈ Y and x 6= 0, then in B x, ||x||
4 there
||yn || 3||x|| ||x||
is a point of E, yn . Therefore, ||yn || > 34 ||x||
and so > > 2 so x ∈ 8 4
B (yn , ||yn || /2) . It follows that if each Sn has
measure zero, then g (t) = 0 for a.e.
t. Suppose then that for some n, the set, Sn has positive mesure. Then from what
was shown above,
¯¯ Z ¯¯ ¯¯ Z ¯¯
¯¯ 1 ¯¯ ¯¯ 1 ¯¯
||yn || = ¯¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
g (t) dt − yn ¯¯ = ¯¯¯ g (t) − yn dt¯¯¯¯
m (Sn ) Sn m (Sn ) Sn
Z Z
1 1
≤ ||g (t) − yn || dt ≤ ||yn || /2dt = ||yn || /2
m (Sn ) Sn m (Sn ) Sn
and so yn = 0 which implies Sn = ∅, a contradiction to m (Sn ) > 0. This contradic-

tion shows each Sn has measure zero and so as just explained, g (t) = 0 a.e.
Definition 45.2 For f ∈ L1 (a, b; X) , define an extension, f defined on
[2a − b, 2b − a] = [a − (b − a) , b + (b − a)]
as follows. 
 f (t) if t ∈ [a, b]
f (t) ≡ f (2a − t) if t ∈ [2a − b, a]

f (2b − t) if t ∈ [b, 2b − a]
Definition 45.3 Also if f ∈ Lp (a, b; X) and h > 0, define for t ∈ [a, b] , fh (t) ≡
f (t − h) for all h < b − a. Thus the map f → fh is continuous and linear on
Lp (a, b; X) . It is continuous because
Z b Z a+h Z b−h
p p p
||fh (t)|| dt = ||f (2a − t + h)|| dt + ||f (t)|| dt
a a a
Z a+h Z b−h
p p p
= ||f (t)|| dt + ||f (t)|| dt ≤ 2 ||f ||p .
a a
The following lemma is on continuity of translation in Lp (a, b; X) .

45.1. AN ASSORTMENT OF IMPORTANT THEOREMS 1241
Lemma 45.4 Let f be as defined in Definition 45.2. Then for f ∈ Lp (a, b; X) for
p ∈ [1, ∞),
Z b
¯¯ ¯¯
lim ¯¯f (t − δ) − f (t)¯¯p dt = 0.
δ→0 X
a
Proof: Regarding the measure space as (a, b) with Lebesgue measure, by

Lemma 21.42 there exists g ∈ Cc (a, b; X) such that ||f − g||p < ε. Here the norm
is the norm in Lp (a, b; X) . Therefore,
||fh − f ||p ≤ ||fh − gh ||p + ||gh − g||p + ||g − f ||p

³ ´
≤ 21/p + 1 ||f − g||p + ||gh − g||p
³ ´
< 21/p + 1 ε + ε
whenever h is sufficiently small. This is because of the uniform continuity of g.

Therefore, since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this proves the lemma.
Definition 45.5 Let f ∈ L1 (a, b; X) . Then the distributional derivative in the

sense of X valued distributions is given by
Z b
0
f (φ) ≡ − f (t) φ0 (t) dt
a
Then f 0 ∈ L1 (a, b; X) if there exists h ∈ L1 (a, b; X) such that for all φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b) ,
Z b
0
f (φ) = h (t) φ (t) dt.
a
Then f 0 is defined to equal h. Here f and f 0 are considered as vector valued distri-
butions in the same way as was done for scalar valued functions.
Proof: Suppose both h and g work in the definition. Then for all φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b) ,
Z b
(h (t) − g (t)) φ (t) dt = 0.
a
Therefore, by Lemma 45.1, h (t) − g (t) = 0 a.e.

The other thing to notice about this is the following lemma. It follows immedi-
ately from the definition.
Lemma 45.7 Suppose f, f 0 ∈ L1 (a, b; X) . Then if [c, d] ⊆ [a, b], it follows that
¡ ¢0
f |[c,d] = f 0 |[c,d] . This notation means the restriction to [c, d] .
Recall that in the case of scalar valued functions, if you had both f and its
weak derivative, f 0 in L1 (a, b) , then you were able to conclude that f is almost
everywhere equal to a continuous function, still denoted by f and
Z t
f (t) = f (a) + f 0 (s) ds.
a
In particular, you can define f (a) to be the initial value of this continuous function.
It turns out that an identical theorem holds in this case. To begin with here
is the same sort of lemma which was used earlier for the case of scalar valued
functions. It says that if f 0 = 0 where the derivative is taken in the sense of X
valued distributions, then f equals a constant.
Lemma 45.8 Suppose f ∈ L1 (a, b; X) and for all φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b) ,

Z b
f (t) φ0 (t) dt = 0.
a
Then there exists a constant, a ∈ X such that f (t) = a a.e.

Rb
Proof: Let φ0 ∈ Cc∞ (a, b) , a φ0 (x) dx = 1 and define for φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b)
Z ÃZ !
x b
ψ φ (x) ≡ [φ (t) − φ (y) dy φ0 (t)]dt
a a
³R ´
b
Then ψ φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b) and ψ 0φ = φ − a
φ (y) dy φ0 . Then
Z Z Ã ÃZ ! !
b b b
f (t) (φ (t)) dt = f (t) ψ 0φ (t) + φ (y) dy φ0 (t) dt
a a a
Z ÃZ !Z
b b b
= f (t) ψ 0φ (t) dt + φ (y) dy f (t) φ0 (t) dt
a a a
ÃZ ÃZ ! !
b b
= f (t) φ0 (t) dt φ (y) dy .
a a
It follows that for all φ ∈ Cc∞ (a, b) ,

Z Ã b
ÃZ
b
!!
f (t) − f (t) φ0 (t) dt φ (t) dt
a a
and so by Lemma 45.1,

ÃZ !
b
f (t) − f (t) φ0 (t) dt = 0 a.e.
a

Theorem 45.9 Suppose f, f 0 both are in L1 (a, b; X) where the derivative is taken
in the sense of X valued distributions. Then there exists a unique point of X,
denoted by f (a) such that the following formula holds a.e. t.
Z t
f (t) = f (a) + f 0 (s) ds
a
Proof:
Z bµ Z t ¶ Z b Z b Z t
f (t) − f 0 (s) ds φ0 (t) dt = f (t) φ0 (t) dt − f 0 (s) φ0 (t) dsdt.
a a a a a
RbRt
Now consider a a f 0 (s) φ0 (t) dsdt. Let Λ ∈ X 0 . Then it is routine from approxi-
mating f 0 with simple functions to verify
ÃZ Z ! Z Z
b t b t
0
Λ 0
f (s) φ (t) dsdt = Λ (f 0 (s)) φ0 (t) dsdt.
a a a a
Now the ordinary Fubini theorem can be applied to obtain

Z bZ b
= Λ (f 0 (s)) φ0 (t) dtds
a
ÃZs Z !
b b
= Λ f 0 (s) φ0 (t) dtds .
a s
Since X 0 separates the points of X, it follows

Z bZ t Z bZ b
0
0
f (s) φ (t) dsdt = f 0 (s) φ0 (t) dtds.
a a a s
Therefore,
Z b µ Z t ¶
f (t) − f 0 (s) ds φ0 (t) dt
a a
Z b Z b Z b
0
= f (t) φ (t) dt − f 0 (s) φ0 (t) dtds
a a s
Z b Z b Z b
= f (t) φ0 (t) dt − f 0 (s) φ0 (t) dtds
a a s
Z b Z b
= f (t) φ0 (t) dt + f 0 (s) φ (s) ds = 0.
a a
Therefore, by Lemma 45.8, there exists a constant, denoted as f (a) such that
Z t
f (t) − f 0 (s) ds = f (a)
a

The integration by parts formula is also important.
Corollary 45.10 Suppose f, f 0 ∈ L1 (a, b; X) and suppose φ ∈ C 1 ([a, b]) . Then

the following integration by parts formula holds.
Z b Z b
f (t) φ0 (t) dt = f (b) φ (b) − f (a) φ (a) − f 0 (t) φ (t) dt.
a a
Z b
f (t) φ0 (t) dt
a
Z b µ Z t ¶
= f (a) + f (s) ds φ0 (t) dt
0
a a
Z b Z t
= f (a) (φ (b) − φ (a)) + f 0 (s) dsφ0 (t) dt
a a
Z b Z b
= f (a) (φ (b) − φ (a)) + f 0 (s) φ0 (t) dtds
a s
Z b
= f (a) (φ (b) − φ (a)) + f 0 (s) (φ (b) − φ (s)) ds
a
Z b
= f (a) (φ (b) − φ (a)) − f 0 (s) φ (s) ds + (f (b) − f (a)) φ (b)
a
Z b
= f (b) φ (b) − f (a) φ (a) − f 0 (s) φ (s) ds.
a
The interchange in order of integration is justified as in the proof of Theorem 45.9.

With this integration by parts formula, the following interesting lemma is ob-
tained. This lemma shows why it was appropriate to define f as in Definition 45.2.
Lemma 45.11 Let f be given in Definition 45.2 and suppose f, f 0 ∈ L1 (a, b; X) .

0
Then f , f ∈ L1 (2a − b, 2b − a; X) also and
 0
 f (t) if t ∈ [a, b]
0
f (t) ≡ −f (2a − t) if t ∈ [2a − b, a] (45.1)

−f (2b − t) if t ∈ [b, 2b − a]
Proof: It is clear from the definition of f that f ∈ L1 (2a − b, 2b − a; X) and

that in fact
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯f ¯¯ 1 ≤ 3 ||f ||L1 (a,b;X) . (45.2)
L (2a−b,2b−a;X)
Let φ ∈ Cc∞ (2a − b, 2b − a) . Then from the integration by parts formula,

Z 2b−a
f (t) φ0 (t) dt
2a−b
Z b Z 2b−a Z a
= f (t) φ0 (t) dt + f (2b − t) φ0 (t) dt + f (2a − t) φ0 (t) dt
a b 2a−b
Z b Z b Z b
= f (t) φ0 (t) dt + f (u) φ0 (2b − u) du + f (u) φ0 (2a − u) du
a a a
Z b
= f (b) φ (b) − f (a) φ (a) − f 0 (t) φ (t) dt − f (b) φ (b) + f (a) φ (2b − a)
a
Z b
+ f 0 (u) φ (2b − u) du − f (b) φ (2a − b)
a
Z b
+f (a) φ (a) + f 0 (u) φ (2a − u) du
a
Z b Z b Z b
= − f 0 (t) φ (t) dt + f 0 (u) φ (2b − u) du + f 0 (u) φ (2a − u) du
a a a
Z b Z 2b−a Z a
= − f 0 (t) φ (t) dt − −f 0 (2b − t) φ (t) dt − −f 0 (2a − t) φ (t) dt
a b 2a−b
Z 2b−a
0
= − f (t) φ (t) dt
2a−b
0
where f (t) is given in 45.1. This proves the lemma.
Definition 45.12 Let V be a Banach space and let H be a Hilbert space. (Typically
H = L2 (Ω)) Suppose V ⊆ H is dense in H meaning that the closure in H of V
gives H. Then it is often the case that H is identified with its dual space, and then
because of the density of V in H, it is possible to write
V ⊆ H = H0 ⊆ V 0
When this is done, H is called a pivot space. Another notation which is often used
is hf, gi to denote f (g) for f ∈ V 0 and g ∈ V. This may also be written as hf, giV 0 ,V
The next theorem is an example of a trace theorem. In this theorem, f ∈

Lp (0, T ; V ) while f 0 ∈ Lp (0, T ; V 0 ) . It makes no sense to consider the initial values
of f in V because it is not even continuous with values in V . However, because of
the derivative of f it will turn out that f is continuous with values in a larger space
and so it makes sense to consider initial values of f in this other space. This other
space is called a trace space.
Theorem 45.13 Let V and H be a Banach space and Hilbert space as described
0
in Definition 45.12. Suppose f ∈ Lp (0, T ; V ) and f 0 ∈ Lp (0, T ; V 0 ) . Then f is
a.e. equal to a continuous function mapping [0, T ] to H. Furthermore, there exists

f (0) ∈ H such that
Z t
1 2 1 2
|f (t)|H − |f (0)|H = hf 0 (s) , f (s)i ds, (45.3)
2 2 0
and for all t ∈ [0, T ] ,

Z t
f 0 (s) ds ∈ H, (45.4)
0
and for a.e. t ∈ [0, T ] ,
Z t
f (t) = f (0) + f 0 (s) ds in H, (45.5)
0
1 1
Here f 0 is being taken in the sense of V 0 valued distributions and p + p0 = 1 and
p ≥ 2.
Proof: Let Ψ ∈ Cc∞ (−T, 2T ) satisfy Ψ (t) = 1 if t ∈ [−T /2, 3T /2] and Ψ (t) ≥ 0.
For t ∈ R, define ½
b f (t) Ψ (t) if t ∈ [−T, 2T ]
f (t) ≡
0 if t ∈
/ [−T, 2T ]
and Z 1/n
fn (t) ≡ fb(t − s) φn (s) ds (45.6)
−1/n
where φn is a mollifier having support in (−1/n, 1/n) . Then by Minkowski’s in-

equality
Ã Z ¯¯ Z 1/n ¯¯p !1/p
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ b ¯¯
¯¯fn − fb¯¯ = ¯¯f (t) − fb(t − s) φn (s) ds¯¯ dt
Lp (R;V ) R ¯ ¯ −1/n ¯¯
V
Ã Z ¯¯Z ¯¯p !1/p

¯¯ 1/n ³ ´ ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
= ¯¯ fb(t) − fb(t − s) φn (s) ds¯¯ dt
R ¯ ¯ −1/n ¯¯
V
ÃZ ÃZ !p !1/p
1/n ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ b b ¯¯
≤ ¯¯f (t) − f (t − s)¯¯ φn (s) ds dt
R −1/n V
Z 1/n µZ ¯¯ ¯¯p ¶1/p
¯¯ b ¯¯
≤ φn (s) ¯¯f (t) − fb(t − s)¯¯ dt ds
−1/n R V
Z 1/n
≤ φn (s) εds = ε
−1/n
provided n is large enough. This follows from Lemma 45.4 about continuity of
translation. Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, it follows fn → fb in Lp (R; V ) . Similarly,
fn → f in L2 (R; H). This follows because p ≥ 2 and the norm in V and norm in
H are related by |x|H ≤ C ||x||V for some constant, C. Now


 Ψ (t) f (t) if t ∈ [0, T ] ,

b Ψ (t) f (2T − t) if t ∈ [T, 2T ] ,
f (t) =

 Ψ (t) f (−t) if t ∈ [0, T ] ,

0 if t ∈
/ [−T, 2T ] .
An easy modification of the argument of Lemma 45.11 yields
 0

 Ψ (t) f (t) + Ψ (y) f 0 (t) if t ∈ [0, T ] ,
 0
Ψ (t) f (2T − t) − Ψ (t) f 0 (2T − t) if t ∈ [T, 2T ] ,
fb0 (t) = .

 Ψ0 (t) f (−t) − Ψ (t) f 0 (−t) if t ∈ [−T, 0] ,

0 if t ∈
/ [−T, 2T ] .
Recall
Z 1/n Z
fn (t) = fb(t − s) φn (s) ds = fb(t − s) φn (s) ds
−1/n R
Z
= fb(s) φn (t − s) ds.
R
Therefore,
Z Z 1
2T + n
fn0 (t) = fb(s) φ0n (t − s) ds = fb(s) φ0n (t − s) ds
1
R −T − n
Z 1
2T + n Z
= fb0 (s) φn (t − s) ds = fb0 (s) φn (t − s) ds
1
−T − n R
Z Z 1/n
= fb0 (t − s) φn (s) ds = fb0 (t − s) φn (s) ds
R −1/n
and it follows from the first line above that fn0 is continuous with values in V for all
t ∈ R. Also note that both fn0 and fn equal zero if t ∈ / [−T, 2T ] whenever n is large
enough. Exactly similar reasoning to the above shows that fn0 → fb0 in Lp (R; V 0 ) .
0
∞
Now let φ ∈ Cc (0, T ) .
Z Z
2
|fn (t)|H φ0 (t) dt = (fn (t) , fn (t))H φ0 (t) dt (45.7)
R R
Z Z
= − 2 (fn0 (t) , fn (t)) φ (t) dt = − 2 hfn0 (t) , fn (t)i φ (t) dt
R R
Now
¯Z Z ¯
¯ ¯
¯ hfn0 (t) , fn (t)i φ (t) dt − hf 0
(t) , f (t)i φ (t) dt¯
¯ ¯
R R
Z
≤ (|hfn0 (t) − f 0 (t) , fn (t)i| + |hf 0 (t) , fn (t) − f (t)i|) φ (t) dt.
R
From the first part of this proof which showed that fn → fb in Lp (R; V ) and fn0 → fb0
0
in Lp (R; V 0 ) , an application of Holder’s inequality shows the above converges to 0
as n → ∞. Therefore, passing to the limit as n → ∞ in the 45.8,
Z ¯ ¯ Z D E
¯ b ¯2 0
¯f (t)¯ φ (t) dt = − 2 fb0 (t) , fb(t) φ (t) dt
R H R
¯ ¯2
¯ ¯
which shows t → ¯fb(t)¯ equals a continuous function a.e. and it also has a weak
D H E
derivative equal to 2 fb0 , fb .
It remains to verify that fb is continuous on [0, T ] . Of course fb = f on this
interval. Let N be large enough that fn (−T ) = 0 for all n > N. Then for m, n > N
and t ∈ [−T, 2T ]
Z t
2
|fn (t) − fm (t)|H = 2 (fn0 (s) − fm
0
(s) , fn (s) − fm (s)) ds
−T
Zt
= 2 hfn0 (s) − fm
0
(s) , fn (s) − fm (s)iV 0 ,V ds
−T
Z
≤ 2 ||fn0 (s) − fm
0
(s)||V 0 ||fn (s) − fm (s)||V ds
R
≤ 2 ||fn − fm ||Lp0 (R;V 0 ) ||fn − fm ||Lp (R;V )
which shows from the above that {fn } is uniformly Cauchy on [−T, 2T ] with values
in H. Therefore, there exists g a continuous function defined on [−T, 2T ] having
values in H such that
lim max {|fn (t) − g (t)|H ; t ∈ [−T, 2T ]} = 0.

n→∞
However, g = fb a.e. because fn converges to f in Lp (0, T ; V ) . Therefore, taking a

subsequence, the convergence is a.e. It follows from the fact that V ⊆ H = H 0 ⊆ V 0
and Theorem 45.9 there exists f (0) ∈ V 0 such that for a.e. t,
Z t
f (t) = f (0) + f 0 (s) ds in V 0
0
Now g = f a.e. and g is continuous with values in H hence continuous with values
in V 0 and so Z t
g (t) = f (0) + f 0 (s) ds in V 0
0
for all t. Since g is continuous with values in H it is continuous with values in V 0 .

Taking the limit as t ↓ 0 in the above, g (a) = limt→0+ g (t) = f (0) , showing that
f (0) ∈ H. Therefore, for a.e. t,
Z t Z t
f (t) = f (0) + f 0 (s) ds in H, f 0 (s) ds ∈ H.
0 0

0
Note that if f ∈ Lp (0, T ; V ) and f 0 ∈ Lp (0, T ; V 0 ) , then you can consider the
initial value of f and it will be in H. What if you start with something in H? Is
0
it an initial condition for a function f ∈ Lp (0, T ; V ) such that f 0 ∈ Lp (0, T ; V 0 )?
This is worth thinking about. If it is not so, what is the space of initial values?
How can you give this space a norm? What are its properties? It turns out that if
V is a closed subspace of the Sobolev space, W 1,p (Ω) which contains W01,p (Ω) for
p ≥ 2 and H = L2 (Ω) the answer to the above question is yes. Not surprisingly,
there are many generalizations of the above ideas.
45.1.2 Some Imbedding Theorems

The next theorem is very useful in getting estimates in partial differential equations.
It is called Erling’s lemma.
Definition 45.14 Let E, W be Banach spaces such that E ⊆ W and the injection
map from E into W is continuous. The injection map is said to be compact if every
bounded set in E has compact closure in W. In other words, if a sequence is bounded
in E it has a convergent subsequence converging in W . This is also referred to by
saying that bounded sets in E are precompact in W.
Theorem 45.15 Let E ⊆ W ⊆ X where the injection map is continuous from W

to X and compact from E to W . Then for every ε > 0 there exists a constant, Cε
such that for all u ∈ E,
||u||W ≤ ε ||u||E + Cε ||u||X
Proof: Suppose not. Then there exists ε > 0 and for each n ∈ N, un such that
||un ||W > ε ||un ||E + n ||un ||X
Now let vn = un / ||un ||E . Therefore, ||vn ||E = 1 and
||vn ||W > ε + n ||vn ||X
It follows there exists a subsequence, still denoted by vn such that vn converges to

v in W. However, the above inequality shows that ||vn ||X → 0. Therefore, v = 0.
But then the above inequality would imply that ||vn || > ε and passing to the limit
yields 0 > ε, a contradiction.
Definition 45.16 Define C ([a, b] ; X) the space of functions continuous at every

point of [a, b] having values in X.
You should verify that this is a Banach space with norm

© ª
||u||∞,X = max ||unk (t) − u (t)||X : t ∈ [a, b] .
The following theorem is an infinite dimensional version of the Ascoli Arzela

theorem.
Theorem 45.17 Let q > 1 and let E ⊆ W ⊆ X where the injection map is con-
tinuous from W to X and compact from E to W . Let S be defined by
n o
u such that ||u (t)||E + ||u0 ||Lq ([a,b];X) ≤ R for all t ∈ [a, b] .
Then S ⊆ C ([a, b] ; W ) and if {un } ⊆ S, there exists a subsequence, {unk } which

converges to a function u ∈ C ([a, b] ; W ) in the following way.
lim ||unk − u||∞,W = 0.
k→∞
Proof: First consider the issue of S being a subset of C ([a, b] ; W ) . By Theorem

45.9 on Page 1243 the following holds in X for u ∈ S.
Z t
u (t) − u (s) = u0 (r) dr.
s
Thus S ⊆ C ([a, b] ; X) . Let ε > 0 be given. Then by Theorem 45.15 there exists a
constant, Cε such that for all u ∈ W
ε
||u||W ≤ ||u||E + Cε ||u||X .
4R
Therefore, for all u ∈ S,
ε
||u (t) − u (s)||W ≤ ||u (t) − u (s)||E + Cε ||u (t) − u (s)||X
6R ¯¯Z t ¯¯
ε ¯¯ ¯¯
≤ ¯
+ C ε ¯¯¯ u (r) dr¯¯¯¯
0
3 s X
Z t
ε ε 1/q
≤ + Cε ||u0 (r)||X dr ≤ + Cε R |t − s| . (45.8)
3 s 3
Since ε is arbitrary, it follows u ∈ C ([a, b] ; W ).
∞
Let D = Q ∩ [a, b] so D is a countable dense subset of [a, b]. Let D = {tn }n=1 .
By compactness of the embedding of E into W, there exists a subsequence u(n,1)
such that as n → ∞, u(n,1) (t1 ) converges to a point in W. Now take a subsequence
of this, called (n, 2) such that as n → ∞, u(n,2) (t2 ) converges to a point in W.
It follows that u(n,2) (t1 ) also converges to a point of W. Continue this way. Now
consider the diagonal sequence, uk ≡ u(k,k) This sequence is a subsequence of u(n,l)
whenever k > l. Therefore, uk (tj ) converges for all tj ∈ D.
Claim: Let {uk } be as just defined, converging at every point of [a, b] . Then
{uk } converges at every point of [a, b].
Proof of claim: Let ε > 0 be given. Let t ∈ [a, b] . Pick tm ∈ D ∩ [a, b] such
that in 45.8 Cε R |t − tm | < ε/3. Then there exists N such that if l, n > N, then
||ul (tm ) − un (tm )||X < ε/3. It follows that for l, n > N,
||ul (t) − un (t)||X ≤ ||ul (t) − ul (tm )|| + ||ul (tm ) − un (tm )||
+ ||un (tm ) − un (t)||
2ε ε 2ε
≤ + + < 2ε
3 3 3
∞
Since ε was arbitrary, this shows {uk (t)}k=1 is a Cauchy sequence. Since W is
complete, this shows this sequence converges.
Now for t ∈ [a, b] , it was just shown that if ε > 0 there exists Nt such that if
n, m > Nt , then
ε
||un (t) − um (t)|| < .
3
Now let s 6= t. Then
||un (s) − um (s)|| ≤ ||un (s) − un (t)|| + ||un (t) − um (t)|| + ||um (t) − um (s)||
From 45.8
³ε ´
1/q
||un (s) − um (s)|| ≤ 2 + Cε R |t − s| + ||un (t) − um (t)||
3
and so it follows that if δ is sufficiently small and s ∈ B (t, δ) , then when n, m > Nt
||un (s) − um (s)|| < ε.

p
Since [a, b] is compact, there are finitely many of these balls, {B (ti , δ)}i=1 , such
that ©for s ∈ B (tªi , δ) and n, m > Nti , the above inequality holds. Let N >
max Nt1 , · · ·, Ntp . Then if m, n > N and s ∈ [a, b] is arbitrary, it follows the
above inequality must hold. Therefore, this has shown the following claim.
Claim: Let ε > 0 be given. Then there exists N such that if m, n > N, then
||un − um ||∞,W < ε.
Now let u (t) = limk→∞ uk (t) .
||u (t) − u (s)||W ≤ ||u (t) − un (t)||W + ||un (t) − un (s)||W + ||un (s) − u (s)||W
(45.9)
Let N be in the above claim and fix n > N. Then
||u (t) − un (t)||W = lim ||um (t) − un (t)||W ≤ ε

m→∞
and similarly, ||un (s) − u (s)||W ≤ ε. Then if |t − s| is small enough, 45.8 shows the
middle term in 45.9 is also smaller than ε. Therefore, if |t − s| is small enough,
||u (t) − u (s)||W < 3ε.
Thus u is continuous. Finally, let N be as in the above claim. Then letting m, n >
N, it follows that for all t ∈ [a, b] ,
||um (t) − un (t)|| < ε.
Therefore, letting m → ∞, it follows that for all t ∈ [a, b] ,
||u (t) − un (t)|| ≤ ε.
and so ||u − un ||∞,W ≤ ε. Since ε is arbitrary, this proves the theorem.

The next theorem is another such imbedding theorem. It is often used in partial
differential equations.
Theorem 45.18 Let E ⊆ W ⊆ X where the injection map is continuous from W

to X and compact from E to W . Let p ≥ 1, let q > 1, and define
S ≡ {u ∈ Lp ([a, b] ; E) : u0 ∈ Lq ([a, b] ; X)
and ||u||Lp ([a,b];E) + ||u0 ||Lq ([a,b];X) ≤ R}.
∞
Then S is precompact in Lp ([a, b] ; W ). This means that if {un }n=1 ⊆ S, it has a
subsequence {unk } which converges in Lp ([a, b] ; W ) .
Proof: By Proposition 6.12 on Page 136 it suffices to show S has an η net in
Lp ([a, b] ; W ) for each η > 0.
If not, there exists η > 0 and a sequence {un } ⊆ S, such that
||un − um || ≥ η (45.10)
for all n 6= m and the norm refers to Lp ([a, b] ; W ). Let
a = t0 < t1 < · · · < tn = b, tk − tk−1 = T /k.
Now define
k
X Z ti
1
un (t) ≡ uni X[ti−1 ,ti ) (t) , uni ≡ un (s) ds.
i=1
ti − ti−1 ti−1
The idea is to show that un approximates un well and then to argue that a subse-
quence of the {un } is a Cauchy sequence yielding a contradiction to 45.10.
Therefore,
Xk Z ti
1
un (t) − un (t) = (un (t) − un (s)) dsX[ti−1 ,ti ) (t) .
t − ti−1 ti−1
i=1 i
It follows from Jensen’s inequality that

p
||un (t) − un (t)||W
¯¯
k ¯¯ Z ti ¯¯p
X 1 ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
= ¯¯ (un (t) − un (s)) ds¯¯ X[ti−1 ,ti ) (t)
¯¯ ti − ti−1 ti−1 ¯¯
i=1 W
X k Z ti
1 p
≤ ||un (t) − un (s)||W dsX[ti−1 ,ti ) (t)
i=1
t i − ti−1 t i−1
and so
Z b
p
||(un (t) − un (s))||W ds
a
Z b k
X Z ti
1 p
≤ ||un (t) − un (s)||W dsX[ti−1 ,ti ) (t) dt
a i=1 t i − ti−1 ti−1
Xk Z t Z ti
1 i
p
= ||un (t) − un (s)||W dsdt. (45.11)
i=1
t i − t i−1 t i−1 t i−1
From Theorems 45.15 and 45.9, if ε > 0, there exists Cε such that
p p p
||un (t) − un (s)||W ≤ ε ||un (t) − un (s)||E + Cε ||un (t) − un (s)||X
¯¯Z t ¯¯p
¯¯ ¯¯
≤ p−1 p ¯
2 ε (||un (t)|| + ||un (s)|| ) + Cε ¯¯¯ un (r) dr¯¯¯¯
0 p
s X
µZ t ¶p
p−1 p p 0
≤ 2 ε (||un (t)|| + ||un (s)|| ) + Cε ||un (r)||X dr
s
p p
≤ 2p−1 ε (||un (t)|| + ||un (s)|| )
ÃµZ ¶1/q !p
t
0 q 1/q 0
+Cε ||un (r)||X dr |t − s|
s
p−1 p p p/q 0
= 2 ε (||un (t)|| + ||un (s)|| ) + Cε Rp/q |t − s| .
This is substituted in to 45.11 to obtain
Z b
p
||(un (t) − un (s))||W ds ≤
a
k
X Z ti Z ti
1 ¡ p p
2p−1 ε (||un (t)|| + ||un (s)|| )
i=1
ti − ti−1 ti−1 ti−1
´
p/q 0
+Cε Rp/q |t − s| dsdt
k
X Z ti Z ti Z ti
p p p/q 1 p/q 0
= 2 ε ||un (t)||W + Cε R |t − s| dsdt
i=1 ti−1 ti − ti−1 ti−1 ti−1
Z b k
X Z ti Z ti
p p p/q 1 p/q 0
= 2 ε ||un (t)|| dt + Cε R (ti − ti−1 ) dsdt
a i=1
(ti − ti−1 ) ti−1 ti−1
Z b k
X
p 1 p/q 0 2
= 2p ε ||un (t)|| dt + Cε Rp/q (ti − ti−1 ) (ti − ti−1 )
a i=1
(t i − ti−1 )
Xk µ ¶1+p/q0
p p p/q 1+p/q 0 p p p/q T
≤ 2 εR + Cε R (ti − ti−1 ) = 2 εR + Cε R k .
i=1
k
Taking ε so small that 2p εRp < η p /8p and then choosing k sufficiently large, it
follows
η
||un − un ||Lp ([a,b];W ) < .
4
Now use compactness of the embedding of E into W to obtain a subsequence
such that {un } is Cauchy in Lp (a, b; W ) and use this to contradict 45.10. Suppose
Pk
un (t) = i=1 uni X[ti−1 ,ti ) (t) . Thus
k
X
||un (t)||E = ||uni ||E X[ti−1 ,ti ) (t)
i=1
and so
Z k
b
p T X n p
R≥ ||un (t)||E dt = ||u ||
a k i=1 i E
Therefore, the {uni }
are all bounded. It follows that after taking subsequences
k times there exists a subsequence {unk } such that unk is a Cauchy sequence in
Lp (a, b; W ) . You simply get a subsequence such that uni k is a Cauchy sequence in
W for each i. Then denoting this subsequence by n,
||un − um ||Lp (a,b;W ) ≤ ||un − un ||Lp (a,b;W )
+ ||un − um ||Lp (a,b;W ) + ||um − um ||Lp (a,b;W )
η η
≤ + ||un − um ||Lp (a,b;W ) + < η
4 4
provided m, n are large enough, contradicting 45.10. This proves the theorem.
45.2 The K Method

This considers the problem of interpolating Banach spaces. The idea is to build
a Banach space between two others in a systematic way, thus constructing a new
Banach space from old ones. The first method of defining intermediate Banach
spaces is called the K method. For more on this topic as well as the other topics on
interpolation see [8] which is what I am following. See also [50]. There is far more
on these subjects in these books than what I am presenting here! My goal is to
present only enough to give an introduction to the topic and to use it in presenting
more theory of Sobolev spaces.
In what follows a topological vector space is a vector space in which vector
addition and scalar multiplication are continuous. That is · : F × X → X is
continuous and + : X × X → X is also continuous.
A common example of a topological vector space is the dual space, X 0 of a
Banach space, X with the weak ∗ topology. For S ⊆ X a finite set, define
BS (x∗ , r) ≡ {y ∗ ∈ X 0 : |y ∗ (x) − x∗ (x)| < r for all x ∈ S}
Then the BS (x∗ , r) for S a finite subset of X and r > 0 form a basis for the topology
on X 0 called the weak ∗ topology. You can check that the vector space operations
are continuous.
Definition 45.19 Let A0 and A1 be two Banach spaces with norms ||·||0 and ||·||1
respectively, also written as ||·||A0 and ||·||A1 and let X be a topological vector space
such that Ai ⊆ X for i = 1, 2, and the identity map from Ai to X is continuous.
For each t > 0, define a norm on A0 + A1 by
K (t, a) ≡ ||a||t ≡ inf {||a0 ||0 + t ||a1 ||1 : a0 + a1 = a}.
This is short for K (t, a, A0 , A1 ) . Thus K (t, a, A1 , A0 ) will mean
© ª
K (t, a, A1 , A0 ) ≡ inf ||a1 ||A1 + t ||a0 ||A0 : a0 + a1 = a
45.2. THE K METHOD 1255
but the default is K (t, a, A0 , A1 ) if K (t, a) is written.
The following lemma is an interesting exercise.
Lemma 45.20 (A0 + A1 , K (t, ·)) is a Banach space and all the norms, K (t, ·) are
equivalent.
Proof: First, why is K (t, ·) a norm? It is clear that K (t, a) ≥ 0 and that if
a = 0 then K (t, a) = 0. Is this the only way this can happen? Suppose K (t, a) = 0.
Then there exist a0n ∈ A0 and a1n ∈ A1 such that ||a0n ||0 → 0, ||a1n ||1 → 0, and
a = a0n + a1n . Since the embedding of Ai into X is continuous and since X is a
topological vector space1 , it follows
a = a0n + a1n → 0
and so a = 0.
Let α be a nonzero scalar. Then
K (t, αa) = inf {||a0 ||0 + t ||a1 ||1 : a0 + a1 = αa}

n ¯¯ a ¯¯ ¯¯ a ¯¯ a a1 o
¯¯ 0 ¯¯ ¯¯ 1 ¯¯ 0
= inf |α| ¯¯ ¯¯ + t |α| ¯¯ ¯¯ : + =a
n¯¯ aα ¯¯0 ¯¯ a ¯¯α 1a α a α o
¯¯ 0 ¯¯ ¯¯ 1 ¯¯ 0 1
= |α| inf ¯¯ ¯¯ + t ¯¯ ¯¯ : + =a
α 0 α 1 α α
= |α| inf {||a0 ||0 + t ||a1 ||1 : a0 + a1 = a} = |α| K (t, a) .
It remains to verify the triangle inequality. Let ε > 0 be given. Then there exist
a0 , a1 , b0 , and b1 in A0 , A1 , A0 , and A1 respectively such that a0 +a1 = a, b0 +b1 = b
and
ε + K (t, a) + K (t, b) > ||a0 ||0 + t ||a1 ||1 + ||b0 ||0 + t ||b1 ||1
≥ ||a0 + b0 ||0 + t ||b1 + a1 ||1 ≥ K (t, a + b) .
This has shown that K (t, ·) is at least a norm. Are all these norms equivalent?
If 0 < s < t then it is clear that K (t, a) ≥ K (s, a) . To show there exists a constant,
C such that CK (s, a) ≥ K (t, a) for all a,
t t
K (s, a) ≡ inf {||a0 ||0 + s ||a1 ||1 : a0 + a1 = a}
s s ½ ¾
t t
= inf ||a0 ||0 + s ||a1 ||1 : a0 + a1 = a
s s
½ ¾
t
= inf ||a0 ||0 + t ||a1 ||1 : a0 + a1 = a
s
≥ inf {||a0 ||0 + t ||a1 ||1 : a0 + a1 = a} = K (t, a) .
Therefore, the two norms are equivalent as hoped.

1 Vector addition is continuous is the property which is used here.
Finally, it is required to verify that (A0 + A1 , K (t, ·)) is a Banach space. Since
all these norms are equivalent, it suffices to only consider the norm, K (1, ·). Let
∞
{a0n + a1n }n=1 be a Cauchy sequence in A0 + A1 . Then for m, n large enough,
K (1, a0n + a1n − (a0m + a1m )) < ε.
It follows there exist xn ∈ A0 and yn ∈ A1 such that xn + yn = 0 for every n and

whenever m, n are large enough,
||a0n + xn − (a0m + xm )||0 + ||a1n + yn − (a1m + ym )||1 < ε
Hence {a1n + yn } is a Cauchy sequence in A1 and {a0n + xn } is a Cauchy sequence

in A0 . Let
a0n + xn → a 0 ∈ A0
a1n + yn → a 1 ∈ A1 .
Then
K (1, a0n + a1n − (a0 + a1 )) = K (1, a0n + xn + a1n + yn − (a0 + a1 ))

≤ ||a0n + xn − a0 ||0 + ||a1n + yn − a1 ||1
which converges to 0. Thus A0 + A1 is a Banach space as claimed.

With this, there exists a method for constructing a Banach space which lies
between A0 ∩ A1 and A0 + A1 .
Definition 45.21 Let 1 ≤ q < ∞, 0 < θ < 1. Define (A0 , A1 )θ,q to be those
elements of A0 + A1 , a, such that
·Z ∞ ¸1/q
¡ −θ ¢q dt
||a||θ,q ≡ t K (t, a, A0 , A1 ) < ∞.
0 t
Theorem 45.22 (A0 , A1 )θ,q is a normed linear space satisfying
A0 ∩ A1 ⊆ (A0 , A1 )θ,q ⊆ A0 + A1 , (45.12)
with the inclusion maps continuous, and

³ ´
(A0 , A1 )θ,q , ||·||θ,q is a Banach space. (45.13)
If a ∈ A0 ∩ A1 , then
µ ¶1/q
1 θ 1−θ
||a||θ,q ≤ ||a||1 ||a||0 . (45.14)
qθ (1 − θ)
If A0 ⊆ A1 with ||·||0 ≥ ||·||1 , then
A0 ∩ A1 = A0 ⊆ (A0 , A1 )θ,q ⊆ A1 = A0 + A1 .
45.2. THE K METHOD 1257
Also, if bounded sets in A0 have compact closures in A1 then the same is true if A1
is replaced with (A0 , A1 )θ,q . Finally, if
T ∈ L (A0 , B0 ) , T ∈ L (A1 , B1 ), (45.15)
and T is a linear map from A0 + A1 to B0 + B1 where the Ai and Bi are Banach

spaces with the properties described above, then it follows
³ ´
T ∈ L (A0 , A1 )θ,q , (B0 , B1 )θ,q (45.16)
and if M is its norm, and M0 and M1 are the norms of T as a map in L (A0 , B0 )
and L (A1 , B1 ) respectively, then
M ≤ M01−θ M1θ . (45.17)
Proof: Suppose first a ∈ A0 ∩ A1 . Then

Z r Z ∞
q ¡ −θ ¢q dt ¡ −θ ¢q dt
||a||θ,q ≡ t K (t, a) + t K (t, a) (45.18)
t t
Z0 r Z r∞
¡ −θ ¢q dt ¡ −θ ¢q dt
≤ t ||a||1 t + t ||a||0
0 t r t
Z r Z ∞
q q
= ||a||1 tq(1−θ)−1 dt + ||a||0 t−1−θq dt
0 r
q rq−qθ q r
−θq
= ||a||1 + ||a||0 <∞ (45.19)
q − qθ θq
Which shows the first inclusion of 45.12. The above holds for all r > 0 and in
particular for the value of r which minimizes the expression on the right in 45.19,
r = ||a||0 / ||a||1 . Therefore, doing some calculus,
q 1 q(1−θ) qθ
||a||θ,q ≤ ||a||0 ||a||1
θq (1 + θ)
which shows 45.14. This also verifies that the inclusion map is continuous in 45.12.
Now consider the second inclusion in 45.12. The inclusion is obvious because
(A0 , A1 )θ,q is given to be a subset of A0 +A1 . It remains to verify the inclusion map is
continuous. Therefore, suppose an → 0 in (A0 , A1 )θ,q . Since an → 0 in (A0 , A1 )θ,q ,
it follows the function, t → t−θ K (t, an ) converges to zero in Lq (0, ∞) with respect
to the measure, dt/t. Therefore, taking another subsequence, still denoted as an , you
can assume this function converges to 0 a.e. Pick such a t where this convergence
takes place. Then K (t, an ) → 0 as n → ∞ and so an → 0 in A0 + A1 . this shows
that if an → 0 in (A0 , A1 )θ,q , then there exists a subsequence {ank } such that
ank → 0 in A0 + A1 . It follows that if an → 0 in (A0 , A1 )θ,q , then an → 0 in
A0 + A1 . This proves the continuity of the embedding.
What about 45.13? Suppose {an } is a Cauchy sequence in (A0 , A1 )θ,q . Then
there exists a ∈ A0 + A1 such that an → a in A0 + A1 because A0 + A1 is a Banach
space. Thus, K (t, an ) → K (t, a) for all t > 0. Therefore, by Fatou’s lemma,
µZ ∞ ¶ µZ ∞ ¶
¡ −θ ¢q dt 1/q ¡ −θ ¢q dt 1/q
t K (t, a) ≤ lim inf t K (t, an )
0 t n→∞ 0 t
n o
≤ max ||an ||θ,q : n ∈ N < ∞
and so a ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,q . Now

µZ ∞ ¶1/q
¡ −θ
¢q dt
||a − an ||θ,q ≤ lim inf t K (t, an − am ) <ε
m→∞ 0 t
whenever n is large enough. Thus (A0 , A1 )θ,q is complete as claimed.
Next suppose A0 ⊆ A1 and the inclusion map is compact. In this case, A0 ∩A1 =
A0 and so it has been shown above that A0 ⊆ (A0 , A1 )θ,q . It remains to show that
every bounded subset, S, contained in A0 has an η net in (A0 , A1 )θ,q . Recall the
inequality, 45.14
µ ¶1/q
1 θ 1−θ
||a||θ,q ≤ ||a||1 ||a||0
qθ (1 − θ)
C θ 1−θ
= ||a||1 ε ||a||0 .
ε
Now this implies
µ ¶1/θ
C
||a||θ,q ≤ θ ||a||1 + ε1/(1−θ) (1 − θ) ||a||0
ε
By compactness of the embedding of A0 into A1 , it follows there exists an ε(1+θ)/θ
net for S in A1 , {a1 , · · ·, ap } . Then for a ∈ S, there exists k such that ||a − ak ||1 <
ε(1+θ)/θ . It follows
µ ¶1/θ
C
||a − ak ||θ,q ≤ θ ||a − ak ||1 + ε1/(1−θ) (1 − θ) ||a − ak ||0
ε
µ ¶1/θ
C
≤ θε(1+θ)/θ + ε1/(1−θ) (1 − θ) 2M
ε
= C 1/θ θε + ε1/(1−θ) (1 − θ) 2M
where M is large enough that ||a||0 ≤ M for all a ∈ S. Since ε is arbitrary, this
shows the existence of a η net and proves the compactness of the embedding into
(A0 , A1 )θ,q .
It remains to verify the assertions 45.15-45.17. Let T ∈ L (A0 , B0 ) , T ∈ L (A1 , B1 )
with T a linear map from A0 + A1 to B0 + B1 . Let a ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,q ⊆ A0 + A1 and
consider T a ∈ B0 + B1 . Denote by K (t, ·) the norm described above for both
A0 + A1 and B0 + B1 since this will cause no confusion. Then
µZ ∞ ¶
¡ −θ ¢q dt 1/q
||T a||θ,q ≡ t K (t, T a) . (45.20)
0 t
45.3. THE J METHOD 1259
Now let a0 + a1 = a and so T a0 + T a1 = T a
K (t, T a) ≤ ||T a0 ||0 + t ||T a1 ||1 ≤ M0 ||a0 ||0 + M1 t ||a1 ||1

µ µ ¶ ¶
M1
≤ M0 ||a0 ||0 + t ||a1 ||1
M0
and so, taking inf for all a0 + a1 = a, yields
µ µ ¶ ¶
M1
K (t, T a) ≤ M0 K t ,a
M0
µZ ∞ ¶
¡ −θ ¢q dt 1/q
||T a||θ,q ≡ t K (t, T a)
0 t
µZ ∞ µ µ µ ¶ ¶¶q ¶1/q
M1 dt
≤ t−θ M0 K t ,a
0 M 0 t
µZ ∞ µ µ µ ¶ ¶¶q ¶1/q
M1 dt
= M0 t−θ K t ,a
0 M0 t
ÃZ Ãµ ¶ !q !1/q
∞ −θ
M0 ds
= M0 s K (s, a)
0 M 1 s
µZ ∞ ¶
(1−θ) ¡ −θ ¢q ds 1/q (1−θ)
= M1θ M0 s K (s, a) = M1θ M0 ||a||θ,q .
0 s
³ ´
This shows T ∈ L (A0 , A1 )θ,q , (B0 , B1 )θ,q and if M is the norm of T, M ≤
M01−θ M1θ as claimed. This proves the theorem.
45.3 The J Method

There is another method known as the J method.
Definition 45.23 For A0 and A1 Banach spaces as described above, and a ∈ A0 ∩

A1 , ¡ ¢
J (t, a) ≡ max ||a||A0 , t ||a||A1 . (45.21)
this is short for J (t, a, A0 , A1 ). Thus
¡ ¢
J (t, a, A1 , A0 ) ≡ max ||a||A1 , t ||a||A0
but unless indicated otherwise, A0 will come first. Now for θ ∈ (0, 1) and q ≥ 1,
define a space, (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J as follows. The space, (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J will consist of those
elements, a, of A0 + A1 which can be written in the form
Z ∞ Z 1 Z r
dt dt dt
a= u (t) ≡ lim u (t) + lim u (t) (45.22)
0 t ε→0+ ε t r→∞ 1 t
the limits taking place in A0 + A1 with the norm

¡ ¢
K (1, a) ≡ inf ||a0 ||A0 + ||a1 ||A1 ,
a=a0 +a1
where u (t) is strongly measurable with values in A0 ∩ A1 and bounded on every

compact subset of (0, ∞) such that
µZ ∞ ¶
¡ −θ ¢q dt 1/q
t J (t, u (t) , A0 , A1 ) < ∞. (45.23)
0 t
For such a ∈ A0 + A1 , define
(µZ ¶1/q )
∞ ¡ ¢q dt
−θ
||a||θ,q,J ≡ inf t J (t, u (t) , A0 , A1 ) (45.24)
u 0 t
where the infimum is taken over all u satisfying 45.22 and 45.23.
Note that a norm on A0 × A1 would be
¡ ¢
||(a0 , a1 )|| ≡ max ||a0 ||A0 , t ||a1 ||A1
and so J (t, ·) is the restriction of this norm to the subspace of A0 × A1 defined
by {(a, a) : a ∈ A0 ∩ A1 }. Also for each t > 0 J (t, ·) is a norm on A0 ∩ A1 and
furthermore, any two of these norms are equivalent. In fact, it is easy to see that
for 0 < t < s, st J (s, a) ≤ J (t, a) ≤ J (s, a) .
The following lemma is significant and follows immediately from the above def-
inition.
R∞
Lemma 45.24 Suppose a ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J and a = 0 u (t) dt t where u is described
above. Then letting r > 1,
½ ¡ ¢
u (t) if t ∈ 1r , r
ur (t) ≡ .
0 otherwise
it follows that Z ∞
dt
ur (t)
∈ A0 ∩ A1 .
0 t
Rr Rr 1
Proof: The integral equals 1/r u (t) dt t . 1/r t dt = 2 ln r < ∞. Now ur is mea-
surable in A0 ∩ A1 and bounded. Therefore, there exists a sequence of measurable
simple functions, {sn } having values in A0 ∩ A1 which converges pointwise and uni-
formly to ur . It can also be assumed J (r, sn (t)) ≤ J (r, ur (t)) for all t ∈ [1/r, r].
Therefore, Z r
dt
lim J (r, sm − sn ) = 0.
n,m→∞ 1/r t
It follows from the definition of the Bochner integral that
Z r Z r
dt dt
lim sn = ur ∈ A0 ∩ A1 .
n→∞ 1/r t 1/r t

The remarkable thing is that the two spaces, (A0 , A1 )θ,q and (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J co-
incide and have equivalent norms. The following important lemma, called the fun-
damental lemma of interpolation theory in [8] is used to prove this. This lemma is
really incredible.
K(t,a)
Lemma 45.25 Suppose for a ∈ A0 +A1 , limt→0+ K (t, a) = 0 and limt→∞ t =
0. Then for any ε > 0, there is a representation,
∞
X n
X
a= ui = lim ui , ui ∈ A0 ∩ A1 , (45.25)
n,m→∞
i=−∞ i=−m
the convergences taking place in A0 + A1 , such that

¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
J 2i , ui ≤ 3 (1 + ε) K 2i , a . (45.26)
Proof: For each i, there exist a0,i ∈ A0 and a1,i ∈ A1 such that
a = a0,i + a1,i ,
and ¡ ¢
(1 + ε) K 2i , a ≥ ||a0,i ||A0 + 2i ||a1,i ||A1 . (45.27)
This follows directly from the definition of K (t, a) . From the assumed limit condi-
tions on K (t, a) ,
lim ||a1,i ||A1 = 0, lim ||a0,i ||A0 = 0. (45.28)
i→∞ i→−∞
Then let ui ≡ a0,i − a0,i−1 = a1,i−1 − a1,i . The reason these are equal is a =
a0,i + a1,i = a0,i−1 + a1,i−1 . Then
n
X
ui = a0,n − a0,−(m+1) = a1,−(m+1) − a1,n .
i=−m
Pn ¡ ¢
It follows a − i=−m ui = a − a0,n − a0,−(m+1) = a0,−(m+1) + a1,n , and both
terms converge to zero as m and n converge to ∞ by 45.28. Therefore,
Ã n
!
X ¯¯ ¯¯
K 1, a − ui ≤ ¯¯a0,−(m+1) ¯¯ + ||a1,n ||
i=−m
P∞
and so this shows a = i=−∞ ui which is one of the claims of the lemma. Also
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
J 2i , ui ≡ max ||ui ||A0 , 2i ||ui ||A1 ≤ ||ui ||A0 + 2i ||ui ||A1
³ ´
≤2 ||a0,i−1 ||A +2i−1 ||a1,i−1 ||A
0 1
z }| {
≤ ||a0,i ||A0 + 2 ||a1,i ||A1 + ||a0,i−1 ||A0 + 2i ||a1,i−1 ||A1
i
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
≤ (1 + ε) K 2i , a + 2 (1 + ε) K 2i−1 , a ≤ 3 (1 + ε) K 2i , a
because t → K (t, a) is nondecreasing. This proves the lemma.
¡ ¢
Lemma 45.26 If a ∈ A0 ∩ A1 , then K (t, a) ≤ min 1, st J (s, a) .
¡ ¢
Proof: If s ≥ t, then min 1, st = t
s and so
µ ¶ µ ¶
t t ¡ ¢ t
min 1, J (s, a) = max ||a||A0 , s ||a||A1 ≥ s ||a||A1
s s s
= t ||a||A1 ≥ K (t, a) .
¡ ¢
Now in case s < t, then min 1, st = 1 and so
µ ¶
t ¡ ¢
min 1, J (s, a) = max ||a||A0 , s ||a||A1 ≥ ||a||A0
s
≥ K (t, a) .
Theorem 45.27 Let A0 , A1 , K and J be as described above. Then for all q ≥ 1

and θ ∈ (0, 1) ,
(A0 , A1 )θ,q = (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J
and furthermore, the norms are equivalent.
Proof: Begin with a ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,q . Thus

Z ∞
q ¡ −θ ¢q dt
||a||θ,q = t K (t, a) <∞ (45.29)
0 t
and it is necessary to produce u (t) as described above,

Z ∞ Z ∞
dt ¡ −θ ¢q dt
a= u (t) where t J (t, u (t)) < ∞.
0 t 0 t
From 45.29, limt→0+ K (t, a) = 0 since t → K (t, a) is nondecreasing and so if its

limit is positive, the integrand would have a non integrable singularity like t−θq−1 .
Next consider what happens to K(t,a) t as t → ∞.
Claim: t → K(t,a) t is decreasing.
Proof of the claim: Choose a0 ∈ A0 and a1 ∈ A1 such that a0 + a1 = a and
K (t, a) + εt > ||a0 ||A0 + t ||a1 ||A1
let s > t. Then
K (t, a) + tε ||a0 ||A0 + t ||a1 ||A1 ||a0 ||A0 + s ||a1 ||A1 K (s, a)
≥ ≥ ≥ .
t t s s
Since ε is arbitrary, this proves the claim.
Let r ≡ limt→∞ K(t,a)

t . Is r = 0? Suppose to the contrary that r > 0. Then the
integrand of 45.29, is at least as large as
q−1 K (t, a) q−1

t−θq K (t, a) ≥ t−θq K (t, a) r
t
q−1
≥ t−θq (tr) r ≥ rq tq(1−θ)−1
whose integral is infinite. Therefore, r = 0. P∞
Lemma 45.25, implies there exist ui ∈ A0 ∩ A1 such that a = i=−∞ ui , the
convergence taking place in A0 + A1 with the inequality of that Lemma holding,
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
J 2i , ui ≤ 3 (1 + ε) K 2i , a .
For i an integer and t ∈ [2i−1 , 2i ), let
u (t) ≡ ui / ln 2.
Then
∞
X Z ∞
dt
a= ui = u (t) . (45.30)
i=−∞ 0 t
Now
Z ∞
q ¡ −θ ¢q dt
||a||θ,q,J ≤ t J (t, u (t))
0 t
Z ³ ³ ui ´´q dt
X∞ 2 i
= t−θ J t,
i=−∞ 2
i−1 ln 2 t
µ ¶q X ∞ Z 2 i
1 ¡ −θ ¡ i ¢¢q dt
≤ t J 2 , ui
ln 2 i=−∞ 2i−1 t
µ ¶q X ∞ Z i
2 ¡
1 ¡ ¢¢q dt
≤ t−θ 3 (1 + ε) K 2i , a
ln 2 i=−∞ 2i−1 t
K (2i ,a) K (2i−1 ,a) ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢

Using the above claim, 2i ≤ 2i−1 and so K 2i , a ≤ 2K 2i−1 , a . There-
fore, the above is no larger than
µ ¶q X
∞ Z 2i
1 ¡ ¡ ¢¢q dt
≤ 2 t−θ 3 (1 + ε) K 2i−1 , a
ln 2 i=−∞ 2i−1 t
µ ¶q X ∞ Z 2i
1 ¡ −θ ¢q dt
≤ 2 t 3 (1 + ε) K (t, a)
ln 2 i=−∞ 2i−1 t
µ ¶q Z ∞ µ ¶q
3 (1 + ε) ¡ −θ ¢q dt 3 (1 + ε) q
= 2 t K (t, a) ≡2 ||a||θ,q . (45.31)
ln 2 0 t ln 2
This has shown that if a ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,q , then by 45.30 and 45.31, a ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J
and µ ¶q
q 3 (1 + ε) q
||a||θ,q,J ≤ 2 ||a||θ,q . (45.32)
ln 2
It remains to prove the other inclusion and norm inequality, both of which are
much easier to obtain. Thus, let a ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J with
Z ∞
dt
a= u (t) (45.33)
0 t
where u is a strongly measurable function having values in A0 ∩ A1 and for which
Z ∞
¡ −θ ¢q
t J (t, u (t)) dt < ∞. (45.34)
0
µ Z ∞ ¶ Z ∞
ds ds
K (t, a) = K t, u (s) ≤ K (t, u (s)) .
0 s 0 s
Now by 45.26, this is dominated by an expression of the form
Z ∞ µ ¶ Z ∞ µ ¶
t ds 1 ds
≤ min 1, J (s, u (s)) = min 1, J (ts, u (ts))
0 s s 0 s s
where the equation follows from a change of variable. From Minkowski’s inequality,
µZ ∞ ¶
¡ −θ ¢q dt 1/q
||a||θ,q ≡ t K (t, a)
0 t
µZ ∞ µ Z ∞ µ ¶ ¶q ¶1/q
1 ds dt
≤ t−θ min 1, J (ts, u (ts))
0 0 s s t
Z ∞ µZ ∞ µ µ ¶ ¶q ¶1/q
1 dt ds
≤ t−θ min 1, J (ts, u (ts)) .
0 0 s t s
Now change the variable in the inside integral to obtain, letting t = τ s,
Z ∞ µ ¶ µZ ∞ ¶1/q
1 ¡ −θ
¢q dt ds
≤ min 1, t J (ts, u (ts))
0 s 0 t s
Z µ ¶ µZ ∞ ¶
∞
1 θ ds ¡ −θ ¢q dτ 1/q
= min 1, s τ J (τ , u (τ ))
0 s s 0 τ
µ ¶ µZ ∞ ¶1/q
1 ¡ −θ ¢q dτ
= τ J (τ , u (τ )) .
(1 − θ) θ 0 τ
This has shown that
µ ¶ µZ ∞ ¶1/q
1 ¡ −θ ¢q dτ
||a||θ,q ≤ τ J (τ , u (τ )) <∞
(1 − θ) θ 0 τ
45.4. DUALITY AND INTERPOLATION 1265
for all u satisfying 45.33 and 45.34. Therefore, taking the infimum it follows a ∈
(A0 , A1 )θ,q and
µ ¶
1
||a||θ,q ≤ ||a||θ,q,J .
(1 − θ) θ
45.4 Duality And Interpolation

In this section it will be assumed that A0 ∩ A1 is dense in Ai for i = 0, 1. This is
0
done so that A0i ⊆ (A0 ∩ A1 ) and the inclusion map is continuous. Thus it makes
sense to add something in A0 to something in A01 .
0
What is the dual space of (A0 , A1 )θ,q ? The answer is based on the following
lemma, [8]. Remember that

¡ ¢
J (t, a) = max ||a||A0 , t ||a||A1
and this is a norm on A0 ∩ A1 and

© ª
K (t, a) = inf ||a0 ||A0 + t ||a1 ||A1 : a = a0 + a1 .
0
As mentioned above, A00 + A01 ⊆ (A0 ∩ A1 ) . In fact these two are equal. This is
the first part of the following lemma.
Lemma 45.28 Suppose A0 ∩ A1 is dense in Ai , i = 0, 1. Then

0
A00 + A01 = (A0 ∩ A1 ) , (45.35)
0
and for a0 ∈ A00 + A01 = (A0 ∩ A1 ) ,
|a0 (a)|
K (t, a0 ) = sup . (45.36)
a∈A0 ∩A1 J (t−1 , a)
0
Thus K (t, ·) is an
¡ equivalent
¢ norm to the usual operator norm on (A0 ∩ A1 ) taken
with respect to J t−1 , · . If, in addition to this, Ai is reflexive, then for a0 ∈ A00 ∩A01 ,
and a ∈ A0 ∩ A1 , ¡ ¢
J (t, a0 ) K t−1 , a ≥ |a0 (a)| . (45.37)
0
Proof: First consider the claim that A00 + A01 = (A0 ∩ A1 ) . As noted above, ⊆
is clear. Define a norm on A0 × A1 as follows.
¡ ¢
||(a0 , a1 )||A0 ×A1 ≡ max ||a0 ||A0 , t−1 ||a1 ||A1 . (45.38)
0
Let a0 ∈ (A0 ∩ A1 ) . Let
E ≡ {(a, a) : a ∈ A0 ∩ A1 }
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
with the norm J t−1 , a ≡ max ||a||A0 , t−1 ||a||A1 . Now define λ on E, the sub-
space of A0 × A1 by
λ ((a, a)) ≡ a0 (a) .
Thus λ is a continuous linear map on E and in fact,
¡ ¢
|λ ((a, a))| = |a0 (a)| ≤ ||a0 || J t−1 , a .
By the Hahn Banach theorem there exists an extension of λ to all of A0 × A1 . This

extension is of the form (a00 , a01 ) ∈ A00 × A01 . Thus
(a00 , a01 ) ((a, a)) = a00 (a) + a01 (a) = a0 (a)
and therefore, a00 + a01 = a0 provided a00 + a01 is continuous. But
|(a00 + a01 ) (a)| = |a00 (a) + a01 (a)| ≤ |a00 (a)| + |a01 (a)|
≤ ||a00 || ||a||A0 + ||a01 || ||a||A1
≤ ||a00 || ||a||A0 + t ||a01 || t−1 ||a||A1
¡ ¢
≤ (||a00 || + t ||a01 ||) J t−1 , a
which shows that a00 + a01 is continuous and in fact
||a00 + a01 ||(A0 ∩A1 )0 ≤ (||a00 || + t ||a01 ||) .
This proves the first part of the lemma.

Claim: With this definition of the norm in 45.38, the operator norm of (a00 , a01 ) ∈
0
(A0 × A1 ) = A00 × A01 is
||(a00 , a01 )||(A0 ×A1 )0 = ||a00 ||A0 + t ||a01 ||A0 . (45.39)

0 1
Proof of the¡claim: |(a00 , a01 )¢ (a0 , a1 )| ≤ ||a00 || ||a0 || + ||a01 || ||a1 || . Now suppose
that ||a0 || = max ||a0 || , t−1 ||a1 || . Then this is no larger than
¡ ¢
(||a00 || + t ||a01 ||) ||a0 || = (||a00 || + t ||a01 ||) max ||a0 || , t−1 ||a1 || .
¡ ¢
The other case is that t−1 ||a1 || = max ||a0 || , t−1 ||a1 || . In this case,
|(a00 , a01 ) (a0 , a1 )| ≤ ||a00 || ||a0 || + ||a01 || ||a1 ||

≤ ||a00 || t−1 ||a1 || + ||a01 || ||a1 ||
= (||a00 || + t ||a01 ||) t−1 ||a1 ||
¡ ¢
= (||a00 || + t ||a01 ||) max ||a0 || , t−1 ||a1 || .
This shows ||(a00 , a01 )||(A0 ×A1 )0 ≤ (||a00 || + t ||a01 ||) . Is equality achieved? Let a0n
and a1n be points of A0 and A1 respectively such that ||a0n || , ||a1n || ≤ 1 and
limn→∞ a0i (ain ) = ||a0i || . Then
(a00 , a01 ) (a0n , ta1n ) → ||a00 || + t ||a01 ||

¡ ¢
and also, ||(a0n , ta1n )||A0 ×A1 = max ||a0n || , t−1 t ||a1n ||A1 ≤ 1. Therefore, equality
is indeed achieved and this proves the claim.
0
Consider 45.36. Take a0 ∈ A00 + A01 = (A0 ∩ A1 ) and let
E ≡ {(a, a) ∈ A0 × A1 : a ∈ A0 ∩ A1 } .
Now define a linear map, λ on E as before.
λ ((a, a)) ≡ a0 (a) .
If a0 = e
a00 + e
a01 ,
|λ ((a, a))| ≤ a00 ||A0 ||a||A0 + ||e
||e a01 ||A0 ||a||A1
0 1
a00 ||A0 ||a||A0 + t ||e

= ||e a01 ||A0 t−1 ||a||A1
0 1
a00 || + t ||e
≤ (||e a01 ||) ||(a, a)||A0 ×A1
so λ is continuous on the subspace, E of A0 × A1 and
a00 || + t ||e
||λ||E 0 ≤ ||e a01 || . (45.40)
By the Hahn Banach theorem, there exists an extension of λ defined on all of A0 ×A1
0
with the same norm. Thus, from 45.39, there exists (a00 , a01 ) ∈ (A0 × A1 ) which is
an extension of λ such that
||(a00 , a01 )||(A0 ×A1 )0 = ||a00 ||A0 + t ||a01 ||A0 = ||λ||E 0
0 1
and for all a ∈ A0 ∩ A1 ,

a00 (a) + a01 (a) = λ ((a, a)) = a0 (a) .
0
It follows that a00 + a01 = a0 in (A0 ∩ A1 ) . Therefore, from 45.40,
© 0 ª
||λ||E 0 ≤ inf ||e a01 ||A1 : a0 = e
a0 ||A0 + t ||e a00 + e
a01 ≡ K (t, a0 ) (45.41)
0
|a (a)|
≤ ||a00 ||A0 + t ||a01 ||A0 = ||λ||E 0 ≡ sup (45.42)
0 1
a∈A0 ∩A1 J (t−1 , a)
¡ ¢
because on E, J t−1 , a = ||(a, a)||A0 ×A1 which proves 45.36.
To obtain 45.37 in the case that Ai is reflexive, apply 45.36 to the case where
A00i plays the role of Ai in 45.36. Thus, for a00 ∈ A000 + A001 ,
|a00 (a0 )|
K (t, a00 ) = sup .
a0 ∈A00 ∩A01 J (t−1 , a0 )
Now a00 = a001 + a000 = η 1 a1 + η 0 a0 where η i is the map from Ai to A00i which is onto
and preserves norms, given by ηa (a0 ) ≡ a0 (a) . Therefore, letting a1 + a0 = a
|a00 (a0 )|
K (t, a) = K (t, a00 ) = sup
a0 ∈A00 ∩A01 J (t−1 , a0 )
|(η 1 a1 + η 0 a0 ) (a0 )| |(a0 (a1 + a0 ))|
= sup −1 0
= sup
a0 ∈A00 ∩A01 J (t , a ) a0 ∈A00 ∩A01 J (t−1 , a0 )
and so
|a0 (a)|
K (t, a) = sup
a0 ∈A00 ∩A01 J (t−1 , a0 )
Changing t → t−1 , ¡ ¢
K t−1 , a J (t, a0 ) ≥ |a0 (a)| .
0
Consider (A0 , A1 )θ,q .
∞
Definition 45.29 Let q ≥ 1. Then λθ,q will denote the sequences, {αi }i=−∞ such
that
X∞
¡ ¢q
|αi | 2−iθ < ∞.
i=−∞
θ,q
For α ∈ λ ,
Ã ∞
!1/q
X ¡ ¢q
||α||λθ,q ≡ |αi | 2−iθ .
i=−∞
© ª
Thus α ∈ λθ,q means αi 2−iθ ∈ lq .
Lemma 45.30 Let f (t) ≥ 0, and let f (t) = αi for t ∈ [2i , 2i+1 ) where α ∈ λθ,q .
Then there exists a constant, C, such that
¯¯ −θ ¯¯
¯¯t f ¯¯ q ≤ C ||α||λθ,q . (45.43)
L (0,∞; dt ) t
Also, if whenever α ∈ λθ,q , and αi ≥ 0 for all i,

X ¡ ¢
f 2i 2−i αi ≤ C ||α||λθ,q , (45.44)
i
then ¯¯© ¡ ¢ª ¯¯
¯¯ ∞ ¯¯
¯¯ f 2i i=−∞ ¯¯ 0
≤ C. (45.45)
λ1−θ,q
Proof: Consider 45.43.

Z ∞ Z i+1
¡ −θ ¢q dt X 2 dt
t f (t) = t−θq αqi
0 t i 2i t
XZ 2i+1 ¡ −iθ ¢q dt X¡ ¢q q
≤ 2 αi = ln 2 2−iθ αi = ln 2 ||α||λθ,q .
i 2i t i
45.45 is next. By 45.44, whenever α ∈ λθ,q ,

¯ ¯
¯X ³ ¡ ¢ ´ ¯ ¯¯© ª¯¯
¯ −θi ¯
¯ i
f 2 2 −(1−θ)i
2 αi ¯ ≤ C ¯¯ 2−θi |αi | ¯¯l .
¯ ¯ q
i
© ¡ ¢ ª
It follows from the Riesz representation theorem that f 2i 2−(1−θ)i is in lq0 and
¯¯n ¡ ¢ o¯¯ ¯¯© ¡ ¢ª¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ f 2i 2−(1−θ)i ¯¯ = ¯¯ f 2i ¯¯λ1−θ,q0 ≤ C.
lq 0

The dual space of (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J is discussed next.
Lemma 45.31 Let θ ∈ (0, 1) and let q ≥ 1. Then,

0
(A0 , A1 )θ,q,J ⊆ (A01 , A00 )1−θ,q0
and the inclusion map is continuous.

0
Proof: Let a0 ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J . Now
A0 ∩ A1 ⊆ (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J
and if
a ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J ,
then a has a representation of the form
Z ∞
dt
a= u (t)
0 t
where Z ∞ ¡ ¢q dt
t−θ J (t, u (t)) <∞
0 t
where ¡ ¢
J (t, u (t)) = max ||u (t)||A0 , t ||u (t)||A1
for u (t) ∈ A0 ∩ A1 . Now let
½ ¡ ¢
u (t) if t ∈ 1r , r
ur (t) ≡ .
0 otherwise
R ∞ ¡ −θ ¢q dt
Then 0
t J (t, ur (t)) t < ∞ and
Z ∞
dt
ar ≡ ur (t) ∈ A0 ∩ A1
0 t
by Lemma 45.24. Also

Z 1
q
r ¡ ¢q dt
||a − ar ||θ,q,J ≤ t−θ J (t, u (t)) +
0 t
Z ∞ ¡ ¢q dt
t−θ J (t, u (t))
r t
which is small whenever r is large enough thanks to the dominated convergence

theorem. Therefore, A0 ∩ A1 is dense in (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J and so
0 0
(A0 , A1 )θ,q,J ⊆ (A0 ∩ A1 ) = A00 + A01 ,
the equality following from Lemma 45.28.

It follows a0 ∈ A00 + A01 and so, by Lemma 45.28, there exists bi ∈ A0 ∩ A1 such
that
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ a0 (bi )
K 2−i , a0 , A00 , A01 − ε min 1, 2−i ≤ i
.
J (2 , bi , A0 , A1 )
Now let α ∈ λθ,q with αi ≥ 0 for all i and let
X ¡ ¢−1
a∞ ≡ J 2i , bi , A0 , A1 bi α i . (45.46)
i
Consider first whether a∞ makes sense before proceeding further.

X bi 2iθ
a∞ ≡ ¡ ¢ 2−iθ αi .
i
max ||bi ||A0 , 2i ||bi ||A1
Now
¯¯ ¯¯ ½
¯¯ bi 2iθ ¯¯
¯¯ 2iθ if i < 0
¯¯ ¡ ¢ ¯¯¯¯ ≤ . (45.47)
¯¯ max ||bi ||A0 , 2i ||bi ||A1 ¯¯ 2−i(1−θ) if i ≥ 0
A0 +A1
This is fairly routine to verify. Consider the case where i ≥ 0. Then

¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ bi 2iθ ¯¯ ¯¯ b 2iθ ¯¯
¯¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ i ¯¯
¯¯ ¡ ¢ ¯¯ ≤ ¯¯ i ¯¯ ≤ 2−i(1−θ)
¯¯ max ||bi ||A0 , 2i ||bi ||A1 ¯¯ ¯¯ 2 ||bi ||A1 ¯¯
A0 +A1 A0 +A1
because ||bi ||A1 ≥ ||bi ||A0 +A1 . Therefore,

¯¯ ¯¯
X M ¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ bi 2iθ
¯¯ ¡ ¢ 2 αi ¯¯¯¯
−iθ
≤
¯¯ max ||bi ||A0 , 2i ||bi ||A1 ¯¯
i=0 A0 +A1
M
Ã∞ !1/q0 Ã ∞ !1/q
X X 0 X
2−i(1−θ) −iθ
2 αi ≤ 2 −i(1−θ)q
2−iqθ
αqi <∞
i=0 i=0 i=0
and similarly, ¯¯ ¯¯
0
X ¯¯ bi 2iθ ¯¯
¯¯ ¡ ¢ 2 αi ¯¯¯¯
−iθ
¯¯
¯¯ max ||bi ||A0 , 2i ||bi ||A1 ¯¯
i=−∞ A0 +A1
converges. Therefore, a∞ makes sense in A0 + A1 and also from 45.47, we see that
( )
||bi ||A0 +A1 2iθ 0
i
∈ λ(1−θ)q
J (2 , bi )
Now let
αi bi
u (t) ≡ i
on [2i−1 , 2i ).
J (2 , bi ) ln 2
Then
Z ∞ XZ 2i
dt αi bi dt
u (t) =
0 t i 2i−1 J (2i , bi ) ln 2 t
X αi bi
= = a∞ .
i
J (2i , bi )
Also
Z Z ³
∞ ¡ −θ ¢q dt X 2i ¡ ¡ ¢¢´ dt
t J (t, u (t)) ≤ 2(1−i)θ J 2i , u 2i−1
0 t i 2i−1 t
Xh ¡ ¡ ¢¢iq
≤ 2−(i−1)θ J 2i , u 2i−1 ln 2
i
" ¡ i ¢ #q
X J 2 , bi α i
= 2−(i−1)θ ln 2
i
J (2i , bi ) ln 2
X¡ ¢q
=C 2−iθ |αi | < ∞ (45.48)
i
0 0
and so ||a∞ ||θ,q,J < ∞. Now for a0 as above, a0 ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J ⊆ (A0 + A1 ) , and
so since the sum for a∞ converges in A0 + A1 , we have
X ¡ ¢−1
a0 (a∞ ) = J 2i , bi αi a0 (bi ) .
i
Therefore,
X£ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¤
a0 (a∞ ) ≥ K 2−i , a0 − ε min 1, 2−i αi
i
X ¡ ¢ X ¡ ¢
= K 2−i , a0 αi − ε min 1, 2−i αi
i i
X ¡ ¢
= K 2−i , a0 αi − O (ε) (45.49)
i
© ª
The reason for this is that α ∈ λθ,q so αi 2−iθ ∈ lq . Therefore,
X ¡ ¢
ε min 1, 2−i αi
i
(∞ −1
)
X X
= ε 2−i αi + αi
i=0 i=−∞
(∞ −1
)
X X
= ε 2−iθ 2(θ−1)i αi + αi 2−iθ 2iθ
i=0 i=−∞
Ã !1/q Ã ∞ ! 0
 X¯ ¯q X³ ´q0 1/q
≤ ε ¯α i 2 ¯
−iθ
2 (θ−1)i

i i=0
Ã !1/q Ã ∞ !1/q0 
X¯ ¯ X ¡ ¢ 0 
+ ¯αi 2−iθ ¯q 2θi
q

i i=0
< Cε.
Also
|a0 (a∞ )| ≤ ||a0 ||(A0 ,A1 )0 ||a∞ ||(A0 ,A1 ) .
θ,q,J θ,q,J
Now from the definition of K,

¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
K 2−i , a0 , A00 , A01 = 2−i K 2i , a0 , A01 , A00
and so from 45.49

X ¡ ¢
2−i K 2i , a0 , A01 , A00 αi − O (ε) ≤ a0 (a∞ )
i
≤ ||a0 ||(A0 ,A1 )0 Cθ ||α||λθ,q .
θ,q,J
Since ε is arbitrary, it follows that whenever, α ∈ λθ,q , αi ≥ 0,

X ¡ ¢
2−i K 2i , a0 , A01 , A00 αi ≤ ||a0 ||(A0 ,A1 )0 Cθ ||α||λθ,q .
θ,q,J
i
© ¡ ¢ª 0
By Lemma 45.30, K 2i , a0 , A01 , A00 ∈ λ1−θ,q and
¯¯© ¡ i 0 0 0 ¢ª¯¯
¯¯ K 2 , a , A1 , A0 ¯¯ 0 ≤ ||a0 ||(A0 ,A1 )0 Cθ .
λ1−θ,q θ,q,J
Therefore,
µ Z ∞ ³ ´q0 dt ¶1/q0
1 0
K (t, a , A01 , A00 ) t−(1−θ)
ln 2 0 t
Ã ! 0
X 1 Z 2i+1 ³ ´q0 dt 1/q
= K (t, a0 , A01 , A00 ) t−(1−θ)
i
ln 2 2 i t
Ã !1/q0
X³ ¡ i 0 0 0 ¢´q0
−i(1−θ)
≤ 2 K 2 , a , A1 , A0
i
≤ ||a0 ||(A0 ,A1 )0 Cθ .
θ,q,J
Thus
¯¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
||a0 ||(A0 ,A0 ) ≡ ¯¯t−(1−θ) K (t, a0 , A01 , A00 )¯¯
1 0 1−θ,q 0 Lq0 (0,∞, dt
t )
≤ C ||a0 ||(A0 ,A1 )0

θ,q,J
0
which shows that (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J ⊆ (A01 , A00 )1−θ,q0 with the inclusion map continuous.
Lemma 45.32 If Ai is reflexive for i = 0, 1 and if A0 ∩ A1 is dense in Ai , then
0
(A01 , A00 )1−θ,q0 ,J ⊆ (A0 , A1 )θ,q
and the inclusion map is continuous.
Proof: Let a0 ∈ (A01 , A00 )1−θ,q0 ,J . Thus, there exists u∗ bounded on compact
subsets of (0, ∞) and measurable with values in A0 ∩ A1 and
Z ∞
0 dt
a = u∗ (t) , (45.50)
0 t
Z ∞ ³ ´q0 dt
t−(1−θ) J (t, u∗ (t)) < ∞.
0 t
Then
∞ Z
X 2i+1 X∞
0 dt
a = u∗ (t) ≡ a0i
i=−∞ 2i t i=−∞
where a0i ∈ A01 ∩ A00 , the convergence taking place in A01 + A00 . Now let a ∈ A0 ∩ A1 .
From Lemma 45.28

∞
X
|a0 (a)| ≤ |a0i (a)|
i=−∞
X∞
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
≤ J 2−i , a0i , A00 , A01 K 2i , a, A0 , A1
i=−∞
X∞
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= 2−i J 2i , a0i , A01 , A00 K 2i , a, A0 , A1
i=−∞
Ã ! 0
X³ ¡ ¢ ´q0 1/q
≤ 2−(1−θ)i J 2i , a0i , A01 , A00 ·
i
Ã !1/q
X¡ ¡ i ¢¢q
−θi
2 K 2 , a, A0 , A1
i
·Z ∞ ³ ´q0 dt ¸1/q0
−(1−θ) ∗
≤ C t J (t, u (t) , A01 , A00 ) ·
0 t
·Z ∞ ¸1/q
¡ −θ ¢q dt
t K (t, a, A0 , A1 ) .
0 t
In going from the sums to the integrals, express the first sum as a sum of integrals
on [2i , 2i+1 ) and the second sum as a sum of integrals on (2i−1 , 2i ].
Taking the infimum over all u∗ representing a0 ,
|a0 (a)| ≤ C ||a0 ||(A0 ,A0 ) ||a||θ,q .

1 0 1−θ,q 0 ,J
0
It follows a0 ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,q and ||a0 ||(A0 ,A1 )0 ≤ C ||a0 ||(A0 ,A0 ) which proves
θ,q 1 0 1−θ,q 0 ,J
the lemma.
With these two lemmas the main result follows.
Theorem 45.33 Suppose A0 ∩ A1 is dense in Ai and Ai is reflexive. Then

0
(A01 , A00 )1−θ,q0 = (A0 , A1 )θ,q
and the norms are equivalent.
Proof: By Theorem 45.27, and the last two lemmas,

0 0
(A0 , A1 )θ,q = (A0 , A1 )θ,q,J ⊆ (A01 , A00 )1−θ,q0
0
= (A01 , A00 )1−θ,q0 ,J ⊆ (A0 , A1 )θ,q .

Trace Spaces
46.1 Definition And Basic Theory Of Trace Spaces

As in the case of interpolation spaces, suppose A0 and A1 are two Banach spaces
which are continuously embedded in some topological vector space, X.
Definition 46.1 Define a norm on A0 + A1 as follows.

© ª
||a||A0 +A1 ≡ inf ||a0 ||A0 + ||a1 ||A1 : a0 + a1 = a (46.1)
Lemma 46.2 A0 + A1 with the norm just described is a Banach space.
Proof: This was already explained in the treatment of the K method of inter-
polation. It is just K (1, a) .
Definition 46.3 Take f 0 in the sense of distributions for any
f ∈ L1loc (0, ∞; A0 + A1 )
as follows. Z ∞
f 0 (φ) ≡ −f (t) φ0 (t) dt
0
whenever φ ∈ Cc∞ (0, ∞) . Define a Banach space, W (A0 , A1 , p, θ) = W where
p ≥ 1, θ ∈ (0, 1). Let
³ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ´
||f ||W ≡ max ¯¯tθ f ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A0 ) , ¯¯tθ f 0 ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A1 ) (46.2)
t t
and let W consist of f ∈ L1loc (0, ∞; A0 + A1 ) such that ||f ||W < ∞.
Note that to be in W, f (t) ∈ A0 and f 0 (t) ∈ A1 .
Lemma 46.4 If f ∈ W, then
T race (f ) ≡ f (0) ≡ lim f (t)

t→0
exists in A0 + A1 . Also Z ≡ {f ∈ W : f (0) = 0} is a closed subspace of W.
1275
1276 TRACE SPACES
1
Proof: Let 0 < s < t. Let ν + p = θ. Then
Z ∞ Z ∞ ¯¯ θ ¯¯
ν
||τ g (τ )|| dτ =
p ¯¯τ g (τ )¯¯p dτ
0 0 τ
so that tν f 0 ∈ Lp (0, ∞; A1 ) , the measure in this case being usual Lebesgue measure.
Then Z Z t t
f (t) − f (s) = f 0 (τ ) dτ = τ ν f 0 (τ ) τ −ν dτ .
s s
³ ´
1 1 1 1
For p + p0
0
= 1, νp = θ − p
0
p < 1 because θ < 1 = p0 + p1 . Therefore,
||f (t) − f (s)||A0 +A1

Z t
≤ ||f 0 (τ )||A0 +A1 dτ (46.3)
s
Z t Z t
≤ ||f 0 (τ )||A1 dτ = ||τ ν f 0 (τ )||A1 τ −ν dτ
s s
µZ t ¶1/p µZ t ¶1/p0
ν 0 p −νp0
≤ ||τ f dτ (τ )||A1 τ dτ
s s
Ã 0 0
!
t1−νp s1−νp
≤ ||f ||W − (46.4)
1 − νp0 1 − νp0
0
t1−νp
≤ ||f ||W .
1 − νp0
which converges to 0 as t → 0. This shows that limt→0+ f (t) exists in A0 + A1 .
Clearly Z is a subspace. Let fn → f in W and suppose fn ∈ Z. Then since
f ∈ W, 46.4 implies f is continuous. Using 46.4 and replacing f with fn − fm and
then taking a limit as s → 0,
0
||fn (t) − fm (t)||A0 +A1 ≤ ||fn − fm ||W Cν t1−νp
Taking a subsequence, it can be assumed fn (t) converges to f (t) a.e. But the
above inequality shows that fn (t) is a Cauchy sequence in C ([0, β] ; A0 + A1 ) for
all β < ∞. Therefore, fn (t) → f (t) for all t. Also,
0 0
||fn (t)||A0 +A1 ≤ Cν ||fn ||W t1−νp ≤ Kt1−νp
for some K depending on max {||fn || : n ≥ 1} and so

0
||f (t)||A0 +A1 ≤ Kt1−νp
which implies f (0) = 0. Thus Z is closed.
Definition 46.5 Let W be a Banach space and let Z be a closed subspace. Then
the quotient space, denoted by W/Z consists of the set of equivalence classes [x]
46.1. DEFINITION AND BASIC THEORY OF TRACE SPACES 1277
where the equivalence relation is defined by x v y means x − y ∈ Z. Then W/Z is

a vector space if the operations are defined by α [x] ≡ [αx] and [x] + [y] ≡ [x + y]
and these vector space operations are well defined. The norm on the quotient space
is defined as ||[x]|| ≡ inf {||x + z|| : z ∈ Z} .
The verification of the algebraic claims made in the above definition is left to
the reader. It is routine. What is not as routine is the following lemma. However,
it is similar to some topics in the presentation of the K method of interpolation.
Lemma 46.6 Let W be a Banach space and let Z be a closed subspace of W. Then
W/Z with the norm described above is a Banach space.
Proof: That W/Z is a vector space is left to the reader. Why is ||·|| a norm?
Suppose α 6= 0. Then
||α [x]|| = ||[αx]|| ≡ inf {||αx + z|| : z ∈ Z}

= inf {||αx + αz|| : z ∈ Z}
= |α| inf {||x + z|| : z ∈ Z} = |α| ||[x]|| .
Now let ||[x]|| ≥ ||x + z1 || − ε and let ||[y]|| ≥ ||y + z2 || − ε where zi ∈ Z. Then
||[x] + [y]|| ≡ ||[x + y]|| ≤ ||x + y + z1 + z2 ||

≤ ||x + z1 || + ||y + z2 || ≤ ||[x]|| + ||[y]|| + 2ε.
Since ε is arbitrary, this shows the triangle inequality. Clearly, ||[x]|| ≥ 0. It remains
to show that the only way ||[x]|| = 0 is for x ∈ Z. Suppose then that ||[x]|| = 0.
This means there exist zn ∈ Z such that ||x + zn || → 0. Therefore, −x is a limit of
a sequence of points of Z and since Z is closed, this requires −x ∈ Z. Hence x ∈ Z
also because Z is a subspace. This shows ||·|| is a norm on W/Z. It remains to
verify that W/Z is a Banach space.
Suppose {[xn ]} is a Cauchy sequence in W/Z and suppose ||[xn ] − [xn+1 ]|| <
1
2 n+1 . Let x01 = x1 . If x0n has been chosen let x0n+1 = xn+1 + zn+1 where zn+1 ∈ Z
be such that
¯¯ 0 ¯¯ 1
¯¯xn+1 − x0n ¯¯ ≤ ||[xn+1 − xn ]|| +
2(n+1)
1 1
= ||[xn+1 ] − [xn ]|| + < .
2(n+1) 2n
It follows {x0n } is a Cauchy sequence in W and so it must converge to some x ∈ W.
Now
||[x] − [xn ]|| = ||[x − xn ]|| = ||[x − x0n ]|| ≤ ||x − x0n ||
which converges to 0. ¯¯Now if {[x
£ n ]} ¤¯
is¯ just a Cauchy sequence, there exists a
subsequence satisfying ¯¯[xnk ] − xnk+1 ¯¯ < 2k+1 1
and so from the first part, the
subsequence converges to some [x] ∈ W/Z and so the original Cauchy sequence also
converges. therefore, W/Z is a Banach space as claimed.
1278 TRACE SPACES
Definition 46.7 Define T (A0 , A1 , p, θ) = T, to consist of

½ ¾
a ∈ A0 + A1 : a = lim f (t) for some f ∈ W (A0 , A1 , p, θ) ,
t→0+
the limit taking place in A0 +A1 . Let γf be defined for f ∈ W by γf ≡ limt→0+ f (t) .
Thus T = γ (W ) . As above Z ≡ {f ∈ W : γf = 0} = ker (γ) .
Lemma 46.8 T is a Banach space with norm given by
||a||T ≡ inf {||f ||W : f (0) = a} . (46.5)
Proof: Define a mapping, ψ : W/Z → T by
ψ ([f ]) ≡ γf.
Then ψ is one to one and onto. Also
||[f ]|| ≡ inf {||f + g|| : g ∈ Z} = inf {||h||W : γh = γf } = ||γ (f )||T .
Therefore, the Banach space, W/Z and T are isometric and so T must be a Banach
space since W/Z is.
The following is an important interpolation inequality.
Theorem 46.9 If a ∈ T, then

n¯¯ ¯¯1−θ ¯¯ ¯¯θ o
||a||T = inf ¯¯tθ f ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A0 ) ¯¯tθ f 0 ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A1 ) (46.6)
t t
where the infimum is taken over all f ∈ W such that a = f (0) . Also, if a ∈ A0 ∩A1 ,
then a ∈ T and
1−θ θ
||a||T ≤ K ||a||A1 ||a||A0 (46.7)
for some constant K. Also
A0 ∩ A1 ⊆ T (A0 , A1 , p, θ) ⊆ A0 + A1 (46.8)
and the inclusion maps are continuous.
Proof: First suppose f (0) = a where f ∈ W . Then letting fλ (t) ≡ f (λt) , it

follows that fλ (0) = a also and so
³ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ´
0 ¯¯
||a||T ≤ max ¯¯tθ fλ ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A0 ) , ¯¯tθ (fλ ) ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A1 )
t t
³ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ´
−θ ¯¯ θ ¯¯ 1−θ ¯¯ θ 0 ¯¯
= max λ t f Lp (0,∞, dt ;A0 ) , λ t f Lp (0,∞, dt ;A1 )
t t
³ ´
−θ 1−θ
≡ max λ R, λ S .
Now choose λ = R/S to obtain

¯¯ ¯¯1−θ ¯¯ ¯¯θ
||a||T ≤ R1−θ S θ = ¯¯tθ f ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A0 ) ¯¯tθ f 0 ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A1 ) .
t t
46.1. DEFINITION AND BASIC THEORY OF TRACE SPACES 1279
Thus n¯¯ ¯¯1−θ ¯¯ ¯¯θ o

||a||T ≤ inf ¯¯tθ f ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A0 ) ¯¯tθ f 0 ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A1 ) .
t t
Next choose f ∈ W such that f (0) = a and ||f ||W ≈ ||a||T . More precisely, pick
f ∈ W such that f (0) = a and ||a||T > −ε + ||f ||W . Also let
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
R ≡ ¯¯tθ f ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A0 ) , S ≡ ¯¯tθ f 0 ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A1 ) .
t t
Then as before,
¯¯ θ ¯¯ ¯¯ 0 ¯¯
¯¯t fλ ¯¯ p = λ−θ R, ¯¯tθ (fλ ) ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A1 ) = λ1−θ S. (46.9)
L (0,∞, dt ;A0 )
t t
so that ||f ||W = max (R, S) . Then, changing the variables, letting λ = R/S,
¯¯ θ ¯¯ ¯¯ 0 ¯¯
¯¯t f λ ¯¯ p = ¯¯tθ (fλ ) ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A ) = R1−θ S θ (46.10)
L (0,∞, dt ;A )
t 0 t 1
Since fλ (0) = a, fλ ∈ W, and it is always the case that for positive R, S, R1−θ S θ ≤
max (R, S) , this shows that
³ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ´
0 ¯¯
||a||T ≤ max ¯¯tθ fλ ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A ) , ¯¯tθ (fλ ) ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A )
t 0 t 1
1−θ θ
= R S ≤ max (R, S) = ||f ||W < ||a||T + ε,
the first inequality holding because ||a||T is the infimum of such things on the right.
This shows 46.6.
It remains to verify 46.7. To do this, let ψ ∈ C ∞ ([0, ∞)) , with ψ (0) = 1
and ψ (t) = 0 for all t > 1. Then consider the special f ∈ W which is given by
f (t) ≡ aψ (t) where a ∈ A0 ∩ A1 . Thus f ∈ W and f (0) = a so a ∈ T (A0 , A1 , p, θ) .
From the first part, there exists a constant, K such that
¯¯ θ ¯¯1−θ ¯¯ θ 0 ¯¯θ
||a||T ≤ ¯¯t f ¯¯ p ¯¯t f ¯¯ p
t ;A0 )
L (0,∞, dt t ;A1 )
L (0,∞, dt
1−θ θ
≤ K ||a||A0 ||a||A1
This shows 46.7 and the first inclusion in 46.8. From the inequality just obtained,
¡ ¢
||a||T ≤ K (1 − θ) ||a||A0 + θ ||a||A1
≤ K ||a||A0 ∩A1 .
This shows the first inclusion map of 46.8 is continuous.

Now take a ∈ T. Let f ∈ W be such that a = f (0) and
||a||T + ε > ||f ||W ≥ ||a||T .
By 46.4,
0
||a − f (t)||A0 +A1 ≤ Cν t1−νp ||f ||W
1280 TRACE SPACES
1
where p + ν = θ, and so
0
||a||A0 +A1 ≤ ||f (t)||A0 +A1 + Cν t1−νp ||f ||W .
Now ||f (t)||A0 +A1 ≤ ||f (t)||A0 .

0
||a||A0 +A1 ≤ tν ||f (t)||A0 +A1 t−ν + Cν t1−νp ||f ||W
0
≤ tν ||f (t)||A0 t−ν + Cν t1−νp ||f ||W
Therefore, recalling that νp0 < 1, and integrating both sides from 0 to 1,
||a||A0 +A1 ≤ Cν ||f ||W ≤ Cν (||a||T + ε) .
To see this,
Z 1 µZ 1 ¶1/p µZ 1 ¶1/p0
ν −ν
¡ ν
¢p −νp0
t ||f (t)||A0 t dt ≤ t ||f (t)||A0 dt t dt
0 0 0
≤ C ||f ||W .
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this verifies the second inclusion and continuity of the
inclusion map completing the proof of the theorem.
The interpolation inequality, 46.7 is very significant. The next result concerns
bounded linear transformations.
Theorem 46.10 Now suppose A0 , A1 and B0 , B1 are pairs of Banach spaces such
that Ai embeds continuously into a topological vector space, X and Bi embeds con-
tinuously into a topological vector space, Y. Suppose also that L ∈ L (A0 , B0 ) and
L ∈ L (A1 , B1 ) where the operator norm of L in these spaces is Ki , i = 0, 1. Then
L ∈ L (A0 + A1 , B0 + B1 ) (46.11)
with
||La||B0 +B1 ≤ max (K0 , K1 ) ||a||A0 +A1 (46.12)
and
L ∈ L (T (A0 , A1 , p, θ) , T (B0 , B1 , p, θ)) (46.13)
and for K the operator norm,
K ≤ K01−θ K1θ . (46.14)
Proof: To verify 46.11, let a ∈ A0 + A1 and pick a0 ∈ A0 and a1 ∈ A1 such that
||a||A0 +A1 + ε > ||a0 ||A0 + ||a1 ||A1 .
Then
||L (a)||B0 +B1 = ||La0 + La1 ||B0 +B1 ≤ ||La0 ||B0 + ||La1 ||B1
46.2. EQUIVALENCE OF TRACE AND INTERPOLATION SPACES 1281
¡ ¢
≤ K0 ||a0 ||A0 + K1 ||a1 ||A1 ≤ max (K0 , K1 ) ||a||A0 +A1 + ε .
This establishes 46.12. Now consider the other assertions.
Let a ∈ T (A0 , A1 , p, θ) and pick f ∈ W (A0 , A1 , p, θ) such that γf = a and
¯¯ ¯¯1−θ ¯¯ ¯¯θ
||a||T (A0 ,A1 ,p,θ) + ε > ¯¯tθ f ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ,A0 ) ¯¯tθ f 0 ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ,A1 ) .
t t
Then consider Lf. Since L is continuous on A0 + A1 ,

Lf (0) = La
and Lf ∈ W (B0 , B1 , p, θ) . Therefore, by Theorem 46.9,
¯¯ ¯¯1−θ ¯¯ ¯¯θ
||La||T (B0 ,B1 ,p,θ) ≤ ¯¯tθ Lf ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ,A0 ) ¯¯tθ Lf 0 ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ,A1 )
t t
¯¯ ¯¯
1−θ θ ¯¯ θ ¯¯1−θ
¯¯ θ 0 ¯¯θ
≤ K0 K1 t f Lp (0,∞, dt ,A0 ) ¯¯t f ¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ,A1 )
t t
³ ´
1−θ θ
≤ K0 K1 ||a||T (A0 ,A1 ,p,θ) + ε .
and since ε > 0 is arbitrary, this proves the theorem.
46.2 Equivalence Of Trace And Interpolation Spaces

Trace spaces are equivalent to interpolation spaces. In showing this, a more general
sort of trace space than that presented earlier will be used.
Definition 46.11 Define for m a positive integer, V m = V m (A0 , A1 , p, θ) to be
the set of functions, u such that
µ ¶
dt
t → tθ u (t) ∈ Lp 0, ∞, ; A0 (46.15)
t
and µ ¶
θ+m−1 (m) p dt
t→t u (t) ∈ L 0, ∞, ; A1 . (46.16)
t
V m is a Banach space with the norm
µ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¶
¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
||u||V m ≡ max ¯¯tθ u (t)¯¯Lp (0,∞, dt ;A ) , ¯¯tθ+m−1 u(m) (t)¯¯ .
t 0
t ;A1 )
Lp (0,∞, dt
Thus V m equals W in the case when m = 1. More generally, as in [8] different

exponents are used for the two Lp spaces, p0 in place of p for the space corresponding
to A0 and p1 in place of p for the space corresponding to A1 .
Definition 46.12 Denote by T m (A0 , A1 , p, θ) the set of all a ∈ A0 + A1 such that
for some u ∈ V m ,
a = lim u (t) ≡ trace (u) , (46.17)
t→0+
the limit holding in A0 + A1 . For the norm
||a||T m ≡ inf {||u||V m : trace (u) = a} . (46.18)
1282 TRACE SPACES
The case when m = 1 was discussed in Section 46.1. Note it is not known at
this point whether limt→0+ u (t) even exists for every u ∈ V m . Of course, if m = 1
this was shown earlier but it has not been shown for m > 1. The following theorem
is absolutely amazing. Note the lack of dependence on m of the right side!
Theorem 46.13 The following hold.
T m (A0 , A1 , p, θ) = (A0 , A1 )θ,p,J = (A0 , A1 )θ,p . (46.19)
Proof: It is enough to show the first equality because of Theorem 45.27 which
identifies (A0 , A1 )θ,p,J and (A0 , A1 )θ,p . Let a ∈ T m . Then there exists u ∈ V m such
that
a = lim u (t) in A0 + A1 .
t→0+
The first task is to modify this u (t) to get a better one which is more usable in
order to show a ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,p,J . Remember, it is required to find w (t) ∈ A0 ∩ A1
R∞
for all t ∈ (0, ∞) and a = 0 w (t) dt t , a representation which is not known at this
time. To get such a thing, let
φ ∈ Cc∞ (0, ∞) , spt (φ) ⊆ [α, β] (46.20)
with φ ≥ 0 and Z ∞
dt
φ (t) = 1. (46.21)
0 t
Then define
Z ∞ µ ¶ Z ∞ µ ¶
t dτ t ds
u
e (t) ≡ φ u (τ ) = φ (s) u . (46.22)
0 τ τ 0 s s
Claim: limt→0+ u e (t) = a and limt→∞ u e(k) (t) = 0 in A0 + A1 for all k ≤ m.

Proof of the claim: From 46.22 and 46.21 it follows that for ||·|| referring to
||·||A0 +A1 ,
Z ∞ ¯¯ µ ¶ ¯¯
¯¯ ¯¯
||e
u (t) − a|| ≤ ¯¯u t − a¯¯ φ (s) ds
¯¯ s ¯¯ s
0
Z ∞ µ ¶
t dτ
= ||u (τ ) − a|| φ
0 τ τ
Z t/α µ ¶
t dτ
= ||u (τ ) − a|| φ
t/β τ τ
Z t/α µ ¶ Z β
t dτ ds
≤ εφ =ε φ (s) =ε
t/β τ τ α s
whenever t is small enough due to the convergence of u (t) to a in A0 + A1 .

Now consider what occurs when t → ∞. For ||·|| referring to the norm in A0 ,
Z ∞ µ ¶
(k) (k) t 1 dτ
u
e (t) = φ k
u (τ )
0 τ τ τ
and so
¯¯ ¯¯ Z t/α
¯¯ (k) ¯¯ dτ
¯¯ue (t)¯¯ ≤ Ck ||u (τ )||A0
A0 t/β τ
ÃZ !1/p0 ÃZ !1/p
t/α t/α
dτ p dτ
≤C ||u (τ )||A0 .
t/β τ t/β τ
³ ´θ
β
Now t τ θ ≥ 1 for τ ≥ t/β and so the above expression
µ ¶1/p0 µ ¶θ ÃZ ∞ !1/p
β β ¡ θ ¢p dτ
≤ C ln τ ||u (τ )||A0
α t t/β τ
¯¯ (k) ¯¯
and so limt→∞ ¯¯u e (t)¯¯A0 = 0 and therefore, this also holds in A0 + A1 . This
proves the claim.
Thus ue has the same properties as u in terms of having a as its trace. u
e is used
to build the desired w, representing a as an integral. Define
m m Z ∞ µ ¶
(−1) tm (m) (−1) tm (m) t dτ
v (t) ≡ u
e (t) = φ u (τ )
(m − 1)! (m − 1)! 0 τm τ τ
m Z ∞ µ ¶
(−1) m (m) t ds
= s φ (s) u . (46.23)
(m − 1)! 0 s s
Then from the claim, and integration by parts in the last step,
Z ∞ µ ¶ Z ∞ m Z ∞
1 dt dt (−1)
v = v (t) = tm−1 u
e(m) (t) dt = a. (46.24)
0 t t 0 t (m − 1)! 0
¡ ¢
Thus v 1t represents a in the way desired for (A0 , A1 )θ,p,J if it is also true that
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
v 1t ∈ A0 ∩ A1 and t → t−θ v 1t is in Lp 0, ∞, dt t ; A0 and t → t
1−θ
v 1t is in
¡ ¢
Lp 0, ∞, dt
t ; A1 . First consider whether v (t) ∈ A0 ∩ A1 . v (t) ∈ A0 for each t from
¡ ¢
46.23 and the assumption that u ∈ Lp 0, ∞, dt t ; A0 . To verify v (t) ∈ A1 , integrate
by parts in 46.23 to obtain
m Z ∞ µ µ ¶¶
(−1) (m) m−1 t
v (t) = φ (s) s u ds (46.25)
(m − 1)! 0 s
Z ∞ µ µ ¶¶
1 dm m−1 t
= φ (s) m s u ds
(m − 1)! 0 ds s
m Z ∞ µ ¶
(−1) tm (m) t
= φ (s) u ds ∈ A1
(m − 1)! 0 sm+1 s
1284 TRACE SPACES
The last step may look very mysterious. If so, consider the case where m = 2.
µ µ ¶¶00
t
φ (s) su
s
µ µ ¶ µ ¶¶0
t 0 t t
= φ (s) − u +u
s s s
µµ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶¶
t t t t t t t
= φ (s) − u00 − 2 + 2 u0 − 2 u0
s s s s s s s
2
µ ¶
t t
= φ (s) 3 u00 .
s s
You can see the same pattern will take place for other values of m.
Now
µZ ∞ µ µ µ ¶¶¶p ¶1/p
1 dt
||a||θ,p,J ≤ t−θ J t, v
0 t t
(Z "Ã ¯¯ µ ¶¯¯ ! Ã ¯¯ µ ¶¯¯ !#p )1/p
∞ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯¯
1 1 ¯¯¯¯ dt
≤ Cp t−θ ¯¯¯¯v ¯¯
¯¯ + t1−θ ¯¯¯¯v ¯¯
0 t A0 t A1 t
Ã Ã
 Z ∞ ¯¯ µ ¶¯¯ !p !1/p
¯¯
−θ ¯¯ 1 ¯¯¯¯ dt
≤ Cp t ¯¯v ¯ ¯
 0 t A0 t
ÃZ Ã ¯¯ µ ¶¯¯ !p !1/p 
∞ ¯¯ 1 ¯¯¯¯ dt 
+ t1−θ ¯¯¯¯v . (46.26)
0 t ¯¯ A1 t 
The first term equals

ÃZ Ã ¯¯ µ ¶¯¯ !p !1/p
∞ ¯¯ ¯¯
t −θ ¯¯v 1 ¯¯ dt
¯¯ t ¯¯ t
0 A0
µZ ∞ ¶1/p
¡ θ
¢p dt
= t ||v (t)||A0
0 t
ÃZ Ã ¯¯Z µ ¶ ¯¯ !p !1/p
∞ ¯¯ ∞
t ds ¯¯¯¯ dt
= tθ ¯¯¯¯ m (m)
s φ (s) u
0 0 s s ¯¯A 0 t
ÃZ Ã !p !1/p
Z ∞ ∞ ¯ ¯ ¯¯ µ t ¶¯¯¯¯
¯ (m) ¯ ¯¯¯¯
θ m ¯ ¯ dt ds
≤ t s ¯φ (s)¯ ¯¯u
0 0 s ¯¯A 0 t s
Z Ã Ã ¯¯ µ ¶¯¯ !p !1/p
∞ ¯ ¯ Z ∞ ¯¯ t ¯¯¯¯ dt ds
¯ (m) ¯
≤ m
s ¯φ (s)¯ tθ ¯¯¯¯u
0 0 s ¯¯ A0 t s
Z ∞ ¯ ¯ ds µZ ∞ ¡ ¶
¢p dτ 1/p
¯ ¯
= sθ+m ¯φ(m) (s)¯ τ θ ||u (τ )||A0
0 s 0 τ
µZ ∞ ¶
¡ θ ¢p dτ 1/p
=C τ ||u (τ )||A0 . (46.27)
0 τ
The second term equals
ÃZ Ã ¯¯ µ ¶¯¯ !p !1/p µZ ¶1/p
∞ ¯¯ ¯¯ ∞ ¡ θ−1 ¢p dt
t 1−θ ¯¯v 1 ¯¯ dt
= t ||v (t)||A1
¯¯ t ¯¯ t t
0 A1 0
ÃZ Ã ¯¯ Z µ ¶ ¯¯ !p !1/p
∞ ¯¯ ∞
θ−1 ¯¯ 1 tm t ds ¯¯¯¯ dt
= t ¯¯ (m − 1)! φ (s) m u(m)
0 0 s s s ¯¯A 1 t
Z ÃZ Ãµ ¶ ¯¯ µ ¶¯¯ !p !1/p
∞ ∞ ¯¯ (m) t ¯¯
tθ+m−1 ¯ ¯ ¯¯ dt ds
≤ |φ (s)| ¯¯u
0 0 sm s ¯¯ A1 t s
Z ÃZ Ã ¯¯ µ ¶¯¯ !p !1/p
∞ ∞ ¯¯ (m) t ¯¯
|φ (s)| θ+m−1 ¯¯u ¯¯ dt ds
≤ t ¯¯
0 sm 0 s ¯¯ A1 t s
Z ∞ µZ ∞µ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¶p ¶1/p
|φ (s)| θ+m−1 ¯¯ ¯¯ dτ ds
= s τ θ+m−1 ¯¯u(m) (τ )¯¯
0 sm 0 A1 τ s
µZ ∞µ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¶p ¶1/p
¯¯ ¯¯ dτ
=C τ θ+m−1 ¯¯u(m) (τ )¯¯ . (46.28)
0 A1 τ
Now from the estimates on the two terms in 46.26 found in 46.27 and 46.28, and
the simple estimate,
2 max (α, β) ≥ α + β,
it follows
||a||θ,p,J (46.29)
ÃµZ ¶1/p
¡ θ ∞ ¢p dτ
≤ C max τ ||u (τ )||A0 (46.30)
0 τ
µZ ∞ µ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¶ p ¶1/p !
θ+m−1 ¯¯ (m) ¯¯ dτ
, τ ¯¯u (τ )¯¯ (46.31)
0 A1 τ
which shows that after taking the infimum over all u whose trace is a, it follows
a ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,p,J .
||a||θ,p,J ≤ C ||a||T m (46.32)
Thus T m (A0 , A1 , θ, p) ⊆ (A0 , A1 )θ,p,J .
1286 TRACE SPACES
Is (A0 , A1 )θ,p,J ⊆ T m (A0 , A1 , θ, p)? Let a ∈ (A0 , A1 )θ,p,J . There exists u having
values in A0 ∩ A1 and such that
Z ∞ Z ∞ µ ¶
dt 1 dt
a= u (t) = u ,
0 t 0 t t
in A0 + A1 such that
Z ∞
¡ −θ ¢p ¡ ¢
t J (t, u (t)) dt < ∞, where J (t, a) = max ||a||A0 , t ||a||A1 .
0
Then let µ Z ¶m−1 µ ¶

∞
t 1 dτ
w (t) ≡ 1− u = (46.33)
t τ τ τ
Z 1/t Z 1 ³ τ ´ dτ
m−1 ds m−1
(1 − st) u (s) = (1 − τ ) u . (46.34)
0 s 0 t τ
It is routine to verify from 46.33 that
¡1¢
(m) m u t
w (t) = (m − 1)! (−1) . (46.35)
tm
For example, consider the case where m = 2.
µZ ∞ µ ¶ µ ¶ ¶00 µ Z ∞µ ¶ µ ¶ ¶0
t 1 dτ 1 1 dτ
1− u = 0+ − u
t τ τ τ τ τ τ
µ t¶
1 1
= 2u .
t t
Also from 46.33, it follows that trace (w) = a. It remains to verify w ∈ V m .

From 46.35,
µZ ∞ µ ¯¯ ¯¯ ¶p dt ¶1/p
θ+m−1 ¯¯ (m) ¯¯
t ¯¯w (t)¯¯ =
0 A1 t
ÃZ Ã ¯¯ µ ¶¯¯ !p !1/p µZ ∞ ¶
∞ ¯¯
θ−1 ¯¯ 1 ¯¯¯¯ dt ¡ 1−θ ¢p dt 1/p
Cm t ¯¯ u = C t ||u (t)||
t ¯¯A 1
m A1
0 t 0 t
µZ ∞ ¶1/p
¡ ¢p dt
≤ Cm t−θ J (t, u (t)) < ∞. (46.36)
0 t
¡R ∞ ¡ ¢p ¢
dt 1/p
It remains to consider 0
tθ ||w (t)||A0 t . From 46.34,
µZ ¶
∞¡θ ¢p dt 1/p
t ||w (t)||A0
0 t
ÃZ Ã ¯¯Z !p !1/p
∞ ¯¯ 1 ³ τ ´ dτ ¯¯¯¯ dt
θ ¯¯ m−1 ¯¯
= t ¯¯ (1 − τ ) u ¯ ¯
0 0 t τ A0 t
ÃZ Ã ¯¯Z ¯¯ !p !1/p
∞ ¯¯ 1
−θ ¯¯ m−1 dτ ¯¯¯¯ dt
= t ¯¯ (1 − τ ) u (τ t) ¯¯
0 0 τ A0 t
Z 1 ³ µZ ∞ ´p dt ¶1/p dτ
m−1
≤ t−θ (1 − τ ) ||u (τ t)||A0
0 0 t τ
Z 1 µZ ∞ ¶1/p
m−1 ¡ −θ ¢p ds dτ
= τ θ (1 − τ ) s ||u (s)||A0
0 0 s τ
µZ 1 ¶ µZ ∞ ¶
m−1 ¡ −θ ¢p ds 1/p
= τ θ−1 (1 − τ ) dτ s ||u (s)||A0
0 0 s
µZ ∞ ¶1/p
¡ −θ ¢p ds
≤C s ||u (s)||A0
0 s
µZ ∞ ¶1/p
¡ −θ ¢p
≤C t J (t, u (t)) dt < ∞. (46.37)
0
It follows that
||w||V m ≡
ÃµZ ¶ µZ ∞ µ !
∞¡ ¢p dt 1/p ¯¯ ¯¯ ¶p dt ¶1/p
θ θ+m−1 ¯¯ (m) ¯¯
max t ||w (t)||A0 , t ¯¯w (t)¯¯
0 t 0 A1 t
µZ ∞ ¶1/p
¡ −θ
¢p
≤C t J (t, u (t)) dt <∞
0
which shows that a ∈ T m (A0 , A1 , θ, p) . Taking the infimum,
||a||T m ≤ C ||a||θ,p,J .
This together with 46.32 proves the theorem.

By Theorem 46.13 and Theorem 45.33, we obtain the following important corol-
lary describing the dual space of a trace space.
Corollary 46.14 Let A0 ∩ A1 be dense in Ai for i = 0, 1 and suppose that Ai is

reflexive for i = 0, 1. Then for ∞ > p ≥ 1,
0
T m (A0 , A1 , θ, p) = T m (A01 , A00 , 1 − θ, p0 )
1288 TRACE SPACES
Traces Of Sobolev Spaces
And Fractional Order Spaces
47.1 Traces Of Sobolev Spaces On The Boundary

Of A Half Space
¡ ¢
In this section we consider the trace of W m,p Rn+ onto a Sobolev space of functions
defined on Rn−1 . This latter Sobolev space will be defined in terms of the following
theory in such a way that the trace map is¡ continuous.
¢ We ¡already
¢ know the trace
map is continuous as a map from W m,p Rn+ to W m−1,p Rn−1 but we can do
much better than this using the above theory.
Definition 47.1 Let θ ∈ (0, 1) and let Ω be an open subset of Rm . We define
¡ ¢
W θ,p (Ω) ≡ T W 1,p (Ω) , Lp (Ω) , p, 1 − θ .
Thus, from the above general theory, W 1,p (Ω) ,→ W θ,p (Ω) ,→ Lp (Ω) = Lp (Ω)+
W 1,p (Ω) . Now we consider the trace map for Sobolev space.
∞
¡ n¢ 0 0 ∞
¡ n¢
Lemma 47.2
¡ n−1 ¢ Let φ ∈ C R+ . Then γφ (x )
¡ n¢≡ φ (x , 0) . Then
¡ n−1 ¢ γ : C R+ →
p 1,p p
L R is continuous as a map from W R+ to L R .
Proof: We know
Z xn
∂φ (x0 , t)
φ (x0 , xn ) = γφ (x0 ) + dt
0 ∂t
1289
1290 TRACES OF SOBOLEV SPACES AND FRACTIONAL ORDER SPACES
Then by Jensen’s inequality,

Z
p
|γφ (x0 )| dx0
Rn−1
Z 1Z
p
= |γφ (x0 )| dx0 dxn
0 Rn−1
Z 1 Z
p
≤ C |φ (x0 , xn )| dx0 dxn
0 Rn−1
Z 1Z ¯Z xn ¯p
¯ ∂φ (x0 , t) ¯¯
+C ¯ dt¯ dx0 dxn
¯ ∂t
0 Rn−1 0
Z 1 Z Z xn ¯ ¯
¯ ∂φ (x0 , t) ¯p
≤
p
C ||φ||0,p,Rn−1 + C p−1
xn ¯ ¯ dtdx0 dxn
¯ ∂t ¯
0 Rn−1 0
Z 1 Z Z ∞¯ ¯
¯ ∂φ (x0 , t) ¯p
≤
p
C ||φ||0,p,Rn−1 + C xp−1 ¯ ¯ dtdx0 dxn
n
n−1
¯ ∂t ¯
0 R 0
Z Z ∞¯ ¯ p
C ¯ ∂φ (x0 , t) ¯
≤
p
C ||φ||0,p,Rn−1 + ¯ ¯ dtdx0
p Rn−1 0 ¯ ∂t ¯
p
≤ C ||φ||1,p,Rn
+

¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Definition 47.3 We define the trace, γ : W 1,p Rn+ → Lp Rn−1 as follows.
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
γφ (x0 ) ≡ φ (x0 , 0) whenever φ ∈ C ∞ Rn+ . For u ∈ W 1,p Rn+ , we define γu ≡
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
limk→∞ γφk in Lp Rn−1 where φk → u in W 1,p Rn+ . Then the above lemma
shows this is well defined.
Also from this lemma we obtain a constant, C such that
||φ||0,p,Rn−1 ≤ C ||φ||1,p,Rn
+
1,p
¡ n¢
and we see the same constant holds for all u ∈ W R+ . Now we will assert more
¡ ¢
than this. From the definition of the norm in the trace space, if f ∈ C ∞ Rn+ , and
we let θ = 1 − p1 , then
||γf ||1− 1 ,p,Rn−1
p
ÃµZ
∞³ ´p dt ¶1/p
≤ max t1/p ||f (t)||1,p,Rn−1
0 t
µZ ∞ ³ ¶ !
´p dt 1/p
1/p 0
, t ||f (t)||0,p,Rn−1
0 t
≤ C ||f ||1,p,Rn .
+
¡ ¢ 1 ¡ ¢
Thus, if f ∈ W 1,p
Rn+ , we may define γf ∈ W 1− p ,p Rn−1 according to the rule,
γf = lim γφk ,
k→∞
47.1. TRACES OF SOBOLEV SPACES ON THE BOUNDARY OF A HALF SPACE1291
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
where φk → f in W 1,p Rn+ and φk ∈ C ∞ Rn+ . This shows the continuity part of
the following lemma.
¡ ¢
Lemma 47.4 The trace map, γ, is a continuous map from W 1,p Rn+ onto
1 ¡ ¢
W 1− p ,p Rn−1 .
¡ ¢
Furthermore, for f ∈ W 1,p Rn+ ,
γf = f (0) = lim f (t)

t→0+
p
¡ ¢
the limit taking place in L Rn−1 .
Proof: It remains to verify γ is onto along with the displayed equation. But
1 ¡ ¢
by ¡definition, things
¡ in W 1− p ,p Rn−1
¢¢ ¡ are of¡ the form
¢¢ limt→0+ f (t) where f ∈
Lp 0, ∞; W 1,p Rn−1 , and f 0 ∈ Lp 0, ∞; Lp Rn−1 , the limit taking place in
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
W 1,p Rn−1 + Lp Rn−1 = Lp Rn−1 ,
and µZ ¶1/p µZ ¶1/p

∞ ∞
p 0 p
||f (t)||1,p,Rn−1 dt + ||f (t)||0,p dt < ∞.
0 0
¡ ¢
Then taking a measurable¡representative,
¢ we see f ∈ W 1,p Rn+ and f,xn = f 0 .
Also, as an equation in Lp Rn−1 , the following holds for all t > 0.
Z t
f (·, t) = f (0) + f,xn (·, s) ds
0
But we also have that for a.e. x0 ,the following equation holds for a.e. t > 0.
Z t
0 0
f (x , t) = γf (x ) + f,xn (x0 , s) ds, (47.1)
0
showing that
µ ¶
1 ¡ ¢ 1
γf = f (0) ∈ W 1− p ,p Rn−1 ≡ T W 1,p (Ω) , Lp (Ω) , p, .
p
¡ ¢
To see that 47.1 holds, we approximate f with a sequence from C ∞ Rn+ and
finally obtain an equation of the form
Z Z ∞· Z t ¸
0 0
f (x , t) − γf (x ) − f,xn (x , s) ds ψ (x0 , t) dtdx0 = 0,
0
Rn−1 0 0
¡ ¢
which holds for all ψ ∈ Cc∞ Rn+ . This proves the lemma. ¡ ¢
Thus we lose p1 derivatives when we take the trace of a function in W 1,p Rn+ .
47.2 A Right Inverse For The Trace For A Half

Space
It is also important to show there is a continuous linear function,
1 ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
R : W 1− p ,p Rn−1 → W 1,p Rn+
which has the property that γ (Rg) = g. We will define this function as follows.
Z µ 0 ¶
x − y0 1
Rg (x0 , xn ) ≡ g (y0 ) φ n−1 dy
0
(47.2)
R n−1 xn xn
where φ is a mollifier having support in B (0, 1) . Then we have the following lemma.
¡ ¢
Lemma 47.5 Let R be defined in 47.2. Then Rg ∈ W 1,p Rn+ and is a continuous
1 ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
linear map from W 1− p ,p Rn−1 to W 1,p Rn+ with the property that γRg = g.
¡ ¢
Proof: Let f ∈ W 1,p Rn+ be such that γf = g. Let ψ (xn ) ≡ (1 − xn )+ and
assume f is Borel measurable by taking a Borel measurable representative. Then
for a.e. x0 we have the following formula holding for a.e. xn .
Rg (x0 , xn )
Z " Z # µ ¶
ψ(xn )
0 0 x0 − y 0
= ψ (xn ) f (y , ψ (xn )) − (ψf ),n (y , t) dt φ x1−n
n dy 0 .
Rn−1 0 xn
Using the repeated index summation convention to save space, we obtain that in
terms of weak derivatives,
Rg,n (x0 , xn )
Z " Z #
ψ(xn )
0
= ψ (xn ) f (y , ψ (xn )) − (ψf ),n (y0 , t) dt ·
Rn−1 0
· µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
x0 − y0 yk − xk x0 − y 0 (1 − n)
φ,k +φ dy 0
xn xnn xn xnn
Z " Z #
ψ(xn )
0 0 0 0
= ψ (xn ) f (x − xn z , ψ (xn )) − (ψf ),n (x − xn z , t) dt ·
Rn−1 0
· µ ¶ ¸
0 yk − xk (1 − n) n 0
0
φ,k (z ) zk + φ (z ) xn dz
xnn xnn
and so
¯Z
¯
¯
|Rg,n (x0 , xn )| ≤ C (φ) ¯ [ψ (xn ) f (x0 − xn z0 , ψ (xn ))
¯ B(0,1)
Z ψ(xn ) #¯
¯
0 0 ¯
− (ψf ),n (x − xn z , t) dt ¯
0 ¯
47.2. A RIGHT INVERSE FOR THE TRACE FOR A HALF SPACE 1293
(Z
C (φ)
≤ |ψ (xn ) f (x0 + y0 , ψ (xn ))| dy 0
xn−1
n B(0,xn )
Z Z )
ψ(xn ) ¯ ¯
¯ ¯
+ ¯(ψf ),n (x0 + y0 , t)¯ dtdy 0
B(0,xn ) 0
Therefore,
µZ ∞ Z ¶1/p
0 p 0
|Rg,n (x , xn )| dx dxn ≤
0 Rn−1
ÃZ Z Ã Z !p !1/p
∞
1 0 0 0 0
C (φ) |ψ (xn ) f (x + y , ψ (xn ))| dy dx dxn
0 Rn−1 xnn−1 B(0,xn )
ÃZ Z Ã Z Z !p !1/p
∞
1 ψ(xn ) ¯ ¯
¯ ¯
+C (φ) ¯(ψf ),n (x0 + y0 , t)¯ dtdy 0 dx0 dxn
0 Rn−1 xn−1
n B(0,xn ) 0
(47.3)
Consider the first term on the right. We change variables, letting y0 = z0 xn . Then
this term becomes
ÃZ Z ÃZ !p !1/p
1
C (φ) |ψ (xn ) f (x0 + xn z0 , ψ (xn ))| dz 0 dx0 dxn
0 Rn−1 B(0,1)
Z µZ 1 Z ¶1/p
p
≤ C (φ) |ψ (xn ) f (x0 + xn z0 , ψ (xn ))| dx0 dxn dz 0
B(0,1) 0 Rn−1
Now we change variables, letting t = ψ (xn ) . This yields

Z µZ 1 Z ¶1/p
p
= C (φ) |tf (x0 + xn z0 , t)| dx0 dt dz 0 ≤ C (φ) ||f ||0,p,Rn .
+
B(0,1) 0 Rn−1
(47.4)
Now we consider the second term on the right in 47.3. Using the same arguments
which were used on the first term involving Minkowski’s inequality and changing
the variables, we obtain the second term
Z Z 1 µZ 1 Z ¯ ¯p ¶1/p
¯ 0 0 ¯ 0
≤ C (φ) ¯ (ψf ) ,n (x + xn z , t)¯ dx dx n dtdy 0
B(0,1) 0 0 Rn−1
≤ C (φ) ||f ||1,p,Rn . (47.5)
+
It is somewhat easier to verify that

||Rg,j ||0,p,Rn ≤ C (φ) ||f ||1,p,Rn .
+ +
Therefore, we have shown that whenever γf = f (0) = g,

||Rg||1,p,Rn ≤ C (φ) ||f ||1,p,Rn .
+ +
Taking the infimum over all such f and using the definition of the norm in
1 ¡ ¢
W 1− p ,p Rn−1 ,
it follows
||Rg||1,p,Rn ≤ C (φ) ||g||1− 1 ,p,Rn−1 ,
+ p
showing that this map, R, is continuous as claimed. It is obvious that

lim Rg (xn ) = g,
xn →0
¡ ¢
the convergence taking place in Lp Rn−1 because of general results about convo-
lution with mollifiers. This proves the lemma.
47.3 Fractional Order Sobolev Spaces

Definition 47.6 Let m be a nonnegative integer and let s = m+σ where σ ∈ (0, 1) .
Then W s,p (Ω) will consist of those elements of W m,p (Ω) for which Dα u ∈ W σ,p (Ω)
for all |α| = m. The norm is given by the following.
 1/p
p
X p
||u||s,p,Ω ≡ ||u||m,p,Ω + ||Dα u||σ,p,Ω  .
|α|=m
s,p
Corollary 47.7 The space, W (Ω) is a reflexive Banach space whenever p > 1.
Proof: We know from the theory of interpolation spaces that W σ,p (Ω) is reflex-
ive. This is because it is an iterpolation space for the two reflexive spaces, Lp (Ω)
and W 1,p (Ω) . Now the formula for the norm of an element in W s,p (Ω) shows this
k
space is isometric to a closed subspace of W m,p (Ω) × W σ,p (Ω) for suitable k.
s,p
Therefore, W (Ω) is also reflexive.
¡ ¢ 1 ¡ ¢
Theorem 47.8 The trace map, γ : W m,p Rn+ → W m− p ,p Rn−1 is continuous.
³ ´
Proof: Let f ∈ S. We let σ = 1 − p1 so that m − p1 = m − 1 + σ. Then from
the definition,
 1/p
X
||γf || 1 n−1 =
||γf ||p n−1 +
p
||Dα γf || 1 
m− p ,p,R m−1,p,R n−1
1− p ,p,R
|α|=m−1
and from
¡ ¢Lemma 47.4,¡and the ¢ fact that the trace is continuous as a map from
W m,p Rn+ to W m−1,p Rn−1 ,
³ ´1/p
p
||γf ||m− 1 ,p,Rn−1 ≤ C1 ||f ||m,p,Rn + C2 ||f ||m,p,Rn + ≤ C ||f ||m,p,Rn + .
p +

With the definition of W s,p (Ω) for s not an integer, we can generalize an earlier
theorem.
47.3. FRACTIONAL ORDER SOBOLEV SPACES 1295
Theorem 47.9 Let h : U → V where U and V are two open sets and suppose h is
bilipschitz and that Dα h and Dα h−1 exist and are Lipschitz continuous if |α| ≤ m
where m = 0, 1, · · ·.and s = m + σ where σ ∈ (0, 1) . Then
h∗ : W s,p (V ) → W s,p (U )
Proof: In case m = 0, the conclusion of the theorem is immediate from the

general theory of trace spaces. Therefore, we can assume m ≥ 1. We know from the
definition that
 1/p
p
X p
||h∗ u||
m+σ,p,U ≡ ||h∗ u|| + m,p,U||Dα (h∗ u)|| 
σ,p,U
|α|=m
Now consider the case when m = 1. Then it is routine to verify that
Dj h∗ u (x) = u,k (h (x)) hk,j (x) .
Let Lk : W 1,p (V ) → W 1,p (U ) be defined by
Lk v = h∗ (v) hk,j .
Then Lk is continuous as a map from W 1,p (V ) to W 1,p (U ) and as a map from

Lp (V ) to Lp (U ) and therefore, it follows that Lk is continuous as a map from
W σ,p (V ) to W σ,p (U ) . Therefore,
||Lk (v)||σ,p,U ≤ Ck ||v||σ,p,U
and so
X
||Dj (h∗ u)||σ,p,U ≤ ||Lk (u,k )||σ,p,U
k
X
≤ Ck ||Dk u||σ,p,V
k
Ã !1/p
X p
≤ C ||Dk u||σ,p,V .
k
Therefore, it follows that

 1/p
p
X X p
||h∗ u||1+σ,p,U ≤ ||h∗ u||1,p,U + Cp ||Dk u||σ,p,V 
j k
" #1/p
p
X p
≤ C ||u||1,p,V + ||Dk u||σ,p,V = C ||u||1+σ,p,V .
k
The general case is similar. We simply have a more complicated continuous linear
operator in place of Lk .
Now we prove an important interpolation inequality for Sobolev spaces.
Theorem 47.10 Let Ω be an open set in Rn and let f ∈ W m+1,p (Ω) and σ ∈
(0, 1) . Then for some constant, C, independent of f,
1−σ σ
||f ||m+σ,p,Ω ≤ C ||f ||m+1,p,Ω ||f ||m,p,Ω .
Also,¡ if¢ L ∈ L (W m,p (Ω) , W m,p (Ω)) for all m = 0, 1, · · ·, and L ◦ Dα = Dα ◦ L on

C ∞ Ω , then L ∈ L (W m+σ,p (Ω) , W m+σ,p (Ω)) for any m = 0, 1, · · ·.
¡ ¢
Proof: Recall from above, W 1−θ,p (Ω) ≡ T W 1,p (Ω) , Lp (Ω) , p, θ . Therefore,
from Theorem 46.9, if f ∈ W 1,p (Ω) ,
θ 1−θ
||f ||1−θ,p,Ω ≤ K ||f ||1,p,Ω ||f ||0,p,Ω
Therefore,
 1/p
X ³ ´p
||f ||m+σ,p,Ω ≤ ||f ||p 1−σ σ
K ||Dα f ||1,p,Ω ||Dα f ||0,p,Ω 
m,p,Ω +
|α|=m
h ³ ´p i1/p
p 1−σ σ
≤ C ||f ||m,p,Ω + ||f ||m+1,p,Ω ||f ||m,p,Ω
h³ ´p ³ ´p i1/p
1−σ σ 1−σ σ
≤ C ||f ||m+1,p,Ω ||f ||m,p,Ω + ||f ||m+1,p,Ω ||f ||m,p,Ω
1−σ σ
≤ C ||f ||m+1,p,Ω ||f ||m,p,Ω .
¡ ¢
This proves the first part. Now we consider the second. Let φ ∈ C ∞ Ω
 1/p
p
X p
||Lφ||m+σ,p,Ω = ||Lφ||m,p,Ω + ||Dα Lφ||σ,p,Ω 
|α|=m
 1/p
X
= ||Lφ||p + ||LD α p
φ||T (W 1,p ,Lp ,p,1−σ) 
m,p,Ω
|α|=m
 1/p
X h ³ ¯¯ ¯ ¯ σ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ 1−σ
íp
inf ¯¯t1−σ Lfα ¯¯1 ¯¯t1−σ Lfα0 ¯¯2
p
= ||Lφ||m,p,Ω +  (47.6)
|α|=m
where ³ ¯¯ ¯¯σ ¯¯ ¯¯1−σ ´

inf ¯¯t1−σ Lfα ¯¯1 ¯¯t1−σ Lfα0 ¯¯2 =
³ ¯¯ ¯¯σ ¯¯ ¯¯1−σ ´
inf ¯¯t1−σ Lfα ¯¯Lp (0,∞; dt ;W 1,p (Ω)) ¯¯t1−σ Lfα0 ¯¯Lp (0,∞; dt ;Lp (Ω)) ,
t t
47.3. FRACTIONAL ORDER SOBOLEV SPACES 1297
fα (0) ≡ limt→0 fα (t) = Dα φ in W 1,p (Ω) + Lp (Ω) , and the infimum is taken over
all such functions. Therefore, from 47.6, and letting ||L||1 denote the operator norm
of L in W 1,p (Ω) and ||L||2 denote the operator norm of L in Lp (Ω) ,
||Lφ||m+σ,p,Ω
 1/p
X h ³ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ σ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ 1−σ
íp
||Lφ||p inf ||L||1 ||L||2 ¯¯t1−σ fα ¯¯1 ¯¯t1−σ fα0 ¯¯2
σ 1−σ 
≤ m,p,Ω +
|α|=m
 1/p
³ ´p X h ³¯¯ ¯¯σ ¯¯ 1−σ 0 ¯¯1−σ íp
||Lφ||p inf ¯¯t f α ¯¯1 ¯¯t f α ¯¯2
σ 1−σ 1−σ 
≤ m,p,Ω + ||L||1 ||L||2
|α|=m
 1/p
X h ip
p
≤ C ||φ||m,p,Ω + ||Dα φ||σ,p,Ω  = C ||φ||m+σ,p,Ω .
|α|=m
¡ ¢
Since C ∞ Ω is dense in all the Sobolev spaces, this inequality establishes the
desired result.
0
Definition 47.11 We define for s ≥ 0, W −s,p (Rn ) to be the dual space of
W s,p (Rn ) .
1 1
Here p + p0 = 1.
Note that in the case of m = 0 this is consistent with the Riesz representation
theorem for the Lp spaces.
Sobolev Spaces On Manifolds
48.1 Basic Definitions

We will be considering the following situation. We have a set, Γ ⊆ Rm where m > n,
mappings, hi : Ui → Γi = Γ ∩ Wi for Wi an open set in Rm with Γ ⊆ ∪li=1 Wi and
Ui is an open subset of Rn . We assume hi is of the form
hi (x) = Hi (x, 0) (48.1)
where for some open set, Oi , Hi : Ui × Oi → Wi is bilipschitz having bilipschitz
inverse such that for G = Hi or H−1 α
i , D G is Lipschitz for |α| ≤ k.
For example, we could let m = n + 1 and let
µ ¶
x
Hi (x,y) =
φ (x) + y
where φ is a Lipschitz function having Dα φ Lipschitz for all |α| ≤ k. This is an
example of the sort of thing just described, letting x ∈ Ui ⊆ Rn and Oi = R,
becuase it is obvious the inverse of Hi is given by
µ ¶
−1 x
Hi (x, y) = .
y − φ (x)
l
We will also let {ψ i }i=1 be a partition of unity subordinate to the open cover {Wi }
satisfying ψ i ∈ Cc∞ (Wi ) . Then we give the following definition.
l
Definition 48.1 We say u ∈ W s,p (Γ) if whenever {Wi , ψ i , Γi , Ui , hi , Hi }i=1 is
described above, h∗i (uψ i ) ∈ W s,p (Ui ) . We define the norm as
l
X
||u||s,p,Γ ≡ ||h∗i (uψ i )||s,p,Ui
i=1
It is not at all obvious this norm is well defined. What if

r
{Wi0 , φi , Γi , Vi , gi , Gi }i=1
is as described above. Would the two norms be equivalent? To begin with we show
l
the following lemma which involves a particular choice for {Wi , ψ i , Γi , Ui , hi , Hi }i=1 .
1299
1300 SOBOLEV SPACES ON MANIFOLDS
Lemma 48.2 W s,p (Γ) as just described, is a reflexive Banach space.

Ql
Proof: Let L : W s,p (Γ) → i=1 W s,p (Ui ) be defined by (Lu)i ≡ h∗i (uψ i ) .
∞ ∞
Let {uj }j=1 be a Cauchy sequence in W s,p (Γ) . Then {h∗i (uj ψ i )}j=1 is a Cauchy
sequence in W s,p (Ui ) for each i. Therefore, for each i, there exists wi ∈ W s,p (Ui )
such that
lim h∗i (uj ψ i ) = wi in W s,p (Ui ) .
j→∞
But also, we may take a subsequence such that

( l )∞
X ∞
∗
hi (uj ψ i ) (x) = {uj (h (x))}j=1
i=1 j=1
converges for a.e. x. Since h maps sets of measure zero to sets of n dimensional
Hausdorff measure zero, it follows that for a.e. y ∈ Γ,
uj (y) → u (y) a.e.
Therefore, wi (x) = h∗i (uψ i ) (x) a.e. and this shows h∗i (uψ i ) ∈ W s,p (Ui ) . Thus
u ∈ W s,p (Γ) and this shows completness. It is clear ||·||s,p,Γ is a norm. Thus L is
Ql
an isometry of W s,p (Γ) and a closed subspace of i=1 W s,p (Ui ) so this proves the
lemma since by Corollary 47.7, W s,p (Ui ) is reflexive.
We now show
© that any two such ªrnorms are equivalent. l
Suppose Wj0 , φj , Γj , Vj , gj , Gj j=1 and {Wi , ψ i , Γi , Ui , hi , Hi }i=1 both satisfy
1
the conditions described above. Let ||·||s,p,Γ denote the norm defined by
r
X ¯¯ ∗ ¡ ¢¯¯
1
||u||s,p,Γ ≡ ¯¯gj uφj ¯¯
s,p,Vj
j=1
¯¯ Ã
r ¯¯
!¯¯
X l ¯¯
¯¯ ∗ X ¯¯ X ¯¯ ¡ ¢¯¯
¯¯gj∗ uφj ψ i ¯¯
≤ ¯¯g j uφj ψ i ¯¯ ≤
¯¯ ¯¯ s,p,Vj
j=1 i=1 s,p,Vj j,i
X ¯¯ ¡ ¢¯¯
= ¯¯gj∗ uφj ψ i ¯¯ (48.2)
s,p,gj−1 (Wi ∩Wj0 )
j,i
1,g
Now we may define a new norm ||u||s,p,Γ by the formula 48.2. This norm is deter-
mined by © 0 ª
Wj ∩ Wi , ψ i φj , Γj ∩ Γi , Vj , gi,j , Gi,j
³ ´
1,g
where gi,j = gj . Thus the identity map is continuous from W s,p (Γ) , ||·||s,p,Γ to
³ ´
1 1,g 1
W s,p (Γ) , ||·||s,p,Γ . It follows the two norms, ||·||s,p,Γ and ||·||s,p,Γ , are equivalent
2,h 2
by the open mapping theorem. In a similar way, the norms, ||·||s,p,Γ and ||·||s,p,Γ
are equivalent where
l
X
2
||u||s,p,Γ ≡ ||h∗i (uψ i )||s,p,Ui
j=1
48.2. THE TRACE ON THE BOUNDARY OF AN OPEN SET 1301
and
X ¯¯ ¡ ¢¯¯ X ¯¯ ¡ ¢¯¯
2,h
||u||s,p,Γ ≡ ¯¯h∗i uφj ψ i ¯¯ .= ¯¯h∗i uφj ψ i ¯¯
i (Wi ∩Wj )
s,p,h−1
s,p,Ui 0
j,i j,i
But from the assumptions on h and g, in particular the assumption that these
are restrictions of functions which are defined on open subsets of Rm which have
Lipschitz derivatives up to order k along with their inverses, we know from Theorem
47.9, there exist constants Ci , independent of u such that
¯¯ ∗ ¡ ¢¯¯ ¯¯ ∗ ¡ ¢¯¯
¯¯hi uφj ψ i ¯¯ ≤ C1
¯¯gj uφj ψ i ¯¯
s,p,hi (Wi ∩Wj )
−1 0 s,p,gj−1 (Wi ∩Wj0 )
and ¯¯ ∗ ¡ ¢¯¯ ¯¯ ¡ ¢¯¯

¯¯gj uφj ψ i ¯¯ ≤ C2 ¯¯h∗i uφj ψ i ¯¯s,p,h−1 .
s,p,gj−1 (Wi ∩Wj0 ) i (Wi ∩Wj0 )
1,g 2,h
Therefore, the two norms, ||·||s,p,Γ and ||·||s,p,Γ are equivalent. It follows that the
2 1
norms, ||·||s,p,Γ and ||·||s,p,Γ are equivalent. This proves the following theorem.
Theorem 48.3 Let Γ be described above. Then we may define W s,p (Γ) as in
Definition 41.36 and any two norms like those given in this definition are equivalent.
48.2 The Trace On The Boundary Of An Open Set

1
Next we generalize earlier theorems about the loss of p derivatives on the boundary.
Definition 48.4 We define
Rn−1
k ≡ {x ∈ Rn : xk = 0} , x
bk ≡ (x1 , · · ·, xk−1 , 0, xk+1 , · · ·, xn ) .
We will say an open set, Ω is C m,1 if there exist open sets, Wi , i = 0, 1, · · ·, l such
that
Ω = ∪li=0 Wi
with W0 ⊆ Ω, open sets Ui ⊆ Rn−1
k for some k, and open intervals, (ai , bi ) containing
0 such that for i ≥ 1,
∂Ω ∩ Wi = {b
xk + φi (b bk ∈ Ui } ,
x k ) ek : x
Ω ∩ Wi = {b
xk + (φi (b
xk ) + xk ) ek : (b
xk , xk ) ∈ Ui × (0, bi )} ,
where φi is Lipschitz with partial derivatives up to order m also Lipschitz. Note
that it makes no difference whether we use (0, bi ) or (ai , 0) in the last part of this
definition since we can go from one to the other by a simple change if the φi .
Assume Ω ∈ C m−1,1 . Then, if we define
hi (b bk + φi (b
xk ) = x bk + (φi (b
xk ) ek , Hi (x) ≡ x xk ) + xk ) ek ,
Pl
and let ψ i ∈ Cc∞ (Wi ) with i=0 ψ i (x) = 1 on Ω, we see that
l
{Wi , ψ i , ∂Ω ∩ Wi , Ui , hi , Hi }i=1
¡ ¢
satisfies all the conditions for defining W s,p (∂Ω) for s ≤ m. Let u ∈ C ∞ Ω and
let hi be as just described. Using Theorem 47.8, and Theorem 40.14,
l
X
||γu||m− 1 ,p,∂Ω = ||h∗i (ψ i γu)||m− 1 ,p,Ui
p p
i=1
l
X l
X
= ||h∗i (ψ i γu)||m− 1 ,p,Rn−1 ≤ C ||H∗i (ψ i u)||m,p,Rn
p k +
i=1 i=1
l
X l
X
≤C ||H∗i (ψ i u)||m,p,Ui ×(0,bi ) ≤ C ||(ψ i u)||m,p,Wi ∩Ω
i=1 i=1
l
X l
X
≤C ||(ψ i u)||m,p,Ω ≤ C ||u||m,p,Ω ≤ Cl ||u||m,p,Ω .
i=1 i=1
¡ ¢
Now we use the density of C ∞ Ω in W m,p (Ω) to see that γ extends to a continuous
linear map defined on W m,p (Ω) still called γ such that for all u ∈ W m,p (Ω) ,
||γu||m− 1 ,p,∂Ω ≤ Cl ||u||m,p,Ω . (48.3)

p
In addition to this, in the case where m = 1, we may use Lemma 47.5 to obtain a
1
continuous linear map, R, from W 1− p ,p (∂Ω) to W 1,p (Ω) which has the property
1 1
that γRg = g for every g ∈ W 1− p ,p (∂Ω) . Letting g ∈ W 1− p ,p (∂Ω) ,
l
X
g= ψ i g.
i=1
Then also,
1 ¡ ¢
h∗i (ψ i g) ∈ W 1− p ,p Rn−1
¡ ¢
and so from Lemma 47.5, we can extend this to W 1,p Rn+ , Rh∗i (ψ i g) . We may also
assume that Rh∗i (ψ i g) ∈ W 1,p (Ui × (0, bi )) . We can accomplish this by multiplying
by a suitable cut off function in the definition of R or else adjusting the function, ψ
occuring in the proof of this lemma so that it vanishes off (0, bi ) . Then our extension
is
X l
¡ −1 ¢∗
Rg = Hi Rh∗i (ψ i g) .
i=1
48.2. THE TRACE ON THE BOUNDARY OF AN OPEN SET 1303
This works because

l
X ¡ ¢∗
γRg ≡ γ H−1
i Rh∗i (ψ i g)
i=1
l
X ¡ ¢∗
= H−1
i γRh∗i (ψ i g)
i=1
l
X ¡ ¢∗
= H−1
i h∗i (ψ i g) = g.
i=1
This proves the following theorem about the trace.
Theorem 48.5 Let Ω ∈ C m,1 . Then there exists a constant, C independent of

1
m− p ,p
u ∈ W m,p (Ω) and a continuous linear map, γ : W m,p (Ω) → W ¡ ¢ (∂Ω) such that
∞
48.3 holds. This map satisfies γu (x) = u (x) for all u ∈ C Ω . In the case where
1
m = 1, we obtain also the existence of a continuous linear map, R : W 1− p ,p (∂Ω) →
1
W 1,p (Ω) which has the property that γRg = g for all g ∈ W 1− p ,p (∂Ω).
The Hausdorff Maximal
Theorem
The purpose of this appendix is to prove the equivalence between the axiom of
choice, the Hausdorff maximal theorem, and the well-ordering principle. The Haus-
dorff maximal theorem and the well-ordering principle are very useful but a little
hard to believe; so, it may be surprising that they are equivalent to the axiom of
choice. First it is shown that the axiom of choice implies the Hausdorff maximal
theorem, a remarkable theorem about partially ordered sets.
A nonempty set is partially ordered if there exists a partial order, ≺, satisfying
x≺x
and
if x ≺ y and y ≺ z then x ≺ z.
An example of a partially ordered set is the set of all subsets of a given set and
≺≡⊆. Note that two elements in a partially ordered sets may not be related. In
other words, just because x, y are in the partially ordered set, it does not follow
that either x ≺ y or y ≺ x. A subset of a partially ordered set, C, is called a chain
if x, y ∈ C implies that either x ≺ y or y ≺ x. If either x ≺ y or y ≺ x then x and
y are described as being comparable. A chain is also called a totally ordered set. C
is a maximal chain if whenever Ce is a chain containing C, it follows the two chains
are equal. In other words C is a maximal chain if there is no strictly larger chain.
Lemma A.1 Let F be a nonempty partially ordered set with partial order ≺. Then
assuming the axiom of choice, there exists a maximal chain in F.
Proof: Let X be the set of all chains from F. For C ∈ X , let
SC = {x ∈ F such that C∪{x} is a chain strictly larger than C}.
If SC = ∅ for any C, then C is maximal. Thus, assume SC 6= ∅ for all C ∈ X . Let

f (C) ∈ SC . (This is where the axiom of choice is being used.) Let
g(C) = C ∪ {f (C)}.
1305
1306 THE HAUSDORFF MAXIMAL THEOREM
Thus g(C) ) C and g(C) \ C ={f (C)} = {a single element of F}. A subset T of X
is called a tower if
∅∈T,
C ∈ T implies g(C) ∈ T ,
and if S ⊆ T is totally ordered with respect to set inclusion, then
∪S ∈ T .
Here S is a chain with respect to set inclusion whose elements are chains.
Note that X is a tower. Let T0 be the intersection of all towers. Thus, T0 is a
tower, the smallest tower. Are any two sets in T0 comparable in the sense of set
inclusion so that T0 is actually a chain? Let C0 be a set of T0 which is comparable
to every set of T0 . Such sets exist, ∅ being an example. Let
B ≡ {D ∈ T0 : D ) C0 and f (C0 ) ∈
/ D} .
The picture represents sets of B. As illustrated in the picture, D is a set of B when

D is larger than C0 but fails to be comparable to g (C0 ). Thus there would be more
than one chain ascending from C0 if B 6= ∅, rather like a tree growing upward in
more than one direction from a fork in the trunk. It will be shown this can’t take
place for any such C0 by showing B = ∅.
·f (C0 )
C0 D
This will be accomplished by showing Te0 ≡ T0 \ B is a tower. Since T0 is the

smallest tower, this will require that Te0 = T0 and so B = ∅.
Claim: Te0 is a tower and so B = ∅.
Proof of the claim: It is clear that ∅ ∈ Te0 because for ∅ to be contained in B
it would be required to properly contain C0 which is not possible. Suppose D ∈ Te0 .
The plan is to verify g (D) ∈ Te0 .
Case 1: f (D) ∈ C0 . If D ⊆ C0 , then since both D and {f (D)} are contained in
C0 , it follows g (D) ⊆ C0 and so g (D) ∈/ B. On the other hand, if D ) C0 , then since
e
D ∈ T0 , f (C0 ) ∈ D and so g (D) also contains f (C0 ) implying g (D) ∈
/ B. These are
the only two cases to consider because C0 is comparable to every set of T0 .
Case 2: f (D) ∈ / C0 . If D ( C0 it can’t be the case that f (D) ∈/ C0 because if
this were so, g (D ) would not compare to C0 .
·f (C0 )
D C0 ·f (D)
Hence if f (D) ∈
/ C0 , then D ⊇ C0 . If D = C 0 , then f (D) = f (C0 ) ∈ g (D) so
1307
g (D) ∈ / B. Therefore, assume D ) C0 . Then, since D is in Te0 , f (C0 ) ∈ D and so

f (C0 ) ∈ g (D). Therefore, g (D) ∈ Te0 .
Now suppose S is a totally ordered subset of Te0 with respect to set inclusion.
Then if every element of S is contained in C0 , so is ∪S and so ∪S ∈ Te0 . If, on
the other hand, some chain from S, C, contains C0 properly, then since C ∈ / B,
f (C0 ) ∈ C ⊆ ∪S showing that ∪S ∈ / B also. This has proved Te0 is a tower and
since T0 is the smallest tower, it follows Te0 = T0 . This has shown roughly that no
splitting into more than one ascending chain can occur at any C0 which is comparable
to every set of T0 . Next it is shown that every element of T0 has the property that
it is comparable to all other elements of T0 . This is done by showing that these
elements which possess this property form a tower.
Define T1 to be the set of all elements of T0 which are comparable to every
element of T0 . (Recall the elements of T0 are chains from the original partial order.)
Claim: T1 is a tower.
Proof of the claim: It is clear that ∅ ∈ T1 because ∅ is a subset of every set.
Suppose C0 ∈ T1 . It is necessary to verify that g (C0 ) ∈ T1 . Let D ∈ T0 (Thus D ⊆ C0
or else D ) C0 .)and consider g (C0 ) ≡ C0 ∪ {f (C0 )}. If D ⊆ C0 , then D ⊆ g (C0 )
so g (C0 ) is comparable to D. If D ) C0 , then D ⊇ g (C0 ) by what was just shown
(B = ∅). Hence g (C0 ) is comparable to D. Since D was arbitrary, it follows g (C0 )
is comparable to every set of T0 . Now suppose S is a chain of elements of T1 and
let D be an element of T0 . If every element in the chain, S is contained in D, then
∪S is also contained in D. On the other hand, if some set, C, from S contains D
properly, then ∪S also contains D. Thus ∪S ∈ T 1 since it is comparable to every
D ∈ T0 .
This shows T1 is a tower and proves therefore, that T0 = T1 . Thus every set of
T0 compares with every other set of T0 showing T0 is a chain in addition to being a
tower.
Now ∪T0 , g (∪T0 ) ∈ T0 . Hence, because g (∪T0 ) is an element of T0 , and T0 is a
chain of these, it follows g (∪T0 ) ⊆ ∪T0 . Thus
∪T0 ⊇ g (∪T0 ) ) ∪T0 ,
a contradiction. Hence there must exist a maximal chain after all. This proves the
lemma.
If X is a nonempty set,≤ is an order on X if
x ≤ x,
and if x, y ∈ X, then
either x ≤ y or y ≤ x
and
if x ≤ y and y ≤ z then x ≤ z.
≤ is a well order and say that (X, ≤) is a well-ordered set if every nonempty subset
of X has a smallest element. More precisely, if S 6= ∅ and S ⊆ X then there exists
an x ∈ S such that x ≤ y for all y ∈ S. A familiar example of a well-ordered set is
the natural numbers.
Lemma A.2 The Hausdorff maximal principle implies every nonempty set can be
well-ordered.
Proof: Let X be a nonempty set and let a ∈ X. Then {a} is a well-ordered

subset of X. Let
F = {S ⊆ X : there exists a well order for S}.
Thus F 6= ∅. For S1 , S2 ∈ F , define S1 ≺ S2 if S1 ⊆ S2 and there exists a well

order for S2 , ≤2 such that
(S2 , ≤2 ) is well-ordered
and if
y ∈ S2 \ S1 then x ≤2 y for all x ∈ S1 ,
and if ≤1 is the well order of S1 then the two orders are consistent on S1 . Then
observe that ≺ is a partial order on F. By the Hausdorff maximal principle, let C
be a maximal chain in F and let
X∞ ≡ ∪C.
Define an order, ≤, on X∞ as follows. If x, y are elements of X∞ , pick S ∈ C such

that x, y are both in S. Then if ≤S is the order on S, let x ≤ y if and only if x ≤S y.
This definition is well defined because of the definition of the order, ≺. Now let U
be any nonempty subset of X∞ . Then S ∩ U 6= ∅ for some S ∈ C. Because of the
definition of ≤, if y ∈ S2 \ S1 , Si ∈ C, then x ≤ y for all x ∈ S1 . Thus, if y ∈ X∞ \ S
then x ≤ y for all x ∈ S and so the smallest element of S ∩ U exists and is the
smallest element in U . Therefore X∞ is well-ordered. Now suppose there exists
z ∈ X \ X∞ . Define the following order, ≤1 , on X∞ ∪ {z}.
x ≤1 y if and only if x ≤ y whenever x, y ∈ X∞
x ≤1 z whenever x ∈ X∞ .
Then let
Ce = {S ∈ C or X∞ ∪ {z}}.
Then Ce is a strictly larger chain than C contradicting maximality of C. Thus X \
X∞ = ∅ and this shows X is well-ordered by ≤. This proves the lemma.
With these two lemmas the main result follows.
Theorem A.3 The following are equivalent.
The axiom of choice
The Hausdorff maximal principle

The well-ordering principle.
A.1. EXERCISES 1309
Proof: It only remains to prove that the well-ordering principle implies the
axiom of choice. Let I be a nonempty set and let Xi be a nonempty set for each
i ∈ I. Let X = ∪{Xi : i ∈ I} and well order X. Let f (i) be the smallest element
of Xi . Then Y
f∈ Xi .
i∈I
A.1 Exercises
1. Zorn’s lemma states that in a nonempty partially ordered set, if every chain
has an upper bound, there exists a maximal element, x in the partially ordered
set. x is maximal, means that if x ≺ y, it follows y = x. Show Zorn’s lemma
is equivalent to the Hausdorff maximal theorem.
2. Let X be a vector space. Y ⊆ X is a Hamel basis if every element of X can be

written in a unique way as a finite linear combination of elements in Y . Show
that every vector space has a Hamel basis and that if Y, Y1 are two Hamel
bases of X, then there exists a one to one and onto map from Y to Y1 .
3. ↑ Using the Baire category theorem of the chapter on Banach spaces show
that any Hamel basis of a Banach space is either finite or uncountable.
4. ↑ Consider the vector space of all polynomials defined on [0, 1]. Does there
exist a norm, ||·|| defined on these polynomials such that with this norm, the
vector space of polynomials becomes a Banach space (complete normed vector
space)?
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Index
C 1 functions, 118 axiom of unions, 17

Cc∞ , 328
Ccm , 328 Banach Alaoglu theorem, 355
Fσ sets, 172 Banach space, 319
Gδ , 339 Banach Steinhaus theorem, 341
Gδ sets, 172 basis of module of periods, 824
L1loc , 429 Besicovitch covering theorem, 495, 510
Lp Bessel’s inequality, 380
compactness, 333 Big Picard theorem, 763
Lp multipliers, 546 Binet Cauchy theorem, 1133
Lp (Ω; X), 603 Blaschke products, 805
L∞ , 335 Bloch’s lemma, 751
Lploc , 1084 block matrix, 77
π systems, 257 Bochner integrable, 586
σ algebra, 171 Borel Cantelli lemma, 183
(1,p) extension operator, 1165 Borel measure, 215
Borel regular, 453
Abel’s formula, 80 Borel regularity, 451
Abel’s theorem, 654 Borel sets, 171
absolutely continuous, 434 bounded continuous linear functions,
adapted, 903 339
adapted step function, 903 bounded variation, 629
adjugate, 71 box topology, 307
Alexander subbasis theorem, 306 branch of the logarithm, 684
algebra, 161 Brouwer fixed point theorem, 294, 369
algebra of sets, 245 Brownian motion, 890
analytic continuation, 748, 850
Analytic functions, 641 Calderon Zygmund decomposition, 545
approximate identity, 329 Cantor diagonalization procedure, 144
area formula, 470, 480, 1104 Cantor function, 446
at most countable, 22 Cantor set, 445
atlas, 1127 Caratheodory, 209
automorphic function, 836 Caratheodory extension theorem, 303
axiom of choice, 17, 21 Caratheodory’s criterion, 450
axiom of extension, 17 Caratheodory’s procedure, 210
axiom of specification, 17 Cartesian coordinates, 53
1314
INDEX 1315
Casorati Weierstrass theorem, 664 counting zeros, 694

Cauchy covariance, 987
general Cauchy integral formula, Cramer’s rule, 71
670 cycle, 670
integral formula for disk, 649 cylinder sets, 1036
Cauchy Riemann equations, 643 cylindrical set, 1015
Cauchy Schwarz inequality, 92, 365
Cauchy sequence, 112 Darboux, 48
Cauchy sequence, 104 Darboux integral, 48
Cayley Hamilton theorem, 75 derivatives, 115
central limit theorem, 879 determinant, 63
chain rule, 116 product, 67
change of variables, 1122 transpose, 65
change of variables general case, 290 differentiation
characteristic function, 180, 1015 Radon measures, 512
characteristic polynomial, 74 dilations, 736
chart, 1127 Dini derivates, 447
closed graph theorem, 345 distribution, 858, 1081
closed set, 94, 148 distribution function, 232, 446, 542
closure of a set, 149 distributional derivative, 1241
Coarea formula, 1118 divergence theorem, 492
coarea formula, 1116 dominated convergence theorem, 202,
cofactor, 68 606
compact, 135 Doob Dynkin lemma, 866
compact injection map, 1249 Doob estimate, 900
compact set, 150 Doob’s martingale estimate, 915
complement, 94 doubly periodic, 822
complete measure space, 210 dual space, 350
completion of measure space, 253 duality maps, 363
conditional expectation, 893
conformal maps, 647, 736 Eberlein Smulian theorem, 359
connected, 152 Egoroff theorem, 180
connected components, 153 eigenvalues, 74, 699, 702
continuity set, 877 elementary factors, 789
continuous function, 93, 149 elementary set, 313
convergence in measure, 183 elementary sets, 248
convex elliptic, 822
set, 366 entire, 659
convex epsilon net, 136, 141
functions, 333 equality of mixed partial derivatives,
convolution, 329, 535 125
convolution of measures, 1022 equivalence class, 24
Coordinates, 51 equivalence relation, 23
correlation, 988 Erling’s lemma, 1249
countable, 22 essential singularity, 665
1316 INDEX
Euler’s theorem, 817 harmonic functions, 646

exchange theorem, 56 Haursdorff measures, 449
exponential growth, 537 Hausdorff and Lebesgue measure, 456,
extended complex plane, 627 458
extension theorem, 1163 Hausdorff dimension, 456
Hausdorff maximal principle, 24, 271,
Fatou’s lemma, 196 306, 347
filtration, 903 Hausdorff maximal theorem, 1305
finite intersection property, 140, 151 Hausdorff measure
finite measure space, 172 translation invariant, 453
Fourier series Hausdorff measure and nonlinear maps,
uniform convergence, 362 466, 476
Fourier transform L1 , 525 Hausdorff measures, 449
fractional linear transformations, 736, Hausdorff metric, 167
741 Hausdorff space, 148
mapping three points, 738 Heine Borel, 25
Frechet derivative, 115 Heine Borel theorem, 138
Fredholm alternative, 397 Hermitian, 85
Fresnel integrals, 727 Hilbert Schmidt operator, 988
Fubini’s theorem, 243, 252, 261 Hilbert Schmidt operators, 390, 988
Bochner integrable functions, 601 Hilbert Schmidt theorem, 382, 597
function, 20 Hilbert space, 365
uniformly continuous, 25 Holder’s inequality, 315
function element, 748, 850 homotopic to a point, 781
functional equations, 840
Hormander condition, 546
fundamental theorem of algebra, 660
fundamental theorem of calculus, 47,
implicit function theorem, 125, 128,
431, 433
129
general Radon measures, 503
independent random vectors, 859, 990
Gamma function, 334, 457 indicator function, 180
gamma function, 811 infinite products, 785
gauge function, 347 inner product space, 365
Gauss’s formula, 812 inner regular, 1000
Gaussian measure, 1031 inner regular measure, 215
Gerschgorin’s theorem, 698 interior point, 94
Gram determinant, 373 inverse function theorem, 129, 130
Gram matrix, 373 inverses and determinants, 70
Gramm Schmidt process, 82 inversions, 736
great Picard theorem, 762 isogonal, 646, 735
isolated singularity, 664
Hadamard three circles theorem, 689 isometric, 617
Hahn Banach theorem, 348 Ito isometry, 926
Hardy Littlewood maximal function, Ito representation theorem, 956
429
Hardy’s inequality, 334 James map, 352
INDEX 1317
Jensen’s formula, 802 maximal function

Jensens inequality, 333, 896 general Radon measures, 501
maximum modulus theorem, 685
Kolmogorov extension theorem, 310 mean value theorem
for integrals, 49
Lagrange multipliers, 130, 132
measurable, 209
Laplace expansion, 68
Borel, 174
Laplace transform, 538
measurable function, 174
Laurent series, 716
pointwise limits, 174
law, 1025
measurable functions
Lebesgue
Borel, 182
set, 433
combinations, 180
Lebesgue decomposition, 399
measurable rectangle, 248, 313
Lebesgue measure, 267
measurable representative, 612
Lebesgue point, 431
measurable sets, 172, 210
limit of a function, 98
measure space, 172
limit point, 148
Mellin transformations, 724
limit points, 98
linear combination, 55, 66 meromorphic, 666
linearly dependent, 55 Merten’s theorem, 769
linearly independent, 55 Meyer Serrin theorem, 1138
Liouville theorem, 659 Mihlin’s theorem, 558
Lipschitz, 26, 97, 107 Minkowski functional, 362
Lipschitz boundary, 485, 1105 Minkowski’s inequality, 321
Lipschitz manifold, 1127 minor, 68
Lipschitz maps Mittag Leffler, 728, 796
extension, 1100 mixed partial derivatives, 123
little Picard theorem, 852 modular function, 834, 836
locally compact , 150 modular group, 765, 824
locally finite, 481, 1123 module of periods, 820
locally Lipschitz, 461 mollifier, 329
Lusin’s theorem, 333 monotone class, 247
monotone convergence theorem, 192
manifold, 1127 Montel’s theorem, 739, 761
manifolds Morrey’s inequality, 1087
radon measure, 1129 multi-index, 97, 123, 157, 517
surface measure, 1129 multipliers, 546
Marcinkiewicz interpolation, 543 Muntz’s first theorem, 377
martingale, 896, 910 Muntz’s second theorem, 378
matrix
left inverse, 71 Neumann series, 729
lower triangular, 71 nonlinear Fubini’s theorem, 1122
non defective, 85 normal, 867, 1025
normal, 85 normal family of functions, 741
right inverse, 71 normal topological space, 149
upper triangular, 71 nowhere differentiable functions, 360
1318 INDEX
nuclear operator, 387 product measure, 251

product rule, 1086
one point compactification, 150, 218 product topology, 150
open cover, 150 projection in Hilbert space, 368
open mapping theorem, 342, 681 Prokhorov’s theorem, 1004
open set, 94 properties of integral
open sets, 147 properties, 45
operator norm, 112, 339
order, 811 quotient space, 1276
order of a pole, 665
order of a zero, 657 Rademacher’s theorem, 1090, 1092
order of an elliptic function, 822 Radon Nikodym derivative, 402
orthonormal set, 378 Radon Nikodym property, 614
outer measure, 183, 209 Radon Nikodym Theorem
outer regular, 1000 σ finite measures, 402
outer regular measure, 215 finite measures, 399
Radon Nikodym theorem
partial derivative, 118 Radon Measures, 515
partial order, 24, 346 random variable, 446, 857
partially ordered set, 1305 random vector, 857
partition, 33 independent, 862
partition of unity, 220, 482, 1125 rank of a matrix, 72
period parallelogram, 822 real Schur form, 83
Pettis theorem, 580 reflexive Banach Space, 353
Phragmen Lindelof theorem, 687 reflexive Banach space, 419
pi systems, 257 region, 657
pivot space, 1245 regular measure, 215
Plancherel theorem, 529 regular topological space, 148
point of density, 464, 474, 1093 removable singularity, 664
pointwise limits of measurable func- reproducing kernel space, 1063
tions, 581 residue, 705
polar decomposition, 411 resolvent set, 729
pole, 665 Riemann criterion, 37
polynomial, 157, 517 Riemann integrable, 36
positive and negative parts of a mea- Riemann integral, 36
sure, 441 Riemann sphere, 627
positive linear functional, 221 Riemann Stieltjes integral, 36
power series Riesz map, 371
analytic functions, 653 Riesz representation theorem, 619
power set, 17 C0 (X), 423
precompact, 150, 167, 1249 Hilbert space, 370
primitive, 637 locally compact Hausdorff space,
principal branch of logarithm, 685 221
principal ideal, 800 Riesz Representation theorem
probability space, 857 C (X), 422
INDEX 1319
Riesz representation theorem Lp subspace, 55

finite measures, 412 supermartingale, 896
Riesz representation theorem Lp support of a function, 219
σ finite case, 418
Riesz representation theorem for L1 Tietze extension theorem, 146
finite measures, 416 tight, 875, 1002
right polar decomposition, 87 topological space, 147
Rouche’s theorem, 711 total variation, 405, 435
Runge’s theorem, 774 totally bounded set, 136
totally ordered set, 1305
Sard’s lemma, 287 trace, 389
scalars, 53, 93 translation invariant, 269
Schottky’s theorem, 759 translations, 736
Schroder Bernstein theorem, 21 trivial, 55
Schwartz class, 1173 Tychonoff theorem, 307
Schwarz formula, 655
uniform boundedness theorem, 341
Schwarz reflection principle, 679
uniform convergence, 626
Schwarz’s lemma, 742
uniform convexity, 363
self adjoint, 85
uniformly bounded, 141, 761
separability of C(H), 1004
uniformly continuous, 25
separated, 152
uniformly equicontinuous, 141, 761
separation theorem, 363
uniformly integrable, 203, 335
sequential compactness, 25
unimodular transformations, 824
sequential weak* compactness, 357
upcrossing, 896
sequentially compact set, 110
upper and lower sums, 34
sets, 17
Urysohn’s lemma, 216
Shannon sampling theorem, 540
simple function, 187, 577 variational inequality, 368
simple functions, 175 vector measures, 405, 612
Skorokhod’s theorem, 1008 Vector valued distributions, 1241
Sobolev Space version, 890
embedding theorem, 539 Vitali convergence theorem, 204, 334
equivalent norms, 538 Vitali cover, 510
Sobolev space, 1135 Vitali covering theorem, 272, 275, 276,
Sobolev spaces, 539 278, 1093
span, 55, 66 Vitali coverings, 276, 278, 1093
spectral radius, 730 Vitali theorem, 765
stereographic projection, 628, 760 volume of unit ball, 457
Stirling’s formula, 813
stochastic process, 881 weak * convergence, 1079
strict convexity, 363 weak convergence, 364
strongly measurable, 577 weak convergence of measures, 1007
subbasis, 306 weak derivative, 1081
submartingale, 896 weak topology, 354
submartingale convergence theorem, 900 weak∗ measurable, 584
1320 INDEX
weak* topology, 354

weakly measurable, 577
Weierstrass
Stone Weierstrass theorem, 162
Weierstrass M test, 626
Weierstrass P function, 829
well ordered sets, 1307
winding number, 667
Wronskian, 80
Young’s inequality, 315, 427
zeta function, 813

Math Analysis

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Topics In Analysis

December 18, 2006

I Review Of Advanced Calculus 15

2 Continuous Functions Of One Variable 25

3 The Riemann Stieltjes Integral 33

4 Some Important Linear Algebra 51

6 Metric Spaces And General Topological Spaces 133

7 Weierstrass Approximation Theorem 157

II Real And Abstract Analysis 169

9 The Construction Of Measures 209

10 Lebesgue Measure 267

10.8 Lebesgue Measure And Iterated Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

11 Some Extension Theorems 303

12 The Lp Spaces 315

13 Banach Spaces 337

14 Hilbert Spaces 365

15 Representation Theorems 399

16 Integrals And Derivatives 429

17 Hausdorff Measure 449

18 Differentiation With Respect To General Radon Measures 495

19 Fourier Transforms 517

20 Fourier Analysis In Rn An Introduction 541

21 The Bochner Integral 577

III Complex Analysis 623

23 Riemann Stieltjes Integrals 629

24 Fundamentals Of Complex Analysis 641

24.7.5 An Example Of A Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674

25 The Open Mapping Theorem 681

27 Complex Mappings 735

27.5.5 Montel’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761

28 Approximation By Rational Functions 767

29 Infinite Products 785

30 Elliptic Functions 819

IV Stochastic Processes, An Introduction 855

31.3 The Multivariate Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867

32 Conditional Expectation And Martingales 893

33 Filtrations And Martingales 903

34 The Itô Integral 917

35 Stochastic Processes 933

36 Probability In Infinite Dimensions 987

36.12White Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046

V Sobolev Spaces 1077

38 The Area And Coarea Formulas 1103

39 Integration On Manifolds 1123

40 Basic Theory Of Sobolev Spaces 1135

41 Sobolev Spaces Based On L2 1173

42 Weak Solutions 1205

43 Korn’s Inequality 1211

44 Elliptic Regularity And Nirenberg Differences 1219

45 Interpolation In Banach Space 1239

46 Trace Spaces 1275

47 Traces Of Sobolev Spaces And Fractional Order Spaces 1289

48 Sobolev Spaces On Manifolds 1299

A The Hausdorff Maximal Theorem 1305

1.1 Basic Definitions

S = {x ∈ set of dogs : it is colder in the mountains than in the winter} .

signify this union.

signifies the Cartesian product.

and: Let S be a set of sets show

1.2 The Schroder Bernstein Theorem

Proof: Consider the empty set, ∅ ⊆ X. If y ∈ Y \ f (∅), then g (y) ∈ / ∅ because

A ≡ {A0 ⊆ X : A0 satisfies P}.

Let A = ∪A. If y ∈ Y \ f (A), then for each A0 ∈ A, y ∈ Y \ f (A0 ) and so

It only remains to verify that g (D) = B.

Theorem 1.3 (Schroder Bernstein) If f : X → Y and g : Y → X are one to one,

Proof: Let A, B, C, D be the sets of Theorem1.2 and define

Then h is the desired one to one and onto mapping.

if f (i) ∈ Xi for each i ∈ I.

Corollary 1.5 If f : X → Y is onto and g : Y → X is onto, then there exists

Proof: For each y ∈ Y , f −1 (y)Q≡ {x ∈ X : f (x) = y} 6= ∅. Therefore, by the

Thus the first element of X × Y is (x1 , y1 ), the second element of X × Y is (x1 , y2 ),

Theorem 1.8 If X and Y are at most countable, then X ∪ Y is at most countable.

Proof: As in the preceding theorem,

1.3 Equivalence Relations

Definition 1.9 Let S be a set. ∼ is an equivalence relation on S if it satisfies the

1. x ∼ x for all x ∈ S. (Reflexive)