Control Loops

Instrument Unit

PAKARAB FERTILIZERS LIMITED MULTAN

GEN-04 (Rev 0)
Prepared by : Abdul Jabbar
Reviewed by : Ali Raza Soomro
Approved by : Pervaiz Iqbal
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction to control loops

1.1. Control loops elements

1.2. Types of sensor
1.3. Types of transmitter
1.4. Control loop's terminologies

2. Control loops strategies

2.1. Feed forward control loop

2.2. Feedback control loop
2.2.1. Control strategy
2.2.2. Types of feedback control loops
2.3. Cascade control loop
2.4. Split range control
2.5. Ratio control loop
2.6. On–off control
2.7. Three element control loop
2.7.1. Boiler drum level
2.7.2. Shrink and swell effect
2.7.3. Single element drum level control
2.7.4. Two element drum level control
2.7.4.1. Level element:
2.7.4.2. Steam flow element
2.7.5. Three element drum level control
2.7.5.1. Level element & steam flow element
2.7.5.2. Feed water flow element:
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3. Control loops in Pakarab

3.1. Three-elements loop at utilities boilers

3.1.1. Why not a single element loop
3.1.2. Explanation of the loop
3.1.3. Working of the loop
3.1.4. Fail-safe condition of the BFW valve

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3.2. Three-Element Loop At NH3-Reformer

3.3. Pre Neutralizer Ratio Control Loops

3.3.1. Working
3.3.2. Current pre neutralizer ratio loop
3.3.3. Requirements of pre-neutralizer loop

3.4. CN Reactor Ratio Control Loops

3.4.1. Working
3.4.2. Current cn reactor ratio control loop
3.4.3. Requirements of cn reactor ratio loop

3.5. AN reactor ratio control loop

3.5.1. Working
3.5.2. Current-AN reactor ratio control loop
3.5.3. Requirements of AN reactor ratio loop

3.6. Air-ammonia ratio control loop

3.6.1. Flow transmitters

3.6.2. Ratio loading section
3.6.3. Pressure switch
3.6.4. Control valve
3.6.5. Pilot valve
3.6.6. Working of the loop

4. Controllers
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4.1. Types of controllers

4.2. Modes of controllers
4.3. Types of controller action
4.4. Control parameters.
4.4.1. Proportional action
4.4.2. Integral (reset) action
4.4.3. Two-mode controller
4.4.3.1. Pi controllers
4.4.3. Derivative mode (rate)

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 4.4.3.1. Derivative (rate) action
4.4.3.2. Pd controllers
4.4.3.2. Proportional with derivative action
4.4.3.3. Three-mode controller
4.5. Response curves of PID control
4.6. Tuning the control loop
4.6.1. Step-change response method
4.6.2. Offset
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1. INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL LOOP

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 Learning objective:

 To know about control loop elements with example

 Types of the Measuring sensors mostly used
 Types of Transmitters
 Common Terms used in Understanding Control Loops.

Control Sensor
Manipulated Variable
Valve
Control Variable Process Process Variable
/ Tx
Measured Variable

Measurment
Action

Out Put Controller PV In Put

SP

1.1 control loops elements.

A control loop consists of following of elements.

Measuring Element/Transmitter:

This measures the Process Parameter to be controlled and sends signal to Controller.

Controller:

Which Perform Calculation on the basis of present and required process parameter and
send corrective signal to Controlling Element.
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Controlling Element:

This takes corrective action according to Controller Corrective Signal.

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EXAMPLE:

Measurement
Decision Action

Sensor/TX Controller Final Control

Element

1.2. Types of sensor.

 Pressure sensing element

 Temperature sensing element
 Flow sensing element
 Level measurement

1.3. Types of transmitter.

Pneumatic Transmitters

Convert the measured value into an air pressure signal.

Electronic Transmitters
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Employ electrical energy to convert the measured value into an electrical signal.

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 1.4. Control loop's terminologies.

Controlled variable, actual value

In a control loop, the process variable to be controlled is represented by x. In process

engineering, usually a physical (e.g. temperature, pressure, flow) or a chemical (e.g. pH
value, hardness) quantity is controlled.

Reference variable

This variable determines the value that must be reached (set point) by the process
variable to be controlled. The physical value of the reference variable. This may be a
mechanical or electric quantity (force, pressure, current, voltage, etc.) is compared with
the controlled variable x in the closed control loop.

Feedback variable

This variable results from the measurement of the controlled variable and is fed back to
the comparator.

Error

The input variable e of the controlling element is the difference between reference
variable and controlled variable, calculated by the comparator. When the influence of
the measuring equipment is included, the equation e = w . r applies.

Manipulated variable

The manipulated variable is the output variable of the controlling equipment and the
input variable of the controlled system. It is generated by the controller, or in case an
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actuator is being used, by the actuator. This variable depends on the setting of the
control parameters as well as on the magnitude of error.

Controller output variable

When dividing the controlling system into the controller and actuator, the variable yR
stands for the output variable of the controller or the input variable of the actuator.

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 2. CONTROL LOOPS STRATEGIES.

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Control Loops | GEN-04 (Rev 0)
 Learning objective:

Definition, Advantages and Disadvantages of different Control loops with Examples.

2.1. Feed forward control loop.

Is a term describing a kind of system which reacts to changes, usually to maintain some
desired state of the system. A system which exhibits feed-forward behavior responds to
a measured disturbance in a pre-defined way, in contrast with a feedback system.
This is a control technique that can be measured but not controlled. The disturbance is
measured and fed forward to an earlier part of the control loop so that corrective action
can be initiated in advance of the disturbance having an adverse effect on the system
response.

Feed-forward control can respond more quickly to known and measurable kinds of
disturbances.. Feed-back control deals with any deviation from desired system
behavior, but requires the system's measured variable (output) to react to the
disturbance in order to notice the deviation.
In Feedback control loops Process Parameters is fed to controller before the change
(disturbance) occurs in it.
This reduces the magnitude of primary variable change due to more timely action of
Final Control Element.
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2.2. Feedback control loop.

In Feedback control loops Process Parameters is fed to controller after the change
(disturbance) occurs in it. Then Controller sends signal to Final Control Element to
compensate these changes.

The actual advantage is its Fine Control and more generalization (Designer need not to
know about nature of disturbances and their effect on Process Parameter).

2.2.1. Control strategy.

Following Terms are most commonly used while discussing Feedback control loop.

PV (Process Variable)
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Actual Process Parameter value measured and Transmitter by Measuring Element to

Controller.

SP (Set Point)

Desired valve of Process Parameter which is fed to Controller manually or

automatically.

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 MV (Manipulated Variable)

Value of Controller Output to be sent to Final Controlling Element to make PV = SP.

Process Variable is sent to controller by Measuring Element, and Controller Compares
Process Variable with Set Point and sends the corrective signal (Manipulated Variable)
to Final Control Element according to Control Action already fed in Controller.

2.2.2. Types of feedback control loops.

Positive Feedback

It is a process which seeks to increase the output that caused it, as in a nuclear chain-
reaction. This is also known as a self-reinforcing loop.

Negative Feedback

It is which seeks to cancel the output that caused it, as in a thermostat-controlled heater. This is
also known as a self-correcting or balancing loop.

2.3. Cascade control.

Cascade Control loop consists of two feedback control loops connected together with
the output of the primary loop acting as set point for the secondary loop.
Process response of secondary control loop should be faster of the two to avoid
instability.

For Example Temperature control cascading onto Pressure Control.

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Temperature Signal from TT (Temperature Transmitter) is sent to (TIC) Temperature
Controller. Temperature Controller is given set point manually by the operator. But
Temperature Controller send MV (Manipulated Variable Signal to Second Control as its
set point.

The Second controller (Pressure Controller) Controls the Pressure of Steam according to
set point given by Temperature Controller.

Eventually Pressure Controller is controlling the pressure of steam maintaining desired

temperature of Fractionating column

2.4. Split range control.

In this control scheme there is

 one measured or controlled variable only

 more than one manipulated variable

The control signal is split into several parts each associated with one of the manipulated
variables. A single process is controlled by coordinating the actions of several
manipulated variables, all of which have the same effect on the controlled output.
Below are described two situations where split-range control is used in chemical
processes.

2.4.1 Example- Control of Pressure in a Reactor

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Split Range Control

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 If this loop is to control the pressure in the reactor. It may be possible to operate this
system with only one of the valves but the second valve is added to provide additional
safety and operational optimality.

In this case the action of the two valves should be coordinated. Thus for example if the
operating pressure is between 0.5 and 1.5 bar then the control algorithm could be
If the pressure is below 0.5 bar then valve 1 is completely open and 2 is completely
closed.

If the pressure is between 0.5 and 1 bar then valve 1 is completely open while 2 is
opened continuously as the pressure rises. Note that both these actions lead to a
reduction in pressure.

If there is a large increase in pressure and it rises to above 1 bar then valve 2 is
completely open while 1 is closed continuously.

If the pressure reaches 1.5 bar then valve 1 is shut and 2 is open.
A graph of these valve positions with respect to pressure is shown below.
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2.5. Ratio control.

Ratio Control consists of a feedback controller whose set point is in direct proportion to
an uncontrolled variable.

When ratio factor is set, then set point of controller variable varies in direct proportion
to change in uncontrolled variable.

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Ratio Control systems are installed to maintain the relationship between two variables
to control a third variable. Ratio Control systems actually are the most elementary form
of feed forward control. The system load is called the wild flow and it may be
uncontrolled, controlled independently or controlled by another controller that
responds to variables of pressure, level, etc. Ratio Control is used to ensure that two or
more process variables such as material flows are kept at the same ratio even if they are
changing in value. In industrial control, examples of Ratio Control are

• Burner air/fuel ratio

• mixing and blending two liquids
• injecting modifiers and pigments etc into resins before molding or extrusion
• adjusting heat input in proportion to material flow.

2.6. ON–OFF Control.

One of the most adopted (and one of the simplest) controllers is undoubtedly the On–
Off controller, where the control variable can assume just two values, umax and umin ,
depending on the control error sign. Formally, the control lawis defined as follows:

u = umax if e > 0
u = umin if e < 0

i.e., the control variable is set to its maximum value when the control error is positive
and to its minimum value when the control error is negative. Generally, umin = 0 (Off)
is selected and the controller is usually implemented by means of a relay.
The main disadvantage of the On–Off controller is that a persistent oscillation of the
process variable (around the set-point value) occurs.

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 Direct Acting ON/OFF Control

Reverse Acting ON/OFF Control

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2.7. Three element control loop.

Learning objective:

At the end of this section you will be able to learn one element, two elements and three
elements control by considering the example of drum level.

Three element control scheme implemented to control the level of boiler drum at
Utilities plant and working of different components

2.7.1. Boiler drum level,

Boiler drum level control is critical for both plant protection and equipment safety and
applies equally to high and low levels of water within the boiler drum. The purpose of
the drum level controller is to bring the drum up to level at boiler start-up and maintain
the level at constant steam load. A dramatic decrease in this level at constant steam
load. A dramatic decrease in this level may uncover boiler tubes, allowing them to
become overheated and damaged. An increase in this level may interfere with the
process of separating moisture from steam within the drum, thus reducing boiler
efficiency and carrying moisture into the process or turbine.

The functions of this control models can be broken down into the following

 Operator adjustment of the set point for drum level

 Compensation for the shrink & swell effects
 Automatic control of drum level
 Manual control of the feed water valve
 Bump-less transfer between auto and manual modes
 Indication of drum level and steam flow
 Indication of feed water valve position and feed water flow
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2.7.2. Shrink and swell effect,

Shrink and swell is the result of pressure changes in the drum changing water density.
The pressure changes occur due to change in demand of steam.
As the demand of steam increases, flow of steam increases, as a result of which pressure
drop occurs in the drum. Pressure on the surface of the liquid decreases and the liquid
jumps up known as swell effect. Due to swell effect level of the water apparently
increases and the Level Transmitter gives an increased reading.

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 As the demand of steam decreases, flow of steam decreases, as a result of which
pressure rise occurs in the drum. Pressure on the surface of the liquid increases. As a
result level of the liquid appears to be less and is known as Shrink effect.

2.7.3. Single element drum level control,

The simplest but least effective form of drum level control. This consists of proportional
signal or process variable (PV) coming from the drum level transmitter. This signal is
compared to a set point and the difference is a deviation value.

This signal is acted upon by the controller which generates corrective action in the form
of a proportional output. The output is then passed to the boiler feed water valve,
which then adjusts the level of feed water flow into the boiler drum
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Notes:
 Only one analogue input and one analogue output required .
 Can only be applied to single boiler / single feedpump configurations with
relatively stable loads since there is no relationship between drum level and
steam- or feed water flow.
 Possible inadequate control option because of the swell effect.

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 2.7.4. TWO ELEMENT DRUM LEVEL CONTROL

The two-element drum level controller can best be applied to a single drum boiler
where the feed water is at a constant pressure. The two elements are made up of the
following:

2.7.4.1. Level Element,

A proportional signal or process variable (PV) coming from the drum level transmitter.
This signal is compared to a set point and the resultant is a deviation value. This signal
is acted upon by the controller which generates corrective action in the form of a
proportional value.

2.7.4.2. Steam flow Element,

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A mass flow rate signal (corrected for density) is used to control the feed water flow,
giving immediate corrections to feed water demand in response to load changes. Any
imbalance between steam mass flow out and feed water mass flow into the drum is
corrected by the level controller. This imbalance can arise from

 Blow down variations due to changes in dissolved solids

 Variations in feed water supply pressure
 Leaks in the steam circuits.

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 Notes:

 Tighter control of drum level than with only one element

 Steam flow act as feed forward signal to allow faster level adjustments.
 Can best be applied to single boiler / single feed pump configurations with a
constant feed water pressure

2.7.5. Three element drum level control

The three-element drum level control is ideally suited where a boiler plant consists of
multiple boilers and multiple feed water pumps or where the feed water has variations
in pressure or flow. The three-elements are made up of the following

2.7.5.1. Level element & steam flow element

Corrects for unmeasured disturbances within the system such as

 Boiler blow down.

 Boiler and super heater tube leaks.

2.7.5.2. Feed water flow element,

Responds rapidly to variations in feed water demand, either from the

 Steam flow rate feed forward signal.

 Feed water pressure or flow fluctuations.

In order to achieve optimum control, both steam and feed water flow values should be
corrected for density
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Notes:

The three-element system provides tighter control for drum level with fluctuating steam
load. Ideal where a system suffers from fluctuating feed water pressure or flow.

 More sophisticated level of control required.

 Additional input for feed water flow required.

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 3. CONTROL LOOPS IN PAKARAB.
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Learning objective:

To know and understand Control Loops examples from Pakarab to better understand
their application, working, current status and requirements.

3.1. Three-elements loop at utilities boilers

A three element control strategy is implemented to maintain the level of boiler feed
water. There are two elements for flow, steam and water flow, and one element for level
of water.

3.1.1. Why not a single element loop?

One element loop containing a level element is not enough to control the level of water
due to shrink and swell effect. Due to this reason we must have an indication of
pressure drop or pressure rise. As flow of steam increases pressure on the surface of
liquid decreases and vice-versa. So a flow transmitter is used to give the indication of
pressure variations.
P-2

S-1 F

Flow Transmitter
P-3 P-1

F Boiler Drum I-2

Flow Transmitter
V-1

S-3

S-1

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Slave
S-1 Master
f(x) controller
Controller

Set Point
S-4 S-4

Three Element Loop

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 3.1.2. Explanation of the loop,

 The signal of the level transmitter goes to a master controller whose set point can
be manually set by the operator. The master controller compares the output of
the level transmitter against a set point and generates an output.
 The output of the master controller and steam flow transmitter goes to a
computing relay which adds the two signals and forms the set point of the slave
controller .The computing relay can perform other mathematical functions as
well.
 The slave controller receives its input from the water flow transmitter and
adjusts its output to regulate the flow of water.
 All the signaling is pneumatic.

3.1.3. Working of the loop,

The main function of the loop is to maintain the level of the water in the drum if the
demand of the steam changes.

In case there is an increase in the demand of the steam the signal from the flow
transmitter would increase. The level transmitter signals would also increase. The
master controller would compare the signal against a set point and would produce a

negative output. The summing relay will add this negative output and output of the
flow transmitter. Hence the set point of the slave controller would decrease. The slave
controller compares the signal from the water flow transmitter against this set point and
gives an output to open the valve more.

Exactly reverse of the above process would happen in case there is a decrease in
demand of the steam.
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3.1.4. Fail-Safe condition of the BFW valve,

In case there is a failure of the pneumatic supply the BFW valve will fully open to
protect the water tubes of the boiler from melting.

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 3.2. Three -element loop at ammonia-reformer.

LR-151A
S-1

AS 151

P-1 S-4

101-F
P-3

LIC-151

S-2

P-4

LR -151B
S-5
Steam from
101-F S-9 S-6

LIC 151-C LIC-151C

FR a-151 SQRT P-9

S-18 S-13

B FW to !01-F
S-10 AS 152

LIC-151-B FR C-152

FR a-152
SQRT
TO 104 JA S-14
S-15

TO 104 JB S-16

TO CV S-17

AS 151 allows either of two Level transmitters as input to the system.

AS152 allows straight Level Control to be used during periods of maintenance on 3

element system.
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LIC 151-C is adder/subtraction relay which compares the signals from steam flow and
level controllers. It incorporates a bias for continuous blow down.

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 3.3. Pre neutralizer ratio control loop.

3.3.1. Working

The pre neutralizer ratio control loop is used to control the ratio of CN slurry (master
flow) and NH3 to maintain a pH of about 6.5 of the resulting neutralized solution. NH 3
is introduced in the pre-neutralization tank containing CN, flowing in from the buffer
tank. NH3 reacts partly with the CN slurry. Its serves to reduce the load on the reactor
by partially neutralizing CN before it enters the CN reactor. It also reduces the
impurities (sulphates) present in the CN solution.

The original design of the pre neutralizer ratio control loop is as follows:
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3.3.2. Current pre neutralizer ratio control loop,

However currently pre neutralizer ratio control loop is running in the following state:

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Current Condition of Pre Neutralizer Ratio Control Loop

According to the above shown diagram there is no ratio control loop in operation at pre
neutralizer. The components of the previous pneumatic ratio control system do not exist
or are out of service. The flow of NH3 and CN slurry is maintained through
independent controllers. As a result the pH of the neutralized solution is not being
maintained. This directly affects the overall quality of the product.

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 3.3.3. Requirements of pre neutralizer ratio control loop,

As it can be seen from figure there are three inputs of the ratio control loop namely

 NH3 gas flow

 FT 17-303/FT 17-306 (CN Slurry)
 Input from Selector Switch (for two pH analyzers)

There is only one output of pre neutralizer ratio control loop

 FCV 17-304/FCV 17-307 (NH3 gas control valve)

3.4 CN Reactor ratio control loop.

3.4.1. Working,

CN slurry flowing from pre neutralizer tanks enters the 3-stage CN reactor. The CN
slurry is sprayed from the scrubber at the top of the CN reactor. NH 3 enters the reactor
from the sides in three stages with the ratio of 70% at the top stage, 20% in the 2 nd stage
and 10% in the last stage. CO2 is also introduced in the last stage of the reactor. The
resulting solution contains lime and 63% AN. The pH of solution is measured through
AT 17503-1, AT 17504-1, AT 17503-2 and AT 17504-2 depending on the CN reactor in
use. The ratio of CN slurry (master flow) and NH3 gas is controlled in order to maintain
the pH of AN/lime solution at 7.9 to 8.1. The diagram of the designed ratio control loop
is as follows
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3.4.2. Current cn reactor ratio control loop

However currently the CN reactor ratio control loop is in the following state

Current Condition of CN Reactor Ratio Control Loop

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As it can be seen from the above diagram, the ratio control loop in which the CN reactor
was designed to operate, no longer exists. Most of the pneumatic instruments have
become obsolete. The pH of the resulting AN/lime solution is not being monitored in
the control room. The flow of NH3 gas and CN slurry are controlled independent

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 controllers. Due to the lack of a ratio controller the pH of resulting solution is not
controlled. This affects the overall quality of the product.

3.4.3. Requirements of CN reactor ratio control loop

It can be seen from the loop diagram of CN reactor that there are following three inputs
 FT 17-350/FT 17-351 (NH3 gas)
 FT 17-356/FT 17-357 (CN Slurry)
 Selector Switch for pH analyzers

There is only one output of this ratio control loop

 FCV 17-350/FCV 17-351 (NH3 gas control valve)

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3.5. AN reactor ratio control loop.

3.5.1. Working

Direct neutralization takes place in the AN reactor. Sprayed NH3 reacts with 60% HNO3
entering the reactor from four sides producing AN. The resulting solution contains
about 90% AN. The pH of the AN solution is maintained at 2 by controlling the ratio of
NH3 gas and HNO3. The diagram of the designed ratio control loop is as follows

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 3.5.2. Current-AN reactor ratio control loop.

The current condition of AN reactor ratio control loop is shown in the following figure

Current Condition of AN Reactor Ratio Control Loop

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As it can be seen from the above loop, the ratio control loop in which AN reactor in
designed to operate, no longer exists. The flow of NH3 and HNO3 is being controlled by
independent controllers. However in this case pH is monitored in the control room and
the flow of NH3 and HNO3 is manually adjusted such that the pH of the resulting
solution is maintained. However there still are variations in pH of the AN solution
because of human error.

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3.5.3. Requirements of AN reactor ratio control loop

It can be seen from the from the AN reactor loop diagram there are five inputs

 FT 15-303 (NH3 gas flow transmitter)

 TE 15-303 (NH3 gas temp. transmitter)
 PT 15-202 (NH3 gas pressure transmitter)
 FT 15-303 (HNO3 flow transmitter)
 AT 15-501 (AN pH analyzer)

There is only one output of the AN ratio control loop

 FV 15-302 (HNO3 Control Valve)

3.6. Air-ammonia ratio control loop.

3.6.1. Flow transmitters

The specifications of the DP flow transmitter are as follow

Measuring System Pneumatic

Measuring Element Diaphragm
Measuring Range 500 mmH2O—6500mmH2O
Output Signal 0.2----1 kg /cm2
Calibration range 0----1300 mmH2O

3.6.2. RATIO LOADING SECTION,

The ratio loading section multiplies the signal of the air flow transmitter with a factor
that can vary from 0---3.The value of the ratio loading factor changes with density of air
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which changes with season. With changes in density the temperature and pressure of
air changes. So ratio has to be changed to control the temperature and pressure of air
ammonia mixture.

As density of air increases ratio or loading factor increases increasing the set point of
the controller hence resulting in an increase in amount of ammonia.

The factor adjustment is done mechanically. The measuring system is pneumatic.

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 3.6.3. Pressure switch

It senses the pressure signal to the positioner of the control valve .The measuring
element of the pressure switch is bellow type .If the pressure is less than 0.2 kg / cm2 the
switch will open and the control valve will go to its fail safe condition .

3.6.4. Control valve

The type of the control valve V BALL. Its a rotary stem type valve Its fail-safe condition
is fail to close. The control valve starts opening at 0.2 kg / cm2 and fully opens at 1 kg /
cm2.

3.6.5. Pilot valve

The pilot valve is used for quick action of the control valve. The signal of the positioner
goes to the pilot valve. The outlet of the pilot valve is connected to the actuator of the
control valve. In order to close the control valve the exhaust port of the pilot valve
opens and air is discharged through it.

3.6.6. Working of the loop

The ratio loading section mulitiplies the signal of the air flow transmitter and forms the
set point of the controller. This controller receives its input from ammonia flow
transmitter.

As the flow of air increases the set point of the controller increases which then sends an
increased signal to the positioner of the control valve .This increases the opening of the
control valve and hence flow of ammonia increases. Hence the ratio of ammonia and air
is maintained at the desired level.
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Exactly reverse happens for decrease in flow of air.

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 Ratio Loop At Nitric Acid Plant

NH3-GAS SOV
S-13

Air Supply PILOT VALVE

S-1 S-5
Transmitter-FFT- Transmitter FFT-
02301-1 02301-2

V-3
S-2

Control Valve
P-4
Positioner
V-1
AIR SUPPLY NO
AIR SUPPLY

Air SUPPLY

From Limit Switch

Pressure
Switch- S-3
FFSY - S-11
02301 A Pressure Switch- FFSY -
02301 A

X Y x

W LOADING
CONTROLLER STATION
FACTOR

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AIR SUPPLY AIR SUPPLY

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4. CONTROLLERS.
Learning objective:

 To study types of Controllers

 To study modes of Controllers
 To study controller Actions
 To study control Parameters (Proportional, Integral and Derivative) and their
requirement.
 To study tuning of Controller

4.1. Types of controllers.

Virtually all industrial process controllers can be placed in two categories.

 Electronic
 Pneumatic

Electronic controllers produce a small current signal, typically 4 ~ 20 milli amperes
(mA). And input 4 ~ 20milli amperes or 1 ~ 5 V.

Pneumatic controllers use compressed air to produce controller output signals of 0.2 ~
1Kg/cm2 (3 ~ 15 pounds per square inch ). And it input also 0.2 ~ 1Kg/cm2 .

4.2. Modes of controllers.

There are usually two options on Controller

 Manual Mode:

Manipulated Variable is fed manually by operator i-e operator can open or close valve
as desired.


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Auto Mode:

Manipulated Variable is calculated automatically by controller. i-e Valve position is

automatically adjusted without operator involvement.

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 4.3. Types of controller action.

Direct action controller:

If measured value (p-v) of controller is increasing from set point and out put of
controller is also increasing then controller is said to be direct acting

Reverse action controller:

If Measured Value (P-V) Of Controller Is Increasing From Set Point And Out Put Of
Controller Is Decreasing Then Controller Is Said To Be Reverse Acting
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4.4. Control parameters.

4.4.1. Proportional action

Proportional or throttling control is used to meet the demand of more precise

regulation of the controlled variable. The controller response to process change is
proportional to the change. The variation in the output is proportional to the
deviation.

Proportional action asks, “How big is the error?” The controller output changes in
proportion to the size of the input error signal. Large errors cause large changes in
output, and small errors cause small changes in output. The proportional-only part
of a controller’s output varies with error signal (E) and gain of controller (K).
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Internally, the controller calculates KE plus bias (bias is 4 mA in a 4- to 20-mA

Controller) and changes its output by an amount proportional to the change in the
error signals.

The gain adjustment, K, may be labeled gain or proportional band (PB). Proportional
band is the percentage change in the measured variable needed to cause a 100%
change in controller output. Most controllers modulate the output around 50% of

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 the span for a certain load. Any change in the load causes the output balance point
to change.

A single-mode controller has proportional action only. It is used most effectively

where the SP remains fixed and the load remains constant throughout the duration
of the process.

After a sudden SP change in a system equipped with a single-mode controller, the

value of PV changes as shown in figure. Line A represents the result of a low gain
setting, line B represents the result of a higher setting.

Gain (PB) response

Proportional control action

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4.4.2. Integral (reset) action

Integral action asks, “How long has the error existed?” Integral action adds to the
controller’s proportional output by repeating the previous proportional action, and
its adjustment usually is labeled repeats per minute. Integral action can be adjusted
to a low value but cannot be turned completely off. Integral action can bring the
process back to set point by resetting the controller output periodically for as long as
an error exists.

With a proportional controller, the only way to overcome offset is to synchronize the
controller. A controller that includes integral action eliminates the offset
automatically. The integral mode also is referred to as reset.

As long as there is a difference between PV and SP the integral mode acts to adjust
the controller output continuously until the offset is reduced to zero.

It does this by adding to or subtracting from the output according to:

 The size of the error

 The proportional and integral gain settings
 The length of time the error lasts.

Suppose a sudden SP change produces a 10% error between the value of PV and SP.
The proportional gain, set to 1, causes a corresponding output change of 10%, from
50 to 60%, and stays at this level.

However, the integral mode continues to increase the output. The output with
integral repeats the (proportional) 10% increase once each minute (as shown by line
A). That is, line A shows a reset of one repeat per minute—after one minute, output
is at 70% and after two minutes, output is at 80%. Line B shows what the output
would be if the reset were set to two repeats per minute (that is, a change of 20% in
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one minute).

Integral action continues until the process error returns to zero. It acts in either
direction, to correct negative error or positive error. Any error causes integral action
to eliminate offset.

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Integral (reset) action
4.4.3. Two-mode controller

Two kinds of controllers combine two modes of operation to meet certain

requirements. They are:

 proportional-plus-integral (PI) controllers

 proportional-plus-derivative (PD) controllers,

4.4.3.1. Pi controllers

Controllers that combine the proportional and integral modes work well in
applications with large but slow load changes. The integral (reset) action eliminates
the offset resulting from the process changes. Figure shows the change in PV
produced by a PI controller after a large SP increase. Line A shows a low repeat-
per-minute setting and line B shows a higher one. Both A and B eliminate offset,
unlike proportional-only.

For most systems, proportional control would be quite acceptable except for the
existence of offset.

Most process controllers contain an additional mode namely the reset mode.
That will automatically eliminate the offset. Where as the output of the proportional
is based on error, the output of the reset mode is based on the integral of the error.

Proportional-plus-integral response

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 4.4.3. Derivative mode (rate)

The derivative mode (often called rate) provides additional controller output
whenever the process error is changing. The rate of change of the error determines
the amount of extra output supplied by the derivative, or rate, action. The faster the
value of PV is changing relative to SP, the greater is the additional output supplied
by rate.

Derivative action also is referred to as an anticipatory control. That is, it anticipates

how much error the change will cause and changes the output to limit the amount of
error and to minimize the time the error exists. The derivative mode operates only
while the error is changing. If the error is constant (offset), there is no derivative
action.

Figure shows the effect of the derivative mode in a reverse-acting controller when a
sudden load change causes a process error of 10%. Proportionality (with a gain of 1)
causes the controller output to increase from 30 to 40%, as shown by line C.

Derivative action, shown by line D, causes the controller output to increase to 50%,
providing an extra output in response to the rapidly changing error.

4.4.3.1. Derivative (rate) action

Derivative action asks, “How fast is the error changing?” Derivative action adds to
the controller’s output when the error changes rapidly, even if the change is small.
For slow processes like temperature control, derivative action is beneficial.
Derivative action is adjusted in terms of the change of response time . The
adjustment may be labeled, usually in minutes, or unlabeled.
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4.4.3.2. PD controllers

In controllers that combine proportional and derivative actions, the derivative mode
(rate) increases the change in controller output and, therefore, causes a faster PV
response. In addition, the braking action of the derivative mode helps to stabilize the
loop.

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 However, the addition of rate does not eliminate offset. For this reason, a PD
controller is used only when a final offset is unlikely or is not important in the
process. In some fast processes (flow control, perhaps), derivative action may not be
included because derivative might overcompensate excessively.

4.4.3.2 Proportional with derivative action

 The proportional mode responds the size of error.

 The derivative mode responds to how quickly the error is changing.
 The derivative output is proportional to the rate of change of error.
 The greater the rate of change, the greater the output will change due to
derivative response.
 The derivative action hold the output as long as measurement stops
changing.

4.4.3.3. Three-mode controller

Three-mode controllers combine all three modes—proportional, integral, and

derivative—and are called PID controllers. They are most useful in applications with
large and sudden load changes. The integral (reset) action eliminates the problem of
offset. Derivative action anticipates the needed extra output and adds it sooner than
a single-mode controller does.

Figure shows the difference in response between a two-mode and a three-mode

controller. The PI two-mode controller (line A) eliminates offset, but the PID three-
mode controller (line B) speeds up the response and minimizes overshoot in
addition to eliminating offset.

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 4.5. Response curves of PID control.
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 Controller modes and their uses

Proportional-integral-derivative response

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 4.6. Tuning the control loop.

Tuning is a time-consuming procedure for which there is no quick or easy way, and
the process may need to be repeated several times.

4.6.1. Step-change response method

Step-change response method is the most practical way to tune a system. This
method involves deliberately producing a sudden process error, observing the
response of the PV, and then adjusting the various controller modes as appropriate.
The process is repeated several times in small increments (steps) until the output
produces the desired results in the PV.

First adjust the controller settings as follows:

 Set SP to the operating selling most often used.

 Adjust proportional gain by setting it to a value that causes the process to
become unstable—that is, cycling becomes excessive —and then reduce
the gain setting somewhat.
 Set integral (reset) at zero repeats/minute. (Reset mode cannot be turned
completely off.)
 Set derivative (rate) at zero minutes. (If possible, turn the rate mode
completely off during the initial setup.)

4.6.2. OFFSET

The error, a constant difference between SP and PV, is called offset. Changing the set
point has the same effect on a proportional controller as a load change.
If the process load conditions change then the output value can change. Because a
proportional controller cannot compensate for these load changes, an offset occurs
between SP and PV. Increasing the gain may provide some compensation, but
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increasing gain too much may make the process unstable, in turn causing excessive
cycling and unacceptable process variations.

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