Vector Calculus

1 A
On adding these results and collecting the coefficients of, el, e2 and i3
A
we get
A

This can be written as

4. i) In spherical polar coordinates

A
r=rer
and

Hence

A
= - r o sine fee x e,) .
A

ii) V X V P - 1 a
- a'
- -a
r2sm8 dr a0 a#
0 0 o r2sin20

- 9 I [c
sin8
2 0 ? sine a s 8 - e; 20 r2 sin%]

Hence

VXFP-
1 a
.-- a
- -a
r2 sine -dt de 84
2 ro cos0
. r3 -Pr0 sine 0
 UNIT 4 INTEG ION OF SCA
VECTOR FIELDS
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Integration of a Vector with Respect to a Scalar
Integrals Involving Scalar and Vector Products of Vectors
4.3 Multiple Integrals
Double Integral
Triple Integrals
4.4 Line Integral of a Field
Path of Integration
Qpes of Line Integrals
Evaluation of Line Integrals
4.5 Surface Integral of a Field
Surface of lntegration
Types of Surface Integrals
Evaluation of Surface Integrals
4.6 Volume Integral of a Field
4.7 Vector Integral Theorems
Gauss' Divergence Theorem
Stokes' Theorem
Green's Theorem
4.8 Summary
4.9 Terminal Questions
4.10 Solutions and Answers

4.1 INTRODUCTION'

In the previous unit you have studied about different coordinate systems. In the process you
have learnt to represent the gradient of a scalar field and the divergence and curl of a vector
field in several coordinate systems. In Unit 2 you have studied about differentiation of
vectors, In this unit you will learn about integration of scalar and vector fields.
These integrals find many applications in physics. For example, the work done by a force or
the magnetic field due to a current-carrying conductor can be expressed as a line integral.
The flux of a magnetic field can be represented as a surface integral. Line, surface and
volume integrals find application in determining the potential due to a continuous
distribution of matter or charges. We shall discuss some of these examples here. These
integrals form the foundations of many important equations in physics like the Maxwell's
equation of Electromagnetism, the equation of continuity and so on.
In this unit, first we shall discuss the integration of a vector with respect to a scalar. You will
find that this will basically be an extension of the idea'of brdinary integral. This finds
application in determining the trajectory of a particle if its equation of motion is known. We
shall also discuss the integration of scalar and vector products of vectors with respect to a
scalar.
Next we shall discuss the integration of scalar and vector fields with respect to coordinates.
A s you know a scalar or a vector field may be a function of one or more coordinates. Their
integrals which we shall come across will necessarily not be in t e h s of single variable. S o
we shall learn about double and triple integrals. You will see that the three kinds of field
integrals, i.e. the line, surface and volume integrals are respectivclythe extensions of
ordinary, double a i d triple integrals.
Finally, we shall discuss how one kind of a field integral can be transformed into another
type. In the process you will learn to apply the vector integral theorems - namely the
Gauss' divergence theorem, Stokes7 theorem and Green's theorem, Here, we shall only state
these theorems without proof, However, if you are interested in knowing the proofs you may
go through the Appendix. These theorems provide us with very elegant methods for arriving
at several fundamental equations of physics.
In the next block, we shall take up Statistics and Probability and their applications in physics.
Vector Calculus Objectives
After going through this unit you should be able to:
@solve problems based on integration of a vector wlth respect to a scalar
evaluate double and triple integrals
Q)
@ solve problems based on line, surface and volume integration of scalar and vector fields
@ solve problems based on Gauss', Stokes' and Green's theorems and apply them to
relevant physical situations.

4.2 INTEGRATION OF A VECTOR WITH RESPECT TOT

SCALAR

Many a time we have to obtain the description of motion of a system from the knowledge of
the forces acting on it. In order to solve such a problem we need to integrate'the velocity and
position vectors with respect to time,ia scalar. Let us see how we do it.
In Unit 2, you have learnt to differentiate a vector with respect to a scalar. You know that
integration is the reverse process of differentiation. This holds also for integration of vectors
with respect to scalars. Let us consider a vector a which is a function of a scalar t i.e.
a = a (t). Now, let

Then the (indefinite) integral of b (t) with respect to t is equal to a(t) + c, where c is an
arbitrary constant vector. In physics we deal with quantities that generally have dimensions.
Therefore, c is a vector whose dimension is the same as that of a. Symbolically, we write

In actual problems, c is determined By using suitable initial conditions.

To illustrate Eq. (4.2) let us take the example of determining the trajectory of a particle
when the force acting on it is known as a function of time. Let the force be F(t). Then its
acceleration is given by f (t) = w,
rn
where m is the mass of the particle. The relation
between acceleration, f and velocity, v is quite well-known. It is given by

and I
I

(t) =Sf(t)dt + c17 (4.3)

where c, has the dimensions of velocity. Again velocity v is related to the position vector r as

d
v (0 a (t)

:. r (t) =Jv (c) dt + C,

where c2 is'a constant vector having the dimension of length.

In order to evaluate the integrals in Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4), w e first express the concerned
vector in the component form. This means that for evaluating the integralSa(t) dt, we
express a(t) as
a (t) = a, (t) ft a2 ( o f + a3(t) where a l (t) , a ( t ) and o3 (t) are respectively thex, y, and z
components of a(t). Then, we have

So, in effect we hf: to perform ifitegration of a scalar with respect to a scalar with which
you are familiar, i,j,k come outside the integration signs as they do not depend on t.
The following linearity property holds for integrals of vectors. F o r p and q being two
constants,
 Integration of Scalar
and Vector Fields

Let us work out an example based on what we have discussed so far.

- -. --
Example 1
The force acting on a particle of constant mass m is given in terms of t by
A A
F= b(cosw t i + sinw t j)
If the particle is initially at rest at the origin, compute its velocity as a function of t.
Solution
From Newton's second law, the acceleration of the particle is
dv F 'b b A
--=f(t)--= -coswti+,- sinwtj
dt m rn m.
Using Eqs. (4.1) and (4.6), we get

These are ordinary integrals and can be readily evaluated to give

We now have to determine c,.

Since the particle is at rest initially, we have v (0) = 0. So,

Hence v (I) = m u [sin or f+(1- cos w t ) i

You should now determine the position of the particle as a functioi~o f t yourself.

SAQ 1
Find the position vector of the particle of Example 1 as a function oft. (Remember that the Spend 2 min
particle was initially at the origin.)
-
Now that you have gone through Example 1and worked out SAQ 1, you must have realised
that while integrating a vector with respect to a scalar we follow the technique of ordinary
integration. Does the same apply to scalar and vector products ? We will now attempt to
answer this question.

4.2.1 Integrals Involving Scalar and Vector Products of Vectors

Let a(t) and b(t) be two vector functions of a scalar t. Then for evaluating the integrals
I, -s[a (t). b (t)] d t and I2=& ( t ) x b (t)] dt, we first compute the scalar and vector
products in the integrands. You may then recall from Sec. 1.4 that Il will reduce to an
integral of a scalar function o f t with respect to t, and I, will be an integral of a vector
function o f t with respect to t. Let us take a specific example to discuss the evaluation of 1,.
After that you will work out an SAQ to evaluate 12.

Example 2
In free space a transverse electromagnetic (EM) wave propagating in the x-direction has an
- b 2~
electric field E Eo cos- (ct - n) j and a magnetic induction field B = B, cos- (ct - X ) k.
h
A

h
A

Here c and h a r e respectively the velocity and the wavelength of the EM-wave and E, = Boc.
 V
The energy flowing through a volume Vper unit time is given by U = - (E. D + B . H),
Veclor Cdculus
2
where D = c0 E and B = F ~ H Here eo and pOare the permittivity and the magnetic
1
permeability, respectively of free space and c can be expressed as c = . Compute the
0 Vo
total energy flowing through V during one complete cycle of EM oscillation if its time
period is T.
Solution
The energy flow during t i h e dt will be given by U dt. S O the total energy will be the definite
integral of U from t = 0 to t = T, i.e:

T T
where 1,-JE . D d t andla =JB.Hdt.
0 0
27T
where k = -
A
Both IE and IB are integrals of the type I,. So we shall first evaluate the scalar products.

Similarly, you can show that

2n T
--1 where 1 = b s 2- (ct - x) dt = -
- [sin (47r - 2kx)
0
A 2
8
T
I
- sin (- 2kx)] T -
2
..
I
1 --T
- T
+ sin Zkx) T -
8n
(- sin 2kx
E,2 = E*V&
Again Bi =- ( ... C= -
rn)
!
i -- T- c2

nX Hence T I - = - cvT F;?

I
The mass of the bob of the simple pendulum shown in Fig. 4.1 is m,It executes small
/
- -dt- , where
oscillations (i.e. its angular amplitude does not exceed 4")in the xy plane. Using the result
dL
z z and L are respectively the torque and angular momentum of the bob about
-v
Fig. 4.1 : A simple pendulum of the origin$show thai
effective length I.

106
L m - m 0, sin (Et)f + L6, where L = L,at t = 0. It is given that the time-variation of
 k t Integration of Scalar
the angular di_splacementof the bob can be expressed as 8 = cos - , where T = 2n: and Vector Fields
T
(Hint: Use the result t = r x F) Spend 5 min

Now that you have worked out Example 2 and SAQ 2, you understand that the process of
integration of the scalar and vector products of two vectors with respect to a scalar
essentially reduces to determining the iutegral of a scalar with respect to a scalar. Thus we
find that the overall aspect of integration of vector and scalar function of a scalar can be
managed by evaluating ordinary integrals. However, in physics we come across many
applications involving the integration of scalar and vector fields (about which you have read
in Unit 2) with respect to scalars and vectors. Such applications include the determination of
work done by a force field, flux of a vector field and so on. The knowledge of ordinary
integrals is not sufficient for carrying out integrations. For this we have to learn to evaluate
multiple integrals.

4.3 MULTIPLE INTEG S

So far we have performed integration with respect to a single variable. There will be cases,
such as the determination of moment of inertia, product of inertia, the coordinates of centre
of mass of continuous matter where we shall have to do so with respect to more than one
variable. These are called multiple integrals. Here, we shall discuss douhle and triple
integrals.
In Unit 2 you learnt to differentiate a function of several variables. The rncthod was just an
extension of the differentiation of a function of a single variable. Also we know that
integration is the reverse process of differentiation.So you will find that the method of
evaluation of multiple integrals is an exteilsion of that of the ordinary integral. In the case of
a definite integral

the integrand is a functio~lf(x) that exists for all x in an interval a < x c b. Since x is the only
variable of integration we call this a single integral. This integral can be expressed as the
limit of the sum

.
as n tend3 to infinity. Here A xi is an infinitesimal segment on the x-axis in the
neighbourhood of the point x = x i . You know to evaluate such an integral. So we will not go
into details. Instead, we proceed to introduce the double integral.

4.3.1 Double Integral Fig. 4.2

In the case of a double integral, the integrand say 4 (x,y) is given for all (x, y) in a closed I
A\ you know a closed intcrv~lo n
bounded region R of the xy?plane (Fig. 4.2).The double integral can be defined in a manner ~ h x-axis,
c say b c t w e o ~r = annd
analogous to that used for a single integral. We subdivide the region R by drawing lines s = 1) i, cxpresscd, as o 5 x 5 6.
parallel t o x and y-axes. We number the rectangles that are withinR from 1 to n.Now, let us Sim~larlyfor a two dimenbiornl
consider a point P, in the ith rectangle. Let the value of the function at that point be &.Now rcgion; bcing 'closcd', ih botmdi~ry I
I
m u s ~be a pdr! of theregion.

we form the sum S, -2 i-1

I$,AAi where M iis the area of the ith rectangle and n is a
Morcovcr, il the rcgion cun be
cnclo\cd in n circle oTsuff~citr~tly
I:~rgcradius, then it IS a "closal
I
,
positive integer. We take this sum for larger and larger values of n. Then the rectangles bounded rcg~on". t

become smaller. And as n goes to infinity, the length of the maximum diagonal of the I

rectangles approaches zero and the value of 4, may be considered as constant at all points
within the ith rectangle. If $ (x, y) is continuous in R, the limit of S,,, as n tends to infinity, is
finite and its value is independent of the choice of the sub-divisions. This limit is called the
double integral of 4 (x, y) over the region R. Thus
n
 vector Calculus where d4 = dudy.
1
From the definition it is quite evident that the double integral has certain properties which
are quite similar to that of single integrals. We shall now state these properties.
Let i$, and @, be the functions of x and y, defined and continuous in a region R. Then

where k is a constant,

and
Fig. 4.3

where R has been subdivided into two regions R, and R2 (Fig.4.3).

Evaluation of Doub[e Integrals
Double integrals over a region R may be calculated by way of evaluating two successive
integrations. The first integration is performed with respect to one of the variables, keeping
:he other variable constant. Then the double integral reduces to an ordinary definite integral
which can be easily evaluated. We shall illustrate this with the help of an example.

Example 3
The product of inertia of a lamina in the xy-plane about the x and y-axes is given by

where R is the region of space covered by the lamina. And u is the mass per unit area of the
lamina. Determine I, for the rectangle shown in Fig. 4.4.
Solution

Fig. 4.4

where m is the mass of the rectangle.

Now for evaluating the inner integral we have to treat x as constant.

b

Hence,

We shall now illustrate the evaluation of double integral using spherical polar coordinates,
which you studied in Unit 3.
The moment of inertia of a body like a disc, a spherical shell or a rectangular lamina, about
an axis, is given by
where the integral extends over the entire body. Here dm is the mass of an infinitesimal Integration of Scalar
element of the body and I- is its distance from the axis. You may find some examples of and Vector Fields
determination of 1 in Block-2 of PHE-01 (Elementary Mechanics) course. In this block we
have mentioned the expression for moment of inertia of a spherical shell about a diameter.
2
For a shell of mass M and radius R it is - MR2. We shall illustrate the method to evaluate it
3
in the following example.

Example 4
Write down the expression for an element of area of the spherical shell of Fig. 4.5 in
spherical polar coordinates and calculate its moment of inertia about any diameter. 'The mass
of the shell is M and its radius R.
Solution I

Let us take the z-axis along the diameterAB about which we intend to calculate , We take
an element of area, d a , e n the shell included between the polar angles 8 and 0 d0 and the
azimuthal angles Q, and 4 + d4. You know from Eq. (3.18) that A

d a = (Rd0) (R sin 0 d@)

Now dm = u d a , where u , the mass per unit area is - Hence, you can write
4d2'

From Fig. 4.5 it is evident that r = R sin0 so that

I =I I (R sin 0)2-4nM sin0d8d@

0-0 4-0

You may now complete the remaining part of the example.

SAQ 3
Evaluate the double integral given above and show that Spend 2 min

While going through Examples 3 and 4, you must have realised that the differential term in
each integral refers to an area. In other words, we have performed integration over areas. In
physics, we will be required to perform integrations over volumes as well. Such is the case
of determining the moment of inertia of a solid body or the quantity of fluid flowing out of a
system. So w e will now discuss triple integrals as a first step towards understanding
integration over volumes.
1
4.3.2 Triple Integrals
Eor defining the triple integral we shall follow an approach similar to that for defining a Refer to the margin remark
double integral. Let us coasider a function‘^(x, y, z) defined in a bounded $lased region Tin corresponding to the beginning off
Sec. 4.3.1 for the meaning of the term
space. In this connection you may recall that in sub-section 4.3.1,w e had considered a 'Closed', However, here 'bomded'
region R in a plane. But now T is a region in 3-dimensional space, for example , a solid means that the region can be enclosed
cube, a football or the region between two concentric spheres. We subdivide this in a sphere of sufficiently large
three-dimensional region T by planes parallel to the three coordinate planes. Then we get radius.
many rectangular parallelepipeds inside that space which we number from 1 to n. I.et us
consider a point, in the ith parallelepiped. Let the value of the function be vi.Then we form
the sum
n

sn=C qav,
i- l
where AVi is the volume of the ith parallelepiped.. We take this sum for larger and larger
' positive integers n, so that the parallelepipeds become smaller and smaller and lengths of the

edges of the largest parallelepiped of subdivision approach zero as rz goes to infinity. In this
case, the value of the function TJ, may be considered to be same at all points with the