Introduction to the vessel mixing and heat

transfer utilities
Latest update: 29 September 2017

support@scale-up.com

This document summarizes the scope and features of DynoChem vessel utilities, including the ability to
incorporate an Excel vessel database of your organization’s equipment and to estimate the effects of impeller
and baffling configuration on mixing and heat transfer.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 1 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Contents
Utilities available ........................................................................................................................................................4

Main new features in 2017 release........................................................................................................................5

Introduction to mixing ................................................................................................................................................6

New to mixing? ......................................................................................................................................................6

Geometry, terminology and most important characteristics ................................................................................6

Turbulent flow ........................................................................................................................................................7

Power input ............................................................................................................................................................7

Power per unit mass ..............................................................................................................................................8

Estimated maximum power per unit mass in the impeller region / trailing vortex ..............................................9

Shear rate ...............................................................................................................................................................9

Impeller discharge flowrate ................................................................................................................................ 10

Torque per unit volume ...................................................................................................................................... 10

Effects of baffles/ internals on liquid surface shape and power input ................................................................... 11

Off-centre / angled mounting ............................................................................................................................. 12

Applicability of correlations..................................................................................................................................... 13

Scaling rules......................................................................................................................................................... 14

Range of impeller types ........................................................................................................................................... 15

Report generation ................................................................................................................................................... 17

Design space........................................................................................................................................................ 17

Applying utilities for mixing and heat transfer assessment and design .................................................................. 18

Normal usage, with your organization’s vessel database ................................................................................... 18

Usage if your organization has not set up its vessel database yet, or if your vessel is not listed in your database
............................................................................................................................................................................. 19

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Updating or creating your organization’s vessel database ..................................................................................... 20

Porting your existing VesselDB worksheet into the updated vessel database file using our template ............. 20

Creating the first vessel database for your organization .................................................................................... 21

How to add a user-defined impeller type ........................................................................................................... 22

How to add a user-defined baffle or internals type............................................................................................ 23

What the Import button does ............................................................................................................................. 23

Management and deployment of the vessel database ........................................................................................... 24

Simplified, recommended deployment workflow from 2017 ............................................................. 24

Previous workflow, not recommended or necessary from 2017 ........................................................ 25

References ............................................................................................................................................................... 26

Appendices .............................................................................................................................................................. 27

Appendix 1: Calculation of percentage baffling .................................................................................................. 27

Calculating  values from literature relative power draw measurements ......................................... 27

Appendix 2: Calculation of the effects of baffling on power number................................................................. 28

Appendix 3: Calculation of the effects of baffling on the liquid surface shape .................................................. 29

Appendix 4: Correlations for Power Number and the Zwietering s parameter.................................................. 32

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 3 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Utilities available
Mixing performance estimation is not an exact science and the DynoChem utilities provide a set of performance
estimates that the user community finds useful. Each utility uses chemical engineering correlations and
calculation approaches that are generally accepted within the chemical engineering and fluid mixing community.

Significant progress has been made towards understanding and predicting fluid mixing in the period since the
1960s and much of this has been summarized well in reference 2, a textbook that we recommend to customers.
Several of the Scale-up Systems team conducted their PhD studies and industrial research on fluid mixing and
we continue to monitor and encourage publication of mixing research to enhance the knowledge base.

When we see opportunities to enhance or improve accuracy in the utilities, we do so by making changes and
sharing the new files in DynoChem Resources. We increment the version numbers and log the changes both in
the WhatsNew document on the website and also in the version history inside each tool. This means that
calculated results for a specific reactor system may change a little between older and newer utilities. We
recommend that users always download the latest utilities in order to benefit from these changes.

The following utilities are available and read vessel geometry and related data from an Excel-based customisable
vessel database contained within each utility:

Name of utility Utility estimates the following main parameters from vessel geometry and operating
conditions

Estimate_UA_DB.xls Heat transfer coefficient (U), wetted area (A), addition time, heating/cooling rate

Solid-liquid_DB.xls Power input (P), power per unit mass ( minimum agitator speed for suspension (NJS), in
solid-liquid systems, shear rate, e.g. solid-liquid reactions, crystallization,
hetereogeneously catalysed reactions

Single-phase_DB.xls Power input (P), power per unit mass ( mixing time (t95) – relevant for fast additions,
fed batch mixing/ mesomixing/ micromixing times – relevant for slow additions, shear
rate in single-phase/ homogeneous/ miscible liquid systems

Drawdown_DB.xls Power input (P), power per unit mass ( minimum speed for gassing (Ngas), mass transfer
coefficient (kLac) in vortexing and self-aspirating (hollow agitator shaft) gas-systems,
especially hydrogenation with headspace addition of H2

Gas-liquid_DB.xls Power input (P), power per unit mass ( mass transfer coefficient (kLac) in sparged (with
submerged gas addition below bottom impeller, though ring sparger) systems, especially
tall tanks with multiple impellers, e.g. fermenters

Liquid-liquid_DB.xls Power input (P), power per unit mass ( minimum speed for dispersion (NJD) in two-
phase/ immiscible aqueous/organic systems, e.g. extractions, liquid-liquid reactions

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 4 Latest update: 17 March 2017

You can access the full list of vessel utilities in DynoChem Resources; search for “mixing” or “vessel database” or
click on the Utilities tab.

Main new features in 2017 release

We are grateful to the many users and companies who have contributed feature requests and ideas and we
have delivered a number of these in the 2017 release of the utilities.

1. A new Design space feature has been included in several utilities that calculates process results over a
user-defined range of impeller speed and liquid volume. When applied to both Vessel 1 and Vessel 2,
this allows identification of a range of operating conditions in each vessel that lead to similar calculated
mixing parameters. Design space buttons are available on the Results worksheets and produce
response surface plots.
2. We have enhanced Vessel 1 and Vessel 2 Reports, including the user’s name, the date and the version
number of the utility. Reports now also contain individual impeller power numbers, UA intercept and
UA(v) where applicable.
3. We have extended our standard list of impellers, including the two-bladed flat paddle and a marine
propeller.
4. Users can now name, include and define multiple custom/user-defined impellers on the Impeller
properties tab; vessel database custodians can define a custom impeller list for use across an
organization. Custom types of baffles and internals can also be defined.
5. Users can easily import their organization’s vessel database (including custom impeller, baffle and
internals types) from a file on the network, Intranet or web site. This means that all users can apply the
latest utilities from DynoChem Resources and there is no need for power users / custodians to make
separate copies of the utilities and share them for internal use.
6. Unbaffled Power number estimates have been enhanced and made a function of Reynolds number.
7. We have added calculation of an estimate of the maximum power per unit mass generated by impellers
in a vessel, based on calculations related to the trailing vortex produced by the blades.
8. We have added calculation of torque per unit volume, a parameter sometimes used in systems with
higher viscosity systems and by agitator vendors.
9. We have added the Grenville, Mak and Brown (GMB) correlation (reference 13) as an alternative to
Zwietering for solids suspension with axial and mixed flow impellers.
10. Some worksheets are partially protected to prevent unintended or inappropriate edits by users,
especially the results calculated and displayed in blue text on a grey background. There is no password
and protection can be removed using Review>Unprotect sheet from the Excel menu.

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Introduction to mixing
New to mixing?
If you are completely new to fluid mixing, the DynoChem fluid mixing videos playlist on YouTube may be
informative for you. We also recommend that you review our Guidance document on this topic, for a summary
of how to use our tools together to solve specific problems.

For further reading, there is a list of textbooks (on mixing and other topics) that we recommend to our user
community in this document.

Geometry, terminology and most important characteristics

The main geometric and practical characteristics of a mixing vessel are shown in Figure 1 below (reference 2),
together with the terms and symbols generally used.

Figure 1: Components of a mixing/ agitated vessel.

Our utilities are focused on agitators mounted on a single shaft on the central axis of cylindrical vessels, with
baffles fixed to the vessel wall or mounted separately in the vessel. These are the most common configurations
used in chemical processing.

Vessels are also normally fitted with a heat transfer ‘jacket’, in the form of an annulus around the base and side
walls. One important feature of the jacket is its wetted area, denoted A.

The configuration in Figure 1 provides a robust set-up for mixing of liquid mixtures with low viscosity, .
Impeller / agitator rotational speed is the main driver for mixing and this is represented by the symbol N. Usage
of four flat baffles fixed to the vessel wall helps to minimize rotation of liquid and vortex formation and makes

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 6 Latest update: 17 March 2017

mixing more predictable. Usage of two or more impellers on the agitator shaft assists mixing along the full
height of the vessel. Keeping the impellers well submerged means that they remain effective at mixing. These
operating conditions can often be achieved easily when a vessel is used for just a single chemical process and
operates either continuously or always under the same conditions.

In the pharmaceutical industry, the set-up in Figure 1 is not used frequently. There are many reasons for this,
including:

- A relatively low awareness of the importance of mixing

- The need to use glass-lined vessels and impellers, which restricts design options
- The need to run many different chemical processes in the same equipment
- The need to operate over a broad range of liquid levels.

In pharmaceutical applications, it is common to have just one or two baffles, only one impeller submerged and a
relatively low liquid level. These factors can make mixing less effective and also less predictable than in
configurations like Figure 1. The further you deviate from Figure 1, the less predictable your system is likely to
be.

Turbulent flow
To determine the flow regime in a mixing vessel, it is common to use the fluid mechanics concept of ‘Reynolds
Number’, a ratio of inertial to viscous forces. For an impeller mixing a fluid with density :

𝜌𝑁𝐷 2
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

When Re > 10000, turbulent flow generally exists.

DynoChem utilities are designed for working with low viscosity, turbulent flow systems stirred by relatively small
(also called ‘turbine’) impellers running at relatively high rotational speed, N.

Some parts of some utilities may be applied to systems with Reynolds numbers (Re) that are too low for full
turbulence (e.g. inside jackets, or for some calculations in small vessels). In general, results from DynoChem
mixing utilities are not directly applicable to non-turbulent flow in vessels or with non-Newtonian fluids; for the
latter systems (e.g. pastes, polymers) the viscosity depends on shear rate and may be quite high near the walls
even it if is quite low near the impeller. Positive-displacement impellers (such as a large anchor, helical ribbon
and various ‘gate’ designs) are often selected when dealing this these materials.

Power input
An important performance characteristic of an impeller, Po or ‘power number’, reflects the amount of power
the impeller transmits to the fluid. This is a type of ‘drag coefficient’, analogous to that of an airplane wing, and
may be used to calculate the power input (e.g. in Watts):

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷 5

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 7 Latest update: 17 March 2017

For liquid blending applications the transition to turbulence actually depends on Po (see e.g. reference 2, page
510):

6370
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 1
𝑃𝑜 3

DynoChem utilities provide Po estimates for turbulent systems only. Po depends on impeller type, design, size
and position in the vessel as well as the degree of baffling. Under turbulent flow conditions, Po in a fully baffled
vessel becomes constant and independent of Re. Our correlations for fully baffled Po are described in Appendix
4.

The graph below (Figure 10.5 from reference 7) illustrates the dependence of Po on Re for a range of impeller
types.

Power per unit mass

“Power per unit mass”, measured in W/kg, is the rate of power input divided by the liquid mass:

𝑃
𝜀=
𝜌𝑉

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This parameter has fundamental importance for most types of mixing objective, being the rate at which
turbulent kinetic energy is dissipated in the fluid. Alternative and totally equivalent units for this parameter are
m2/s3.

Within a mixing vessel, the rate of dissipation of turbulent energy is highest near the impeller blades and lower
in the bulk of the vessel and especially near the liquid surface. It is possible for this parameter to vary by as
much as a factor of 100 between these high and low regions. The high region is therefore usually very small and
local  can easily be 10 or more times the average in the vessel. The trailing vortex produced by the impeller is
considered the likely location of this maximum value and DynoChem utilities estimate this maximum value as
described below.

When conducting chemical reactions that occur very quickly as the fluid enters the vessel, addition of reagents
into the impeller region can be beneficial, so that fluid quickly experiences something like this high level of
energy dissipation. When dispersing liquids, the drop size produced can depend on this maximum energy zone,
especially if the droplet phase has a low concentration or the droplets are resistant to coalescence. Users
should be careful in general not to produce droplets that are very small, as these may take a very long time to
separate, especially at large scale, once the liquid-liquid process is complete.

Estimated maximum power per unit mass in the impeller region / trailing vortex
Recently, it has become possible to make an estimate of the local maximum energy dissipation rate in the
impeller region and especially the flow associated with the trailing vortex produced by most turbine impellers.
Measurements of the maximum levels of turbulent kinetic energy together, empirical correlations and
assumptions about the size of the energy containing eddies allow the following formula to be obtained (ref 11):

𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.104 𝑥 𝑃𝑜 3/4 𝑁 3 𝐷2

where x is a parameter representing the relative size of the trailing vortex and the impeller blade width. Values
between 12 and 17 have been reported and in DynoChem utilities we use x=15 for all impeller types.

Shear rate
Shear rates (spatial velocity gradients) vary a lot in a mixing vessel and the situation is further complicated by
the existence of both turbulent (fluctuating) and laminar shear. For your convenience, we provide the link to a
web preview of a section of reference 2 that deals with shear rates here.

In the utilities, the equations we use for shear are listed on the Basis tab (see below) and in the Excel comments
on Results tab cells.

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The classical approach to shear rate estimation is based on the Metzner and Otto equation (reference 8). This is
proportional to impeller rotational speed and was developed primarily for low Reynolds number/ high viscosity
applications. We call this ‘impeller averaged laminar shear rate’.

The other estimates use power per unit mass and viscosity; they differ in the amount of power and the mass of
fluid considered. This leads to vessel averaged (all power in full liquid mass) and impeller averaged (30% of
power in impeller swept volume) turbulent shear rates. When users are concerned about particle breakage for
example, they sometimes review these turbulent shear estimates. However, it would be an oversimplification to
say that these shear estimates relate directly to breakage rates; other factors like circulation time (how often
particles pass through the impeller region) would also be relevant.

Reference 9 gives an impression of the range of equations in use to estimate shear rates. Reference 10 indicates
that about 30% of the impeller power is dissipated in the impeller region.

Impeller discharge flowrate

Although not as important or practically useful for process design as power input, the flowrate generated/
pumped by an impeller affects performance and may be calculated from its Flow number, Fl:

𝑄 = 𝐹𝑙𝑁𝐷 3

Under turbulent flow conditions, this parameter has been found by experiment to be related to Po (references 5,
6). For axial flow impellers:
1
𝐹𝑙 ≈ 0.7𝑃𝑜 3

For radial flow impellers:

1
𝐹𝑙 ≈ 0.4𝑃𝑜 3

Flow numbers in DynoChem utilities are based on these correlations for each impeller type, calculated under
fully baffled conditions and operating in the turbulent flow regime.

Torque per unit volume

Torque per unit volume is another typical calculation used to compare mixing between vessels. This parameter
has units of shear stress and may be calculated from power and volume using:

𝑀 𝑃
𝜏= =
𝑉 2𝜋𝑁𝑉

Calculations of torque per unit volume are included in several DynoChem utilities. This parameter is often
considered to be relevant when scaling mixing in systems with higher viscosity, which may have slow-moving
regions. It is also the basis for scale-up for maintaining fluid motion in liquids that exhibit a ‘yield stress’, i.e. are
semi-solid.

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However, the small, high speed turbine impeller types in DynoChem utilities are not usually a good choice for
mixing systems with these semi-solid (typically non-Newtonian) fluid characteristics and large, slow-moving
impellers are generally used for those applications.

Effects of baffles/ internals on liquid surface shape and power input

Baffles help to convert the rotational motion of the impeller into vertical (top-to-bottom) mixing. By increasing
resistance to rotation, they also increase power input, which generally enhances mixing.

Top-to-bottom circulation is helpful when working with additions at e.g. the liquid surface that need to travel
quickly around the vessel. It is also helpful when additions should enter the impeller region directly, which is
often desired. Finally, top-to-bottom motion helps to overcome formation of layers that occurs due to density
differences between phases, e.g. in solid-liquid and liquid-liquid systems.

While baffling appears to help with distribution phases around the vessel, it does not always improve ability to
‘just suspend’ solids from the bottom of the vessel; this capability appears to be somewhat independent of
baffling, or at least no clear trend is evident (e.g. reference 14 which states “In general, the partial baffling
configuration appears to be the most successful in terms of achievement of the suspension state at the lowest
value of the agitation speed with the retreat curve-blade impeller”). On the other hand, there is no doubt that
baffling improves general mixing in a vessel containing a solid-liquid slurry, helping to mix the liquid as well as
distribute the solid particles.

Baffling is not universally helpful; for example, when solid particles are lighter than the liquid, formation of a
partial surface vortex with reduced baffling may be helpful; also when attempting to incorporate gas from the
headspace. In both of these cases, submergence of the top impeller is also an important factor and vessels may
only operate well over a narrow range of fill levels.

The effect of baffling is included in our utilities on the basis of baffling effect information from references 1 and
2 and interpolation of these results where necessary. We calculate ‘% baffling’ denoted p that depends on how
many baffling internals are submerged and the baffling effect of each. For more details, see Appendix 1.

Power numbers for unbaffled vessels in the turbulent flow regime depend on Reynolds number and we use data
from reference 12 to calculate unbaffled power number for each impeller, see Appendix 2.

The minimum baffling effect is 0% and the maximum is 100%. When there is 0% baffling, the liquid surface
shape is calculated using correlations for unbaffled vessels from reference 3, as described in Appendix 3. The
power number of each submerged impeller is then taken to be that of an unbaffled vessel and this configuration
produces the deepest vortex.

When there is 100% baffling, the liquid surface shape is assumed to be flat and the power number of each
submerged impeller is that of a fully baffled vessel. In this case, there is no vortex.

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Impeller submergence is determined based on the relative positions of a flat liquid surface and the impeller
clearance. Baffle submergence is determined on the same basis and a baffle is only effective in the calculations
when submerged.

For intermediate levels of baffling between 0% and 100%, the liquid surface shape and power number of each
submerged impeller are calculated by interpolation between the results for unbaffled and fully baffled
conditions, using the percentage baffling as the interpolation parameter.

Further details are given in Appendices 1-4. Correlation parameters for all impeller types and the baffling effect
of each baffle and internals type are defined on the Impeller properties tab in each utility.

Off-centre / angled mounting

DynoChem utilities do not allow definition of an off-centre position or an angle for the agitator shaft. Those
configurations are sometimes used e.g. with portable mixers and can improve performance in the absence of
baffles. There is good evidence (e.g. in reference 2) that either mounting off-centre or at an angle in a cylindrical
vessel gives a liquid flow pattern that is similar to a standard set-up with baffles.

Figure 5 below from reference 1 and the caption support this assertion. However, in multi-phase situations (like
solid-liquid, illustrated), you can expect some asymmetry in how the phases are distributed.

You can therefore apply our utilities to get a rough estimate of performance in these configurations, as long as
you ‘model’ the system as partially baffled. A first approximation would be to model this using the normal
centred impeller set-up, with 1 baffle.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 12 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Applicability of correlations
This document concentrates on mixing calculation methods that are used across most of the utilities to estimate
vortex shape, power number and general flow and mixing characteristics. For all utilities, estimates of basic
mixing characteristics like impeller power should be quite accurate, as long as the flow is turbulent. Each utility
indicates whether flow is turbulent, based on calculation of Reynolds number.

Laboratory reactors use some types of impeller that are rarely found in larger vessels, such as paddles with two
blades, half-moon impellers and magnetic stir bars. To apply the utilities to these systems will involve some
approximations and requires use of a user defined impeller row on the Impeller properties tab and input of
parameters to approximate these impellers.

Good correlation parameters for power input are quite difficult to find when the lab configuration is as small as
an EasyMax (e.g. 100 mL) and paddles may be non-standard compared to larger scale impellers. If you have the
possibility of measuring torque on the agitator shaft in such lab reactors (e.g. EasyMax or OptiMax), these would
be valuable data for the user community, so that Power number estimates can be made more accurate.

Each utility contains further calculations that are specific to that utility, to estimate mixing performance in the
context of a process result. For example, the single-phase utility calculates mixing time, the time taken to reach
homogeneity after a fast liquid addition; the solid-liquid utility calculates NJS, the minimum agitator speed
required to suspend solid particles. Correlations used for these additional performance calculations are
described inside the relevant utility (on the Basis tab and using Excel comments) and in a specific KB article listed
in DynoChem Resources containing further background information about the relevant type of mixing.

The solid-liquid, liquid-liquid and sparged gas-liquid utilities calculating mixing performance results (e.g. NJS, NJD,
kLa) that rely on engineering correlations applicable at larger scales; performance calculations are therefore not
expected to be accurate for small vessels (e.g. <10L). Some of the utilities include warnings of this type,
triggered by calculations of vessel volume.

The single-phase mixing, heat transfer / UA and gas drawdown utility should each give quite good estimates of
mixing performance (time, heat transfer, mass transfer coefficient kLa), even in small vessels.

For further reading, there is a list of textbooks (on mixing and other topics) that we recommend to our user
community in this document.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 13 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Scaling rules
Each utility allows independent performance calculations for two vessels, Vessel 1 and Vessel 2.

We provide a scaling rules dropdown list in several utilities that calculates in a separate column to the right of
Vessel 2, the agitator speed in Vessel 2 that would obey that scaling rule when compared to Vessel 1. To use
this feature, you should define the set-up and operating conditions of both vessels 1 and 2 on the Geometry and
Results sheets as fully as you can.

Scale from: LR01 to RV231

at i

scale factor
1000

We recommend that users scale-up based on achievement of the required minimum agitation criterion that
affects the process result; such as ‘minimum speed to suspend solids’ in the solid-liquid mixing (NJS) utility. We
recommend that users also check that power per unit mass is in a similar range when scaling from vessel 1 to
vessel 2.

We provide other options in the dropdown list so that users can see how those would change the operating
conditions and mixing performance in vessel 2. Many users like to know what operating conditions would lead
to constant power per unit mass at different scales. Agitator vendors sometimes discuss or recommend scaling
at constant impeller tip speed. A shear rate scale-up might be used in a system where you were concerned with
damage to or breakage of materials in the process.

In all cases, we recommend reviewing power input per unit mass when scaling up and ensuring that this
parameter is in the range between 0.01 and 10 W/kg.

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Range of impeller types
Turbine impellers may be described as ‘radial’, ‘mixed’ or ‘axial’ depending on the flow patterns they create.
Radial flow impellers usually have higher power numbers, in the range 2-6 and include ‘Rushton’ and ‘flat blade’
impellers and blades at 90 degrees to the horizontal. Mixed flow impellers include pitched blade turbines, with
power numbers in the range 0.75-2 and blade angles between 30 and 60 degrees. Axial flow impellers include
the marine propeller and ‘hydrofoils’, with power numbers usually <0.5 and blade angles that reduce towards
the impeller tip. Sketches of impeller flow patterns below are taken from reference 15.

Axial flow
Radial flow

Mixed flow

The Impeller properties tab in the utilities lists the impeller types that you can select on the Geometry tab and
parameters in the equations used to estimate their performance characteristics. The general order of impellers
in the default/ standard lists is: radial flow impellers>mixed flow impellers>axial flow impellers>proprietary
impellers.

For each impeller, we calculate the power number under fully turbulent conditions as a function of the impeller
clearance and diameter. Further details are given in Appendix 4.

We include a standard impeller list covering turbines that are frequently used and covering the range from radial
flow (high Po) to axial flow (low Po). In general, other specific types of impeller that are not in our standard list

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 15 Latest update: 17 March 2017

may be approximated by one of the listed types, or by editing a ‘User defined’ type and entering the relevant
parameters on the Impeller properties tab.

For example, marine propellers (with pitch=diameter) have similar solids suspension performance to hydrofoils,
though with a higher power number, e.g. 0.4 versus 0.3. Hydrofoil impellers were developed by agitator
vendors starting from the marine propeller design and looking to increase flow efficiency while also being lighter
and easier to fabricate.

Companies with many vessels that contain impeller types not on our standard list are encouraged to add their
custom impellers to a modified Impeller properties tab that their users can then import easily into our utilities
to model those systems. More details about the mechanics of doing this are given in the Vessel database
sections below.

In the drawdown utility, performance of a self-aspirating impeller may be estimated. This impeller has holes in
the blades that are connected to a hollow agitator shaft with a gas inlet in the reactor headspace. Rotation of
the blades creates a low pressure region behind the blade that induces gas from the headspace into the impeller
discharge region. In principle, self-aspirating impellers can be of any ‘type’; users should select the impeller
types that most closely resembles their self-aspirating impeller.

Each utility also includes an anchor impeller, due to the high frequency of occurrence of these impellers in some
regions. The anchor parameters we use are taken from reference 16 and relate to impellers mounted near the
vessel base with diameter equal to half the tank diameter or more. Anchor impellers are not very effective for
mixing in low viscosity systems and are likely to result in mostly tangential flow, with little top-to-bottom motion.

It is possible to include a Tickler (or ‘kicker’) impeller as the bottom impeller in all utilities. If present, this
impeller is usually very small and mounted at a low clearance. Its function is to keep the system (e.g. slurry)
agitated a little while the vessel is draining, so that all material can exit via the bottom valve. A Tickler impeller
does not make a significant contribution to mixing in the vessel under normal conditions.

When you include a Tickler as the bottom impeller on your Geometry tab, we include its contribution to the
total power input to the system, together with any other impellers.

The Tickler impeller type receives special treatment in the solid-liquid mixing utility only. For solids suspension
when a Tickler is present, we calculate performance (including S or Z in the Zwietering or Grenville, Mak and
Brown correlations, respectively) based on the second (upper) impeller if one is present and submerged.
Otherwise we use S=100 for the Tickler impeller, to highlight that this is very unlikely to help suspend solids
under normal vessel operating conditions.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 16 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Report generation
The best way to generate, summarize and export results from our utilities is to use the Add to Report buttons
on the Results tabs in each. This will paste both the input values and the results of the main calculations on the
Vessel 1 Report or Vessel 2 Report tabs, in separate columns for each ‘scenario’. You can use these buttons to
quickly generate and save a lot of results, then easily compare results and copy and paste to other workbooks,
Word documents, etc.

If you would like a report that contains more detail than the report tabs, one option is to select the geometry
and results sheets and then from the Excel menu print the sheets. Print areas are set up in the utilities so that
this works easily and you can fit each sheet to a single page (portrait or landscape) to generate a PDF or
hardcopy for single set of input conditions in each vessel.

If you are using the utilities as part of a team project or technology/process transfer to another location, you will
find it useful to share the entire utility with your colleagues, e.g. by email attachment, on a file share or through
your document management system.

Design space
Several utilities include a capability to vary impeller rotational speed and liquid volume in vessel 1 or vessel 2
and generate a table of results for a selected mixing performance criterion, like power per unit mass. This
capability runs 17x17 simulations over a user-defined range of volumes and speeds, with an equal spacing
between conditions for each run. The table of results appears on the corresponding Vessel Rep tab (1 or 2)
together with a contour plot showing the response surface.

This capability may be used to define acceptable ranges of rotational speed and volume for a specific process, or
to identify the range of conditions in one vessel that match a certain response in another vessel.

Design space calculations should take less than a minute to complete and if you find that they are taking longer,
close any workbooks that do not need to be open.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 17 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Applying utilities for mixing and heat transfer assessment and design
Normal usage, with your organization’s vessel database
When you download the utilities from DynoChem Resources, they are pre-loaded with a small number of basic
lab and plant vessel configurations in our default starter database (VesselDB worksheet) and a standard list of
impeller and baffle types (Impeller properties worksheet). In your organization, a ‘custodian’ or ‘administrator’
of your vessel database can create separate VesselDB and Impeller properties worksheets in a master vessel
database workbook and add your vessels and impellers to these, supplementing or replacing our pre-loaded
data.

Tip: We recommend that when saving the vessel utilities on your own computer, you save them as .XLs files, i.e.
in Microsoft Excel (97-2003) format, to preserve full functionality on reopening later. If this does not work as
you expect, try .xlsm (macro enabled) format as an alternative.

Tip: Working in Excel 2007 or later, you may occasionally notice that graphs in a utility appear to have been
moved or resized. To correct this Excel bug, use the zoom control to zoom e.g. in and then back to the previous
zoom level.

If your organization has already assembled its vessel database (containing VesselDB and Impeller properties
worksheets - this is highly recommended) you can import this database as follows:

1. Enter the location (full network address of the file, including its file extension, or a web address) of the
vessel database as shown below [get this from your vessel database custodian]
2. Press the Import button

Import Vessel Database: P:\Vessel_database_template.xls

Import Vessel Database: https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/dc4/DB.xls

A message will appear to confirm the import. You can then select your desired vessel in the dropdown list and
proceed with your design calculations.

When you select a vessel, relevant data are read from the database onto the Geometry and Results tabs.

Data from the database are indicated in blue text.

If you override the database values, the blue text will change to black,
indicating that you have changed the settings relative to the database. This
also breaks the link between the field you have changed and the database.

To restore all settings in the utility to those in the database and restore the links to the
Restore
database, click the Restore buttons provided on the Geometry and Results tabs.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 18 Latest update: 17 March 2017

When you are part-way through or have completed your assessment, it is normal to save the utility in a project
folder so that it may be used later for further calculations or tech transfer.

Usage if your organization has not set up its vessel database yet, or if your vessel is
not listed in your database
If your organization does not yet possess a vessel database, or the vessel that you need to model is not listed in
your vessel database, you can still use the utilities immediately as follows:

1. Select one of the pre-loaded vessels from the dropdown list, or select the
blank template for a user-defined vessel

2. Edit this vessel on the Geometry tab so that it represents your vessel

3. Edit if necessary on the Results tab so that it represents your vessel

Tip: If you set up a user-defined vessel and want this to be added to the vessel database by your custodian/
administrator, send a copy of the utility to the custodian with your completed geometry and Results tabs.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 19 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Updating or creating your organization’s vessel database
When you download the utilities from DynoChem Resources, they are pre-loaded with a small number of basic
lab and plant vessel configurations in our default starter database (VesselDB worksheet) and a standard list of
impeller and baffle types (Impeller properties worksheet). In your organization, a ‘custodian’ or ‘administrator’
of your vessel database can create customized VesselDB and Impeller properties worksheets containing data for
your vessels and impellers, supplementing or replacing our pre-loaded data.

You should create your database using our database template, downloadable here. If you already have a vessel
database that predates 2017, you will need to update your database in order for it to be used with our 2017
utilities, as described below.

Porting your existing VesselDB worksheet into the updated vessel database file
using our template
If you already have an existing vessel database, you should align the format of its VesselDB worksheet with our
standard format, which has not changed since 2013.

The VesselDB sheet has the same basic structure as in prior versions, with no added columns after DB (same
number of columns since November 2013). In the instructions below and in the database import tools
contained in the 2017 utilities, we assume that your existing database follows this same structure. If not, you
will need to edit and/or move columns in your existing database so that they match our template. Extra
columns after DB are not read or processed within DynoChem utilities. Column content from columns A to DB in
your database must be consistent with our template.

We recommend that you do not insert or delete rows in the VesselDB worksheet, as this may eventually impact
correct behaviour of Excel validation dropdown lists.

The ability to define multiple custom impeller types and use these in the droplists of your VesselDB sheet has
required minor changes in the validation lists on the VesselDB sheet:

 Validation droplists for impeller type now point to named ranges that are defined on the Impeller
properties tab; this is necessary so that newly added user-defined impellers can be referred to
consistently and immediately on both worksheets (and where necessary inside our utilities).
 Old validation droplists for impeller type located below row 600 on the VesselDB have been removed;
this part of the VesselDB sheet still contains needed droplists for other information such as units,
materials of construction and heat transfer fluids.

New in 2017, your vessel database workbook should contain an extra worksheet named Impeller properties, in
the same format as our template. This worksheet allows you to edit our default parameters for Impeller
properties and to add your own user-defined impeller types for use in your VesselDB sheet and our utilities, a
great new feature that many users have requested. The validation lists for impeller, baffle and internals types
on the VesselDB sheet in our template and each utility now point to ‘named ranges’ on the Impeller properties
tab, whose content updates dynamically when you add a user-defined impeller.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 20 Latest update: 17 March 2017

  Download and open our template, as the basis for the spreadsheet that you will use as your master
database. Save locally, using an appropriate name.

 Open the utility or spreadsheet that contains your existing master vessel database.

o Check and if necessary fix any issues with column content consistency with our template, up to
and including column DB

o On the VesselDB tab, select rows with the vessel data that you would like to copy across. Be
sure to select entire rows using row headings at the left margin. This will also carry over any
supplementary information you have stored after column DB. Copy.

o Switch to our template. On the VesselDB sheet, select row 5. Paste Special… Values.

 Repeat the above sequence for all of the vessels that you would like to import from your existing
VesselDB sheet.

 You now have a new master VesselDB worksheet.

 As you have used our template to make this new vessel database, you automatically have an Impeller
properties tab in your file. This contains the standard impeller list and also space for you to add custom
/ user-defined impellers as described above.

 Some customers have made the vessel titles in column B of the VesselDB worksheet into hyperlinks that
lead e.g. to vessel drawings on other worksheets in the same workbook. You can restore this type of
functionality in our new vessel database template by carefully copying the old vessel titles (with
hyperlinks) at the end of the above process, then selecting all of your ancillary worksheets containing
additional information and moving them to the new workbook. If your old workbook is .xlsx format, you
will need to save the new workbook as .xlsm, then close and reopen Excel before being able to move all
of the ancillary worksheets.

 See the section below for advice on how best to deploy/ share this updated vessel database file.

You are welcome to send your completed vessel database to support@scale-up.com so that we can check its
format, after you have used our template to comply with the standard format.

Creating the first vessel database for your organization

The vessel database in our template and each utility is already populated with some standard vessels and these
also serve as examples of how to enter your own vessel data.

When adding a vessel, if you would like to keep our initial list of vessels intact, type in the “blank” rows following
the initial examples. These “blank” rows have been populated with default values. As you add vessels, do not
leave additional blank rows between vessels or blank vessel names in the list because this may interfere with the
correct functioning of the Select Vessel dropdown menu on the Geometry sheet.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 21 Latest update: 17 March 2017

If you prefer to remove most or all of the initial list of vessels, select the rows and ‘Clear contents’. Then you can
begin to add your own vessels starting at the top of the list and again leaving no blank rows between vessels.

We recommend you list your vessels in a sequence that makes it easy for the users to find them when using the
Select Vessel dropdown menus on the Geometry tab.

Several of the cells use data validation to restrict the entered values to lists of valid choices, e.g. units of
measure, base types, impeller types, etc. You should not enter values other than the ones listed. Note that
using copy and paste into these cells will override the validation checking. You can find the complete collection
of validation lists by clicking on the link in cell I1.

We recommend that you do not insert or delete rows in the VesselDB worksheet, as this may eventually impact
correct behaviour of Excel validation dropdown lists.

How to add a user-defined impeller type

To add a user-defined impeller type, we recommend that you first review the list of characteristics required in
order to define the performance of the impeller for your intended calculations (e.g. heat transfer, solids
suspension, etc.). Examine the row defining any impeller on the Impeller properties tab. Ideally, you will be
able to complete the entire row for your user defined impeller, in the user defined impeller section below the
main list, so that all types of calculation will be possible across all of our utilities. At a minimum, you must
complete the areas relating to the calculations you need to perform. This work should be done carefully after
collection of the relevant information for your user defined impeller type.
i General Information Nu = C.(D/T)i1(H/T)i2 Re j Prk See column AJ constant Flooded/Loaded transition
Impeller type Shorthand Notes Fl c i1 i2 j k Notes Diameter Clearance Data from ref ks C
None
Tickler 2-4 blades 0.42 0.33 0.67 0.33 ineffective small low 11
Retreat curve impeller 3RCI common 0.37 0.33 0.67 0.33 low 4, 6 11
Curved blade turbine 4CBT90 common 0.61 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 11
Anchor 2ANC simple, common 0.35 0.38 0.67 0.33 large low 10 11
2-bladed paddle 2FBT90 basic 0.53 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 11
4-bladed flat blade turbine 4FBT90 basic 0.63 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 6, 7 11
6-bladed flat blade turbine 6FBT90 basic 0.67 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 11
Rushton disc turbine 6RDT90 for dispersion 0.73 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 6, 9 11 0.33
3-bladed pitched blade turbine 3PBT45 some glass-lined 0.72 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 good 15
4-bladed pitched blade turbine 4PBT45 common 0.81 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 good 6, 7, 3, 5, 8 11
6-bladed pitched blade turbine pumping down 6PBTD for dispersion 0.84 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 6 11 4.00
6-bladed pitched blade turbine pumping up 6PBTU for dispersion 0.84 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 6 11 0.08
Marine propeller (pitch=diameter ) 3MP as in boat 0.52 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 11
Hydrofoil (3 blades, eg. Lightnin A310) 3HF modern 0.48 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 good 6, 7, 3 15
Turbofoil 4TF glass lined 0.88 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 11 15
Intermig 2IM often two-stage 0.49 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 large 6, 7 18
Chemineer CD-6 CD6 concave blades 0.58 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 3 11 0.14
HE-3 HE3 hydrofoil 0.48 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 good 6 11 774.41
Chemineer BT-6 BT6 hollow blades 0.55 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 12, 14 11 0.14
Maxflo Y hydrofoil 0.39 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 13 11 515.76
User defined 0.78 0.85 0.13 -0.56 0.67 0.33 11
User defined 2
User defined 3

If you are unable to provide values in the user defined section for some characteristics and these are important
for your work, consider approximating the characteristics for your impeller, based on values already in the list
for another impeller. You are welcome to contact support@scale-up.com to request our advice on parameter
values or assumptions that you make. We cannot guarantee that we will be able to recommend or help you to
refine your parameters.

One of the characteristics required is whether the impeller can be located at any location on the agitator shaft
or only as the bottom impeller. When you have defined this characteristic (in column BH), your new impeller
becomes part of the system and will (after importing to a utility) appear in the relevant dropdown lists on the
Geometry sheets of the utilities and in the dropdown lists on the VesselDB worksheet for defining your vessel
database.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 22 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Each 2017 utility contains Impeller information and VesselDB worksheets based on copies of the template in the
standard format. This means that a user can add a user-defined impeller to a utility ‘on the fly’ without the
assistance of the custodian of the vessel database. As noted above, the user must be in possession of the
impeller characteristics needed and of course this will not add the custom impeller to the master vessel
database.

The names of all user defined impellers must be unique in the impeller type list.

How to add a user-defined baffle or internals type

Space for up to five user defined baffle or other internals types has been provided on the Impeller properties
tab. You can enter the unique name of your user defined baffle type and its degree of baffling:

17 2 finger baffles 40
18 User defined 0
19 User defined 2 0

For more information about degree of baffling, see Appendix 1.

The names of all user defined baffle or internals types must be unique in the corresponding list.

What the Import button does

The import button downloads or opens the remote vessel database file and copies the formulas in the following
range of cells

 On worksheet “VesselDB”: Range(Cells(3, 1), Cells(504, 106))

 On worksheet “Impeller properties”: Range(Cells(1, 1), Cells(43, 60)) and Range(Cells(45, 1), Cells(67, 7))

Before the import proceeds, some error checking of the vessel database file is carried out:

 A check on whether it can be accessed successfully (e.g. via the network)

 A check on whether it can be opened in Excel
 A check that the version of the vessel database is consistent with the version of the utility making the
import [past and future versions of the vessel database may follow a different format not suitable for
import into a current utility].
 A check that both Impeller properties and VesselDB sheets exist in the vessel database.
 If any of the above checks fail, an error is reported and the import does not complete.

It may seem attractive to advise users to simply copy and paste Impeller properties and VesselDB worksheets
from a vessel database into a utility but we advise against this approach, as this is generally prone to errors and
for example, validation lists for impeller type will not then point correctly at named ranges on the Impeller
properties tab.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 23 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Management and deployment of the vessel database
We recommend that an administrator/ custodian take responsibility for populating and maintaining the master
vessel database for your organization, using our template and the standard format; end-users of the utilities
derive great benefit from these data, with improved and quick access to dimensions, and no requirement to
locate vessel drawings. Up to 500 vessels, up to 40 types of impeller, 22 types of baffle and 8 types of other
internals may be defined in the 2017 tools.

Simplified, recommended deployment workflow from 2017

Once the vessel database has been created using our template in the standard format, the custodian should
save the file on the network, intranet or a website. If using a file share, the file should be Read Only.

The custodian should communicate the location of the vessel database file to potential users of the utilities.
This can be accomplished using the usual communication channels, such as email, or shared on a collaboration
website or wiki, if such a website exists within the organization and users visit there. The location should
include the full network/ file system pathname of the file or the full address of the web link / URL of the file, e.g.

Import Vessel Database: P:\Vessel_database_template.xls

Import Vessel Database: https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/dc4/DB.xls

The file indicate in the second image above is located at https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/dc4/DB.xls. This
is the standard template also available from DynoChem Resources. The file cannot be imported to a utility
directly from the DynoChem Resources link because that link requires authentication (username, password).
The Amazon Web Services link does not require authentication.

Whether you use a file path or a URL, it is important that users do not require any additional authentication in
order to access the file location. The code behind the Import button does not include any authentication (such
as username or password).

Scale-up Systems also offers a service to provide a DynoChem TeamShare site for customers, hosted on
Microsoft Azure web infrastructure. This site is visible only to your organization and appears automatically for
users when they sign in to DynoChem Resources. This makes it easy for the custodian to distribute information
such as the location of the vessel database on your file system to all of your user community.

For more information on TeamShare sites, please contact support@scale-up.com.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 24 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Previous workflow, not recommended or necessary from 2017
Another option for deployment is for the custodian to download the utilities frequently from DynoChem
Resources and perform the database import in each to create a custom version of that utility. This was the
standard work process until release of the 2017 utilities and vessel database template.

This is an additional task for the custodian that can quite easily be forgotten in busy times and can create
confusion for users about which utilities to use, the new ones in DynoChem Resources or older ones saved on
your own internal systems. As our utilities are enhanced regularly, we recommend always using the latest
versions for new calculations.

If you decide to adopt this more manual approach to managing your vessel database, the resulting custom
utilities can be saved and shared via the intranet, file share or a website. Once again a TeamShare site is a good
vehicle for this deployment, as it appears automatically when users log in to DynoChem Resources.

For general information on this approach, there is a helpful recorded webinar available in DynoChem Resources
entitled Incorporate your own equipment in DynoChem utilities.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 25 Latest update: 17 March 2017

References
1. Kevin J. Myers, Mark F. Reeder and Julian B. Fasano, Optimize Mixing by Using the Proper Baffles,
Chemical Engineering Progress (CEP), February 2002.
2. Edward L. Paul, Victor Atiemo-Obeng, Suzanne M. Kresta, Handbook of Industrial Mixing: Science and
Practice, John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
3. Joannis Markopoulos and Eleni Kontogeorgaki, Vortex Depth in Unbaffled Single and Multiple Impeller
Agitated Vessels, Chem. Eng. Technol 18 (1995) 68-74
4. Melissa Assirelli, Waldemar Bujalski, Archie Eaglesham, Alvin W. Nienow, Macro- and micromixing
studies in an unbaffled vessel agitated by a Rushton turbine, Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 35
– 46.
5. A. W. Nienow, Hydrodynamics of stirred bioreactors, Appl Mech Rev vol 51, no 1, January 1998
6. J. Wu, Y. Zhu, L. Pullum, Impeller Geometry Effect on Velocity and Solids Suspension, ChERD, Volume 79,
Issue 8, Pages 989–997, 2001
7. Mixing and agitation, Chapter 10 in James R. Couper, W. Roy Penney, James R. Fair and Stanley M. Walas,
Chemical Process Equipment (Second Edition), Elsevier, 2005. Available online at
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780750675109
8. A.B. Metzner, R.E. Otto, Agitation of non-Newtonian fluids, AIChE J. 3(1) (1957) 3–10
9. José Antonio Sánchez Pérez, Shear Rate in Stirred Tank and Bubble Column Bioreactors, The Chemical
Engineering Journal 124(1-3):1-5 · November 2006
10. V. P. Mishra, J. B. Joshi, LDA Measurements of Flow in Stirred Gas-Liquid Reactors, Fluid Mechanics of
Mixing, Volume 10 of the series Fluid Mechanics and Its Applications pp 217-224; available at
http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-015-7973-5_25
11. R. K. Grenville, D. A. R. Brown, A METHOD FOR COMPARING IMPELLERS’ GENERATION OF FLOW AND
TURBULENCE, MIXING XXIII, Mayan Riviera, Mexico, June 2012
12. Zheng Ma, IMPELLER POWER DRAW ACROSS THE FULL REYNOLDS NUMBER SPECTRUM, Thesis
Submitted to The School of Engineering of the UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON, August 2014
13. R.K. Grenville, A.T.C. Mak, D.A.R. Brown, Suspension of solid particles in vessels agitated by axial flow
impellers, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, Volume 100 (2015) 282–291
14. Dilanji Bhagya Wijayasekara, MINIMUM AGITATION SPEED FOR SOLID SUSPENSION AND MIXING TIME
IN A TORISPHERICAL-BOTTOMED PHARMACEUTICAL STIRRED TANK UNDER DIFFERENT BAFFLING
CONDITION, PhD thesis, Otto H. York Department of Chemical, Biological and Pharmaceutical
Engineering, May 2010
15. http://www.dynamixinc.com/mixing-101-the-basic-principles-of-mixing-and-impellers, accessed 27
January 2017.
16. M.S. Abhishek, Suvarna Choudhari and Frans Muller, Observations of solid–liquid systems in anchor
agitated vessels, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 90 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 750–756

[Additional sources of parameters are listed on the Impeller Information tab in each utility].

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 26 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Appendices
Appendix 1: Calculation of percentage baffling
One method to account for the degree of baffling is to apply a correction factor to power number; such
correction factors are not available for many typical pharma configurations, where multiple items of baffling of
various types are combined. As reduced baffling leads to a reduced intensity of mixing, we go to some length to
calculate a ‘percentage baffling’ as accurately as possible and make the best possible estimate of mixing
behaviour.

We denote the degree to which a vessel is baffled as ‘percentage baffling’ and this varies from 0% to 100%:

 0% corresponds with no baffles or internals (other than the agitator and impellers) and allows rotation
of the liquid in the vessel, producing with a low impeller power number that also reduces with
increasing Reynolds number.
 100% corresponds with four (4) flat baffles of width T/12, mounted T/60 from the vessel wall and at
ninety degrees to each other; this configuration is generally referred to as ‘fully baffled’ and at
moderate impeller submergence produces a flat liquid surface, reduces liquid rotation and the impeller
power number is at or near its maximum value. Power number in this set-up is independent of Reynolds
number once the flow is turbulent (typically Re>10,000).

The concept of percentage baffling is useful because it allows us to ‘bound’ impeller and liquid surface
behaviour between two well defined extremes and to interpolate behaviour at intermediate levels of baffling
between these values. Degree of baffling (as a fraction) is calculated using the following equation and may also
be entered directly by the user for calculations in the Vessel 1 or Vessel 2 columns on the Geometry tab of the
utilities:

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥(∑𝑛𝑏
𝑖 𝛽𝑖 , 1.0) (1.1)

where i is the fractional baffling effectiveness of each baffling item and takes account of baffle type and
whether the baffle is submerged or not. Baffling effects of each item are therefore assumed to be additive, so
that the effect of adding more baffling items is captured. Baffling effects are defined on the Impeller properties
tab of the DynoChem mixing utilities, just below the section for impeller characteristics.

Calculating  values from literature relative power draw measurements

The  values tabulated in our standard list have been obtained as follows. References 1 and 2 provide
information about the relative power draw (‘RPD’) of impellers when certain baffle types are used; in some
cases, the type of impeller is defined and in other cases not. Reference 12 and others provide information about
unbaffled power numbers for various types of impeller. We estimate that over the typical Re range used in lab
and plant vessels, using the full range of turbine type impellers from high to low power numbers, the average
unbaffled power number is approximately 33% of the fully baffled power number under the same conditions.
For radial flow impellers, this value may be as low as 20% and for axial flow impellers as high as 50%.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 27 Latest update: 17 March 2017

We back-calculate  from RPD using equation (1.2):

𝑃𝑜𝑝 𝑃𝑜𝑝=0 + 𝛽(𝑃𝑜𝑝=1.0 − 𝑃𝑜𝑝=0 ) 0.33 𝑃𝑜𝑝=1.0 + 𝛽(𝑃𝑜𝑝=1.0 − 0.33𝑃𝑜𝑝=1.0 )

= 𝑅𝑃𝐷 = =
𝑃𝑜𝑝=1.0 𝑃𝑜𝑝=1.0 𝑃𝑜𝑝=1.0
= 0.33 + 𝛽(1 − 0.33)

from which:
𝑅𝑃𝐷−0.33
𝛽= 1−0.33
(1.3)

Each item of baffling (e.g. flat baffles, beavertail, dip pipe) has a value of  that is used in equation 1.3 to
calculate the overall baffling effect, p, of all submerged internals in a vessel from equation 1.1. That overall
baffling effect is used as defined in the sections below to interpolate liquid surface shape and power input
between the limits of zero and 100% baffling.

Importantly, the observation above about relatively high RPD with axial flow impellers and relatively low RPD
with radial flow impellers is reflected by this approach, as we calculate unbaffled power numbers for impellers
on an individual basis depending on impeller type and the lower relative values for radial flow impellers are
calculated automatically using the analysis below.

Appendix 2: Calculation of the effects of baffling on power number

The power number (Po) of an impeller of a specific type and diameter, at a specific clearance from the vessel
base is calculated by interpolation between its full baffled (p=100%) and fully unbaffled (p=0%) values using
percentage baffling as the interpolation parameter:

𝑃𝑜𝑝 = 𝑃𝑜𝑝=0 + 𝑝(𝑃𝑜𝑝=1.0 − 𝑃𝑜𝑝=0 ) = 𝑝𝑃𝑜𝑝=1.0 + (1 − 𝑝)𝑃𝑜𝑝=0 (2.1)

Percentage baffling is calculated using equations given in Appendix 1 above.

Unbaffled power number is calculated based on data presented in reference 12, which shows that:

𝑃𝑜𝑝=0 = 𝐾𝑃𝑜 𝑅𝑒 −𝑛_𝑃𝑜 (2.2)

The multiplier K and exponent n in equation 2.2 both vary with impeller type.

We have further analysed these data and expressions to obtain a set of equations for unbaffled power number
that apply to all types of turbine impeller studied in reference 12, from high power number radial to low power
number axial flow impellers:
𝑏_𝐾
𝐾𝑃𝑜 = 𝐴𝐾 𝑃𝑜𝑝=1.0 (2.3)

𝑏_𝑛
𝑛𝑃𝑜 = 𝐴𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑝=1.0 (2.4)

Parameters K and n can therefore be estimated knowing only the power number under fully baffled conditions.
Figure A.2 below shows the fit of 2.3 and 2.4 to the data in reference 12.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 28 Latest update: 17 March 2017

 Figure A.2: Fit of equations 2.3 and 2.4 to parameters K and n for estimation of unbaffled Po.

From the regression shown in Figure A.2, AK=1.9823 and bK=0.845; An=0.1483 and bn=0.1523.

This additional analysis allows an estimate of the unbaffled power number to be made for an impeller based
solely on knowing its fully baffled power number. This is useful because pharma vessels may contain impellers
(including user defined impellers) that are less commonly used in other parts of the chemical industries and
therefore also less well characterized.

To summarize, we use the above parameter sets A and b to calculate K and n and hence to estimate Pop=0 for
each impeller, using Pop=1.0. We then apply equation 2.1 with p to obtain Pop for the current vessel operating
conditions.

Appendix 3: Calculation of the effects of baffling on the liquid surface shape

When a vessel is fully baffled, the liquid surface is flat and the vortex depth is zero. When a vessel is completely
unbaffled, the vortex depth is at its maximum.

If p =degree of baffling (between 0 and 1), calculated from equation 1.1 above and the number and type of
baffles and their submergence, we calculate the partially baffled vortex depth (hv)p from the unbaffled vortex
depth (hv)u as follows:

ℎ𝑣,𝑝 = 𝑝(ℎ𝑣,𝑝=1 ) + (1 − 𝑝)ℎ𝑣,𝑝=0 = 𝑝(0) + (1 − 𝑝)ℎ𝑣,𝑝=0 = (1 − 𝑝)ℎ𝑣,𝑝=0 (3.1)

Once the vortex depth is known, the vortex shape can be calculated assuming a Nagata vortex (combination of
free and forced vortex) with conservation of liquid volume as a constraint. This allows the vortex shape and
liquid height at the wall to be calculated.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 29 Latest update: 17 March 2017

The ‘critical radius’ is the radius at which the vortex changes from a free vortex to a forced vortex and is
reported in the utilities.

If the vortex depth is located beneath the vessel, the intersection of the vortex and the vessel base needs to be
calculated, and the shape is calculated iteratively to conserve volume.

For illustration, results produced by the utility have been compared with photographs from reference 4 in the
table below.

Observed vortex in unbaffled vessel Predicted vortex in unbaffled vessel

N=300 rpm

N=522 rpm

Table 3.1: Vortex depth photographs and predictions: unbaffled vessel, 0.29m diameter, reference 4.

In order to calculate the vortex depth in partially baffled systems, the unbaffled vortex depth is first calculated:

𝑇 𝑏6
ℎ𝑣 𝑏2 𝑇 𝑏3 𝑏4 𝐺𝑎 𝑏5 ( )
𝑑
= 𝐵1 𝐺𝑎 (𝐷) 𝐹𝑟 𝐷 (3.2)

Coefficients B1,b2,b3,b4,b5,b6 are obtained from reference 3. In equation (3.2) the symbols mean:

D=impeller diameter

T=tank diameter

hv=vortex depth

Ga= Gallilei number (=Re2/Fr)

Fr= Froude number

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 30 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Table of values used in equation 3.2:

Impeller Gamin Gamax B1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6

User defined

Tickler 1.09 0.05 -0.1 1

Retreat curve impeller* 1e8 2e10 1.23 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

Curved blade turbine* 1e8 2e10 1.23 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

4-bladed pitched blade turbine 1.09 0.05 -0.1 1

3-bladed pitched blade turbine 1e8 2e10 0.84 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

Hydrofoil* 1e8 2e10 0.84 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

Turbofoil* 1e8 2e10 0.84 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

4-bladed flat blade turbine (est) 1.32 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

6-bladed flat blade turbine 3e7 5e10 1.52 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

Rushton disc turbine 3e7 5e10 1.52 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

Anchor 2e7 6e10 2.82 1.07

Intermig

6-bladed pitched blade turbine pumping up

6-bladed pitched blade turbine pumping down 8e6 1e10 1.13 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

Chemineer CD-6* 3e7 5e10 1.52 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

Maxflo Y* 1e8 2e10 0.84 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

HE-3* 1e8 2e10 0.84 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

ChemineerBT-6* 3e7 5e10 1.52 0.069 -0.38 1.14 -0.008 0.008

*Hydrofoil, Turbofoil, Maxflo Y and HE3 assumed the same as 3 blade PBT; CD6 and BT6 assumed same as Rushton disk
turbine; RCI and Curved blade turbine assumed same as 3 bladed flat blade turbine estimated (B1 is 0.29 less than a 6 blade
flat blade based on difference for 6 and 3 blade PBT). No values available for an Intermig or an up-pumping impeller (no
vortex formed).

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 31 Latest update: 17 March 2017

Appendix 4: Correlations for Power Number and the Zwietering s parameter
The performance of a specific impeller type, especially its power number and solids suspension performance,
depends on its diameter and clearance.

Power number correlation parameters fitted by Scale-up Systems to measured published impeller data for fully
baffled conditions are stored on the standard Impeller properties tab in each utility and the standard vessel
database template, together with all other impeller performance calculation parameters.

Solids suspension correlation parameters fitted by Scale-up Systems to measured published impeller data are
also stored on the Impeller properties tab, for calculation of the ‘s’ parameter in the Zwietering equation. The ‘z’
parameter for use in the Grenville Mak and Brown solids suspension correlation is also stored there for axial and
mixed flow impellers.

We would welcome submissions of further Po or s data or references that we can use to improve these
correlations. Both the fully baffled power number and solids suspension calculations currently use a linear form
of equation to calculate the effects of impeller diameter clearance and degree of baffling (p, where applicable)
on Po and s:
𝐷 𝐶
𝑃𝑜𝑏 = 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 + 𝐴𝑃𝑜 𝑇 + 𝐵𝑃𝑜 𝑇 (4.1)

𝐷 𝐶
𝑠 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑇 + 𝐵𝑠 𝑇 +𝐶𝑠 𝑝 (4.2)

This approach has been found to fit satisfactorily to a range of impeller data; 95% confidence intervals are within
20% of the predicted values. Using a logarithmic function instead with exponents on the parameters did not
improve the fit. No empirical correlation will work perfectly over a significant range of these parameters; given
the variability within the measured data, this approach appears to be reasonably accurate.

When the user’s impeller configuration is outside the range of D and C covered by the correlations (4.1) and (4.2)
above, the indicator ‘E’ appears beside the calculated value on the Results tab. This indicates ‘extrapolation’
outside the region where we have measured data and the values used will be those that apply at the edge of the
covered range. When the configuration lies within the range of the correlation, the indicator ‘I’ for interpolation
appears.

For less common impellers, where fewer published data are available, we approximate their characteristics
based on similar impellers that are better characterized. We apply the correlations in (4.1) and (4.2) for these
less common impellers at conditions C/T=D/T=0.33. The ‘E’ indicator appears on the Results tab to indicate
extrapolation.

For multiple impellers, we treat the vertical distance between each impeller as a ‘clearance’ and apply equations
4.1 and 4.2.

DynoChem Mixing Utilities 32 Latest update: 17 March 2017