Plasma Basics Concepts

Chapter 7
Plasma Basics
Objectives
After finishing this chapter, the reader will be able to:
• define plasma
• list the three basic components of plasma
• list the three key collisions in plasma and identify their importance
• list the benefits of using plasmas in CVD and etch processes
• identify major differences between plasma-enhanced CVD and plasma etch
processes
• name at least two high-density plasma systems
• define and explain the mean free path and its relationship to pressure
• define and explain the effect of magnetic fields on plasma
• describe ion bombardment and its relationship to plasma processes.
7.1 Introduction
Plasma processes are widely used in semiconductor processing. For example, all
patterned etching in IC fabrication is either a plasma etch or dry etch process.
Plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD) and high-density plasma CVD (HDP-CVD)
processes are widely used for dielectric depositions. Ion implanters use plasma
sources to generate ions for wafer doping and to provide electrons to neutralize
ions on wafer surfaces. Plasmas are also used in physical vapor deposition
(PVD) processes, in which metal is sputtered from a target surface by ion
bombardment and deposited on a wafer surface. Remote plasma source systems are
commonly used in process chamber cleaning, film stripping, and film deposition
processes. This chapter covers the basic properties of plasma and its applications
in semiconductor processes, focusing mainly on etch and CVD.
7.2 Definition of Plasma

Plasma is widely defined in the semiconductor industry as an ionized gas with
equal numbers of positive and negative charges. More precisely, plasma is a quasi-
neutral gas of charged and neutral particles that exhibit a collective behavior.
Readers can find more information about plasma in the References section at the
end of this chapter.
237
Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx
238 Chapter 7
7.2.1 Components of plasma

Plasma consists of neutral atoms or molecules, negative charges (electrons), and
positive charges (ions). In a plasma, the electron concentration is about equal to
the ion concentration, ne = ni , which keeps the plasma quasi-neutral.
The ratio of electron concentration to the total concentration is defined as the
ionization rate:
ionization rate = ne /(ne + nn ),
where ne is electron concentration, ni is ion concentration, and nn is neutral

concentration. Ionization rate is mainly determined by electron energy; it is also
related to the gas species, since different gases require different ionization energies.
For example, the sun is a big ball of plasma. At the edge of the sun, ionization rate
is very low, or ne nn , due to the relatively low temperature (about 6000 ◦ C). At
the center of the sun, the temperature is so high (∼10,000,000 ◦ C) that almost all
gas molecules are ionized. Thus, at nn ne , the ionization rate is almost 100%.
Plasmas used in semiconductor processing have very low ionization rates. For
example, the ionization rate of plasma generated in a PECVD reactor with two
parallel plate electrodes is about one in one million to one in ten million, or less
than 0.0001%. In a plasma etch chamber with two parallel plate electrodes, the
ionization rate is a little higher. About one in ten thousand atoms or molecules are
ionized, meaning that the ionization rate is less than 0.01%. Even in the two most
commonly used high-density plasma sources, inductively coupled plasma (ICP)
or electron cyclotron resonance (ECR), ionization rates are still very low, usually
from 1 to 5%. High-density plasma sources with almost 100% ionization rates are
still in research and development and not used in IC production yet.
The ionization rate of a plasma reactor is mainly determined by electron energy,
which is controlled by the applied power. It is also related to pressure, electrode
spacing, and the processing gas species.
7.2.2 Generation of plasma

An external energy source must be applied in order to generate plasma. There are
several ways to generate plasma in semiconductor processes. A hot filament with
potential dc bias is commonly used to generate plasma in ion source and plasma
flooding systems in ion implanters. Most PVD systems use a dc power supply
to generate plasma. The most commonly used plasma sources in semiconductor
processing are rf plasma sources, which are the main topic of this chapter.
In most PECVD and plasma etch chambers, plasmas are generated by rf power
applied between two parallel plate electrodes in a vacuum chamber, as shown in
Fig. 7.1. This is called a capacitively coupled plasma source, since the two parallel
electrodes are exactly like the electrodes of a capacitor.
When rf power is applied to the electrodes, a varying electric field is established
between them. If the rf power is high enough, a free electron can be accelerated
by the varying electric field until it gains enough energy to collide with an atom or

Plasma Basics 239
Figure 7.1 Schematic of a capacitively coupled plasma source.
molecule inside the chamber, generating an ion and another free electron. Due to
the cascading of ionization collisions, the entire chamber fills quickly with equal
numbers of electrons and ions—this is plasma.
In plasma, some electrons and ions are continually lost and consumed by
collisions with electrodes and chamber walls, and also by recombination collisions
between electrons and ions. When the generation rate of electrons through
ionization collisions is equal to the loss rate of electrons, the plasma is said to
be stabilized.
Other plasma sources such as dc plasma, ICP, ECR, and microwave (MW)
remote plasma sources all have very similar plasma generating processes.
Question: Without the first free electron inside a chamber, there is no way to start
plasma. Where does the first free electron come from?
Answer: It is usually generated by a cosmic ray. It also can be generated by heat
(thermal electrons) or by native radioactive decay.
7.3 Collisions in Plasma

There are two kinds of collisions inside plasma: elastic and inelastic. Elastic
collisions are the most frequent collisions in plasma. Since there is no energy
exchange between colliding particles in an elastic collision, it is not important.
There are many kinds of inelastic collisions happening simultaneously in plasma:
collisions between electrons and neutrals, collisions between ions and neutrals,
collisions between ions and ions, and collisions between electrons and ions. In
plasma, any possible collision imaginable can happen. Since different collisions
have varying probabilities of occurrence, the importance of each type of collision
is not the same. For plasmas used in semiconductor processing, three collisions are
very important: ionization, excitation-relaxation, and dissociation collisions.
7.3.1 Ionization
When an electron collides with an atom or molecule, it can transfer part of its
energy to the orbital electron confined by the nucleus of that atom or molecule. If
the orbital electron gains enough energy to break free from the constraint of the
nucleus, it becomes a free electron (see Fig. 7.2). This process is called electron

240 Chapter 7
Figure 7.2 Ionization collision before and after electron impact.
impact ionization. Ionization collision can be expressed as
e− + A → A+ + 2e− ,
where e− represents an electron with a negative charge, A represents a neutral atom

or molecule, and A+ represents a positive ion. Ionization is very important because
it generates and sustains the plasma.
7.3.2 Excitation-relaxation
Sometimes an orbital electron does not get enough energy from the impact electron
to break free from the constraint of the nucleus. The transferred energy to the
orbital electron from the collision will cause it to jump to a higher energy level of
the orbit. This process is called excitation. An excitation collision can be expressed
as
e − + A → A∗ + e − ,
where A∗ is the excited state of atom or molecule A, indicating that it has an

electron in the higher energy level orbit.
The excited state is not stable and has a short lifetime. An electron in an excited
orbit does not stay at that higher energy level for very long and falls back to the
orbit with the lowest possible energy level, or ground state. This process is called
relaxation. The excited atom or molecule quickly relaxes back to its ground state
and releases the extra energy it gained from the electron impact in the form of a
photon, which is the light emission. The relaxation process can be expressed as
A∗ → A + hν (photons),
where hν is the energy of the photon, h is Planck’s constant, and ν is the frequency
of the light emission, which determines the color of light emitted from the plasma.
Different atoms or molecules have different orbital structures and energy levels;
therefore, the light emission frequencies are different. This is why different gases
glow in various colors within the plasma. The glow of oxygen is grayish-blue,
nitrogen is pink, neon light is red, a fluorine glow is orange-red, etc.

Plasma Basics 241
Figure 7.3 (a) Before and (b) after excitation collision.
Figure 7.4 Relaxation process.
The excitation-relaxation process is illustrated in Figs. 7.3 and 7.4. Detection of

a change in light emission is widely used in semiconductor processes to determine
the endpoints of both etch and CVD chamber cleaning processes. This is covered
in greater detail in Chapters 9 and 10.
7.3.3 Dissociation
When an electron collides with a molecule, it can break the chemical bond and
generate free radicals if the energy transferred by the impact to the molecule is
higher than the molecule’s bonding energy. This is called a dissociation collision

242 Chapter 7
and can be expressed as
e− + AB → A + B + e− ,
where AB is a molecule, and A and B are free radicals generated by a dissociation

collision. Free radicals are molecular fragments with at least one unpaired electron.
This makes them chemically very reactive, since they have a strong tendency to
grab an electron from other atoms or molecules to form a stable molecule. Free
radicals can enhance chemical reaction in both etch and CVD processes. Figure 7.5
illustrates the dissociation collision process.
For example, in both oxide etch and CVD chamber cleaning processes, fluoro-
carbon gas such as CF4 is used in plasma to generate free fluorine radical F:
e− + CF4 → CF3 + F + e− .
In the PECVD oxide process, silicon precursor silane (SiH4 ) and oxygen
precursor nitrous oxide (N2 O, also known as laughing gas) are used to generate
free radicals:
e− + SiH4 → SiH2 + 2H + e− ,
e− + N 2 O → N 2 + O + e− .
Free radicals such as F, SiH2 , and O are chemically very reactive. This is why
plasma can enhance chemical reactions in both CVD and etch processes.
Question: Why are dissociation collisions unimportant in aluminum and copper

sputtering processes?
Answer: Aluminum and copper sputtering processes only use argon, which is a
noble gas. Unlike other gases, noble gases exist in the form of atoms
instead of molecules. Thus, there is no dissociation process in argon
plasma.
Question: Is there any dissociation collision in plasma sputtering PVD processes?
Answer: Yes. Both argon (Ar) and nitrogen (N2 ) are used in titanium nitride (TiN)
sputtering deposition processes. In plasma, N2 is dissociated to generate
a free radical N, which reacts with titanium or tantalum to from TiN
Figure 7.5 Dissociation collision.

Plasma Basics 243
on the target surface. Ar+ ions sputter TiN molecules from the target
surface and deposit them on a wafer surface. Sputtering deposition of
tantalum nitride (TaN) is very similar to the deposition of TiN.
7.3.4 Other collisions

Other collisions inside plasma, such as recombination, charge-exchange, pitch-
angle scattering, and neutral-neutral collisions, etc., are not important in PECVD
and plasma etch processes. Some collisions are the combination of two or more
different kinds of collisions.
Table 7.1 shows possible collision processes in PECVD silane plasma. It can
be seen that some are dissociation, some are a combination of dissociation and
excitation, and some are a combination of dissociation and ionization collisions.
Question: Which one of the collisions in Table 7.1 is most likely to happen? Why?
Answer: The collision that requires the least energy is the most likely to happen.
It is much easier for an electron to fall to a lower energy level than
climb to a higher one. Under conditions of field strength, pressure, and
temperature, an electron is more likely to be accelerated for a short
distance without a collision to attain enough energy required for that
first collision to occur (2.2 eV). It is least likely for an electron to
travel a much longer distance without a collision to gain enough energy
(15.3 eV) needed for the last reaction in Table 7.1.
7.4 Plasma Parameters

The main plasma parameters are mean free path (MFP), thermal velocity, magnetic
field, and the Boltzmann distribution.
Table 7.1 Possible plasma collision processes.

Collisions Byproducts Energy of
formation
e− + SiH4 → SiH2 + H2 + e− 2.2 eV

SiH3 + H + e− 4.0 eV
Si + 2H2 + e− 4.2 eV
SiH + H2 + H + e− 5.7 eV
SiH∗2 + 2H + e− 8.9 eV
Si∗ + 2H2 + e− 9.5 eV
SiH+2 + H2 + 2e− 11.9 eV
SiH+3 + H + 2e− 12.32 eV
Si+ + 2H2 + 2e− 13.6 eV
SiH+ + H2 + H + 2e− 15.3 eV

244 Chapter 7
7.4.1 Mean free path

The MFP is defined as the average distance a particle can travel before it collides
with another particle. MFP (or λ) can be expressed by the following equation:
1
λ= √ , (7.1)
2nσ
where n is particle density, and σ is the collision cross section. Higher particle
density causes more collisions, which shorten the MFP. Large particles collide
more easily with other particles and therefore have shorter MFPs. As shown in
Eq. (7.1), MFP is determined by chamber pressure, which determines particle
density. Gas (or gases) in the chamber can also affect MFP because different gas
molecules have different sizes or cross-sectional areas.
Question: What is the MFP for a molecule with diameter 3 Å and density
3.5 × 1016 cm−3 (the density of
√ an ideal gas at 1 torr or 1 mm Hg)?
Answer: Based on Eq. (7.1), λ = 1/[ 2 × 3.5 × 10 × π × (3 × 10−8 /2)2 ] =
16
0.029 cm.
Figure 7.6 shows that the MFP is shorter when the gas density is higher
[Fig. 7.6(a)] and longer when gas density is lower [Fig. 7.6(b)]. Large particles
have a larger cross section and sweep through more space. Therefore, they are more
likely to collide with other particles and have shorter MFPs than average sized or
smaller particles. Changing pressure changes particle density, therefore affecting
MFP:
λ ∝ 1/p.
As pressure reduces, the MFP increases; as pressure decreases, particle density

reduces, and therefore the frequency of collision decreases. An approximation of
the MFP of a gas molecule in air is
MFP (cm) ≈ 50/p (mtorr).
Figure 7.6 (a) High-pressure short MFP and (b) low-pressure long MFP.

Plasma Basics 245
For an electron, the MFP can be twice as long, since it has a much smaller size:
λe (cm) ≈ 100/p (mtorr).
PECVD processes normally operate at 1 to 10 torr; therefore, in PECVD

chambers the electron MFP λe = 0.01 to 0.1 cm. Etch process pressures are much
lower, from 3 mtorr to 300 mtorr. Therefore, in an etch chamber, electron MFP λe
varies from 0.33 to 33 cm.
The MFP is one of the most important concepts of plasma. It can be controlled
by chamber pressure, and it can affect processing results, sometimes significantly,
especially for plasma etch processes. When pressure in a plasma processing
chamber changes, the MFP changes. Likewise, ion bombardment energy and ion
direction change, which can affect rate and profile in etch processes, and film stress
in PECVD processes. Plasma shape will also change due to electron MFP changes.
At higher pressure, plasma is more concentrated near the electrodes, while at lower
pressure, plasma can spread throughout the chamber. Pressure can affect plasma
uniformity and change the etch rate or deposition rate across a wafer.
Question: Why is a vacuum chamber necessary to generate stable plasma?
Answer: At atmospheric pressure (760 torr or 760 mm Hg), the MFP of an
electron is very short. It is very difficult for an electron to acquire
enough energy to ionize gas unless it is in an extremely strong electric
field. This creates plasma in the form of arcing (lightning) instead of a
steady-state glow discharge.
7.4.2 Thermal velocity

In plasma, electrons, ions, and neutrals constantly move due to external electric
power and thermal movement. Electrons have the lightest weight and smallest size;
therefore, they are more likely to pick up energy from an external power supply
compared to ions and neutrals. In plasma, electrons always move faster than ions
and neutrals.
The mass ratio of an electron compared to the mass of the lightest hydrogen ion
is 1 to 1836. In PECVD, etch, and PVD processes, the most commonly used ions
are oxygen, argon, chlorine, and fluorine, all of which are all significantly heavier
than a hydrogen ion. Therefore, these ions are much heavier than an electron by
at least a factor of 10,000. However, the electric force that provides energy to the
plasma is the same for both electrons and ions, since it is only related to electrical
charge and electric field:
F = qE,
where F is the force on a charged particle, q is the electrical charge (electron is

negative and ion is positive), and E is the electric field generated by an external

246 Chapter 7
power supply such as rf, dc, or microwave. The acceleration of the charged particle
can be expressed as
a = F/m = qE/m,
where m is the mass of the charged particle. Since the mass of electrons is less
than a factor of 1/10,000 compared with ions, electrons can be accelerated more
than 10,000 times faster than ions! This is similar to a motorcycle, which can
accelerate much faster than an 18-wheel truck. It is not very hard to imagine how
fast a motorcycle would start up using a powerful engine from an 18 wheeler, or
to visualize how slow an 18 wheeler powered by a motorcycle engine would creep
away from a traffic stop.
Most etch and CVD plasma sources use rf power. Radio frequency power
generates a varying electric field, which changes directions rapidly. Electrons can
be accelerated rapidly and start collision processes such as ionization, excitation,
and dissociation in the positive cycle of an rf field, and repeat those processes
in the negative cycle. Because ions are too heavy to respond quickly enough to
the varying electric field, electrons absorb most of the rf energy due to their light
weight and quick response. This process is very similar to two vehicles traveling
on a road with stop signs at every intersection. The motorcycle can start up and
slow down very quickly. The big truck starts very slowly and has to slow down
gradually. It is easy to see that the average speed of the motorcycle would be much
higher than the big truck on this kind of road.
When subjected to a lower rf power, ions pick up a little more energy than they
would with a higher rf power. Lower rf power allows more time for ions to respond;
therefore, it can accelerate ions to a higher energy and provide more energy for ion
bombardment.
In any case, electrons always have a much higher temperature than ions or
neutrals in plasma. Thermal velocity can be expressed as
v = (kT/m)1/2 , (7.2)
where k = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K is the Boltzmann constant, T is temperature, and m

is the mass of the particle. For plasma generated by rf power within two parallel
electrodes (or capacitively coupled plasma), electron temperature T e is about 2 eV,
where one electron volt (1 eV) is equivalent to 11,594 K or 11,321 ◦ C. Based on
Eq. (7.2), electron thermal velocity can be calculated as
ve ≈ 4.19 × 107 T e1/2 (T in eV) ≈ 5.93 × 107 cm/sec = 1.33 × 107 mph.
An electron in plasma moves faster than an orbiting space shuttle.

In contrast, the thermal velocity of an argon ion (Ar+ ) with T Ar ≈ 0.05 eV is
vi = 3.46 × 104 cm/sec = 774 mph. The ions move at the speed of an airplane,
much slower than the electrons.

Plasma Basics 247
7.4.3 Magnetic field

In a magnetic field, a charged particle experiences a magnetic force that can be
expressed as
F = qv × B, (7.3)
where q is the charge of the particle, v is the velocity of the particle, and B is
the magnetic field strength. Since a magnetic force is always perpendicular to
particle velocity, a charged particle will spiral around the magnetic field line. This
movement is called gyromotion.
The gyromotion of a charged particle in a magnetic field (see Fig. 7.7) is a
very important property of plasma and has many applications in semiconductor
processing. A number of capacitively coupled plasma etch chambers have magnetic
coils to generate a magnetic field and cause electron gyromotion. This helps to
generate and maintain a higher-density plasma at low pressure. One of the most
commonly used high-density plasma sources is the ECR plasma source, which uses
a magnetic field and microwave power source. When the microwave frequency is
equal to the electron gyrating frequency, the microwave power resonantly couples
to the electrons to generate high-density plasma at very low pressure.
The ion implanter is another processing tool that uses magnets. The strong
magnetic field generated by a dc current in the analyzer magnetic coils of an ion
implanter can bend the trajectories of the high-energy ions. Because ions with
different charge/mass (q/m) ratios have different trajectories in a magnetic field,
they exit the magnetic field at different places. This allows fabs to precisely select
the desired ions and terminate the undesired ones.
The frequency of a charged particle cycling around a magnetic field line is called
the gyrofrequency Ω and can be expressed as
qB
Ω= . (7.4)
m
Figure 7.7 Gyromotion of a charged particle in a magnetic field.

248 Chapter 7
For a charged particle with a fixed charge and specific mass, the gyrofrequency
is determined only by magnetic field strength B. The gyrofrequency for an electron
is Ωe (MHz) = 2.8B (gauss or G).
The radius of the gyration is called the gyroradius ρ and can be expressed as
ρ = v⊥ /Ω,
where v⊥ is the particle speed perpendicular to the magnetic field line. For an elec-
tron, the gyroradius is ρe (cm) = 2.38T e1/2 /B, where T e is the electron temperature
expressed in electron volts eV, and B is in gauss. Similarly, the ion gyroradius can
be expressed by ρi (cm) = 102 (AT i )1/2 /ZB. Here, A is the atomic weight of the
ion, and Z is the number of the ionization charge of the ion; both values are integer
numbers. Ion mass mion = Am p , where m p is the mass of the proton, which is equal
to 1.67 × 10−27 g. Ion charge q = Ze, where e = 1.6 × 10−19 C is the charge of an
electron.
Question: In an argon sputter etch chamber, the electron temperature is T e ≈ 2 eV,
argon ion temperature is T i ≈ 0.05 eV, and a magnetic field B = 100 G.
For an argon ion, A = 40 and Z = 1. What are the electron and ion
gyroradii?
Answer: Electron gyroradius ρe = 2.38 × 21/2 /100 = 0.034 cm; and argon ion
(Ar+ ) gyroradius ρi = 102 × (40 × 0.05)1/2 /100 = 1.44 cm.
Question: In an ion implanter with an analyzer magnetic field B = 2000 G and
argon ion (Ar+ ) energy E Ar = 200 keV, what is its gyroradius?
Answer: ρi = 102 × (40 × 200, 000)1/2 /2000 = 144 cm.
7.4.4 Boltzmann distribution

In thermal equilibrium plasma, both electron and ion energy follow the Boltzmann
distribution, as shown in Fig. 7.8. The average electron energy in a capacitively
coupled plasma source is about 2 to 3 eV. The ion energy in bulk plasma is mainly
determined by the chamber temperature, ∼200 to 400 ◦ C, or 0.04 to 0.06 eV.
Figure 7.8 demonstrates that most electrons have energy around the average
value, 2 to 3 eV. Very few electrons have energy high enough for ionization, which
is approximately 15 eV. This explains why the ionization rate is so low in parallel
plate plasma sources.
Question: Assume that the electron temperature in a plasma source averages 1 keV
(∼11,600,000 ◦ C, the temperature in the core of the sun). What is the
ionization rate of this plasma?
Answer: Almost 100%.
7.5 Ion Bombardment

Since electrons move much faster than ions, anything close to the plasma, including
the chamber wall and electrodes, will be charged negatively as soon as the plasma

Plasma Basics 249
Figure 7.8 Electron energy distribution.
Figure 7.9 Sheath potential nears the plasma surface.
is initiated. The negatively charged electrodes will repel negative electrons and
attract positive ions; therefore, in the vicinity of the electrodes, there are fewer
electrons than ions.
The difference between the negative and positive charges creates an electric field
in that region, called the sheath potential, as illustrated in Fig. 7.9. Light emission
from this region is less intense than from the bulk plasma, since fewer electrons
are present and fewer excitation-relaxation collisions occur; thus, a dark space can
be observed near the electrodes.
The sheath potential accelerates ions toward the electrodes, causing ion
bombardment. If a wafer is placed over an electrode, ions accelerated by the sheath
potential will bombard its surface.
Ion bombardment is a very important property of plasma. Any conducting
materials close to plasma will be subject to ion bombardment. Ion bombardment

250 Chapter 7
can affect etch rate, selectivity, and profiles in plasma etch processes. It also can
affect deposition rate and film stress in PECVD and HDP-CVD processes.
Ion bombardment has two parameters. One is ion energy, the other is ion flux.
Ion energy is related to external power supply, chamber pressure, electrode spacing,
and processing gases. Ion flux is related to plasma density; it is also determined by
external power supply, chamber pressure, electrode spacing, and processing gases.
In rf plasma systems, rf frequency also affects ion energy. At a high frequency,
such as 13.56 MHz, electrons pick up the majority of the energy, and ions are
left “cold.” At a much lower frequency, such as 350 kHz, although electrons still
acquire most of the energy, ions have a better chance to pick up some energy
from the rf power due to the slower change rate of the electric field. By using the
earlier analogy of the two vehicles, this would be akin to increasing the distance
between stop signs from one every block to one every kilometer. In this case, the
motorcycle (electron) still has the advantage at an average speed because of its
fast acceleration and quick stops, but the average speed of the truck (ion) will be
significantly increased because this scenario enables the big truck to reach and
sustain a high speed.
Question: Why is 13.56 MHz the most commonly used frequency for rf systems?
Answer: Because the government regulates applications of rfs under an interna-
tional treaty, it is necessary to regulate the applications of rfs to avoid
interference with different applications. If some rf interferes with an
air traffic control radio signal, it could have disastrous consequences.
Industrial manufacturing, medical applications, and scientific research
have 13.56 MHz assigned to them. Such rf generators have been com-
mercially available for a long time and are more cost effective than other
rf sources such as 2 MHz, 1.8 MHz, etc.
7.6 Direct-Current Bias

In an rf system, the potential of an rf hot electrode changes rapidly. Plasma
potential also changes very quickly. Because electrons move faster than ions,
anything close to the plasma will be charged negatively; plasma always has a higher
potential than anything close to it.
A plasma potential curve (solid curve) is shown in Fig. 7.10. When the rf
potential (dashed curve) is in its positive cycle, plasma potential is higher than the
rf hot electrode potential. When the rf potential goes negative, plasma potential will
not follow it to the negative side. It must maintain a higher potential than the ground
potential. When the rf potential returns to positive again, plasma potential rises
again. Thus, the plasma potential cycles entirely in a range higher than the ground
potential. Therefore, on average, there is a dc potential difference maintained
between bulk plasma and electrodes. This difference is called the dc bias. The
energy of a bombarding ion is determined by the dc bias, which is about 10 to
20 V in a PECVD chamber with parallel plate electrodes. The dc bias mainly
depends on rf power; it is also related to the chamber pressure and processing gas

Plasma Basics 251
Figure 7.10 dc bias and its relation to rf power.
Figure 7.11 dc biases with (a) lower and (b) higher rf power.
species. When rf power increases, the amplitude of the rf potential will increase
correspondingly, and the plasma potential and dc bias increases (see Fig. 7.11).
Plasma potential depends on the rf power, pressure, and spacing between the
electrodes. For a symmetrical system with two electrodes having the same area
(shown in Fig. 7.12), the dc bias is about 10 to 20 V. Most PECVD systems have
this type of structure. Since rf power also affects plasma density, a capacitively
coupled (parallel plate) plasma source cannot independently control ion energy
and flux.
Figure 7.13 shows the voltage in an asymmetric electrode plasma source. In this
case, the two electrodes have different areas. Current continuity induces a self-bias
when the negative bias voltage builds on the smaller electrode. Sheath voltages
depend on the ratio of the electrode areas, as shown in Fig. 7.14. In an ideal case
(no collisions in the sheath region), voltages and electrode areas have the following
relation:
V1 /V2 = (A2 /A1 )4 , (7.5)

252 Chapter 7
Figure 7.12 Plasma potential in a symmetric electrode system.
Figure 7.13 dc potential in an asymmetric electrode rf system.
Figure 7.14 Plasma potential in an asymmetric electrode system.

Plasma Basics 253
where V1 is the dc bias, which is the potential difference between the bulk plasma
and the rf hot electrode; and V2 is the plasma potential (plasma to ground). The self-
bias equals V1 − V2 (rf hot to ground). The smaller electrode has a larger sheath
voltage and thus receives more energetic ion bombardment.
Most etch chambers use asymmetric electrodes, and a wafer is always placed on
the smaller rf hot electrode to receive more energetic ion bombardment during
the entire rf cycle. Since etch processes require more ion bombardment, self-
bias on the smaller electrode can help increase ion bombardment energy. For an
rf system with symmetric parallel electrodes, the amount of ion bombardment
on both electrodes is about the same. Therefore, if the wafer receives heavy ion
bombardment, the other electrode will receive the same amount of bombardment,
which is very undesirable, as this can cause particle contamination and short
lifetimes of the processing chamber parts.
Question: If an electrode area ratio is 1:3, what is the difference between the dc
bias and the self-bias, compared to the dc bias?
Answer: The dc bias is V1 , and the self-bias is V1 − V2 ; therefore, the difference
is:
[V1 − (V1 − V2 )]/V1 = V2 /V1 = (A1 /A2 )4 = (1/3)4 = 1/81 = 1.23%.
In this case, dc bias V1 is significantly larger than the plasma potential

V2 , and it is very close to the self-bias. Many people measure the
potential difference between the rf hot electrode and the grounded
electrode and call the result the dc bias, when in fact it is the self-bias.
Of course, they are close enough to ignore plasma potential V2 , which
is very hard to measure. Ion bombardment energy is determined by dc
bias.
Question: Can a fine metal probe be inserted into the plasma to measure plasma
potential V2 ?
Answer: Yes, it can. However, the metal probe will be negatively charged by the
fast-moving electrons and form a sheath potential between its surface
and the bulk plasma when it comes close to the plasma. Therefore,
measurement results are determined by theoretical models of the sheath
potential, which have not been fully developed yet.
7.7 Advantage of Plasma Processes

Several qualities of plasma are very helpful in semiconductor processes. Ion
bombardment is crucial for sputtering deposition, etch, and CVD film stress
control. Free radicals from disassociated electron molecules greatly enhance
chemical reaction rates in both CVD and etch processes. The glows emitted from
plasma due to their excitation and relaxation reliably measure optical endpoints for
plasma etch and plasma chamber cleaning processes.

254 Chapter 7
7.7.1 Chemical vapor deposition

The major benefits of using plasma in CVD processes are:
• high deposition rates at relatively lower temperatures
• control of deposited film stress with ion bombardment
• process-chamber dry cleaning with fluorine-based plasma
• excellent gap-fill capabilities with a high-density plasma source.
Free radicals generated in plasma by dissociation processes can dramatically
increase chemical reaction rates, thus significantly increasing deposition rates,
especially at the relatively low temperatures required for interconnection processes
after the first aluminum metallization.
7.7.1.1 Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition

Comparison of silane-based silicon oxide plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD) and
low-pressure CVD (LPCVD) processes is a good example for demonstrating the
advantages of using PECVD in lower-temperature (<450 ◦ C) processes. Interlayer
dielectric (ILD) deposition requires lower temperatures after the first layer of
metallization.
Some dissociation collisions in the silane oxide PECVD process are
e− + SiH4 → SiH2 + 2H + e−
e− + N 2 O → N 2 + O + e− .
Both SiH2 and O are free radicals with two unpaired electrons; they are very
reactive. On a heated wafer surface, they react very quickly and form silicon
dioxide:
SiH2 + 2O → SiO2 + other volatiles.
In comparison, the LPCVD silane oxide deposition process uses SiH4 and O2 .
SiH4 thermally dissociates to SiH2 when it comes close to a heated wafer surface.
SiH2 then chemisorbs on the wafer surface, reacts with oxygen, and forms silicon
dioxide:
SiH4 → SiH2 + H2 ,
SiH2 + O2 → SiO2 + other volatiles.
Without plasma, the chemical reaction rate of this CVD process at ∼400 ◦ C is
very low, which causes a very low deposition rate. Thus, low-temperature LPCVD
processes for ILD applications must be performed in a batch system to achieve
reasonable throughput. Table 7.2 compares the properties of PECVD and LPCVD
processes for ILD silane oxide deposition at 400 ◦ C.

Plasma Basics 255
Table 7.2 Comparison of PECVD and LPCVD silane oxide processes.
Processes LPCVD (150 mm) PECVD (150 mm)
Chemical reaction SiH4 + O2 → SiO2 + · · · . SiH4 + N2 O → SiO2 + · · · .

Process parameters p = 3 torr, T = 400 ◦ C p = 3 torr, T = 400 ◦ C, and rf = 180 W
Deposition rate 100 to 200 Å/min ≥8000 Å/min
Processing systems Batch system Single-wafer system
Wafer-to-wafer uniformity Difficult to control Easier to control
7.7.1.2 Stress control

Film stress is the force at the interface of two layers caused by a mismatch of
the two materials. Ion bombardment of PECVD can be used to control CVD film
stress. For dielectric thin films, especially silicon oxide films, compressive stress is
favored. When heated, silicon expands faster than silicon oxide. If the film stress is
compressive at room temperature, when the wafer is heated up for the next process
step, the substrate will expand faster and therefore relieve compressive stress in
the oxide film. If the oxide film has tensile stress at room temperature, it becomes
even more tensile when heated. High tensile stress can cause film cracking, and in
extreme cases it can even break a wafer.
Ion bombardment can hammer molecules and pack them densely into the
film, which tends to make film stress become more compressive. Increasing rf
power can increase both ion bombardment energy and ion flux, an increase that
normally makes PECVD film more compressive. One advantage of PECVD is that
by controlling rf power, the film stress can be independently controlled without
major effects on other deposition characteristics, such as deposition rate and film
uniformity. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 10.
7.7.1.3 Chamber cleaning
During CVD processes, deposition occurs not only on the wafer surface, but also on
the processing kits, chamber walls, etc. The film deposited on these parts must be
periodically cleaned to maintain stable processing conditions and prevent particle
contamination of the wafers. Most CVD chambers use fluorine-based chemicals
for cleaning processes.
Fluorocarbon gases such as CF4 , C2 F6 , and C3 F8 are commonly used to clean
silicon oxide CVD chambers. In plasma, these gases are dissociated and release
free fluorine radicals. The chemical reaction can be expressed as
e− + CF4 → CF3 + F + e−
e− + C2 F6 → C2 F5 + F + e− .
Atomic fluorine is one of the most reactive free radicals; with ion bombardment
from plasma, it can react with silicon oxide rapidly and form the gaseous
compound SiF4 , which can be easily pumped out of the processing chamber:
F + SiO2 → SiF4 + O + volatile.

256 Chapter 7
SF6 and NF3 are commonly used fluorine-source gases for tungsten CVD
chamber cleaning. Fluorine radicals can react with tungsten to form volatile
tungsten hexafluoride, WF6 , which can be evacuated from the chamber with a
vacuum pump.
Plasma chamber cleaning processes can be automatically endpointed (to prevent
overcleaning) by monitoring the characteristic fluorine light emissions from the
plasma. This is further discussed in Chapter 10.
7.7.1.4 Gap fill
When gaps between metal lines shrink to 0.25 µm with an aspect ratio of 4:1, most
CVD methods cannot fill them without voids. The best known method for filling
such narrow gaps without voids is the HDP-CVD process, shown in Fig. 7.15. The
HDP-CVD process is covered in Chapter 10.
7.7.2 Plasma etch

Compared to wet etch, the advantages of plasma etch are anisotropic etch profile,
an automatic endpoint, and less chemical consumption. Plasma etch also has a
reasonably high etch rate, good selectivity, and good etch uniformity.
7.7.2.1 Etch profile control
Before plasma etch processes were widely used in semiconductor manufacturing,
most wafer fabs used wet chemical etching to achieve pattern transfer. However,
a wet etch is an isotropic etch (it etches in all directions at the same rate).
Undercutting caused by an isotropic etch limits its application when feature size is
smaller than 3 µm.
Figure 7.15 HDP-CVD oxide fills a 0.25-µm (aspect ratio 4:1) gap without voids.

Plasma Basics 257
Ions constantly bombard a wafer surface in plasma processes. With ion

bombardment, by either a lattice-damaging mechanism or sidewall blocking
mechanism, plasma etch processes can achieve an anisotropic etch profile. By
reducing the etch processing pressure, ion MFP can be increased. This, in turn
reduces ion collisional scattering and helps achieve better profile control.
7.7.2.2 Etch rate and selectivity
Ion bombardment associated with plasma helps break chemical bonds between
surface atoms. These atoms are exposed to free radicals generated in the
plasma. The combination of physical ion bombardment and chemical free radicals
dramatically enhances the chemical reactions needed for etch processes. The etch
rate and selectivity of the process is determined by the processing requirement.
Since both ion bombardment and free radicals play an important role in etch
processes, and rf power controls both ion bombardment and free radicals, rf
power is the most important variable controlling etch rate. Increasing rf power
can significantly increase etch rate. However, as discussed in detail in Chapter 9,
this increase can affect etch selectivity.
7.7.2.3 Endpoint
Without plasma, etch endpoint is determined by time, or by an operator’s visual
inspection. In a plasma process, when the etch process has removed the material
that requires etching and starts to remove the material underneath (the endpoint),
chemical components in the plasma change due to the change in etch byproducts,
signified by a variation in light emission. By detecting the change in light emission
with an optical sensor, the endpoint can be automatically determined. This is a very
useful tool in plasma etching for IC production.
7.7.2.4 Chemical use
Compared to wet etching, plasma etching uses significantly smaller amounts of
chemicals, thus reducing the costs for chemicals and waste disposal.
7.7.3 Sputtering deposition

Compared with evaporation-deposited metal thin films, metal thin films deposited
by plasma sputtering have a higher film quality, fewer impurities, and higher
conductivity. They also have better uniformity, process control, and process
integration capabilities. It is easier to deposit metal alloy films with sputtering
deposition than with evaporation processes.
7.8 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition and Plasma

Etch Chambers
7.8.1 Processing differences
CVD processes add materials to substrate surfaces, and etch processes remove
materials from them. Therefore, etch processes operate at a lower pressure. Low
pressure and high pumping rates help increase ion bombardment and remove etch

258 Chapter 7
byproducts from an etch chamber. PECVD processes normally operate at a higher

pressure (from 1 to 10 torr) than etch processes (from 30 to 300 mtorr).
7.8.2 Chemical vapor deposition chamber design

PECVD processes deposit thin films on wafer surfaces. Ion bombardment is very
useful in controlling film stress. For PECVD chambers, an rf hot electrode (called
a face plate, showerhead, etc.) has about the same area as the grounded electrode
where the wafer is placed, as illustrated in Fig. 7.16. The electrode has very little
self-bias. Ion bombardment energy is about 10 to 20 eV, mainly determined by the
rf power.
7.8.3 Etch chamber design

If an etch system has both rf hot and grounded electrodes of the same size, both
electrodes will receive approximately the same amount of ion bombardment. Etch
processes depend heavily on ion bombardment to remove materials from the wafer
surface. Ion bombardment can physically dislodge material off of the substrate
surface and, more importantly, break chemical bonds so molecules on the surface
react easily with etchant radicals. The easiest way to increase ion bombardment on
a wafer is to increase the rf power. This increases both ion bombardment energy
and flux. Unfortunately, it also increases ion bombardment on other electrodes and
shortens lifetimes because of particle contamination.
By designing an rf hot electrode (called a chuck or cathode) to be smaller than a
grounded electrode (chamber lid), and taking advantage of the self-bias, the plasma
potential of the wafer side will be much higher than the chamber lid side (see
Fig. 7.17). Thus, the most energetic ion bombardment occurs on the wafer side,
while the chamber lid receives minimal bombardment. Ion bombardment energy
on the wafer side varies from 200 to 1000 eV, and on the lid side is about 10 to
20 eV. Ion bombardment energy is mainly determined by rf power. It also relates
Figure 7.16 Schematic of a PECVD chamber.

Plasma Basics 259
Figure 7.17 Schematic of a plasma etch chamber.
to chamber pressure, electrode spacing, processing gases, and applied magnetic

field.
Plasma etch chambers operate at much lower pressure than PECVD chambers.
At low pressure, the electron MFP is long. If the MFP is at the same order of
magnitude as the electrode spacing or chamber dimension (∼10 cm), it will not take
many collisions before electrons are lost by hitting electrodes or chamber walls.
Since ionization collisions are necessary for generating and maintaining plasma, it
is difficult to generate plasma when pressure is so low.
Magnetic fields cause electrons to move in a spiral path. This helical path
forces electrons to travel much longer distances and increases the chance of
ionization collisions. A magnetic field can help generate and maintain plasma at
lower pressure (<100 mtorr). Increasing the magnetic field can effectively increase
plasma density, especially at low pressure. Since it increases electron density near
the electrode surface, increasing the magnetic field can reduce dc bias.
Heavy ion bombardment generates a large amount of heat and can raise wafer
temperature if the wafer is not properly cooled. For patterned etch, wafers are
coated with a thin layer of photoresist as a pattern mask. The photoresist will
reticulate if wafer temperature is above 150 ◦ C. Therefore, a chamber designed
for patterned etch requires a cooling system to prevent photoresist reticulation.
Since chemical etch rates are sensitive to wafer temperature, even some blanket
etch processing chambers [such as spin-on-glass (SOG) etchback chambers] need
a wafer cooling system to regulate wafer temperature and control etch rate. Because
etch processes require low operation pressure, and low pressure is not conducive
for heat transfer, pressurized helium is normally introduced on the backside of a
wafer to transfer heat from the wafer to the water-cooled pedestal (also called a
chuck, cathode, etc.). An electrostatic chuck (E-chuck) is needed to prevent the
wafer from being blown away from the pedestal due to the high backside pressure.
Helium, which has very high thermal conductivity (second only to hydrogen), can
provide a conductive path for heat transfer from the backside of the wafer to the
water-cooled pedestal. For some old etch chambers, clamp rings were used to hold
the wafer onto the pedestal. Because an E-chuck has much better performance with

260 Chapter 7
plasma uniformity and particle contamination, it replaced the clamp ring in most
advanced plasma systems.
Argon-sputtering etch chambers were widely used in dielectric thin-film
processes for tapering the corners of gaps prior to gap filling and thin-film surface
planarization. Since the sputtering etch rate is relatively insensitive to wafer
temperature, it does not need the helium backside cooling system with a clamp
ring or E-chuck.
7.9 Remote Plasma Processes

Some processes require free radicals to enhance chemical reactions but do not
benefit from ion bombardment because it can cause plasma-induced damage.
Remote plasma systems have been developed to meet these processing demands.
Figure 7.18 shows a remote plasma system. Plasma is created in a remote
chamber by either microwave or rf power. Free radicals generated in the plasma
flow into the processing chamber for either etch or deposition processes.
7.9.1 Photoresist strip

A remote plasma photoresist strip process uses O2 and H2 O to remove photoresist
right after etching. A remote plasma photoresist strip system (as shown in
Fig. 7.19) can be easily integrated within an etch system. A wafer can remain
in the same mainframe to perform in-situ etch/strip processing in sequence. This
can improve both processing throughput and yield, since photoresist and residue
etchants are stripped before the wafer is exposed to the atmosphere, where moisture
in the air can react with residue etchants and cause corrosion on the wafer.
7.9.2 Remote plasma etch

Some etch processes, such as a local oxidation of silicon (LOCOS) nitride strip,
wine glass contact hole, etc., do not require an anisotropic etch; therefore, ion
Figure 7.18 Remote plasma system.

Plasma Basics 261
Figure 7.19 Remote plasma photoresist strip system.
bombardment is not necessary in these cases. Remote plasma etch systems are
designed as dry chemical etching systems that can compete with wet etching
processes for these applications. There was a trend toward replacing all wet
processes in IC fabs with dry processes; however, this improvement proved to
be impossible because of the wide application of CMP in advanced IC chip
manufacturing processes.
7.9.3 Remote plasma cleaning

Since plasma in a processing chamber always generates ion bombardment along
with free radicals, it can damage the parts inside a chamber, thus increasing cost of
ownership. Another issue is that the most commonly used gases for CVD chamber
cleaning processes are perfluorocarbon (PFC) gases, such as CF4 , C2 F6 , and C3 F8 .
Because PFC gases contribute to global warming and ozone depletion, there is a
strong political will to limit the use of these gases. Remote plasma cleaning was
developed to solve these problems.
A remote plasma source uses microwave power to create a stable high-density
plasma in a small cavity upstream from the processing chamber. Free radicals
generated by the plasma flow into the processing chamber and react with deposited
films, cleaning the chamber (shown in Fig. 7.20).
The most commonly used gas for remote plasma cleaning is NF3 . In microwave
plasma, more than 99% of NF3 dissociates. In comparison, less than 10% of carbon
tetrafluoride or tetrafluoromethane (CF4 ) dissociates in rf plasma. By using NF3
microwave remote plasma cleaning processes, global warming PFC gases released
from the semiconductor industry could be cut by more than 50%, and processing
kit lifetimes could be significantly prolonged.

262 Chapter 7
Figure 7.20 Remote plasma cleaning process.
7.9.4 Remote plasma chemical vapor deposition

Much research and development effort has been made to apply remote plasma
CVD (RPCVD) processes for deposition of epitaxial silicon and epitaxial silicon
germanium as semiconductor substrates, and silicon dioxide, silicon oxynitride,
and silicon nitride for gate dielectric materials. Integrated with rapid thermal
processes, RPCVD could also be used to deposit high-κ dielectrics such as TiO2
and Ta2 O5 for deep submicron devices in the future. RPCVD could also find
applications for ILD0 barrier nitride deposition for sub-0.13-µm devices, since
thermal budget limitations rule out the application of LPCVD nitride, and plasma-
induced damage would limit the application of PECVD nitride, especially for large
wafers.
7.10 High-Density Plasma

A plasma source that can generate HDP at low pressure (approximately a few
millitorr) is highly desired for both etch and CVD processes. For etch processes,
lower pressure gives longer ion MFP and less ion collisional scattering, enhancing
etch profile control. HDP also provides more free radicals, which accelerate etching
processes. For CVD processes, HDP can help achieve excellent gap-fill capabilities
by in-situ, simultaneous deposition/etchback/deposition processing.
A conventional capacitively coupled plasma source cannot generate HDP. In
fact, it is very difficult to generate plasma, even in a magnetic field when chamber
pressure is a few millitorr. At that low pressure, electron MFP would be about
the same or even longer than the electrode spacing, so there would not be enough
ionization collisions. Therefore, different mechanisms are needed to generate HDP
at very low pressure.
Another drawback of a capacitively coupled plasma source is that both ion
flux and energy are directly related to rf power; therefore, this source cannot
independently control them. To achieve better etch and CVD processing control

Plasma Basics 263
as feature size continuously shrinks, a plasma source capable of independently

controlling both ion flux and energy is needed.
There are two types of HDP sources commonly used in the semiconductor
industry: the ICP (also called transformer-coupled plasma, or TCP) source, and
the ECR plasma source. Both can generate HDP at a few millitorr, with the added
ability of independently controlling ion bombardment flux and energy.
7.10.1 Inductively coupled plasma

The mechanism of an ICP source is very similar to a transformer, explaining
why it is also called a TCP source. The inductive coils shown in Fig. 7.21(b)
perform like the initial coils of a transformer. When an rf current flows into the
coils, a changing magnetic field is generated, which in turn generates a changing
electric field through inductive coupling, as shown in Fig. 7.21(a). The inductively
coupled electric field accelerates electrons and causes ionization collisions. Since
the electric field is in an angular direction, electrons are accelerated in an angular
direction. This allows electrons to travel a long distance without collision with the
chamber wall or electrode. That is why an ICP system can generate HDP at the low
pressure of a few millitorr.
The ICP design is very popular in the semiconductor industry. Systems using
ICP include HDP dielectric CVD systems; silicon, metal, and dielectric HDP
etching systems; native oxide sputtering cleaning systems; and ionized metal
plasma PVD systems.
A bias rf system is added to the ICP chamber to generate self-bias and
control ion bombardment energy. Since ion bombardment from HDP generates
a considerable amount of heat, a helium backside cooling system with an E-chuck
is needed for better wafer temperature control. Figure 7.21(b) illustrates an ICP
chamber. In the ICP system, ion flux, which is mainly determined by plasma
density, is controlled by the rf power source; ion bombardment energy is mainly
controlled by the bias rf power.
Figure 7.21 (a) Inductive coupling and (b) an ICP chamber.

264 Chapter 7
7.10.2 Electron cyclotron resonance

Charged particles tend to rotate in a magnetic field. The frequency of the rotation,
called gyrofrequency or cyclotron frequency, is determined by magnetic field
strength. From Eq. (7.4), electron gyrofrequency is
Ωe (MHz) = 2.8B (gauss).
In a magnetic field, when the frequency of the imposed microwave power

equals the gyrofrequency of the electron, ω MW = Ωe , ECR occurs. Electrons can
acquire energy from microwaves, growing more and more energized. Electrons
then collide with other atoms or molecules, and the ionization collisions generate
more electrons. These electrons are also resonant with the microwaves, gaining
energy and creating even more electrons by ionization collisions. Since electrons
are spiraling around the magnetic field line, as shown in Fig. 7.22(a), they cannot
escape to the chamber wall or to the electrodes without many collisions, even if
the MFP is longer than the chamber dimensions. This is how an ECR system can
generate high-density plasma at low pressure.
Figure 7.22 (a) ECR and (b) ECR chamber.
Like an ICP system, the ECR system also has a bias rf system to control ion
bombardment energy, and an E-chuck with a helium backside cooling system to
control wafer temperature [as shown in Fig. 7.22(b)]. Ion bombardment flux is
mainly controlled by microwave power. One advantage of an ECR system is that,
by changing the electric current in the magnetic coils, the position of resonance can
be adjusted. Thus, process uniformity can be optimized by adjusting the current in
the magnetic coils, which control plasma position.
7.11 Summary
• Plasma consists of ions, electrons, and neutrals.
• Three important collisions are ionization, excitation-relaxation, and disassocia-
tion.

Plasma Basics 265
• MFP is the average distance a particle can travel before it collides with another
particle. It is inversely proportional to pressure.
• Free radicals from dissociation collisions enhance chemical reactions in CVD,
etch, and dry cleaning processes.
• Plasma always has higher potential than the electrodes. Higher plasma potential
causes ion bombardment.
• Increasing rf power increases both ion bombardment flux and ion bombardment
energy in capacitively coupled plasmas.
• Low-frequency rf power gives ions more energy, leading to heavier ion
bombardment.
• Etch processes need much more ion bombardment than PECVD processes. Etch
chambers use a magnetic field to increase plasma density at low pressure.
• Capacitively coupled plasma sources cannot generate HDP.
• HDP at low pressure is desirable for both etch and CVD processes.
• ICP and ECR are the two most commonly used HDP sources.
• Both ICP and ECR plasma sources can independently control ion bombarding
flux and energy.
7.12 Bibliography
B. Chapman, Glow Discharge Process, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1980).
F. F. Chen, Introduction to Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Volume 1:
Plasma Physics, 2nd ed., Plenum Press, New York (1984).
S. Dushman, Scientific Foundations of Vacuum Technique, J. M. Lafferty, Ed., John
Wiley and Sons, New York (1962).
M. A. Lieberman and A. J. Lichtenberg Principles of Plasma Discharges and
Materials Processing, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1994).
7.13 Review Questions

1. List the three components of plasma.
2. Which component of plasma moves the fastest?
3. True or false: the ionization rate of a conventional PECVD chamber is ∼ 100%.
4. List three important collisions in plasma and explain why they are important.
5. How can a PECVD process achieve a high deposition rate at a lower
temperature?
6. What is MFP? How does it change with pressure?
7. How does the dc bias change when rf power increases?
8. List the importance of plasma ion bombardment for etching, PECVD, and
sputtering PVD processes.
9. What are the major differences between plasma etch and PECVD processing
chambers?
10. In an etch chamber, the wafer normally sits on which electrode? Why?

266 Chapter 7
11. Why does an etch chamber need a helium backside cooling system with an
E-chuck?
12. What are the advantages of an E-chuck over a clamp ring?
13. When the etch rate goes awry in a plasma etch system, why do fabs always
check the rf system first?
14. Can a capacitively coupled plasma source generate HDP?
15. List the two most commonly used HDP systems.

Plasma Basics Concepts

Uploaded by

Plasma Basics Concepts

Uploaded by

Chapter 7

7.2 Definition of Plasma

7.2.1 Components of plasma

ionization rate = ne /(ne + nn ),

where ne is electron concentration, ni is ion concentration, and nn is neutral

7.2.2 Generation of plasma

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

Figure 7.1 Schematic of a capacitively coupled plasma source.

7.3 Collisions in Plasma

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

Figure 7.2 Ionization collision before and after electron impact.

impact ionization. Ionization collision can be expressed as

where e− represents an electron with a negative charge, A represents a neutral atom

where A∗ is the excited state of atom or molecule A, indicating that it has an

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

Figure 7.3 (a) Before and (b) after excitation collision.

Figure 7.4 Relaxation process.

The excitation-relaxation process is illustrated in Figs. 7.3 and 7.4. Detection of

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

and can be expressed as

where AB is a molecule, and A and B are free radicals generated by a dissociation

Question: Why are dissociation collisions unimportant in aluminum and copper

Figure 7.5 Dissociation collision.

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

7.3.4 Other collisions

7.4 Plasma Parameters

Table 7.1 Possible plasma collision processes.

e− + SiH4 → SiH2 + H2 + e− 2.2 eV

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

7.4.1 Mean free path

As pressure reduces, the MFP increases; as pressure decreases, particle density

MFP (cm) ≈ 50/p (mtorr).

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

λe (cm) ≈ 100/p (mtorr).

PECVD processes normally operate at 1 to 10 torr; therefore, in PECVD

7.4.2 Thermal velocity

where F is the force on a charged particle, q is the electrical charge (electron is

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

where k = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K is the Boltzmann constant, T is temperature, and m

An electron in plasma moves faster than an orbiting space shuttle.

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

7.4.3 Magnetic field

Figure 7.7 Gyromotion of a charged particle in a magnetic field.

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

7.4.4 Boltzmann distribution

7.5 Ion Bombardment

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

Figure 7.8 Electron energy distribution.

Figure 7.9 Sheath potential nears the plasma surface.

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

7.6 Direct-Current Bias

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

Figure 7.10 dc bias and its relation to rf power.

V1 /V2 = (A2 /A1 )4 , (7.5)

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

Figure 7.12 Plasma potential in a symmetric electrode system.

Figure 7.13 dc potential in an asymmetric electrode rf system.

Figure 7.14 Plasma potential in an asymmetric electrode system.

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

[V1 − (V1 − V2 )]/V1 = V2 /V1 = (A1 /A2 )4 = (1/3)4 = 1/81 = 1.23%.

In this case, dc bias V1 is significantly larger than the plasma potential

7.7 Advantage of Plasma Processes

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

7.7.1 Chemical vapor deposition

7.7.1.1 Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition

SiH2 + 2O → SiO2 + other volatiles.

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

Table 7.2 Comparison of PECVD and LPCVD silane oxide processes.

Processes LPCVD (150 mm) PECVD (150 mm)

Chemical reaction SiH4 + O2 → SiO2 + · · · . SiH4 + N2 O → SiO2 + · · · .

7.7.1.2 Stress control

F + SiO2 → SiF4 + O + volatile.

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

7.7.2 Plasma etch

Downloaded From: http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 05/30/2016 Terms of Use: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx

Ions constantly bombard a wafer surface in plasma processes. With ion