1.

Measurement of Earth Resistance

the measurement of earth resistance is made by the potential fall method. The
resistance area of the earth electrode is the area of the soil around which a
voltage gradient is measured with a commercial instrument. In the figure shown
below E is the earth electrode under rest, and A is an auxiliary earth electrode
positioned so that two resistance areas do not overlap. B is the second auxiliary
electrode which is placed between E and A.

An alternating current of steady state value passes through the earth path from
E to A and the voltage drop between E and B is measured.

The electrode B is moved from position B1 and B2 respectively so that the

resistance area do not overlap. If the resistance values determined are of
approximately the same in all three cases, the mean of the three readings can
be taken as the earth resistance of the earth electrode.

The auxiliary earth electrode A must be driven in at a point further away from E
and the above test repeated until the group of three readings obtained are in
good agreement.The alternating current source is used to eliminate the
electrolytic effect.

The test can be performed, with current at power frequency from a double
wound transformer, using a voltmeter and an ammeter as shown in the figure
above by mean of an earth tester.

The earth tester is a special type of Megger, which sends AC through earth and
DC through the measuring instrument. It has got four terminals. Two terminals
are shorted to form a common point which is connected to the earth electrode
under test. The other two terminals are connected to the auxiliary electrode A
and B respectively. The value of the earth resistance is indicated by the
instrument directly when its handle is turned at a uniform speed.

Measurement of Soil Resistivity

The resistivity of the soil is usually measured by the four spike methods. In this
method the four spikes arranged in the straight line are driven into the soil at
equal distance. A known current is passed between electrode C1 and C2 and
potential drop V is measured across P1 and P2. The current I developed an
electric field which is proportional to current density and soil resistivity. The
voltage V is proportional to this field.
The soil resistivity is proportional to the ratio of the voltage V and current I and
is given as

ρ=2∏SR

Where ρ is the resistivity of the soil and their unit is ohmmeters. S is the
horizontal space between the spikes in m and b is the depth of burial in metre.

If the measurement is to be carried out using the main supply, an isolating

transformer should be connected between the main supply and the test setup.
So that the result may not be affected by it.
  Design of grid earthing

 Substation (high voltage system)

The earthing calculation aids in the proper design of the earthing system.
Using the results of this calculation, you can:

 Determine the minimum size of the earthing conductors

required for the main earth grid
 Ensure that the earthing design is appropriate to prevent
dangerous step and touch potentials.

Prerequisites

The following information is required / desirable before starting the

calculation:

 A layout of the site

 Maximum earth fault current into the earthing grid
 Maximum fault clearing time
 Ambient (or soil) temperature at the site
 Soil resistivity measurements at the site (for touch and step only)
 Resistivity of any surface layers intended to be laid (for touch and
step only)

Earthing Grid Conductor Sizing

Determining the minimum size of the earthing grid conductors is

necessary to ensure that the earthing grid will be able to withstand the
maximum earth fault current. Like a normal power cable under fault, the
earthing grid conductors experience an adiabatic short circuit
temperature rise. However unlike a fault on a normal cable, where the
limiting temperature is that which would cause permanent damage to the
cable's insulation, the temperature limit for earthing grid conductors is
the melting point of the conductor. In other words, during the worst case
earth fault, we don't want the earthing grid conductors to start melting!

The minimum conductor size capable of withstanding the adiabatic

temperature rise associated with an earth fault is given by re-arranging
IEEE Std 80

Where is the minimum cross-sectional area of the earthing grid

conductor (mm2)

is the energy of the maximum earth fault (A2s)

is the maximum allowable (fusing) temperature (ºC)
is the ambient temperature (ºC)
is the thermal coefficient of resistivity (ºC - 1)
is the resistivity of the earthing conductor (μΩ.cm)

is
is the thermal capacity of the conductor per unit
volume(Jcm - 3ºC - 1)

The material constants Tm, αr, ρr and TCAP for common conductor
materials can be found in IEEE STD 80. For example. Commercial hard-
drawn copper has material constants:

 Tm = 1084 ºC
 αr = 0.00381 ºC - 1
 ρr = 1.78 μΩ.cm
 TCAP = 3.42 Jcm - 3ºC - 1.

Touch and Step Potential Calculations

When electricity is generated remotely and there are no return paths for
earth faults other than the earth itself, then there is a risk that earth faults
can cause dangerous voltage gradients in the earth around the site of the
fault (called ground potential rises). This means that someone standing
near the fault can receive a dangerous electrical shock due to:

 Touch voltages - there is a dangerous potential difference between

the earth and a metallic object that a person is touching

 Step voltages - there is a dangerous voltage gradient between the

feet of a person standing on earth.
The earthing grid can be used to dissipate fault currents to remote earth
and reduce the voltage gradients in the earth. The touch and step
potential calculations are performed in order to assess whether the
earthing grid can dissipate the fault currents so that dangerous touch and
step voltages cannot exist.

Step 1: Soil Resistivity

The resistivity properties of the soil where the earthing grid will be laid
is an important factor in determining the earthing grid's resistance with
respect to remote earth. Soils with lower resistivity lead to lower overall
grid resistances and potentially smaller earthing grid configurations can
be designed (i.e. that comply with safe step and touch potentials).

IEEE Std 80 gives some guidance on range of soil resistivity based on

the general characteristics of the soil (i.e. wet organic soil = 10 Ω.m,
moist soil = 100 Ω.m, dry soil = 1,000 Ω.m and bedrock = 10,000 Ω.m).

Step 2: Surface Layer Materials

Applying a thin layer (0.08m - 0.15m) of high resistivity material (such
as gravel, blue metal, crushed rock, etc) over the surface of the ground is
commonly used to help protect against dangerous touch and step
voltages. This is because the surface layer material increases the contact
resistance between the soil (i.e. earth) and the feet of a person standing
on it, thereby lowering the current flowing through the person in the
event of a fault.

IEEE Std 80 gives typical values for surface layer material resistivity in
dry and wet conditions (e.g. 40mm crushed granite = 4,000 Ω.m (dry)
and 1,200 Ω.m (wet)).

The effective resistance of a person's feet (with respect to earth) when

standing on a surface layer is not the same as the surface layer resistance
because the layer is not thick enough to have uniform resistivity in all
directions. A surface layer derating factor needs to be applied in order to
compute the effective foot resistance (with respect to earth) in the
presence of a finite thickness of surface layer material. This derating
factor can be approximated by an empirical formula as per IEEE Std 80:

Where is the surface layer derating factor

is the soil resistivity (Ω.m)

is the resistivity of the surface layer material (Ω.m)
is the thickness of the surface layer (m)

This derating factor will be used later in Step 5 when calculating the
maximum allowable touch and step voltages.

Step 3: Earthing Grid Resistance

A good earthing grid has low resistance (with respect to remote earth) to
minimize ground potential rise (GPR) and consequently avoid dangerous
touch and step voltages. Calculating the earthing grid resistance usually
goes hand in hand with earthing grid design - that is, you design the
earthing grid to minimize grid resistance. The earthing grid resistance
mainly depends on the area taken up by the earthing grid, the total length
of buried earthing conductors and the number of earthing rods /
electrodes.

IEEE STD 80 offers two alternative options for calculating the earthing
grid resistance (with respect to remote earth) - 1) the simplified method
and 2) the Schwarz equations, both of which are outlined briefly below.
IEEE Std 80 also includes methods for reducing soil resistivity and a
treatment for concrete-encased earthing electrodes (in Section 14.6).

Simplified Method

IEEE Std 80 gives the simplified method as modified by Several to

include the effect of earthing grid depth:

Where is the earthing grid resistance with respect to remote earth (Ω)

is the soil resistivitiy (Ω.m)

is the total length of buried conductors (m)
is the total area occupied by the earthing grid (m2)
Schwarz Equations

The Schwarz equations are a series of equations that are more accurate
in modeling the effect of earthing rods / electrodes. The equations are
found in IEEE Std 80, as follows:

Where is the earthing grid resistance with respect to remote earth (Ω)
 is the earth resistance of the grid conductors (Ω)
is the earth resistance of the earthing electrodes (Ω)
is the mutual earth resistance between the grid conductors and
earthing electrodes (Ω) .And the grid, earthing electrode and
mutual earth resistances are:

Where is the soil resistivity (Ω.m)

is the total length of buried grid conductors (m)

is for conductors buried at depth meters and with
cross-sectional radius meters, or simply for grid conductors on
the surface
is the total area covered by the grid conductors (m2)
is the length of each earthing electrode (m)
is the total length of earthing electrodes (m)
is number of earthing electrodes in area
is the cross-sectional radius of an earthing electrode (m)
and are constant coefficients depending on the geometry of the grid

The coefficient can be approximated by the following:

 (1) For depth :

 (2) For depth :

 (3) For depth :

The coefficient can be approximated by the following:

  (1) For depth :

 (2) For depth :

 (3) For depth :

Where in both cases, is the length-to-width ratio of the earthing

grid.

Step 4: Maximum Grid Current

The maximum grid current is the worst case earth fault current that
would flow via the earthing grid back to remote earth. To calculate the
maximum grid current, you firstly need to calculate the worst case
symmetrical earth fault current at the facility that would have a return
path through remote earth (call this ). This can be found from the
power systems studies or from manual calculation. Generally speaking,
the highest relevant earth fault level will be on the primary side of the
largest distribution transformer (i.e. either the terminals or the delta
windings).

Current Division Factor

Not all of the earth fault current will flow back through remote earth. A
portion of the earth fault current may have local return paths (e.g. local
generation) or there could be alternative return paths other than remote
earth (e.g. overhead earth return cables, buried pipes and cables, etc).
Therefore a current division factor must be applied to account for the
proportion of the fault current flowing back through remote earth.

Computing the current division factor is a task that is specific to each

project and the fault location and it may incorporate some subjectivity
(i.e. "engineering judgment"). In any case. In the most conservative case,
a current division factor of can be applied, meaning that 100% of
earth fault current flows back through remote earth.
The symmetrical grid current is calculated by:

Decrement Factor :The symmetrical grid current is not the maximum

grid current because of asymmetry in short circuits, namely a dc current
offset. This is captured by the decrement factor, which can be calculated
from IEEE STD 80:

Where is the decrement factor

is the duration of the fault (s)

is the dc time offset constant (see below)

The dc time offset constant is derived from IEEE Std 80:

Where is the X/R ratio at the fault location

is the system frequency (Hz)

The maximum grid current is lastly calculated by:

Step 5: Touch and Step Potential Criteria

One of the goals of a safe earthing grid is to protect people against lethal
electric shocks in the event of an earth fault. The magnitude of ac
electric current (at 50Hz or 60Hz) that a human body can withstand is
typically in the range of 60 to 100mA, when ventricular fibrillation and
heart stoppage can occur. The duration of an electric shock also
contributes to the risk of mortality, so the speed at which faults are
cleared is also vital. Given this, we need to prescribe maximum tolerable
limits for touch and step voltages that do not lead to lethal shocks.

The maximum tolerable voltages for step and touch scenarios can be
calculated empirically from IEEE STD for body weights of 50kg and
70kg:

Touch voltage limit - the maximum potential difference between the

surface potential and the potential of an earthed conducting structure
during a fault (due to ground potential rise):

 50kg person:

 70kg person:

Step voltage limit - is the maximum difference in surface potential

experience by a person bridging a distance of 1m with the feet without
contact to any earthed object:

 50kg person:

 70kg person:

Where is the touch voltage limit (V)

is the step voltage limit (V)

is the surface layer derating factor (as calculated in Step 2)
is the soil resistivity (Ω.m)
is the maximum fault clearing time (s)
The choice of body weight (50kg or 70kg) depends on the expected
weight of the personnel at the site. Typically, where women are expected
to be on site, the conservative option is to choose 50kg.

Step 6: Ground Potential Rise (GPR)

Normally, the potential difference between the local earth around the site
and remote earth is considered to be zero (i.e. they are at the same
potential). However an earth faults (where the fault current flows back
through remote earth), the flow of current through the earth causes local
potential gradients in and around the site. The maximum potential
difference between the site and remote earth is known as the ground
potential rise (GPR). It is important to note that this is a maximum
potential difference and that earth potentials around the site will vary
relative to the point of fault.

The maximum GPR is calculated by:

Where is the maximum ground potential rise (V)

is the maximum grid current found earlier in Step 4 (A)

is the earthing grid resistance found earlier in Step 3 (Ω)

Step 7: Earthing Grid Design Verification

Now we just need to verify that the earthing grid design is safe for touch
and step potential. If the maximum GPR calculated above does not
exceed either of the touch and step voltage limits (from Step 5), then the
grid design is safe.

However if it does exceed the touch and step voltage limits, then some
further analysis is required to verify the design, namely the calculation
of the maximum mesh and step voltages as per IEEE Std 80.

Mesh Voltage Calculation

The mesh voltage is the maximum touch voltage within a mesh of an
earthing grid and is derived from IEEE Std 80:

Where:: is the soil resistivity (Ω.m)

is the maximum grid current found earlier in Step 4 (A)

is the geometric spacing factor (see below)
is the irregularity factor (see below)
is the effective buried length of the grid (see below)

Geometric Spacing Factor Km

The geometric spacing factor is calculated from IEEE Std 80:

Where is the spacing between parallel grid conductors (m)

is the depth of buried grid conductors (m)

is the cross-sectional diameter of a grid conductor (m)
is a weighting factor for depth of burial =
is a weighting factor for earth electrodes /rods on the corner
mesh

 for grids with earth electrodes along the grid

perimeter or corners

 for grids with no earth electrodes on the corners

or on the perimeter

is a geometric factor (see below)

Geometric Factor n
The geometric factor is calculated from IEEE Std 80:

With

for square grids, or otherwise

for square and rectangular grids, or otherwise

for square, rectangular and L-shaped grids, or otherwise

Where is the total length of horizontal grid conductors (m)

is the length of grid conductors on the perimeter (m)

is the total area of the grid (m2)
and are the maximum length of the grids in the x and y
directions (m)
is the maximum distance between any two points on the grid
(m)

Irregularity Factor Ki

The irregularity factor is calculated from IEEE Std 80:

Where is the geometric factor derived above

Effective Buried Length LM

The effective buried length is found as follows:

  For grids with few or no earthing electrodes (and none on corners
or along the perimeter):

Where is the total length of horizontal grid conductors (m)

is the total length of earthing electrodes / rods (m)

 For grids with earthing electrodes on the corners and along the
perimeter:

Where is the total length of horizontal grid conductors (m)

is the total length of earthing electrodes / rods (m)

is the length of each earthing electrode / rod (m)
and are the maximum length of the grids in the x and y
directions (m)

Step Voltage Calculation

The maximum allowable step voltage is calculated from IEEE Std 80:

Where :: is the soil resistivity (Ω.m)

is the maximum grid current found earlier in Step 4 (A)

is the geometric spacing factor (see below)
is the irregularity factor (as derived above in the mesh voltage
calculation)
is the effective buried length of the grid (see below)
Geometric Spacing Factor Ks

The geometric spacing factor based on IEEE Std 80 is applicable for

burial depths between 0.25m and 2.5m:

Where is the spacing between parallel grid conductors (m)

is the depth of buried grid conductors (m)

is a geometric factor (as derived above in the mesh voltage
calculation)

Effective Buried Length LS

The effective buried length for all cases can be calculated by IEEE
Std 80:

Where is the total length of horizontal grid conductors (m)

is the total length of earthing electrodes / rods (m)

What Now?

Now that the mesh and step voltages are calculated, compare them to the
maximum tolerable touch and step voltages respectively. If:

 , and


then the earthing grid design is safe.

 2. low voltage system

 here we don’t concern about touch and step voltage .

 we will use IEEE standard to determine the size of the earthing conductor
.
 then by IEEE standard or BS standard we will design earthing system and
determine the number of rods in the system to get the required
resistance of the earthing system .

Earthing Grid Conductor Sizing

 First we will need the next data

 Then according to IEEE standard by using the following equation

  And by determine the used material in the earting conductor we can
calculate the sizing and the diameter of the earthing conductor

Earthing Grid Resistance according to IEEE

 Then by the initial specification of the earthing grid and the following
equation we can calculate the resistance of the grid
  We can change in the specification of the grid to get the desired
resistance

Earthing Grid Resistance according to BS

 Here also we first calculate the sizing and diameter of the earthing
conductor by using the method of IEEE standard.
 Then we calculate the resistance of a single ground rod from the following
equation:
R is the resistance of single rod or pipe, in ohms.

L is the length of rod, in metres (m);

d is the diameter of rod or pipe, in metres (m);

r is the soil resistivity in ohm metres (OHM·m).

 then we calculate the resistance of all ground rods from the following
equation:

R is the resistance of one rod in isolation, in ohms .

S is the distance between rods, in metres (m)

r is the soil resistivity, in ohm metres (OHMs.m);

n is the number of rods

Y is the factor from Table 2

  Then we calculate the resistance of horizontal strip or round
conductor from the following equation:

L is the length of conductor, in metres (m);

h is the depth of strip, in metres (m);

w is the width of strip,or diameter of round conductor in metres (m);

r is the soil resistivity, in ohm metres;

P are the coefficients given in Table 5.

Q are the coefficients given in Table 5.

  Then we calculate the earthing resistance of the grid from the following
equation:

Rg=(Rh*Rn)/(Rh+Rn)
 By changing in the specification of the ground rods and the
earthing conductor we can get the desired resistance of the
grid.
 3.Neutral Grounding
In neutral grounding system, the neutral of the system or rotating system or transformer is
connected to the ground. The neutral grounding is an important aspect of power system design
because the performance of the system regarding short circuits, stability, protection, etc., is
greatly affected by the condition of the neutral. A three phase system can be operated in two
possible ways

1. With ungrounded neutral

2. With a grounded neutral

Ungrounded Neutral System

In an ungrounded neutral system, the neutral is not connected to the grounded.
In other words, the neutral is isolated from the ground. Therefore, this system
is also known the isolated neutral system or free neutral system shown in the
figure below.
Grounded System
In neutral grounding system, the neutral of the system is connected to the
ground. Because of the problems associated with ungrounded neutral systems,
the neutrals are grounded in most of the high-voltage systems.
 Some of the advantages of neutral grounding are as follows

1. Voltages of phases are limited to the line-to-ground voltages.

2. Surge voltage due to arcing grounds is eliminated.
3. The overvoltages due to lightning discharged to ground.
4. It provides greater safety to personnel and equipment.
5. It provides improved service reliability.

Method Of Neutral Grounding

4.Solid Grounding
A power system is said to be effectively grounded or solidly grounded when the neutral of a
generator, power transformer or grounding transformer are directly connected to the ground
through a conductor of negligible resistance and reactance. A part of a system or system is said
to be solidly grounded when the positive-sequence impedance of the system is greater or equal to
the zero sequence resistance, and positive sequence reactance is three times greater than or equal
to the zero sequence reactance.
Consider a system having three phases a, b and c shown in the figure above. If
the single-ground-fault occur in phase a the voltage of the phase becomes zero.
However, the remaining two phases b and c will still have the same voltages as
before shown in the figure below. When the fault occurs in the system, in
addition to the charging current the power source also feeds the fault current.

For the solidly neutral grounded system, it is necessary that the ground fault
current should not exceed 80% of the three-phase fault. It is usually used for
keeping the fault current within safe limits.

Resistance grounding
In this type of neutral grounding, the neutral of the system is connected to
ground through one or more resistance. Resistance grounding limits the fault
currents. It protects the system from transient overvoltages. Resistance
grounding decreases the arcing grounding risk and permits ground-fault
protection.
The value of resistance used in the neutral grounding system should neither be
very high nor be very low shown in the figure below.

A very low resistance makes the system

to the solidity grounded, whereas a very high resistance makes the system
ungrounded. The value of resistance is chosen such that the ground-fault
current is limited, but still sufficient ground current flows permit the operation
of ground faults protections. In general, the ground fault may be limited up to
5% to 20% of that which occur with a three-phase line.

Reactance Grounding
In reactance grounded system, a reactance is inserted between the neutral and
ground to limit the fault current as shown in the figure below.
 To minimize transient overvoltages, the
ground fault current in a reactance grounded system should not be less than
25% of the three phase fault current. This is considerably more than the
minimum current desirable in resistance grounded systems.

5.Peterson Coil Grounding

Peterson coil is an iron core reactor connected between transformer neutral and ground. It is used
for limiting the capacitance earth fault current which is flowing when the line ground fault
occurs in the line. The coil is provided with the tapping so that it can be adjusted with the
capacitance of the system. The reactance is selected so that the current through the reactor is
equal to the small line charging current which would flow into the line-to-ground fault.

Consider an LG fault in phase B at a point F as shown in the figure below. The

line-to-ground voltage of phase B becomes zero. The voltage of the phases R
and Y increase from phase values to line values.
 The
resultant of ICR and ICY is IC.

From the phasor diagram

For balanced conditions

 If IC is equal to IL there will be no current through the ground, and
there will be no tendency of the arcing grounds to occur. With the help of
Peterson coil neutral grounding, arc resistance is reduced to such a small value
that it is usually self-extinguishing. Therefore, Peterson coil is also known as a
ground fault neutralizer or arc suppression coil.

Peterson coil is rated for a short time of about 5 minutes, or it is designed to

carry its rated current continuously. It reduces the transient fault which occur
due to lightning and also minimized the single line-to-ground voltage drops.