3

Chapter 3: Learning and Memory

CHAPTER

LEARNING AND MEMORY

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience.

Learning can occur through simple associations between a stimulus and a response or via a
complex series of cognitive activities. Learning is an ongoing process.

It is useful in any study of consumer behavior to explore behavioral learning theories in order to
gain insight into how consumers learn. Behavioral learning theories assume that learning occurs
as a result of responses to external events. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that
naturally elicits a response (an unconditioned stimulus) is paired with another stimulus that does
not initially elicit this response. Over time, the second stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) comes
to elicit the response as well. Several experiments that demonstrate this conditioning are
discussed in this chapter. Through this discussion it is found that a conditioned response can also
extend to other, similar stimuli in a process known as stimulus generalization. This process is the
basis for such marketing strategies as licensing and family branding, where a consumer’s
positive associations with a product are transferred to other contexts. The opposite effect is
achieved by masked branding (where the manufacturer wishes to disguise the product’s true
origin).

Another view of behavioral learning is that of instrumental or operant conditioning. This form of
conditioning occurs as the person learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes
and avoid those that result in negative outcomes. Although classical conditioning involves the
pairing of two stimuli, instrumental learning conditioning occurs when reinforcement is
delivered following a response to a stimulus. It is important to understand how conditioning
occurs. Reinforcement is part of the process. Reinforcement is positive if reward is delivered
following a response. It is negative if a negative outcome is avoided by not performing a
response. Punishment occurs when a response is followed by unpleasant events. Extinction of the
behavior will occur if reinforcement is no longer needed.

A third theory is called cognitive learning. This form occurs as the result of mental processes.
For example, observational learning takes place when the consumer performs a behavior as a
result of seeing someone else performing it and being rewarded for it.

The role of memory in the learning process is a major emphasis in this chapter. Memory refers to
the storage of learned information. The way information is encoded when it is perceived
determines how it will be stored in memory. Consumers have different forms or levels of
memory. The memory systems are known as sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
memory. Each plays a role in retaining and processing information from the outside world.

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Information is not stored in isolation; it is incorporated into knowledge structures, where it is

associated with other data. The location of product information in associative networks, and the
level of abstraction at which it is coded, helps to determine when and how this information will
be activated at a later time. Some factors that influence the likelihood of retrieval include the
level of familiarity with an item, its salience (or prominence) in memory, and whether the
information was presented in pictorial or written form. The chapter concludes with a brief
discussion of how memory can be measured with respect to marketing stimuli.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

1. The Learning Process

a. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience.
1) Instead of direct experience, the learner can learn vicariously by observing events that
affect others.
2) We can learn without even really trying—just observing brand names on shelves. This
casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge is called incidental learning.
a) Learning is an ongoing process. Our world of knowledge is constantly being
revised as we are exposed to new stimuli and receive ongoing feedback.
i. The concept of learning covers a lot of ground, ranging from a consumer’s
simple association between a stimulus such as a product logo and a response
to a complex series of cognitive activities.

Discussion Opportunity—Present the class with illustrations of learning vicariously and

incidental learning in a consumer context. In reference to each of your illustrations, ask students
what strategies marketers have used or might use to foster such learning.

2. Behavioral Learning Theories

a. Behavioral learning theories assume that learning takes place as the result of responses
to external events.
1) With respect to these theories, the mind might be perceived as being a “black box”
and observable aspects of behavior are emphasized.
2) The observable aspects consist of things that go in to the box (the stimuli—or events
perceived from the outside world) and things that come out of the box (the responses
—or reactions to these stimuli).
b. The previous view is represented by two views:
1) Classical conditioning.
2) Instrumental conditioning.
c. The sum of the activities is that people’s experiences are shaped by the feedback they
receive as they go through life. People also learn that actions they take result in rewards
and punishments, and these feedback influences the way they will respond in similar
situations in the future.

*****Use Figure 3.1 Here *****

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Classical Conditioning
d. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with
another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own.
1) Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with
the first stimulus.
2) This phenomenon was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov’s “dog experiments” when
doing research on digestion in animals.
a) Pavlov induced classical conditioning learning by pairing a neutral stimulus (a
bell) with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs (he squirted
dried meat powder into their mouths).
b) The powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it was naturally
capable of causing the response.
c) Over time, the bell became a conditioned response (CS); it did not initially cause
salivation, but the dogs learned to associate the bell with the meat powder and
began to salivate at the sound of the bell only.
d) The drooling of these canine consumers over a sound, now linked to feeding time,
was a conditioned response (CR).
3) This basic form of classical conditioning demonstrated by Pavlov primarily applies to
responses controlled by the autonomic and nervous systems.
4) Classical conditioning can have similar effects for more complex reactions (such as in
automatically using a credit card for purchases).

Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to think of some examples of classical conditioning in

everyday life as well as in advertising and marketing. Ask students if they think such examples
represent intentional efforts to condition consumers. What are the strengths of these campaigns,
if any? Be sure to point out the difference between true conditioning and mere association.

e. Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned stimuli (CS) and
unconditioned stimuli (UCS) have been paired a number of times (repetition). Notice
how often ad campaigns are repeated. Repetition prevents decay.
f. Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke
similar, conditioned responses. Pavlov’s dogs might respond to sounds similar to a bell
(such as keys jangling).
1) People also react to other, similar stimuli in much the same way they responded to the
original stimulus; a generalization known as the halo effect.
2) Private brands often use “piggybacking” to build on impressions built by major
brands.
3) Masked branding occurs when a manufacturer deliberately hides a product’s true
origin.
g. Stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus similar to a CS is not followed by an
UCS. When this happens, reactions are weakened and will soon disappear.
1) Manufacturers of well-established brands urge consumers not to buy “cheap
imitations.”

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Discussion Opportunity—Ask students the following: Can you think of some products that have
similar packaging? Similar shapes? Similar names? To what extent do these examples represent
stimulus generalization? In each case, which brand is the primary brand and which brand is the
“me too” brand? Assuming the strategy was intentional, did it work? How can a marketer
achieve stimulus discrimination?

Marketing Applications of Behavioral Learning Principles

h. Many marketing strategies focus on the establishment of associations between stimuli
and responses. Examples would be:
1) Distinctive brand image.
2) Linkage between a product and an underlying need.
3) Brand equity is where a brand has a strong positive association in a consumer’s
memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result.
4) Repetition can be valuable. Too much repetition, however, results in advertising
wearout.
i. Advertisements often pair a product with a positive stimulus to create a desirable
association.
1) The order in which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are
presented can affect the likelihood that learning will occur. Presenting unconditioned
stimulus prior to the conditioned stimulus (backward conditioning) is not effective.
2) Product associations can be extinguished in the long run if not reinforced.
j. The process of stimulus generalization is often central to branding and packaging
decisions that attempt to capitalize on consumers’ positive associations with an existing
brand or company name. Strategies include:
1) Family branding.
2) Product line extensions.
3) Licensing.
4) Look-alike packaging.

***** Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #4 Here *****

Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to give examples of brands that they perceive have equity
over other brands. As with equity of other assets (such as real estate), can an exact monetary
value be placed on brand equity?

Discussion Opportunity—Have students apply the concept of stimulus generalization to real

examples of family branding or product line extensions. Have them come up with examples
where the stimulus was successfully generalized and examples where it was not.

k. An emphasis on communicating a product’s distinctive attributes vis-à-vis its competitors

is an important aspect of positioning, where consumers differentiate a brand from its
competitors. Stimulus discrimination attempts to promote unique attributes of a brand.
l. Concerns for marketers relating to stimulus discrimination include the loss exclusive
rights to a brand name to the public domain and brand piracy.

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Instrumental Conditioning
m. Instrumental conditioning (operant conditioning) occurs as the individual learns to
perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative
outcomes. This approach is closely associated with B.F. Skinner. (He taught pigeons and
other animals to dance and play Ping-Pong using this method.)
1) Although responses in classical conditioning are involuntary and fairly simple, those
in instrumental conditioning are made deliberately to obtain a goal and may be more
complex.
2) Desired behavior may be rewarded in a process called shaping.
3) Instrumental conditioning (learning) occurs as a result of a reward received following
the desired behavior.

Discussion Opportunity—Have students brainstorm a list of examples of instrumental

conditioning in marketing. Ask: Which do you think has more application to marketing—
classical or instrumental conditioning?

Discussion Opportunity—Relate the concept of instrumental conditioning to the Internet and

eCommerce through a specific example. Have students point out why they think this example is
an application of instrumental conditioning.

n. Instrumental learning occurs in one of three ways:

1) When the environment provides positive reinforcement in the form of a reward, the
response is strengthened and appropriate behavior is learned (a woman wearing
perfume and receiving a compliment).
2) Negative reinforcement also strengthens responses so that appropriate behavior is
learned (a woman sitting at home alone because she is not wearing a certain
perfume).
3) In contrast to situations where we learn to do certain things to avoid unpleasantness,
punishment occurs when a response is followed by unpleasant events. We learn the
hard way not to repeat these behaviors (a woman being ridiculed for wearing the
wrong perfume).
o. When a positive outcome is no longer received, extinction is likely to occur and the
learned stimulus-response connection will not be maintained.

*****Use Figure 3.2 Here *****

Discussion Opportunity—What are some products that promise “good things will happen” if you
buy their products? Can you think of products that tell you that you will be “punished” if you
don’t buy them? Can you think of products where you are told that you will be “punished” if you
do buy them or use them? How would this be possible?

p. An important factor in operant conditioning is the set of rules by which appropriate

reinforcements are given for a behavior. Several reinforcement schedules are possible:
1) Fixed-interval reinforcement.
2) Variable-interval reinforcement.

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3) Fixed-ratio reinforcement.
4) Variable-ratio reinforcement.

Discussion Opportunity—Provide an example of each of the previously mentioned reinforcement

schedules. Ask students: Which of these examples do you think is the most effective and why?
Under what conditions can each of these reinforcement schedules be effectively applied?

Marketing Applications of Instrumental Conditioning Principles

q. Principles of instrumental conditioning are at work when a consumer is rewarded or
punished for a purchase decision.
1) Most companies reinforce consumption.
2) A popular technique called frequency marketing reinforces regular purchases by
giving them prizes with values that increase along with the amount purchased.

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3. Cognitive Learning Theory

a. Cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental
processes. This perspective views people as problem-solvers who actively use
information from the world around them to master their environment.
Discussion Opportunity—Provide an example of cognitive learning theory. How does this theory
apply to learning on the Internet? Learning about a new brand extension? Learning how to use
a newly purchased complex product?

Is Learning Conscious or Not?

b. There are several schools of thought.
1) One school believes that conditioning occurs because subjects develop conscious
hypotheses and then act on them.
2) There is also evidence for the existence of nonconscious procedural knowledge—we
move toward familiar patterns (automatic responses).

Observational Learning
c. Observational learning occurs when people watch the actions of others and note the
reinforcements they receive for their behaviors—learning occurs as a result of vicarious
rather than direct experience.
1) Memories are stored for later use.
2) Imitating the behavior of others is called modeling.
3) Four conditions must be met for modeling to occur (see Figure 3.3):
a) The consumer’s attention must be directed to the appropriate model, which for
reasons of attractiveness, competence, status, or similarity is desirable to emulate.
b) The consumer must remember what is said or done by the model.
c) The consumer must convert this information into actions.
d) The consumer must be motivated to perform these actions.

*****Use Figure 3.3 Here *****

Discussion Opportunity—How have marketers applied the concept of observational learning to

facilitate consumer learning on the Internet? To facilitate consumer learning of software
programs through animated tutorials?

Marketing Applications of Cognitive Learning Principles

d. Consumers’ ability to learn in this way has helped marketers.
1) People’s willingness to make their own reinforcements has saved the marketers from
having to do it for them.
2) Consumers seem to enjoy using “models” as role models and for guidance in
purchasing.

Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to come up with examples of celebrity endorsers. Then,

have them analyze each endorser according to the principle of observational learning.

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Have them think of some “models” that companies probably won’t hire again? Why is it, in some
cases, that a company can use a somewhat negative model (like basketball player Allen Iverson)
and still have success?
4. The Role of Memory in Learning
a. Memory involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it
will be available when needed.
1) Contemporary approaches to the study of memory employ an information-processing
approach.
a) In the encoding stage, information is entered in a way the system will recognize.
b) In the storage stage, this knowledge is integrated with what is already in memory
and “warehoused” until needed.
c) During retrieval, the person accesses the desired information.

*****Use Figure 3.4 Here *****

How Information Gets Encoded

b. The way information is encoded, or mentally programmed, helps to determine how it will
be represented in memory.
1) A consumer may process a stimulus simply in terms of its sensory meaning (such as
its color or shape).
2) Semantic meaning refers to symbolic associations, such as the idea that rich people
drink champagne or that fashionable men wear earrings.
3) Episodic memories are those that relate to events that are personally relevant.
4) Flashbulb memories are those that are especially vivid (such as memories of
September 11, 2001).
a) One method of conveying product information is through a narrative or story.
b) Much of what an individual acquires about social information is received through
the narrative or story; therefore, it is a useful marketing technique for transmitting
information.

Discussion Opportunity—Can you give an illustration of each of the forms of meaning or

memory just discussed (sensory meaning, semantic meaning, episodic memory, and flashbulb
memories)? How could these forms of memory be used to motivate purchases?

Memory Systems
c. There are three distinct memory systems:
1) Sensory memory permits storage of the information we receive from our senses. This
storage is very temporary (it only lasts a couple of seconds).
2) If information is retained for further processing, it passes through an attentional gate
and is transferred to short-term memory (STM).
3) STM also stores information for a limited period of time, and its capacity is limited.
Think of it as working memory since it holds information we are currently
processing. The information can be stored either acoustically (in terms of how it
sounds) or semantically (in terms of what it means.) Memory generally stores
information by combining small pieces into larger ones in a process known as
chunking.

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a) A chunk is a configuration that is familiar to the person and can be manipulated as

a unit.
b) An example would be a brand name, which summarizes a great deal of detailed
information.
4) Long-term memory is the system that allows us to retain information for a long
period of time. Catchy slogans or jingles often help in this area. A cognitive process
called elaborative rehearsal allows information to move from short-term memory to
long-term memory.

*****Use Figure 3.5 Here; Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #3 Here *****

Discussion Opportunity—Consider the following ways to demonstrate the memory functions to

the students: 1) Point out a noise that might be audible from outside the classroom (e.g.,
lawnmower, cars, construction) after it happens. Ask how many remember hearing it? Those that
do not remember hearing it never made the jump from sensory memory to short- or long-term
memory; 2) Use a phrase very clearly and audibly at the beginning of the class. Then, once you
get to this point in the lecture, ask each student to write out the phrase. Because you stated it
clearly, the phrase almost certainly made it in to the short-term memory. The degree of
correctness of each student’s statement, however, will show the difference between short-term
and long-term memory. Ask students how these forms of memory (sensory, short-term, and long-
term) should be taken into consideration by marketers.

Storing Information in Memory

d. Relationships among the types of memory are a source of controversy.
1) The traditional view (multiple-store) is that the short-term memory and long-term
memory are separate systems.
2) Recent work says they may be interdependent (activation models of memory). Deep
processing means that the information will probably be placed in long-term memory.
e. Activation models propose that an incoming piece of information is stored in an
association network containing many bits of related information organized according to
some set of relationships. This is how the consumer can organize brands, manufacturers,
and stores.
1) These storage units are known as knowledge structures (think of them as spider
Webs full of knowledge).
a) This information is placed into nodes that are connected by associative links
within these structures.
b) Pieces of information that are seen as similar in some way are chunked together
under some more abstract category.
2) Preference categories are known as evoked sets. The task of the marketer is to
position itself as a category member and to provide cues that facilitate its placement
in the proper category.

*****Use Figure 3.6 Here; Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #5 Here *****

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Discussion Opportunity—Briefly work with students to construct an example of an associative

network for a product or brand of their choosing. Illustrate the network for the class to see as it
is being constructed. Refer back to this network as you teach the following concepts of spreading
activation and schemas.

Consumers go through a process of spreading activation as they shift back and forth between
levels of meaning. Memory traces are sent out. They could be:
3) Brand-specific.
4) Ad-specific.
5) Brand-identification.
6) Product category.
7) Evaluative reactions.
f. Knowledge is coded at different levels of abstraction and complexity. Meaning concepts
get stored as individual nodes.
1) A proposition links two nodes together to form a more complex meaning, which can
serve as a single chunk of information.
2) Propositions are integrated into a schema that is seen as a cognitive framework that is
developed through experience.
3) One type of schema is a script, where a sequence of events is expected by an
individual. Scripts that guide behavior in commercial settings are known as service
scripts. Think of all the activities one goes through when they go to the dentist.

Discussion Opportunity—Have students give examples of scripts that they typically go through
when purchasing a routine product. Why would a marketer want or not want consumers to
develop such scripts?

Retrieval Information for Purchase Decisions

g. Retrieval is the process whereby information is accessed from long-term memory. Factors
that influence retrieval are:
1) Age.
2) Situational variables (such as the environment).
h. The spacing effect describes the tendency for us to recall printed material more
effectively when the advertiser repeats the target item periodically rather than presenting
it repeatedly n a short time period.
i. Some advertisers are experimenting with bitcoms. In a typical bitcom, when a
commercial pod starts, a stand-up comedian (perhaps an actor in the show itself)
performs a small set that leads into the actual commercial.
j. In a process called state-dependent retrieval, people are better able to access information
if their internal state is the same at the time of recall as when the information was learned.
1) This phenomenon, called the mood congruence effect, underscores the desirability of
matching a consumer’s mood at the time of purchase when planning exposure to
marketing communications.
2) As a general rule, prior familiarity with an item enhances its recall. Familiarity can
also result in inferior recall, however, because the product can be “taken for granted”
and assumed to have no new information worth processing.
k. The salience of a brand refers to its prominence or level of activation in memory.

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1) Almost any technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus also improves recall
(called the von Restorff Effect).
2) Putting a surprise element in an ad can be effective.

*****Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #3 Here (Used Previously) *****

Discussion Opportunity—Have students share their perceptions of the salient characteristics of

(a) a Subway sub, (b) a pair of Nike shoes , and (c) a Mountain Dew soda. Be sure to have
students include both physical as well as psychological characteristics.

Factors Influencing Forgetting

l. Marketers obviously hope that consumers will not forget about their products. The
forgetting process consists of:
1) Decay—the structural changes in the brain produced by learning simply go away.
2) Forgetting also occurs due to interference; as additional information is learned, it
displaces the earlier information.
3) Consumers may forget stimulus-response associations if they learn new responses to
the same or similar stimuli (retroactive interference).
4) Prior learning can interfere with new learning through a process known as proactive
interference.
5) Part-list cueing effect allows marketers to strategically utilize the interference
process (competitors, though known, are not easily recalled).

Discussion Opportunity—Illustrate the forgetting concepts decay and interference. Have

students identify types of information that a marketer might want to have consumers forget
through both decay and interference. Have them do the same with information that marketers
would not want consumers to forget. How can marketers combat the forgetting process?

Products as Memory Makers

m. Products and ads can themselves serve as powerful retrieval cues.
1) Nostalgia has been described as a bittersweet emotion, where the past is viewed with
both sadness and longing. This has an appeal for many consumers.
2) Retro marketing attempts to bring back old commercials to appeal to the nostalgia
market. A retro brand is an updated version of a brand from a prior historical period.

*****Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #2 *****

Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to identify what types of things are nostalgic to them.
How could an advertiser appeal to this side of them and other college-age individuals? Identify
recent nostalgia campaigns and present them as illustrations.

Measuring our Memory for Marketing Messages

n. Surprisingly, consumers do a rather poor job of recalling significant pieces of information
about most products. This is especially true with television ads. (Only 7 percent of

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television viewers can recall the product or company featured in most of the recent ads
they have watched.)
1) The impression made is called impact.
2) Measures of impact are:
a) Recognition.
b) Recall.
3) Recognition tends to stay longer than recall.
4) One test for measuring recognition and recall is the Starch Test.

Discussion Opportunity—How many commercials can you name from last night’s television
viewing experience? How many outdoor signs (billboards) can you remember from driving to
class today? Have students brainstorm for one minute to see how many soft drink brands they
can come up with.

Discussion Opportunity—As an illustration between recognition and recall, conduct this exercise
to show students that they can recognize information without really recalling specifics. Show
examples of various corporate symbols (brand symbols or celebrity endorsers) that students
might recognize. Ask them which brands are represented by each (recognition). Then, ask them
to give specific slogans, information, or other specifics related to each (recall).

o. Although the measurement of an ad’s memorability is important, the ability of existing

measures to accurately assess these dimensions has been criticized for several reasons.
1) Response bias—results obtained from a measuring instrument are not necessarily due
to what is being measured, but rather to something else about the instrument or the
respondent. Simply, people tend to give “yes” answers.
2) Memory lapses—people are prone to unintentionally forgetting information.
3) Memory for facts versus feelings—it is very difficult to take “feelings” out of
impressions about ads (especially if the ad raises strong emotions). Recall does not
translate into preference.

Discussion Opportunity—What is something hard for you to remember (in a personal sense and
in a consumer behavior or product sense)? Why do you think this happens? What do you think
would be a good strategy to attempt to overcome this problem?

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End-of-Chapter Support Material

SUMMARY OF SPECIAL FEATURE BOXES

1. Marketing Opportunity

This box highlights the use of semantic associations in the creation of brand and company
names. Such names are often created as a modification of an existing word or words in order to
elicit certain concepts, feelings, or perceptions.

2. Net Profit

This box highlights the natural evolution of the printed high school Yearbooks on to the Web that
let’s students connect and interact as never before.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus?

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist doing research on digestion in animals, first
demonstrated this phenomenon in dogs. Pavlov induced classically conditioned learning
by pairing a neutral stimulus (a bell) with a stimulus known to cause a salivation
response in dogs (he squirted dried meat powder into their mouths). The powder was an
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it was naturally capable of causing the response.
Over time, the bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS); it did not initially cause
salivation, but the dogs learned to associate the bell with the meat powder and began to
salivate at the sound of the bell only.

2. Give an example of a halo effect in marketing. People also react to other, similar stimuli
in much the same way they responded to the original stimulus; this generalization is
called a halo effect. A drugstore’s bottle of private brand mouthwash deliberately
packaged to resemble Listerine mouthwash may evoke a similar response among
consumers, who assume that this “me-too” product shares other characteristics of the
original.

3. How can marketers use repetition to increase the likelihood that consumers will learn
about their brand? Many classic advertising campaigns consist of product slogans that
have been repeated so many times that they are etched in consumers’ minds.
Conditioning will not occur or will take longer if the CS is only occasionally paired with
the UCS. One result of this lack of association may be extinction that occurs when the
effects of prior conditioning are reduced and finally disappear. This can occur, for
example, when a product is overexposed in the marketplace so that its original allure is
lost.

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4. Why is it not necessarily a good idea to advertise a product in a commercial where a

really popular song is playing in the background? A popular song might also be heard in
many situations in which the product is not present.

5. What is the difference between classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning?

Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with
another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own. Over time, this
second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first stimulus.
Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning, occurs as the individual
learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield
negative outcomes.

6. How do different types of reinforcement enhance learning? How does the strategy of
frequency marketing relate to conditioning? When the environment provides positive
reinforcement in the form of a reward, the response is strengthened and appropriate
behavior is learned. For example, a woman who gets compliments after wearing
Obsession perfume will learn that using this product has the desired effect, and she will
be more likely to keep buying the product. Negative reinforcement also strengthens
responses so that appropriate behavior is learned. A perfume company might run an ad
showing a woman sitting home alone on a Saturday night because she did not use its
fragrance. The message to be conveyed is that she could have avoided this negative
outcome if only she had used the perfume. In contrast to situations in which we learn to
do certain things in order to avoid unpleasantness, punishment occurs when a response
is followed by unpleasant events (such as being ridiculed by friends for wearing an
offensive-smelling perfume)—we learn the hard way not to repeat these behaviors. A
popular technique known as frequency marketing reinforces regular purchasers by giving
them prizes with values that increase along with the amount purchased.

7. What is the major difference between behavioral and cognitive theories of learning? In
contrast to behavioral theories of learning, cognitive learning theory approaches stress
the importance of internal mental processes. This perspective views people as problem
solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their
environment. Supporters of this view also stress the role of creativity and insight during
the learning process.

8. Name the three stages of information processing. Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

9. What is external memory and why is it important to marketers? During the consumer
decision-making process, this internal memory is combined with external memory that
includes all of the product details on packages and other marketing stimuli that permit
brand alternatives to be identified and evaluated.

10. Give an example of an episodic memory. Episodic memories relate to events that are
personally relevant. As a result, a person’s motivation to retain these memories will likely
be strong. Couples often have “their song” that reminds them of their first date or

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wedding or some remember the first time they went on a date or what happened at their
high school prom.

11. Why do phone numbers have seven digits? Initially, researchers believed that STM was
capable of processing between five and nine chunks of information at a time, and for this
reason they designed phone numbers to have seven digits.

12. List the three types of memory, and tell how they work together. Sensory memory permits
storage of the information we receive from our senses. This storage is very temporary; it
lasts a couple of seconds at most. Short-term memory (STM) also stores information for a
limited period of time, and it has limited capacity. Similar to a computer, this system can
be regarded as working memory; it holds the information we are currently processing.
Long-term memory (LTM) is the system that allows us to retain information for a long
period of time. Elaborative rehearsal is required in order for information to enter into
long-term memory from short-term memory. This process involves thinking about the
meaning of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in memory.

13. How is associative memory like a spider Web? Knowledge structures can be thought of
as complex spider Webs filled with pieces of data. This information is placed into nodes
that are connected by associative links within these structures. Pieces of information that
are seen as similar in some way are chunked together under some more abstract
category. New, incoming information is interpreted to be consistent with the structure
already in place.

14. How does the likelihood a person will be willing to use an ATM machine relate to a
schema? The desire to follow a script or schema helps to explain why such service
innovations as automatic bank machines, self-service gas stations, or “scan-your-own”
grocery checkouts have met with resistance by some consumers, who have trouble
adapting to a new sequence of events

15. Why does a pioneering brand have a memory advantage over follower brands? Some
evidence indicates that information about a pioneering brand (the first brand to enter a
market) is more easily retrieved from memory than follower brands because the first
product’s introduction is likely to be distinctive and, for the time being, no competitors
divert the consumer’s attention.

16. If a consumer is familiar with a product, advertising for it can work both ways by either
enhancing or diminishing recall. Why? As a general rule, prior familiarity with an item
enhances its recall. Indeed, this is one of the basic goals of marketers who are trying to
create and maintain awareness of their products. The more experience a consumer has
with a product, the better use he or she is able to make of product information. However,
there is a possible fly in the ointment: As noted earlier in the chapter, some evidence
indicates that extreme familiarity can result in inferior learning and recall. When
consumers are highly familiar with a brand or an advertisement, they may attend to
fewer attributes because they do not believe that any additional effort will yield a gain in
knowledge.

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17. How does learning new information make it more likely we’ll forget things we’ve already
learned? Forgetting may occur due to interference; as additional information is learned,
it displaces the earlier information.

18. Define nostalgia, and tell why it’s such a widely used advertising strategy. We can
describe nostalgia as a bittersweet emotion; the past is viewed with both sadness and
longing. References to “the good old days” are increasingly common, as advertisers call
up memories of youth—and hope these feelings will translate to what they’re selling
today.

19. Name the two basic measures of memory and describe how they differ from one another.
Two basic measures of impact are recognition and recall. In the typical recognition test,
subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them before. In contrast,
free recall tests ask consumers to independently think of what they have seen without
being prompted for this information first—obviously this task requires greater effort on
the part of respondents.

20. List three problems with measures of memory for advertising. Response biases, memory
lapses, and memory for facts versus feelings.

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