C++ Note

Chapter 1
Overview of Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

Procedural Programming and Issues with Procedural
Programming
Pascal, C, BASIC, FORTRAN, and similar languages are procedural languages. A
program in a procedural language is a list of instructions and each instruction tells the
computer to do something. To write a program, a programmer creates a list of
instructions, and the computer carries them out. No other organizing principle or
paradigm is needed for writing programs. Later, the concepts of functions and
modules were introduced as a part of structured programming to make large programs
more comprehensible. Some issues with procedural programming are:
 Problems with Structured Programming: As programs grow larger, even
structured programming approach begins to show signs of strain. No matter
how well the structured programming approach is implemented, the project
becomes too complex, the schedule slips, more programmers are needed, and
costs skyrocket.
 Data Undervalued: Data is given second-class status in the organization of
procedural languages. A global data can be corrupted by functions. Since
many functions access the same global data, the way the data is stored
becomes critical.
 Relationship to the Real World: Procedural programs are often difficult to
design because their chief components – functions and data structures – don’t
model the real world very well.
 New Data Types: It is difficult to create new data types with procedural
languages. Furthermore, most Procedural languages are not usually extensible
and hence procedural programs are more complex to write and maintain.
Structured Programming
Structured programming (sometimes known as modular programming) is a subset of
procedural programming that enforces a top-down design model, in which developers
map out the overall program structure into separate subsections to make programs
more efficient and easier to understand and modify. A defined function or set of
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similar functions is coded in a separate module or sub-module, which means that code
can be loaded into memory more efficiently and that modules can be reused in other
programs. In this technique, program flow follows a simple hierarchical model that
employs three types of control flows: sequential, selection, and iteration.
Almost any language can use structured programming techniques to avoid common
pitfalls of unstructured languages. Most modern procedural languages include features
that encourage structured programming. Object-oriented programming (OOP) can be
thought of as a type of structured programming, uses structured programming
techniques for program flow, and adds more structure for data to the model. Some of
the better known structured programming languages are Pascal, C, PL/I, and Ada.
Object-oriented Programming
The fundamental idea behind object-oriented programming is to combine or
encapsulate both data (or instance variables) and functions (or methods) that operate
on that data into a single unit. This unit is called an object. The data is hidden, so it is
safe from accidental alteration. An object’s functions typically provide the only way
to access its data. In order to access the data in an object, we should know exactly
what functions interact with it. No other functions can access the data. Hence OOP
focuses on data portion rather than the process of solving the problem.
An object-oriented program typically consists of a number of objects, which

communicate with each other by calling one another’s functions. This is called
sending a message to the object. This kind of relation is provided with the help of
communication between two objects and this communication is done through
information called message. In addition, object-oriented programming supports
encapsulation, abstraction, inheritance, and polymorphism to write programs
efficiently. Examples of object-oriented languages include Simula, Smalltalk, C++,
Python, C#, Visual Basic .NET and Java etc.
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Object-Oriented Concepts
The basic concepts underlying OOP are: Class, Object, abstraction, encapsulation,
inheritance, and polymorphism.
 Abstraction: Abstraction is the essence of OOP. Abstraction means the
representation of the essential features without providing the internal details and
complexities. In OOP, abstraction is achieved by the help of class, where data and
methods are combined to extract the essential features only. Encapsulation:
Encapsulation is the process of combining the data (called fields or attributes) and
functions (called methods or behaviors) into a single framework called class.
Encapsulation helps preventing the modification of data from outside the class by
properly assigning the access privilege to the data inside the class. So the term
data hiding is possible due to the concept of encapsulation, since the data are
hidden from the outside world.
 Inheritance: Inheritance is the process of acquiring certain attributes and
behaviors from parents. For examples, cars, trucks, buses, and motorcycles inherit
all characteristics of vehicles. Object-oriented programming allows classes to
inherit commonly used data and functions from other classes. If we derive a class
(called derived class) from another class (called base class), some of the data and
functions can be inherited so that we can reuse the already written and tested code
in our program, simplifying our program.
 Polymorphism: Polymorphism means the quality of having more than one form.
The representation of different behaviors using the same name is called
polymorphism. However the behavior depends upon the attribute the name holds
at particular moment.
Advantages of Object-oriented Programming

Some of the advantages are:
 Elimination of redundant code due to inheritance, that is, we can use the same
code in a base class by deriving a new class from it.
 Modularize the programs. Modular programs are easy to develop and can be
distributed independently among different programmers.
 Data hiding is achieved with the help of encapsulation.
 Data centered approach rather than process centered approach.
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 Program complexity is low due to distinction of individual objects and their
related data and functions.
 Clear, more reliable, and more easily maintained programs can be created.
Object-based Programming
The fundamental idea behind object-based programming is the concept of objects
(the idea of encapsulating data and operations) where one or more of the following
restrictions apply:
1. There is no implicit inheritance
2. There is no polymorphism
3. Only a very reduced subset of the available values are objects (typically the GUI
components)
Object-based languages need not support inheritance or subtyping, but those that do
are also said to be object-oriented. An example of a language that is object-based but
not object-oriented is Visual Basic (VB). VB supports both objects and classes, but
not inheritance, so it does not qualify as object-oriented. Sometimes the term object-
based is applied to prototype-based languages, true object-oriented languages that do
not have classes, but in which objects instead inherit their code and data directly
from other template objects. An example of a commonly used prototype-based
language is JavaScript.
Output Using cout

The keyword cout (pronounced as ‘C out’) is a predefined stream object that
represents the standard output stream (i.e monitor) in C++. A stream is an abstraction
that refers to a flow of data.
The << operator is called insertion or put to operator and directs (inserts or sends) the
contents of the variable on its right to the object on its left. For example, in the
statement cout<<"Enter first value:"; the << operator directs the string constant
“Enter first value” to cout, which sends it for the display to the monitor.
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Input with cin
The keyword cin (pronounced ‘C in’) is also a stream object, predefined in C++ to
correspond to the standard input stream (i.e keyword). This stream represents data
coming from the keyboard.
The operator >> is known as extraction or get from operator and extracts (takes) the
value from the stream object cin its left and places it in the variable on its right. For
example, in the statement cin>>first;, the >> operator extracts the value from cin
object that is entered from the keyboard and assigns it to the variable first.
Cascading of I/O operators

We can use insertion operator (<<) in a cout statement repeatedly to direct a series of
output streams to the cout object. The streams are directed from left to right. For
example, in the statement cout<<Sum=”<<x + y;, the string “Sum=” will be directed
first and then the value of x +y.
Similarly, we can use extraction operator (>>) in a cin statement repeatedly to extract
a series of input streams from the keyboard and to assign these streams to the
variables, allowing the user to enter a series of values. The values are assigned from
left to right. For example, in the statement cin>>x>>y;, the first value entered will be
assigned to the variable x and the second value entered will be assigned to variable y.
Manipulators
Manipulators are the operators used with the insertion operator (<<) to modify or
manipulate the way data is displayed. The most commonly used manipulators are
endl, setw, and setprecision.
The endl Manipulator
This manipulator causes a linefeed to be inserted into the output stream. It has the
same effect as using the newline character ‘\n’. for example, the statement
cout<<First value =”<<first<<endl<<Second value =”<<second;
will cause two lines of output.
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The setw Manipulator
This manipulator causes the output stream that follows it to be printed within a field
of n characters wide, where n is the argument to setw(n). The output is right justified
within the field. For example,
cout<<setw(11)<<"Kantipur"<<endl <<setw(11)<<"Engineering"<<endl
<<setw(11)<<"College";
Output:
Kantipur
Engineering
College
The setprecision Manipulator
This manipulator sets the n digits of precision to the right of the decimal point to the
floating point output, where n is the argument to setprecision(n). For example,
float a = 42.3658945, b = 35.24569, c = 58.3214789, d = 49.321489;

cout<<a<<endl <<setprecision(3)<<b<<endl<<c<<endl<<setprecision(2)<<d;
Output:
42.365894
35.246
58.321
49.32
Note: The header file for setw and setprecision manipulators is iomanip.h.
Reference Variable
Reference variable is an alias (another name) given to the already existing variables of
constants. When we declare a reference variable memory is not located for it rather it
points to the memory of another variable.
Consider the case of normal variables
int a=10 200
a 10
int a=b
300
b 10
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Consider the case of reference variables
int a=10 200
a 10
int &a=b
Type Conversion
There are two types of type conversion: automatic conversion and type casting.
Automatic Conversion (Implicit Type Conversion)
When two operands of different types are encountered in the same expression, the
lower type variable is converted to the type of the higher type variable by the
compiler automatically. This is also called type promotion. The order of types is given
below:
Data Type Order

long double (highest)
double
float
long
int
char (lowest)
Type Casting
Sometimes, a programmer needs to convert a value from one type to another in a
situation where the compiler will not do it automatically. For this C++ permits
explicit type conversion of variables or expressions as follows:
(type-name) expression //C notation

type-name (expression) //C++ notation
For example,
int a = 10000;
int b = long(a) * 5 / 2; //correct
int b = a * 5/2; //incorrect (can you think how?)
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Chapter 2
Function
Default Arguments
When declaring a function we can specify a default value for each of the last
parameters which are called default arguments. This value will be used if the
corresponding argument is left blank when calling to the function. To do that, we
simply have to use the assignment operator and a value for the arguments in the
function declaration. If a value for that parameter is not passed when the function is
called, the default value is used, but if a value is specified this default value is ignored
and the passed value is used instead. For example:
// default values in functions

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int divide (int a, int b=2)
{
int r;
r=a/b;
return (r);
}
int main ()
{
cout << divide (12);
cout << endl;
cout << divide (20,4);
return 0;
}
As we can see in the body of the program there are two calls to function divide. In the
first one:
divide (12)
We have only specified one argument, but the function divide allows up to two. So
the function divide has assumed that the second parameter is 2 since that is what we
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have specified to happen if this parameter was not passed (notice the function
declaration, which finishes with int b=2, not just int b). Therefore the result of this
function call is 6 (12/2).
In the second call:

divide (20,4)
There are two parameters, so the default value for b (int b=2) is ignored and b takes
the value passed as argument, that is 4, making the result returned equal to 5 (20/4).
Inline Functions
Function call is a costly operation. During the function call it’s execution our system
takes overheads like: Saving the values of registers, Saving the return address,
Pushing arguments in the stack, Jumping to the called function, Loading registers with
new values, Returning to the calling function, and reloading the registers with
previously stored values. For large functions this overhead is negligible but for small
function taking such large overhead is not justifiable. To solve this problem concept
of inline function is introduced in c++.
The functions which are expanded inline by the compiler each time it’s call is
appeared instead of jumping to the called function as usual is called inline function.
This does not change the behavior of a function itself, but is used to suggest to the
compiler that the code generated by the function body is inserted at each point the
function is called, instead of being inserted only once and perform a regular call to it,
which generally involves some additional overhead in running time.
Example:
#include <iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
inline void sum(int a int b)
{
int s;
s= a+b;
cout<<”Sum=”<<s<<endl;
}
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Void main()
{
clrscr();
int x, y;
cout<<”Enter two numbers”<<endl;
cin>>x>>y
sum(x,y);
getch();
}
Here at the time of function call instead of jumping to the called function, function
call statement is replaced by the body of the function. So there is no function call
overhead.
Overloaded functions
In C++ two different functions can have the same name if their parameter types or
number are different. That means that you can give the same name to more than one
function if they have either a different number of parameters or different types in their
parameters. This is called function overloading. For example:
// overloaded function
#include <iostream>
int mul (int a, int b)
{
return (a*b);
}
float mul (float a, float b)
{
return (a*b);
}
int main ()
{
int x=5,y=2;
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float n=5.0,m=2.0;
cout << mul (x,y);
cout << "\n";
cout << mul(n,m);
cout << "\n";
return 0;
}
In the first call to “mul” the two arguments passed are of type int, therefore, the
function with the first prototype is called; This function returns the result of
multiplying both parameters. While the second call passes two arguments of type
float, so the function with the second prototype is called. Thus behavior of a call to
mul depends on the type of the arguments passed because the function has been
overloaded.
Notice that a function cannot be overloaded only by its return type. At least one of its
parameters must have a different type.
Arguments passed by value and by reference

In case of pass by value, Copies of the arguments are passed to the function not the
variables themselves. For example, suppose that we called our function addition using
the following code:
// function example
#include <iostream>
int addition (int a, int b)
{
int r;
r=a+b;
return (r);
}
int main ()
{
int z;
int x=5, y=3;
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z = addition (x,y);
cout << "The result is " << z;
return 0;
}
What we did in this case was to call to function addition passing the values of x and y,
i.e. 5 and 3 respectively, but not the variables x and y themselves.
When the function addition is called, the value of its local variables a and b become 5
and 3 respectively, but any modification to either a or b within the function addition
will not have any effect in the values of x and y outside it, because variables x and y
were not themselves passed to the function, but only copies of their values at the
moment the function was called.
In case of pass by reference, Address of the variables (variable itself) not copies of the
arguments are passed to the function. For example, suppose that we called our
function addition using the following code:
// function example
#include <iostream>
int addition (int &a, int &b)
{
int r;
r=a+b;
return (r);
}
int main ()
{
int z;
int x=5, y=3;
z = addition (x,y);
cout << "The result is " << z;
return 0;
}
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What we did in this case was to call to function addition passing the variables x and y
themselves (not values 5 and 3) respectively.
When the function addition is called, the value of its local variables a and b points to
the same memory location respectively, therefore any modification to either a or b
within the function addition will also have effect in the values of x and y outside it.
Return by Reference
If we return address (refrence) rather than value from a function then it is called return
by reference.
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
int& min(int &x, int &y)
{
if(x<y)
return x
else
return y;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
int a,b,r;
cout<<”Enter two numbers”<<endl;
cin>>a>>b;
min(a,b)=0;
cout<<”a=”<<a<<endl<<”b=”<<b;
getch();
}
Here min function return the reference of the variable which is smaller between a and
b and the statement “min(a.b)=0” makes the value of the variable zero which is
smaller.
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Chapter 3
Classes and Objects
Introduction
Object-oriented programming (OOP) encapsulates data (attributes) and functions
(behavior) into a single unit called classes. The data components of the class are
called data members and the function components are called member functions. The
data and functions of a class are intimately tied together. Class is a blueprint of real
world objects. A programmer can create any number of objects of the same class.
Classes have the property of information hiding. It allows data and functions to be
hidden, if necessary, from external use. Classes are also referred to as programmer-
defined data types.
Extensions to C Structure made by C ++
C++ has made following three extensions to c structure, which makes the c++
structure more powerful than C structure.
 Allows adding functions as a member of structure
class Employee
{
………………..
………………..
void getdata( )
{
}
………………..
………………..
}
 Allows us to use the access specifiers private and public to use inside the class
class Employee
{
public:
int eid,sal;
private:
void getdata( )
{
//function body
}
………………..
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………………..
}
 Allows us to use structures similar to that of primitive data types while defin
ing variables.
struct Employee e;//C style
Employee e; //C++ style
Complete Example:
class Employee
{
public:
int eid,sal;
private:
void getdata( )
{
cout<<”Enter ID and Salary of an employee”<<endl;
cin>>eid>>sal;
}
Void display( )
{
cout<<”Emp ID:”<<eid<<endl<<”Salary:”<<sal<<endl;
}
};
void main( )
{
clrscr( );
Employee e;
e.getdata( );
cout<<”Employee Details::::”<<endl;
e.display( );
getch( );
}
Think!!!!
What modification in above program is needed if we need to read and display records
of 10 employees?
Specifying a Class
The specification starts with the keyword class followed by the class name. Like
structure, its body is delimited by braces terminated by a semicolon. The body of the
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class contains the keywords private, public, and protected (discussed later in
inheritance). Private data and functions can only be accessed from within the member
functions of that class. Public data or functions, on the other hand are accessible from
outside the class. Usually the data within a class is private and functions are public.
The data is hidden so it will be safe from accidental manipulation, while the functions
that operated on the data are public so they can be accessed from outside the class.
The class also contains any number of data items and member functions. The general
form of class declaration is:
class class_name
{
private:
data-type variable1;
data-type function1(argument declaration)
{
Function body
}

{
Function body
}
…………
…………
public:
{
Function body
}
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{
Function body
}
………
………
};
For example, we can declare a class for rectangles as follows:
class rectangle
{
private:
int length;
int breadth;
public:
void setdata(int l, int b)

{
length = l;
breadth = b;
}
void showdata()
{
cout<<"Length = "<<length<<endl<<"Breadth = "<<breadth<<endl;
}
int findarea()
{
return length * breadth;
}
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int findperemeter()
{
return 2 * length * breadth;
}
};
Creating Objects
The class declaration does not define any objects but only specifies what they will
contain. Once a class has been declared, we can create variables (objects) of that type
by using the class name (like any other built-in type variables). For example,
rectangle r;
creates a variable (object) r of type rectangle. We can create any number of objects
from the same class. Fro example,
rectangle r1, r2, r3;
Objects can also be created when a class is defined by placing their names
immediately after the closing brace. For example,
class rectangle {
………
………
………
}r1, r2, r3;
Accessing Class Members

When an object of the class is created then the members are accessed using the ‘.’ dot
operator. For example,
r.setdata(4, 2);
r.showdata();
cout<<"Area = "<<r.findarea()<<endl;
cout<<"Peremeter = "<<r.findperemeter();
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Private class members cannot be accessed in this way from outside of the class. For
example, if the following statements are written inside the main function, the program
generates compiler error.
r.length = length;
r1.breadth = breadth
A Complete Program
#include<conio.h>
class rectangle
{
private:
int length;
int breadth;
public:

{
length = l;
breadth = b;
}
void showdata()
{
cout<<"Length = "<<length<<endl
<<"Breadth = "<<breadth<<endl;
}
int findarea()
{
}
int findperemeter()
{
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}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
rectangle r;
r.setdata(4, 2);
r.showdata();
cout<<"Area= "<<r.findarea()<<endl;
cout<<"Peremeter= "<<r.findperemeter();
getche();
}
Defining Member Functions Outside Of the Class

The member functions that are declared inside a class have to be defined separately
outside the class. The general form of this definition is:
return-type class-name :: function-name(argument declaration)
Function body
The symbol :: is called the binary scope resolution operator. For example, we can
rewrite the same rectangle class as follows:
class rectangle
{
private:
int length;
int breadth;
public:
void setdata(int l, int b);
void showdata();
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int findarea();
int findperemeter();
};
void rectangle :: setdata(int l, int b)
{
length = l;
breadth = b;
}
void rectangle :: showdata()
{
<<"Breadth = "<<breadth<<endl;
}
int rectangle :: findarea()

{
}
int rectangle :: findperemeter()

{
}
Functions defined outside the class are not normally inline. But a function defined
inside a class is treated as an inline function. We can define a member function
outside the class definition and still make it inline by just using the qualifier inline as
follows:
inline void rectangle :: setdata(int l, int b)
{
length = l;
breadth = b;
}
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Note: The scope resolution operator can also be used to uncover hidden global
variable. In this case it is called unary scope resolution operator. The general form is:
:: variable-name
Example:
#include<conio.h>
int m = 4;
void main()
{
clrscr();
int m = 2;
cout<<m<<endl;
cout<<::m;
getch();
}
Output:
2
4
Memory Allocation for Objects

For each object, the memory space for data members is allocated separately because
the data members will hold different data values for different objects. However, all
the objects in a given class use the same member functions. Hence, the member
functions are created and placed in memory only once when they are defined as a part
of a class specification and no separate space is allocated for member functions when
objects are created.
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data1 data1 data1
data2 data2 data2
object1 object1 object1
Common for all objects

function1
function2
Fig: Objects in Memory
Nesting of Member Functions

A member function can be called by using its name inside another member function
of the same class. This is known as nesting of member functions. For example, the
class below shows the nesting of member function findinterest inside the member
function findtotal.
class total
{
private:
float principle, time, rate;
float findinterest()
{
return principle * time * rate / 100;
}
public:
void setdata(float p, float t, float r)
{
principle = p;
time = t;
rate = r;
}
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float findtotal()
{
return principle + findinterest();
}
};
Remember: Like private data member, some situations may require certain member
functions to be hidden from the outside call. In the above example, the member
function findinterest is in private block and is hidden from the outside call. A private
member function can only be called by another member function that is a member
function of its class.
Program::
WAP to add two objects of Complex class
class Complex
private:
int real,img;
public:
void getData( )
cout<<”Enter values od real and imaginary”<<endl;
}
void display()
Cout<<”(“<<real<<”+i”<<img<<”)”<<endl;
void addComplex(Complex c1, Complex c2)
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real=c1.real+c2.real;
img=c1.img+c2.img;
};
void main( )
clrscr( );
Complex c1,c2,c3;
c1.getdata();
c2.getdata();
c3.addComplex(c1,c2);
cout<”C3=”;
c3.display();
getch();
Think!!!!!
What changes need to be done above program if we change the function call
statement as “c3=c1.addComplex(c2)”.
Static Data Members

If a data member in a class is defined as static, then only one copy of that member is
created for the entire class and is shared by all the objects of that class, no matter how
many objects are created. Hence, these data members are normally used to maintain
values common to the entire class and are also called class variables.
Example:
class rectangle
{
private:
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int length;
int breadth;
static int count; //static data member
public:
{
length = l;
breadth = b;
count++;
}
void displaycount()
{
cout<<count<<endl;
}
};
int rectangle :: count;
void main()
{
clrscr();
r1.displaycount();
r2.displaycount();
r3.displaycount();
r1.setdata(15, 6);
r2.setdata(9, 8);
r3.setdata(12, 9);
r1.displaycount();
r2.displaycount();
r3.displaycount();
getche();
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}
Output:
0
0
0
3
3
3
In this program, the static variable count is initialized to zero when the objects are
created. The count is incremented whenever data is supplied to an object. Since the
data is supplied three times, the variable count is incremented three times. Because
there is only one copy of the count shared by all the three objects, all the three calls to
the displaycount member function cause the value 3 to be displayed.
The type and scope of each static data member must be defined outside the class
definition because these data members are stored separately rather than as a part of an
object. For example, the following statement in the above program is defined outside
the class definition.
While defining a static variable, some initial value can also be assigned to the
variable. For example, the following definition gives count the initial value 5.
int rectangle :: count = 5;
Static Member Functions

Like static member variables, we can also have static member functions. A static
member function can have access to only other static members (functions or
variables) declared in the same class and can be called using the class name (instead
of objects) as follows:
class-name :: function-name;
Example:
class rectangle
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{
private:
int length;
int breadth;
static int count;
public:
{
length = l;
breadth = b;
count++;
}
static void displaycount()
{
cout<<count<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
rectangle :: displaycount();
r1.setdata(6, 5);
r2.setdata(8, 4);
r3.setdata(15, 7);
rectangle :: displaycount();
getche();
}
Output:
0
3
Page 28
Another Complete Program
This program adds two distance objects each having two private data members feet
(type int) and inches (type float).
#include<conio.h>
class distance
{
private:
int feet;
float inches;
public:
void setdata(int f,float i)
{
feet=f;
inches=i;
}
distance adddistance(distance d2)

{
distance d3;
d3.feet = feet + d2.feet;
d3.inches = inches + d2.inches;
d3.feet=d3.feet + d3.inches/12;
d3,inches=d3.inches%12;
return d3;
}
void display()
{
cout<<"("<<feet<<", "<<inches<<")"<<endl;
}
};
Page 29
void main()
{
clrscr();
distance d1, d2, d3;
d1.setdata(5, 6.5);
d2.setdata(7, 8.7);
d3 = d1.adddistance(d2);
cout<<"d1 = "; d1.display();
getche();
}
Output:
d1 = (5, 6.5)
d2 = (7, 8.7)
d3 = (13, 3.2)
Objects as Function Arguments

Like any other data type, an object may be used as a function argument in three ways:
pass-by-value, pass-by-reference, and pass-by-pointer.
1. Pass-by-value: In this method, a copy of the object is passed to the function. Any
changes made to the object inside the function do not affect the object used in the
function call. For example,
distance adddistance(distance d)
{
distance dd;
dd.feet = feet + d.feet;
dd.inches = inches + d.inches;
dd.feet=dd.feet +dd.inches/12
dd.inches=dd.inches%12;
return dd;
}
2. Pass-by-reference: In this method, an address of the object is passed to the

function. The function works directly on the actual object used in the function call.
Page 30
This means that any changes made to the object inside the function will reflect in the
actual object. For example,
distance adddistance(distance& d2)
{
distance d3;
d3.feet=dd.feet +dd.inches/12
d3.inches=dd.inches%12;
return d3;
}
3. Pass-by-pointer: Like pass-by-reference method, pass-by-pointer method can also

be used to work directly on the actual object used in the function call. For example,
distance adddistance(distance* d2)
{
distance d3;
d3.feet = feet + d2->feet;
d3.inches = inches + d2->inches;
return d3;
}
This function must be called as follows:

d3 = d1.adddistance(&d2);
Returning Objects
A function cannot only receive objects as arguments but also can return them. A
function can return objects by value, by reference, and by pointer.
1. Return-by-value: In this method, a copy of the object is returned to the function
call. For example, in the following function d3 is returned by value.
distance adddistance(distance d2)
Page 31
{
distance d3;
return d3;
}
2. Return-by-reference: In this method, an address of the object is returned to the

function call. We cannot return automatic variables by reference. For example, in the
following function d3 is not an automatic variable and is returned by reference.
distance& adddistance(distance d2, distance& d3)
{
d3.feet=d3.feet +d3.inches/12
d3.inches=d3.inches%12;
return d3;
}
This function must be called as follows:

d3 = d1.adddistance(d2, d3);
3. Return-by-pointer: Like return-by-reference method, return-by-pointer returns

address of the object to the function call. For example, in the following function d3 is
returned by pointer.
distance* adddistance(distance d2)
{
distance* d3;
d3->feet = feet + d2.feet;
d3->inches = inches + d2.inches;
Page 32
return d3;
}
In the main function, d3 must be declared as a pointer variable and the members of d3
must be accessed as follows:
distance d1, d2, *d3;

cout<<"d3 = "; d3->display();
Note: If we declare an object as pointer variable, we must access the members of that
object by using member selection via pointer (>) operator.
const (Constant) Object and const Member Functions

Some objects need to be modified and some do not. We can use the keyword const to
specify that an object is not modifiable and that any attempt to modify the object
should result compiler error. The statement
const distance d1(5, 6.7);
declares a const object d1 of class distance and initializes it to 5 feet and 6.7 inches.
These objects must be initialized. A const object can only invoke a const member
function. If a member function does not alter any data in the class, then we may
declare and define it as a const member function as follows:
void display()const
{
}
The qualifier const is inserted after the function’s parameter list in both declarations
and definitions. The compiler will generate an error message if such functions try to
alter the data values. A const member function cannot call a non-const member
function on the same class.
Access Modifiers
Access modifiers are constructs that defines the scope and visibility of members of a
class. There are three access modifiers:
Page 33
 Private
Private members are accessible only inside the class and not from any other
location outside of the class.
 Protected
Protected members are accessible from the class as well as from the child class
but not from any other location outside of the class.
 Public
Public members are accessible from any location of the program.
class Test
{
private:
int x;
public:
int y;
void getdata()
{
cout<<”Enter x and y”<<endl;
cin>>x>>y;
}
void display()
{
cout<”x=”<<x<<”y=”<<y<<endl;
}
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
Test p;
p.getdata();
cout<<”Enter value of x”<<endl;
cin>>p.x;
Page 34
cout<<”Enter value of y”<<endl;
cin>>p.y;
getch();
}
Here the statement “cin>>p.x;” generates error because x is private data

member because, x is private data member and is not accessible from outside
of the class. But the statement “cin>>p.y;” does not generates error because y
is public data member and is accessible from everywhere. Thus we can say
that use of private access specifier is used to achieve data hiding in class.
Friend Functions
The concepts of data hiding and encapsulation dictate that private members of a class
cannot be accessed from outside the class, that is, non-member functions of a class
cannot access the non-public members (data members and member functions) of a
class. However, we can achieve this by using friend functions. To make an outside
function friendly to a class, we simply declare the function as a friend of the class as
shown below:
class sample
{
int a;
int b;
public:
void setvalue()
{
a = 25;
b = 40;
}
friend float mean(sample s);
};
Page 35
float mean(sample s)
{
return float(s.a + s.b)/2;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
sample x;
x.setvalue();
cout<<"Mean value = "<<mean(x);
getch();
}
Output:
Mean value = 32.5
Some special characteristics of friend functions are:

1. Since, it is not in the scope of the class to which it has been declared as a friend, it
cannot be called using the object of the class.
2. It can be invoked like a normal function without the help of any object.
3. Unlike member functions, it cannot access the member names directly and has to
use an object name and dot membership operator with each member name.
4. It can be declared either in the public or the private part of a class without
affecting its meaning.
5. Usually, it has the objects as arguments.
Furthermore, a fried function also acts as a bridging between two classes. For
example, if we want a function to take objects of two classes as arguments and
operate on their private members, we can inherit the two classes from the same base
class and put the function in the base class. But if the classes are unrelated, there is
nothing like a friend function. For example,
Page 36
class beta;
class alpha
{
private:
int data;
public:
void setdata(int d)
{
data = d;
}
friend int frifunc(alpha, beta);
};
class beta
{
private:
int data;
public:
void setdata(int d)
{
data = d;
}
friend int frifunc(alpha, beta);
};
int frifunc(alpha a, beta b)

{
return a.data + b.data;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
alpha aa;
Page 37
aa.setdata(7);
beta bb;
bb.setdata(3);
cout<<frifunc(aa, bb);
getch();
}
Output:
10
Friend Classes
The member functions of a class can all be made friends of another class when we
make the former entire class a friend of later. For example,
class alpha
{
private:
int x;
public:
void setdata(int d)
{
x = d;
}
friend class beta;
};
class beta
{
public:
void func(alpha a)
{
cout<<a.x<<endl;
}
};
Page 38
void main()
{
clrscr();
alpha a;
a.setdata(99);
beta b;
b.func(a);
getch();
}
Output:
99
In the above program, in class alpha the entire class beta is declared as friend.
Hence, all the member functions of beta can access the private data of alpha.
Alternatively, we can declare beta to be a class before the alpha class specifier as
follows and then, within alpha, we can referred to beta without the class keyword as
follows:
class beta;
class alpha
{
private:
int x;
public:
void setdata(int d)
{
x = d;
}
friend beta;
};
Page 39
Chapter 4
Constructors and Destructors
Constructors
A constructor is a special member function that is executed automatically whenever
an object is created. It is used for automatic initialization. Automatic initialization is
the process of initializing object’s data members when it is first created, without
making a separate call to a member function. The name of the constructor is same as
the class name. For example,
class rectangle
{
private:
int length;
int breadth;
public:
rectangle()
{ //constructor
length = 0;
breadth = 0;
}
………
………
};
Some special characteristics:
Constructors have some special characteristics. These are:
1. Constructors should be defined or declared in the public section.

2. They do not have return types.
3. They cannot be inherited but a derived class can call the base class
constructor.
4. Like functions, they can have default arguments.
5. Constructors cannot be virtual.
6. We cannot refer to their addresses.
Page 40
7. An object with a constructor (or destructor) cannot be used as a member of a
union.
8. They make ‘implicit calls’ to the new and delete operators when a memory
allocation is required.
Types Of constructor
Default Constructor
The constructor used in this example is default constructor. A constructor that
accepts no parameters is called default constructor. If a class does not include any
constructor, the compiler supplies a default constructor. If we create an object by
using the declaration
rectangle r1;
Default constructor is invoked
Parameterized Constructors
Unlike a default constructor, a constructor may have arguments. The constructors that
take arguments are called parameterized constructors. For example, the constructor
used in the following example is the parameterized constructor and takes two
arguments both of type int.
class rectangle
{
private:
int length;
int breadth;
public:
rectangle(int l, int b)
{ //parameterized constructor
length = l;
breadth = b;
}
………
………
Page 41
};
We can use parameterized constructors in two ways: by calling the constructor

explicitly and by calling the constructor implicitly (sometimes called shorthand
method). The declaration
rectangle r1 = rectangle(5, 6.7);
illustrates the first method of calling and the declaration
rectangle r1(5, 6.7);
illustrates the second method of calling.
Remember: If a class contains parameterized constructor(s), we must supply

default constructor explicitly to use it.
Copy Constructor
A copy constructor is used to declare and initialize an object with another object of
the same type. For example, the statement
rectangle r2(r1);
Creates new object r2 and performs member-by-member copy of r1 into r2. Another
form of this statement is
rectangle r2 = r1;
The process of initializing through assignment operator is known as copy

initialization. A copy constructor takes reference to an object of the same class as its
argument. For example,
rectangle(rectangle& r)
{
lentht = r.length;
breadth = r.breadth;
}
Remember: We cannot pass the argument by value to a copy constructor.
Page 42
Constructor Overloading
We can define more than one constructor in a class either with different number of
arguments or with different type of argument which is called constructor overloading.
Example:
class Item
{
int code, price;
public:
Item()
{//Default Constructor
code= price =0;
}
Item(int c,int p)
{//Parameterized Constructor
code=c;
price=p;
}
Item(Item &x)
{//Copy Constructor
code=x.code;
price= x.price;
}
void display()
{
Cout<<”Code::”<<code<<endl<<”Price::”<<price<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
Item I1;
Item I2(102,300);
Item I3(I2);
I1.display();
I2.display();
I3.display();
getch();
}
Thiink!!!
What will be the output of above program
Page 43
Destructors
A destructor is a special member function that is executed automatically just before
lifetime of an object is finished. A destructor has the same name as the constructor
(which is the same as the class name) but is preceded by a tilde (~). Like constructors,
destructors do not have a return value. They also take no arguments. Hence, we can
use only one destructor in a class.
The most common use of destructors is to deallocate memory that was allocated for
the object by the constructor.
Class Test
{
private:
int x,y;
public:
Test()
{
cout<<”Memory is allocated”<<endl;
}
~Test()
{
cout<<”Memory is deallocated”<<endl;
}
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
{
Test p;
}//life time of p finishes here, and destructor is called
getch();
}
Page 44
Output:
Memory is allocated
Memory is de-allocated
Whenever new operator is used to dynamically allocate memory in the constructors,

we should use delete operator to free that memory. For example,
class string
{
private:
char* name;
public:
string(char* n)
{
int length = strlen(n);
name = new char[length + 1];
strcpy(name, n);
}
~string()
{ //destructor
delete[] name;
}
………
………
};
Note: The objects are destroyed in the reverse order of creation.
Page 45
Chapter 5
Operator Overloading
Introduction
Operator overloading is one of the most exciting features of C++. The term operator
overloading refers to giving the normal C++ operators additional meaning so that we
can use them with user-defined data types. For example, C++ allows us to add two
variables of user-defined types with the same syntax that is applied to the basic type.
We can overload all the C++ operators except the following:
 Class member access operators (., .*)

 Scope resolution operator (::)
 Size operator (sizeof)
 Conditional operator (?:)
Although the semantics of an operator can be extended, we cannot change its syntax
and semantics that govern its use such as the number of operands, precedence, and
associativity.
Operator overloading is done with the help of a special function, called operator
function. The general form of an operator function is:
return-type operator op(arguments)
Function body
}
Where return-type is the type returned by the operation, operator is the keyword, and
op is the operator symbol. For example, to add two objects of type distance each
having data members feet of type int and inches of type float, we can overload +
operator as follows:
distance operator +(distance d2)
{
//function body
}
Page 46
And we can call this operator function with the same syntax that is applied to its basic
types as follows:
d3 = d1 + d2;
Note: Operator functions must be either member functions or friend functions. A

basic difference between them is that a friend function will have only one argument
for unary operators and two for binary operators, while a member function has no
argument for unary operators and only one for binary operators. This is because the
object used to invoke the member function is passed implicitly and therefore is
available for the member function. This is not the case with friend functions.
Remember: We cannot use friend functions to overload certain operators. These

operators are:
= assignment operator () function call operator
[] subscripting operator > class member access operator
Overloading Unary Operators

Let us consider the increment (++) operator. This operator increases the value of an
operand by 1 when applied to a basic data item. This operator should increase the
value of each data member when applied to an object. For example,
class rectangle
{
private:
int length;
int breadth;
public:
{
length = l;
breadth = b;
}
void operator ++()
{
++length;
Page 47
++breadth;
}
void display()
{
<<"Breadth = "<<breadth;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
rectangle r1(5, 6);
++r1; //r1.operator ++();
r1.display();
getch();
}
Output:
Length = 6
Breadth = 7
In this example, we used prefix notation. We can also use postfix notation as follows:
void operator ++(int)
{
length++;
breadth++;
}
This int isn’t really an argument, and it doesn’t mean integer. It is simply a signal to
the compiler to create the postfix version of the operator. We can call this operator
function as follows:
r1++;
Page 48
It is also possible to overload unary operators using a friend function as follows:
class rectangle
{
private:
int length;
int breadth;
public:
{
length = l;
breadth = b;
}
void operator ++(rectangle&);
void display()
{
<<"Breadth = "<<breadth;
}
};
void operator ++(rectangle& r)
{
++r.length;
++r.breadth;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
rectangle r1(5, 6);
++r1; //r1.operator ++();
r1.display();
getch();
Page 49
}
Output:
Length = 6
Breadth = 7
Overloading Binary Operators

Let us consider the addition (+) operator. This operator adds the values of two
operands when applied to a basic data item. This operator should add the values of
corresponding data members when applied to two objects. For example,
class distance
{
private:
int feet;
float inches;
public:
void getdata( )
{
cout<<”Enter feet and inch”<<endl;
cin>>feet>>inches;
}
distance operator +( distance d2)
{
distance d3;
return d3;
}
void display()
{
Page 50
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
distance d1(5, 6.5), d2(7, 8.7), d3;
d3 = d1 + d2; //d1.operator +(d2);
getche();
}
Output:
d1 = (5, 6.5)
d2 = (7, 8.7)
d3 = (13, 3.2)
It is also possible to overload binary operators using a friend function as follows:
class distance
{
private:
int feet;
float inches;
public:
void getdata( )
{
cout<<”Enter feet and inch”<<endl;
cin>>feet>>inches;
}
Page 51
friend distance operator +(distance, distance);
void display()
{
}
};
friend distance operator +( distance d2)
{
distance d3;
return d3;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
distance d1(5, 6.5), d2(7, 8.7), d3;
d3 = d1 + d2; //d1.operator +(d2);
getche();
}
Output:
d1 = (5, 6.5)
d2 = (7, 8.7)
d3 = (13, 3.2)
Page 52
Nameless Temporary Objects: We can also use nameless temporary objects to add
two distance objects whose purpose is to provide a return value for the function. For
example,
distance operator + ( distance d2)
{
int ft = feet + d2.feet;
int in = inches + d2.inches;
ft=ft+in/12;
in=int%12;
return distance(ft, in); //an unnamed temporary object
}
//Overload + operator to concatenate two strings

#include<string.h>
#include<conio.h>
class String
{
char s[20];
public:
void getdata()
{
cout<<”Enter a string”<<endl;
cin>>s;
}
void display()
{
cout<”s=”<<s<<endl;
}
String operator(String t)
{
String temp;
strcpy( temp.s,s);
Page 53
strcat(temp.s, t.s);
return temp;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
String s1,s2,s3;
s1.getdata();
s2.getdata();
s3=s1+s2;
s3.display();
getch();
}
//Overload the < operator to compare two Objects of Time Class

class Time
{
int hr,min;
public:
void getdata()
{
cout<<”Enter hour and minute”<<endl;
cin>>hr>>min;
}
void display()
{
cout<<hr<<” hr “<<min<<” min “<<endl;
}
int operator(Time t)
{
Page 54
Time temp;
if(hr<t.hr)
return 1;
else if(hr == t.hr && min< t.min)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
Time t1,t2,t3;
t1.getdata();
t2.getdata();
if(t1<t2)
{
cout<<”t1 is smaller”<<endl;
}
else
{
cout<<”t2 is smaller”<<endl;
}
getch();
}
Exercises
1. Write a program to overload unary minus (-) operator to invert sign of data
members of a distance object.
2. Write a program to compare two distance objects using < and > operators.
3. Write a program to add two complex numbers using + operator.
4. Write a program to concatenate two strings using + operator.
5. Write a program to compare two strings using = = operator.
Page 55
Type Conversion
The type conversions are automatic as long as the data types involved are built-in
types. If the data types are user defined, the compiler does not support automatic type
conversion and therefore, we must design the conversion routines by ourselves. Three
types of situations might arise in the data conversion in this case.
1. Conversion from basic type to class type
2. Conversion from class type to basic type
3. Conversion from one class type to another class type
Conversion from basic type to class type

In this case, it is necessary to use the constructor. The constructor in this case takes
single argument whose type is to be converted. For example,
class distance
{
private:
int feet;
int inch;
public:
distance(int f,int i)
{
feet=f;
inch=i;
}
distance(float m)
{
feet = int(m);
inch = 12 * (m - feet);
}
void display()
{
cout<<"Feet = "<<feet<<endl <<"Inch = "<<inch;
}
Page 56
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
float f = 2.6;
distance d = f;
d.display();
getch();
}
Output:
Feet = 2
Inches = 7
Conversion from class type to basic type
In this case, it is necessary to overload casting operator. To do this, we use conversion

function.
Example:
class distance
{
private:
int feet;
int inch;
public:
distance(int f,int i)
{
feet=f;
inch=i;
}
operator float()
{
float a= feet + inches/12.0;
Page 57
return a;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
distance d(8, 6);
float x = (float)d;
cout<<"x = "<<x;
getch();
}
Output:
x = 8.5
Conversion from one class type to another class type

This type of conversion can be carried out either by a constructor or an operator
function. It depends upon where we want the routine to be located – in the source
class or in the destination class.
a. Function in the source class: In this case, it is necessary that the operator
function be placed in the source class. For example,
class distance
{
int feet;
int inch;
public:
distance(int f, int i)
{
feet = f;
inch = i;
}
void display()
Page 58
{
cout<<"Feet = "<<feet<<endl<<"Inches = "<<inches;
}
};
class dist {
int meter;
int centimeter;
public:
dist(int m, int c)
{
meter = m;
centimeter = c;
}
operator distance( )
{
distance d;
int f,i;
f= meter*3.3.;
i=centimeter*0.4;
f=f+i/12;
i=i%12;
return distance(f,i);
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
distance d1;
dist d2(4,50);
d1=d2;
d1.display();
Page 59
getche();
}
b. Function in the destination class: In this case, it is necessary that the

constructor be placed in the destination class. This constructor is a single
argument constructor and serves as an instruction for converting the
argument’s type to the class type of which it is a member. For example,
class distance
{
int meter;
float centimeter;
public:
distance(int m, int c)
{
meter = m;
centimeter = c;
}
int getmeter()
{
return meter;
}
float getcentimeter()
{
return centimeters;
}
};
class dist
{
int feet;
int inch;
Page 60
public:
dist(int f, int i)
{
feet = f;
inch = i;
}
dist(distance d)
{
int m,c;
m=d.getmeter();
c=d.getcentimeter();
feet= m*3.3;
inch= c*0.4;
feet=feet+inch/12;
inch= inch%12;
}
void display()
{
cout<<"Feet = "<<feet<<endl<<"Inches = "<<inches;
}
};
void main( )
{
clrscr();
distance d1(6,40);
dist d2;
d2=d1;
d2.display();
getche();
}
Page 61
Chapter 6
Inheritance
Introduction
Inheritance (or derivation) is the process of creating new classes, called derived
classes, from existing classes, called base classes. The derived class inherits all the
properties from the base class and can add its own properties as well. The inherited
properties may be hidden (if private in the base class) or visible (if public or protected
in the base class) in the derived class.
Inheritance uses the concept of code reusability. Once a base class is written and
debugged, we can reuse the properties of the base class in other classes by using the
concept of inheritance. Reusing existing code saves time and money and increases
program’s reliability. An important result of reusability is the ease of distributing
classes. A programmer can use a class created by another person or company, and,
without modifying it, derive other classes from it that are suited to particular
situations.
Types of Inheritance
A class can inherit properties from one or more classes and from one or more levels.
On the basis of this concept, there are five types of inheritance.
1. Single inheritance
2. Multiple Inheritance
3. Hierarchical Inheritance
4. Multilevel Inheritance
5. Hybrid Inheritance
Single Inheritance
In single inheritance, a class is derived from only one base class. The example and
figure below show this inheritance.
Example
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class A
members of A
A
};
B
class B : public A
members of B
};
Multiple Inheritance
In this inheritance, a class is derived from more than one base class. The example and
figure below show this inheritance.
Implementation Skeleton:
class A
{
members of A
};
B A
class B
{
C
members of B
};
class C : public A, public B
{
members of C
};
Hierarchical Inheritance
In this type, two or more classes inherit the properties of one base class. The example
and figure below show this inheritance.
class A
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{
members of A
};
A
class B
{
members of B B C
};
{
members of C
};
Multilevel Inheritance
The mechanism of deriving a class from another derived class is known as multilevel
inheritance. The process can be extended to an arbitrary number of levels. The
example and figure below show this inheritance.
class A
{
members of A
A
};
class B : public A B
{
members of B C
};
class C : public B
{
members of C
};
Hybrid Inheritance
This type of inheritance includes more than one type of inheritance mentioned
previously. The example and figure below show this inheritance.
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Example
class A
members of A
};
A
class B : public A
{ B C
members of B
D
};
class C : public A
members of C
};
class D : public B, public C
members of D
};
Protected Access Specifier

If a class member is private, it can be accessed only from within the class where it
lies. However, if a class member is public, it can be accessed from within the class
and from outside the class.
A protected member, on the other hand, can be accessed from within the class where
it lies and from any class derived from this class. It can’t be accessed from outside
these classes. The table below summarizes this concept
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Access Accessible from Accessible from Accessible from Objects
Specifier Own Class Derived Class Outside the Class
Public Yes yes yes
protected Yes Yes no
Private Yes No no
Note: Only public and protected members are visible in the derived class.
Public, protected and private derivation

A derived class can be defined by specifying its relationship with the base class in
addition to its own details. The general form is:
class derived-class-name : visibility-mode base-class-name
Members of derived classes
};
The visibility mode is optional. If present, may be private, protected, or public. The
default visibility mode is private. For example,
class ABC : [private] [protected] [public] XYZ
members of ABC
};
The visibility mode specifies the visibility of inherited members. If the visibility mode
is private, public and protected members of the base class become private members in
the derived class and therefore these members can only be accessed in the derived
class. They are inaccessible from outside this derived class.
If the visibility mode is protected, both public and protected members of the base
class become protected members in the derived class and therefore these members can
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only be accessed in the derived class and from any class derived from this class. They
are inaccessible from outside these classes.
If the visibility mode is public, public and protected members of the base class do
not change. The table below summarizes these concepts:
Base Class Derived Class Visibility
Visibility Pubic Derivation Private Derivation Protected Derivation
Private not visible not visible not visible
protected protected Private protected
Public Public Private protected
Note: If we want to disallow the further inheritance of the members of base class
from derived class, then private derivation is used.
Derived Class Constructors

When applying inheritance we usually create objects using the derived class. If the
base class contains a constructor it can be called from the initializer list in the derived
class constructor as follows:
class A
{
protected:
int adata;
public:
A(int a)
{
adata = a;
}
};
class B : public A
{
int bdata;
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public:
B(int a, int b) : A(a)
{
bdata = b;
}
void showdata()
{
cout<<"adata = "<<adata<<endl <<"bdata = "<<bdata;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
B b(5, 6);
b.showdata();
getch();
}
Output:
adata = 5
bdata = 6
If the base class contains no constructor, we can write the derived class constructor as
follows:
B(int a, int b)
{
adata = a;
bdata = b;
}
In case of multiple inheritance, constructors in the base classes are placed in the
initializer list in the derived class constructor separated by commas. For example,
class A
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{
protected:
int adata;
public:
A(int a)
{
adata = a;
}
};
class B
{
protected:
int bdata;
public:
B(int b)
{
bdata = b;
}
};
class C: public A, public B
{
int cdata;
public:
C(int a, int b, int c) : A(a), B(b)
{
cdata = c;
}
};
Order of execution of constructors

The base class constructor is executed first and then the constructor in the derived
class is executed. In case of multiple inheritance, the base class constructors are
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executed in the order in which they appear in the definition of the derived class.
Similarly, in a multilevel inheritance, the constructors will be executed in the order of
inheritance. Furthermore, the constructors for virtual base classes are invoked before
any non-virtual base classes. If there are multiple virtual base classes, they are
invoked in the order in which they are declared in the derived class.
Exanple:
class A
public:
A( )
cout<<”Class A Constructor”<<endl;
};
class B:public A
public:
B( )
cout<<”Class B Constructor”<<endl;
};
class C: public B
public:
C( )
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cout<<”Class C Constructor”<<endl;
};
Output:
Class A constructor
Class B constructor
Class C constructor
Order of execution of constructors

The derived class destructor is executed first and then the destructor in the base class
is executed. In case of multiple inheritances, the derived class destructors are executed
in the order in which they appear in the definition of the derived class. Similarly, in a
multilevel inheritance, the destructors will be executed in the order of inheritance.
Example:
class A
public:
~A( )
cout<<”Class A Destructor”<<endl;
};
class B:public A
public:
~B( )
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cout<<”Class B Destructor”<<endl;
};
class C: public B
public:
~C( )
cout<<”Class C Destructor”<<endl;
};
Output:
Class C Destructor
Class B Destructor
Class A Destructor
Overriding Member Functions

We can use member functions in a derived class that override those in the base class.
In this case, both base and derived class functions have same name, same number of
parameters, and similar type of parameters. For example,
class A
{
public:
void show()
{
cout<<"This is class A";

}
};
class B : public A
{
public:
void show()
{
cout<<"This is class B"<<endl;
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}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
B b;
b.show(); //invokes the member function from class B
b.A :: show(); //invokes the member function from class A
getche();
}
Output:
This is class B
This is class A
Ambiguity in Multiple Inheritance

Suppose two base classes have an exactly similar member. Also, suppose a class
derived from both of these base classes has not this member. Then, if we try to access
this member from the objects of the derived class, it will be ambiguous. For example,
class A
{
public:
void show()
{
cout<<"This is class A";
}
};
class B
{
public:
void show()
{
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cout<<"This is class B"<<endl;
}
};
};
void main() {
clrscr();
C c;
c.show(); //ambiguous – will not compile
c.A :: show(); //OK
c.B :: show(); //OK
getche();
}
We can also remove this ambiguity by adding a function in class C as follows:
{
public:
void show()
{
A :: show();
}
};
Another kind of ambiguity arises if you derive a class from two classes that are each
derived from the same class. We can remove this kind of ambiguity by using the
concept of virtual base classes.
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Virtual Base Classes
Consider a situation where we derive a class D from two classes B and C that are each
derived from the same class A. This creates a diamond-shaped inheritance tree( called
hybrid multipath inheritance) and all the public and protected members from class A
inherited into class D twice once through the path A→B→D and gain through the
path A→B→C . This causes ambiguity and should be avoided.
We can remove this kind of ambiguity by using the concept of virtual base class. For
this we make direct base classes (B and C) virtual base classes as follows:
class A {
……… A
};
class B : virtual public A {

B C
………
};
class C : public virtual A { D

………
};
class D : public B, public C {

………
};
In this case, class D inherits only one copy from the classes C and D.
Note: The keywords virtual and public may be used in either order.
Example:
class A
{
protected:
int adata;
};
class B : virtual public A
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{
};
class C : public virtual A
{
};
class D : public B, public C
{
public:
D(int a) {
adata = a;
}
int getdata() {
return adata;
}
};
void main() {
clrscr();
D d(5);
cout<<d.getdata();
getch();
}
Output:
5
Containership: (Aggregation)
Inheritance is often called a “kind of” relationship. In inheritance, if a class B is
derived from a class A, we can say “B is a kind of A”. This is because B has all the
characteristics of A, and in addition some of its own. For example, we can say that
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bulldog is a kind of dog: A bulldog has the characteristics shared by all dogs but has
some distinctive characteristics of its own.
There is another type of relationship, called a “has a” relationship, or containership.

We say that a bulldog has a large head, meaning that each bulldog includes an
instance of a large head. In object oriented programming, has a relationship occurs
when one object is contained in another. For example,
class Employee
int eid, sal;
public:
void getdata()
cou<<”Enter id and salary of employee”<<endl;
cin>>eid>>sal;
void display()
cout<<”Emp ID:”<<eid<<endl<<”Salary:”<<sal;
};
class Company
int cid, cname;
Employee e;
public:
void getdata()
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cou<<”Enter id and name of the company:”<<endl;
cin>>cid>>cname;
e.getdata();
void display()
cout<<”Comp ID:”<<cid<<endl<<”Comp Name:”<<cname;
e.display();
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
Company c;
c.getdata();
c.display();
getch();
}
Think: If Company conatins 10 employees what modification is needed in above

program?
Local Classes
Classes can also be defined and used inside a function or a block. Such classes are
called local classes. For example,
void test (int a)
………
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………
class A
………
………
};
………
………
A a; //create object of type A
………
Local classes can use global variables and static variables declared inside the function
but cannot use automatic local variables. The global variables should be used with the
scope resolution operator.
Page 79
Chapter 7
Polymorphism
Introduction
Polymorphism means state of having many forms. We have already seen that
polymorphism is implemented using the concept of overloaded functions and
operators. In this case, polymorphism is called early binding or static binding or
static linking. This is also called compile time polymorphism because the compiler
knows the information needed to call the function at the compile time and, therefore,
compiler is able to select the appropriate function for a particular call at the compile
time itself.
There is also another kind of polymorphism called run time polymorphism. In this
type, the selection of appropriate function is done dynamically at run time. So, this is
also called late binding or dynamic binding. C++ supports a mechanism known as
virtual functions to achieve run time polymorphism. Run time polymorphism also
requires the use of pointers to objects.
Virtual Functions
Virtual means existing in appearance but not in reality. When virtual functions are
used, a program that appears to be calling a function of one class may in reality be
calling a function of a different class. Furthermore, when we use virtual functions,
different functions can be executed by the same function call. The information
regarding which function to invoke is determined at run time.
We should use virtual functions and pointers to objects to achieve run time
polymorphism. For this, we use functions having same name, same number of
parameters, and similar type of parameters in both base and derived classes. The
function in the base class is declared as virtual using the keyword virtual. When a
function in the base class is made virtual, C++ determines which function to use at run
time based on the type of object pointed by the base class pointer, rather than the type
of the pointer. For example,
class A
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{
public:
virtual void show()
{
cout<<"This is class A\n";
}
};
class B : public A
{
public:
void show()
{
cout<<"This is class B\n";
}
};
class C : public A
{
public:
void show()
{
cout<<"This is class C\n";
}
};
void main() {
clrscr();
A *p, a;
B b;
C c;
p = &b;
a->show();
p = &c;
a->show();
p = &a;
a->show();
getch();
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}
Output:
This is class B
This is class C
This is class A
If we remove the keyword virtual from the class A, All the time show() function of class is
called because at this time function call is made on the basis of type of pointer.
Note: A base class pointer object can point to any type of derived objects but the reverse is
not true.
Abstract Classes and Pure Virtual Functions

An abstract class is one that is not used to create objects. It is used only to act as a
base class to be inherited by other classes. We can make abstract classes by placing at
least one pure virtual function in the base class. A pure virtual function is one with the
expression = 0 added to the declaration – that is, a function declared in a base class
that has no definition relative to the base class. In such cases, the compiler requires
each derived class to either define the function or redeclare it as a pure virtual
function. For example,
class A
{
protected:
int data;
public:
A(int d)
{
data = d;
}
virtual void show() = 0;

};
class B : public A
{
public:
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B(int d) : A(d)
{
}
void show()
{
cout<<data<<endl;
}
};
class C : public A {
public:
C(int d) : A(d)
{
}
void show()
{
cout<<data;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
A *a; //The declaration A a; will cause error (Why?)
B b(5);
C c(6);
a = &b; a->show();
a = &c; a->show();
getch();
}
Output:
5
6
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Exceptions
Introduction
Exceptions are runtime anomalies or unusual conditions that a program may
encounter while executing. Exceptions might include conditions such as division by
zero, access to an array outside of its bounds, running out of memory or disk space,
not being able to open a file, trying to initialize an object to an impossible value etc.
When a program encounters an exceptional condition, it is important that it is

identified and dealt with effectively. C++ provides built-in language features to detect
and handle exceptions, which are basically runtime errors.
The purpose of the exception handling mechanism is to provide means to detect and
report an “exceptional circumstance” so that appropriate action can be taken. The
mechanism suggests a separate error handling code that performs the following tasks:
 Find the problem (Hit the exception).

 Inform that an error has occurred (Throw the exception).
 Receive the error information (Catch the exception).
 Take corrective action (Handle the exception).
The error handling code basically consists to two segments, one to detect errors and to
throw exceptions, and the other to catch the exceptions and to take appropriate
actions.
Exception Handling Mechanism

Exception handling mechanism in C++ is basically built upon three keywords: try,
throw, and catch. The keyword try is used to surround a block of statements, which
may generate exceptions. This block of statements is known as try block.
When an exception is detected, it is thrown using the throw statement situated either
in the try block or in functions that are invoked from within the try block. This is
called throwing an exception and the point at which the throw is executed is called
the throw point.
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A catch block defined by the keyword catch catches the exception thrown by the
throw statement and handles it appropriately. This block is also called exception
handler. The catch block that catches an exception must immediately follow the try
block that throws an exception. The figure below shows the exception handling
mechanism if try block throws an exception. The general form in this case is:
try block
Detects and throws

an exception
Throw
exception
catch block
Catches and handles

the exception
The figure below shows the exception handling mechanism if function invoked by try
block throws an exception.
Throw point
Function that causes

an exception
Invoke
try block function
Throw
exception Invokes a function that
contains an exception
catch block
Catches and handles

the exception
Page 85
Examples
Example1: Try block throwing exception
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int a, b;
cout<<"Enter values of a & b:\n";
cin>>a>>b;
try
{
if(b == 0)
throw b;
else
cout<<"Result = "<<(float)a/b;
}
catch(int i)
{
cout<<"Divide by zero exception: b = "<<i;
}
cout<<"\nEND”;
getch();
}
Example2: Function invoked by try block throwing exception
#include<conio.h>
void divide(int a, int b)
{
if(b == 0)
throw b;
else
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}
void main()
{
clrscr();
int a, b;
cin>>a>>b;
try
{
divide(a, b);
}
catch(int i)
{
}
cout<<"\nEND”;
getche();
}
Output:(In both examples)

First Run
Enter the values of a & b:
5
2
Result = 2.5
END
Second Run
Enter the values of a & b:
9
0
Divide by zero exception: b = 0
END
Page 87
In the first example, if exception occurs in the try block, it is thrown and the program
control leaves in the try block and enters the catch block. In the second example, try
block invokes the function divide. If exception occurs in this function, it is thrown and
control leaves this function and enters the catch block.
Note that, exceptions are used to transmit information about the problem. If the type
of exception thrown matches the argument type in the catch statement, then only
catch block is executed for handling the exception. After that, control goes to the
statement immediately after the catch block. If they do not match, the program is
aborted with the help of abort() function, which is invoked by default. In this case,
statements following the catch block are not executed. When no exception is detected
and thrown, the control goes to the statement immediately after the catch block
skipping the catch block.
Throwing Mechanism
When an exception is detected, it is thrown using the throw statement in one of the
following forms:
throw(exception);
throw; //used for rethrowing an exception (discussed later)
The operand exception may be of any type (built-in and user-defined), including
constants. When an exception is thrown, the catch statement associated with the try
block will catch it. That is, the control exits the current try block, and is transferred to
the catch block after the try block. Throw point can be in a deeply nested scope within
a try block or in a deeply nested function call. In any case, control is transferred to the
catch statement.
Catching Mechanism
Code for handling exceptions is included in catch blocks. The general form of catch
block is:
catch(type arg)
{
Body of catch block
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}
The type indicates the type of exception that catch block handles. The parameter arg
is optional. If it is named, it can be used in the exception handling code. The catch
statement catches an exception whose type matches with the type of catch argument.
When it is caught, the code in the catch block is executed. After its execution, the
control goes to the statement immediately following the catch block. If an exception is
not caught, abnormal program termination will occur. The catch block is simply
skipped if the catch statement does not catch an exception.
 Multiple Catch Statements: It is possible that a program segment has more than
one condition to throw an exception. In such cases, we can associate more than
one catch statement with a try as shown below:
try
{
Try block
}
catch(type1 arg)
{
Catch block1
}
catch(type2 arg)
{
Catch block 2
}
………
………
}
catch(typeN arg)
{
Catch block N
}
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When an exception is thrown, the exception handlers are searched in order for an
appropriate match. The first handler that yields a match is executed. After that, the
control goes to the first statement after the last catch block for that try skipping
other exception handlers. When no match is found, the program is terminated.
Note: It is possible that arguments of several catch statements match the type of
an exception. In such cases, the first handler that matches the exception type is
executed.
Example:
#include<conio.h>
void test(int x)
{
try
{
if(x == 0) throw x;
if(x == 1) throw 1.0;
}
catch(int m)
{
cout<<"Caught an integer\n";
}
catch(double d)
{
cout<<"Caught a double";
}
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
test(0);
test(1);
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test(2);
getche();
}
Output:
Caught an integer
Caught a double
 Catch All Exceptions: If we want to catch all possible types of exceptions in a

single catch block, we use catch in the following way:
catch(…)
{
Statements for processing all exceptions
}
Example:
#include<conio.h>
void test(int x)
{
try
{
if(x == 0) throw x;
if(x == 1) throw 1.0;
}
catch(…)
{
cout<<"Caught an exception\n";
}
}
void main()
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{
clrscr();
test(0);
test(1);
test(2);
getche();
}
Output:
Caught an exception
Caught an exception
Rethrowing an Exception
A handler may decide to rethrow the exception caught without processing it. In such
situations, we may simply invoke throw without any arguments as shown below:
throw;
This causes the current exception to be thrown to the next enclosing try/catch
sequence and is caught by a catch statement listed after that enclosing try block. For
example,
#include<conio.h>
void divide(int a, int b)
{
try
{
if(b == 0)
throw b;
else
}
catch(int)
{
throw;
Page 92
}
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
int a, b;
cin>>a>>b;
try
{
divide(a, b);
}
catch(int i)
{
}
cout<<”\nEND”;
getch();
}
Specifying Exceptions
It is also possible to restrict a function to throw only certain specified exceptions. This
is achieved by adding a throw list clause to the function definition. The general form
is as follows:
type function(arg-list) throw (type-list)
{
Function body
}
The type-list specifies the type of exceptions that may be thrown. Throwing any other
type of exception will cause abnormal program termination. If we wish to prevent a
function from throwing any exception, we may do so by making the type-list empty.
Hence the specification in this case will be
Page 93
type function(arg-list) throw ()
{
Function body
}
Note: A function can only be restricted in what types of exception it throws back to
the try block that called it. The restriction applies only when throwing an exception
out of the function (and not within the function).
Example:
#include<conio.h>
void test(int x) throw (int, double)
{
if(x == 0) throw x;
if(x == 1) throw 1.0;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
try
{
test(1);
}
catch(int m)
{
cout<<"Caught an integer\n";
}
catch (double d)
{
cout<<"Caught a double";
}
Page 94
getch();
}
Output:
Caught a double
Chapter 8
Templates
Function templates
Function templates are special functions that can operate with generic types. This
allows us to create a function template whose functionality can be adapted to more
than one type or class without repeating the entire code for each type.
In C++ this can be achieved using template parameters. A template parameter is a

special kind of parameter that can be used to pass a type as argument: just like regular
function parameters can be used to pass values to a function, template parameters
allow to pass also types to a function. These function templates can use these
parameters as if they were any other regular type. The format for declaring function
templates with type parameters is:
template <class identifier> function_declaration;

template <typename identifier> function_declaration;
The only difference between both prototypes is the use of either the keyword class or
the keyword typename. Its use is indistinct, since both expressions have exactly the
same meaning and behave exactly the same way. For example, to create a template
function that returns the greater one of two objects we could use:
template <class Type>

myType GetMax (Type a, Type b)
{
return (a>b?a:b);
}
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To use this function template we use the following format for the function call:
function_name <type> (parameters);
For example, to call GetMax to compare two integer values of type int we can write:
int x,y;
GetMax <int> (x,y);
When the compiler encounters this call to a template function, it uses the template to
automatically generate a function replacing each appearance of myType by the type
passed as the actual template parameter (int in this case) and then calls it. This process
is automatically performed by the compiler and is invisible to the programmer.
Complete Example:
// function template
#include <iostream.h>
template <class T>
T GetMax (T a, T b)
{
T result;
result = (a>b)? a : b;
return (result);
}
int main ()
{
int i=5, j=6, k;
long l=10, m=5, n;
k=GetMax<int>(i,j);
n=GetMax<long>(l,m);
cout << k << endl;
cout << n << endl;
return 0;
}
In the example above we used the function template GetMax() twice. The first time
with arguments of type int and the second one with arguments of type long. The
Page 96
compiler has instantiated and then called each time the appropriate version of the
function.
As you can see, the type T is used within the GetMax() template function even to
declare new objects of that type:
T result;
Therefore, result will be an object of the same type as the parameters a and b when the
function template is instantiated with a specific type.
We can also define function templates that accept more than one type parameter,
simply by specifying more template parameters between the angle brackets. For
example:
template <class T, class U>
T GetMin (T a, U b)
{
return (a<b?a:b);
}
In this case, our function template GetMin() accepts two parameters of different types
and returns an object of the same type as the first parameter (T) that is passed. For
example, after that declaration we could call GetMin() with:
int i,j;
long l;
i = GetMin<int,long> (j,l);
Class templates
We also have the possibility to write class templates, so that a class can have members
that use template parameters as types. For example:
template <class T>
class mypair
{
T values [2];
public:
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mypair (T first, T second)
{
values[0]=first; values[1]=second;
}
};
The class that we have just defined serves to store two elements of any valid type. For
example, if we wanted to declare an object of this class to store two integer values of
type int with the values 115 and 36 we would write:
mypair<int> myobject (115, 36);
This same class would also be used to create an object to store any other type:
mypair<double> myfloats (3.0, 2.18);
// class templates
#include <iostream>
template <class T>
class mypair
{
T a, b;
public:
mypair (T first, T second)

{
a=first; b=second;
}
T getmax ()
{
T retval;
retval = a>b? a : b;
return retval;
}
};
int main ( )
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{
mypair <int> myobject (100, 75);
cout << myobject.getmax();
return 0;
}
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C++ Note

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C++ Note

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Chapter 1

Overview of Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

An object-oriented program typically consists of a number of objects, which

Advantages of Object-oriented Programming

Output Using cout

Cascading of I/O operators

cout<<First value =”<<first<<endl<<Second value =”<<second;

will cause two lines of output.

float a = 42.3658945, b = 35.24569, c = 58.3214789, d = 49.321489;

Data Type Order

(type-name) expression //C notation

// default values in functions

In the second call:

Arguments passed by value and by reference

Extensions to C Structure made by C ++

 Allows adding functions as a member of structure

data-type function2(argument declaration)

For example, we can declare a class for rectangles as follows:

void setdata(int l, int b)

rectangle r1, r2, r3;

Accessing Class Members

void setdata(int l, int b)

Defining Member Functions Outside Of the Class

return-type class-name :: function-name(argument declaration)

int rectangle :: findarea()

int rectangle :: findperemeter()

inline void rectangle :: setdata(int l, int b)

Memory Allocation for Objects

data2 data2 data2

object1 object1 object1

Common for all objects

Fig: Objects in Memory

Nesting of Member Functions

WAP to add two objects of Complex class

cout<<”Enter values od real and imaginary”<<endl;

void addComplex(Complex c1, Complex c2)

Static Data Members

int rectangle :: count;

int rectangle :: count;

int rectangle :: count = 5;

Static Member Functions

int rectangle :: count;

distance adddistance(distance d2)

Objects as Function Arguments

2. Pass-by-reference: In this method, an address of the object is passed to the

distance adddistance(distance& d2)

3. Pass-by-pointer: Like pass-by-reference method, pass-by-pointer method can also

distance adddistance(distance* d2)

This function must be called as follows:

distance adddistance(distance d2)

2. Return-by-reference: In this method, an address of the object is returned to the

distance& adddistance(distance d2, distance& d3)

This function must be called as follows:

3. Return-by-pointer: Like return-by-reference method, return-by-pointer returns

distance* adddistance(distance d2)

distance d1, d2, *d3;

const (Constant) Object and const Member Functions

const distance d1(5, 6.7);

Here the statement “cin>>p.x;” generates error because x is private data

Some special characteristics of friend functions are:

int frifunc(alpha a, beta b)

Some special characteristics:

Constructors have some special characteristics. These are:

1. Constructors should be defined or declared in the public section.

Default constructor is invoked

We can use parameterized constructors in two ways: by calling the constructor

rectangle r1 = rectangle(5, 6.7);

illustrates the first method of calling and the declaration

rectangle r1(5, 6.7);

illustrates the second method of calling.

Remember: If a class contains parameterized constructor(s), we must supply

The process of initializing through assignment operator is known as copy

Remember: We cannot pass the argument by value to a copy constructor.

Whenever new operator is used to dynamically allocate memory in the constructors,

Note: The objects are destroyed in the reverse order of creation.

 Class member access operators (., .*)