Nature, Scope and Significance of Political Science

Political Science is the systematic study of politics. It means the study, not the practice of politics. Political Science is an
ancient field of learning which can be traced to the creative genius of the Greeks of the fifth and fourth centuries BC and,
most of all, to the Athenians. The Oriental peoples, of course, had speculated on the State and its problems even before the
Greeks but they mixed up the study of politics with a great deal of religion, mythology and superstition. It was the Greeks
who first made an attempt to develop an independent science of politics and gave it a pure and systematic form. Robert A.
Dahl observes: “It was in Athens that Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle raised to the highest level of intellectual endeavour the
kinds of questions about politics that concern thoughtful men down to the present day".
Definition and Meaning of Political Science
The terms 'politics' and 'political science' have been derived from the Greek word 'polis' which means 'City-State'. For the
Greeks 'politics' meant the science of the City-State which was the highest organization of the community through which
men strove for moral perfection. Thus Aristotle's celebrated treatise has for its title the name Politics. Scholars of an earlier
generation like Jellinek, Holtzendorff and Sidgwick prefer the term politics to political science which is the current
terminology. Politics today means ‘applied’ or ‘practical’ politics dealing with day-to-day public affairs and the actual
problems of government. Those who take part in the actual conduct and management of the State, government, political
parties etc. are known as politicians. On the other hand political science refers to the theoretical aspects of the study of
politics – a systematic body of knowledge relating to the phenomena of the State.
Using the term politics in the broadest sense, Sir Frederick Pollock divides it into theoretical politics and practical or applied
politics. Under the first he includes: (a) the theory of the State, (b) the theory of government, (c) the theory of legislation,
and (d) the theory of State as an artificial person. Under the second head are included: (a) the State (actual forms of
government), (b) the government (the working of government, administration etc), laws and legislation, and (c) the State
personified (diplomacy, peace, war, and international relations). Thus everything that relates to the basic problems of the
State including the principles of political organization and administration falls within the domain of 'theoretical' politics,
while that which is concerned with actual working of the government and other political institutions comes under 'practical'
or ‘applied’ politics. The majority of writers, however, prefer the term ‘political science’ to ‘theoretical politics’ and the
simple term ‘politics’ to ‘applied’ or ‘practical’ politics.
The term political science in its current usage is, however, more comprehensive than the term politics. It includes both
theoretical and applied politics. It includes both the theory or State and the actual conduct of affairs of State. From the
plethora of definitions of political science, a few representative ones may be cited for an understanding of the nature and
central theme of political science. In the words of the French scholar Paul Janet, "Political Science is that part of social
science which treats the foundation of the State and the principles of government". The Swiss scholar Bluntschli defined
political science as "the science which is concerned with the State, which endeavours to understand and comprehend the
state in its fundamental conditions, in its essential nature, its various forms of manifestation, its development." Gilchrist
defined it as "a study of State and Government". According to Gettell, political science is "a historical investigation of what
the State has been, an analytical study of what the State is and a politico-ethical discussion of what the State should be".
Laski observes that "the study of politics concerns itself with the life of man in relation to organized States." J. W. Garner
holds "that the phenomena of the state in its varied aspects and relationships constitute the subject of political science. In
short, political science begins and ends with the State".
The traditional definitions of political science have kept it confined to state, government and formal political institutions.
The State as the most universal and powerful association of human beings and its apparatus, and the government are
obviously at the very centre of political science. Concern with 'political order' brought an emphasis on constitutions and laws
which have remained an important ingredient of the discipline. Associations and organizations like political parties and
pressure groups that help to determine what the organs of government actually do are very much a part and parcel of the
study of political science.
Political Science as a major social science deals with the relationship among men in organized societies and the
relationship between man and the State. Despite recent developments in the discipline, the central problem of political
science is how best to strike a balance between the authority of the State and the liberty of the individual. In a good State the
laws of the State enrich the content of liberty and facilitate the development of human personality. In the modern world there
is a high degree of cooperation among the States and political science deals with the forces and processes of such
cooperation.
Nature of Politics
Political Science is, of course, the study of politics in both its theoretical and practical aspects. But the meaning of politics
has never been precise or static. The nature of politics may briefly be discussed from three broad points of view, namely, the
liberal, the Marxian and the modern.

Liberal view of Politics

Liberal view of politics is a product of Renaissance and Reformation in Europe. It has dominated Western political
thinking from the 17th century to the present. In the 19th century classical negative liberalism transformed itself into positive,
humane liberalism by the challenges of idealism and Marxism. Liberal views on politics are founded on liberal views of man
and society. Individual is the centre of the study of politics and society is an aggregation of free, competing individuals.
Politics is required to resolve conflicts among competing individuals and maintenance of order, cooperation and harmony.
Modern liberals put stress upon the role of politics to serve the common good of the community and to secure to all justice
and welfare. Politics again is a process to bring about peaceful and orderly change in society. Politics and State are not the
monopoly of any single class. The aim of politics is to establish unity and stability in the face of the diversities and conflicts
which characterise societies.

Marxian view of Politics

Marx added a new dimension to political and social thought which radically altered the nature and content of politics in the
20th century. It forced individualistic (classical) liberalism to modify itself in the direction of positive welfarism. Marxism
put stress upon the innate goodness and sociality of man. It does not find any basic conflict in man's self interest and social
interest. Modes of production or economic factors are the most important in determining the political, legal, social, moral,
and cultural condition of societies. On the basis of the relations of production class divisions of society take place and
politics reflects the struggle between classes. The State comes into being when society is characterised by class conflict. It
becomes an instrument of class rule - the economically dominant class rules over and exploits the economically
dispossessed. Politics cannot bring to an end the class struggle which reflects the economic disparities in society.

The notion of common good of the community, in which the liberals pin their faith, does not hold good for the
Marxist so long as society is class-ridden. The ultimate goal for exploited and oppressed human beings is to achieve a
classless society which can be brought about by revolutionary struggle. The working class in capitalist states can emancipate
themselves only by taking resort to revolutionary politics. In a classless society there is no need for the State and hence the
state ‘withers away’. The Marxian view, as opposed to the liberal view, looks at politics as an instrument of class conflict
and not as a conflict-resolving activity or welfare activity. It supports the 'conflict model' as opposed to the 'consensus
model' in politics. For the Marxists politics is a reflection of class struggle and is used by those who own the means of
production and distribution to safeguard their interests and to perpetuate their overall hegemony in society.

Modern View
An analysis of the views of modern political scientists brings out three outstanding elements of politics, namely, power,
conflict and consensus.

(i) Politics as Power and Influence: Machiavelli, Max Weber, Bertrand Russel, Harold Lasswell, Kaplan, Catlin and Hans
Morganthau interpret politics in terms of power. Morganthau says that "politics is struggle for power" – a game played
to attain and maintain power. Lasswell and Kaplan write: "The concept of power is perhaps the most fundamental in the
whole of political science; the political process is shaping, distribution and exercise of power". Robert A. Dahl
observes: "Politics arises, whenever there are people living together in associations, whenever they are involved in
conflicts and whenever they are subject to some kind of power, rulership, or authority. These phenomena exist
everywhere, therefore politics is everywhere". Guild and Palmer plead that the subject of politics should be power
instead of the State. One advantage that power has over earlier concepts of politics is that it focuses attention on a
process, not on a legal abstraction such as State. Political science becomes the study of the way power is accumulated,
used and controlled in modern society. Another advantage of using power as the central concept is that political science
pays greater heed to man, especially the political man, as a basic unit of analysis.

(ii) Politics as Conflict and Controversy: Another element in a definition of politics is controversy. J. D. B. Miller holds
that diversity is a permanent condition of man's social life. Social diversities lead to conflicts which need settlement.
"Politics is a natural reflex of the divergences between the members of a society." Quincy Wright says, "Politics exists
only when ends or means are controversial." Politics may be defined as struggle among actors pursuing conflicting
desires on public Issues. Karl Marx viewed conflict as the central interest in the study of politics. His theory has only
two mutually exclusive social types: a society of conflict (pre-communist) and a society of harmony (communistic).
Alex de Tocqueville was the first to support the idea that democracy involves a balance between the forces of conflict
and consensus.

(iii) Politics as Cooperation and Consensus: While conflict and controversy, debates and dissentions are frequently
associated with politics, concentration on them to the exclusion of agreement or consensus would give an incomplete
picture of the political world. Human interests not only clash but also coincide. Sometimes fundamentals are agreed on
and only specifics are the subject of argument but there are times when even basics become the area of clash. Austin
Ranney holds that political systems encompass not only the competing demands but also aggregative and integrative
forces as well. Robert A. Dahl and others highlight the consensual basis of politics. There is consensus among groups
and individuals because the interests of each are acknowledged and accommodated. The integrative function of the
polity promotes the much desired consensus in society.

Scope of Political Science

The scope of political science implies its area of study or subject matter. It is a very comprehensive and expanding social
science. Political scientists are seldom agreed about its scope. An attempt was made by the International Political Science
Association in Paris in 1948 to delineate the scope of political science. It demarcated the scope into four zones, viz., Political
Theory, Political Institution (Constitution, National Government, Regional and Local Government, and Comparative
Political Institution), Political Dynamics (Parties, Groups and Public Opinion), and International Relations. As can be seen
below, the expanding frontier of political science goes beyond this delimitation.

(1) Political Theory

It deals with the whole body of principles pertaining to the evolution, nature and functions of the State. It deals with the
definition and meaning of basic concepts like state, government, law, liberty, equality, sovereignty, separation of powers,
representation, democracy, political obligation, and various ideologies. A clear understanding of such concepts is essential
for the study of political science. A student of political science starts his lessons with political theory.

(2) Political Philosophy

Some scholars treat political theory and political philosophy as synonymous. But most others maintain a distinction between
the two and demarcate the areas of each. Political philosophy is concerned with the theoretical and speculative consideration
of the fundamental principles used by political science. J. H. Hollowell observes that political philosophy is not concerned so
much with political institutions as with the ideas and aspirations that are embodied in institutions. Eminent political
philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Hegel, Mill, Marx, and Gandhi have given their
views on the nature, functions and ends of the state and government. On the basis of their ideas political theory defines
political concepts. An important function of political philosophy has been to project values, norms and ideals which political
institutions strive to attain.

(3) Political Institutions

It covers the study of various political institutions and administrative systems of different countries. Comparative
government and comparative politics come under this category. The study of constitutions and political institutions of
various countries enables the political scientists to evolve sound and workable principles for the conduct of government.

(4) Political Dynamics

It refers to the forces and processes at work in government and politics. These may be social, economic and psychological.
They influence and explain political action. It includes the study of political parties, pressure groups, interest groups, lobbies,
public opinion – propaganda and political semantics (meaning of words) which influence and control political attitudes and
behaviour of individuals and various groups. The shift in focus from institutions to processes and political behaviour in
political studies has made political dynamics a key area of political enquiry.

(5) Public Policy

Public policies refer to the numerous policy decisions that the governments take in running the day to and governance. As an
important instrument of governance, public policy affects each and every aspect of our life. Therefore, an understanding of
the processes by which public policy is actually made and the institutions and actors that play a role in this process is vital
for informed citizens and for all of us interested in improving the quality of governance or promoting ‘good governance’. It
not only offers useful insights into ‘why’ and ‘how’ policies are formulated and implemented, and ‘succeed’ or ‘fail’, but
also offers strategic choices and options necessary for coalition/support building for appropriate and effective policy
formulation and implementation. This may ultimately lead to ensuring good governance.

Public policies are usually developed by governmental bodies and officials, though non-governmental actors and
agencies may also exert direct or indirect pressure or influence in the policy-making process. They are developed by
governmental institutions and officials through the political process (or politics). They are distinct from other kinds of
policies because they result form the actions of the legitimate authorities in a political system. The special characteristics of
public policies stem from their being formulated by what David Easton (1965) calls the “authorities” in a political system,
namely, “elders, paramount chiefs, executives, legislators, judges, administrators, councillors, monarchs, and the like, [who]
engage in the daily affairs of a political system.” Moreover, these people are “recognized by most members of the system as
having responsibility for these matters, and take actions which are accepted as binding most of the time by most of the
members so long as they act within the limits of their roles”

(6) Public Administration

It is a major branch of political science and has emerged as an independent discipline in recent times. Modern government
has become a gigantic business enterprise under the impact of socialism and welfarism. The need for sound and efficient
public administration and management has assumed enormous significance. Public administration deals with the
organization, control and coordination of administrative machinery, personnel administration, financial administration,
public relations, administrative law and adjudication. The study of local governments like corporations, municipalities and
panchayati raj institutions is also covered by political science.

(7) International Relations and International Law

International relations has assumed great significance as an area of enquiry in political science and there is an increasing
tendency to impart it the status of an independent discipline. It is a significant and expanding area of political science. It
covers such important subjects as international politics, diplomacy, foreign policies and international organizations like the
United Nations. The imperative need for maintaining international peace and security and harmony and cooperation among
nations has made the study of international relations very important. International Law or the Law among Nations is a body
of general principles and specific rules which regulates the relationship among states and international institutions in times of
peace and war. The sovereign states are the subjects of international law enjoying certain rights and performing certain
obligations.

(8) Relationship between the State and the Individual

The central problem with which political science is concerned, is to establish proper relationship between the State and the
individuals. The State guarantees certain rights and freedoms to the individuals and regulates their conduct through laws.
The proper adjustment between the authority and power of the state and liberty of the individuals is a difficult problem.
Political Science deals with the proper spheres of state action, the limits of political control and the area of individual
freedom. Thus political science is both a 'science of liberty' and a 'science of power.'

Political Science is a dynamic discipline and its scope is ever expanding. The social life of man has a direct and
indirect bearing on his political life. Political Science enters into any sphere of life which has political implications.

The methodology and focus of political science has undergone a sea change under the impact of the behavioural
revolution pioneered by some prominent American political scientists. They have taken an inter-disciplinary approach to the
study of political science and borrowed concepts, models and tools of analysis and research from advanced sister social
sciences like sociology, psychology, economics and anthropology with a view to making political studies empirical and
value-free. This inter-disciplinary approach has resulted in the creation of new areas of enquiry for political science, namely,
political sociology, political economy and political anthropology. These hybrid disciplines have further expanded the subject
matter of political science.