Grammar Reference

Modal Auxiliaries
 Modal auxiliaries are also sometimes called modal verbs or modals. The following are
modal auxiliaries:
Present form Past form
Can could
May might
Will would
Shall should
Must
Ought to
Need

 Modal auxiliaries always stay the same. They cannot be put into different tenses, used as
infinitives, as gerunds or present participles. They are followed by the infinitive in
different forms.

I. Ability: can, could, be able

 Can (present or future) and could (past) refer to a general ability to do something. Can is
also used to refer to an ability to do something specific at a time in the future.
She can / can’t sing really well.
He could read when he was four.
 Can and could refer to the ability to do something, but not to the doing of it.
My parents live quite a distance away so we’re not able to/can’t see them.
We use be able to talk about ability + the achievement of the action.
He gave me a lift home so I was able to stay at the party till late.
 We use can + be + adjective or noun to talk about possibility.
She can be very charming when she wants to be.
 We use can, could and could have in conditional sentences. We also use them in
sentences with an implied condition.
 I couldn’t have done it if I hadn’t had your help.
II. Certainty, possibility, deduction: can, could, may, might, must, will, should, ought to
 To talk about something that it is possible to do at any time, use can or may. With this
use, can and may are often followed by the passive infinitive.
Stamps can/may be bought at most shops which sell cards.
 To talk about a future possibility, use may or might. We can also use could (it refers to a
theoretical possibility).
The parcel may/might arrive tomorrow.
We could go by train. (It is possible to take a train there if you wanted to do that).
 To talk about a present or future certainty, use will + simple or continuous infinitive.
I will be waiting for you when you arrive.
 To talk about possibility in the present, use may, might or could + simple infinitive
(usually the verb to be) or continuous infinitive.
I won’t phone Jennifer now because she might be working at home.
 To talk about possibility in the past, use may, might, could + perfect infinitive (simple or
continuous).
I don’t know why they’re so late. I suppose they could have got lost.
 To make a deduction about something in the present, use must (positive deduction) or
can’t (negative deduction) + simple infinitive (usually the verb to be) or continuous
infinitive.
He can’t be driving here: he hasn’t got a car.
 To make a deduction about something in the past, use must/can’t (or couldn’t) + perfect
infinitive (simple or continuous).
He can’t have forgotten about the meeting: he talked to me about it only this morning.
 We can use should or ought to + present infinitive to make assumptions about the
present or the future and should or ought to + perfect infinitive to make assumptions
about the past.
The train got in half an hour ago so they should be here soon.
Let’s go and see Cathy: she should have finished working by now.
III. Advice, obligation, necessity: should, ought to, must, have to, have got to, need
 To give advice, use should or ought to. We often use should/ought to with I think …
/Do(Don’t) you think …?
Don’t you think you should/ought to stop seeing him?
 To give strong advice and recommendations, use must. It can refer to present time or
future time.
We must go and visit them more often. You mustn’t let him talk to you like that.
 To criticise actions in the past, use should or ought to + perfect infinitive. Should /ought
to in the past means that the subject did not do the right thing.
I should/ought to have stayed at home. (= I didn’t stay at home and my behaviour was
wrong)
 To talk about obligation, use must, mustn’t or have to. Have to – the obligation is often
external, it comes from the situation; must – the obligation often comes from the speaker
or writer of the sentence.
Passengers must fasten their seat belts. (The obligation is imposed by the airline who
wrote the notice).
We’ll have to get there before 5 o’clock because the shops close then.
 We can also use have got to to express obligation. Have got to is often interchangeable
with have to but there is sometimes a difference: have to can be used for habitual actions
and single actions whereas have got to can only be used for single actions.
I have to get the bus into work today/I have to get the bus into work every day.
I have got to get the bus into work today.
 To express a negative obligation, use mustn’t. Do not use don’t have to = there is no
obligation.
You mustn’t wait here. (You are not allowed to wait here).
You don’t have to wait here. (It is not necessary for you to wait here but you can if you
want to).
 To express necessity, use need. We can use need as a modal verb in questions and
negative sentences.
You needn’t come if you don’t want to.
 To express lack of necessity, use needn’t, don’t need to, don’t have to, haven’t got to.
When the speaker is giving the authority, we often use needn’t.
 Teacher to students: ‘You’ve worked hard today so you needn’t do any homework
tonight.’
We’re eating out tonight so we don’t need/needn’t/don’t have to/haven’t got to buy any
food.
 To express lack of necessity in the past, use needn’t + perfect infinitive or didn’t need
to/didn’t have to + infinitive.
I needn’t have gone to the station so early. The train was nearly an hour late. (It wasn’t
necessary to go to the station early but I didn’t realise that and so I did get there early).
We didn’t need to/didn’t have to get up early this morning because we had no lectures.
(It wasn’t necessary and so we didn’t do it).
IV. Offers, requests, permission, suggestions: can, could, may, might, would, must, shall,
would you mind
 Asking permission: Can/Could/May/Might I …?
 Making a request: Can/Could/Would you …?
 To give or refuse permission: You can/can’t/may/may not/must/mustn’t …
 To make an offer: Can/Shall I, we …? Would you like…?
 To make a suggestion or an invitation: Shall we …? We could ..., Would you like to
…?
V. Habit: would, used to
 Used to is not a modal: I used to work here. I didn’t use to work here. Did you use to
work here?
 Use would and used to to talk about past habits.
When we were children, my brother and I used to fight all the time.
When we were children, my brother and I would fight all the time.
 When we use would to talk about a past habit, it is necessary to use a past time
reference. Used to can be used with or without a past time reference.
 When we talk about past situations (not actions), we can use used to but we can’t use
would.

Controlled Practice
1. Complete the sentences with the correct form of can, could or be able to.
a. He’s very fit for his age. He …(run) really fast.
b. I’d like … (work) with you one day.
c. He …(not climb) up to the top: he was too scared.
d. If they hadn’t phoned for an ambulance, he …(die).
e. I love … (spend) all morning in bed at weekends.
f. We …(go) to that concert tomorrow if the tickets haven’t sold out.
g. I think you should go in the spring: it (be) very crowded there in summer.
h. I … (not understand) what he says: he speaks too quickly.
i. …(speak) another language fluently is a great advantage.
j. Jonathan … (not say) anything until he was about three years old.
k. We … (not phone her up) because her phone had broken, but fortunately we ... (get) a
message to her.
l. Amy’s exam results weren’t very good. She … (do) better.
m. I … (not sleep) very well for the last four nights. It’s been too hot.
n. She tried to think of other things but she … (not put) that awful memory out of her mind.
o. … (you come) to the party on Sunday?

2. Complete the sentences with can, could, may, might, will, should, ought to, must and an
infinitive in the appropriate form:
a. Kerry’s rather late. She … (miss) the train.
b. Travellers’ cheques … (be exchanged) at most banks.
c. They’re not answering the phone so they … (be) out.
d. Don’t phone her now. It … (be) the middle of the night in Australia.
e. They (not move) house yet. I saw them in town this morning.
f. I haven’t seen Joanna this week. I think she … (visit) her parents but I’m not sure about it.
g. Her exam results are coming out soon. She worked very hard so she … (do) well.
h. That woman’s just fallen over. Let’s go and see her: she (be) hurt.
i. I don’t know where she is. She (not still play) tennis: it’s been dark for the last hour.
j. I sent the letter two days ago so he … (get) it by now, but you can never be sure.
k. Jim’s been very quiet since his girlfriend went away. He … (miss) her.
l. I … (come) and visit you at the weekends. Anyway, I’ll give you a ring to let you know.
m. She was with a man I didn’t recognize. It … (be) her brother because he looked a bit like her.
n. The roads are fairly quiet today so we … (have) a good journey.
o. ‘Why do you think Tricia was in such a hurry?’ ‘I don’t know. She (run) to catch the bus.’
p. These glasses … (be) Tim’s: they look a bit like his.
r. It … (not rain): the ground’s completely dry.
s. I … (join) the sports club in the summer but I haven’t decided yet.
t. I told her you were coming so she … (expect) you.
u. They’ve just rung the bell so the children … (be) out of the classrooms in a minute.

3. Complete the sentences using the modals should, ought to, must or need or the verb have to
in the correct tense and form.
a. We … (leave) at 11 o’clock last night because the last bus went at 11.20.
b. I don’t think you … (offer) to help him. You’ve got enough work to do.
c. They … (not pay) to stay in a hotel. They can stay with us.
d. We’ve been staying in a hotel for the last two weeks so we (not cook) our own meals.
e. You … (come round) for dinner one evening. We haven’t had a good talk for a long time.
f. We … (run) all the way to the station because we were late for the train.
g. It’s your own fault that you’re so tired. You … (not go) to bed so late.
h. Why … the prisoners … (be locked) in their cells all day?
i. Hurry up. You … (not have) a bath now. The taxi’s coming in twenty minutes.
j. You … (not tell) him what happened. He would never forgive us.
k. You … (not allow) David to walk home from school every day on his own. He’s too young.
l. I don’t like … (do) everything my boss tells me to do.
m. You … (go) to that new French restaurant in town. It’s the best restaurant I’ve ever been to.
n. Paul … (not get up) early in the morning but everyone else in the house does.
o. If I fail any one of my exams, I … (take) all of them again in November.
p. I … (tell) him what you really think of him next time you see him if I were you.
r. The wedding’s been cancelled so I … (not buy) that new suit: it was a waste of money.
s. I … (take) the children to school every morning before I go to work.
t. You … (not eat) in the lecture hall: it’s against the college regulations.
u. I’d like you to come to the meeting but you … (not come) if you don’t want to.
4. Write what to say using can, could, may, might, shall, must, would, would you like, would
you mind. There may be a number of possible answers.
a. Offer to open the door for a stranger.
b. Ask someone to answer the phone for you.
c. Invite a friend to go for a swim this morning.
d. Offer to make someone a sandwich.
e. Request an appointment to see your bank manager, Ms Arnold.
f. Give someone permission to use your phone.
g. Suggest going for a picnic this afternoon.
h. Ask someone to wait here for you.
i. Give your son permission to go out but tell him to be back before it gets dark.
j. You are in the train. Ask another passenger if you can open the window.
Offer to answer the phone.
k. You are in a café. There is a free seat next to someone. Ask that person if you can sit there.

5. Complete the sentences with would or used to. Where either form is possible, write them both.
a. I … have lots of free time before I started working here.
b. In the long summer holidays, we … go out somewhere with a picnic every day.
c. When I was a newly-trained teacher, I … work till late every night preparing lessons.
d. They … be happy together but they are not now.
e. When they came to London, they … (never) travel anywhere on the tube.
f. When I had a car, I … drive everywhere, but now I’m much fitter because I always walk or
cycle.
g. During my last year at university, I … go to the library to start work at 9 o’clock every
morning.
h. When we shared a flat together, we … (often) stay up talking late.
i. When Amy was a baby, people … (often) come up to me and tell me how beautiful she was.
j. He … be overweight but he’s much slimmer now.
6. Rewrite the following sentences using a modal. In some sentences more than one modal is
possible.
a. I promise to phone you next week. I will/’ll phone you next week.
b. At the age of nine, he still didn’t know how to read.
c. It’s essential that we leave on time tomorrow morning.
d. Are you able to come with me tonight?
e. It’s not a good idea for you to work so hard.
f. It’s possible that they’ll be here soon.
g. Why don’t we go and see a film tonight?
h. He said that he intended to write to me soon.
i. Is it possible for me to sit here?
j. He refuses to give me an answer.
k. It’s not necessary for you to apologize.
l. Am I allowed to smoke in here?
m. He knew how to speak four languages by the time he was twelve.
n. I want to help you but I am not able to.
o. I think it’s a good idea for me to stay in tonight: I’ve got a lot of work to do.
p. I don’t know who she is but it’s possible that she is Rick’s sister.
r. Do not tell him any of this: it’s vital that it remains a secret.
s. I intend to finish this essay before I go to sleep.
t. It’s 7 o’clock. I assume that Clare will be here soon.
u. I know he’s in but he’s not answering the phone. I’m sure that he is asleep.

7. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence using the
word given.
a. Shall we go out tonight? (how)
b. It’s very possible that he’ll be promoted. (every)
c. It is certain that he will return this afternoon. (bound)
d. He was not able to understand the radio message because of the interference. (impossible)
e. Why haven’t you signed this page at the bottom? (sign)
f. Could he have been telling the truth? (likely)
g. Could you come on Saturday? (suit)
h. How do you feel about going on a trip? (like)
i. You don’t have to inform the agency beforehand. (compulsory)
j. May I borrow your typewriter? (mind)
k. You won’t be able to enter the country unless you have a visa. (prevented)
l. You mustn’t start writing before the test starts. (rules)

8. Translate into English using modal verbs:

Ar trebui să-i spună fiicei ei o poveste, dacă vrea ca ea să adoarmă.
Când eram copil nu-i puteam înţelege pe adulţi şi acum că sunt adult nu-i mai pot înţelege pe
copii.
Chiar dacă ne-am strădui din răsputeri nu am reuşi să ajungem.
Nu pot să nu mă gândesc ce s-ar fi întâmplat dacă nu am fi putut rezolva problema.
Când era tânăr era foarte rezistent; putea lucra toată ziua şi dansa toată noaptea.
N-aveam cheie, aşa că n-am putut închide uşa.
Ştiam bine oraşul aşa că am putut să le explic cu să ajungă la gară.
Nu trebuie să conduci aşa repede; avem destul timp.
Nu-i voie să conduci aşa repede; este o limitare de viteză aici.
Nu-i nevoie să suni, am eu cheie.
Dacă sunteţi amabil să aşteptaţi a clipă îl chem pe director.
Drumul era acoperit cu gheaţă şi lui îi era groază să nu alunece.
Ar fi trebuit să verifice frânele înainte de plecare.
Am văzut un tigru ieri în pădure. - Nu se poate să fi văzut un tigru, nu sunt tigrii în ţară la noi.
Tocmai am terminat de udat florile. - Nu era nevoie să le uzi, uite cum plouă acum.
Uşa era deschisă. – Nu se poate să fi fost deschisă. Am închis-o chiar eu la plecare.
M-ai auzit când am venit acasă seara trecută? – Nu, trebuie că adormisem.
Stătea pe bancă ore întregi şi se uita la stele.
Dacă îi dai ocazia nu mai încetează cu poveştile din război.
L-am văzut pe stradă dar nu s-a oprit să-mi vorbească. Probabil că era foarte grăbit.
Când era la şcoală putea merge în mâini distanţe lungi, dar acum nu mai poate.
Deşi afară plouă cu găleata de cel puţin trei ore, am putut să merg la farmacie şi să cumpăr
medicamente.
Nu este voie să vorbeşti tare aici, doar suntem într-un spital.
Nu e cazul să-i reaminteşti de datorie, este un om cu mult bun simţ.
Nu era nevoie să-i cumperi volumul acesta de poezii, îl mai are de două ori.
Se poate ca ieri pe vremea asta fraţii lui să fi cărat cărămida de la fabrică.
S-ar putea ca ei să îşi formateze sistemul acum, habar n-am.
Trebuie să-mi spăl maşina, este prea murdară. Ar fi trebuit să o spăl cel puţin acum o lună.
Cu siguranţă că în acest moment echipa adversă sărbătoreşte victoria.
Acum un an am avut un câine tare neascultător: nu vroia să-mi aducă papucii atunci când îi
spuneam eu.
Este de datoria noastră să ne ajutăm părinţii atunci când sunt în dificultate.
Citeam zeci de cărţi pe lună când eram student.