Computer hardware-

Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the components that can be seen and
touched.
Examples of Hardware are the following −
 Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.
 Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.
 Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.
 Internal components − CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.

Relationship between Hardware and Software

 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work together to make a
computer produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the hardware.
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
 A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
 If the hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then the software is its 'soul'. Both are complementary
to each other.
Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a sequence of
instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software −

 System Software
 Application Software
System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities
of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software
products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic
level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.
Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

 Close to the system

 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language
Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software
applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing a simple
text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to
accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are the following −

 Payroll Software
  Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint
Features of application software are as follows −

 Close to the user

 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space

Firmware

Firmware is data that is stored on a computer or other hardware device's read-only memory (ROM) that provides
instruction on how that device should operate. Unlike normal software, firmware cannot be changed or deleted by
an end-user without the aid of special programs and remains on that device whether or not it's on or off.
A firmware update is a software program that can be used to update the firmware in these devices. For example, a
user could download a firmware update for a network router that enhances its capabilities or fixes an issue.
Firmware updates are available from hardware manufacturers. In some cases, computer enthusiast websites create
their own firmware updates to give a device even more capabilities than the manufacturer intended.

Block Diagram of Computer and Explain its Various Components

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly complicated problems quickly
and accurately. A computer as shown in Fig. performs basically five major computer operations or functions
irrespective of their size and make. These are
1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input,
2) it stores data,
3) it can process data as required by the user,
4) it gives results in the form of output, and
5) it controls all operations inside a computer.
 Fig : Basic computer Operations

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should know that
computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some
processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized
manner for processing.

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be fed into the
system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so
fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit
for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do
the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions:
• All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
• Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The
Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations
based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.
4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly the output
produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to
you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.
5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed. Controlling of all
operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of
all operations inside the computer.
FUNCTIONAL UNITS
In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the task between its
various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units for its operation. They are
1) arithmetic logical unit
2) control unit.
3) central processing unit.
Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) Logical Unit
Logical Unit :After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual
processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by
the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from
storage unit when required. After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or
getting stored.
Control Unit (CU)
The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in
proper fashion. Control Unit is responsible for co ordinating various operations using time signal. The control unit
determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of
programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the
computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer
simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input
and output.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call CPU as
the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations
and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations.

Computer - Components
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic operations for
converting raw input data into information useful to their users.
S.No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as and
2 Store Data
when required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert them

3 Processing Data
into useful information.

Output The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as a
4
Information printed report or visual display.

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are
5
workflow performed.
Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates a link between
the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form understandable by the computer.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores
data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has the following three components −

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Memory Unit
 Control Unit
Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the computer. This unit is a
link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's output into a form understandable
by the users.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other units of the
computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or
Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of memories in
the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
  It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data processing
operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and merging of
data.

Memory

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage
space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The
memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which
varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has
64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most
frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the
operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
  Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It has a
limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device.
These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main
memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.

 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory. These
are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are
accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory,
and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

RAM

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program result.
It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off,
data is erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to
reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is
very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a
backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its
physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is
lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage
space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM

 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the
memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most
system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one
capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime

 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type
of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM
stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips
are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These
kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the
desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM
eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The
charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-
violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge.
During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.
Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively
erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the
process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −

 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified

Motherboard
motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. It connects the CPU,
memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via
cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features −
 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
 Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
 Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to function properly.
 Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.
Popular Manufacturers
Following are the popular manufacturers of the motherboard.

 Intel
 ASUS
 AOpen
 ABIT
 Biostar
 Gigabyte
 MSI
Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled holes.
Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for CPU, whereas
for memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach the floppy drive, hard
drive, and optical drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.
There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards, and other
expansion cards can be connected to the motherboard.
On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect the monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker,
and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports, which allow compatible devices to be connected in
plug-in/plug-out fashion. For example, pen drive, digital cameras, etc.
BIOS
BIOS may refer to any of the following:
1. Short for Basic Input/Output System, the BIOS (pronounced bye-oss) is a ROM chip found
on motherboards that allows you to access and set up your computer system at the most basic level. In the
picture below, is an example of what a BIOS chip may look like on your computer motherboard. In this
example, this is a picture of an early AMIBIOS, a type of BIOS manufactured by the AMI. Another good
example of a BIOS manufacturer is Phoenix.

The BIOS includes instructions on how to load basic computer hardware and includes a test referred to as
a POST (Power On Self Test) that helps verify the computer meets requirements to boot up properly. If the
computer does not pass the POST, you will receive a combination of beeps indicating what is malfunctioning within
the computer.
The four main functions of a PC BIOS
 POST - Test the computer hardware and make sure no errors exist before loading the operating system.
Additional information on the POST can be found on our POST and Beep Codes page.
 Bootstrap Loader - Locate the operating system. If a capable operating system is located, the BIOS will
pass control to it.
 BIOS drivers - Low level drivers that give the computer basic operational control over your computer's
hardware.
 BIOS or CMOS Setup - Configuration program that allows you to configure hardware settings including
system settings such as computer passwords, time, and date.

The Boot Process and Operating Systems

1. Booting Process
2. Booting Process, cont
3. Booting a Computer
4. BIOS
5. POST
6. Plug and play BIOS
7. Bootstrap Illustrated
8. First sector of a harddrive
9. Booting from active partition
10. Volume Boot Record
11. Booting the OS from the MBR
12. Boot Code
13. Sectors beyond MBR
14. Booting Windows XP and Server 2003
15. Booting Windows Vista/7
16. Operating System Components
17. The OS and User Interface
18. Types of Operating Systems
19. Programs and Processes
20. Application Software
21. File System

1. Booting Process

 The heart of a modern computer is one or more Central Processing Units.

 A CPU gets its instructions from memory.
 The CPU reads instruction from the BIOS and searches for the hard disks, CD drives and other hardware.
 The BIOS program looks at the first sector for boot code.
 Devices that feed the initial CPU instructions are known as bootstrap media.

2. Booting Process, cont

 The Booting is a process involving 2 stages:

o getting hardware up and running, and
o getting the OS and other software up and running
 3. Booting a Computer

1. Power up; computer runs POST

2. Boot sequence governed by BIOS ROM
o BIOS parameters stored in CMOS
o BIOS ROM may be password protected
3. Control passes to the MBR of the first bootable device detected
4. MBR points to boot record of selected operating system
5. Operating system takes control

4. BIOS

 What is a BIOS?
o Basic input/output system
o Built into the PC:
 BIOS software stored permanently(*) on a ROM chip on the motherboard
o The first code run when a PC is powered on
o Identify system devices

__________________________
(*)
In modern computers BIOS chip can be rewritten, allowing BIOS software to be upgraded.

5. POST

 What is a POST?
o power-on self-test -- one of the first processes that a computer undergoes when booting
o POST tests the computer to ensure that it is working as it is supposed to.
o POST can detect some errors with the processor, motherboard, RAM and other memory, as well
as the video card.
o Most BIOS chips use a system of beep codes to indicate the POST status to the user and each
BIOS chipset uses a different code.
o The IBM PC BIOS code standard, for example, uses one short beep to indicate a successful POST
and two short beeps to indicate a POST error while AMI BIOS uses these same beep codes to
indicate a DRAM refresh failure or parity circuit failure, respectively.

6. Plug and play BIOS

 What is a plug and play BIOS?

o Prior to Windows 95 the BIOS was responsible for managing all hardware devices such as the
floppy and hard disk drives, serial and parallel ports, video and network cards, the keyboard, and
system clock.
 o When hardware was added to the system, the user adding the hardware had to set a variety of
parameters such as the starting address in memory where the buffers and startup code could be
found as well as the interrupt priority level (IRQ) of the device.
o Windows 95 introduced Plug-and-Play (PnP) BIOS which automates the process of detecting and
adding hardware to a system.
o In addition to making it far easier for the user to add hardware devices -- PnP eliminated hardware
conflicts that could cripple the PC.

7. Bootstrap Illustrated

8. First sector of a harddrive

 The first 512 bytes on a hard drive -- aka Logical Sector Zero -- contain the Master Boot Record (MBR).
 The MBR contains the boot code and the partition table.
 The partition table identifies the file system on the partitions on the disk; there must be at least one.
 The boot code processes the partition table to identity which partition is bootable; control then transfers to
the first sector, called the boot sector, of the active partition (there can be only one). The boot sector is
operating system-specific.

9. Booting from active partition

 Once the information in the first sector is read into memory:

o The Master Boot Record (MBR) contains the partition table and boot code
o The boot code finds the bootable partition on this drive
o The boot code transfers control to the program on the first sector of active partition
o The first sector of active partition is called the OS boot sector, or Volume Boot Record (VBR)
 10. Volume Boot Record

 VBR ( OS Boot sector) contain:

o OS and volume file system-specific information.
o For example, in the FAT file system, the boot sector information includes
 the sector size,
 cluster size,
 number of FATs,
 number of entries in the root directory,
 number of sectors in the file system,
 FAT size,
 volume serial number,
 volume label, and
 file system type.

11. Booting the OS from the MBR

12. Boot Code

 The boot code in a DOS disk exists in the first 446 bytes of the first 512 byte sector, which is the MBR.
 The end of the sector contains the partition table.
 Boot sector viruses insert themselves into the first 446 bytes of the MBR so that they are executed every
time the computer is booted.
 The master boot record is read from the first sector of the disk, and the four partition table entries are
identified and processed.

13. Sectors beyond MBR

 In a DOS based disk the partition table and boot code requires only one sector, yet 63 are typically
allocated for both the MBR and extended partitions because the partitions start on a cylinder boundary.
 When parts of a partition table have become corrupt, it may be necessary to search for the extended
partition tables.
 To find the extended partitions, a search for 0xAA55 in the last two bytes of a sector could be conducted.
 If a sector is found to be a boot sector of a file system, a partition table may exist 63 sectors prior to it.

14. Booting Windows XP and Server 2003

15. Booting Windows Vista/7


 16. Operating System Components

 Kernel: OS 
core functions
 Application
Program
Interface
(API):
Interface to
kernel
 File System
and User
Interface:
User/program
I/O and
storage
 Device
Drivers:
Interface
between
hardware and
OS
 Hardware
Devices:
Peripheral
devices
controllers

17. The OS and User Interface

 OS is software that sits between the hardware and the users; this is the user interface
o The OS also provides device drivers so that the applications can communicate with the hardware
 The kernel is the privileged central part of the OS
 Well-known OS/user interfaces include
o Command line: DOS, Unix, Linux
o GUI: Windows 9x/NT/Me/2000/XP/2003/Vista, MacOS, Unix/Linux X-Windows (Gnome, KDE)

18. Types of Operating Systems


DOS Single-tasking operating system

Multi-tasking, single-user. Capable of networking and resource sharing. Used NETBEUI

Windows
protocol prior to Windows 2000; largely uses TCP/IP today

Multi-tasking, single-user, excels at network-based resource sharing. Used AppleTalk

MacOS
protocol prior to TCP/IP support; Linux-based since OS X.
 Network operating system used for resource sharing; supports Windows and Mac clients.
Novell
Dominate NOS in the 1990s using IPX protocol; Linux-based since NetWare v5 using
NetWare
TCP/IP.

Multi-tasking, single- or multi-user OS. Predominant server OS on Internet servers; has

Unix
always used TCP/IP.

Open-source, lightweight version of UNIX; many variants. Excellent OS for resource

Linux
sharing, uses TCP/IP

19. Programs and Processes

 A program is code or executable software sitting in a file on some storage device

o Code refers to a programming language, e.g., C++, BASIC, VisualBASIC (VB), Perl, Java, ...
o Executable files are binary files (DOS .exe or .com) or interpreted files (.bas, .vbs, .pl, .js, ...)
o A process (or task) is a program that is currently running

20. Application Software

 Office applications
o Word processing, presentation graphics, spreadsheet, database
o Image, video, and sound editors
 Communications software
o Web browser, e-mail, instant messaging, IRC
 Entertainment
o Single-user and network-based games, music players, CD creation

21. File System

 The file system provides the framework for storing information on disks and other nonvolatile media (e.g.,
writeable CDs and tapes)
o Provides the capability to create, modify, and delete files, examine directories, etc.
 Ability to reference both the physical name and view as well as a logical name and view
 Common file systems include FAT, NTFS, ufs, ext2fs, HFS/HFS+