The Curriculum Journal, 2015

Vol. 26, No. 1, 91 114, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2014.990911

Formative assessment: translating high-level curriculum principles

into classroom practice
Ian Clark*
Department of Communications, Nagoya University of Commerce and Business (NUCB),
Nagoya, Japan

The curriculum is the totality of experiences which are planned for

young learners through their education, wherever they are being
educated. It determines the ethos of the school as a learning
community, curriculum subjects and areas, interdisciplinary learning,
and opportunities to attain personal and learning goals. An effective
curriculum, which meets the needs of the twenty-first century learner
improves numeracy and literacy, promotes health and well-being, and
supports the social and technical skills required for learning, life and
work (lifelong learning). Relatively recent developments in the policy
frameworks of numerous nations have seen the implementation of
an interactive style of teaching and learning called formative
assessment. Formative classroom assessment is a potentially powerful
instructional process because the practice of sharing assessment
information that supports learning is embedded into the instructional
process by design. This article uses a range of sources, including
policy and framework documentation relating to the development
and implementation of a curriculum which drives interactive
assessment practices designed to make evidence of learning visible as
assessment data with potentially lifelong effects. The purpose of this
article is to delineate a ‘formative curriculum’ designed to drive
classroom practices that create responsible citizens, confident
individuals, effective contributors, and successful learners.
Keywords: formative assessment; curriculum principles; lifelong
learning; interaction; curriculum design; classroom practice

Across the last 20 years, lifelong learning competences and capacities

have become a key theme in various nations including, the UK
(Department for Employment and Learning, 2010; Scottish Government,
2013), across the European region (European Commission, 2013) and
globally (e.g. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
[OECD], 2005, 2012). The burgeoning interest in lifelong learning has
come about due to the increasingly essential requirement for high levels of

*Email: clarki@nucba.ac.jp

Ó 2015 British Educational Research Association

92 I. Clark

literacy, numeracy, emotional stability in the face of transition and chal-

lenge, and cognitive adaptability in a rapidly changing world (Ecclestone,
2011). Hinchliffe (2006) refers to the twenty-first century economy as the
‘knowledge economy’, defined here by Powell and Snellman (2004) as the
‘production and services based on knowledge-intensive activities that con-
tribute to an accelerated pace of technical and scientific advance, as well
as rapid obsolescence. The key component of a knowledge economy is a
greater reliance on intellectual capabilities than on physical inputs or nat-
ural resources’ (p. 199).
The key difference from the past is that skills and competences relevant
to the ‘knowledge economy’ are no longer predictable in a changing socio-
economic landscape (Hoskins & Deakin Crick, 2008). The lack of predict-
ability, notes is a ‘postmodern condition’ of education. Hoskins and Fre-
driksson (2008) contend that curricula which drive didactic forms of
instruction where students are mere passive recipients ‘do not function in
the rapidly changing technological and globalized world of today where it
is not possible to establish which type of knowledge is needed in the next
5 or 10 years let alone a lifetime’ (Hoskins & Fredriksson, 2008, p. 11).
This statement is also true for the initial training and professional devel-
opment of teachers and school administrators. School staff charged with
the responsibility of preparing young learners for learning and life need to
be prepared to observe and interact with them in order to collect reliable
and valid evidence for use when planning the next steps in students’ learn-
ing progressions. However, in a study of Canadian teacher preparation,
Volante, Drake, and Beckett (2010) found that few ‘faculties teach courses
on assessment and evaluation; rather, assessment is embedded into teach-
able subject areas. . .therefore the assessment content is not properly
infused and is often neglected in teachable subject courses’ (p. 46). Conse-
quently, educators continue to deliver curricula which fail to promote
learning as an analytical and creative enterprise entailing the consider-
ation of alternatives, openness, and inventiveness (MacIntyre, Buck, &
Beckenhauer, 2007). Stiggins (2004), in reference to the US remarked, ‘in
districts, schools, and classrooms across the nation, educators still assess
student learning the way their predecessors did 60 years ago because they
have not been given the opportunity to learn about new insights and
practices’ (p. 22; also see Stiggins, 2014). Shortcomings in teacher pre-
paredness for peer-learning, a key element of curriculum, were also noted
by Baines, Blatchford and Chowne in England, ‘teachers typically plan
for their interactions with pupils, but not for interactions between pupils’
(2007, p. 664). Central and local government agencies in alignment with
their partners can devise standards documentation which drives close col-
laboration between central and local government, schools, colleges, uni-
versities and the local community to ensure that new curricula drive
forward improvements in learning, teaching, and assessment. In
 The Curriculum Journal 93

particular, there is a requirement for school staff to work together

with students and their parents as legitimate assessment-partners in
order to achieve a common ambition, so that the education system pro-
motes and supports the highest possible standards of attainment and
achievement.

Curriculum development strategy

Perhaps the most fundamental of strategic considerations is the relation-
ship between formative classroom assessment and the curriculum. In con-
cise terms, all classroom assessment practices must be designed and
implemented in ways which follow and support the ‘formative curricu-
lum’, which in turn drives assessment practices. While the ‘formative cur-
riculum’ drives classroom assessment, it is not designed to (and therefore
does not) predict or limit evidence collection activities because formative
assessment is a flexible process best modelled by ‘adaptive experts’
(Bransford, Derry, Berliner, Hammerness, & Beckett, 2005). Bransford
et al. (2005) in their book entitled Preparing Teachers for a Changing
World describe adaptive experts as teachers who access written informa-
tion sources, solve problems collaboratively, experiment with their envi-
ronments, and innovate new ideas to see if they create improvements in
their own professional practice and further learning. Teachers of this type
compose qualitative relationships (Eisner, 2005) which engage their stu-
dents with the learning process. The classroom is an open and transparent
system where students and teachers work together and ‘feedback is used
to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged’
(Black & Wiliam, 1998, p. 2). This will promote higher quality learning
and teaching and give more autonomy and professional responsibility to
teachers.
If the implementation strategy of a ‘formative curriculum’ is to be suc-
cessful, then certain conditions need to exist: (1) dedicated political sup-
port at all levels of government; (2) a clear and compelling expression of
the conceptual framework which underpins ‘formative curriculum’ and
drives assessment practices; (3) close collaboration between teachers,
administrators, parents/caregivers, learners, and the wider community,
who understand their roles in working together to engage students with
the process of their own learning; (4) practitioners approach and manage
curricula transformation so that obstacles are perceived as constructive
and necessary challenges; (5) the integration of summative and formative
assessment activities into a functional system so that they work in
concert to support and evaluate learning. When such conditions exist, a
‘formative curriculum’ ensures that all young people meet the high stand-
ards of achievement, including attainment, needed for life and work. The
knowledge and understanding, skills, attributes, and capabilities that
94 I. Clark

young learners will need for the future will be different to those in the past
and within a more challenging and competitive environment (Laal &
Salamati, 2012). Strategic visions need to suit the cultures in which they
will be implemented, and reflect the principles of the ‘formative curricu-
lum’ in order to support greater breadth and depth of learning and place
a greater focus on skills development. This includes higher-order thinking
skills such as analysis, evaluation, creation, and synthesis.

Contrasting the traditional curriculum

Both initial teacher training programmes and continuing teacher profes-
sional development initiatives can engage teachers in communities of
practice which emphasise and model the significant differences between
traditional ideas about teaching and learning and a ‘formative curricu-
lum’ (see Table 1). Formative curricula are founded upon socio-cultural
theories (Vygotsky, 1978) which posit that new knowledge is acquired
through interactions with the social and physical environment. Blatch-
ford, Baines, Rubie-Davies, Bassett, and Chowne (2006) in their empirical
study into science education in the UK concluded that interactions are of
high-quality when learners provide explanations, justifications, predic-
tions, and reasoning. It has been found that these kinds of interactions
promote thinking and allow students to demonstrate what they can do
(Scottish Government, 2011). Interactions between teacher and students,
and among peers need to be based on thoughtful questions, careful listen-
ing, reflective responses and effective feedback strategies (Black &
Wiliam, 1998; Hattie, 1999).

Principles for curriculum design

A ‘formative curriculum’ is guided by seven core principles which practi-
tioners, through careful moderation, need to build into their lesson plan-
ning. They are breadth, progression, depth, challenge and enjoyment,
coherence, relevance, and personalisation and choice. Each principle pur-
sues the development of the ‘four capacities’ among young learners. The
four capacities are successful learners, confident individuals, responsible
citizens, and effective contributors (Scottish Government, 2011). The first
capacity, successful learners, is characterised by enthusiasm, resilience,
and an openness to new ideas. They are able to use literacy, communica-
tion, and numeracy skills, think creatively and utilise meta-cognitive strat-
egies which support the reconstruction of information so it may be
applied to similar but novel situations. Similarly, for the second capacity,
confident individuals have high and stable self-esteem in the face of chal-
lenge, and hold secure values and beliefs. Such learners are able to relate
to others, display self-awareness without undue self-criticism and make
 The Curriculum Journal 95

Table 1. Contrasting Traditional vs. formative curricula.

Formative curriculum Traditional curriculum

Students work primarily in groups; flexible Students work primarily alone.

grouping.
Pursuit of student questions and interests is Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly
valued. valued.
The teachers have a dialogue with students, The teachers disseminate information to
helping students construct their own students; students are passive recipients
knowledge. of knowledge.
Flexible schedules; learning is interactive, Learning is based on repetition.
building on what the student already
knows.
Materials include primary sources of material Materials are primarily textbooks and
(e.g. community resources) and workbooks
manipulative materials.
The teacher’s role is interactive, rooted in The teacher’s role is directive, rooted in
negotiation. authority.
Real world application; assessment includes Assessment is through testing, correct
student works, observations, and points of answers.
view, as well as tests. Process is as
important as product.
Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing Knowledge is seen as inert.
with our experiences.
Content drawn from several subject areas to Curriculum begins with the parts of the
focus on a particular topic or them. whole. Emphasises basic skills.
Emphasises big concepts, beginning with
the whole and expanding to include the
parts.
Parents or guardians play an active role in the Parents and guardians do not participate in
learning and development of their children the learning and development of their
children

informed decisions which minimise risk to themselves and to others. The

third of the four capacities is responsible citizenship. This entails respect
for others and responsible community participation. They have the ability
to understand different beliefs and cultures and evaluate complex social
issues maturely. Finally, effective contributors display an enterprising
attitude and self-reliance. In order to contribute effectively, learners need
to be successful learners (be literate and numerate to a high level), and
also be able to work as a team and take the initiative to suggest solutions
when required.
The rate at which the ‘four capacities’ develop is assessed via the deliv-
ery of a ‘formative curriculum’. Teachers gather useful evidence which
gives assurances to parents, children themselves, and others, that young
learners are progressing in accordance with curriculum standards and
developing in line with expectations. It is essential to note that formative
assessment does not become formative until the evidence is used to meet
96 I. Clark

the needs of students (Assessment Reform Group [ARG], 1999; Black &
Wiliam, 1998, 2009; Sadler, 1989). Therefore, the curriculum drives plan-
ning for the next stages of learning and helps learners progress to further
education, higher education, and employment. Through a careful and col-
lective process of moderation and quality assurance, the experiences and
outcomes of evidence collection are used to inform future improvements
in learning and teaching (Scottish Government, 2011). For the purposes
of this article, the Scottish Government’s seven principles and ‘four
capacities’ provide a strong example of the over-arching values and prin-
ciples which relate directly to ‘formative curriculum’ development. The
Scottish curriculum, known as the ‘Curriculum for Excellence’ (Scottish
Government, 2008, 2011), differentiates the principles depending on the
stage of schooling; be it pre-school, primary, secondary, or the senior
years of school.

Pre-school phase
A formative environment for learning in pre-school settings promotes a
high degree challenge and enjoyment and personalisation and choice
through planned opportunities to explore different activities, materials,
and contexts. Student engagement with learning is characterised as the
imaginative and creative use of both indoor and outdoor learning envi-
ronments (Canning, 2010). School staff at this stage (and others) are
encouraged to experiment with the learning environment and try innova-
tive approaches in accordance with Bransford and colleagues (2005) con-
ception of the ‘adaptive expert’.
Learning activities in pre-school settings provide rich opportunities for
progression (the transition to more advanced learning) and depth (com-
prehensive coverage within each aspect of a subject) of learning. At this
phase of learning and development, the learning activities and environ-
ment need to be planned and organised to offer opportunities to extend
skills (e.g. communication skills) and deepen understanding. Learning
through a wide range of well-designed activities offers relevance (relation-
ship with past experience), coherence (connections within and among sub-
ject areas), and breadth (a comprehensive range of experiences across a
subject area). Pre-school activities build directly on what is familiar to the
child and provide interesting, community-based contexts for learning (US
Educational Testing Service [ETS], 2005).

Primary school phase

The broad principle of depth emphasises that children need sufficient time
to demonstrate good progress. Further, learners can achieve the learning
set out at each level securely and be given the opportunity to apply their
 The Curriculum Journal 97

learning across multiple contexts. A variety of learning contexts supports

the principle of relevance because ‘content is likely to be retained if it is
structured around powerful learning situations that relate to pupils and
have meaning in their everyday lives’ (Galton, 2007). The experiences and
outcomes include aspects such as enterprise, sustainability, and creativity
which schools often have to plan as curricula additions. The experiences
and outcomes also provide the basis for challenge and enjoyment and pro-
gression. Undemanding experiences, (e.g. worksheets, copying) or low-
level activities (e.g. memorisation and the recall of declarative knowledge
required for summative tests), are unlikely to provide effective tools in
learning (Davis, Maher, & Noddings, 1990; Nagle, 2013). A ‘formative
curriculum’ is designed to open up opportunities for active, challenging,
and enjoyable learning (Department for Education and Skills [DfES],
2003): ‘it is important that children have a rich and exciting experience at
primary school, learning a wide range of things in a wide range of differ-
ent ways’ (DfES, 2003).
Creativity and vision are essential qualities when developing a range of
resources for learning that respond to the needs of children and the school
community (Black & Wiliam, 1998; MacIntyre et al., 2007). The encour-
agement of depth of learning challenges primary teachers to think beyond
the notion of progression as moving quickly from one topic or level to the
next. A ‘formative curriculum’ encourages discussion of learning, explain-
ing it to others, applying what has been learned in different contexts
because spending time to probe and research a particular issue adds depth
to learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998). Primary schools have
major advantages in promoting coherence by helping children to see links
between different aspects of learning within and across subjects and cur-
riculum areas. Primary stage learners can then begin to understand that
knowledge and skills are transferable (Government of South Australia,
2012). The principle of relevance is used to help those planning the curric-
ulum to select the content which connects with the child’s experience,
learning, and interests in and beyond the school environment. If class-
room teachers are to select relevant content, they need to possess in-depth
knowledge of the whole child (US Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development [ASCD], 2014). The ASCD (2014) emphasises
‘a whole child approach ensures that each student is healthy, safe,
engaged, supported, and challenged, [and] sets the standard for compre-
hensive, sustainable school improvement and provides for long-term stu-
dent success’. Primary teachers’ depth of knowledge of their students’
prior experiences, learning, and interests helps them to take account of
personalisation and choice during teaching and to provide differentiated
support and feedback to individual students. Teachers skilled in the
delivery of a ‘formative curriculum’ ‘embellish their explanations with
analogies or metaphors, linking them to students’ interests and prior
98 I. Clark

knowledge’ (Danielson, 2011). Rich opportunities for choice at the pri-

mary stage may be provided by the school as a whole, for example in their
own individualised projects or where they have some control over the con-
tent and sequence of learning. The formative classroom is then a place
where learners are involved in planning and assessment processes and
encouraged to pursue aspects of learning independently (OECD, 2005;
Scottish Government, 2008).

Secondary school phase

Curricula shape and reflect the fundamental character or spirit of a
school’s culture and inform the beliefs and practices of the school commu-
nity. The fundamental character of a school culture and the values that
school staff, students, and parents internalise (cf. Vygotsky) is called
ethos. Breadth is ensured through a curriculum where ethos, interdisci-
plinary learning, and personal achievement are seen as being important.
The ‘formative curriculum’ shapes and reflects an ethos which encourages
other types of learning experience. These include outdoor learning
and work-related activities (Scottish Government, 2008). Interdisciplinary
learning is ‘rarely used at the secondary level perhaps because of the tradi-
tional emphasis on individualized subject departments’ (Desai, 2007).
Transforming interdisciplinary teaching at the secondary level must
include ‘changes in curriculum, instruction, assessments, and teacher pro-
fessional development in order to support teaching for conceptual under-
standing and for making cross-disciplinary connections’ (Nagle, 2013,
p. 144). A ‘formative curriculum’ responds to this need, and establishes
communities of practice and interdisciplinary team-teaching in order to
make interdisciplinary learning a reality at the secondary level.
The entire secondary phase needs to be planned so it maintains chal-
lenge and enjoyment. In collaboration with students and parents, teachers
set the highest possible expectations for that which young people can
achieve (Bandura, 1997), with teachers’ expectations having the strongest
effect (Sciarra & Ambrosino, 2011). A ‘formative curriculum’ is designed
to make high expectations realisable by driving assessment activities that
engage learners in enjoyable and pedagogically worthwhile activities
where they will learn from their teachers and have the freedom to explore,
discover, and retain ownership of their learning (Fleming, 2008). Class-
room activities at this stage therefore encourage young people to develop
and demonstrate higher-order thinking skills related to creativity and
innovation (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). It is important
that young people experience a suitable, challenging gradient of progres-
sion during this phase, maintaining progress from their achievements in
primary school. The curriculum provides opportunities for learning in
depth through opportunities for young people to: (1) engage with
 The Curriculum Journal 99

increasingly demanding concepts; (2) develop more sophisticated meta-

cognitive strategies that support autonomous learning; and (3) further
develop their values and beliefs (Clark, 2012). Schools and their partners
plan for coherent programmes which, ‘help students develop an under-
standing of important connections among ideas and the inclination and
ability to use those ideas to make sense of the world’ (Roseman, Linn, &
Koppal, 2008). As the principle of coherence connects ideas and those
ideas to the real-world, the principle of relevance connects learning with
the young person’s experience and interests in and beyond the school
environment. During this phase of a ‘formative curriculum’, students
develop informed views and apply these to relevant moral and ethical
issues.

Senior years of school

The senior phase of the curriculum offers extensive opportunity for per-
sonalisation and choice for young people who are expected to make
informed choices. Their decisions are based on appropriate information
and advice from a wide range of sources about programmes of study lead-
ing to qualifications at a level appropriate to the individual’s needs and
achievements. Young people are guided in their choice of a well-balanced
and coherent programme of study throughout the senior phase which is
relevant to their future pathways. The more specialised experiences and
outcomes during the senior years ensure that young people will continue
to experience challenge and enjoyment. This can ensure a smooth progres-
sion through the learning experience from curriculum areas into qualifica-
tions through learning which is appropriate to their stage of development
as well as having relevance to their personal and learning goals. The ethos
of a school is, in part, reflected by the level of parental involvement in
helping their children explore, plan, and make the successful transition
from high school to college. School staff therefore make a particular
effort to ensure that parents are able to understand and use assessment
information throughout the senior years of school (Wimberly & Noeth,
2004).

Nexus: from principle to practice

The principles and values that underpin a ‘formative curriculum’ must be
seen in all aspects of assessment practice. First, assessments must be inclu-
sive, be a stimulus for personal achievement, and through broadening of
experience be an encouragement towards informed and responsible citi-
zenship. Second, a ‘formative curriculum’ emphases culturally responsive
pedagogy (Bailey & Heritage, 2008; Looney & Poskitt, 2005; Pham
& Gillies, 2010). In practice, assessment approaches have to avoid
100 I. Clark

pre-conceptions and stereotypes and be fair to all involved: to young

learners, their families and communities. Gutierrez and Rogoff (2003)
observe that curricula often drive a single way of instruction and assess-
ment without accounting for individuals’ past experiences with certain
local or situational practices. Collins (1993) contends that the typical
public school selects the culturally privileged, and excludes the
‘underprepared’. These situations are not regrettable lapses; they are, he
argues, systemic aspects of ‘conventional classrooms’ in schooling systems
serving culturally diverse communities. Public schools are not neutral set-
tings. School staff need to be aware that ‘learning, whether in or out of
school occurs in a cultural context. Built into this context are subtle and
invisible expectations regarding the manner in which individuals are to go
about learning’ (Villegas & Lucas, 2002, p. 43). Third, assessment involves
making judgements about children and young people’s learning. The
important decisions that are made on the basis of these judgements have
to be based upon sound evidence, professional integrity, and careful
moderation. A final practical consideration essential to and constitutive
of the ‘formative curriculum’ is evidence collection methods and the par-
ticipation of students in their own learning progression. In order to gather
good quality evidence of learners’ progress through relevant experiences,
staff will plan to use a range of approaches that reflect the breadth, chal-
lenge, and application of learning and the wide range of skills being devel-
oped. The active involvement of children and young people in assessment
is essential to ensure they have a well-developed sense of ownership of
their learning and help one another (Fletcher, 2008; McCombs, 2014).

What? why? when? and how?: framework for a ‘formative curriculum’

What do we assess?
The first question of what a ‘formative curriculum’ assesses may be
answered briefly as knowledge and understanding, skills, abilities, and
capabilities. There is perhaps nothing new or innovative in this at first
glance. However, the skills, abilities, and capabilities themselves are not
only pursuant of ‘good learning’ inside school, but also beyond school
and across the span of learners’ lifetimes.

Why do we assess?
In the formative classroom, the matter of why schools use formative
assessments differentiates it quite dramatically from other assessment
methods, for example benchmark and interim assessments. Unlike these
‘early warning summative’ (Wiliam, 2004) assessments, the sine qua non
(the essential element or condition) of formative assessment is to share
learning intentions and success criteria (Black & Wiliam, 2009). This level
 The Curriculum Journal 101

of transparency facilitates high quality (reciprocal and mutual) interac-

tion and feedback which makes students’ tacit knowledge visible as evi-
dence that may be used to close the gap between a student’s current level
of understanding and the desired level of knowledge required to meet
standards. Black and Wiliam (2009) characterise the inherent spontaneity
of formative dialogue as, ‘a formidable problem for teachers’ (p. 13).
Formidable because it: (1) exposes teachers to the many ways in which
students argue, evaluate, and synthesise information for problem solving
purposes and (2) it often requires a radical change in their instructional
approach (Black & Wiliam, 2006, 2009). When teachers develop proce-
dural expertise in the use of an interactive style of assessment, the use of
formative assessments stimulates learner engagement through student
reflection, goal-setting, and next steps through personal learning plan-
ning. Further, the use of formative assessments ensures an inclusive learn-
ing environment, creating an equitable learning environment which
enables learners to have the best chance of completion and success (Clark,
2014; OECD, 2005).
Staff plan on how to express what their students are expected to learn
in terms that they can understand. They clarify and share learning inten-
tions and success criteria and appropriate experiences for achieving these.
Both teachers and learners nurture a sense of achievement by sharing
challenging and realistic expectations. Sharing success criteria along with
learning intentions allows learners to ‘see what success looks like’. With
the support of their teacher, success criteria can often be devised by the
learners themselves (Department for Children, Schools and Families
[DCSF], 2008). Cauley and McMillan (2009) observe that such practices
‘encourage students and give them a greater sense of ownership in instruc-
tional activities’ (p. 3), elaborating that collaborative goal setting
improves students’ intrinsic motivation.
The notion of student empowerment is consolidated by approaches to
assessment that enable learners to say, ‘I can show that I can. . .’. Product-
oriented approaches to instruction fully involve young learners as active
participants and develop them as autonomous, independent learners. At
all stages, learners need to understand that collaborative learning will
help them develop the drive to learn in increasing breadth and depth.
Indeed, emerging research from the field of social neuroscience indicates
that when young learners are given expanded opportunities to actively
and equitably participate in peer-learning activities, they receive dopami-
nergic rewards from the mesolimbic system in the human brain. These
natural rewards are experienced as feelings of well-being, contentment, or
even excitement during peer-interaction. It was found that the production
of dopamine reinforces the desire to continue the learning interaction
(Guionnet et al., 2012; Krill & Platek, 2012; Redcay et al., 2010; Sakaiya
et al., 2013; Schilbach et al., 2013) and heightens the feelings of
102 I. Clark

anticipation for the next peer-learning activity (Salamone & Correa,

2012). These recent findings present an opportunity for educators to
reflect on classroom assessment strategies that capitalise on learners’ pref-
erence for peer-learning activities (Assessment Action Group/AiFL
Programme Management Group [AAG/APMG], 2002 2008). In addi-
tion, a key reflective question for building a ‘formative curriculum’ that
motivates young learners to work together is ‘does the curriculum provide
a sufficient emphasis on active, enterprising learning approaches that
encourage creativity and innovation?’ (Scottish Government, 2008).
The ‘formative curriculum’ framework (Scottish Government, 2011) is
designed to drive assessments which promote self- and peer-assessment.
These are assessment activities which facilitate the recognition and evalua-
tion of evidence relating to their own learning. Peer-assessment and other
collaborative learning enable learners to support and extend each others’
learning, by being aware of what is expected of them from looking at
examples and devising and sharing success criteria. As they develop skills
in self- and peer-assessment, learners build confidence and take more
ownership for managing their own learning (EPPI-Centre, 2005). By
focusing on the processes of learning as well as on their achievement of
outcomes, they will develop the capacity for reflective and positive contri-
butions inside, outside, and beyond school. Accordingly, the OECD
(2005) emphasises the frequent use of self- and peer-assessment against
well-defined goals and criteria as ‘skills that are invaluable for learning
throughout their lives’ (p. 24).
The use of formative assessments requires teachers to use assessment
information from a wide range of sources (e.g. observations, records,
discussions) to ensure validity, monitor learners’ progress, and plan
next steps in learning. Assessment information is shared and discussed
with learners, parents, and other stakeholders as appropriate, which
then makes learning objectives and the ‘features of excellent perform-
ance’ transparent (Shepard, 2000, p. 11). When the stakeholders in the
learning process are fully informed and included, each may contribute
at appropriate times to setting targets for learning and ensuring appro-
priate support.

When do we assess?
Assessment takes place in three circumstances. First, as a part of ongoing
learning and teaching. This is a flexible moment-to-moment form of
assessment, described by Cauley and McMillan (2009) as ‘high-level for-
mative’. Teachers who implement a ‘formative curriculum’ assess con-
stantly as part of daily learning and teaching by observing and
communicating with learners carrying out tasks, by looking at what they
write and make and by considering how they answer questions. The
 The Curriculum Journal 103

spontaneous dialogue between teacher and student which characterises an

interactive style of teaching and assessment is called ‘synchronous
feedback’ (Black & Wiliam, 2009). Synchronous feedback has been found
to enhance learning (Dihoff, Brosvic, Epstein, & Cook, 2004) and pro-
mote higher psychological functions, such as synthesis and creation
(Maddox, Ashby, & Bohil, 2003; Maddox & Ing, 2005). Through mutual
interaction and reciprocal dialogue, teachers and students may gain
deeper insights into learning capacities and build up a profile of their
progress, strengths, and needs. Crucially, when teachers work with their
students in a spirit of reciprocity they are able to involve them in planning
what they need to learn next. Second, assessment takes place periodically
(from time to time). It involves teachers in evaluating a range of evidence
produced over a period of time to provide a summary of progress and
achievement, including for qualifications and awards by weighing up all
relevant evidence of learning. In this circumstance, time elapses between
the production of evidence and its use as assessment information, and so
it is ‘asynchronous feedback’ (Black & Wiliam, 2009). A third circum-
stance in which assessment must take place is at transitions. Both syn-
chronous and asynchronous feedback may occur here as teachers verbally
assess students and also test them summatively. Both forms of feedback
are formative when the evidence is used to adapt instruction to meet the
needs of students. Transition phases are particularly important times for
assessment. These phases include pre-school to primary, between curric-
ula stages, primary to secondary, from the broad general education to
more specialised education in the senior phase, and beyond school to posi-
tive and sustained destinations such as employment and further and
higher education. Teachers and parents assess learners carefully for their
level of preparedness. Bostock and Wood (2014) suggest that transitions
are profound periods of change and transformation, and students ‘should
be studied and managed to ensure that [they] are able to grow and thrive
during these difficult phases in their education’ (p. 3).

How do we assess?
Formative classroom assessment is a potentially powerful instructional
process because the practice of sharing assessment information that sup-
ports learning is embedded into the instructional process by design. As
Heritage (2010) states, assessment is ‘a process that is fundamental and
indigenous to the practice of teaching and learning’ (p. 1). Indeed, the
practice of classroom assessment sits at the heart of the instructional pro-
cess, always guiding learners forward to the next or most proximal stage
of development (Vygotsky, 1978). The evidence will be different depend-
ing upon the kind of learning being assessed, the learning activity, and
learners’ preferences about how to show what they have learned. The
104 I. Clark

interactive style of instruction and assessment means that evidence

emerges during day-to-day learning activities e.g. describing and
recording, exploring and analysing sources, talking and debating with
peers and adults and undertaking investigation as well as from specific
assessment tasks, activities, tests, and examinations. As the ‘formative
curriculum’ drives assessment practice, assessments drive learning and as
such teachers are required to utilise numerous assessment techniques
which tap into the sources of learning evidence (Peel District School
Board, 2011).

Classroom methods which support a ‘formative curriculum’

A ‘formative curriculum’ drives instruction and assessment methods
based upon dialogue, collaboration, and reflection in order to support
learning and give all learners the opportunity to succeed (AAG/
APMG,2002 2008; Clark, 2014; Scottish Government, 2011; Victoria
State Government, 2009; Victoria State Government West Virginia
Department of Education [WVDE], 2013). This may be divided into two
overlapping areas of methods which make the sources of evidence needed
to assess learners’ understanding accessible. First, methods which prepare
students for productive pair and group work by: developing peer peer
communication skills (relational skills training); peer assessment; group
work and pair work, for example, concept mapping; traffic lighting
primarily for self-assessment and preparation for peer learning. Traffic
lighting is the self-assessment of knowledge; for example, vocabulary in
modern foreign languages or scientific terminology. It may be done by
using colours or symbols which indicate the security of knowledge, in
columns which may be headed ‘I can show that I can do. . .’, ‘I can
partially show that I can do. . .’ or ‘I cannot show that I can do.. .yet’.
They may also apply these statements to the work of others by comparing
the work of their peers to commonly understood performance standards.
The second area focuses on methods of evidence gathering employed by
teachers as they interact with students either individually or as a group:
transitioning between whole-class questioning to smaller peer-group
discussions; higher order questioning techniques; use of problem-solving
techniques; ‘jot time’ (students are afforded an extended period of time to
commit their ideas in writing before the beginning of an interaction); use
of wrong answers and misconceptions; extended ‘wait time’ before
students give their answers; written feedback as comments and not grades;
oral feedback; sharing assessment criteria; draft marking and redrafting
work as an aspect of mastery-goal orientation; collaborative goal setting;
reflective learning using a ‘reflective portfolio’ of logs, dairies and
journals. The focus for teachers throughout is a deep and genuine interest
in their students’ ideas.
 The Curriculum Journal 105

Assessing standards and expectations (progress)

Progress is defined in terms of ‘how well’ and ‘how much’, as well as
learners’ rate of progress. This approach will promote greater breadth
and depth of learning, including a greater focus on the secure develop-
ment of skills and knowledge. Assessing progress across a breadth of
learning, in challenging aspects and when applying learning in different
and unfamiliar contexts, will also help teachers to plan, track progress,
summarise achievements in a rounded way and better prepare children
and young people for the next stage in learning.

Across the breadth of learning

This will involve sustained achievement in an increasing number of out-
comes across the breadth of learning described in the experiences and out-
comes. Learners will demonstrate success by building on previous
learning and being able to make links in learning by looking back as well
as forward. The capacity to do so is expressed by Dewey’s (1934) term
‘esthetic recurrence’, which describes a rhythm in the learning process,
one that combines past events with future possibilities that blend together
to take learning forward. Macintyre et al. (2007) locate teachers as impor-
tant resources who model esthetic recurrence for students, noting at the
end of their two-year study on evidence gathering and use that ‘esthetic
recurrence was what teachers gradually attended to, manifesting relation-
ships. . .This capacity to perceive relationships among parts was what
teachers struggled to interpret and act on throughout the study’ (p. 15).
For all participants in the learning experience esthetic recurrence has three
key aspects: (1) it reaches out to the relations, associations, and interac-
tions with other individuals, expanding the whole; (2) it looks to the indi-
viduality present in each learning artifact seeking personal learning
connections; and (3) it presents itself in different contexts and with differ-
ing learning consequences so that every recurrence is ‘novel as well as a
reminder’ (Dewey, 1934, p. 169). Broadening and enhancing experience
within a level are important parts of progression to the next level. A vari-
ety of assessment approaches allow learners to demonstrate their knowl-
edge and understanding, skills, attributes, and capabilities across the
range of the experiences and outcomes. Assessment of this nature is
aligned with teaching that develops a broad range of learning.

In challenging aspects
Not all tasks are created equal, and different tasks will provoke different
levels and kinds of student thinking (Stein, Smith, Henningsen, & Silver,
2000). Participating in challenging tasks and activities develops learners’
interest and confidence in some aspects of their learning. It also develops
106 I. Clark

some skills, attributes, and capabilities to a high level. Formative assess-

ment gives learners the opportunity to demonstrate aspects of learning
where they have a depth of knowledge and understanding and skills.
Challenging tasks are therefore those which avoid passive memorisation
and procedures without connections (low-level tasks) (Nagle, 2013) and
emphasise active participation and procedures with connections (high-
level tasks) (Davis et al., 1990). When assessing high-level tasks, teachers
need to have developed the ability to identify the potential of a task and
to determine exactly what student feedback communicates about their
current understandings. When teachers develop and implement high-level
tasks as sources of learning evidence, they are ‘the architect and designer
of the curriculum’ (Lappan & Briars, 1995, p. 138). These roles are
entirely consonant with the flexibility and responsibility that underpins
the delivery of a ‘formative curriculum’ and allow learners to progress in
areas of strength and interest.

When applying learning in unfamiliar contexts

Learning is shaped by a variety of social and cultural antecedents that
exist in and around the activities in which people engage (Rogoff, 2003).
Thinking and learning (cognition) is shaped by the settings in which learn-
ers participate and the activities that take place in those settings (Brown,
Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991). For example, in
Australia, the State Government of Victoria (2009) devised a curriculum
architecture designed to reveal the tacit knowledge (beliefs, values, con-
ceptions) of students thus making their ideas visible as assessment infor-
mation. Teachers plan learning interactions which require students to
solve problems in unfamiliar contexts, progressively building the students’
ability to transfer and generalise their learning. At all school levels, teach-
ers provide support to their students as they create and test hypotheses
and justify and elaborate on decisions. Of central importance to the deliv-
ery of a ‘formative curriculum’ are the practices of monitoring student
understanding, providing explicit feedback (both synchronously and
asynchronously), and adjusting instruction accordingly (Black & Wiliam,
1998, 2009; Clark, 2012; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006). The Australian
model may be concisely summarised as follows: engage; explore; explain;
elaborate; and evaluate. Each aspect provides moment-to-moment oppor-
tunities when evidence can be collected on the knowledge and skills (e.g.
literacy and numeracy) and the socio-emotional well-being of learners.
Engagement refers to the fostering of positive relations with and among
students and the development of shared expectations for learning and
interacting. Exploring entails the presentation of challenging tasks which
meet the needs of students in order to generate and investigate questions,
gather relevant information, and develop ideas. Explaining requires
 The Curriculum Journal 107

students to express their ideas and opinions confidently. This aspect of the
model provides opportunities for students to demonstrate their current
level of understanding through verbal and non-verbal means. Elaboration
is a challenging, and therefore highly beneficial, process during which the
teacher engages students in dialogue, continuously extending and refining
students’ understanding. The final aspect of the model is ‘evaluation’
referring to the assessment of students’ progress against learning goals.
Teachers support students to continuously refine and improve their work
using assessment criteria in preparation for demonstrations of satisfactory
engagement, exploration, explanation, and elaboration, binding the
model together through the use of formative assessments.
Warwick University’s (UK) Learning and Development Centre (2012)
uses the term ‘adaptive learning’ to express this process, linking it to high
achievement. Further, they emphasise that ‘adaptive learning encapsu-
lates some of the capabilities that employers are increasingly seeking to
obtain from university graduates’. Applying learning in unfamiliar con-
texts is important to developing higher order thinking skills and provides
relevance and purpose to learning, as well as making it more secure
(Scottish Government, 2011; Warwick University, 2012). This entails
giving students practical problems and then putting them in situations
where they must solve the problems by using existing theories and practi-
cal techniques in novel contexts. There needs to be a variety of acceptable
solutions to these problems so students may develop higher-order think-
ing skills of creation and analysis and learn from the ideas of their peers
(Fraser & Grenhalgh, 2001). Applying learning in unfamiliar contexts
therefore also offers opportunities to make links across ideas and con-
cepts they have already learned, an important dimension of twenty-first
century skills. Assessment needs to sample learning in the context in
which it was developed and in straightforward ways. Assessment also
probes the ability to apply the learning in more challenging tasks and in
unfamiliar situations as these are important abilities for life and work,
and promote resilience and task-persistence among learners.

Conclusion
It has been proposed here that the framework and architectural principles
of a ‘formative curriculum’ create a fairer and more robust approach to
assessment. However, instigating change in schools is a highly complex
process requiring the strong commitment of governments, administrators,
school staff, and parents (Fullan, 2007). Parents play a key role in the
delivery of a ‘formative curriculum’ and need to be engaged as mutual
partners in supporting their children’s learning (Clark, 2014; Townsend,
1997). School staff inform parents what children are learning, how their
work is assessed, and how they can support their children’s learning. If
108 I. Clark

parents are to become active participants in a child’s learning experiences,

schools need to ensure that parents are aware of learning goals and they
have access to information on current progress and achievements. A fun-
damental aspect of curricula delivery is therefore frequent discussions
with parents about options and progression routes (Sayler, 1996; Suffolk
County Council, 2014). Townsend (1997), in a study of US and Austra-
lian schools, found that effective schools are those which welcome parents
by engaging them and involving them in the widest range of school activi-
ties; most crucially those concerning their child’s development.
Black and Wiliam (2005) observe development and implementation of
a ‘formative curriculum’ will require a different change-management
strategy depending on national circumstances, and in some cases may be
very challenging indeed. The careful arrangement of consultative net-
works between teachers, parents, and the wider community is essential if
the new curriculum is to operate successfully. The Scottish region of the
UK provides a strong case study of wide-spread development and imple-
mentation of formative assessments (AAG/APMG, 2002 2008), and a
‘formative curriculum’ (Scottish Government, 2008, 2011). In that case,
even when collaboration networks were secured and the processes of
change management among stakeholders carefully planned, conceptual
difficulties persisted because the embedding of innovative pedagogical
principles is beset by challenges and tensions (Fullan, 2007; George Street
Research [GSR], 2007). The enthusiastic problem-solving approach dem-
onstrated by school staff was a large contributory factor to the successful
development of assessment strategies which support a ‘formative curricu-
lum’ (Hallam, Kirton, Peffers, Robertson, & Stobart, 2004). A primary
source of conceptual challenge associated with the process of change was
the preference of teachers for prescriptive and precise instructions on how
to implement new classroom practices (Hallam et al., 2004; Wiliam, Lee,
Harrison, & Black, 2004). Yet, Hallam et al. (2004) found that teachers
(n D 72) responded very positively to the integration of formative assess-
ment practices into their work: 100% of respondents reported that
‘formative curriculum’ practices were ‘very successful’ (VS) or ‘successful’
(S) in increasing teacher understanding of the role of assessment and in
improving teacher motivation. Further, 91% of respondents indicated
that they were VS/S in changing classroom practices; 92% indicated the
project was VS/S at changing assessment practices; 94%, the extent of
questioning; 95% in increasing the level of discussion; and 97% of
respondents assigned a VS/S rating to an improved teacher focus on the
learning needs of students (Hallam et al, 2004). At the most fundamental
level, the ‘formative curriculum’ drives and sustains positive learning
interactions and dialogue. As such, an important strand of future research
resides in developing fine-grained understandings about high-quality
classroom dialogue between teachers and their students and between
 The Curriculum Journal 109

peers. When instruction and assessment is characterised by high-quality

interactions and carefully moderated activities by interdisciplinary teams,
it makes thinking and learning transparent, and therefore accessible as
assessment data for use by all involved in a child’s learning experience.

Notes on contributors
Dr Ian Clark is currently employed at a research university in Nagoya, Japan. He qualified
with a PGCE(QTS) from Manchester in 2002, an MA (Education) in 2004, and completed
doctoral studies in Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Washington, Seattle in
2013. He has been teaching a variety of subjects across multiple national contexts since 1997.

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