UNIT-3

 Trees
 Binary Trees
 Terminology
 Representation
 Tree Traversals

 Graphs
 Terminology
 Representation
 Graph Traversals
 DFS and BFS
Trees
 General View of a Tree

leaves

branches

root
 Computer Scientist’s View

root
leaves

branches

nodes
 Tree
 A tree, is a finite set of nodes together with a finite set of directed
edges(links/branches) that define parent-child (Hierarchical )relationships.
 Example:
Nodes = {A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H}
Edges = {(A,B),(A,E),(B,F),(B,G),(B,H),(E,C),(E,D)}

 A tree is a finite set of one or more nodes such that:

 There is a specially designated node called the root.

 Remaining nodes are partitioned into ‘n’ (n>0) disjoint sets

T1,T2,..Tn, where each Ti (i=1,2,….n) is a Tree, T1,T2,..Tn are
called sub tree of the root.
A
 Tree is a non-linear data structure.
E B

D C F H G
A tree satisfies the following properties:

1. It has one designated node, called the root, that has no parent.
2. Every node, except the root, has exactly one parent.
3. A node may have zero or more children.
4. There is a unique directed path from the root to each node.

5 5
5
1
3 2 3 2
3 2

4 1 6 4 6
4 1 6
tree Not a tree Not a tree
 Tree Terminology
Root: Only node with no parent Example: A
Parent of x: The node directly above node x in the tree (A, B, C, H)
Child of x: A node directly below node x in the tree (B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I)
Siblings: Nodes with common parent. (B,C),(D,E),(F,G,H)
Non-leaf or Internal Node: Nonleaf node. (B,C,H)
Path: A sequence of connected nodes. (A,B,D), (A,C,H,I), ...
Ancestor of x: A node on the path from the root to x. For D (A,B)
Descendent of x: A node on a path from x to a leaf. For C (H,I)
Empty Tree: A tree with no nodes.
Leaf or External Node: A node with no children. (D,E,F,G,I)
A

B C

D E F G H

I
The level of a node x: It is the distance from the root to node x.
Generally, the root has a zero distance from itself, the root is at level 0.
The, children of the root are at level 1, their children are at level at 2,
and so on. Level of j: 3
Height of Tree: The maximum no of nodes covered in a path
starting from root node to a leaf node is called height of a tree.
Height of a following tree: 5

Depth: Length of the path to that node from the root. 3 for G

Degree/arity of node x: Number of children's of a node x. Degree of c: 3

A Level 0

B C Level 1
D E F G Level 2
H I J Level 3
k Level 4
Example 2:
 TERM DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Node An item or single element represented in a tree A,B,C…….,H
Root Node that does not have any ancestors (parent A
or Grandparent)
Sub tree Internal nodes in a tree which has both B,C,D
ancestor(parent) and descendant(child)
Leaf External nodes that does not have any E,F,G,H
descendant(child)
Edge The line depicts the connectivity between two (A-B),(A-C)…
nodes
Path Sequence of nodes connected A-B-E for E from root
Height Length of the longest path from the root 3
Depth Length of the path to that node from the root 2 for D
Degree of a Number of children connected from that node 3 for A, 1 for B,D, 2 for C
node and 0 for leaves
Degree of a Degree of a node which has maximum degree 3 (since A has Max. degree)
tree
 Binary Tree
 In a binary tree, each node has at most two sub trees.
 A binary tree(T) is a finite set of nodes such that:
 T is empty tree (called empty binary tree)
 T contains a specially designed node called the root of T, and
remaining nodes of T form two disjoint binary trees T1 and T2 which
are called left sub tree and right sub tree respectively.

Note: A binary tree is a tree in which no nodes can have more than two children.
 Binary Tree Properties

1. A binary tree with n elements, n > 0, has exactly n-1 edges.

2. A binary tree of height h, h >= 0, has at least h and at most 2h-1
elements or nodes in it.
3. The height of a binary tree that contains n elements, n >= 0, is at
least (log2(n+1)) and at most n.

Minimum and Maximum number of elements for height 4

minimum number of elements maximum number of elements

 Difference between tree and binary tree

Trees

1) Tree never be empty.

2) A node may have any no of nodes/children’s.

Binary tree

1) Binary tree may be empty.

2) A node may have at most 2 children's or 0 or1 children.
 Full binary tree
A full binary tree is a tree in which every node other than the leaves has two
children.
Note: All leaves are at same level and all other nodes each have two children.
A full binary tree of height h has exactly 2h-1 nodes.

1 Level 0- 1node

2 3 Level 1- 2nodes

5 6 7 Level 2- 4nodes
4

10 12 13 14 15 Level 3-8nodes
8 9 11
 Complete binary tree
A complete binary tree is a binary tree in which every level is completely
filled except possibly the last level.
In the unfilled level, the nodes are attached starting from the left-most position.

1 Level 0- 1node

2 3 Level 1- 2 nodes

4 5 6 7 Level 2- 4 nodes

8 9 Level 3- 2 nodes
 Balanced Binary Tree
Balanced binary tree is a binary tree in which the left and right sub trees
height must be differed by at most 1.

2 Left sub tree height = 3

3
Right sub tree height = 2

4 5 6 7

Difference = 1
8 9
 Left skewed binary tree
If the right subtree is missing in every node of tree then we call
it as left skewed tree.
A
B
C
 Right skewed binary tree
If the left subtree is missing in every node of a tree then we
call it is right subtree. A
B
C
 Binary Search Tree
A binary search tree is a nonempty binary tree that satisfies the following
properties:
 Each node has a key/element (or value), and no two nodes have the
same key (i.e., all keys are distinct).
 For every node x, all keys/elements in the left sub tree of x are smaller
than x.
 For every node x, all keys in the right sub tree of x are larger than or
equal to x.
 The left and right sub trees of the root are also binary search trees.

Fig (a) is not a BST where as Fig (b) and (c) are BST’s
 Binary Search Tree Operations
1. Searching:
 Search begins at the root.
 If the root is NULL, the search tree is empty and the search fails.
 If key is less than the root, then left subtree is searched.
 If key is greater than the root, then right subtree is searched.
 If key equals the root, then the search terminates successfully.

20
Search for 8

10 40

6 15 30

2 8 25
 Binary Search Tree Operations
2.Insertion:

 To insert a new element into a binary search tree, we must first verify
that its key does not already exist by performing a search in the tree.
 If the search is successful, we do not insert.
 If the search is unsuccessful, then the element is inserted at the point
the search terminated.

Insert 35
20

10 40

6 15 30

2 8 25 35
 Binary Search Tree Operations
3.Deletion:
There are three cases for the element to be deleted:
1. Element is in a leaf.
2. Element is in a degree 1 node (i.e., has exactly one nonempty subtree).
3. Element is in a degree 2 node (i.e., has exactly two nonempty subtrees).

Case 1: Delete from a Leaf.

For case 1, we can simply discard the leaf node.
Example, delete a leaf element. Key = 7.

20

10 40

6 15 30

2 8 18 25 35
7
Case 2: Delete from a Degree 1 Node 20

Delete 40 10 40

6 15 30

2 8 18 25

20
Delete 15
10

6 15 30

2 8 18 25
Case 3: Delete from a Degree 2 Node 20
10 40
6 15 30
2 8 18 25 35
7
Replace with the largest key in the left subtree (or the smallest in the right
subtree)
20

8 40

6 15 30

2 8 18 25 35

7
 Representation of a Binary Tree using Array

Sequential Representation :
 Tree nodes are stored in a linear data structure like array.
 Root node is stored at index ‘0’
 If a node is at a location ‘i’, then its left child is located at 2 * i + 1
and right child is located at 2 * i + 2

The space required by a binary tree of height h is 2h-1.

Example: Sequential representation
0
A

1 2
B D

3
5 G 6
C E

F 12

A B D C . E G . . . . . F

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
 Advantages of array/sequential/static representation
 Any node can be accessed from any other node by calculating the index
and this is efficient from execution point of view.

 There is no overhead of maintaining the pointers.

Disadvantages of Static Representation

 The major disadvantage with this type of representation is wastage of
memory. Example: In the skewed tree, half of the array is unutilized.

 Allows only static representation. There is no possible way to enhance the

size of the tree.

 Inserting a new node and deleting a node from it are inefficient with this
representation because these require considerable data movement up and
down the array which demand excessive processing time.
 Representation of Binary Tree using Linked List

 The most popular way to present a binary tree.

 Each element is represented by a node that has two link fields (leftChild
and rightChild) plus an element field .

 The space required by an n node binary tree is n * sizeof a node.

struct node { /* a node in the tree structure */

struct node *lchild;
int data ;
struct node *rchild;
};
The pointer lchild stores the address of left child node.
The pointer rchild stores the address of right child node.
If child is not available NULL is stored.
A pointer variable root represents the root of the tree.
 Linked Representation of Binary Tree

29
 Advantages of linked representation
 This representation is superior to the array representation as there is no
wastage of memory.

 There is no need to have prior knowledge of depth of the tree. Using

dynamic memory allocation concept one can create as much memory
(node) as required.

 Insertion and deletion which are the most common operations can be done
without moving the other nodes.

Disadvantages of linked representation

 This representation does not provide direct access to a node.

 It needs additional space in each node for storing the left and right subtrees.
 Binary Tree Traversal Techniques

 There are three recursive techniques for binary tree traversal.

1. Preorder Traversal
2. Inorder Traversal
3. Postorder Traversal
Algorithm preOrder (root)
Traverse a binary tree in root-left-right
Pre Condition: root is the entry node of a tree or subtree
Post Condition: each node has been processed in order
1. if(root is not null)
1. process(root)
2. preOrder(leftsubtree)
3. preOrder(rightsubtree)
2. end if
end preOrder
Algorithm inOrder (root)
Traverse a binary tree in left-root-right
Pre Condition: root is the entry node of a tree or subtree
Post Condition: each node has been processed in order
1. if(root is not null)
1. inOrder(leftsubtree)
2. process(root)
3. inOrder(rightsubtree)
2. end if
end inOrder
Algorithm postOrder (root)
Traverse a binary tree in left-right-root
Pre Condition: root is the entry node of a tree or subtree
Post Condition: each node has been processed in order
1. if(root is not null)
1. postOrder(leftsubtree)
2. postOrder(rightsubtree)
3. process(root)
2. end if
end postOrder
 Preorder of binary tree

B C

D E F G

H J
I

Preorder: A B D E H I C F J K G
 Inorder of binary tree

B C

D E F G

H J
I

Inorder: D B H E I A F K J C G
 Postorder of binary tree

B C

D E F G

H J
I

K
Postorder: D H I E B K J F G C A
Write pre,in and post order of the following tree:

(A-B) + C* (D/E) +

- *

A B C /

D E
Preorder for the following tree

- *

A B C /

D E
Preorder: + - A B * C / D E
Inorder of the following tree

- *

A B C /

D E
Inorder: A - B + C * D / E
Postorder of the following tree

- *

A B C /

D E

Postorder: A B - C D E / * +
/* Write a C program that uses functions to perform the following:
i) Creating a Binary Tree of integers.
ii) Traversing the above binary tree in preorder, inorder and postorder.*/

bnode* getnode(int ele)

{
bnode *q = (bnode*)malloc(sizeof(bnode));
#include <stdio.h> if(q)
#include <conio.h> {
struct node q -> data = ele;
{ q -> lchild = NULL;
int data; q -> rchild = NULL;
struct node *lchild,*rchild; return q;
}; }
typedef struct node bnode; else
{
printf("\n Unable to create the node");
exit(0);
}
return 0;
}
void preorder(bnode *root)
{
if(root)
{
printf("%5d",root->data); void postorder(bnode *root)
preorder(root->lchild); {
preorder(root->rchild); if(root)
} {
} postorder(root->lchild);
postorder(root->rchild);
void inorder(bnode *root) printf("%5d",root->data);
{ }
if (root) }
{
inorder(root->lchild);
printf("%5d",root->data);
inorder(root->rchild);
}
}
bnode* insert(bnode *root, int ele)
{
if(!root)
{
bnode *q = getnode(ele);
root = q;
}
else
if(root->data < ele)
root->rchild = insert(root->rchild, ele);
else
if(root -> data > ele)
root -> lchild = insert(root -> lchild, ele);
else
{
printf("\n Duplicate data ");
}
return root;
}
void main() {
int ch, ele;
bnode *root = NULL;
printf("\n Binary Search Tree Operations :");
printf("\n\t 1) Insert \n\t 2) Preorder \n\t 3) Inorder\n\t4 ) Postorder \n\t 5) Exit");
while(1) {
printf("\n Enter your choice :");
scanf("%d", &ch);
switch(ch) {
case 1: printf("\n Enter an element :");
scanf("%d", &ele);
root = insert(root, ele); break;
case 2: preorder(root); break;
case 3: inorder(root); break;
case 4: postorder(root); break;
case 5: exit(0);
default : printf("\n Invalid choice.");
}//switch
}
}//main
 Applications of Trees

Trees are very important data structures in computing.

They are suitable for:
– Hierarchical structure representation, e.g.,
• File directory.
• Organizational structure of an institution.
• Class inheritance tree.
– Problem representation, e.g.,
• Expression tree.
• Decision tree.
– Efficient algorithmic solutions, e.g.,
• Search trees.
• Efficient priority queues via heaps.
 Introduction to Graphs
Definition: A graph G is a pair, G = (V, E), where V is a finite nonempty
set of vertices and E is called the set of edges.

Example: a b

d e

V= {a,b,c,d,e}
E=(a,b), (a,c), (a,d), (b,e), (c,d), (c,e), (d,e)}
 Graph Terminology

 A directed graph or digraph is one in which the edges have a direction.

 An undirected graph is one in which the edges do not have a direction.

 The size of a graph is the number of nodes in it

 The empty graph has size zero (no nodes).

 If two nodes are connected by an edge, they are neighbors (and the nodes
are adjacent to each other).

 A path is a sequence of nodes such that each node (but the last) is the
predecessor of the next node in the list.

Example: If v1,v2,. . .,vk are vertices then vi and vi+1 should be consecutive.
 The degree of a node is the number of edges it has.

 For directed graphs:

 The in-degree of a node is the number of in-edges it has.
 The out-degree of a node is the number of out-edges it has.

 An undirected graph is connected if there is a path from every

node to every other node.

 A directed graph is strongly connected if there is a path from

every node to every other node.
 A simple path is a path in which all the vertices, except possibly the first
and last vertices, are distinct.

 A cycle in G is a simple path in which the first and last vertices are the
same.

 A graph without cycles is called acyclic graph.

 Sub graph is a graph with subset of vertices and edges of a graph.

 A graph is called a simple graph if it has no loops and no parallel edges.

 A graph is termed as weighted graph if all the edges in it are labeled with
some weights.

 A complete graph is a graph if there is a path from every node to every

other node.
Directed Un Directed

   
if edges ordered pairs (u,v) if edges unordered pairs {u,v}
u v u v

3 G2 0 in:1, out: 1
G1
0

3 1 2 3 1 in: 1, out: 2

3 3
2 in: 1, out: 0
 Cyclic graph Acyclic graph Weighted Graph
A A

B C B C

D D

Complete Graph Strongly Connected

A B A

D B
C D
C
E
 0 0 0 1 2 0
1 2 1 2 3 1 2
3 3
G1
(i) ii) (iii) (iv)

(a) Some of the sub graph of G1

0
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 2
G2 (i) (ii) (iii)

(b) Some of the sub graph of G2

 Representation of a Graph

There are two ways of representing a graph in memory:

 Sequential Representation by means of Adjacency Matrix.

 Linked Representation by means of Linked List.

 Adjacency Matrix is a bit matrix which contains entries of only 0 and 1

 The connected edge between two vertices is represented by 1 and absence

of edge is represented by 0.

 This representation uses a square matrix of order n x n, where n is the

number of vertices in the graph.

 Adjacency matrix of an undirected graph is symmetric.

Adjacency Matrix
A
A B C D E
A 0 1 1 1 0
B C
B 1 0 1 1 0
C 1 1 0 1 1
D E D 1 1 1 0 1
E 0 0 1 1 0
Linked List Representation

 It saves the memory.

 The number of lists depends on the number of vertices in the graph.

 The header node in each list maintains a list of all adjacent vertices of a
node .

A B C D NULL

D NULL
A
B A C

D E NULL B C
C A B

D A B C E NULL D E

N E C D NULL
Undirected Graph Adjacency List Adjacency Matrix
Directed Graph Adjacency List Adjacency Matrix
 Graph Traversal Techniques
There are two standard graph traversal techniques:
 Depth-First Search (DFS)
 Breadth-First Search (BFS)

 Traversing a graph means visiting all the vertices in the graph exactly once.
 DFS and BFS traversals result an acyclic graph.
 DFS and BFS traversal on the same graph do not give the same order of visit
of vertices.
Depth First Traversal:

The depth first traversal is similar to the in-order traversal of a binary tree.

An initial or source vertex is identified to start traversing, then from that vertex
any one vertex which is adjacent to the current vertex is traversed.

To implement the depth first search algorithm, we use a stack.

DFS follows the following rules:

1. Select an unvisited node x, visit it, and treat as the current node
2. Find an unvisited neighbor of the current node, visit it, and make it the
new current node;
3. If the current node has no unvisited neighbors, backtrack to the its
parent, and make that parent the new current node.
4. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until no more nodes can be visited.
5. If there are still unvisited nodes, repeat from step 1.
 Breadth First Traversal:
The breadth first traversal is similar to the pre-order traversal of a binary tree.

The breadth first traversal of a graph is similar to traversing a binary tree

level by level (the nodes at each level are visited from left to right).

All the nodes at any level, i, are visited before visiting the nodes at level i + 1.

To implement the breadth first search algorithm, we use a queue.

BFS follows the following rules:
1. Select an unvisited node x, visit it, have it be the root in a BFS tree being
formed. Its level is called the current level.
2. From each node x in the current level, visit all the unvisited neighbors of x.
The newly visited nodes from this level form a new level that becomes the
next current level.
3. Repeat step 2 until no more nodes can be visited.
4. If there are still unvisited nodes, repeat from Step 1.
Example1: A
Graph

B C D

B C D
A

E
B C D
The Depth First Search Tree Order : A, B, E, D, C

The Breadth First Search Tree Order : A, B, C, D, E

Example2:

A B C A B C

D E F D E F

G H I G H I
DFS Traversal Order BFS Traversal Order

A B C F E G D H I A B D E C G F H I
Example3: Construct the DFS and BFS for the following graph.

Depth First Search:

Given Graph From start vertex A explore edges.

From vertex B either C or D to be explored.

 Since C is dead end, backtrack From D it is possible to explore A, but this
to B, from there explore D. would form a cycle, so again backtrack to B,
from there backtrack to A, explore the path to F.

From F it is possible to traverse either A or c, but

both are discovered already. So F is also a dead end.

Note: From the above diagram it is possible to say that G and E are never traversed.
 Breadth First Search: The BFS Tree Order : A,B,F,C,D

From the start vertex A, the explored

Given Graph.
vertices are B and F.

Explore all paths from vertex B and F.

The dashed lines indicate, nodes are From D the explored vertex is A.
previously discovered. But A is already visited.

Note: From the above diagram it is possible to say that G and E are never traversed.
 Applications of Graphs
 Electronic circuits
 Printed circuit board
 Integrated circuit

 Transportation networks
 Highway network
 Flight network

 Computer networks
 Local area network
 Internet
 Web

 Databases
 Entity-relationship diagram
 Spanning Trees

A spanning tree of a graph is just a sub graph that contains all the vertices and
is a tree.
A graph may have many spanning trees.

Graph A Some Spanning Trees from Graph A

o o o
r r r
 Minimum Spanning Trees

The minimum spanning tree for a given graph is the spanning tree of
minimum cost for that graph.

Weighted Graph Minimum Spanning Tree

7

2 2
5 3 3
4

1 1

Algorithms to find Minimum Spanning Trees are:

 Kruskal‘s Algorithm
 Prim‘s Algorithm