Fundamentals of Database Systems

Chapter 2 1
 Review of Chapter 1
 Some common uses of database systems.
 Characteristics of file-based systems.
 Problems with file-based approach.
 Meaning of the term database.
 Database approach
 Meaning of the term Database Management System
(DBMS).

Chapter 2 2
 Chapter 2
Database System Concepts and Architecture

Chapter 2 3
Chapter 2 4
Outline
 Data Models, Schemas, and Instances
 Three-Schema Architecture and Data Independence
 Database Languages and Interfaces
 Database System Utilities and Tools
 Centralized and Client/Server Architectures for DBMSs

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Data Models
 Data Model: A set of concepts to describe the structure of a
database, and certain constraints that the database should obey.
 Data Model Operations: Operations for specifying database
retrievals and updates by referring to the concepts of the data
model. Operations on the data model may include basic
operations and user-defined operations.

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Categories of data models
 Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models: Provide
concepts that are close to the way many users perceive data.
(Also called entity-based or object-based data models.)
 Physical (low-level, internal) data models: Provide concepts that
describe details of how data is stored in the computer.
 Implementation (representational) data models: Provide
concepts that fall between the above two, balancing user views
with some computer storage details.

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History of Data Models
 Relational Model: proposed in 1970 by E.F. Codd (IBM), first commercial
system in 1981-82. Now in several commercial products (DB2, ORACLE,
SQL Server, SYBASE, INFORMIX).
 Network Model: the first one to be implemented by Honeywell in 1964-65
(IDS System). Adopted heavily due to the support by CODASYL
(CODASYL - DBTG report of 1971). Later implemented in a large variety of
systems - IDMS (Cullinet - now CA), DMS 1100 (Unisys), IMAGE (H.P.),
VAX -DBMS (Digital Equipment Corp.).
 Hierarchical Data Model: implemented in a joint effort by IBM and North
American Rockwell around 1965. Resulted in the IMS family of systems.
The most popular model. Other system based on this model: System 2k
(SAS inc.)

Chapter 2 8
History of Data Models
 Object-oriented Data Model(s): several models have been proposed for
implementing in a database system. One set comprises models of persistent
O-O Programming Languages such as C++ (e.g., in OBJECTSTORE or
VERSANT), and Smalltalk (e.g., in GEMSTONE). Additionally, systems like
O2, ORION (at MCC - then ITASCA), IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB).
 Object-Relational Models: Most Recent Trend. Started with Informix
Universal Server. Exemplified in the latest versions of Oracle-10i, DB2, and
SQL Server etc. systems.

Chapter 2 9
Hierarchical Model
• ADVANTAGES:
• Hierarchical Model is simple to construct and operate on
• Corresponds to a number of natural hierarchically organized domains -
e.g., assemblies in manufacturing, personnel organization in companies
• Language is simple; uses constructs like GET, GET UNIQUE, GET NEXT,
GET NEXT WITHIN PARENT etc.
• DISADVANTAGES:
• Navigational and procedural nature of processing
• Database is visualized as a linear arrangement of records
• Little scope for "query optimization"

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 Network Model
• ADVANTAGES:
• Network Model is able to model complex relationships and represents
semantics of add/delete on the relationships.
• Can handle most situations for modeling using record types and
relationship types.
• Language is navigational; uses constructs like FIND, FIND member, FIND
owner, FIND NEXT within set, GET etc. Programmers can do optimal
navigation through the database.
• DISADVANTAGES:
• Navigational and procedural nature of processing
• Database contains a complex array of pointers that thread through a set of
records.
• Little scope for automated "query optimization”
Chapter 2 11
Schemas versus Instances
• Database Schema: The description of a database. Includes
descriptions of the database structure and the constraints that
should hold on the database.
• Schema Diagram: A diagrammatic display of (some aspects of) a
database schema.
• Schema Construct: A component of the schema or an object
within the schema, e.g., STUDENT, COURSE.
• Database Instance: The actual data stored in a database at a
particular moment in time. Also called database state (or
occurrence).

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Chapter 2 13
Database Schema Vs. Database State
• Database State: Refers to the content of a database at a moment
in time.
• Initial Database State: Refers to the database when it is loaded
• Valid State: A state that satisfies the structure and constraints of
the database.
• Distinction
• The database schema changes very infrequently. The database state
changes every time the database is updated.
• Schema is also called intension, whereas state is called extension.

Chapter 2 14
Three-Schema Architecture
• Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:
• Program-data independence.
• Support of multiple views of the data.

Chapter 2 15
Three-Schema Architecture
• Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
• Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical storage
structures and access paths. Typically uses a physical data model.
• Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the structure and
constraints for the whole database for a community of users. Uses a
conceptual or an implementation data model.
• External schemas at the external level to describe the various user
views. Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual level.

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Chapter 2 17
Three-Schema Architecture
Mappings among schema levels are needed to transform
requests and data. Programs refer to an external schema,
and are mapped by the DBMS to the internal schema for
execution.

Chapter 2 19
Data Independence
 defined as the capacity to change the schema at one level
of a database system without having to change the
schema at the next higher level.

Chapter 2 20
Two Types of Data Independence
• Logical Data Independence: The capacity to change the
conceptual schema without having to change the external
schemas and their application programs.
• Physical Data Independence: The capacity to change
the internal schema without having to change the
conceptual schema.

Chapter 2 21
Data Independence
When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the
mappings between this schema and higher-level
schemas need to be changed in a DBMS that fully
supports data independence. The higher-level schemas
themselves are unchanged. Hence, the application
programs need not be changed since they refer to the
external schemas.

Chapter 2 22
DBMS Languages
• Data Definition Language (DDL): Used by the DBA and
database designers to specify the conceptual schema of a
database. In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define
internal and external schemas (views). In some DBMSs, separate
storage definition language (SDL) and view definition
language (VDL) are used to define internal and external
schemas.

Chapter 2 23
DBMS Languages
• Data Manipulation Language (DML): Used to specify
database retrievals and updates.
• DML commands (data sublanguage) can be embedded in a
general-purpose programming language (host language),
such as COBOL, C or an Assembly Language.
• Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be applied
directly (query language).

Chapter 2 24
DBMS Languages
Two main types of DMLs:
• High Level or Non-procedural Languages: e.g., SQL,
are set-oriented and specify what data to retrieve than
how to retrieve. Also called declarative languages.
• Low Level or Procedural Languages: record-at-a-time;
they specify how to retrieve data and include constructs
such as looping.

Chapter 2 25
DBMS Interfaces
• User-friendly interfaces:
• Menu-based
• These interfaces present the user with lists of options (called menus)that lead the
user through the formulation of a request.
• Menus do away with the need to memorize the specific commands and syntax of a
query language; rather, the query is composed step-by step by picking options from a
menu that is displayed by the system.
• Pull-down menus are a very popular technique in Web-based user interfaces.
• They are also often used in browsing interfaces, which allow a user to look through
the contents of a database in an exploratory and unstructured manner.

Chapter 2 27
DBMS Interfaces
• User-friendly interfaces:
• Forms-based
• It displays a form to each user
• Users can fill out all of the form entries to insert new data, or they can fill out only
certain entries, in which case the DBMS will retrieve matching data for the remaining
entries.
• Forms are usually designed and programmed for naive users as interfaces to canned
transactions.
• Many DBMSs have forms specification languages, which are special languages that
help programmers specify such forms.
• SQL*Forms is a form-based language that specifies queries using a form designed in conjunction
with the relational database schema.
• Oracle Forms is a component of the Oracle product suite that provides an extensive set of features to
design and build applications using forms.

Chapter 2 28
DBMS Interfaces
• User-friendly interfaces:
• Graphics-based (Point and Click, Drag and Drop etc.) or GUI
• A GUI (Graphical User Interface) typically displays a schema to the user in
diagrammatic form.
• The user then can specify a query by manipulating the diagram. In many cases, GUIs
utilize both menus and forms.
• Most GUIs use a pointing device, such as a mouse, to select certain parts of the
displayed schema diagram

Chapter 2 29
DBMS Interfaces
• User-friendly interfaces:
• Natural language interfaces
• It accept requests written in English or some other language and attempt to
understand them
• Usually has its own schema, which is similar to the database conceptual schema, as
well as a dictionary of important words.
• It refers to the words in its schema, as well as to the set of standard words in its
dictionary, to interpret the request.

Chapter 2 30
Other DBMS Interfaces
• Speech as Input (?) and Output
• Web Browser as an interface
• Parametric interfaces (e.g., bank tellers) using function keys.
• Interfaces for the DBA:
• Creating accounts, granting authorizations
• Setting system parameters
• Changing schemas or access path

Chapter 2 31
Database System Utilities
• To perform certain functions such as:
• Loading
• used to load existing data files—such as text files or sequential files—
into the database
• data stored in files into a database.
• Includes data conversion tools
• transform data into the relational model

Chapter 2 32
Database System Utilities
• To perform certain functions such as:
• Backing up
• creates a backup copy of the database, usually by dumping the entire
database onto tape or other mass storage medium.
• The backup copy can be used to restore the database in case of
catastrophic disk failure.
• Incremental backups are also often used, where only changes since
the previous backup are recorded.
• Incremental backup is more complex, but saves storage space.

Chapter 2 33
Database System Utilities
• To perform certain functions such as:
• Reorganizing database file structures.
• can be used to reorganize a set of database files into different file
organizations, and create new access paths to improve performance.
• Performance monitoring utilities.
• monitors database usage and provides statistics to the DBA.
• The DBA uses the statistics in making decisions such as whether or not
to reorganize files or whether to add or drop indexes
• to improve performance.
Chapter 2 34
Database System Utilities
• To perform certain functions such as:
• Other functions may be available for sorting files, handling data
compression, monitoring access by users, interfacing with the
network, etc.

Chapter 2 35
Other Tools
• Data dictionary / repository:
• Used to store schema descriptions and other information such as
design decisions, application program descriptions, user information,
usage standards, etc.
• Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS software and users/DBA.
• Passive data dictionary is accessed by users/DBA only.

Chapter 2 36
Chapter 2 37
Other Tools
• Data dictionary / repository:
• Application Development Environments and CASE
(computer-aided software engineering) tools:
• these systems provide an environment for developing database
applications and include facilities that help in many facets of database
systems, including database design, GUI development, querying and
updating, and application program development.
• Examples – PowerBuilder (Sybase), JBuilder (Borland)

Chapter 2 38
Chapter 2 39
Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
• Centralized DBMS: combines everything into single
system including- DBMS software, hardware, application
programs and user interface processing software.

Chapter 2 40
Chapter 2 41
Basic Client-Server Architectures
• The client/server architecture was developed to deal with
computing environments in which a large number of PCs,
workstations, file servers, printers, database servers, Web
servers, e-mail servers, and other software and
equipment are connected via a network.
• Specialized Servers with Specialized functions
• Clients
• DBMS Server

Chapter 2 42
Specialized Servers with Specialized functions:
• File Servers
• maintains the files of the client machines
• Printer Servers
• being connected to various printers; all print requests by the
clients are forwarded to this machine

Chapter 2 43
Specialized Servers with Specialized functions:
• Web Servers
• computers that deliver (serves up) Web pages.

• E-mail Servers
• computer system that sends and receives email. In many
cases, web servers and mail servers are combined in a single
machine.

Chapter 2 44
Clients:
• Provide appropriate interfaces and a client-version of the system
to access and utilize the server resources.
• Clients maybe diskless machines or PCs or Workstations with
disks with only the client software installed.
• Connected to the servers via some form of a network.
(LAN: local area network, wireless network, etc.)

Chapter 2 45
DBMS Server
• Provides database query and transaction services to the
clients
• Sometimes called query and transaction servers

Chapter 2 46
Chapter 2 47
Two Tier Client-Server Architecture
• User Interface Programs and Application Programs
run on the client side
• Interface called ODBC (Open Database Connectivity –
see Ch 9) provides an Application program interface (API)
allow client side programs to call the DBMS. Most DBMS
vendors provide ODBC drivers.

Chapter 2 48
Two Tier Client-Server Architecture
• A client program may connect to several DBMSs.
• Other variations of clients are possible: e.g., in some DBMSs,
more functionality is transferred to clients including data dictionary
functions, optimization and recovery across multiple servers, etc.
In such situations the server may be called the Data Server.

Chapter 2 49
Chapter 2 50
Three Tier Client-Server Architecture
• Common for Web applications
• Intermediate Layer called Application Server or Web Server:
• stores the web connectivity software and the rules and business logic
(constraints) part of the application used to access the right amount of
data from the database server
• acts like a conduit for sending partially processed data between the
database server and the client.
• Additional Features- Security:
• encrypt the data at the server before transmission
• decrypt data at the client

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Chapter 2 52
Chapter 2 53
Classification of DBMSs
• Based on the data model used:
• Traditional: Relational, Network, Hierarchical.
• Emerging: Object-oriented, Object-relational.
• Other classifications:
• Single-user (typically used with micro- computers) vs. multi-
user (most DBMSs).
• Centralized (uses a single computer with one database) vs.
distributed (uses multiple computers, multiple databases)

Chapter 2 54
Classification of DBMSs
Distributed Database Systems have now come to be
known as client server based database systems because
they do not support a totally distributed environment, but
rather a set of database servers supporting a set of
clients.

Chapter 2 55
Variations of Distributed Environments:
• Homogeneous DDBMS
• Heterogeneous DDBMS
• Federated or Multidatabase Systems

Chapter 2 56