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 Overview of Complex Analysis and Applications

Edgardo V. Gerck∗
Pasadena City College

(Dated: February 11, 2019. Updated: June 4, 2019)

This work is an exploration of complex analysis as a tool for physics and engineering. It includes
an overview of the topics in four investigations, previously reported. Results begin and end in real
number theory, but have a path through the complex plane, which influences the result, but remains
hidden. The topics also include the Laplace equation, harmonic functions, subharmonic analysis,
the residue theorem, the Cauchy principle value, conformal mapping, and graphical rendering.

I. INTRODUCTION human-made. For example, every complex function is

also a solution of the Laplace equation, which further
As a tool for physics and engineering, complex analysis constrains using them. A solution to the Laplace
provides both a geometric view and an analytically rig- equation has the property that the average value over a
orous derivation [1–3]. Both can help better understand spherical surface is equal to the value at the center of
the topics, such as in using aerodynamics for wing the sphere (the harmonic function theorem, by Gauss).
design: Solutions have no local maxima or minima. Because the
Laplace equation is linear, the superposition of any two
solutions is also a solution [4].

II. APPLICATIONS TO PHYSICS AND

ENGINEERING

In applications to physics and engineering, complex

analysis provides different tools than one would expect,
with further details given in [7].

In engineering, such as electrical and mechanical,

it is a well-known method of finding the time function
by means of its integral transform:
FIG. 1. Calculated air flow in wing design.

This work finalizes a series of five explorations [4–7],

building a vademecum to researchers in physics and en-
gineering, introducing various topics of complex analysis.
√
As Edward Titchmarsh √ [8] observed, −1 is a much
simpler concept than 2, which is an irrational number.
√
There are certainly people that regard
√ 2 as something
perfectly obvious, but sneer at −1. This is because
they think they can visualize the former as something
in physical space, but not the latter. This investigation
aims to √ show the complement: √ one can not really
visualize 2, but one can visualize −1, and apply it in
physics and engineering. One could not do this in the FIG. 2. Example of integral transform. From [3], page 934.
real-line only, one will need the complex plane [1–3], as
shown here. Finding the inverse transform is studied [7] in terms of
the inverse Laplace transformation:
The complex numbers introduce constraints, how-
ever, on the data representation, that are extraneous, 1
Z γ+i∞
F (t) = est f (s) ds. (1)
2πi γ−i∞

∗ All correspondence should be directed to: In this inverse transform, one has rotated the line
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Edgardo Gerck of integration through 90◦ (by using ds = i du).
 2

The path has become an infinite vertical line in the As studied elsewhere, finding solutions of partial differ-
complex plane, the constant γ having been chosen so ential equations (PDE) by solving for the characteristics
that all the singularities of f (s) are on the left-hand side. is one of several general techniques. Here, one provides
a general motivation for physics applications. Other
Similar rotation, the Wick rotation [5], was first applications include visualization and geometric aspects
used by Gian Carlo Wick [9], and is an analytic contin- of physical, engineering, such as electronics and com-
uation of t > 0 into −it, sometimes into it, both leading munication theory, aeronautics, and spacecraft design
to t2 → −t2 . solutions, as studied in [4–7].

In physics, the Wick rotation is a method of find- Such is the case in quantum mechanics, where wave-
ing a solution to a mathematical problem in Minkowski functions describing particles are complex-valued
space from a solution to a related problem in Euclidean functions of real space and time variables. The set
space by means of a transformation that substitutes of all wave-functions for a given system is an infinite-
an imaginary-number variable for a real-number variable. dimensional complex Hilbert space [10].

Also explored in [5], one can use what we can call The Schrödinger equation, in quantum mechanics,
the “inverse Wick rotation” or “STA rotation”, such leads to the Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin (WKB) form:
as done in spacetime algebra and Cl(1, 3) [10]. It does
not involve the imaginary axis, like the Wick rotation, ψ = e−iS/~ . (2)
but a real-valued Clifford algebra. It is also an analytic
continuation, but of reals into real bivectors. for the solution of the complex parabolic PDE,

~2 2
 
∂ψ
The Laplace equation, investigated in [4], is used − ∇ + V ψ = −i~ . (3)
to describe the steady state distribution of heat in a 2m ∂t
body, or its electrical charge. It can also be used in The Schrödinger equation also leads to a real-valued
graphical rendering, to provide a “soap film surface” in Sturm-Liouville Eigenproblem, and the MVM solution,
image design – one treats the pixel values surrounding a which was treated in [12–15]. This is reflected in physics
region as heights of a closed loop of wire, figuring out applications as an efficient approach to bound state
the smooth shape of a soap film that would be bounded eigenproblems [16–23] in physics, which may also be
by that wire. applied in complex-valued situations [24], to be pursued.
It turns out that the complex-value of w(z) is not The Schrödinger Equation further leads to the Hamilton-
important in real-world applications, where real num- Jacobi equation of classical mechanics,
bers must be used. This is the case in quantum
mechanics, where wave-functions describing particles 1 2 ∂S
are complex-valued functions of real space and time (∇S) + V = , (4)
2m ∂t
variables. The set of all wave-functions for a given sys-
tem is an infinite-dimensional complex Hilbert space [11]. in the limit ~ → 0. The classical action S obeys the
Hamilton-Jacobi equation, which is the classical analog
The superposition of waves, with applications to of the Schrödinger equation [3].
physics, quantum mechanics, and engineering was
studied in [7]. A time-dependent electrical pulse (or Substituting ∇ψ = iψ∇S/~, ∂ψ ∂t = iψ ∂S/∂t
~ into
a quantum shape) may be regarded as built-up as the Schrödinger equation, dropping the overall nonva-
a superposition of plane waves of many frequencies, nishing factor ψ, and taking the limit of the resulting
as illustrated below. The change in amplitude (beat equation as ~ → 0, one indeed obtains Eq. (63).
frequency) of the bottom wave is created by the change
in frequency of the top plane waves.

FIG. 4. Diagram of the mapping of f (z) = z 2

FIG. 3. Example of superposition of waves, where the bottom
wave is the superposition of the two top ones. In some applications, as studied in [4], the angles
 3

between intersecting curves must be locally preserved, III. A GATEWAY TO GEOMETRY

although the curves may be distorted globally [2]. This
is called conformal mapping and is shown above, for the Further investigated in [4], one can build a graphical
function f (z) = z 2 . basis for applications in physics and engineering.

As an example of conformal mapping, in wing de- The graphical basis [4] begins with the Laplace
sign in aerodynamics, one can transform a circle into the equation and harmonic functions. It follows with
wing. By using the Joukowski transformation, conformal conformal mapping, and the geometric justification of
mapping allows a useful representation in aerodynamics, the surprising result that the product of two negative
as shown in [4]: real numbers is a positive real number. All themes
are connected in the interplay between geometry and
algebra, common to complex analysis.

In the generic, complex-valued

√ function w(z), where
z = x + iy and i = −1, if the functions u(x, y) and
v(x, y) are its real and imaginary parts, respectively,
and assuming that the required derivatives exist, i.e,
they are all analytic functions [25], Arfken [3] shows that
∇2 u = ∇2 v = 0, called the Laplace equation.

Finding solutions of partial differential equations

(PDE) by solving for the characteristics is one of several
general techniques [4], where geometry can be applied,
and also algebra [7], using complex analysis.

IV. ANALYTIC CONTINUATION

FIG. 5. Example of conformal mapping
Further explored in [5], the analytic continuation of
complex-valued functions offers many options to extend
Also in real-valued mathematics, applications of com- a function beyond its original domain [1–3]:
plex analysis are important. The calculus of residues
[6] provides a very efficient tool for the evaluation of
definite integrals, and is particularly important when it
is impossible to find the indefinite integral explicitly, but
even if the ordinary methods of calculus can be applied
the use of residues is frequently a labor-saving device.

The fact that the calculus of residues yields com-

plex rather than real integrals is no disadvantage, for
clearly the evaluation of a complex integral is equivalent
to the evaluation of two definite integrals [2, 6].

There are, however, some limitations, studied in

[7]. This is not very serious, for usually one is only FIG. 6. First and second sequences of analytic continuation.
required to integrate elementary functions, and they can From Stewart [1] (page 264, figure 14.7).
all be extended to the complex domain.
This leads also to an algebraic concept of analytic
As explored in [4], one could also view negative function, broader than the geometric view, depicted
numbers just as 180 degree rotation of a positive num- above.
ber, rather than a debt. This uses complex numbers in
polar form, A · eiθ , which are then observed as a better The most common application studied is usually to
representation of the natural numbers. continue a complex-valued function, near or around a
point, by a power series [3].
Other applications include visualization and geometric
aspects of physical, engineering, such as electronics However, the uniqueness of analytic continuation is
and communication theory, aeronautics, and spacecraft a rather amazing and extremely powerful statement,
design solutions. These topics are further pursued in [7]. studied in [5].
 4

finite-order, isolated poles and zeros and no essential

In effect, knowing the value of a complex function singularities in its domain.
in some finite complex domain, will uniquely determine
the value of the function at every other point [1]. All The Residue Theorem (RT) is about the contour
elementary functions can be extended to the complex integral of a meromorphic function with finitely many
plane. Such definitions agree with the real definitions on poles in its domain and no poles on the contour [1, 26].
the x-axis and constitute an analytic continuation. The Cauchy’s theorem can be regarded as a special case
of the Residue Theorem [26].
Removable singularities are not really singularities
at all, according to this definition. Other singularities, Thus, as investigated in [6], to evaluate an inte-
such as poles and isolated essential singularities, remain. gral, one has to take three steps: find a suitable
meromorphic function, choose an appropriate contour,
For example [5], with √Σz n! , every point with |z| ≥ 1 and then calculate the residues. The third step is often
is a singularity. For z and log(z), one encountered direct. Just the second step is more tricky.
a new type of singularity, known as a branch-point,
where analytic continuation√around such a point leads
to changes in value. For z, there is even a natural VI. NEW TRENDS
definition of f (z) at the branch-point, namely 0, yet
f (z) is not analytic there.
In number theory, the complex numbers seem to follow
The ‘rigidity’ of analytic functions means that they are the real numbers. In computer science, one has the
essentially determined by the position and nature of type ‘complex’ following the type ‘real’. Therefore, one
their singularities. Avoiding them is an essential part might have the impression that complex numbers would,
of physics and engineering, and analytic continuation somehow, follow the definition of real numbers, and be
provides different paths and techniques to represent necessary for computations in engineering and in physics.
functions in a region of physical validity, with no
infinities [7]. However, all numbers that result from a physical
measurement must be integers, and can, at most,
be represented as a ratio of two integers, or a ra-
tional. No physical measurement can result in an
V. RESIDUE THEOREM
infinite number, in amount or in extension. The use
of reals in physics is due to their nice properties, such
The Residue Theorem (RT), lies within the analytic as limits in open sets, infinite series, and approximations.
continuation of complex-valued functions [1–3, 5, 26],
and is studied in [6]: Likewise, there are no complex numbers in nature,
being only a representation of the human mind. There-
fore, as done in real numbers, one would be justified in
stopping at the ratio of integers, as rationals. Ed Gerck
[27] proposes this view, that there is no situation where
a complex number is necessary in a physical quantity,
by definition – a physics value (such as time) must be
measurable, but complex numbers are not measurable
Time cannot be imaginary, or complex, either.

Complex numbers can be very helpful though, as

FIG. 7. Examples of loops considered in this work. From in Minkowski SR [28, 29], but are neither necessary nor
Stewart [1] (page 213, figure 12.1). truthful to the physics. It is just a bookkeeping model,
it has no ontology. It is arbitrary. One may not use it to
The most common applications of the RT include represent actual situations.
meromorphic functions, Cauchy’s theorem, and the
inverse Laplace transform. What has ontology, by definition, is the 4D model
in [28, 29], as one may find in situations using ten-
The RT is formulated in terms of meromorphic func- sors. One should not confuse complex numbers with
tions, in [6]. A meromorphic function is a single-valued a 4D model of spacetime, when encoding 4D in sim-
function that is analytic in all but possibly a discrete ple complex numbers for time, without tensors. For
subset of its domain, and at those singularities it must example, using Clifford Algebra, Cl(3,1) encodes 3D +
go to infinity like a polynomial (i.e., these exceptional 1D in multivectors, using reals [29], but keeps space
points must be poles and not essential singularities) apart from time, and is therefore useful but not covariant.
[1]. A meromorphic function therefore may only have
 5

Tensors are covariant because if we write A = A FIG. 8. Contours in the complex plane, avoiding real-valued
in any coordinate system X using tensors, still A = A singularities in −σ and σ. From [7].
in any system with constant velocity relative to X. The
principle here is physical – stated first by Einstein, with The naive view is that the merit of complex analysis
Galileo applying approximately, to low speeds. is that many books and papers have been written
about it, and that it is a difficult subject – that only
In a similar way, one should not confuse a com- mathematicians may find very interesting.
plex reactance in electronic circuits with a single circuit
element, such as a capacitor. The fault of complex analysis, then, it seems, is
that no real-world variable is ever complex – so why
A capacitor can be represented also without any study it in physics and engineering, one may ask. In
complex numbers, exists, is physical, it is a well-known short, complex analysis may be viewed as “too wild” to
physical fact. have sensible applications outside pure mathematics.

Further, the use of a complex reactance brings the With the examples provided in [4–7], these topics
association of circuit elements to a ready calculation have turned out to be important in the study of real
in lower frequency, simple algebra. However, it cannot analysis, engineering, quantum theory, electromag-
represent that same circuit element, in higher or optical netism, aerodynamics, and occupy more and more space
frequencies. in physics and engineering, in general, as well as diverse
topics such as biology and rendering.

This investigation shows that complex numbers

are, indeed, a quantity that one does not see in the
real-world, but the applications simplify or illuminate
VII. CONCLUSION the real-world paths.

From understanding why the product of two nega-

Physical possibility must come from Nature tive numbers is a positive number [4], to quantum
(the physics-defined independent channel), as an mechanics [7], there are many given examples in
empirically-defined world, which can be at odds with a [4–7] where complex analysis allows us to calculate,
mathematically-defined world [27]. or even understand intuitively, how the real-world works.

It is not that the complex number has some real Complex analysis comes “alive” in these pages through
existence, but that hidden path allows us to consider some of the real-world applications. It also means that
singularities easily in a finite way, like the Residue complex analysis can provide insights that may be useful
Theorem does. Someone, not wishing to use complex in the future, and should be pursued today as a “hidden
numbers, can do the same thing – without trusting the tool-box”, when one studies nature, such as in [30].
Residue Theorem. It is not necessary to use complex
numbers in physics or engineering, and all measurements In physics, being able to visualize and explain re-
of physical facts are real numbers (actually, rational), sults, with diagrams at least, is very important. In
but they can greatly simplify the calculations. mathematics, also in complex analysis, not so im-
portant. What one sees in this investigation, as one
This work explores the applications of complex analysis may come from mathematics to physics, being able to
in physics and engineering. Finding different paths experimentally “troubleshoot” has becomes less usual in
is important, for example, to correctly account for physics, nonetheless being important. For example, the
singularities in real-valued functions: electron must follow Einstein’s Special Relativity, which
introduces non-Euclidean coordinates [31], beyond the
reach even of complex analysis, where tensors can be
introduced [32].

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The author is indebted

to Dr. Ed Gerck, Prof. Mark Pavitch of Pasadena City
College, and three anonymous reviewers. ResearchGate
discussions were used for “live” feedback. Several other
groups and researchers in ResearchGate are being used
for this purpose, enriching the discussion.
 6

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