Reviewer: General Biology I –1st Quarter

Intro to Biology
• Biology (Greek or Latin origin)
• Bios = life Logos = study of
• Biology is one of the sciences takes us:
• Into a variety of environments to investigate ecosystems
• To the laboratory to examine how organisms work
• Into the microscopic world to explore cells and the submicroscopic to explore molecules in
cells
• Back in time to investigate the history of life.
Why Study Biology?
• Biology is relevant to our everyday experience
• Medical advances
• Addressing needs of growing human population
• Challenges of decreasing rate of biodiversity
• Biotechnology advances
Living organisms:
– Grow.
– Maintain constant internal environment.
– Produce offspring.
– Respond to environmental changes.
– May evolve.
Major Themes in Biology
• Evolution by Natural Selection
• Inheritance
• Cells
• Biological Classification
• Bioenergetics
• Homeostasis
• Ecosystems
Cell Theory

• Robert Hooke, discovered cells while looking at a thin slice of cork. He described the cells as tiny
boxes or a honeycomb. He thought that cells only existed in plants and fungi.

• Anton van Leeuwenhoek. Used a handmade microscope to observe pond scum & discovered
single-celled organisms. He called them “animalcules”

• Between the Hooke/Leeuwenhoek discoveries and the mid 19th century, very little cell
advancements were made.

• This is probably due to the widely accepted, traditional belief in Spontaneous Generation.

• Examples: Mice from dirty clothes/corn husks; maggots from rotting meat

• Matthias Schleiden, concluded that all plant parts are made of cells.

• Theodor Schwann, who was a close friend of Schleiden, stated that all animal tissues are
composed of cells.

• Rudolf Virchow, German physician, after extensive study of cellular pathology, concluded that
cells must arise from preexisting cells.

The 3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory were now complete:

1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. (Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-39)

2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things. (Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-39)

3. All cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells. (Virchow)(1858)

Cells

• Smallest living unit

• Most are microscopic

Characteristics of All Cells

• A surrounding membrane

• Protoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid

• Structures for cell function

 • Control center with DNA

Organelles

• Little organs that carry out specialized functions

• Cellular machinery

Plasma membrane

• Separates the cytoplasm from the cell’s surroundings. The cell’s surface also transport substances
into and out of the cell.

• Double layer of phospholipids & proteins

• Phospholipids - class of lipids that are a major component of all cell membranes.
Hydrophilic head. Hydrophobic tail

Cell wall

• This outer covering is positioned next to the cell membrane (plasma membrane) in most plant
cells, fungi, bacteria, algae,.

Cytoplasm

• Viscous fluid containing organelles

• Interconnected filaments & fibers

Cytoskeleton

• These structures give the cell its shape and help organize the cell's parts. In addition, they provide
a basis for movement and cell division.

• Filaments & fibers

• Made of 3 fiber types

• Microfilaments - thinnest component of cytoskeleton, it is composed of the protein actin.

Muscle contraction relies on actin filaments and another protein myosin.

• Microtubules - composed of protein called tubulin - Microtubules are involved in nucleic

and cell division, organization of intracellular structure, and intracellular transport, as well as
ciliary and flagellar motility.

• Intermediate filaments - maintain cell shape and help bind some cells together

Cilia and Flagella

• Provide motility

• Cilia

– Short

– Used to move substances outside human cells

• Flagella

– Whip-like extensions

– Found on sperm cells

Centrioles

• Pairs of microtubular structures

• Play a role in cell division

Nucleus

• Control center of cell

• Contains

– Chromosomes

– Nucleolus

Nuclear envelope

• Separates nucleus from rest of cell

 • Has pores

Nucleolus

• Contained within the nucleus is a dense structure composed of RNA and proteins

• Forms ribosomes

Endoplasmic reticulum

• Helps move substances within cells

• Network of interconnected membranes

• Two types

– Rough endoplasmic reticulum

• Ribosomes attached to surface

• Manufacture proteins

– Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

• Has enzymes that help build molecules

• Carbohydrates

• Lipids

Ribosomes

• make proteins (made up of RNA and protein); thought of as “factories”

• factory for protein synthesis in cells

Golgi apparatus

• Sorts proteins made by the ribosomes and sends them to needed places in the cell

• Packaging & shipping station of cell

Lysosomes

• organelles that are filled with digestive enzymes to remove waste and invading bacteria

Vacuoles

• fluid filled organelles enclosed by a membrane

– Store materials such as food, sugar, water, and waste products

• More common in plants than animals

Mitochondria

• often referred to as the “powerhouse” of the cell

– release energy for the cell

– It converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP for the cell

Chloroplast

• captures light and energy; and converts it into chemical energy.

• Solar energy capturing organelle

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cell

1. Has a nucleus with a nuclear envelope

2. Bigger and more complex than prokaryotes

3. Have membrane bound Organelles (golgi, ER, lysosomes…etc)

4. DNA – double-stranded and forms chromosomes (highly organized)

5. Can be uni- OR multicellular organisms

6. Ex: animals, plants, fungi

Prokaryotic cell

1. NO nucleus

2. NO membrane bound organelles (just ribosomes)

3. ALL are unicellular

4. Smaller than eukaryotic cells

5. Forerunner to eukaryotic cells (smaller and more simple)

6. DNA – single strand and circular

7. Ex: ALL Bacteria

Tissues

• Tissue is a group of cells having similar structure and function.

• Plant and Animal Tissues

Four types of Animal Tissues

1. Epithelial

2. Connective

3. Muscle

4. Nervous

Epithelial tissue

1. Simple cuboidal

2. Simple columnar

3. Simple squamous

4. Stratified squamous

5. Stratified cuboidal

6. Stratified columnar

7. pseudo-stratified columnar

• Covers the outside of the body and lines the internal organs and cavities
• Barrier against mechanical injury, invasive microorganisms, and fluid loss
• Provides surface for absorption, excretion and transport of molecules

Classification of Epithelium

• Number of cell layers

– Simple – one layer

– Stratified – more than one layer

• Shape of cells

– Squamous – flattened

– Cuboidal – cube-shaped

– Columnar – column-like

Connective tissue

1. Blood

2. Bone

3. Cartilage

4. Connective tissue proper

• Connective tissue connects and joins the different parts of the body together. The cells of the
connective tissue are loosely packed and the space between the cells are filled with a jelly like
matrix. (extracellular matrix)
Muscle Tissue

1. Skeletal

2. Cardiac

3. Smooth

Plant Tissues

1. Meristematic

2. Permanent

• Meristematic Tissue

1. Apical

2. Intercalary

3. lateral

• Meristematic Tissue

• Meristematic tissues are found in the growing regions of the plant like the tips of root, stem and
branches. They divide continuously and help in the growth of the plant. They are of three types.

• Permanent Tissue

• Permanent tissues are formed from meristematic tissues. They do not divide and have permanent
shape and size. They differentiate into different types of permanent tissues. Permanent tissues are
of two main types. They are Simple permanent tissues and Complex permanent tissues.

Cell Modifications and Adaptations

• Specialized cellular modifications are alterations in cells that distinguish them from one another.

• Cellular modifications are commonly found in eukaryotic cells, where there is a need for cell
specialization.

• Microvilli

o Greek word mikros, ''small,'' Latin term villus, ''hair.‘’

o folds of the cell membrane that extend outward from the surface of certain cells

o specialized for absorption, such as the digestive tract or kidneys

o increase the surface area of the cell membrane, thus allowing for more materials to be
absorbed into the cell at a quicker rate

• Cilia

o Latin word for ''eyelashes.‘’

o tiny hairs on the surface of certain cells.

o move in a rhythmic, sweeping motion and serve to move particles or cells in your body

o cilia lining in respiratory tract

o Tracheal cells

o Beat and drive air impurities or foreign particles and mucus up the trachea to the mouth

• Flagella

o whip-like structure that allows a cell to move

o sperm cells

▪ plenty of mitochondria

• Root hairs

o found at the root tips

o increase the surface area of a root

o absorb most of their water and nutrients

 • Red blood cells

o biconcave disc shape

o lose their nucleus

o increases the surface for gas exchange

Cell Division

Interphase and Mitosis

G1 Phase (First Gap)

• Cell grows and more organelles are produced.

• Increasing the volume of the cytoplasm
S Phase

• DNA replication can proceed through the mechanisms that result in the formation of identical
pairs of DNA molecules—sister chromatids—that are firmly attached to the centromeric region.
• The centrosome is duplicated during the S phase.
G2 Phase (Second Gap)
• cell replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes proteins necessary for chromosome manipulation
G0 Phase
• cells in G0 phase are not actively preparing to divide. The cell is in a quiescent (inactive) stage
that occurs when cells exit the cell cycle. Some cells enter G0 temporarily until an external signal
triggers the onset of G1.

The G1Checkpoint
• it determines whether all conditions are favorable for cell division to proceed.
cell irreversibly commits to the cell division process.

The G2 Checkpoint
• cell size and protein reserves are assessed
• ensure that all of the chromosomes have been replicated and that the replicated DNA is not
damaged
The M Checkpoint
• occurs near the end of the metaphase stage of karyokinesis. The M checkpoint is also
known as the spindle checkpoint, because it determines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly
attached to the spindle microtubules.
Meiosis

Meiosis I
Meiosis is preceded by an interphase consisting of the G1, S, and G2phases, which are nearly identical to
the phases preceding mitosis.

Prophase I
5 Substages
1. Leptonema – chromosome become visible and sister chromatids are distinct
2. Zygonema – synapsis between homologous chromosomes
3. Pachynema – crossing over of genetic information
4. Diplonema - homologous chromosomes begin to migrate apart
5. Diakinesis – chiasmata and bivalent tetrads can be seen more clearly

•Crossover occurs between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. The result is an

exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. •
• synaptonemal complex a lattice of proteins between the homologous chromosomes, first forms at
specific locations and then spreads to cover the entire length of the chromosomes
• tight pairing of the homologous chromosomes is called synapsis

Prometaphase I

• The key event in prometaphase I is the attachment of the spindle fiber microtubules to the
kinetochore proteins at the centromeres.
Metaphase I
• During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are arranged in the center of the cell with the
kinetochores facing opposite poles.
Anaphase I
• In anaphase I, the microtubules pull the linked chromosomes apart. The sister chromatids remain
tightly bound together at the centromere. The chiasmata are broken in anaphase I as the
microtubules attached to the fused kinetochores pull the homologous chromosomes apart
Telophase I and Cytokinesis
• In telophase, the separated chromosomes arrive at opposite poles. Cytokinesis—the physical
separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells—occurs without reformation of
the nuclei.

Meiosis II
Prophase II
• If the chromosomes decondensed in telophase I, they condense again. If nuclear envelopes were
formed, they fragment into vesicles. The centrosomes that were duplicated during interkinesis
move away from each other toward opposite poles, and new spindles are formed.
Prometaphase II
• The nuclear envelopes are completely broken down, and the spindle is fully formed. Each sister
chromatid forms an individual kinetochore that attaches to microtubules from opposite poles.
Metaphase II
• The sister chromatids are maximally condensed and aligned at the equator of the cell.
Anaphase II
• The sister chromatids are pulled apart by the kinetochore microtubules and move toward
opposite poles. Non-kinetochore microtubules elongate the cell.
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
• The chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to decondense. Nuclear envelopes form
around the chromosomes. Cytokinesis separates the two cells into four unique haploid cells
 2 Diploid cells
4 Haploid cells

Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

• Most animals and plants are diploid, containing 2 sets of chromosomes.

• Meiosis occurs in germ cells while mitosis occurs in somatic cells.
• The result of mitosis is 46 chromosomes while meiosis produce 23 chromosomes.
• There is a single nuclear division in mitosis while there are two nuclear divisions in meiosis.

Errors in Meiosis

Patau Syndrome – Trisomy 13

Edward’s Syndrome – Trisomy 18

Down Syndrome – Trisomy 21

Klinefelter’s Syndrome – XXY

Turner’s Syndrome – X0

Structure and Components of Plasma Membrane

Fluid Mosaic Model

Major Components of Plasma Membrane

1. Phospholipids – main fabric

• The main fabric of the membrane is composed of amphiphilic, phospholipid molecules. The
hydrophilic or “water-loving” areas of these molecules (which look like a collection of balls
in an artist’s rendition of the model) are in contact with the aqueous fluid both inside and
outside the cell. Hydrophobic, or water-hating molecules, tend to be non-polar.
2. Cholesterol – membrane fluidity
• Cholesterol decreases fluidity at high temperatures and increases fluidity at low
temperatures.
3. Proteins – transport
• make up the second major component of plasma membranes.
• Integral proteins are, as their name suggests, integrated completely into the membrane
structure, and their hydrophobic membrane-spanning regions interact with the
hydrophobic region of the phospholipid bilayer
• Peripheral proteins are found on the exterior and interior surfaces of membranes, attached
either to integral proteins or to phospholipids. Peripheral proteins, along with integral
proteins, may serve as enzymes, as structural attachments for the fibers of the cytoskeleton,
or as part of the cell’s recognitionsites.
4. Carbohydrates - communication
• They are always found on the exterior surface of cells and are bound either to proteins
(forming glycoproteins) or to lipids (forming glycolipids).

Transport Mechanisms

1. Passive Transport - naturally occurring phenomenon and does not require the cell to exert any of
its energy to accomplish the movement.
• Diffusion - A single substance tends to move from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration until the concentration is equal across a space.
• Facilitated transport also called facilitated diffusion, materials diffuse across the plasma
membrane with the help of membrane proteins.
• Osmosis is the movement of water through a semipermeable membrane according to the
concentration gradient of water across the membrane, which is inversely proportional to
the concentration of solutes.
2. Active Transport - mechanisms require the use of the cell’s energy, usually in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
3. Bulk Transport - In addition to moving small ions and molecules through the membrane, cells also
need to remove and take in larger molecules and particles
• Endocytosis - type of active transport that moves particles, such as large molecules, parts of
cells, and even whole cells, into a cell.
o Phagocytosis (“cell eating”)the process by which large particles, such as cells or
relatively large particles, are taken in by a cell. For example, when microorganisms
invade the human body, a type of white blood cell called a neutrophil will remove the
invaders through this process, surrounding and engulfing the microorganism, which is
then destroyed by the neutrophil.
o Pinocytosis - variation of endocytosis which literally means “cell drinking” and was
named at a time when the assumption was that the cell was purposefully taking in
extracellular fluid.
• Exocytosis - t its purpose is to expel material from the cell into the extracellular fluid. Waste
material is enveloped in a membrane and fuses with the interior of the plasma membrane.