Command Prompt commands

Finding the IP address

IPCONFIG

Find out Computer name by IP Add

NBTSTAT -A <ipaddress>

Find out Computer name by IP Add

NBTSTAT -a <computername>

Driverquery - To know device drivers

driverquery
driverquery –v : To display signature information for the drivers
driverquery –si : To display signature information for the drivers

Verify that DNS name

nslookup dc1.contoso.com

pathping (Advanced PING)

pathping 192.168.1.1

Ipconfig - The ipconfig command is used to view or modify a computer's IP addresses

ipconfig

Tasklist
tasklist
tasklist -m
tasklist -svc

Taskkill
Taskkill command with -pid (process ID) or -im (image name) and the name or process ID of the task that
you want to terminate
taskkill -pid 4104
taskkill -im iexplore.exe
1. tar command examples

Create a new tar archive.

$ tar cvf archive_name.tar dirname/

Extract from an existing tar archive.

$ tar xvf archive_name.tar

View an existing tar archive.

$ tar tvf archive_name.tar

More tar examples: The Ultimate Tar Command Tutorial with 10 Practical Examples

2. grep command examples

Search for a given string in a file (case in-sensitive search).

$ grep -i "the" demo_file

Print the matched line, along with the 3 lines after it.

$ grep -A 3 -i "example" demo_text

Search for a given string in all files recursively

$ grep -r "ramesh" *

More grep examples: Get a Grip on the Grep! – 15 Practical Grep Command Examples

3. find command examples

Find files using file-name ( case in-sensitve find)

# find -iname "MyCProgram.c"

Execute commands on files found by the find command

$ find -iname "MyCProgram.c" -exec md5sum {} \;

Find all empty files in home directory

# find ~ -empty

More find examples: Mommy, I found it! — 15 Practical Linux Find Command Examples

4. ssh command examples

Login to remote host

ssh -l jsmith remotehost.example.com

Debug ssh client

ssh -v -l jsmith remotehost.example.com

Display ssh client version

$ ssh -V
OpenSSH_3.9p1, OpenSSL 0.9.7a Feb 19 2003

More ssh examples: 5 Basic Linux SSH Client Commands

5. sed command examples

When you copy a DOS file to Unix, you could find \r\n in the end of each line. This example converts the
DOS file format to Unix file format using sed command.

$sed 's/.$//' filename

Print file content in reverse order

$ sed -n '1!G;h;$p' thegeekstuff.txt

Add line number for all non-empty-lines in a file

$ sed '/./=' thegeekstuff.txt | sed 'N; s/\n/ /'

More sed examples: Advanced Sed Substitution Examples

6. awk command examples

Remove duplicate lines using awk

$ awk '!($0 in array) { array[$0]; print }' temp

Print all lines from /etc/passwd that has the same uid and gid

$awk -F ':' '$3==$4' passwd.txt

Print only specific field from a file.

$ awk '{print $2,$5;}' employee.txt

More awk examples: 8 Powerful Awk Built-in Variables – FS, OFS, RS, ORS, NR, NF, FILENAME, FNR

7. vim command examples

Go to the 143rd line of file

$ vim +143 filename.txt

Go to the first match of the specified

$ vim +/search-term filename.txt

Open the file in read only mode.

$ vim -R /etc/passwd

More vim examples: How To Record and Play in Vim Editor

8. diff command examples

Ignore white space while comparing.

# diff -w name_list.txt name_list_new.txt

2c2,3
< John Doe --- > John M Doe
> Jason Bourne

More diff examples: Top 4 File Difference Tools on UNIX / Linux – Diff, Colordiff, Wdiff, Vimdiff

9. sort command examples

Sort a file in ascending order

$ sort names.txt

Sort a file in descending order

$ sort -r names.txt

Sort passwd file by 3rd field.

$ sort -t: -k 3n /etc/passwd | more

10. export command examples

To view oracle related environment variables.

$ export | grep ORACLE

declare -x ORACLE_BASE="/u01/app/oracle"
declare -x ORACLE_HOME="/u01/app/oracle/product/10.2.0"
declare -x ORACLE_SID="med"
declare -x ORACLE_TERM="xterm"

To export an environment variable:

$ export ORACLE_HOME=/u01/app/oracle/product/10.2.0

11. xargs command examples

Copy all images to external hard-drive

# ls *.jpg | xargs -n1 -i cp {} /external-hard-drive/directory

Search all jpg images in the system and archive it.

# find / -name *.jpg -type f -print | xargs tar -cvzf images.tar.gz

Download all the URLs mentioned in the url-list.txt file

# cat url-list.txt | xargs wget –c

12. ls command examples

Display filesize in human readable format (e.g. KB, MB etc.,)

$ ls -lh
-rw-r----- 1 ramesh team-dev 8.9M Jun 12 15:27 arch-linux.txt.gz

Order Files Based on Last Modified Time (In Reverse Order) Using ls -ltr

$ ls -ltr

Visual Classification of Files With Special Characters Using ls -F

$ ls -F

More ls examples: Unix LS Command: 15 Practical Examples

13. pwd command

pwd is Print working directory. What else can be said about the good old pwd who has been printing the
current directory name for ages.

14. cd command examples

Use “cd -” to toggle between the last two directories

Use “shopt -s cdspell” to automatically correct mistyped directory names on cd

More cd examples: 6 Awesome Linux cd command Hacks

15. gzip command examples

To create a *.gz compressed file:

$ gzip test.txt

To uncompress a *.gz file:

$ gzip -d test.txt.gz

Display compression ratio of the compressed file using gzip -l

$ gzip -l *.gz
compressed uncompressed ratio uncompressed_name
23709 97975 75.8% asp-patch-rpms.txt

16. bzip2 command examples

To create a *.bz2 compressed file:

$ bzip2 test.txt

To uncompress a *.bz2 file:

bzip2 -d test.txt.bz2

More bzip2 examples: BZ is Eazy! bzip2, bzgrep, bzcmp, bzdiff, bzcat, bzless, bzmore examples

17. unzip command examples

To extract a *.zip compressed file:

$ unzip test.zip

View the contents of *.zip file (Without unzipping it):

$ unzip -l jasper.zip
Archive: jasper.zip
Length Date Time Name
-------- ---- ---- ----
40995 11-30-98 23:50 META-INF/MANIFEST.MF
32169 08-25-98 21:07 classes_
15964 08-25-98 21:07 classes_names
10542 08-25-98 21:07 classes_ncomp

18. shutdown command examples

Shutdown the system and turn the power off immediately.

# shutdown -h now

Shutdown the system after 10 minutes.

# shutdown -h +10

Reboot the system using shutdown command.

# shutdown -r now

Force the filesystem check during reboot.

# shutdown -Fr now

19. ftp command examples

Both ftp and secure ftp (sftp) has similar commands. To connect to a remote server and download
multiple files, do the following.

$ ftp IP/hostname
ftp> mget *.html

To view the file names located on the remote server before downloading, mls ftp command as shown
below.

ftp> mls *.html -

/ftptest/features.html
/ftptest/index.html
/ftptest/othertools.html
/ftptest/samplereport.html
/ftptest/usage.html

More ftp examples: FTP and SFTP Beginners Guide with 10 Examples

20. crontab command examples

View crontab entry for a specific user

# crontab -u john -l

Schedule a cron job every 10 minutes.

*/10 * * * * /home/ramesh/check-disk-space

More crontab examples: Linux Crontab: 15 Awesome Cron Job Examples

21. service command examples

Service command is used to run the system V init scripts. i.e Instead of calling the scripts located in the
/etc/init.d/ directory with their full path, you can use the service command.

Check the status of a service:

# service ssh status

Check the status of all the services.

service --status-all

Restart a service.

# service ssh restart

22. ps command examples

ps command is used to display information about the processes that are running in the system.

While there are lot of arguments that could be passed to a ps command, following are some of the
common ones.

To view current running processes.

$ ps -ef | more

To view current running processes in a tree structure. H option stands for process hierarchy.

$ ps -efH | more

23. free command examples

This command is used to display the free, used, swap memory available in the system.

Typical free command output. The output is displayed in bytes.

$ free
total used free shared buffers cached
Mem: 3566408 1580220 1986188 0 203988 902960
-/+ buffers/cache: 473272 3093136
Swap: 4000176 0 4000176

If you want to quickly check how many GB of RAM your system has use the -g option. -b option displays in
bytes, -k in kilo bytes, -m in mega bytes.

$ free -g
total used free shared buffers cached
Mem: 3 1 1 0 0 0
-/+ buffers/cache: 0 2
Swap: 3 0 3

If you want to see a total memory ( including the swap), use the -t switch, which will display a total line as
shown below.
ramesh@ramesh-laptop:~$ free -t
total used free shared buffers cached
Mem: 3566408 1592148 1974260 0 204260 912556
-/+ buffers/cache: 475332 3091076
Swap: 4000176 0 4000176
Total: 7566584 1592148 5974436

24. top command examples

top command displays the top processes in the system ( by default sorted by cpu usage ). To sort top
output by any column, Press O (upper-case O) , which will display all the possible columns that you can
sort by as shown below.

Current Sort Field: P for window 1:Def

Select sort field via field letter, type any other key to return

a: PID = Process Id v: nDRT = Dirty Pages count

d: UID = User Id y: WCHAN = Sleeping in Function
e: USER = User Name z: Flags = Task Flags
........

To displays only the processes that belong to a particular user use -u option. The following will show only
the top processes that belongs to oracle user.

$ top -u oracle

More top examples: Can You Top This? 15 Practical Linux Top Command Examples

25. df command examples

Displays the file system disk space usage. By default df -k displays output in bytes.

$ df -k
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Available Use% Mounted on
/dev/sda1 29530400 3233104 24797232 12% /
/dev/sda2 120367992 50171596 64082060 44% /home

df -h displays output in human readable form. i.e size will be displayed in GB’s.

ramesh@ramesh-laptop:~$ df -h
Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on
/dev/sda1 29G 3.1G 24G 12% /
/dev/sda2 115G 48G 62G 44% /home

Use -T option to display what type of file system.

ramesh@ramesh-laptop:~$ df -T
Filesystem Type 1K-blocks Used Available Use% Mounted on
/dev/sda1 ext4 29530400 3233120 24797216 12% /
/dev/sda2 ext4 120367992 50171596 64082060 44% /home

26. kill command examples

Use kill command to terminate a process. First get the process id using ps -ef command, then use kill -9 to
kill the running Linux process as shown below. You can also use killall, pkill, xkill to terminate a unix
process.

$ ps -ef | grep vim

ramesh 7243 7222 9 22:43 pts/2 00:00:00 vim
$ kill -9 7243

More kill examples: 4 Ways to Kill a Process – kill, killall, pkill, xkill

27. rm command examples

Get confirmation before removing the file.

$ rm -i filename.txt

It is very useful while giving shell metacharacters in the file name argument.

Print the filename and get confirmation before removing the file.

$ rm -i file*

Following example recursively removes all files and directories under the example directory. This also
removes the example directory itself.

$ rm -r example

28. cp command examples

Copy file1 to file2 preserving the mode, ownership and timestamp.

$ cp -p file1 file2

Copy file1 to file2. if file2 exists prompt for confirmation before overwritting it.

$ cp -i file1 file2

29. mv command examples

Rename file1 to file2. if file2 exists prompt for confirmation before overwritting it.

$ mv -i file1 file2

Note: mv -f is just the opposite, which will overwrite file2 without prompting.

mv -v will print what is happening during file rename, which is useful while specifying shell
metacharacters in the file name argument.

$ mv -v file1 file2

30. cat command examples

You can view multiple files at the same time. Following example prints the content of file1 followed by
file2 to stdout.

$ cat file1 file2

While displaying the file, following cat -n command will prepend the line number to each line of the
output.

$ cat -n /etc/logrotate.conf
1 /var/log/btmp {
2 missingok
3 monthly
 4 create 0660 root utmp
5 rotate 1
6 }

31. mount command examples

To mount a file system, you should first create a directory and mount it as shown below.

# mkdir /u01

# mount /dev/sdb1 /u01

You can also add this to the fstab for automatic mounting. i.e Anytime system is restarted, the filesystem
will be mounted.

/dev/sdb1 /u01 ext2 defaults 0 2

32. chmod command examples

chmod command is used to change the permissions for a file or directory.

Give full access to user and group (i.e read, write and execute ) on a specific file.

$ chmod ug+rwx file.txt

Revoke all access for the group (i.e read, write and execute ) on a specific file.

$ chmod g-rwx file.txt

Apply the file permissions recursively to all the files in the sub-directories.

$ chmod -R ug+rwx file.txt

More chmod examples: 7 Chmod Command Examples for Beginners

33. chown command examples

chown command is used to change the owner and group of a file. \

To change owner to oracle and group to db on a file. i.e Change both owner and group at the same time.

$ chown oracle:dba dbora.sh

Use -R to change the ownership recursively.

$ chown -R oracle:dba /home/oracle

34. passwd command examples

Change your password from command line using passwd. This will prompt for the old password followed
by the new password.

$ passwd

Super user can use passwd command to reset others password. This will not prompt for current
password of the user.

# passwd USERNAME
Remove password for a specific user. Root user can disable password for a specific user. Once the
password is disabled, the user can login without entering the password.

# passwd -d USERNAME

35. mkdir command examples

Following example creates a directory called temp under your home directory.

$ mkdir ~/temp

Create nested directories using one mkdir command. If any of these directories exist already, it will not
display any error. If any of these directories doesn’t exist, it will create them.

$ mkdir -p dir1/dir2/dir3/dir4/

36. ifconfig command examples

Use ifconfig command to view or configure a network interface on the Linux system.

View all the interfaces along with status.

$ ifconfig -a

Start or stop a specific interface using up and down command as shown below.

$ ifconfig eth0 up

$ ifconfig eth0 down

More ifconfig examples: Ifconfig: 7 Examples To Configure Network Interface

37. uname command examples

Uname command displays important information about the system such as — Kernel name, Host name,
Kernel release number,
Processor type, etc.,

Sample uname output from a Ubuntu laptop is shown below.

$ uname -a
Linux john-laptop 2.6.32-24-generic #41-Ubuntu SMP Thu Aug 19 01:12:52 UTC 2010 i686 GNU/Linux

38. whereis command examples

When you want to find out where a specific Unix command exists (for example, where does ls command
exists?), you can execute the following command.

$ whereis ls
ls: /bin/ls /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz /usr/share/man/man1p/ls.1p.gz

When you want to search an executable from a path other than the whereis default path, you can use -B
option and give path as argument to it. This searches for the executable lsmk in the /tmp directory, and
displays it, if it is available.

$ whereis -u -B /tmp -f lsmk

lsmk: /tmp/lsmk
39. whatis command examples

Whatis command displays a single line description about a command.

$ whatis ls
ls (1) - list directory contents

$ whatis ifconfig
ifconfig (8) - configure a network interface

40. locate command examples

Using locate command you can quickly search for the location of a specific file (or group of files). Locate
command uses the database created by updatedb.

The example below shows all files in the system that contains the word crontab in it.

$ locate crontab
/etc/anacrontab
/etc/crontab
/usr/bin/crontab
/usr/share/doc/cron/examples/crontab2english.pl.gz
/usr/share/man/man1/crontab.1.gz
/usr/share/man/man5/anacrontab.5.gz
/usr/share/man/man5/crontab.5.gz
/usr/share/vim/vim72/syntax/crontab.vim

41. man command examples

Display the man page of a specific command.

$ man crontab

When a man page for a command is located under more than one section, you can view the man page for
that command from a specific section as shown below.

$ man SECTION-NUMBER commandname

Following 8 sections are available in the man page.

1. General commands
2. System calls
3. C library functions
4. Special files (usually devices, those found in /dev) and drivers
5. File formats and conventions
6. Games and screensavers
7. Miscellaneous
8. System administration commands and daemons

For example, when you do whatis crontab, you’ll notice that crontab has two man pages (section 1 and
section 5). To view section 5 of crontab man page, do the following.

$ whatis crontab
crontab (1) - maintain crontab files for individual users (V3)
crontab (5) - tables for driving cron

$ man 5 crontab
42. tail command examples

Print the last 10 lines of a file by default.

$ tail filename.txt

Print N number of lines from the file named filename.txt

$ tail -n N filename.txt

View the content of the file in real time using tail -f. This is useful to view the log files, that keeps growing.
The command can be terminated using CTRL-C.

$ tail -f log-file

More tail examples: 3 Methods To View tail -f output of Multiple Log Files in One Terminal

43. less command examples

less is very efficient while viewing huge log files, as it doesn’t need to load the full file while opening.

$ less huge-log-file.log

One you open a file using less command, following two keys are very helpful.

CTRL+F – forward one window

CTRL+B – backward one window

More less examples: Unix Less Command: 10 Tips for Effective Navigation

44. su command examples

Switch to a different user account using su command. Super user can switch to any other user without
entering their password.

$ su - USERNAME

Execute a single command from a different account name. In the following example, john can execute the
ls command as raj username. Once the command is executed, it will come back to john’s account.

[john@dev-server]$ su - raj -c 'ls'

[john@dev-server]$

Login to a specified user account, and execute the specified shell instead of the default shell.

$ su -s 'SHELLNAME' USERNAME

45. mysql command examples

mysql is probably the most widely used open source database on Linux. Even if you don’t run a mysql
database on your server, you might end-up using the mysql command ( client ) to connect to a mysql
database running on the remote server.

To connect to a remote mysql database. This will prompt for a password.

$ mysql -u root -p -h 192.168.1.2

To connect to a local mysql database.

$ mysql -u root -p

If you want to specify the mysql root password in the command line itself, enter it immediately after -p
(without any space).

46. yum command examples

To install apache using yum.

$ yum install httpd

To upgrade apache using yum.

$ yum update httpd

To uninstall/remove apache using yum.

$ yum remove httpd

47. rpm command examples

To install apache using rpm.

# rpm -ivh httpd-2.2.3-22.0.1.el5.i386.rpm

To upgrade apache using rpm.

# rpm -uvh httpd-2.2.3-22.0.1.el5.i386.rpm

To uninstall/remove apache using rpm.

# rpm -ev httpd

More rpm examples: RPM Command: 15 Examples to Install, Uninstall, Upgrade, Query RPM Packages

48. ping command examples

Ping a remote host by sending only 5 packets.

$ ping -c 5 gmail.com

More ping examples: Ping Tutorial: 15 Effective Ping Command Examples

49. date command examples

Set the system date:

# date -s "01/31/2010 23:59:53"

Once you’ve changed the system date, you should syncronize the hardware clock with the system date as
shown below.

# hwclock –systohc

# hwclock --systohc –utc

50. wget command examples

The quick and effective method to download software, music, video from internet is using wget command.

$ wget http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/sourceforge/nagios/nagios-3.2.1.tar.gz

Download and store it with a different name.

$ wget -O taglist.zip http://www.vim.org/scripts/download_script.php?src_id=7701

Useful Linux Commands and Utilities, by Function Type

These commands are grouped by function. For alphabetical listing, see here.

 Root Operations
o Terminal Usage Tips
 Directory Operations - Creating, Changing, Listing
 Files: Create, View, Compare, Control the Output
 Copy, Move and Delete Files, Directories
 Change Attributes: Permissions, Ownership, Links
 Help and Information
 Finding Files and Locating Executables
 Multimedia and Sound: Conversion and Console Music Players
 Disk Usage
o Iso Copying, Mounting, and Filesystems
o Disk and Resource Usage
 Internet and Networking
 List and Stop Processes
 Shut down Machine
 Installing Software and Package Management
o The RPM command
o Tarballs or tgz
 Opensuse, Mandriva and Utilities
 Miscellaneous, Path and Environment
 Wild Cards and various symbols
 Terminal/Console Keyboard Shortcuts
 Word processing shortcuts

Root Operations
Many functions such as installing software, editing files, running many commands require you
to be root, or superuser. An error of "Command not found" means that either you must change
to root or it is a utility that is not installed.

su: log as root while user. Will be prompted for password.

su <username>: change to that user. eg. back from root to yourself.
su - : sets the environment as if you'd actually logged in as root. Will put you in /home/root
sux : logs you in as root, so that root can connect to the X server. This will enable you to launch
gui programs as root. SuSE only
sudo: changes you to root temporarily, for that command only.

Terminal Usage Tips

Tab key: autocompletes filenames in command line. If two similar filenames exist, filename will
not complete. Hit tab twice to show all options, then type enough to autocomplete the rest.
Handy for long filenames.
Up arrow: Scrolls back through history of previous commands. Handy if you are using one or
two repetitively.
mc: launch midnight commander, a handy console file manager. (Utility - check if installed) See
here for tutorial
history : prints out about the last 1000 commands
clear : clears text out of the top of a terminal. Can still be scrolled back through. A shortcut is Ctl
-l

Directory Operations - Creating, Changing, Listing

mkdir : create directory

mkdir -p temp/grandparent/parent/child : create a hierarchy of directories - use the -p
(parent) option

cd: change directory

cd ~ : takes you to home directory
cd - : last directory you were in.
cd .. : parent directory of the one you are in at present
cd ../../.. will take you up three parent directories
cd / : takes you to root directory
cd ../sisterdir : when you want to change to a directory at the same level, the .. takes you back
to the parent, followed immediately by the sister directory.
When using cd, if you put / in front of the directory name, you have to give the full path from
root. Don't put the / to change to a subdirectory from where you are at present (relative path)
unless doing a sidestep and it is preceded by ..

ls : short listing of directory contents

ls -l : long listing, permissions, buildtimes, owner, points to links, etc
ls -a or ls -al shows hidden .files
ls -ltr : long listing of files, in order of time created, and reversed. This will give the most recent
files at the bottom of the list
ls -lSr : sorts by size. Largest files at the bottom
ls -R : lists recursively contents of subdirectories

Files: Create, View, Compare, Control the Output

cat filename : views contents of file. Use -n option to number lines.

cat filename > anotherfilename.txt sends output to a file that is created or overwritten
cat filename >> anotherfilename.txt appends output to selected file
cat file1.txt file2.txt > file3.txt : contents of two files can be combined
The cat command can be used as a quick text editor:
cat > friends.txt
Joan
Scott
Meredith
Tim
[EOT](Ctl -d)

touch : creates files or updates the modification times

wc: counts lines, words and characters in a file. -c, -w or -l options to only display one. Spaces
are considered as words, though

diff oldfile.txt newfile.txt: displays line-by-line differences between two text files.
diff --brief : shows only the difference. Much easier to understand the output!
diff -r /etc /home/jane/etc |less : shows difference between two directories, useful when
restoring a backup in an upgrade. Pipe to less to scroll through output at your pace.
cmp -l file1 file2: displays all differences between binary files

file <filename> : takes a guess at the type of data contained in a file

grep <text string> <filename> : find text strings in files and returns the whole line.

less : allows you to go back and forth in a file. Pipe large files to less when the output is too big
to be seen on one screen. Can read contents of gzipped files, eg. less filename.gz.
To search for a particular term in less (and man pages) type /searchterm <enter> and it
highlights where it appears in the file.
Press n to find the next occurence, and shift - n to find the previous.
spacebar : skips whole screen.
Type q to exit less.

more : shows the percentage that you are through the file. Move down with enter key. No
backwards movement permitted.

head <filename> Gives first 10 lines of file. head -1 would give the first line only. Also see tail
tail <filename> : gives the last 10 lines of a file. Useful if there's going to be lots of scrolling as
screen may not be able to keep up, as in compiling kernel. eg.tail -f /var/log/messages follows
last 10 lines.

Copy, Move and Delete Files, Directories

cp <filename> <newfilename> : straight copy

cp -p : preserves attributes and permissions of the file
cp <filename> /dir/ect/ory : copy to file to another directory
Use wildcards to copy multiple files to a new location:# cp file* /tmp
command line option -i will prompt you if you are about to overwrite an existing file
cp -bi <file> <file.1> creates a backup of any file that may be overwritten. A backup has a ~
attached to its name.
Copying Directories:
cp -a : archive option. Copies directories recursively and preserves attributes and permissions
cp -Pr dir1 dir2 :-P (parent) along with the -r (recursive) command-line option, copies files
within one directory to another directory, and also any directories inside.

mv file1 file2 : rename or move files and directories

To rename a directory, specify the old directory name and new directory name:
mv mydir newdir
mv -i file1 file2 asks for permission to overwrite an existing file.
mv -b : creates a backup
mv -bi file1 file2
mv: replace ´file2'? y
ls file*
file2 file2~
mv file1 /tmp : moves file to another directory
mv file1 /tmp/file2 : renames file during move
mv dir1 dir3 : If the destination directory does not exist, mv renames the directory. If the
destination directory exists, then dir1 is moved inside the destination directory, dir3.

rm <filename> : deletes file. You can use wildcards with the rm command rm *.txt or rm file*
rm -i <filename> : removing file interactively, asks for confirmation
rm -rf : recursive, force options to delete a directory. Dangerous as root. -f does not ask for
confirmation.
rmdir temp/grandparent/parent/child :removes empty directories. If any files or directories
exist below the specified directory, you must move or delete those first. Easier to use Midnight
Commander!
Change Attributes: Permissions, Ownership, Links

chgrp Jane <filename> changed ownership of file to group Jane

chown -R Jane. updates : recursively changed /home/Jane/updates subdirectory to ownership
by Jane

chmod (a=all u=user g=group o=other) +/-/= (r=read w=write x=execute) simplest way of
changing permissions. eg
chmod a-w <filename> : removes write permissions w for all a
chmod u+x <filename> : adds execute permissions x for user u(the user is generally the person
who created the file, and therefore the owner)
- removes ,+ adds, = makes permissions exactly as specified
In the long listing, permissions are specified user/group/other as in rwxr-xr-x
421= rwx, as in chmod 755 <filename> means rwx for user, r and x for group and others
chmod 4777 : (4 = u+s) : Adding the set user id or suid bit. When you run the file, you become
the user/owner : rwsrwxrwx
In front of the whole lot there are sometimes other characters:
b = block device, c = character device, - =an ordinary file, d = directory.
Directory permissions: t at the end denotes a sticky bit - everyone has permissions but only user
can alter files. 1777 1 = +t

ln -s file file2 : symbolic link. Source file first, then target. Can be used for any type of file,
including executables. A symlink will reflect all changes to the source file
ln file file3 : ln on its own makes a hard link - a copy of the original file that will not reflect any
change or deletion of the original file.
ln -s sourcedirectory targetdirectory : Linking directories: User can only make symbolic links,
root can hard-link as well.

Help and Information

apropos <anything> : searches man pages for the specified word and prints out info
<cmdname> --help : briefer than man page, gives a summary of arguments for command. Can
be scrolled with scrollbar. Returns you to command prompt.
info <cmdname> similar to man page, but has nodes and menus.

whatis : searches the whatis database for complete words, gives a one-line synopsis
makewhatis : creates the whatis directory

man <cmd> : man page. Type q to exit. Move with up/down arrows. Find particular words by
typing /searchterm <enter> to highlight where it appears. Press n to find the next occurence,
and shift - n to find the previous.
man -k <word> : searches headings of man pages for word
/usr/doc directory: documentation pertaining to everything is in there

Finding Files and Locating Executables

find <filename> : Searches your complete hard drive for file. Takes a while. Quicker if you
know which directory to search:
find . <filename> : find files in current directory, find /etc <filename> : find files in /etc dir
Locate is much faster - searches quickly through a system database.

locate : finds files by searching a database, created with updatedb. Much quicker than find.
Wildcards can be used to either expand or narrow a search. For example, to look for opera
browser icons: locate *opera*png* (Check if installed: package is called findutils-locate)
updatedb : update the locate database. Must be root.

type <executablename> : shows you where the executable is run from.

[Jane@mylinuxbox log]$ type gpm
gpm is /usr/sbin/gpm
whereis <cmdname>: locates the binary, source, and manual page files for an executable.
which <executablename> : shows full path to executable. Similar to using type

Multimedia and Sound: Conversion and Console Music Players

cdda2wav -D /dev/cdrom -x -t 1+10 -B : for ripping audio to wav. Most of the following
arguments will be required:
-D /dev/cdrom : device used must be specified
-x : for cdaudio quality
-t 1+10 : to specify either a single track or start and end tracks
-B : copies each track to a separate file

ffmpeg -i moviefile.flv -f mp3 musicfile.mp3: converts video files, eg. youtube flv to mp3
ffmpeg -i musicfile.ogg musicfile.mp3: converts ogg to mp3 for those annoying media players
that don't play ogg files

oggenc *.wav : converts wav to similarly named ogg file (must be installed)

mpg123 <file.mp3> : console mp3 player. Needs backslashes in file names instead of spaces.
Can play two songs at once! (Utility, must be installed)
mpg123 -w <filename.wav> <filename.mp3> : Outputs your mp3 into a wav file.

play <filename.wav> : wav file player

Disk Usage

Iso Copying, Mounting, and Filesystems

md5 <filename.iso> : shows md5sum, to compare before writing a disc. Takes a while to
calculate.

mkisofs /dev/cdrom/* filename.iso : copies an iso image of the cd ready to write.

mount -t iso9660 -o loop filename /media/cdrom : Mounting an iso to access the contents. -
t=type iso9660=cd file type -o option loop=expecting you to mount a file /media/cdrom= mount
it on a mount point not currently in use. (Iso contents can be viewed without mounting in
Midnight Commander.)
mount /mnt/cdrom : to mount the device you want on the command line.
umount /mnt/dcrom: unmount (note spelling of command). Command line and gui
mounting/unmounting not interchangeable.

dd if=/dev/cdrom of=/tmp/filename.iso bs=8192 : data dump - this copies the iso image of a
cd. This example is copying direct from the device - make sure the cd is not mounted. Copy to a
filename of your choice. You can now burn a cd with this image. The output file must have a .iso
extension. The last command, block size, increases the size and makes the process faster.

Disk and Resource Usage

df -h : shows amount of disk used, in human readable format

du -s : summarise the size of the directory you are in

du -ks <dirname>: summarise in kilobytes the size of the directory named
du -ms: summarise in megabytes
du -m : shows size in megabytes of directory, as well as all subdirectories
du -m --max-depth=1 <directoryname> : As above, except summarises subdirectories to a
max depth of one

free : quick method of checking memory usage

Internet and Networking

dig : will get the ip address from the user ident (irc) The ip address will be the numbers
following ID IN A xxx.xxx.xx.xx

ifconfig : lists interfaces and traffic. Can be used to get your current ip address. Must be root

netstat -a : shows connections on all network connections/sockets. Pipe to less for easier
reading
-l : listening sockets only
-p : shows processes listening and includes PID. Useful to kill processes hogging key ports

fuser -vn tcp <portnumber> : names the service that uses that port.

ssh2 -l <user> <domain> : usage for ssh2. Will be prompted for password for user eg ssh2 -l
jane ant.co.za
ssh username@domain : ssh to another box/site.

wget -r http://www.xxxx : to suck down an entire website -m creates a mirror and is recursive

List and Stop Processes

lsof : lists open files. eg. If cdrom is busy and won't unmount, do lsof |grep cdrom, then kill PID's
using it.

grep <parametername>: filters results for a parameter or word. An output of a command can
be piped to grep to list only those that match the parameter, eg. ps ax |grep <parametername>

ps : processes running
ps ax or ps -e :all users and processes without a controlling terminal (tty)
ps axf :as above, showing child processes
ps -ef : everything running. Display will be PID, tty, time (at idle) and name. Use PID in the kill
command. See kill for shutting down processes by command line.
NB: To list only a particular process, pipe to grep <processname> eg. ps ax | grep esd

kill -1 or kill -HUP <PID> this interrupts the process only. Handy for something stuck.
killall <processname> : Use on Linux only. Kill without requiring the process ID
kill -9 <PID> kills the process forcibly
kill -15 <PID> : a nicer kill than -9

Shut down Machine

init0: shuts system down (starting runlevel 0)

init1: goes down to to most basic admin level, runlevel 1
init6: reboots system

shutdown -h now: shuts the system down immediately.

shutdown -r now: reboots the system immediately.
shutdown -rF now: reboots and does a filesystem check on reboot. Handy if your machine had
previously shut down irregularly (power failure, freeze up.)

Installing Software and Package Management

ldd <pkgname>: shows missing libraries that files/packages depend on. Prints out library
dependencies for a given executable

The RPM command

The RPM command can be used to install, query, select and build packages. The man page is
fairly understandable and lists all the options.
Query options:
rpm -q <packagename> : to see if a specific package is installed. Need only give the name, not
the whole version number.
rpm -qa : query database for all installed packages. You could pipe to grep if you are looking for
a string. eg. rpm -qa | grep ssh or rpm -qa | grep "part_of_package_name".
rpm -ql : lists files of an already installed package.
rpm -qpl : query an uninstalled package to list all files in package
rpm -qf <filename>: lists the package that the file came from
rpm -qi : gives info on installed packages, including description and header
rpm -qpi : info on uninstalled packages
rpm qRp : shows dependencies on which an uninstalled package depends. Remove the -p for an
already installed package.

Install options:
rpm -ivh : the basic one. -i installs, but it's better to use -U or -F depending on the situation. -v:
verbose - keeps you in the loop, and -h: hashes - handy to check the progress.
rpm -Fvh : freshen an already installed package, eg. update. Will upgrade already installed
packages only.
rpm -Uvh : will upgrade already installed packages and install ones not already installed.
rpm -i --replacepackages <rpm-package-name> This forces the installation of a package that
according to rpm is already installed. Used when the already installed package is damaged.
rpm -e [<options>] <installed-package-name> To de-install a package, rpm runs through the
following procedure: Checks dependencies. Runs some preparatory procedures for the de-
installation. If configuration files have been changed, makes a copy of them before removing
them. Removes the package. Runs some final procedures for the de-installation.
--force and --nodeps options can persuade reluctant packages. Use nodeps with caution!
rpm -rebuilddb : updates database of installed rpm packages

Tarballs or tgz

When installing tarballs, unpack, then read the INSTALL or README file (with cat). Although
most packages follow a standard format, some have their own install scripts or are run directly
from that directory.

The standard format is:

 tar -xzvf <filename.tgz>

 cd filename (into the similarly named directory)
 make
 su (change to root)
 make install

Read the output carefully when it stops, to ensure you have no errors. It may not have
completed the operation due to a missing library or dependency.

make: For installing tgz files, as per the INSTALL file. Not installed by default in opensuse.
Install with YAST, as well as other packages as required, such as gcc-c++ and kernel-source.
make install: must be root

tar -xzvf <filename.tgz> : Unpacks the file separate files in its own directory
tar -cvzf <targetfile.tgz> <source files> (could be *) : packs up files into a tarball

gunzip <filename.gz> unzips files with a .gz extension

bunzip2 : same for .bz2 extensions. Must have bzip2 installed.
unzip : for .zip files.

Opensuse, Mandriva and Utilities

Distro-dependent commands:
drakconf : mandriva / pclinuxos system configuration tool
ksnapshot : kde utility for screenshots. Easy to launch through `run command' window: alt F2
qtconfig : to configure appearance of QT applications, eg.fonts, styles.
SuSEconfig : run in terminal window after manually installing rpm's on an opensuse system.
Updates menus, database etc.
yast : console opensuse system configuration tool.
yast2 : launches GUI version from command line.
zypper: openSUSE or Ark Linux command line package management utility for installing,
patching or upgrading via repositories. Less controllable than YAST unless you are well
acquainted with usage. See man page or google. zypper -up upgrades all packages from enabled
repositories.

pdftohtml <filename.pdf> : Utility that converts pdf files into html format.
wine <appname.exe> : run certain windows executables with wine.
winecfg : sets up wine before running for the first time.
ies4linux : uses wine and cabextract (install with wine) to install Internet Explorer 5 or 6
ie4wine : uses wine to install Internet Explorer 7

Miscellaneous, Path and Environment

cal : calendar for this month

cal -y : for this year
cal 1992 : you can specify any year. Try 1752 and check September!
cal 03 2011: check a specific month in another year. Handy when you don't have next year's
calendar available yet.

dmesg : shows you all the boot messages.

env : displays exported environment variables, like the path and other interesting stuff

echo $PATH : shows the path that is followed to find executables

export PATH="$PATH:/opt/gnome/bin" : add a new directory eg. /opt/gnome/bin to path

exec : executes a file, usually a binary or executable

lprm : removes all from the printer queue except what is already buffered in printer

passwd : change password. Follow instructions. As root: passwd <username> does not require
old password to be entered, can be changed directly.

Wild Cards and various symbols

* wildcard symbol. Match any string of characters, eg rm *.c would delete all files in the current
directory whose names end with `.c'.
| : pipe - the vertical bar - send the output of one command to another program, eg. less, grep.
eg. cat <longfile> | less or rpm -qa | grep qt
> : send the output of a file to another file, eg cat xxx > xxx.txt
>> : appends the output, otherwise an existing file will get overwritten eg. cat xxyy >> xxx.txt
& : runs a job in the background
.. (double dot) parent directory of where you are. Can be used with other stuff, like cd.
. (single dot) current directory.
~ (tilde, that squiggly thing) home directory
./executablename : (dot-slash) to run an executable in the current directory (it won't be in the
path.)

Terminal/Console Keyboard Shortcuts

Ctl - c : kills the process running.

Ctl - \ : force kills program, causes core dump, works when Ctl-c doesn't.
Ctl - z : puts a job into suspension
Ctl -d : exits you from program /closes that shell/ end of text
Ctl - o : use to flip back and forth between mc and console
Ctl - l : clears screen
Ctl - a : takes cursor to front of command line, bash only

Ctl - Esc : launches ksysguard - system activity monitor - graphical utility to kill a process.
Ctl - Alt -Backspace : get out of X (or back to login window in runlevel 5)
Ctl - Alt -Del : shutdown and reboot
Ctl - Alt - F1 to F6 : takes you into consoles
Ctl - Alt - F7 : back into graphical mode
Ctl - F1/F2/F3/F4 - to change you to each desktop, a KDE feature only
Ctrl-Alt-Esc : Kill window. Gives you a skull-and crossbones - click on window to kill. Only works
if one window has frozen, not the whole system.

Alt - F2: pops up 'run command' window

Alt - F1 : pops up kde menu
Alt-Tab : Change between windows on the current KDE desktop.
Alt-F3 : Popup the window operation menu.
Alt-F4 : Close active window.

Shift - pg up/down is how you scroll in the console

spacebar : skips whole screen in less

Word processing shortcuts

home : takes you to beginning of line

end : to end of line
Ctl c : copy
Ctl x : cut
Ctl v : paste
Ctl z : undo
Ctl a : select whole doc
Ctl s : save your doc
Shift pgdn : highlights whole page down
Shift end : highlights text to end of line