Chapter 2

Propositional Logic

2.1 Propositions

Definition 1
A proposition is a declarative sentence that can be objectively identified as either true or
false, but not both. If a proposition is true, then its truth value is “true” and is denoted by
T or 1; otherwise, its truth value is false and is denoted by F or 0.

Example 1. Determine whether each of the following sentence is a proposition or not a proposi-
tion.

1. Jose Rizal is our National Hero.

2. Welcome to the Philippines!

3. Find x such that x is a multiple of your age.

4. Who is the first president of the republic?

5. Douglas MacArthur arrived in the Philippines in 1521.

6. Hi guys!.

7. 1 is a prime number.
√
8. 2 is a irrational number.

9. This statement is false.

10. Bulacan is a province in Region IV.

11. Most scientists agree that global warming is a threat to the environment.

12. Is that your laptop?

13. Basketball players are handsome.

√
14. 432 + 8 ÷ 1.3 = 115000

1
2 CHAPTER 2. PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

Given a proposition, its truth table is a diagram in table form that is used to show all its possible
truth values.

p p q p q r
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0

Remark: In general, truth table involving n distinct propositions has 2n rows.

Definition 2
Quantified statements involve terms such as all, each, every, no, none, some, there exists,
and at least one. In a statement, the words all, each, every, no, none are called universal
quantifiers while the words some, there exists, and at least one are called existential
quantifiers.

Example 2. 1. Every student taking Mathematics in the Modern World subject this semester
will pass.

2. No accounting student is also majoring in food technology.

3. Some people who are NBA fans are also Ginebra fans.

4. There is at least one professor in this school who does not have brown eyes.

5. Some professors have Ph.Ds.

6. Someone in this class will get a 5.0.

7. All smartphones have cameras.

Remark: The words each, every, and all mean the same thing. Likewise, some, there exists, and
at least one are considered to be the same and are treated that way as well.
2.1. PROPOSITIONS 3

Definition 3
Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ¬p, is the statement “It is not the
case that p.” The proposition ¬p is read “not p.” The truth table for ¬p is

p ¬p
1 0
0 1

Example 3. State the negation of the following propositions.

1. r : Everyone in Visayas speak Cebuano.
¬r :
x−1
2. p : The function f (x) = is a polynomial function.
x+1
¬p :

3. q : 3 is a composite number.
¬q :
√
4. s : 2 is an irrational number.
¬s :

5. t : The dog does not need to be fed.

¬t :

6. m : Today is Monday.
¬m :
Example 4. Determine the negation of the following propositions.
1. Every student taking Philosophy subject this semester will pass.

2. No nursing student is also majoring in criminal justice.

3. Some professors have Ph.Ds.

4. Someone in this class will get a 5.0.

5. All smartphones have cameras.

Remark:
Proposition contains Negation
All do Some do not/Not all do
Some do None do/ All do not
Some do not All do
None do Some do
4 CHAPTER 2. PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

2.2 Compound Propositions

A simple proposition is a proposition that cannot be deduced to simpler propositions. It con-
veys a single idea. A compound proposition is a proposition formed by joining two or more
simple propositions with a connective. It conveys two or more ideas. The four basic connectives
used in logic are and (conjunction), or (disjunction), if ... then (conditional), and if and only if
(biconditional).

Remark:

1. In standard usage, the word ”then” is often omitted from a conditional statement.

2. Technically we have given the names conjunction, disjunction, conditional, and biconditional
to the connectives, but from now on, we’ll refer to the whole proposition using connectives
by these names.

Example 5. Classify each proposition as simple or compound. If it is compound, identify the

name of the connective used.

1. Our school is located in Sta. Mesa, Manila.

2. If you register in an unli surf promo, you will get three days of access to the internet.

3. Tomorrow is the last day of the adjustment period.

4. I plan to buy either a cellphone or a tablet.

5. Diane is a chemistry major.

Remark:
Symbols for the connectives

Connective Symbol Name

and ∧ conjunction
or ∨ disjunction
if ... then → conditional
if and only if ↔ biconditional

Definition 4
Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∧ q, is the
proposition “p and q”. The conjunction p ∧ q is true when both p and q are true, and is false
otherwise. The propositions p and q are called conjuncts. The truth table of p ∧ q is

p q p∧q
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
2.2. COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS 5

Example 6. Let p and q be propositions such that

p : No odd numbers are divisible by 2. and q : π is rational.
Express the following in sentence form.

1. p ∧ q :

2. p ∧ (¬q) :

3. (¬p) ∧ q :

4. (¬p) ∧ (¬q) :

5. ¬(p ∧ q) :

Definition 5
Let p and q be propositions. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p∨q, is the proposition
“p or q”. The disjunction p ∨ q is false when both p and q are false, and is true otherwise.
The propositions p and q are called disjuncts. The truth table of p ∨ q is

p q p∨q
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0

Example 7. Let p and q be propositions such that

p : Some smartphones are expensive. and q : π is rational.
Express the following in sentence form.

1. p ∨ q :

2. p ∨ (¬q) :

3. (¬p) ∨ q :

4. (¬p) ∨ (¬q) :

5. ¬(p ∨ q) :
6 CHAPTER 2. PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

Definition 6
Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p and q, denoted by “p Y q” or “p ⊕ q”, is
the proposition that is true when exactly one of p and q is true, and is false otherwise. The
truth table of p Y q is

p q pYq
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0

Example 8.

1. An integer is either odd or even.

2. A positive integer greater than 1 is either prime or composite.

Definition 7
Let p and q be propositions. The conditional statement p → q is the proposition “If p,
then q.” or “p implies q”. The conditional statement p → q is false when p is true and q is
false, and true otherwise. In the conditional statement p → q, p is called the hypothesis
(or antecedent or premise) and q is called the conclusion (or consequence). The truth table
of p → q is

p q p→q
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 1

Other ways to express this conditional statement p → q:

1. p implies q 8. q if p

2. p only if q 9. q whenever p

3. p is sufficient for q 10. q when p

4. All p are q 11. q follows from p

5. p is a sufficient condition for q 12. q unless ¬p

6. q is necessary for p 13. q provided that p

7. q is a necessary condition for p 14. ¬p ∨ q

2.2. COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS 7

Remark:

• The converse of p → q is q → p.

• The inverse of p → q is ¬p → ¬q.

• The contrapositive of p → q is ¬q → ¬p.

Example 9. Let p and q be propositions such that

p : Marie is sleeping.
q : 2 + 5 = 8.
Express the following in sentence form.

1. p → q :

2. q → p :

3. ¬p → ¬q :

4. ¬q → ¬p :

5. ¬(p → q) :

Example 10. For each conditional statement, write its converse, inverse and contrapositive.

1. If you earned a bachelor’s degree, then you got a high paying job.
converse:
inverse:
contrapositive:

2. If a number is divisible by 9, then it is divisible by 3.

converse:
inverse:
contrapositive:

Definition 8
Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional statement p ↔ q is the proposition “p if
and only if q” (or simply “p iff q”). The biconditional statement p ↔ q is true when p and q
have the same truth values, and is false otherwise. Biconditional statements are also called
bi-implications. The truth table of p ↔ q is

p q p↔q
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

Other ways to express this biconditional statement p ↔ q:

1. “p is necessary and sufficient for q”

2. “if p then q, and conversely”

8 CHAPTER 2. PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

Example 11. Let p and q be propositions such that

p : Marie is sleeping.
q : 2 is even.
Express the following in sentence form.

1. p ↔ q :

2. ¬p ↔ q :

3. ¬q ↔ ¬p :

Remarks:

1. If a compound statement is written in English sentence, then a comma is used to indicate

which simple statements are grouped together. Statements on the same side of a comma are
grouped together.

2. If a compound statement is written in symbols and there are parenthesis, we find the truth
value of the statement or statements in the parenthesis first.

3. If a compound statement is written in symbols and there are no parenthesis, the hierarchy
of connectives would be ¬, ∧ or ∨, →, ↔. However, when a compound statement has both
a conjunction and a disjunction, we need to use parenthesis in order to determine which to
consider first.

Example 12. Write each statement in words. Let p: The plane is on time. Let q: The sky is
clear.

1. p ∧ q

2. q → (p ∨ ¬p)

3. p ↔ q

Example 13. Consider the following propositions.

p : You get a promotion.
q : You complete the training.
r : You will receive a bonus.

1. Write (p ∧ q) → r as an English sentence.

2. Write”If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you will
not receive a bonus.” in symbolic form.
2.2. COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS 9

Example 14. Consider the following propositions:

p : 2 is an even prime.
q : A square is a rhombus.
r : Today is Sunday.
s : The moon is made of cheese.

Express the following in symbols and determine its truth value (True or False).

1. Either a square is a rhombus or today is Sunday.

2. The moon is made of cheese and 2 is an even prime.

3. If 2 is an even prime, then the moon is made of cheese.

4. Today is Sunday if and only if the moon is made of cheese.

5. Neither today is Sunday nor the moon is made of cheese.

6. If 2 is an even prime, then either today is Sunday or the moon is made of cheese.

7. A square is a rhombus if and only if either the moon is made of cheese or 2 is an even prime.

8. If 2 is not an even prime, then a square is a rhombus implies that today is Sunday.

9. The moon is made of cheese whenever either 2 is an even prime or today is Sunday.

10. A square is a rhombus is necessary for 2 is an even prime.

10 CHAPTER 2. PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

2.3 Propositional Equivalences

Definition 9
A compound proposition that is always true, no matter what the truth values of the propo-
sitional variables that occur in it, is called a tautology. A compound proposition that is
always false is called a contradiction. A compound proposition that is neither a tautology
nor a contradiction is called a contingency.

Example 15. Using truth tables, determine if each compound proposition is a tautology, contin-
gency, or contradiction.

1. x : [(p ∨ q) ∧ (¬p ∨ r)] → (q ∨ r)

2. y : [(p → r) ∧ (q → r)] ↔ [(p ∨ q) ∧ ¬r]

3. z : [(p → q) → r] ↔ [p → (q → r)]

Definition 10
A biconditional proposition which is a tautology is called an equivalence. That is, two
compound propositions are logically equivalent if and only if they have the same truth
values for all possible combinations of truth values for the simple propositions that compose
them. The symbol ↔ isof ternusedinterchangeablywith ≡ .

Example 16. Show that the following are equivalence.

1. De Morgan’s Law:

(a) ¬(p ∧ q) ↔ ¬p ∨ ¬q
(b) ¬(p ∨ q) ↔ ¬p ∧ ¬q

2. ¬(p → q) ↔ (p ∧ ¬q)

Homework/Seatwork
A. Determine whether the following sentences are propositions or not.

1. Cat is a mammal. 6. Clap your hands.

2. Who am I? 7. Those pants rock!

3. The weather is fine. 8. 12 − 8 = 5

4. It is raining outside. 9. Give me a glazed donut.

5. Today is Sunday. 10. Math is interesting

2.4. LOGICAL ARGUMENTS 11

B. Classify each statement as simple or compound. If it is compound, state the name of the con-
nective used.

1. My jacket is both warm and light.

2. Our school has a mascot.

3. If it does not rain tomorrow, I will go surfing.

4. I am going to eat at Taco Bell or Wendy’s today.

5. Yesterday was the deadline to withdraw from a class.

C. Construct a truth table for the following.

1. p ∨ ¬q

2. p ↔ (¬p ∧ q)

3. (p ∧ q) ∨ ¬r

4. (¬p ∧ q) → r

D. Using truth tables, determine if each of the following compound propositions is a tautology,
contingency, or contradiction.

1. (p ∨ q) ∧ (¬p → q)

2. (p → q) ∨ ¬q

3. (p ∧ q) ∧ (¬p ∧ ¬q)

4. (p ∧ ¬q) ∨ (p ∧ r)

2.4 Logical Arguments

Definition 11
An argument is a compound proposition of the form (p1 ∧ p2 ∧ p3 ∧ · · · ∧ pn ) → q . The
propositions p1 , p2 , p3 , · · · , pn are the premises of the argument and q is the conclusion.
Arguments can be written in column or standard form

p1
p2
p3
..
.
pn
∴q
12 CHAPTER 2. PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

Remark:

• An argument is valid if all its premises are true implies that the conclusion is true. Otherwise,
we say that the argument is invalid. An error in reasoning that leads to n invalid argument
is known as a fallacy.

• An argument is valid if the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, and invalid if it
is not valid.

• If a statement is a tautology, then the argument is valid, otherwise, the argument is invalid.
An error in reasoning that leads to an invalid argument is known as a fallacy.

Procedure in determining the validity of an argument:

1. Write the arguments in symbols.

2. Write the argument as a conditional statement; use a conjunction (∧) between/among the
premises and the implication (→) for the conclusion.

3. Set up and construct a truth table for the symbolic form.

4. If all truth values under → are T s or 1s (that is, the last column is a tautology), then the
argument is valid, otherwise, it is invalid.

Example 17. Determine the validity of the following arguments.

1. If the water is warm, then the moon is made of cheese.

The water is warm.
Therefore, the moon is made of cheese.

2. Either Glenn or Raphael will pass the subject.

Glenn pass the subject.
Therefore, Raphael didn?t pass the subject.

3. If Ian and Erika are friends, then they are facebook friends.
Ian and Erika are not facebook friends.
Therefore, Ian and Erika are not friends.

4. If it is raining, then the class will take an exam.

It is not raining.
Therefore, the class didn?t not take the exam.

5. If Clarice has a pet, then she owns a dog.

Clarice owns a dog or she drives a car.
Clarice drives a car or she has a pet.
Therefore, Clarice has a pet.
 2.4. LOGICAL ARGUMENTS 13

Common Valid Arguments

1. Law of detachment 3. Law of disjunctive syllogism

p→q p∨q
p ¬p
∴q ∴q

2. Law of contraposition 4. Law of syllogism (law of transitivity)

p→q p→q
¬q q→r
∴¬p ∴p → r

Common Fallacies

1. Fallacy of the converse

p→q
q
∴p

2. Fallacy of the inverse

p→q
¬p
∴¬q

3. Fallacy of the inclusive or

p∨q
p
∴¬q

Example 18. Determine whether the following arguments are valid or invalid.

1. If an ad campaign is a success, then the marketing manager won?t lose her job.
The marketing manager lost her job.
Therefore, the ad campaign was not a success.

2. Either 2 + 2 6= 4 or 2 + 2 = 5 .
2+2=4
Therefore, 2 + 2 = 5 .

3. If 2 + 2 6= 5, then my feet hurt.

My feet don?t hurt.
Therefore, 2 + 2 = 5 .

4. If today is a holiday, then we don’t have classes.

Today is not a holiday.
Therefore, we have classes.

5. If I focus on my studies, then I’ll pass this subject.

I did not pass this subject.
Therefore, I did not focus on my studies.
14 CHAPTER 2. PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

6. If a driver makes an illegal U-turn, then he will get a ticket.

If the driver gets a ticket, then he will get points on his driving record.
Therefore, if a driver makes an illegal U-turn, then he will get points on his driving record.

7. My client demands to stay at the penthouse or at an exclusive suite.

He couldn’t stay on the penthouse.
Therefore, he stayed in an exclusive suite.

8. If it is Monday, then I will have a Math class.

I am having a Math class.
Therefore, it is Monday.

9. I’m going to take chemistry or food science.

I am taking chemistry.
Therefore, I am not taking food science.

10. If I exercise everyday, then I will lose weight.

I don’t exercise everyday.
Therefore, I won’t lose weight.

Example 19. Use a standard form of valid arguments to determine a valid conclusion for each
argument.

1. Either I did not study or I passed the exam.

I failed the exam.
Therefore,

2. If it is sunny, I will wear SPF50 sun block.

I did not wear SPF50 sun block.
Therefore,

3. If I master chemistry in senior high school, then I will be prepared for chemistry in college.
I am not prepared for chemistry in college.
Therefore,
2.5. EULER CIRCLES / EULER DIAGRAM 15

2.5 Euler Circles / Euler Diagram

Procedure in determining the validity of an argument by Euler diagram:

1. Draw the diagram of the given premises (both premises on the same figure).

2. If the conclusion is shown in the diagram, then the argument is valid. But if the premises
can be diagrammed so that a different conclusion can be shown, the argument is invalid.

Determine, by Euler diagram, the validity of the following arguments.

1. All phones are communication devices. 3. Some students are overachievers.

Some communication devices are inexpensive No overachiever is lazy.
∴ Some phones are inexpensive. ∴ Some students are not lazy.

2. Some dietitians are overweight. 4. Some juices have antioxidants.

No personal trainers are overweight. Some fruits have antioxidants.
∴ No personal trainers are dietitians. ∴ No juices are fruits.
16 CHAPTER 2. PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

5. All fried foods are greasy. 7. All politicians stretch the truth.
All greasy foods are delicious. Some politicians take bribes.
All delicious foods are healthy. ∴ Some people that stretch the truth take
∴ All fried foods are healthy. bribes.

6. All squares are rhombi. 8. All country singers play the guitar.
All rhombi are parallelograms. All country singers play the drums.
All parallelograms are quadrilaterals. Some people who play the guitar are rock singers.
∴ All squares are quadrilaterals. ∴ Some country singers are rock singers.

Homework/Seatwork Determine whether the following arguments are valid or invalid.

1. If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal.

Aristotle was human.
Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.

2. If I have a cold, then I find it difficult to sleep.

I find it difficult to sleep.
Therefore, I have a cold.

3. The fish is fresh or I will not order it.

The fish was fresh.
Therefore, I will order it.

4. The program is interesting or I will watch the basketball game.

The program is not interesting.
Therefore, I will watch the basketball game.

5. If she doesn’t get on the plane, she will regret it.

She does not regret it.
Therefore, she got on the plane.
2.5. EULER CIRCLES / EULER DIAGRAM 17

6. If it rains, then the game will not be played.

It is not raining.
Therefore, the game will be played.

7. If I go to beach for summer break, then I will not study.

I did not go to the beach for summer break.
Therefore, I studied.

8. We will not go to Japan or we will go to Hong Kong.

If we go to Hong Kong, then we will not go to Singapore.
Therefore, if we go to Japan, then we will go to Singapore.

9. If the stock market rises, then the bond market will fall.
The bond market did not fall.
Therefore, The stock market did not rise.

10. If I am going to run the marathon, then I will buy new shoes.
If I buy new shoes, then I will not buy a television.
Therefore, If I buy a television, I will not run the marathon.

11. If I arrive before 8AM, then I will make the flight.

If I make the flight, then I will give the presentation.
Therefore, if I arrive before 8AM, then I will give the presentation.

12. If you help your classmate cheat, then you shall also be reprimanded.
You help your classmate cheat.
Therefore, you should be reprimanded.

Use a standard form of valid arguments to determine a valid conclusion for each argument.

1. If Kim is a lawyer, then she will help us.

Kim did not help us.
Therefore,

2. If our clients had a good time, then they will come back.
If they come back, our business will be a success.
Therefore,

3. If you can dream it, you can do it.

You can dream it.
Therefore,

4. I will buy a car or a motorcycle.

I did not buy a car.
Therefore,
18 CHAPTER 2. PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

Use an Euler diagram to determine whether each of the following argument is valid or invalid.

1. All lawyers drive BMWs.

Susan is a lawyer.
Therefore, Susan drives a BMW.

2. Some K-pop artists are idols.

Jisoo is a K-pop artist.
Therefore, Jisoo is an idol.

3. No prime numbers are negative.

The number 7 is not negative.
Therefore, The number 7 is a prime number.

4. No chemistry student can juggle.

All food nutrition students can juggle.
Therefore, No chemistry student is a food nutrition student.

5. No mathematics teachers are good-looking.

All good-looking people are models.
Therefore, No mathematics teacher is a model.

6. Some prime numbers are odd.

2 is a prime number.
Therefore, 2 is an odd number.

7. All people who have a PS4 play video games.

All people who play video games enjoy life.
Some professors in the College of Science enjoy life.
Therefore, Some people who enjoy life are professors in the College of Science.

Reference: Math in Our World, Sobecki, Dave, 4th EditionMc Graw Hill
Mathematics in the Modern Wolrd, Aufmann, Richard, et al.