G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Finite Element Analysis (FEA)

An introduction

Finite element analysis of a stretched cylinder from FE Bio.

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Finite Element Analysis -- “a technique that reconstructs

stress, strain, and deformation in a digital structure”.
(Rayfield, 2007)

• Used to simulate the consequences

of forces that are applied to an
object

• Applied to structures or materials

that are too complex to estimate
responses based on ordinary
differential equations

• Used to study the relationship

between form and function in
morphological structures

• Simulates the distribution of stress,

Graphic representation of stress in a digital model of a skull of
strain, and deformation in a solid Dinocrocuta, an extinct hyena from the Miocene, as it bites
object when forces and constraints down on the left third premolar (from Tseng, 2009)

are applied to it

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Origin: engineering

small deformation Vehicle

large deformation
Simulated
deformation of a
bridge under load

Illustration from LUSAS engineering analysis software, IMDplus.

http://www.lusas.com/products/options/imdplus.html

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Definitions
Strain (ε) - change in length / length
Strain is a type of deformation, the physical change in the size or shape of an
object when force is applied. Strain is essentially the proportional change in
the size (length) of the material at a particular point on the object. For
example, compression decreases the size (negative strain) and tension
(stretching) increases it (positive strain).

This particular strain metric is also known as Cauchy strain or engineering

strain. Other strain measures include stretch ratio, true strain, Green strain,
Almansi strain, etc.

Stress (σ) - force per unit area, F/A.

Stress is the amount of internal force that arises from strain, or deformation of
the object. Stress can arise from external forces like gravity or loads place on
an object, from friction, from internal elastic stress that propagates through a
deformed object, etc.

Patterns of strain and stress are strongly affected by the material properties of
the object, which affect whether it is compressible, brittle, stretchable, etc.

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Strain vs. Stress

Strain (ε) - change in length / length Stress (σ) - force per unit area, F/A

Simulated with FE-Bio

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Finite element strategy: Cantilever beam example

Exact method Finite element method

http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/thermal-expansion/printall.php http://klobouk.fsv.cvut.cz/~jirkanie/femap-ex/doc/ex02_Sig_zz.jpg

Exact equations can be Result can be

used to estimate approximated by dividing
deformation, stress, strain beam into small sections
and other mechanics of and calculating how
simple structures deformation, stress, strain
propagate
Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly
 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Finite elements in morphology

Rayfield, 2007
http://emilysyogamat.com/uploads/3/0/9/7/3097189/1343769773.jpg

Biological structures often have difficult shapes and unusual loadings.

But they can be divided into small blocks (finite elements) where exact
equations can be applied. The stresses and strains can be estimated
by simultaneously solving the equations for all blocks.

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

What happens in a single element?

E = elastic properties of material

A = area
L = length

Richmond et al., 2005

Kinds of elements
2D 3D

simple quadratic
Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly
 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Finite element method

1 . Model creation = finite element mesh of object +
material properties +
boundary constraints +
boundary loads or displacements

2 . Model solution = solve equations for all finite

elements in the mesh based on
material and boundary conditions

3 . Model output = numerical and visual output of

distribution of stresses and strains
throughout the object
Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly
 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Finite element meshes

Rayfield, 2007

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

What is a mesh?
Digital object composed of elements with vertices, edges, and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dolphin_triangle_mesh.png

faces. Elements can be 2D or 3D, triangular, quadrilateral, or

polygonal. Mesh can be a surface (no interior elements) or a
solid (with interior elements). For FEA, the mesh elements are
the finite elements.

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

How do I get a mesh?

• Create by hand by designing mesh object in CAD (computer assisted
drafting) or other software.

• Digitize a real object and create mesh (surface or solid)

Digitization
• Objects can be photographed to create 2D meshes.

• Points on 3D object can be digitized and then meshed (Microscribe arm, Reflex
microscope)

• Surface of an object can be scanned with laser or optical scanner and meshed.
Surface mesh can be converted to solid mesh with certain software.

• Volume of an object can be scanned with CT, MRI, or similar. Data must be processed
by segmenting (isolating bones or structures of interest from the background) and
meshing (either as surface or solid mesh)

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Example of laser scanned objects

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

CT scanned objects

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Material properties
Young’s modulus - stress / strain (force per area relative to deformation)
Also known as elastic modulus or tensile modulus, Young’s modulus is a measure of
stiffness or elasticity. Substances that are very elastic, like rubber bands, have low
Young’s modulus; stiffer substances like diamond, have high Young’s modulus.

Bulk modulus -
Measure of uniform resistance to compression.

Density -
mass per volume.

Isotropic -
response to load is the same in all directions (i.e., “strength” is the same in all directions)

Aniosotropic -
response to load differs depending on direction (“strength” is not the same in all
directions)
Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly
 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Bone materials and histology (anisotropic)

Collagen - elastic protein fibers, low Young’s modulus
Hydroxyapatite crystals - phosphate mineral, high Young’s modulus

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Examples of differences in biological materials

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Measuring failure of a material with Von Mises stress

Von Mises Yield criterion
Objects can deform in two ways: elastically, which is where they bounce back
to their resting shape when force is relieved, and plastically, which is where
they don’t return to their original shape. Breaking and cracking are extreme
examples of plastic yield, permanent bending of a coin is a less extreme
example.

Von Mises yield is a measure of when a particular material will start to yield
plastically instead of elastically, in other words it is a property related to when
the material starts to fail.

Von Mises Stress

Von Mises stress is a specific measure of stress in multiple planes (e.g.,
longitudinal, horizontal). When Von Mises stress reaches the yield strength of
a particular material, then that material will start to yield plastically.

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Constraints and Loads?

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly

 G563 Quantitative Paleontology

Bibliography
• Rayfield, E. J. 2007. Finite element analysis and understanding the biomechanics and evolution of living and fossil
organisms. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Science, 35: 541-576.

• Tseng, Z. J. 2009. Cranial function in a Late Miocene Dinocrocuta gigantea (Mammalia: Carnivora) revealed by
comparative finite element analysis. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 96: 51-67.

Things to look for in the papers for next week:

Meshes: how did they obtain them? Are meshes 2D, 3D, solid or hollow? What kinds of elements, how many elements,
what shape elements?

Materials: what was the real material? what properties did they use to model the material?

Constraints: where did they place the constraining boundary conditions? how do those constraints related to the real
biology of the problem?

Loads: ditto.

Outputs: What output do they focus on? stress, strain? what measure of?

Software: what software for the data collection? FEA models? processing?

Department of Geological Sciences | Indiana University (c) 2012, P. David Polly