Ancient Greek Theater

The theater of Dionysus, Athens (Saskia, Ltd.)

This page is designed to provide a brief introduction to Ancient Greek Theater, and to provide
tools for further research. Click on any of the following topics to explore them further.

1. Timeline of Greek Drama

2. Origins of Greek Drama

3. Staging an ancient Greek play

4. Greek Theaters

5. Structure of the plays read in Humanities 110

6. English and Greek texts of the plays for word searching.

7. Bibliography and links to other on-line resources for Greek Tragedy

1. Timeline of Greek Drama

Although the origins of Greek Tragedy and Comedy are obscure and controversial, our
ancient sources allow us to construct a rough chronology of some of the steps in their
development. Some of the names and events on the timeline are linked to passages in the next
section on the Origins of Greek Drama which provide additional context.
(Works in bold are on the Hum 110 syllabus)
7th Century BC
c. 625 Arion at Corinth produces named dithyrambic choruses.
6th Century BC
600-570 Cleisthenes, tyrant of Sicyon, transfers "tragic choruses" to Dionysus
540-527 Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, founds the festival of the Greater Dionysia
536-533 Thespis puts on tragedy at festival of the Greater Dionysia in Athens
525 Aeschylus born
511-508 Phrynichus' first victory in tragedy
c. 500 Pratinus of Phlius introduces the satyr play to Athens
5th Century BC
499-496 Aeschylus' first dramatic competition
c. 496 Sophocles born
492 Phrynicus' Capture of Miletus (Miletus was captured by the Persians in 494)
485 Euripides born
484 Aeschylus' first dramatic victory
472 Aeschylus' Persians
467 Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes
468 Aeschylus defeated by Sophocles in dramatic competition
463? Aeschylus' Suppliant Women
458 Aeschylus' Oresteia (Agamemnon, Libation Bearers, Eumenides)
456 Aeschylus dies
c. 450 Aristophanes born
447 Parthenon begun in Athens
c. 445 Sophocles' Ajax
441 Sophocles' Antigone
438 Euripides' Alcestis
431-404 Peloponnesian War (Athens and allies vs. Sparta and allies)
431 Euripides' Medea
c. 429 Sophocles' Oedipus the King
428 Euripides' Hippolytus
423 Aristophanes' Clouds
415 Euripides' Trojan Women
406 Euripides dies; Sophocles dies
405 Euripides' Bacchae
404 Athens loses Peloponnesian War to Sparta
401 Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus
4th Century BC
399 Trial and death of Socrates
c. 380's Plato's Republic includes critique of Greek tragedy and comedy
c. 330's Aristotle's Poetics includes defense of Greek tragedy and comedy

2. Origins of Greek Drama

Ancient Greeks from the 5th century BC onwards were fascinated by the question of the
origins of tragedy and comedy. They were unsure of their exact origins, but Aristotle and a
number of other writers proposed theories of how tragedy and comedy developed, and told
stories about the people thought to be responsible for their development. Here are some
excerpts from Aristotle and other authors which show what the ancient Greeks thought about
the origins of tragedy and comedy.
Aristotle on the origins of Tragedy and Comedy
1. Indeed, some say that dramas are so called, because their authors represent the characters as
"doing" them (drôntes). And it is on this basis that the Dorians [= the Spartans, etc.] lay claim
to the invention of both tragedy and comedy. For comedy is claimed by the Megarians here in
Greece, who say it began among them at the time when they became a democracy [c. 580
BC], and by the Megarians of Sicily on the grounds that the poet Epicharmas came from there
and was much earlier than Chionides and Magnes; while tragedy is claimed by certain
Dorians of the Peloponnese. They offer the words as evidence, noting that outlying villages,
called dêmoi by the Athenians, are called kômai by them, and alleging
that kômôdoi (comedians) acquired their name, not fromkômazein (to revel), but from the fact
that, being expelled in disgrace from the city, they wandered from village to village. The
Dorians further point out that their word for "to do" is drân, whereas the Athenians
use prattein. (Aristotle: Poetics Chapter 3)

2. And in accordance with their individual types of character, poetry split into two kinds, for
the graver spirits tended to imitate noble actions and noble persons performing them, and the
more frivolous poets the doings of baser persons, and as the more serious poets began by
composing hymns and encomia, so these began with lampoons....Thus among the early poets,
some became poets of heroic verse and others again of iambic verse. Homer was not only the
master poet of the serious vein, unique in the general excellence of his imitations and
especially in the dramatic quality he imparts to them, but was also the first to give a glimpse
of the idea of comedy [in the Margites]...And once tragedy and comedy had made their
appearance, those who were drawn to one or the other of the branches of poetry, true to their
natural bias, became either comic poets instead of iambic poets, or tragic poets instead of epic
poets because the new types were more important-- i.e. got more favorable attention, than the
earlier ones. Whether tragedy has, then, fully realized its possible forms or has not yet done so
is a question the answer to which both in the abstract and in relation to the audience [or the
theater] may be left for another discussion. Its beginnings, certainly, were in improvisation
[autoschediastikês], as were also those for comedy, tragedy originating in impromptus by the
leaders of dithyrambic choruses, and comedy in those of the leaders of the phallic
performances which still remain customary in many cities. Little by little tragedy grew greater
as the poets developed whatever they perceived of its emergent form, and after passing
through many changes, it came to a stop, being now in possession of its specific nature [tên
hautês phusin]. It was Aeschylus who first increased the number of the actors from one to two
and reduced the role of the chorus, giving first place to the dialogue. Sophocles [added] the
third actor and [introduced] painted scenery. Again, [there was a change] in magnitude; from
little plots and ludicrous language (since the change was from the satyr play), tragedy came
only late in its development to assume an air of dignity, and its meter changes from the
trochaic tetrameter to the iambic trimeter. Indeed, the reason why they used the tetrameter at
first was that their form of poetry was satyric [i.e. for "satyrs"] and hence more oriented
toward dancing; but as the spoken parts developed, natural instinct discovered the appropriate
meter, since of all metrical forms the iambic trimeter is best adapted for speaking. (This is
evident, since in talking with one another we very often utter iambic trimeters, but seldom
dactylic hexameters, or if we do we depart from the tonality of normal speech. Again, [there
was a change] in the number of episodes -- but as for this and the way in which reportedly
each of the other improvements came about, let us take it all as said, since to go through the
several details would no doubt be a considerable task. (Aristotle: Poetics Chapter 4)
Stories about the poet Arion

3. Periander was tyrant of Corinth. The Corinthians say (and the Lesbians agree) that the
greatest wonder in his life was the voyage of Arion of Methymna to Taenarum on a dolphin.
He was a kitharode second to none at that time and the first of men whom we know to have
composed the dithyramb and named it and produced it in Corinth. (Herodotus I.23)

4. Arion, of Methymna...is said also to have invented the tragic mode (tragikoû tropou) and
first composed a stationary chorus and sung a dithyramb and named what the chorus sang and
introduced satyrs speaking verses. (The Suda lexicon)

5. Pindar says the dithyramb was discovered in Corinth. The inventor of the song Aristotle
calls Arion. He first led the circular chorus. (Proculus, Chrest. xii)

6. The first performance of tragedy was introduced by Arion of Methymna, as Solon said in
his Elegies. Charon of Lampsacus says that drama was first produced at Athens by Thespis.
(John the Deacon, Commentary on Hermogenes)

Stories about Cleisthenes, Sicyon, and Hero-drama

7. I must not omit to explain that [the tyrant] Cleisthenes picked on Melanippus as the person
to introduce into Sicyon, because he was a bitter enemy of Adrastus, having killed both
Mecistes, his brother, and Tydeus his son-in-law. After settling him in his new shrine, he
transferred to him the religious honors of sacrifice and festival which had previously been
paid to Adrastus. The people of Sicyon had always regarded Adrastus with great reverence,
because the country had once belonged to Polybus, his maternal grandfather, who died
without an heir and bequeathed the kingdom to him. One of the most important of the tributes
paid him was the tragic chorus, or ceremonial dance and song, which the Sicyonians
celebrated in his honor; normally, the tragic chorus belongs to the worship of Dionysus; but in
Sicyon it was not so -- it was performed in honor of Adrastus, treating his life-story and
sufferings. Cleisthenes, however, changed this: he transferred the choruses to Dionysus, and
the rest of the ceremonial to Melanippus. (Herodotus V.67)

Stories trying to explain why, if tragedy originated from Dithyrambs sung in honor of
Dionysus, not all tragedies were about Dionysus ("Nothing to do with Dionysus": (ouden pros
ton Dionuson)
8. When Phrynichus and Aeschylus developed tragedy to include mythological plots and
disasters, it was said, "What has this to do with Dionysus?" (Plutarch, Symp. Quaest.)

9. Nothing to do with Dionysus. When, the choruses being accustomed from the beginning to
sing the dithyramb to Dionysus, later poets abandoned this custom and began to write
"Ajaxes" and "Centaurs". Therefore the spectators said in joke, "Nothing to do with
Dionysus." For this reason they decided later to introduce satyr-plays as a prelude, in order
that they might not seem to be forgetting the god. (Zenobius V.40)

10. Nothing to do with Dionysus. When Epigenes the Sicyonian made a tragedy in honor of
Dionysus, they made this comment; hence the proverb. A better explanation: Originally when
writing in honor of Dionysus they competed with pieces which were called satyric. Later they
changed to the writing of tragedy and gradually turned to plots and stories in which they had
no thought for Dionysus. Hence this comment. Chamaeleon writes similarly in his book on
Thespis. (The Suda lexicon)

Stories about Thespis the Athenian playwright

11. From when Thespis the poet first acted, who produced a play in the city and the prize was
a goat... (Marmor Parium, under the year about 534 BC).

12. This is Thespis, who first moulded tragic song, inventing new joys for his villagers, when
Bacchus led the wine-smeared (?) chorus, for which a goat was the prize (?) and a basket of
Attic figs was a prize too. The young change all this. Length of time will discover many new
things. But mine is mine. (Dioscorides, Anth. Pal. VII. 410)

13. The unknown poetry of the tragic Muse Thespis is said to have discovered and to have
carried poems on wagons, which they sang and acted, their faces smeared with wine-lees.
(Horace, Ars Poetica 275-277)

14. As of old tragedy formerly the chorus by itself performed the whole drama and later
Thespis invented a single actor to give the chorus a rest and Aeschylus a second and
Sophocles a third, thereby completing tragedy... (Diogenes Laertius III. 56)

15. Thespis: Of the city of Ikarios in Attica, the sixteenth tragic poet after the first tragic poet,
Epigenes of Sicyon, but according to some second after Epigenes. Others say he was the first
tragic poet. In his first tragedies he anointed his face with white lead, then he shaded his face
with purslane in his performance, and after that introduced the use of masks, making them in
linen alone. He produced in the 61st Olympiad (536/5-533/2 BC). Mention is made of the
following plays: Games of Pelias or Phorbas, Priests, Youths, Pentheus. (The Suda lexicon)

3. Staging an ancient Greek play

Attending a tragedy or comedy in 5th century BC Athens was in many ways a different
experience than attending a play in the United States in the 20th century. To name a few
differences, Greek plays were performed in an outdoor theater, used masks, and were almost
always performed by a chorus and three actors (no matter how many speaking characters
there were in the play, only three actors were used; the actors would go back stage after
playing one character, switch masks and costumes, and reappear as another character). Greek
plays were performed as part of religious festivals in honor of the god Dionysus, and unless
later revived, were performed only once. Plays were funded by the polis, and always
presented in competition with other plays, and were voted either the first, second, or third
(last) place. Tragedies almost exclusively dealt with stories from the mythic past (there was
no "contemporary" tragedy), comedies almost exclusively with contemporary figures and
problems.
In what follows, we will run through an imaginary (but as far a possible, accurate) outline of
the production of a Greek tragedy in 5th century BC Athens from beginning to end. The
outline will bring out some of the features of creating and watching a Greek tragedy that made
it a different process than it is today. Staging a play.

4. Greek Theaters

Greek tragedies and comedies were always performed in outdoor theaters. Early Greek
theaters were probably little more than open areas in city centers or next to hillsides where the
audience, standing or sitting, could watch and listen to the chorus singing about the exploits of
a god or hero. From the late 6th century BC to the 4th and 3rd centuries BC there was a
gradual evolution towards more elaborate theater structures, but the basic layout of the Greek
theater remained the same. The major components of Greek theater are labled on the diagram
above.
Orchestra: The orchestra (literally, "dancing space") was normally circular. It was a level
space where the chorus would dance, sing, and interact with the actors who were on the stage
near the skene. The earliest orchestras were simply made of hard earth, but in the Classical
period some orchestras began to be paved with marble and other materials. In the center of the
orchestra there was often a thymele, or altar. The orchestra of the theater of Dionysus in
Athens was about 60 feet in diameter.
Theatron: The theatron (literally, "viewing-place") is where the spectators sat. The theatron
was usually part of hillside overlooking the orchestra, and often wrapped around a large
portion of the orchestra (see the diagram above). Spectators in the fifth century BC probably
sat on cushions or boards, but by the fourth century the theatron of many Greek theaters had
marble seats.
Skene: The skene (literally, "tent") was the building directly behind the stage. During the 5th
century, the stage of the theater of Dionysus in Athens was probably raised only two or three
steps above the level of the orchestra, and was perhaps 25 feet wide and 10 feet deep. The
skene was directly in back of the stage, and was usually decorated as a palace, temple, or
other building, depending on the needs of the play. It had at least one set of doors, and actors
could make entrances and exits through them. There was also access to the roof of the skene
from behind, so that actors playing gods and other characters (such as the Watchman at the
beginning of Aeschylus' Agamemnon) could appear on the roof, if needed.
Parodos: The parodoi (literally, "passageways") are the paths by which the chorus and some
actors (such as those representing messengers or people returning from abroad) made their
entrances and exits. The audience also used them to enter and exit the theater before and after
the performance.
Greek Theaters Click here to explore more about Greek theaters in Perseus, with descriptions,
plans, and images of eleven ancient theaters, including the Theater of Dionysus in Athens, and
the theater at Epidaurus.

5. Structure of the plays read in Humanities 110

The basic structure of a Greek tragedy is fairly simple. After a prologue spoken by one or
more characters, the chorus enters, singing and dancing. Scenes then alternate between spoken
sections (dialogue between characters, and between characters and chorus) and sung sections
(during which the chorus danced). Here are the basic parts of a Greek Tragedy:
a. Prologue: Spoken by one or two characters before the chorus appears. The prologue
usually gives the mythological background necessary for understanding the events of the play.
b. Parodos: This is the song sung by the chorus as it first enters the orchestra and dances.
c. First Episode: This is the first of many "episodes", when the characters and chorus talk.
d. First Stasimon: At the end of each episode, the other characters usually leave the stage and
the chorus dances and sings a stasimon, or choral ode. The ode usually reflects on the things
said and done in the episodes, and puts it into some kind of larger mythological framework.
For the rest of the play, there is alternation between episodes and stasima, until the final
scene, called the...
e. Exodos: At the end of play, the chorus exits singing a processional song which usually
offers words of wisdom related to the actions and outcome of the play.
Click here to see an analysis of the structure of the plays read in Humanities 110.

6. Links to other on-line resources for Greek Theater and a brief bibliography
A. Bibliography for further reading
Books in the Reed Library that provide helpful approaches to Greek Tragedy include:
General Books
Goldhill, S. Reading Greek Tragedy (1986)
Heath, M. The Poetics of Greek Tragedy (1987)
Knox, B. Word and Action (1979)
Lesky, A. Greek Tragic Poetry (1983)
Rehm, R. Greek Tragic Theatre (1992)
Segal, C. Interpreting Greek Tragedy: Myth, Poetry, Text (1986)
Taplin, O. Greek Tragedy in Action (1978)
Vernant, J.P., and Vidal-Naquet, P. Tragedy and Myth in Ancient Greece (1981)
Vickers, B. Towards Greek Tragedy (1973)
Winkler, J. and Zeitlin, F. Nothing to Do with Dionysus? (1990)
Origins of Greek Drama
Burkert, W. "Greek Tragedy and Sacrificial Ritual." Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 7
(1966): 87-121.
Lesky, A. Greek Tragic Poetry (1983). Chapter 1: "Problems of Origin."
Pickard-Cambridge, A.W. Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy (1927) ________, second
edition by Webster, T.B.L. (1962)
Winkler, J. "The Ephebes' Song: Tragoîdia and Polis." reprinted in Nothing to Do with
Dionysus? (1990)
Aeschylus
Goldhill, S. Language, Sexuality, Narrative: The Oresteia (1984)
Lebeck, A. The Oresteia: A Study of Language and Structure (1971)
Rosenmeyer, T. The Art of Aeschylus (1982)
Taplin, O. The Stagecraft of Aeschylus (1977)
Winnington-Ingram, R.P. Studies in Aeschylus (1983)
Sophocles
Blundell, M.W. Helping Friends and Harming Enemies: A Study in Sophocles and Greek
Ethics (1989)
Edmunds, L. Oedipus: The ancient Legend and its Later Analogues (1985)
Gardiner, C.P. The Sophoclean Chorus (1987)
Gellie, G. Sophocles: A Reading (1972)
Knox, B. The Heroic Temper (1964)
Knox, B. Oedipus at Thebes (1957)
Scodel, R. Sophocles (1984)
Segal, Charles Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sophocles (1981)
Winnington-Ingram, R.P. Sophocles: An Interpretation (1980)
Euripides
Burian, P., ed. Directions in Euripidean Criticism (1985)
Collard C. Euripides (Greece and Rome Surveys in the Classics n. 14) (1981)
Foley, H. Ritual Irony: Poetry and Sacrifice in Euripides (1985)
Halleran, M. Stagecraft in Euripides (1985)
Michelini, A.N. Euripides and the Tragic Tradition (1987)
Segal, C. Dionysiac Poetics and Euripides' Bacchae (1982)
Segal, E., ed. Euripides
Velacott, P. Ironic Drama: A Study of Euripides (1975)
Winnington-Ingram, R. Euripides and Dionysus: An Interpretation of the Bacchae (1948)
Aristophanes
Cartledge, P. Aristophanes and His Theatre of the Absurd (1990)
Dover, K.J. Aristophanic Comedy (1972)
Henderson, J. The Maculate Muse: Obscene Language in Atic Comedy. 2nd edition. (1991)
Henderson, J. "The Demos and the Comic Competition", in J. Winkler and F. Zeitlin, eds,
Nothing to Do with Dionysus? (1990)
Konstan, D. Greek Comedy and Ideology (1995)
MacDowell, D. Aristophanes and Athens (1995)
McLeish, K. The Theatre of Aristophanes. London, 1980.
Nussbaum, M. "Aristophanes and Socrates on learning practical wisdom", Yale Classical
Studies 26 (1980) 43-97.
Redfield, J. "Drama and Community: Aristophanes and Some of His Rivals", in J. Winkler
and F. Zeitlin, eds, Nothing to Do with Dionysus? (1990)
Taplin, O. Comic Angels and Other Approaches to Greek Drama through Vase-Paintings.
Oxford: 1993.
Ussher, R.G. Aristophanes (Greece and Rome New Surveys in the Classics, 13). Oxford,
1979.
Whitman, C.H. Aristophanes and the Comic Hero. Cambridge, MA., 1964.