Introduction to Algebra

Def 2.0 ( G , ＊ ) G: a set

A binary operation ＊ on G : a ＊ b  G a,b  G

(G is closed under the operation ＊)

Def 2.1 Group : (G, ＊)
(i) a＊(b＊c) = (a＊b) ＊c associative
(ii)  e  G s.t.  a  G, a＊e = e＊a = a e: identity element of G
(iii)  a  G,  a’  G s.t. a＊a’ = a’＊a = e a’: inverse of a
Communicative group : (iv)  a, b  G, a＊b = b＊a
Thm 2.1 identity element is unique
pf: e’ = e’ ＊ e = e
Thm 2.2 inverse is unique
pf: suppose a’ & a’’ are inverse of a
a’ = a’＊e = a’＊(a＊a’’) = (a’＊a)＊a’’ = e＊a’’ = a’’
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 Examples: communicative group

1. ( Z , + ) e = 0 i -i Infinite group
2. ( Q-{0} , ▪ ) e = 1 b/a a/b
3. ( G={0,1} , ⊕ ) finite group

order of the group : the number of elements in a group

4. additive group

( G={0,1,2, ... ,m-1} , ) , where m  Z+, i j ≡ i + j mod m

Q: (i) ( i j ) k = i ( j k )
(ii) e = 0
(iii)  0 < i < m m – i is an inverse of i
(iv) i j = j i

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 5. multiplicative group
( G = { 1,2,3, … ,p-1} , ) p : prime
i j ≡ i ▪ j mod p
Pf:
(iii) Let i  G (<p) ∵ p is a prime ∴ (i , p) = 1
Q:∴  a, b  Z s.t. a▪i + b▪p = 1 & (a, p) = 1 (Euclid’s theorem)
 a▪i = -b▪p + 1
(1) if 0 < a < p i.e. a  G ∴ a i = i a = 1
(2) if a  G, say a = q▪p + r ∵(a, p) = 1 ∴r ≠ 0
 r ▪ i = -(b + q▪i)p + 1 ∴ r i = i r = 1

H is said to be a subgroup of G if
(i) H  G & H ≠ Ø
(ii) H is closed under the group operation of G & satisfies all
the conditions of a group
Q: Ref. pp. 29-31
e.g. G = ( Q, + )
(解讀standard array)
H = ( Z, + )
 Z is a subgroup of Q under the operation “+”
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Def 2.2 Field : ( F, +, ▪ )
(i) ( F, + ) F is a communicative group under “+”
(ii) ( F-{0}, ▪ ) F-{0} is a communicative group under “▪”
(iii) “▪” is distributive over “+”
i.e. a ▪ (b + c) = a ▪ b + a ▪ c a, b, c  F
Q: Does it imply (a + b) ▪ c = a ▪ c + b ▪ c
pf: ∵(a + b) ▪ c = c ▪ (a + b) = c ▪ a + c ▪ b = a ▪ c + b ▪ c

(1) order of the field : # of elements in a field

(2) finite field : order is finite
(3) a – b ≡ a + (-b) -b : additive inverse of b
a ÷ b ≡ a ▪ b-1 b-1 : multiplicative inverse of b
(4)  a  F, a ▪ 0 = 0 ▪ a = 0
pf: a = a ▪ 1 = a ▪ (1 + 0) = a + a ▪ 0
 -a + a = -a + a + a ▪ 0  0 = 0 + a ▪ 0 = a ▪ 0
(5)  a, b  F & a, b ≠ 0  a ▪ b ≠ 0
pf: if a ▪ b = 0
then (a-1 ▪ a) ▪ b= a-1 ▪ 0  b = 0 ()
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 (6) a ▪ b = 0 & a ≠ 0 imply that b = 0
(7)  a, b  F, –(a ▪ b) = (-a) ▪ b = a ▪ (-b)
pf: 0 = 0 ▪ b = (a + (-a)) ▪ b = a ▪ b + (-a) ▪ b
(8) For a ≠ 0, a ▪ b = a ▪ c imply that b = c
pf: 兩邊乘上a-1 a-1 ▪ (a ▪ b) = a-1 ▪ (a ▪ c)
 (a-1 ▪ a) ▪ b = (a-1 ▪ a) ▪ c  1 ▪ b = 1 ▪ c  b = c
Examples:
1. (R, +, ▪)
2. (F={0, 1}, , ) binary field GF(2)
3. (F={0, 1, 2, …, p-1}, , ) prime field GF(p) p : prime

* In a field, we can do the operations + - × ÷ in a manner similar to

ordinary arithmetic
4. extension field of GF(p) : GF(pm) m  Z+

Q: the order of any finite field is a power of a prime

* finite fields are also called Galois fields

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 • Next, consider a finite field of q elements, GF(q).
(9) 1 : unit element in GF(q) e.g. n = 4, m = 2
m n nm
If  1 =  1 (n  m ) then  1 = 0
i 1 i 1 i 1
1+1+1+1 = 1+1
兩邊加 “1” 之 inverse “-1”
(-1+1)+1+1+1 = (-1+1)+1
Characteristic () of the field GF(q) : 0+1+1+1 = 0+1
 1+1+1 = 1
smallest   Z  s.t. 1 0
i 1
…
1+1 = 0
Q: e.g. For GF(P), P:prime, = P
(10)  is prime
pf: suppose not   km, k, m  Z 
 k   m  km km

  1  
  
1 

 i 1   i  1  i 1

1  F . Since
i 1

1  0, then

k m
either  1=0 or  1=0 (  )
i 1 i 1

2014/11/19 Yuh-Ming Huang, CSIE NCNU Abstract Algebra 6

 k m
(11)  1   1 for any k, m   & k  m
i 1 i 1
k m m k
pf : suppose 1   1   1  0 (if m  k)
i 1 i 1 i 1

 m - k   
1 2  -1 
(12) 1   1,  1, ... ,  1,  1  0 GF( )
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1

Q: GF(λ) is called a subfield of GF(q)

(13) For any finite field GF(q) if λ ≠ q then q is a power of λ

Q: proof

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 • Let a be a nonzero element in GF(q).
a’ = a, a2 = a▪a, a3 = a▪a▪a, … a: nonzero elements of GF(q)
Since finite field, so ak = am suppose m > k
a-k(≡ (a-1) k) is the multiplicative inverse of ak
[ (a-1 ▪ a-1) ▪ (a ▪ a) = a-1 ▪ 1 ▪ a = a-1 ▪ a = 1 ]
∴ 1 = a m-k [ a3 ▪ a-2 = a ▪ a ▪ a ▪ a-1 ▪ a-1 = a = a3-2 ]
order of the field element a : smallest Z+ n, s.t. an = 1.
Thm { a1, a2, …, an-1, an = 1 } : form a group
under the multiplication of GF(q) Q: ai  aj
pf: (ii) unit element : 1
考慮 ai ▪ aj
(1) i + j ≤ n ai ▪ aj = ai+j
(2) i + j > n, say i + j = n + r 0 < r ≤ n closed
ai ▪ aj = ai+j = an ▪ ar = ar
(iii) For 1 ≤ i ≤ n an-i is the multiplicative inverse of ai
* A group is said to be cyclic if there exists an element in the group
whose powers constitute the whole group

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 Thm 2.4 a  GF(q) & a ≠ zero element. Then aq-1 = 1
pf: let b1 b2 … bq-1 be the q-1 nonzero elements
∴ a ▪ b1, a ▪ b2, …, a ▪ bq-1 are nonzero & distinct If a ▪ bi = a ▪ bj
(a ▪ b1) ▪ (a ▪ b2)…(a ▪ bq-1) = b1 ▪ b2 … ▪ bq-1 Then bi = bj
aq-1 ▪ ( b1 ▪ b2 … ▪ bq-1 ) = b1 ▪ b2 … ▪ bq-1
∵ ( b1 ▪ b2 … ▪ bq-1 ) ≠ 0  ∴ aq-1 = 1

Thm 2.5 a  GF(q) a ≠ 0 if n is the order of a, then n | q-1

pf: Suppose not q-1 = kn + r 0 < r < n
aq-1 = akn+r = akn ▪ ar = (an)k ▪ ar
∵ aq-1 = 1 & an = 1 ∴ ar = 1

* ln GF(q), a nonzero element a is said to be primitive if the order of a

q-1
Thm: Every finite field has a primitive element Q: proof
e.q. GF(7)
31 = 3, 32 = 2, 33 = 6, 34 = 4, 35 = 5, 36 = 1
3 : primitive element
41 = 4, 42 = 2, 43 = 1 order of “4” is 3  3| 7-1
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 Binary Field Arithmetic
n m
Let f(x)  
i 1
fi x i and g(x)  
j 0
f jx j , where fi , f j  GF(2)

f(x) g(x)  f(x)+g(x) modulo 2 (相加後 Q: Is it a field? No

係數再
(GF(2)[x ], , )
f(x) g(x)  f(x) ▪ g(x) modulo 2 mod 2)

(i) f(x) 0 = 0 or Z2[x]

(ii) f(x) said to be irreducible if it is not divisible by any polynomial over GF(2)
of degree less than n but greater than zero.
e.g. x2 , x2 ＋1, x2 ＋x are reducible over GF(2)
x ＋ 1, x2 ＋x+1, x3 ＋x+1 are irreducible over GF(2)
e.g. x 3  2 is irreducible over Q
x 3  2  ( x  3 2)( x 2  3 2 x  3 4) over R
x 3  2  ( x  3 2)( x   3 2)( x   2 3 2) over C , where
  e2i / 3  (1/ 2)  (i 3 / 2) satisfies  3  1. non-binary
field
e.g. x4+ 3x3+ 2x+4 = (x+4)3(x+1) over Z5
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Thm: In GF(2)[x], m ≥ 1,  an irreducible polynomial of degree m

pf: exercise

2m 1
Thm 2.6 Any irreducible polynomial over GF(2) of degree m divides x 1
pf: exercise
e.g. x3 ＋ x + 1 | x7+1 i.e. x7+1 = (x4 +x2 + x + 1)(x3 + x + 1)

*An irreducible polynomial p(x) of degree m is said to be primitive if the

smallest positive integer n for which p(x) divides xn + 1 is n = 2m - 1
2m 1
i.e. p(x) | x 1
e.g. x4 + x + 1 | x15 + 1 x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 | x5 + 1

primitive non-primitive
* For a given m, there may be more than one primitive polynomial of
degree m.
2014/11/19 Yuh-Ming Huang, CSIE NCNU Abstract Algebra 11
 2l 2l
Thm : l  0 [f ( x )]  f ( x ), where f ( x )  GF (2)[ x ]
pf: f 2(x) = (f0 + f1x + … + fnxn)2
= [f0 + (f1x + f2x2 + … + fnxn)]2
= f02 + (f1x + f2x2 + … + fnxn)2

…
 fi  0 or 1 = f02 + (f1x)2 + (f2x2)2 + … + (fnxn)2
 fi 2  fi = f0 + f1(x2)1 + f2(x2)2 + … + fn(x2)n = f(x2)

2014/11/19 Yuh-Ming Huang, CSIE NCNU Abstract Algebra 12

 Construction of Galois Field GF(2m), m > 1
Initially, we have two elements 0 and 1, from GF(2) and a new
symbol , and define a multiplication “▪ ’’ as follows
(i) 0▪0=0 0▪1=1▪0=0 1▪1=1
0▪α=α▪0=0 1▪α=α▪1=α
(ii) α2=α▪α α3=α▪α▪α … αj=α▪α ▪ … ▪ α(j times)
(iii) F = {0, 1, α, α2, …, αj, …}

(1) Let p(x) be a primitive polynomial of degree m over GF(2)

(2) assume that p(α) = 0
∵ P(x) | x2m-1 +1 (by Thm 2.6)
∴ x2m-1 + 1 = q(x)p(x) zero polynomial

 α 2m-1 + 1 =q(α)p(α) = q(α)▪0 = 0

 兩邊加1 (modulo 2)
 α 2m-1 = 1

Note: Regard q(α) as a polynomial of α over GF(2)

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 F* = { 0, 1(≡ α0), α, α2, …, α2m-2}
(A) Commutative group under “▪”
(1) Closed
let 0 ≤ i, j < 2m - 1
(i) i + j < 2m – 1 αi▪αj = αi+j  F*
(ii) i + j ≥ 2m – 1 i + j = (2m – 1) + r 0 ≤ r < 2m-1
∴ αi ▪ αj = α2m-1 ▪ αr = αr  F*
(2) 1 : unit element
(3) “▪” is communicative & associative
(4)  0 < i < 2m-1,  2m i 1 is the multiplicative inverse of αi
(F*-{0}, ▪) commutative group under “▪” with order 2m – 1

Q: 證αi ≠ αj 0 ≤ i ≠ j < 2m - 1

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(B) Commutative group under “+”

For 0 ≤ i < 2m-1, we have xi = qi(x)p(x) + ai(x) ----- (*)

where ai(x) = ai0 + ai1x + ai2x2 + … + ai,m-1xm-1
∵ (x, p(x)) = 1 ∴ ai(x) ≠ 0

* ai(x) ≠ aj(x) 0 ≤ i ≠ j < 2m - 1

pf: suppose ai(x) = aj(x)
xi + xj = [qi(x) + qj(x)]p(x) + ai(x) + aj(x)
=0
∴ p(x) | xi + xj = xi(1 + xj-i) (assume j > i)
∵ (p(x), xi) = 1 ∴ p(x) | 1 + xj-i  ∵ j – i < 2m - 1

 We have 2m-1 distinct nonzero polynomials ai(x) of degree m-1 or

less.
Replace x by α in equation (*), we have (∵p(α)=0)
(1) αi = ai(α) = ai0 + ai1α + ai2α2 + … + ai,m-1αm-1, 0≤ i ≤ 2m - 2
(2) 0 用 zero polynomial 表示

2014/11/19 Yuh-Ming Huang, CSIE NCNU Abstract Algebra 16

 (i) 0 + 0 = 0
Define (ii) 0 + αi = αi + 0 = αi
(iii) αi + αj  F*, 0 ≤i, j< 2m - 1: 一般多項式相加，係數取module 2

(F*, +) commutative group under “+”

(C) polynomial multiplication satisfies distribution law

a(x) ▪[b(x)+c(x)] = [a(x) ▪b(x)]+ [a(x) ▪c(x)]

 F* : a Galois field of 2m element, GF(2m)

2014/11/19 Yuh-Ming Huang, CSIE NCNU Abstract Algebra 17

GF(24), p(x) = 1 + x + x4 ( p() = 1 +  +  4 = 0 ) Decimal
Power Polynomial 4-Tuple representation
representation representation representation
0 0 (0000) 0
1 1 (1000) 8
 7   6
α α (0100) 4
α2 α2 (0010) 2 =  ( 2   3 )
α3 α3 (0001) 1 = 3 4
α4 1+α ( 1 1 0 0 ) 12
= 3 1
α5 α+α2 (0110) 6
α6 α2+α3 (0011) 3
α7 1+α +α3 ( 1 1 0 1 ) 13
係數相加後mod 2
α8 1+α2 ( 1 0 1 0 ) 10
α9 α + α3 (0101) 5
modulo
α10 1+α+ α2 ( 1 1 1 0 ) 14
α11 α+ α2+ α3 (0111) 7
α12 1+α + α2+ α3 ( 1 1 1 1 ) 15
GF(2)[]
α13 1 + α2+ α3 ( 1 0 1 1 ) 11
α14 1 + α3 (1001) 9 4+ +1
α15 = 1
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 α α2 α4 α8 α16  α
α3 α6 α12 α24 α48  α3
 α9
Table 7.1 Representations of GF(24). p(z) = z4 + z + 1
Exponential Polynomial Binary Decimal Minimal
Notation Notation Notation Notation Polynomial
0 0 0000 0 x
α0 1
係數相加 0001 1 x+1
α1 z 0010 2 x4 + x + 1
α2 z2 相乘在數系 0100 4 x4 + x + 1
α3 z3 GF(2)上 1000 8 x 4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
α4 z+1 0011 3 x4 + x + 1
α5 z +z
2 0110 6 x2 + x + 1
α6 z3 + z2 1100 12 x 4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
α7 z3 + z + 1 1011 11 x4 + x 3 + 1
α8 z2 + 1 0101 5 x4 + x + 1
α9 z +z
3 1010 10 x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
α10 z +z+1
2 0111 7 x2 + x + 1
α11 z3 + z2 + z + 1 1110 14 x 4 + x3 + 1
α12 z +z +z+1
3 2 1111 15 x 4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
α13 z +z +1
3 2 1101 13 x 4 + x3 + 1
α14 z3 + 1 1001 9 x4 + x3 + 1

2014/11/19 Yuh-Ming Huang, CSIE NCNU Abstract Algebra 19

 GF(2) GF(3)
+ 0 1 * 0 1 + 0 1 2 * 0 1 2
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 0 1 0 1 2
GF(2)[] 2 2 0 1 2 0 2 1
2+ +1 Primitive polynomial over GF(2)
GF(4) GF(22), p(x) = 1 + x + x2
( p() = 1 +  +  2 = 0 )
+ 0 1 2 3 * 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0
1 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 1 2 1 1 10 2
  01 1
2 2 3 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
2 1+  11 3
3 3 2 1 0 3 0 2 3 1

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  0 1 2 3  0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0
 GF(2)[ ]
1 0 1 1
GF(4)  1 1 0 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
2 1 0   2  1
2 2 3 0 1 2 0 2 3 1
3 1 1  1
3 3 2 1 0 3 0 3 1 2
Primitive polynomial over GF(4)
GF(42)  GF(4)[z]/z2+z+2, p(z) = z2+z+2
Exponential Polynomial Binary Decimal Minimal
Notation Notation Notation Notation Polynomial
0 0 00 0
α0 1 01 1 x+1
α1 z 10 4 x2 + x + 2
α2 z+2 12 6 x2 + x + 3
α3 3z + 2 32 14 x2 + 3x + 1
α4 z + 1 係數相加 11 5 x2 + x + 2
α5 2 02 2 x+2
α6 2z 相乘在數系 20 8 x2 +2x + 1
α7 2z + 3 GF(4)上 23 11 x2 + 2x + 2
α=z α8 z+3 13 7 x2 + x + 3
α15 = 1 α9 2z + 2 22 10 x2 + 2x + 1
α10 3 03 3 x+3
α11 3z 30 12 x2 + 3x + 3
α12 3z + 1 31 13 x2 + 3x + 1
α13 2z + 1 21 9 x2 + 2x + 2
α14 3z + 3 33 15 x2 + 3x + 3
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 Basic properties of Galois Field GF(2m)
In GF(2) + + 1 : irreducible
x4 x3 In R x2 + 1無根
In GF(24) x4 + x3 + 1 = (x + α7)(x + α11)(x + α13)(x + α14) C x2 + 1 有 ±i 根

Thm 2.7 f(x)  GF(2)[x] let β be an element in an extension field of GF(2).

l
If β is a root of f(x), then for any l ≥ 0, 2 is also a root of f(x).
pf: f(β) = 0
∵ [f(x)] 2l = f(x2l) ∴ f(β2l) = [f(β)]2l = 0
• β2l is called a conjugate of β
• In GF(24), α7 (α7)2 = α14 (α7)22 = α13 (α7)23 = α11 (α7)24 = α7
• Let β  GF(2m) & β ≠ 0 By Thm 2.4 β2m-1 = 1
∴ β2m-1 + 1 = 0 in GF(2m), i.e. β is a root of x2m-1 + 1.
Thm 2.8 The 2m - 1 nonzero element of GF(2m) form all the roots of x2m-1 + 1

Cor. 2.8.1 The elements of GF(2m) form all the roots of x2m + x (∵ 0 is the root of x)

φ(x) : minimal polynomial of β, the polynomial of smallest degree

over GF(2) s.t. φ(β) = 0 Q : φ(x) is unique
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 Thm 2.9 φ(x) is irreducible
pf : φ(x) = φ1(x)φ2(x) ∵ φ(β) = 0 ∴ either φ1(β) = 0 or φ2(β) = 0 ()

Thm 2.10 f(x)  GF(2)[x] if β is also a root of f(x) then φ(x) | f(x)
pf : f(x) = a(x)φ(x) + r(x)
∵ f(β) = φ(β) = 0 ∴ r(β) = 0  if r(x) ≠ 0 () ∴ r(x) = 0
Thm 2.11 φ(x) | x2m + x
pf : By Cor 2.8.1 & Thm 2.10
 (1) all the roots of φ(x) are from GF(2m)
( 2) what are the roots of φ(x) ?
Thm 2.12 Let f(x) be an irreducible polynomial aver GF(2)
if f(β) = 0 then φ(x) = f(x)
pf : By Thm 2.10 φ(x) | f(x) ∵ φ(x)1 & f(x) is irreducible ∴ φ(x) = f(x)

By Thm 2.7 β, β2, β22, …, β2l, … are roots of φ(x)

Let e be the smallest integer, s.t. β2e = β
Q : Then β21, β22, …, β2e-1 are all the distinct conjugates of β
∵ β2m = β ∴ e ≤ m
2014/11/19 Yuh-Ming Huang, CSIE NCNU Abstract Algebra 23
   x    is irreducible over GF(2)
e-1
2i
Thm 2.13 f(x) 
p f: i0

       
e1 2 e1
  2 2
2i1
 x   2i 2i 2i
2
( 1 )  f   x     x    x    x 2
 
 i0  i0

  f  x      x      x   
e1 e
2 2 2i1 2 2i

i0 i1

  x     x     
e1 e e1
   2 

 i1 
 2
 x 2i 2 2e

i0
2
  2i
f x 
2
* 

Let f x   f 0  f 1 x  ...  f e x e w h e re f 0  1 f i  GF ( 24 )
  
e e e e

 f  x     1  1  * * 
2
fi x 2 2i
fi f j x i j
 fi2 x 2i
i0 i0 j0 i0
i j

 
e e

By *  & * *  fi x 2i
 f i 2 x 2 i  fo r 0  i  e w e h a v e f i  f i 2
i 0 i0
 fi = 0 or 1
(2) suppose f(x) (=a(x)b(x)) is not irreducible over GF(2)  f(x)  GF(2)[x]
∵ f(β) = 0  a(β) = 0  a(x) has β β2 … β2e-1 as roots
 deg[a(x)] = e & a(x)=f(x)
or b(β) = 0  similarly, b(x) = f(x)
 f(x) must be irreducible
2014/11/19 Yuh-Ming Huang, CSIE NCNU Abstract Algebra 24
 e-1
Thm 2.14 Let e be the smallest integer, s.t.  2e
  Then  (x)=  (x+
i=0
2i
)
Pf : By Thm 2.12 & 2.13

Thm 2.15 Let e be the degree of φ(x).

Then e is the smallest integer s.t. β2e = β, moreover e ≤ m
Pf: direct consequence of Thm 2.14.
Minimal polynomials of the elements in GF(24) generated by p(x)=x4+x+1
Conjugate roots minimal polynomials
0 x
1 x+1
, 2, 4, 8 x4+ x +1
3, 6, 9, 12 x4+ x3+ x2+ x +1
5, 10 x2+ x +1
7, 11, 13, 14 x4+ x3+ 1

e.g. X15+1= (x+1)(x2+x+1) (x4+x+1) (x4+x3+1) (x4+x3+x2+x+1) over GF(2)

X15+1= (x+0) (x+5)(x+10) (x+1)(x+2)(x+4)(x+8) over GF(24)
15 = 1 (x+7)(x+14)(x+13)(x+11) (x+3)(x+6)(x+12)(x+9)
2014/11/19 Yuh-Ming Huang, CSIE NCNU Abstract Algebra 25
Q:1. The degree of the minimal polynomial of any element in GF(2m) divides m
2. In pp.15 (1) αi ≠ αj
(2) α is a primitive element
pf : if αi = αj , i ≠ j , j > i , 1 ≤ i, j < 2m – 1
 αj-i = 1
ie.  n = j – i < 2m - 1 s.t. αn + 1 = 0 α以x替
代
 xn + 1 = q(x)p(x) + r(x) i.e. p(α) | αn + 1
 αn + 1 = q(α)p(α) + r(α) i.e. p(x) | xn + 1 ()
∵ αn + 1 = 0 & p(α) = 0 ∴ r(α) = 0 ∵ p(x) is primitive
x以α
替代

Q : primitive polynomial & minimal polynomial 關係?

2014/11/19 Yuh-Ming Huang, CSIE NCNU Abstract Algebra 26

 (1) For degree m primitive polynomial is not unique
Q : (2) For α, the minimal polynomial of α is unique
(3) If α is primitive, the minimal polynomial of α is primitive

＊Let n be the order of α2l, l > 0, by Thm 2.5, n | 2m – 1 --- (1)

In GF(2m) i.e. (α2l)n= αn•2l = 1
∵ α is a primitive element of GF(2m), its order is 2m – 1
∴ 2m – 1 | n•2l ∵ (2m – 1, 2l) = 1 ∴ 2m – 1 | n --- (2) By (1)& (2) n = 2m – 1
 If α is primitive, then α2l is primitive

Thm 2.16 If β is primitive in GF(2m), all its conjugates β2, β22, … are
also primitive
Example 2.10

Thm 2.17 If β is an element of order n in GF(2m), all its conjugates

Q:
have the same order n

Example 2.11

2014/11/19 Yuh-Ming Huang, CSIE NCNU Abstract Algebra 27