CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

“All cells come from cells.”

Rudolf Virchow
German Physician & early proponent of the cell theory

With these words, Rudolf Virchow captured the crucial importance of cellular reproduction for both
unicellular and multicellular organisms.

The Essentials of Cellular Reproduction

When a cell divides, it must transmit to its offspring cells two essential requirements for life:
• heredity information to direct life processes; and
• materials in the cytoplasm that the offspring need to survive and to utilize their hereditary information.

Because living organisms consists of one or more cells, and because all cells descended from pre-
existing cells, cellular reproduction is absolutely essential for the continued existence of life on earth.

How do cells reproduce?

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divide in two

This process is appropriately called cell division, produces two daughter cells, that if all goes well,
have exactly the same genetic information as the parent cell. Each daughter cell inherits about half of the
parent’s cytoplasm, including a full complement of organelles. Each round of growth and cell division is
called cell cycle.

The Two Faces of Cell Division

1. Mitosis
• essentially a duplication process
• produces two genetically identical "daughter" cells from a single "parent" cell
• you grew from a single embryonic cell to the person you are now through mitosis.
• even after you are grown, mitosis replaces cells lost through everyday wear and tear
• the constant replenishment of your skin cells, for example, occurs through mitosis
• mitosis takes place in cells in all parts of your body, keeping your tissues and organs in good
working order

2. Meiosis
• Meiosis, on the other hand, is quite different.
• It shuffles the genetic deck, generating daughter cells that are distinct from one another and
from the original parent cell.
• Although virtually all of your cells can undergo mitosis, only a few special cells are capable
of meiosis: those that will become eggs in females and sperm in males

So, basically, mitosis is for growth and maintenance, while meiosis is for sexual reproduction.
Cell Cycle

A typical animal cell cycle lasts roughly 24 hours, but depending on the type of cell, it can vary in
length from less than 8 hours to more than a year. Most of the variability occurs in G1.

The illustration shows the cell cycle of a

eukaryotic plant or animal cell.

This cycle begins when the cell is produced by

mitosis and runs until the cell undergoes its
own mitosis and splits in two.

The cycle is divided into distinct phases:

• G1 (gap 1)
• S (synthesis)
• G2 (gap 2), and
• M (mitosis)

As you can see, mitosis only occupies a

fraction of the cycle. The rest of the time-
phases G1 through G2—is known as
interphase.

G1 (gap 1 or growth 1)
Beginning after cytokinesis, the daughter cells are quite small and low on ATP. They acquire ATP
and increase in size during the G1 phase of Interphase.

S (DNA synthesis)
After acquiring sufficient size and ATP, the cells then undergo DNA Synthesis (replication of the
original DNA molecules, making identical copies, one "new molecule" eventually destined for each new
cell) which occurs during the S phase.

G2 ) gap 2 or growth 2)
Since the formation of new DNA is an energy draining process, the cell undergoes a second growth
and energy acquisition stage, the G2 phase. The energy acquired during G2 is used in cell division

Scientists used to think of interphase as a resting phase during which not much happened, but they
now know that this is far from the truth. It is during interphase that chromosomes—the genetic material—
are copied, and cells typically double in size. While this is happening, cells continue to do their jobs. Your
heart muscle cells contract and pump blood, your intestinal cells absorb the food you eat, your thyroid gland
cells churn out hormones, and so on.

In contrast, most of these activities cease during mitosis while the cell focuses on dividing. But as
you have probably figured out, not all cells in an organ undergo mitosis at the same time. While one cell
divides, its neighbors work to keep your body functioning.

MITOSIS

Unlocking of Difficulties

Ploidy is a term referring to the number of sets of chromosomes.

Diploid (2n) organisms are those with two (di) sets. Human beings (except for their gametes), most animals
and many plants are diploid.

Haploid (n) organisms/cells have only one set of chromosomes. Organisms with more than two sets of
chromosomes are termed polyploid.

Chromatid - Copy of a chromosome produced by replication. This occurs during the S phase of the cell
cycle.

Centromere - Constricted region of a chromosome that holds sister chromatids together

Mitosis --- Eukaryotic Cell Division

Growth in multicellular organisms is chiefly by multiplication of cells. Cells multiply chiefly by
mitosis, a complex process that involves the equal division of the nuclear chromatin in kind and amount.
Cell division is common to all animals and plants.
Mitosis is active during embryonic development, growth, in repair of injuries, replacement of body
covering at molting, also the process involved in malignant growth (tumors and cancers).

Stages
1. Mitosis
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
2. Cytokinesis
Regulation of the Cell Cycle

At first glance, the orderly progression of the cell through the phases of the cell cycle
may seem perfectly straightforward. When building a house, the walls aren't erected until after
the foundation has been laid. Likewise, in the cell, mitosis doesn't begin until after the genetic
material has been copied. Otherwise, the daughter cells would end up with less than a complete
set of chromosomes and would probably die. So in the cell cycle, just as in house-building,
certain steps need to precede others in an orderly fashion for the process to work.
How does the cell "know" when a step has been completed and it's time to move on to
the next?
The answer is that the cell has several molecular "inspectors" stationed at intervals—
called checkpoints—throughout the cell cycle. These cellular inspectors function much like
building inspectors do: If a step has been completed to their satisfaction, they give the OK to
move forward. If not, they halt progress until the cellular construction workers finish the task.

There are three major checkpoints in

the cell cycle: one between G1 and S phase,
one between G2 and mitosis, and one during
mitosis itself.

Regulation of the cell cycle is

accomplished in several ways. Some cells
divide rapidly (beans, for example take 19
hours for the complete cycle; red blood cells
must divide at a rate of 2.5 million per
second). Others, such as nerve cells, lose their
capability to divide once they reach maturity. Some cells, such as liver cells, retain but do not
normally utilize their capacity for division. Liver cells will divide if part of the liver is removed.
The division continues until the liver reaches its former size.

Cancer cells are those which undergo a series of rapid divisions such that the daughter
cells divide before they have reached "functional maturity". Environmental factors such as
changes in temperature and pH, and declining nutrient levels lead to declining cell division rates.

When cells stop dividing, they stop usually at a point late in the G1 phase, the R point
(for restriction).
MEIOSIS

Unlocking of Difficulty

Meiosis

Nearly all multicellular organisms reproduce sexually by the fusion of an egg and a
sperm. Sexual reproduction occurs only in eukaryotes.

Meiosis is a special type of nuclear division which segregates one copy of each
homologous chromosome into each new "gamete". During the formation of gametes, the number
of chromosomes is reduced by half, and returned to the full amount when the two gametes fuse
during fertilization. Two successive nuclear divisions occur, Meiosis I (Reduction) and Meiosis
II (Division). Meiosis produces 4 haploid cells. The old name for meiosis was reduction division.

Meiosis I reduces the ploidy level from 2n to n (reduction) while Meiosis II divides the
remaining set of chromosomes in a mitosis-like process (division).

Stages

Prophase I

Prophase I - most of the significant processes of Meiosis occur

during Prophase I The chromosomes condense and become visible.
The centrioles form and move toward the poles. The nuclear membrane
begins to dissolve.The homologues pair up, forming a tetrad. Synapsis
is the pairing of homologous chromosomes. Each tetrad is comprised of four chromatids - the
two homologues, each with their sister chromatid.

Homologous chromosomes will swap

genetic material in a process known as crossing
over. Crossing over serves to increase genetic
diversity by creating four unique chromatids.

During crossing-over chromatids break and

may be reattached to a different homologous
chromosome. The occurrence of a crossing-over is
indicated by a special structure, a chiasma (plural
chiasmata) since the
recombined inner alleles will
align more with others of the same type.

Near the end of Prophase I, the homologous chromosomes begin

to separate slightly, although they remain attached at chiasmata.

Homologous chromosomes will swap genetic material in a process

known as crossing over. Crossing over serves to increase genetic
diversity by creating four unique chromatids.
Characteristics of Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
An equational division which separates sister The first stage is a reductional division which
chromatids. separates homologous chromosomes at first
anaphase; sister chromatids separate in an
equational division at second anaphase.
One division per cycle, i.e. one cytoplasmic Two divisions per cycle, i.e. two cytoplasmic
division (cytokinesis) per equational divisions, one following reductional
chromosomal division. chromosomal division and one following
equational chromosomal division.
Chromosomes fail to synapse; no chiasmata Chromosomes synapse and form chiasmata;
form; genetic exchange between homologous genetic exchange occurs between homologues.
chromosomes does not occur.
Two products (daughter cells) produced per Four cellular products (gametes or spores)
cycle. produced per cycle.
Genetic content of mitotic products are Genetic content of meiotic products different;
identical. one distinct from the parent cell and with one
another.
Chromosome number of daughter cells is the Chromosome number of meiotic products is
same as that of mother cell. half that of the mother cell.
Mitotic products are usually capable of Meiotic products can not undergo another
undergoing additional mitotic divisions. meiotic division although they maybe undergo
mitotic division.
Normally occurs in most all cells. Occurs only in specialized cell s of the germ
line.
Begins at the zygote stage and continues Occurs only after a higher organism has begun
through the life of the organisms. to mature; occurs in the zygote of many algae
and fungi.
Prokaryotic Cell Division -- Binary fission

Under favorable conditions, the cell cycle of many prokaryotes proceeds rapidly, e.g.,
Escherichia coli --- 30 minutes or less.