THOMAS HERZOG

ROLAND KRIPPNER
WERNER LANG

Facade Construction

MANUAL
Edition ∂

SECOND EDITION
 THOMAS HERZOG
ROLAND KRIPPNER
WERNER LANG

Facade Construction

MANUAL
Edition ∂

SECOND EDITION
Authors

Thomas Herzog Student research assistants:

Prof. Dr. (Univ. Rome) Dr. h.c. Dipl.-Ing. Architect BDA Simon Axmann, Lilly Brauner, Annika Ludwig, Verena Schmidt,
Technical University of Munich, Department of Architecture, Fabiola Tchamko, Ka Xu
Chair of Building Technology (until 2006)
TUM Emeritus of Excellence Authors of the 2004 edition:
Dr.-Ing. Winfried Heusler (Aspects of building physics and
Roland Krippner planning advice)
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Architect BDA Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Michael Volz (Timber)
Technische Hochschule Nürnberg Georg Simon Ohm,
Department of Architecture, Field of Construction and Technology Expert consultants for the 2004 edition:
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Gerhard Hausladen, Dipl.-Ing. Stefan Heeß,
Werner Lang Dr.-Ing. M. Sc. Reiner Letsch, Dr. Volker Wittwer
Prof. Dr.-Ing., M. Arch. II (UCLA) Architect
Technical University of Munich, Research assistants (Chair of Building Technology) for the 2004
Department of Civil, Geo and Environmental Engineering and edition under the guidance of Prof. Thomas Herzog:
Department of Architecture, Peter Bonfig (Surfaces – structural principles),
Chair of Energy Efficient and Sustainable Design and Building Jan Cremers (External and internal conditions; Metal),
András Reith (Natural stone; Clay),
Expert consultant: Annegret Rieger (Timber),
Dr. Tilmann E. Kuhn Daniel Westenberger (Edges, openings; Manipulators)

Research assistant: Student research assistants for the 2004 edition:

Andreas Kacinari (Organisational support) Tina Baierl, Sebastian Fiedler, Elisabeth Walch, Xaver Wankerl

Editorial services
Reproduction:
Editing, copy-editing (German edition): ludwig:media, Zell am See
Steffi Lenzen (Project Manager), Daniel Reisch
Printing and binding:
Editorial assistants (German edition): Kessler Druck + Medien, Bobingen
Heike Messemer, Carola Jacob-Ritz, Eva Schönbrunner,
Melanie Zumbansen Publisher:
DETAIL Business Information GmbH, Munich
Editors of the 2004 edition: www.detail-online.com
Steffi Lenzen, Christine Fritzenwallner;
Susanne Bender-Grotzeck, Christos Chantzaras, Carola Jacob-Ritz, © 2017, English translation of the second, revised and expanded
Christina Reinhard, Friedemann Zeitler, Manuel Zoller German edition (2016)
2004, first German and first English edition
Drawings:
Ralph Donhauser, Simon Kramer; ISBN: 978-3-95553-369-4 (Print)
Alexander Araj, Marion Griese, Martin Hämmel, Emese Köszegi, ISBN: 978-3-95553-370-0 (E-Book)
Dejanira Ornelas Bitterer ISBN: 978-3-95553-371-7 (Bundle)

Drawings for the 2004 edition: Bibliographic information published by the German National Library.
Marion Griese, Elisabeth Krammer; The German National Library lists this publication in the Deutsche
Bettina Brecht, Norbert Graeser, Christiane Haslberger, Oliver Klein, Nationalbibliografie (German National Bibliography); detailed biblio-
Emese Köszegi, Andrea Saiko, Beate Stingl, Claudia Toepsch graphic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

Translation into English: This work is subject to copyright. All rights reserved, whether the whole
Christina McKenna for keiki communication, Berlin or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of trans-
lation, reprinting, recitation, reuse of illustrations and tables, broad-
Copy-editing (English edition): casting, reproduction on microfilm or in other ways and storage in data
Matthew Griffon, Meriel Clemett for keiki communication, Berlin processing systems. Reproduction of any part of this work in individual
cases, too, is only permitted within the limits of the provisions of the
Proofreading (English edition): valid edition of the copyright law. A charge will be levied. Infringe-
Stefan Widdess, Berlin ments will be subject to the penalty clauses of the copyright law.

Production & layout: This textbook uses terms applicable at the time of writing and is
Roswitha Siegler, Simone Soesters based on the current state of art, to the best of the authors' and
editors' knowledge and belief. All drawings in this book were made
specifically by the publisher. No legal claims can be derived from
the contents of this book.

This book is also available in a German-language edition

(ISBN 978-3-95553-328-1)

4
Contents

Imprint 4
Table of contents 5
Foreword 6

Shell, wall, facade – an essay 8

Part A The fundamentals 16

1 External and internal conditions 18

2 General basics of construction 26
2.1 Surfaces – structural principles 26
2.2 Edges, openings 38
2.3 Modular coordination 46
3 Aspects of building physics and 52
planning advice

Part B Structures built with specific materials 62

1 Natural stone 64
2 Clay 86
3 Concrete 106
4 Timber 130
5 Metal 158
6 Glass 188
7 Plastics 216

Part C Special topics 236

1 Multilayer glass facades 238

2 Manipulators 266
3 Solar energy 294
4 Integrated facades 322
5 Refurbishing existing facades 328
6 Green facades 336

Appendix

Authors 342
Image credits 343
Literature 346
Statutory regulations, directives and standards 348
Index 350

5
 Foreword

30 years after the publication of our first con- images, diagrams and schematic illustrations
struction handbook, this is the first in the series showing the morphology of surfaces and
to deal with facades. openings.
Over the centuries, architects’ design ser- A building’s envelope interacts directly with its
vices have often concentrated on developing other subsystems: its support structure, the
impressive section drawings of buildings, partitioning of rooms and technical building
which frequently became objects of heated equipment. Various interdependencies exist
controversy over questions of style chosen as or must be defined so that each structural sys-
well as a medium for conveying new artistic tem can be geometrically coordinated in the
positions. space. Dimensional and modular conditions
and proportions must be defined for the build-
There is now an increasing focus once more ing as a whole to be developed. Combining
on facades due to the growing importance these aspects results in the parameters for
taken on by exterior walls in the context of material implementation based on the materials
energy consumption issues and options for and construction methods to be chosen. If the
making use of environmental energy. In add- materials and technologies used to manufac-
ition to this focus, and usually contrasting with ture them are important in defining further spe-
it, are efforts at self-promotion and “identifi- cific features, then certain physical, material,
cation with the address” for those clients for installation-related and aesthetic details must
whom the “packaging” of their buildings, which also be coordinated.
often have quite banal interiors, has long since
become a substitute for quality architecture. The second part of this book’s structure is
The booming Asian megacities show this quite based on this context. Here the chapters have
clearly. been kept separate from examples and pre-
cede them. Each begins with a brief summary
The sequence of this book’s chapters takes of the history of civilisation’s use of the material
an expedient approach to designing and and its specific features. Here we do not limit
developing facade structures. Aspects that the area of materials applications to building
apply generally to the exterior walls of build- construction, simply because as civilisation
ings, involving demands made on them, their has developed, technology has often emerged
principal functionality and structural design, in different ways and interactions with mater-
have been separated from descriptions of the ials and initial applications have often emerged
special features of individual cases. The book from very different areas. Stone, ceramics and
represents more than just a collection of differ- metal, for example, are so significant that whole
ent buildings in various locations and contexts, cultural eras have been named after them.
of different types and technologies. Rather, Today too, much technical innovation comes
specific features have been classified and from the construction industry, especially in
described based on the various materials used modern facade construction, through a transfer
in their walls or cladding. of technologies from different sectors, such
The first part deals with demands made on as forming technologies, surface treatments
facades from the inside, which derive from and robotics. These chapters are followed
the building’s usage type. Buildings face very by a section showing a selection of built ex-
different local climatic conditions, depending amples focusing on materials, which provides
on the region in which they are located. Out of insights into the range of possibilities available
this confrontation arise the functional demands and is designed to inspire readers to further
on an exterior wall. These are formulated as develop their own ideas. This is done by way
a remit that is initially open to a range of pos- of drawings of main facade details with explan-
sible solutions, so implementation details are ations provided in keys because this is the
not described in this section. The book’s most medium usually used for conveying information
important statements are made in the form of to architects.

6
We selected new projects with facades that decades requires special mention and dis- For this second edition, Part B on “Structures
interestingly embody the building as a whole, cussion because there is still great uncertainty built with specific materials” and the “Special
as well as “classics” that still set standards regarding their design and planning. Planners topics” chapter have been revised and
because of their architectural quality as well often simply follow fashionable trends instead expanded to include examples from the past
as a range of details that may be of practical of making good use of the main advantages decade.
value for architects and engineers working on of such structures. Basic errors are often made
older buildings. because there is not enough awareness of New to this edition are three sections that do
Projects are shown here not as whole build- structural and energy technology interconnec- not deal mainly with specific materials but
ings, rather our descriptions focus on their tions or of individual variants available for pos- cover issues that have become increasingly
facades, which is why contributors other than sible use in construction. important and need to be examined separately.
architects, such as specialist engineers, are The integration of directly and indirectly oper- The main reason for this are bioclimatic factors
rarely mentioned in project descriptions, ating solar systems in building envelopes is requiring special architectural solutions for the
unless they played a major role in creating still uncharted territory for many and success- structural subsystem “facade” involving design
the facade. ful combinations of practical value, technical- in accordance with functional, technical and
physical function, design and construction aesthetic criteria: refurbishment, the integration
Readers will also notice that in describing solutions are still the exception rather than the of annexed technical structural systems and
construction details we have at times diverged rule, even though the first pioneering applica- the greening of exterior walls.
from solutions or technical rules customary in tions were implemented decades ago.
Germany, as is justifiable in a book full of inter- It was therefore natural to develop a separate
national examples. Those who would like more Munich, spring 2004 third section of the book covering these six
details on a project described are referred to Thomas Herzog areas. After a general description of remit
the more detailed bibliographical references, and operating principles, it depicts a range
which are indicated with a “º”. of different solutions and renderings and vari-
ous examples of built structures that represent
It may be regarded as valuable to depict a the current state-of-the-art.
building as a large technical object, not as
a complicated system, possibly unmanage- Further developments are bound to follow, if
able and consisting of many kinds of com- only for reasons of efficiency, profitability and
ponents, but succinctly, simply, equally power- a commitment to sophisticated design. It is to
fully and sensitively designed. Developments be hoped that architects enthusiastic about the
in recent decades and enormously increased design of structural systems and components,
demands on building envelopes however, have people whose profession relies on an ability
led to the emergence of multilayer structures, to comprehend the “technical organism” of a
each layer of which has specific functions. building as a whole, right down to the smallest
This is now a frequent feature of modern struc- detail, will continue to make cogent contribu-
tures made of almost all materials, so struc- tions to a broad “culture of construction” as a
tures made of specific materials and special social imperative.
facade construction topics are dealt with in
separate chapters. The authors would like to thank all the people,
institutions, architects, photographers and
A centuries-old principle of modifying and companies that have supported our work with
individually influencing the permeability of their skilful contributions and everyone who
facade openings, whether for reasons of the worked on the new edition.
building’s energy balance, interior climate,
lighting conditions or safety, is dealt with under Munich, summer 2016
the chapter heading of “Manipulators”, which Thomas Herzog, Roland Krippner, Werner Lang
takes on a new topicality and covers a wide
range of different types.
We also take the view that the prevalence
of multilayer and double facades in recent

7
 Shell, wall, facade

Shell, wall, facade – This book on facades focuses on their func-

an essay tional and technical aspects. Some obser-
vations will, however, first be made that go
beyond these aspects and embed this very
complex and culturally specific topic, which
also directly affects perceptions of architecture,
in a broader context.

A protective shell

Building envelopes offer protection from the

weather and enemies and a place to store pro-
visions, and were the first and most important
reason for building. Unlike structures such as
bridges, towers, dams or cranes, buildings
contain rooms, whose creation and use are an 2
essential element of human civilisation and one
closely related to the exigencies of climate.

This is demonstrated by the fact that the effort

involved in construction is much less in regions
where the outdoor climate conditions are gen-
erally those that people find comfortable. The
more divergent the outdoor climate and indoor
climatic requirements are, the greater the tech-
nical effort required to meet the requirements of
people living inside structures.

Over the course of human development, people

have spent long periods searching for conven-
ient pre-existing spaces for themselves and
their animals, sites such as caves, grottoes
in cliffs and rocks or very dense masses of
vegetation, protected places that would offer
suitable conditions for survival (Fig. 2).

When people settled, they began to create 3

such spaces artificially, using materials they
found and various construction processes. 1 Sucevita Monastery (RO) 16th century
They built roofs and exterior walls, and the 2 Cave dwelling
3 Exterior wall made of local natural stone, Auvergne (FR)
exteriors of built spaces became important
in providing protection from the weather and
fulfilling various other functions (Fig. 3).

The hollow spaces existing in nature, sur- A building’s exterior surface was now also a
rounded by masses of stone or earth, were counterpart to its inner surface, long used as
now reduced to relatively thin-walled structures an important communication medium (e.g. for
built by people. Buildings, with an inside and cave paintings). From now on it would also be
an outside. a medium for images reflecting profane and
sacred social structures and conveying hier-
The term “exterior wall” designates in its con- archies of values and claims to power.
stituents its position, namely “exterior”, and the
character of this structural “subsystem”, that
of a wall. During the history of construction –
at least until and into the 20th century – walls
have not only enclosed space, but also been
an important part of the support structure
that transfers its net load, own weight and the
weight of roofs and wind forces imposed on
them through the stiffening effect of the solid
structure into the foundations. The word “wall”,
especially the term “exterior wall”, is associated
with a stable, robust, usually heavy, perhaps
even forbidding element, which separates the
private from the public and determines a build-
ing’s exterior character.

9
Shell, wall, facade

Materials and construction

The space created between exterior walls now

had to meet all the demands and functions of
use and comfort. To do this, local conditions
and users’ requirements had to be precisely
recorded, influenceable and achievable
through appropriate construction methods.

Technical solutions emerge in the context of

materials, construction, joining, manufacturing
processes, as well as result from demands that
arise from gravity and other exterior and interior
physical influences and factors. Building shells
reflect the development of technologies in a
region and with them a significant aspect of the
local culture.

A decision to use a specific material may be

based not only on demands coming from
inside or outside, but also on rules governing
the process of constructing a building enve-
lope that must be observed. It is not only indi-
vidual user requirements that determine a
facade’s formation; they must also be consid-
ered in the context of issues of joining, con-
struction and of technical implementation
within the overall structural system, material
principles and geometric order (Fig. 4). Here
the professional skill of architects in their role
as “master builders” is essential because
only they know all the connections and various
interdependencies within and between an
4 architectural composition and the logic of
construction.

Form

Exterior walls are often called “facades” in

common speech, so apart from their basic
functions of protection from the weather
and shaping of the indoor climate, another
aspect comes to the fore: our perception of a
building based on its “face”, which is derived
in a roundabout way from the French word
“facade” and the Latin “facies”. What we mean
here is something built, something that “looks
out” into its environment, the first and most
important semantic message we perceive [1].

Surfaces created by people have always also

been information media, showing images of
things governing our social life, transcendent
and religious projections, objectives and
reports: the veneration of deities, the hunt or
ritual, combat, nuptials, prey and death, long
5 before writing became available as an abstract
form of communication (Fig. 5). The pictorial
qualities of exterior surfaces are like those of
interior surfaces in terms of their graphic fea-
tures, structures, colours, engravings and
4 Farmhouse museum, Amerang (DE) reliefs, mixtures of information from writing,
5 Majolica frieze on the “Ospedale del Ceppo”, image and material effect. The entire spectrum
Pistoia (IT)
6 Alhambra, Granada (ES)
became visible in pictorial form over the course
7 Cathedral of San Martino, Lucca (IT) 12th –15th century of history – “the frisson of creation and the hor-
8 Casa Batlló, Barcelona (ES) 1906, Antoni Gaudí ror of death” [2].

10
 Shell, wall, facade

It was humankind that first created buildings

with their own differentiated form, three-dimen-
sional objects that can be perceived from out-
side as a whole or as a composite of various
individual items. Compared with simple wall
surfaces, these had other features such as
spatial proportions and volume in relation to
their surroundings.

Built walls began to be differentiated as their

construction became increasingly refined, with
openings in them undergoing a similar pro-
cess. Here too, the function and technical solu-
tion of framing them in a wall with a lintel and
arch of the same or other material initially pre-
dominated. Requirements such as letting the
maximum amount of light in through the small-
est possible aperture by angling reveals at the
sides inside and out, light refraction, screening
those inside from view, regulating ventilation
through external or set-in elements by varying
their types and shapes, as well as artistic
sophistication all became essential elements
of architecture’s overall impact (Fig. 6).

As for walls, local materials were also often

used to equip openings with fixed or moveable
elements. In some cases, veritable treasures
with very elaborately designed faces and sur-
faces were created. The composition of multi-
layered front facades, such as those created
for the cathedrals in Lucca and Ferrara, gives
rise to a magnificent interplay of wall and open-
ing by alternating spatial depth and a plastic 6
moulding of all details (Fig. 7).

Additional effects were created on and around

the facade by overlapping or penetration and
alternating displays of objects, resulting in vary-
ing or alternating brightness and light and
shade effects across the structure’s overall vol-
ume and all its parts. Stereometric orders were
abandoned in favour of a free development of
forms, and there was a change from rounded
surfaces curved in the same direction as or
conversely to planar areas, which can be hori-
zontal, vertical or tilted, folded or formed with
other subdivisions (Fig. 8).

7 8

11
Shell, wall, facade

The sociocultural environment

Local conditions, the type of society living in a

specific region, its history, ethnography and
view of the world, the local climate, which can
differ across short distances, and the availabil-
ity of local resources have all had a central
influence on the design of building exteriors.

These issues influence regional or local cul-

tures at the heart of what characterises soci-
eties, stabilises them, orients them and forms
a basis for civic conventions. Coexistence
requires cultural covenants. Buildings’ appear-
ances position them as contemporary docu-
ments for the long term [3]. In this sense, it is
9 clear that buildings’ exteriors have a special
meaning that extends well beyond an individual
building’s effect, when we think of the dimen-
sions of street frontages, squares or quarters,
where exterior walls taken together define the
public space.

The characteristics of facades’ material

effects, colours, proportions, volumes and
pictographic information signal both the func-
tion that these things have and the importance
attributed to them. There is, however, a risk
that through arbitrary applications or disasso-
ciation buildings can take on a new semantic
significance, one that can alienate them from
their essence and cause them to lose their
“integrity” – whether due to excessive tolerance
of arrogant self-promotion or as a result of set-
ting the wrong goals.

This does not rule out purely fashionable

fittings in temporary situations, like those in art
forms that rely on the passing of time or time
limits, such as plays, opera, ballet or film. But
if such features are allowed to define architec-
ture, they can destabilise its aesthetic identity
and any orientation towards wider cultural cre-
10 dentials can be lost.

Nor can a building’s appearance be evaluated

within the confines of a closed canon because
that would mean that culture only prevails when
it is frozen and no longer further developing. It
is a feature of cultural processes that designers
work creatively with existing traditions (Fig. 12).

An awareness of the importance of a building’s

exterior and its effect in public space should
be seen as an essential aspect, relying on com-
munication in a community. Having a building
built involves communicating your views to
those outside, signalling your own identity and
how it defines a degree of intentional affiliation
or classification in an existing spatial and struc-
tural context. An architect is usually involved in
further developing this context [4].

Many examples show how much during the

Renaissance, with humanism flourishing and
an appreciation of the independently minded
individual growing, the effect of exterior walls
11

12
 Shell, wall, facade

as “display walls” was emphasised (e.g. programme or projection technology that is

Fig. 10). This emphasis was further height- not of the designer’s own making. Variable
ened in the baroque era, which created software allows for complete independence in
facades oriented towards streets or squares terms of the content shown and largely also in
that, in contrast to buildings’ other exteriors, terms of the form of presentation.
became huge sophisticated backdrops with
elaborate designs, using costly materials and Facades with a very intensive effect created by
important artistic media, almost detached constant change are the main attraction of this
from the building as a whole. More than tech- kind of urban space. The kind of continuous
nical or utilitarian aspects, a facade played a change due to the constant integration of
central role in showcasing architectural effect. new forms of technology is apparent on Times
An exterior wall became an image medium Square in New York – just one of countless
incorporating reliefs, sculpture, painting, examples. It creates a completely new, inten-
mosaic and text. Walls’ primarily functional sive cultural reference that other media make
parts became objects of the highest decora- more effective, causing the aesthetic signifi-
tive moulding (Fig. 9). cance of the building’s facade to fade into the
background (Fig. 13). 12
9 Painted facade, Trento (IT)
The integration of new design media and com- 10 San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice (IT) 1610, Andrea
munications technologies have made “media Palladio
facades” possible worldwide. Despite display- Ageing 11 Piccadilly Circus, London (GB)
ing new kinds of graphic and colour effects in 12 Old – new, transition in detail
13 Times Square, New York (US)
transparent and translucent glass and mem- If we assume that a building enters into archi-
brane surfaces, these facades follow in the foot- tectural history once it is completed, the issue
steps of earlier building envelopes as image of its ageing immediately arises, especially
media. An example in London (Fig. 11), where as it affects its external appearance, the build- they can change greatly, and may even
two originally similar structures face each other ing envelope, the part most exposed to the become more beautiful, which is referred to
across the street, shows how this change can weather. It is exposed for a long time to a as patination (Fig. 19). They do not lose their
lead to contrasts, even denaturation. Once range of encroachments which eventually serviceability or technical fitness (because
daylight’s competing brightness dims suffi- cause not only technically and functionally parts decay or sections become too thin due
ciently and artificial light can dominate, elec- relevant changes but also changes in its to corrosion, for example).
tronically controlled LEDs and videos are the appearance.
defining aesthetic factors of the information The creative and technical design and plan-
conveyed on these buildings’ exteriors and Some facades decay, deteriorate and become ning of facades therefore also involves ensur-
their architectural effects (Fig. 13). “shabby”, ageing badly because of their con- ing that they will maintain their quality as they
The materials used in these buildings’ historic struction and materials. Others do not seem to age and not lose value. Society’s willingness to
forerunners and their graphic or sculptural age at all, which is due to the same technical accept such aesthetic changes and rate them
design entirely determined a facade’s effect, criteria. Panes of glass, for example, some of highly for use in architectural monuments and
intensifying our perception of the building which have been installed in buildings for cen- valuable items is made clear when materials
itself. Its own, original elements were the rea- turies, may develop a slightly damaged sur- are known outside their natural context, as is
son for this. The situation is different when a face, but their material and aesthetic character- the case for stone, copper and bronze. The
non-representational semantic message is istics may change little. Some materials age most typical example may, however, be wood,
conveyed by a neutral medium like a computer acceptably within a short time, even though which people know countless types of from

13

13
Shell, wall, facade

childhood wherever it grows, and are aware to this kind of small window with a 0.2 m2 glass
that its appearance is never in a permanent surface, which for decades precisely fitted
state, as the example of an extension by into a roof surface as a minor single element,
Peter Zumthor in Versam shows convincingly has now turned it into an aesthetically absurd,
(Fig. 20). disproportionate lump (Fig. 14).

Photovoltaic systems products, which are

Outlook becoming increasingly efficient, cost-effective,
colourful and varied in structure, will spread
If we ask ourselves now in the second decade worldwide on a large scale. What is uncertain
of the new century what further developments is what other innovations will emerge out of
can be expected in the facades of existing the science and technology of opaque, semi-
and new buildings that define public space transparent and fully transparent materials,
and attract attention to their relation to existing whether in the area of generating and storing
buildings in various ways, we will find plenty of energy, providing shade by adapting a build-
examples indicating answers. ing’s geometry to the sun’s course, or in sys-
14 tems with modifiable properties or different
Surprising effects created by unusual dimen- conditions impacting the separating “building
sions and/or a high-contrast, intensive long- skin” in the form of outdoor or indoor climates.
distance effect, for example, often testify to
planners’ and builders’ ambitions for a building Highly efficient insulating materials built into
with an outstanding, dominant effect, com- light, slender, moving parts that are easy to
pared with the moderate “volume” of the archi- handle, in the opening sections of facades, for
tecture of other buildings in the urban environ- example, and insulating vacuum glazing, long
ment (Fig. 15). extensively produced in Asia, will reveal their
structural and physical potential and range of
An expansion in design possibilities by break- applications in various structures.
ing up building envelopes into polygonal
instead of orthogonal elements of the usual What is certain is that any construction or
kind has emerged where the choice of small conversion of buildings that has to meet
structural elements, such as bricks, had hith- required comfort standards must do so simply
erto allowed a high degree of freedom for orna- and efficiently, based as far as possible on
mental design or where basic technical condi- local climatic conditions. A building envelope
15 tions made it inadvisable to divide surfaces can provide not only protective functions
using straight edges, in membrane structures, against unpleasant weather, but can also acti-
for example. It has become possible, however, vate potential to create desirable bioclimatic
to use CAD/CAM to divide surfaces in diverse, effects inside the building in a way that allows
playfully individual ways, whose arrangement, for large-scale application in urban space. Only
interconnections and measurements are then then can we expect a positive impact on the
precisely geometrically defined for manufac- causes of climate change and new opportun-
ture and positioning. The buildings on Constitu- ities. If such basic elements do not remain the
tion Plaza in Melbourne were early precursors exception only for special customised build-
of this technique. Examples of buildings built ings, but are instead applied worldwide in
after them, such as the Bergeron Center for regional architecture and appropriate design
Engineering Excellence at the York University and planning, they could become part of a
campus in Toronto, illustrate use of these new solution for confronting potentially ominous,
options (Fig. 17). negative global developments.

Self-regulating, polyvalent systems that can

be specifically used with new daylight tech- Notes:
16 [1] That this is not always seen as a positive effect is
nologies to reflect, refract and direct light to
shown by expressions like “it’s all a facade”, meaning
give roofs and facades a varied shared “skin”, that a person or thing’s real quality is not what it
expand design options while dispensing with seems on the outside.
kinematics for regulation, for example, man- [2] Jochen Wagner, Evangelische Akademie Tutzing,
aging high levels of direct solar radiation in TV broadcast 02/2004
[3] This psychologically stabilises both the individual and
summer. At the same time, they allow diffuse society. The built environment is an important “pros-
light to penetrate and light rooms and enable pect” for feelings of belonging, a sense of home and
users to see in and out (Fig. 16). Providing of individual identity.
ventilation that is not flow-dependent in a [4] In his essay “Zukunft bauen” Manfred Sack wrote,
“... every facade, and more, every structure, is a
building envelope can also expand the range
public issue and the Devil take the architect who
of design possibilities. takes it lightly. A facade belongs to everybody; only
what’s behind it is the business of those who have
Hopefully, the ever increasing need for thermal to live with it. So it is clear that a facade cannot be
insulation will someday cease to be respon- allowed to be a cosmetic feature. A city that is re-
garded as beautiful is, contrary to the assumptions
sible for technical and aesthetic impairment. of some, a social, general and political remit”. From
The purpose of a dormer window was tradition- Sack, Manfred, “Verlockungen der Architektur”.
ally to let in light and air, yet adding insulation Lucerne 2003
17

14
 Shell, wall, facade

18 19

14 Insulated dormer
15 Königsallee (Kö-Bogen) Düsseldorf (DE) 2013,
Daniel Libeskind
16 Cité du design, Saint-Étienne (FR) 2009, LIN Finn
Geipel and Giulia Andi
17 Bergeron Center for Engineering Excellence, Toronto
(CA) 2015, ZAS Architects
18 Facade covered in climbing plants
19 Patinated bronze bay window, Boston (US)
20 Weathered wooden facade, Versam (CH) 1994, Peter
Zumthor
20

15
16
 Part A The fundamentals

Whatever specific and very different facade

designs may result from particular technologies
and materials, there are also general rules and
interdependencies that arise out of a building’s
basic functions, the type of loads and stresses
imposed on it, the logic of its structure and
the way it fits together, its geometric order,
options for using prefabricated elements and
physical effects.
These rules and interdependencies are over-
arching principles of general and fundamental
Sketch for the Schocken department store, Stuttgart (DE) significance, so we present them here before
1929, Erich Mendelsohn describing some completed buildings in detail.

17
 Outside Facade Inside

Site-specific conditions Requirements

Solar radiation levels Comfortable temperature / humidity levels

Air temperature Large fluctuations Minimal fluctuations Quantity and quality of light (lighting environment)
Humidity in external climate in internal climate Exchange of air / inflow of fresh air and tolerable
Precipitation conditions conditions air speeds
Wind Comfortable acoustic environment

Local sources of noise Provision of views of the outside

Pollution from fumes and dust Separating the private from the public
Mechanical loads Mechanical protection
Electromagnetic radiation Protection against fire
Limiting the impact of toxic pollutants
Urban planning / design environment
Local resources
Sociocultural context

Functions offering protection from

constant and changeable conditions
(enhancing or reducing their impact)

Insulating /dampening
Sealing / blocking
Filtering
Storing (energy)
Controlling
Mechanical protection

Control functions

Controlling / regulating
Reacting /changing

Supplementary, direct-acting Supplementary, direct-acting

measures measures

Thermal insulation Protection from glare

Sun shading Screening from view (e.g. curtains)
(e.g. shutters, awnings, Refraction and reflection of
brise-soleils, louvres etc.) daylight etc.

Measures influencing Activation of interior structural elements

the microclimate such as (floors, walls, ceilings) for storing energy,
vegetation, bodies of water heating, cooling and time-delayed release
of stored energy

Supplementary building technologies Integrated facades Supplementary building technologies

Projecting collectors Integrated air and water collectors Convection heaters / radiators
Photovoltaic systems Solar walls Artificial lighting
Underground air ducts, geothermal probes Media cable routing /distribution Air-conditioning technologies
etc. Heat recovery (central/decentral) etc.

A 1.1
 External and internal conditions

A 1 External and internal The facade forms a separating and filtering

conditions layer between inside and out, between nature What are the prevailing site-specific external conditions?
and people’s dwelling spaces. Seen in a his- What are the requirements for internal conditions?
torical context, a desire for protection from an
inimical outside world and the rigours of the
weather was humanity’s primary reason for
enclosing interior spaces against the outside.
What are the resulting functions and tasks required
Various other demands were subsequently
of the facade?
added to these protective functions: interior
light, an adequate exchange of air and the
ability to see out while demarcating the private
sphere from public space etc. Special technolo-
gies make it possible to regulate openings, Can these demands be met by supplementary,
allowing control and regulating functions to direct-acting measures?
be added to the list of protective functions.
Based on the direction from which a facade is
viewed, all these demands can be classified
into two groups and can be subdivided into
Will additional building technology be required
countless individual aspects: site-specific to meet these demands?
external conditions and demands on internal Would the integration of elements into the
conditions. A comprehensive understanding of facade optimise the overall system?
these fundamentals and of their interdependen-
cies and interactions form a basis for decisions
in planning and building a facade.
A 1.2

Demands on facades from inside and out

Planners cannot usually influence external A 1.1 Requirements on facades from inside and out;
conditions, so they are essential criteria in find- protective, control and communication functions;
ing and selecting land to build on. Every site supplementary passive measures and building
technologies
offers specific, unique external conditions that
A 1.2 Key questions /procedures for identifying marginal
require careful analysis because they vary in conditions and requirements
type and intensity depending on their district,
region, country and continent. The immediate
surroundings and microclimate can also have levels for the interior climate with the goal of
a significant influence. As well as the specific achieving “thermal comfort”.
local climate with its specific statistically identi- If a facade is considered as a person’s “third
fied quantities and distributions of precipitation skin” (after their bodily skin and clothing), the
(rain, snow and hail), a nearby noisy industrial analogy of planning goals becomes clear.
area that emits a strong smell, for example, Each of these functional layers must reduce
may necessitate special measures for the plan- the range of fluctuations of external climate
ning and building of a facade. conditions impacting the inner body to ensure
a constant body temperature of about 37 °C.
In contrast, demands on internal conditions
are not predetermined, but are decided on in Climatic conditions may also dictate require-
the planning phase, based on a catalogue of ments that cannot be assigned to one side or
requirements, which is drawn up in the context the other but result from differences between
of planned usage. Precise knowledge of these inside and out, such as those caused by
key criteria is critically important in successful differences in temperature, moisture and pres-
planning as they have an immediate influence sure, which impose mechanical stresses on
on structural solutions and determine the facade materials and structural details. Such
amounts of energy and materials required for stresses must be able to be absorbed by suit-
construction and operation in the long term. able measures (e.g. expansion joints, flexible
As well as demands on the interior climate, connections etc.).
which are largely defined under the heading
of “comfort” (see Fig. 1.12, p. 22), extensive
measures arising out of various other qualita-
tive requirements, such as a desire for a high-
quality design or greater protection against
break-ins, may have to be met.
These conditions and demands, shown in
graphic form in Fig. A 1.1, determine a facade’s
protective and control functions. The former
offer protection from the intensity of external
influences, especially from the weather. The lat-
ter measure out their required and acceptable

19
External and internal conditions

Facades’ performance potential

12 h
A facade should be able to meet the require-
11 h 13 h ments resulting from the climate as much
60°
as possible. Adopting this approach can
ne
Ju
minimise or avoid the need for additional
10 h ay Ju 14 h
M ly measures, such as further technical equip-
ment, to control the interior climate. Know-
50° ledge of the relevant basic physical principles
ril Au
9h Ap g. 15 h involved is indispensable in achieving this
planning goal.
8h ch 16 h
Mar Sep
t. Supplementary direct-acting measures can
7h 17 h support such functions on both sides of the
Febr. Oct.
25° facade. Other structural elements inside the
18 h building can also be “activated” to do this,
6h Jan. Nov.
19 h by storing energy in walls and ceilings, for
5h Dec. 10° example.
Open areas of water outside or in interstices
90° 45° 0° 45° 90° can be used for cooling (by evaporation) or
dehumidification (if there is a sufficient differ-
East South-east South South-west West ence between the temperature of the water and
of the air in the room), and appropriate meas-
A 1.3
ures can make use of energy generated during
peak periods. Solar radiation, from which build-
ings need protection, can be turned into elec-
tricity by means of photovoltaic modules or
[Wh/m2d] South [Wh/m2d] 90°
absorbed by collectors and used to heat water.
5000 5000 High outdoor temperatures, wind and rain
30° can also be made use of (see “Solar energy”,
0°
p. 294ff.).
tal

4000 4000
Remaining requirements that cannot be ad-
izon

equately met through structural measures must

Hor

60°
3000 3000 be met by technical systems providing tem-
90° perature control, lighting, air purification, a
sufficient exchange of air or humidification or
2000 2000
W

N dehumidification. Such supplementary tech-

/N
NE W
W S
E/

nical measures always require additional energy

/S

1000 1000 as well as costly and complex transport of

SE

media and maintenance. If technical equipment

0 0
of this kind is directly integrated into a facade,
J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J it is referred to as an “integrated facade” (see
p. 322ff.). Equipment housed not in the build-
A 1.4 A 1.5
ing’s technical centre but in the facade, at
the point where it is required, is referred to
as “facade-integrated decentralised building
Summer Spring/Autumn
technology” [1].
S
Total radiation [W/m2]

800 E W 800
Apart from external factors, other conditions
S E W
600 600 imposed by the overall structural context
must be taken into account, including the
400 400
coordination of dimensions (see “Modular
200 200 coordination”, p. 46ff.), structural interdepend-
encies, necessary tolerances and installation
0 0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 sequences – topics that will be dealt with in
Hours of sunlight [h] Hours of sunlight [h] subsequent chapters.

Winter
S
Total radiation [W/m2]

800 External conditions: solar radiation

600
The sun is one of the most central and essential
A 1.3 Diagram of the sun’s course (50° N) 400 E W of all site-specific external conditions. It is our
A 1.4 Solar radiation hitting south-facing surfaces greatest direct and indirect energy source and
pitched at various angles 200
makes all life possible.
A 1.5 Solar radiation hitting vertical surfaces facing vari-
ous directions
0 The amount of energy that it sends to the Earth
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
A 1.6 Total solar radiation hitting wall surfaces pitched at Hours of sunlight [h]
is about 10,000 times what humanity’s global
various angles on sunny days at different seasons energy requirements were in 2010 (an average
A 1.6

20
 External and internal conditions

kWh/m2 Global solar radiation/per annum (energy)

1,353 W of energy hits every square metre 5
of the Earth’s outer atmosphere). For human
Available solar radiation
purposes, this is an infinite, cost-free and
4 Direct solar
environmentally friendly source of energy.
radiation
To make use of solar energy in a building, it
is essential to consider the intensity and dur- 3
ation of the radiation on its surface, depending
on its facade’s orientation and inclination. In
2
planning facades, the following related fac-
tors and interdependencies must also be taken Heating Diffuse solar radiation
into account if solar radiation is to be made requirements 1
use of:
• The course of the sun, depending on the
location and time of day and year J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
• Solar radiation levels, depending on the Winter Summer Winter Winter Summer Winter
surface’s orientation and inclination, loca-
tion, time of day and year and weather A 1.7 A 1.8
• Various kinds of solar radiation (diffuse, 70 °C
direct and different wavelengths) and 65 ° 1
their quantitative ratio depending on the 1 Black (high gloss)
60 ° 2
weather, direction, location and time of
day and year 55 ° 2 Dark blue
3
• Interactions with surfaces and materials 50 ° 3 Brick red
• Relation to heating requirements based on
45 ° 4 4 Ivory
planned usage
40 ° 5 Opaque white
5
Figures A 1.3 – A 1.11 show a selection of the 35 ° 6 Outside air
main factors involved
30 °

The following solar radiation figures can be 25 ° 6

used as a basis for Germany [2]: 20 °

15 ° Hours of exposure
1,300 –1,900 hours of sunlight / year to sun of a south-
750 –1,250 hours of sunlight / heating limit 10 ° west-facing facade
15 °C 5° Amount of heat = 330 cal/cm2
500 – 950 hours of sunlight / heating limit
0° 22.06.1963 23.06.1963
12 °C
400 – 775 hours of sunlight / heating limit
A 1.9
10 °C

The proportion of diffuse radiation of all radi-

ation accruing over a year is approximately:

South-facing facade 30 %
East and west-facing facade 60 %
North-facing facade 90 % E S
(Difference from 100 %: direct solar radiation)

Solar radiation can also be hazardous for

people (overheating, premature skin ageing,
skin cancer), who may need suitable protec-
tion from it.

N W
Thermal comfort
A 1.11
The various demands on internal climatic con-
ditions can be summed up by the term “thermal
comfort”. A 1.7 Heating demands / duration of sunshine
(schematic diagram)
Among the main factors influencing these
A 1.8 Daily average intensity of solar radiation in
demands that are connected with the facade, central Germany (50° N)
are (Fig. A 1.12): A 1.10 A 1.9 Temperatures measured on a sunny day on the
• Temperature of the air in the space (a) over 1,175 1,025 –1,050 surfaces of south-facing facades of different
• Relative humidity in the space (b) 1,150 –1,175 1,000 –1,025 colours
1,125 –1,150 975 –1,000 A 1.10 Local distribution of annual global radiation
• Surface temperature of structural compo- [kWh/m2] in Germany
1,100 –1,125 950 – 975
nents adjoining the space (c) 1,075 –1,100 under 950 A 1.11 Projection diagram principle of the sun’s
• Air flows reaching the body (d) 1,050 –1,075 course

21
External and internal conditions

30 A 1.12 Factors influencing thermal comfort

Average temperature of surfaces

enclosing the space [°C]
Uncomfortably a Interior air temperature
28 warm
Still comfortable b Interior relative humidity
26 c Surface temperature

25
c d Flows of air around the body

C
24 A 1.13 Interior /surface temperature

24
Comfort zone, depending on interior air temperature
22 Comfort- and average (fairly constant) temperature of sur-
c +

23
able faces enclosing a space (based on Frank, 1975)
d 20
– A 1.14 Interior temperature /relative humidity

22
18 Comfort zone, depending on interior tempera-
a b

21
d ture and relative humidity (based on Leusden /
16 Freymark, 1951)

20
d
c 14

19
c
12
Uncomfortably cold

18
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Interior air temperature [°C]
A 1.12 A 1.13 These measurable parameters, which can vary
depending on region, habits, clothing, activity
and individual perception, define thermal com-
100 50
fort. The ranges in which figures for individual
Relative humidity [%]

Movement of air around the body [cm/s]

influencing factors should be are called “com-

90
Uncomfortably fort zones” (Fig. A 1.13 –15). There are no bind-
80 humid 40 ing target figures for any of these factors, and
70
they are all mutually interdependent. Perceived
Uncomfortable room temperature consists of approximately
60 30 equal parts of the temperature of air in the
Comfort-
50 able room and the average radiation temperature
40
of the surfaces enclosing the room.
20
30 Still comfortable The idea of comfort is now increasingly being
20 10 interpreted as involving more than just climatic
Uncomfortably dry Comfort- requirements and has come to include
10 able Uncom-
fortable • Lighting environment and visual comfort:
0 0
quantity and quality of light and brightness
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
contrasts (protection from glare),
Interior air temperature [°C] Interior air temperature [°C]
• Hygienic comfort (low levels of pollutants
A 1.14 A 1.15 and smells),
• Acoustic comfort (noise), and
• Electromagnetic tolerability.

Psychological factors (e.g. materials, colours)

Heat flow Radiative transfer Vapour pressure
and cultural aspects are also connected
with these factors and should be taken into
–K +K – + Pascal
account.
Reflection Transmission

Fundamental physical principles

Absorption
A 1.16 Knowledge of basic structural and physical
principles, such as heat flow, water vapour
pressure and radiation transport, is essential to
an understanding of the functions of facades.
Heat transmission (Fig. A 1.16).
1.2
[kWh/m3K]

– + Water
1.0 Heat transfer
Thermal energy flows basically from a warmer
Radiation Granite
0.8 (more energy-rich) side to a colder side.
– + Concrete
There are three basic principles of heat transfer
0.6 Sand-lime brick Aluminium (Fig. A 1.17):
Conduction Rubble fill Floor screed
0.4 • Thermal conduction
– + Aerated concrete Sand, dry • Thermal radiation
0.2 • Thermal convection
Convection Lightweight brick
0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 A thermal transmittance coefficient (U-value)
Gross density [kg/m3] [W/m2K] can be calculated for planar structural
components.
A 1.17 A 1.18

22
 External and internal conditions

A 1.15 Interior temperature / movement of air A 1.19 Warm air is lighter and rises. +
Comfort zone, depending on interior temperature A 1.20 Wind pressure and suction in flows around a
–
and movement of air (based on Rietschel-Raiss) building
Scope of application for Figs. A 1.13 –15: A 1.21 If a facade is permeable to radiation, the layer of
• Relative humidity from 30 to 70 % air in its interstices can heat up, causing the air to
• Movement of air from 0 to 20 cm/s rise (“chimney or stack effect”).
• Largely constant temperature of all surfaces A 1.22 Geometric solutions for modifying air flows
enclosing a space of 19.5 to 23 °C A 1.23 Wind: annual average regional frequencies and +
A 1.16 Fundamental structural and physical principles directions in and around Munich –
(selection) Wind speed:
A 1.17 Basic principles of heat transmission a Up to 3 m/s
A 1.18 Heat storage capacity of selected construction b More than 3 m/s A 1.19
materials by volume

Strong suction Strong suction

WINDWARD - LEEWARD -

Dynamic
pressure + Suction

Dynamic
pressure

Suction
Thermal conductivity and heat storage capacity tial role in facade planning (Fig. A 1.19 – 22). + -
Thermal conductivity and heat storage capacity In planning and building a facade, the goal -
are properties of specific materials and gener- should be to ventilate the building naturally as Strong suction
ally increase with bulk density, although the far as possible, thereby minimising the risk of
heat storage capacity of water compared with “sick building syndrome” developing [3]. In -
other construction materials is a clear excep- doing so, the following problems that natural Strong -
suction Strong suction
tion (Fig. A 1.18). ventilation can cause must be avoided:
• Increased heating requirements Dynamic
pressure +
Relative humidity • Interior temperatures too high in summer
Air can absorb water vapour until it reaches its • Draughts inside Pressure
saturation point. This depends on the tempera- • Interior air too dry in winter Strong - Suction
suction
ture, which is why it is called “relative” humidity. • Inadequate ventilation in very calm weather
Humid air is slightly lighter than dry air at the A 1.20
same temperature. The more air heats up (absorbs energy), the
more its gas molecules move (Fig. A 1.19); air
Water vapour pressure pressure increases, air becomes less dense
Water vapour moves from a side with higher and lighter by volume and it rises. In a closed
vapour pressure (partial pressure) to a side space this causes different air temperatures,
with lower pressure. If the temperature falls with a layer of warmer air above and cooler air
below the dew point, condensation can occur below.
(with a risk of condensate accumulating and Bodies obstruct airflows, causing the airflow
mould forming). to divide and move around them (Fig. A 1.20).
A 1.21
This causes vortices and increases atmos-
Radiation transfer pheric pressure in front of buildings and a
Radiation hitting a structural element is re- relatively lower pressure behind them (suction).
flected, absorbed or transmitted (Fig. A 1.16, It should be noted that wind direction can fluc-
middle). tuate greatly (Fig. A 1.23) and that such effects
A material’s thermal radiation properties depend can change very quickly.
mainly on its surface properties, especially its Close to the ground, interactions with (rough)
colour (Fig. A 1.9, p. 21). surfaces and physical obstacles mean that
wind speeds are generally lower, but they
increase as buildings grow in height so wind
Wind, thermals and natural ventilation: pressure and suction are stronger at higher A 1.22
basic principles elevations.
When radiation energy penetrates a transpar- N
Streams of air in the atmosphere (wind), ent or translucent surface and hits a struc- 20
interacting openings outside and inside, and tural component that is separated from the 15
thermal effects in adjoining layers of air are surface by a layer of air, it absorbs the energy
phenomena at work in every building and are and heats up. Some of this thermal energy is 10
a
another external condition that must be taken released into the air in the cavity, causing the
5
into account. Wind situations can vary greatly air to heat up, rise (Fig. A 1.21) and circulate.
in strength and direction depending on the This effect is intensified if the air can escape W
0
E
weather and location (Fig. A 1.23), so only above and flow in from below. 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20
statistical values can be used as a basis in Planners can use air flowing around a build- 5
planning. ing to produce additional negative pressure
10
Streams of air that occur due to geometric (Fig. A 1.22) by creating and positioning
properties of bodies in special wind situations bodies with appropriate geometries to inten- b
15
can be investigated in wind tunnel trials and sify a chimney or stack effect or more quickly
dynamic, highly complex flow simulations. discharge warm air from spaces at lower 20
Fundamental thermal principles play an essen- levels. S
A 1.23

23
External and internal conditions

Sound transmission: basic principles basic underlying structural-physical principles,

are directly connected with the external and
Sound is another external condition impacting internal conditions outlined above.
facades and a requirement for interiors (sound- Energy can get into buildings through a struc-
proofing) because noise can come from either tural component that is permeable to radiation
side of a facade. by means of transmission (Fig. A 1.31). When
A 1.24 Soundproofing requires particularly careful plan- energy hits the surfaces inside a space, some
ning and construction as sound can be trans- of it is transferred to the material through
mitted through the smallest acoustical bridge. absorption and from there transported further
Sound waves spread out roughly spherically by means of thermal conduction (Fig. A 1.32).
from sources of sound through the medium of Some of this energy is also “stored”, depending
air (airborne sound, Fig. A 1.24) and are more on the material’s heat storage capacity. This
or less reflected by all the space-enclosing sur- potential is called thermal storage mass.
faces and objects in the space. The smoother The energy is then more or less slowly returned
and harder a surface is, the less dampened into the space (depending on the material’s
A 1.25
and more complete the reflection of the sound specific thermal conductivity and other factors)
will be. by means of thermal radiation (Fig. A 1.33).
By choosing structural components with appro-
When a structural component made of solid priate materials and dimensions, planners can
material is made to vibrate, by mechanical influ- make use of this effect to offset peaks in tem-
ences (steps on a floor), for example, sound peratures without requiring more energy input
waves spread through its mass, which is referred (for heating or cooling).
A 1.26
to as structure-borne noise (Fig. A 1.25). If air- Regulated or controlled ventilation can use
borne sound causes a solid object to vibrate, convection to transport energy between inside
structure-borne noise spreads through the object and out (Fig. A 1.34), and it can work in both
(Fig. A 1.26). This can also cause the layer of directions. The skilful use of thermal effects
air on the other side to vibrate and transmit the (Figs. A 1.19, 21 and 22, p. 23) may even mean
sound waves in the form of airborne sound. that mechanical ventilation can be dispensed
Sound waves can travel very long distances by with entirely.
means of structure-borne noise transmission
(Fig. A 1.27). Wherever a building’s “solid” The greenhouse effect
structural components are connected, sound When high-energy, short-wave solar radiation
can be transmitted through them and right hits surfaces inside a space, a substantial
through the building by means of a phenom- share of its energy is released into the interior
enon called “flanking transmission” or “flanking in the form of diffuse long-wave radiation in
A 1.27 sound transfer”. the infrared range (Fig. A 1.35, left), thereby
One possible strategy for minimising airborne heating the air and surfaces in the space. The
noise transmission is to increase an object’s very low permeability to long-wave radiation of
mass (Fig. A 1.28), making it as heavy and inert transparent and translucent facade surfaces
as possible by using a very dense material that (e.g. glass, translucent insulating layers or
airborne sound waves can vibrate only slightly, insulating multi-pane glazing, perhaps with an
for example. inert gas filling and additional coatings that
Another measure that can reduce airborne enhance their effectiveness) prevents the radi-
noise transmission is extremely efficient sealing ation from escaping and keeps it “enclosed”
(Fig. A 1.29), which can prevent airborne noise in the space. This is referred to as the "green-
from spreading directly through gaps, joints, house effect". If this effect is desired, its inten-
chinks and cracks. sity can be greatly influenced by modifying the
Airborne noise transmission can also be muf- orientation of surfaces permeable to radiation
fled by a double-layered structure with an insu- to the source of radiation (usually by orienting
lated space between the layers (Fig. A 1.30). surfaces towards the sun) and thus also the
A 1.28 This is particularly efficient if the two layers are radiation’s angle of entrance (Fig. A 1.36). The
of different thickness and weight and so have flatter the angle at which radiation strikes a
different natural resonant frequencies. The surface is, the more the radiation is reflected
effectiveness of such measures should not and the more of it is kept outside (Fig. A 1.35).
be compromised by using rigid connections If radiation hits a surface at a 90° angle,
between the two layers (mass – spring – mass the surface reflects only a minimal proportion
principle). Further structural-physical aspects of it. Like the proportion of absorption, the
of soundproofing are dealt with in the chapter precise extent of reflection depends on
A 1.29 on “Aspects of building physics and planning the specific material and can be modified
advice” (p. 52ff.). by additional measures, e.g. coatings (see
“Glass”, p. 188ff.).

Constructional implementation Openings and angle of incidence

The amount of radiation entering through an
Interactions between structural components, opening of the same size and with the same
which arise during constructional implementa- orientation can vary greatly depending on the
A 1.30 tion from resulting functional requirements and radiation’s angle of entrance (Fig. A 1.36). This

24
 External and internal conditions

effect can play a crucial role in the planning of

openings and sun protection systems, depend-
ing on changes in the sun’s position through
the different seasons (see “Edges, openings”,
p. 38ff.).

Consequences for floor plans / zoning A 1.31 A 1.32

Demands on a facade can be influenced by
arranging spaces in the floor plan based on the
principle of a “thermal onion”, which involves
surrounding spaces that need higher tempera-
tures with areas where lower temperatures are
desirable (Fig. A 1.37). Such “buffer zones” can
usually effectively reduce heating and cooling
requirements.

If the course of the sun is used to generate

solar heat by means of the greenhouse effect, A 1.33 A 1.34
it can be useful to “capture” solar radiation in a
projecting zone (Fig. A 1.38) and store the heat
by designing interior surfaces accordingly.
Very little solar energy will be gained from the
northern side of a building in Central Europe, Effectiveness
so this side must be insulated accordingly.
Structures configured in this way can easily Greenhouse effect Perpendicular Flat
overheat in summer, so they will also require
adequate shading and ventilation.

Notes:
[1] Hartwig, Helge: Zentral – Dezentral. Fassadeninte- T
grierte dezentrale Gebäudetechnik. In: gi – Gesund- R A
heits-Ingenieur, 125. Jg. 05/2004, p. 227– 234
[2] The number of hours of sunlight per year is for the A 1.35
reference period of 1981– 2010. From the German
Meteorological Service’s (Deutscher Wetterdienst)
Climate Data Center (CDC).
Hours of sunlight / heating limit were calculated
here using data records from the WESTE weather
data portal of the German Meteorological Service
(Deutscher Wetterdienst).
[3] For more on the term “sick building syndrome” see June March / Sept. Dec.
also Dompke, Mario et al. (ed.): Sick Building Syn-
drome II. Documentation on a workshop in Holz-
kirchen, 1996, by the Fraunhofer Institute for Building
Physics and Bundesindustrieverband Heizungs-,
Klima-, Sanitärtechnik e. V. (German Industrial Asso-
ciation for Heating, Air conditioning and Sanitary
Engineering) Bonn 1996

A 1.24 Source of sound

A 1.25 Excitation of mass by mechanical influences South South South
A 1.26 Excitation of mass by airborne sound, transmis-
sion through materials (structure-borne sound)
A 1.27 Transmission of sound through structural compo- A 1.36
nents over long distances (also called “sound
transfer”)
A 1.28 Strategy 1 against airborne sound transmission:
mass
A 1.29 Strategy 2: efficient joint sealing
A 1.30 Strategy 3: mass – spring – mass principle Example:
A 1.31 Transmission -10 °C outside
A 1.32 Heating – heat transfer E
A 1.33 Thermal storage mass – thermal radiation +19 °C
A 1.34 Convection – distribution – regulation +14 to -10 °C
A 1.35 Greenhouse effect – utilisation + 22 °C Heat
storage
A 1.36 Angle of incidence of solar radiation / openings Interim
A 1.37 “Thermal onion” – division of a floor plan into temperature zone
zones according to temperature
A 1.38 Building orientation – heat storage – thermal
insulation A 1.37 A 1.38

25
 Surfaces – structural principles

A 2.1 Surfaces – Facades are usually vertical, planar structures

structural principles positioned between interior and exterior envir-
onments. Regardless of the materials they are
made of, facade surfaces share diverse gen-
eral features and common technical solutions,
which will be described below. A knowledge
of these features and principles will be helpful
during the design process. A design principle
can imply fundamental solutions for carrying
out a specific construction task for predefined A 2.1.3
functions [1], using physical, chemical and
geometric effects and combining their inter-
actions to create an effective structure [2].

The facade’s structure will be examined

• In the plane of the facade (Fig. A 2.1.2) and
• Perpendicular to the plane of the facade A 2.1.2
(Fig. A 2.1.3).

Depending on the required functions and

demands, specific performance profiles that A 2.1.1 Studio building, Munich (DE) 1993,
can vary across the surface must be assigned Thomas Herzog with Peter Bonfig
A 2.1.2 Structure within the plane of the facade
to facades. The technical and material imple- A 2.1.3 Structure perpendicular to the plane of the
mentation of such profiles may require sev- facade
eral functional and construction levels per- A 2.1.4 Functional criteria for facades
pendicular to the plane of the facade. Add- A 2.1.5 Structural criteria for facades
itional structures that are not part of the space-
enclosing envelope (such as horizontal sun
protection devices, light refraction systems,
maintenance walkways etc.) may also be
necessary. The overall goal should be a
structure whose individual components work
together efficiently. Permeability – air Closed
Partly permeable
Open

Classification of design solutions [3] Permeability – light Opaque

Translucent
Functional criteria Semi-transparent
Performance profiles as targets for facade Transparent
surfaces are defined beyond general pro- Open
tective functions such as insulation and seal- None
Energy gains
ing; permeability to air, light and radiation
Heat
(Fig. A 2.1.4) are also of particular importance. Power
Their degree of permeability determines the
character of the enveloping surface, its prac- Modifiability Not modifiable
tical value and the quality of interiors. It also Mechanical
greatly influences a building’s energy balance. Phys. structural
Chem. substantial
Among the important criteria to consider in
making decisions are the extent to which Manual direct / indirect
Regulation
facade surfaces can react to changing condi- Self-regulating
tions and whether they are modifiable and can With control circuit
even be self-regulating. A 2.1.4

Permeability to air
Part of the support Non-load-bearing
Natural ventilation strategies require modifiable structure
and adjustable permeability to air. The need to Load-bearing
discharge surplus heat, water vapour and hot, Single-layer
Layered structure
toxic gases in the event of fire can also make a
Multilayer
certain level of permeability necessary.
Shell structure Single-shell
Permeability to light Multi-shell
The quality and quantity of its permeability to
light and radiation determine a space’s natural Rear ventilation Not rear-ventilated
lighting and atmospheric character, allow people Rear-ventilated
inside to see out and those outside to see in
and thermal energy to enter or be emitted. Prefabrication Low
It can be useful to take advantage of phenom High
A 2.1.5

27
Surfaces – structural principles

flat, flat, flat, vertical + curved, curved, double-

ena specific to human perception when plan- vertical angled horizontal vertical horizontal curved
ning perforated, semi-transparent surfaces,
such as sun and glare protection devices. Sur-
faces with a very low proportion of small per-
forations set close together enable an observer
looking towards a brighter lighting environment
to see through them because our brain “adds”
what is missing to form an overall picture. To
an observer looking towards a darker lighting
environment, however, such surfaces appear
opaque because the eye cannot adapt to the
reduced luminance of the small holes.

Energy generation
Surfaces permeable to solar radiation make it
possible to directly generate energy by heating
structural components, such as floors and
walls, inside buildings. Using special technical
equipment (e.g. a transparent thermal insula-
tion absorbing wall, solar thermal or photovol-
taic systems) heat or electricity for operating a
building can also be produced in the facade
structure (see “Solar energy”, p. 294ff.).
A 2.1.6
Modifiability
Modifying the position or properties of struc-
tural components can enable a facade surface physical and constructive principles, put other or roof surfaces along specific lines
to react to changing external conditions, e.g.: together to form a functional unit – the facade. (edges). How these surfaces are formed and
• By mechanically moving facade elements Countless possible combinations with appro- arranged in space, whether vertical, inclined
(positioning slats and louvres, opening shut- priate performance profiles are available. Indi- or almost horizontal, has a decisive influence
ters etc.) vidual functional layers can vary in thickness on a facade’s design and construction details
• By triggering electrical, thermosensitive or from tiny fractions of millimetres (Low-E coat- (Fig. A 2.1.6). Cut edges and especially cor-
photosensitive processes or reversible modi- ings on thermal insulating glazing) up to a few ners at which the three surfaces meet require
fications in materials’ properties that change metres (layers of air behind multilayer glass special treatment and care.
their permeability to rays of light. These facades). The right sequence of layers is cru- The spatial planning of surfaces is determined
are either changes of a physical, structural cial for efficient functioning and preventing by various factors that rarely arise alone, but
nature – changes in aggregate state or a structural damage. Less significant or subor- are usually combined and have different
different orientation of crystal structures – or dinate functional layers can be classified weighting, such as:
changes in chemical substances – changing as layers or strata for the purposes of load- • The geometry of floor plans and elevations
chemical compounds [4]. bearing. Shells, in contrast, can take on static in the building
loads and are freestanding (cf. p. 36) [5]. • Usage aspects (e.g. the creation of niches
Regulation for open spaces screened from view)
Modifiability requires regulation. Changing Rear ventilation • Planning of the shell support structure itself
conditions can be tracked: Rear-ventilated facades have one or more (e.g. folded structure)
• By manual or mechanical activation, direct layers of air that use thermal lift forces to • Thermal insulation aspects (e.g. minimising
or indirect, e.g. the touch of a button effectively discharge condensation and /or the ratio of enveloping surface to volume)
• By self-regulating, e.g. thermosensitive heat. Such structural systems are by definition • Structural aspects (e.g. channelling of
processes that modify thermotropic glass’s always multilayered. water)
permeability to light • Specific material aspects
• Based on the principle of feedback control Prefabrication • Design intentions
system technologies using sensors and The planned degree of prefabrication signifi-
microprocessor-controlled servomotors cantly impacts construction principles, type Evaluating different types of surfaces
of element management, the absolute size of Vertical surfaces
Fundamental design criteria individual structural components and condi- Channelling water over vertical surfaces is
Resolving important fundamental design deci- tions in which the facade can be assembled unproblematic, while folds and projections
sions is the best way to prepare for structural and perhaps dismantled. increase the external surface and inside
and material implementation (Fig. A 2.1.5, p. 27). edges must be dealt with by means of con-
struction methods and geometry. Surfaces
Connection with the support structure Structure in the plane of the facade that meet at sharp angles can cause problems
Non-load-bearing facades do not bear loads in manufacture and usage. In constructing
or fulfil other functions of the support structure Types of surfaces vertical edges, it can be advantageous if they
in ensuring the building’s structural stability. When establishing the exterior geometry follow the direction in which facade water
of a building, the inherent principles of the flows. Folded surfaces can be built as folded
Layer and shell structures envelope enclosing it must be taken into structures that form part of the load-bearing
Layers made up of different materials, thick- consideration. structure.
nesses and structures can be optimised to fulfil Every facade consists of several flat or curved Figure A 2.1.7 shows 37 different geomet-
specific sub-tasks and, based on structural- surface elements that intersect or touch each ric configurations in which facade surfaces

28
 Surfaces – structural principles

Standing facade Suspended facade

19

5 7

14

20
Wind suction

6 8 Wind pressures
15 36
22 (Other
horizontal
17
forces)
23 1
2 37 18

33 3 31
24
35
25 34 12 30
4
27 13 f2 f1 f2 f1
A 2.1.8
29

32
26

A 2.1.6 Typical types of surfaces that can be combined

21
11 10 to form countless forms
9 A 2.1.7 Examples of various joining details for perpen-
28
dicular, orthogonal facade systems
16 A 2.1.8 Schematic diagrams of standing/suspended
A 2.1.7 facades

meet or intersect with floors or roofs at edges Principles of load bearing lished method of building facades all over
and in corners. Each of these marked points Loads impacting facades the world because of its basic advantages.
requires its own detailing in construction and A facade must safely withstand loads and • The structural component is in a stable
implementation. Points at which more than transfer them to the support structure (primary position immediately after it is hung (in
three different surfaces meet (such as no. 29), support structure) (Fig. A 2.1.8). All facade contrast to the less stable position of a
are almost impossible to manage effectively structures, including non-load-bearing ones, standing structural component), which is
in construction and design. If different slopes must be planned and built to a scale that en- of considerable importance for safety on
or curves also play a role, the number of geo- ables them to function as secondary support the building site, especially in the construc-
metric and construction examples increases structures that can manage the following loads: tion of tall buildings.
significantly [6]. • Vertical loads: the structure’s own weight, • A structural component’s own weight func-
special loads (e.g. sun protection devices, tions as a tensile force along its long axis
Inclined surfaces plants, temporary scaffolding), traffic loads and the prestressing that this produces
Every surface that tilts away from a vertical (e.g. live loads), snow and ice loads (these has a “stabilising” effect (reduces buckling
position, especially projections and recesses must be calculated for every planting or loads), avoiding an adverse superimposition
in steeply sloping surfaces, involves additional greening of a facade) of buckling forces resulting from compressive
loads, stresses and aspects. They make it • Horizontal loads: Wind loads (there is gener- forces and bending.
harder to channel water, while snow and ice ally an 8:5 ratio of pressure to suction, suc-
formation causes further loads and stresses. tion loads may be higher around edge Suspended facades are more appropriate for
Extensive horizontal surfaces must be treated areas), traffic loads (e.g. impact loads) surfaces with long spans, although they do
like roofs and drained in a controlled manner, • Loads resulting from constraining forces not reduce deformations perpendicular to the
their surface is increased and sealing and insu- caused by changes in volume due to vari- plane of the facade to any significant extent.
lating layers can project, resulting in structural ations in temperature or humidity
weak points where they bend. Facade surface loads are usually transferred Anchor and sliding points
Every window reveal, bay window and loggia into the support structure’s floors, walls and If the facade and support structure are separ-
involves vertical and horizontal projections and supports. Vertical and horizontal loads can ate systems, they are subject to different tem-
inside and outside edges and corners. be borne and transferred separately into differ- perature fluctuations and loads as well as the
ent structural components within the support resulting changes in form, which makes it ne-
Curved surfaces structure. cessary to join them using unrestrained coupling
Water runs easily off curved surfaces that are with anchor and sliding points. Relative move-
not perpendicular. Curves cannot usually be Standing and suspended facades ments must be able to be absorbed in both
built continuously but typically consist of a A fundamental difference in load-bearing directions (positive and negative tolerances).
series of polygons due to the basic geometry behaviour arises out of the question of whether The interfaces between the two subsystems
of materials and semi-finished products. a facade “hangs” or “stands”, whether planar are sites where various trades, construction
or linear structural components have to be methods and structural tolerances usually
Double-curved surfaces designed to cope with tensile forces and bend- meet, which is why fastenings must be ade-
Double-curved surfaces are not necessarily ing or with compressive forces and bending quately adjustable in all directions.
connected to shell support structures or as well as buckling (stability problems). Connections between structural components
membrane structures. Such geometric forms Suspended facades, where the dead weight in facades that expand longitudinally to differ-
are often created as translation surfaces, imposed on the facade’s structural compo- ent extents (for loading, thermal and hygric
which can be built with even, individual poly- nents is transferred into the support structure reasons) must also be designed to be uncon-
gonal areas. (e.g. into floor slabs), has become the estab- strained so as to prevent damage.

29
Surfaces – structural principles

Principles
Bending + normal forces

Slab + Slab + three-

Slab only rear truss dimensional truss Folded plate Rigid shell

Slab + Slab + edge Slab + Slab + Slab + Shell made of Membrane, Pneumatic
bending beam reinforcement cable ties cable mesh grid shell polygonal surfaces single layer structure
A 2.1.9

Support structures Slabs especially in the direction of a section’s weaker

It is an inherent feature of space-enclosing A “slab” is a planar load-bearing element that axis. Individual bending beams can be put
shells that planar structural components are transfers horizontal loads through bending together using links free of constraining forces
the central elements of all facades. Depend- loads (in one or two directions) perpendicular to form extensive, curved or polygonal tra-
ing on their support structure (Figs. A 2.1.9 to its plane. Bending resistance and stability verse support structures (e.g. post and beam
and 2.1.10) facades are exposed to only nor- (with superimposed compressive forces) are facades). Manufacture, transport and installa-
mal forces (tensile and /or compressive forces) determined mainly by the structural compo- tion considerations may limit the size of frame
in their plane or to bending perpendicular to nent’s depth (i.e. the component’s effective structures, although they can be combined
their plane. Planar elements can have linear thickness perpendicular to plane of the facade). with other structures or with each other to form
load-bearing components such as truss sys- A component’s cross section, with materials prefabricated modular facades.
tems, bending beams etc. attached to them, concentrated at its edges, must be appropri-
or these components can be integrated higher ately adapted to bear the loads imposed on it. Slabs + linear structures, exposed only to
up in the structural hierarchy than the planar Continuous spans can have the effect of redu- normal forces
elements. Elements can be also combined cing the bending moment. A simultaneous im- Linear support structures include:
to form hierarchically structured systems with position of horizontal and vertical loads always • Planar and three-dimensional trusses: struc-
primary and secondary load-bearing com- causes a superimposition of bending moment tures made up of compression and tension
ponents. and normal forces. Vertical forces can also be members, suitable for broad spans
Planar and linear elements function either as transferred through bending in the plane of a • Cable trusses and nets: These prestressed
structural units (e.g. T-beams, trussed slabs) structural component, transferring forces hori- structures can only absorb tensile forces and
or are separate, which can make planar zontally to the sides. are only advisable if the building’s support
structural components easier to remove and structure can absorb the powerful tensile
replace. Slabs + trussing forces required for pretensioning without
Architects can use trussing to form a force-fit costly and complex additional measures.
The logic of such structures is based not only structural unit with slabs to increase compo- These delicate-looking structures are espe-
on an efficient use of materials for bearing nents’ structural depth and also save materials. cially ideal for surfaces designed to look very
loads in the completed structure; prefabrica- Trussing can be fixed to one or two sides. The transparent.
tion and installation issues are also involved. slabs are additionally subjected to compres- • Grid shells
Transport and installation processes can cause sive forces in their planes. Connecting com-
other loads and stresses, which must also be pression and tension members produces point Folded plate structures, shells, membranes
managed. loads, so potential problems caused by pier- Planar load-bearing structures that are only
It is often not permissible bending stresses, but cing have to be taken into account. Trussing able to absorb tensile and/or compressive
restraining deflection and bending under loads does not cause any additional support forces loads and stresses in their plane are especially
– especially in glass structures – that is crucial that the primary support structure would have suitable for absorbing evenly distributed planar
in design. to absorb. loads. These systems are also designed to
absorb bending loads when subjected to alter-
Gravity walls Slabs + bending beams nating planar loads and/or point loads. Appro-
In walls whose structure cannot transfer tensile Linear support structures subjected to bend- priate prestressing ensures that membranes
forces, the resulting vertical and horizontal ing, and possibly compressive forces as well, that can only absorb tensile loads and stresses
forces must lie at the core of the wall’s base limit the spans of planar structural components. will deform only slightly, even when they are
area to ensure that the structure remains stable The beams accumulate the point and/or line subjected to alternating loads.
and to prevent the formation of gaping joints. loads of planar structural components (slabs)
Horizontal forces neutralise the pressure from and transfer them as single loads by means of Structures of planar facade components
vertical loads. Here it can be advantageous bending to structural components higher in the Planar structural components can be classified
for the structural component to bear not just load-bearing hierarchy. into structures that can be built using different
its own weight but also vertical loads from If only wind loads are imposed, bending loads materials and are often combined. The variants
roof and floor slabs, i.e. be part of the primary are uniaxial, but in both directions (wind suc- shown in Figure A 2.1.11 do not represent an
support structure (= load-bearing facade). tion and pressure). Superimposition of com- entire facade structure, but only the construc-
Masonry exterior walls usually comply with this pressive forces and bending intensifies stability tion methods used to make layers or shells. A
principle. problems and there is a danger of buckling, solid material slab designed to absorb bending

30
 Surfaces – structural principles

Loads in the structural Load-bearing A 2.1.9 Load-bearing structures for facades

component structure principles A 2.1.10 Loads in planar facade structural
components subject to vertical and
Mainly only normal forces horizontal loads
Gravity (weight) A 2.1.11 Overview of planar facade structural
Compression only components
principle

Compression + tension Folded plate

Compression +
Shell
perhaps tension
Continuous (solid material)
Pneumatic structure a Basic material
Tension only Membrane structure b Mix of materials, composite materials
c Composite materials reinforced /
Bending and normal forces fibre-reinforced a b c
Bending +
Standing slab
compressive forces
Bending + tensile forces Suspended slab

A 2.1.10
Structures containing a high proportion of air
d Porous, foamed
forces might be either the entire system of a e Spherical structure
storey-high, single-shell or single-layer struc- f Three-dimensional grid/network d e f
ture or a small-scale element in exterior wall
cladding. Among the criteria to be taken into
account in selecting a suitable principle are:
• Load-bearing capacity, depending on struc-
tural requirements (Fig. A 2.1.10) Structures with cavities
• The overall structural context: the compo- g Cavities, chambers (point by point, linear)
nent’s size, workability, connection options, h Offset cavities
joints, deformations, changes in length, i Multi-web double sheets g h i
degree of prefabrication, resistance to mois-
ture and frost etc.
• Structural physical properties: specific Layered structures, friction-bonded and /or
interlocking
weight, thermal conductivity, thermal storage j Irregular units, friction-bonded
capacity, resistance to moisture vapour diffu- (e.g. with mortar)
sion, translucence etc. k Regular units, friction-bonded and interlocking
• Visual effect l Regular units, friction-bonded (e.g. with
adhesive) j k l

Continuous structures
In this context, a continuous structure is a solid
section with an anisotropic or isotropic form.
These planar structural components are pre-
fabricated in factories or on site in formwork Layered structures, material-bonded
m Linear units
with joints between individual production
n Planar units
steps. The structural components’ size and o Linear and planar units m n o
form depend on their materials and manufac-
ture. They can be built to have specific load-
bearing properties as reinforced (with metal
rods, glass fibres, natural fibres, synthetic
fibres etc.) composite materials designed to Sandwich structures
p With a closed-cell core
absorb tensile and/or compressive forces. This q Open, cellular core structure
principle is also at work in solid material slabs (honeycomb, webs etc.)
designed to absorb bending forces and mem- r With a profiled core structure p q r
branes made of composite material that can
absorb only tensile forces.
Ribs / frames and slabs
Structures containing large proportions of air s Ribs with planks on both sides form a
or cavities structural unit
Various manufacturing technologies can t Frames with planks on both sides form
increase the amount of air in structural compo- a structural unit
u Frames and isolated infill s t u
nents with the following goals:
• Reduction of weight and material
• Decrease in thermal conductivity (= improv-
ing thermal insulation)
• Creation of cavities for installations
Profiled structures
If the material can be concentrated at the com- v Single profile
ponents’ edges, their ability to absorb bending w Trapezoidal profile
x Corrugations v w x
loads will probably only be slightly less than
A 2.1.11

31
Surfaces – structural principles

that of solid sections. Substantially thinning out • Vapour pressure can be released Damp Rain / facade water
material in these areas will subject edge zones • Air can flow in or escape (for rear ventilation) Capillary water
Water vapour / condensation
to tensile and compressive loads and expose • Any accumulated facade water or condensa- Ice formation, snow
webs to shear forces. tion can run off
• Relative movements are tolerated Air /wind pressure Airtightness / windtightness
Layered structures with frictional and/or positive • Light can penetrate Reduction of wind pressure /
form-fit bonding The very diverse “seams” between structural suction
Layering small-format, irregular units without components require particular care and atten- Ventilation openings
a binding agent is a traditional construction tion because many aspects relevant to con-
Sound Airborne sound
method which is still used in building fa- struction can concentrate here (Fig. A 2.1.12). Structure-borne sound
cings. Enclosing units in metal mesh (gabions) As well as functional and technical factors,
section by section greatly increases their joints can help to structure individual compo- Light Lighting
stability. nents and entire facades (inside and out) and UV-resistant joining material
Coordinated modular units of regular shape emphasise geometric and structural orders.
Transfer of forces Element – Element
and size can be joined with frictional and /
Substructure – Element
or positive form-fit bonds to form larger struc- Joints in exterior facade surfaces are com-
tural components. Building structures in pletely exposed to weather. The higher a Compensation Manufacturing tolerances
small modular steps can make them easier building is, the greater the wind forces acting for tolerances Installation tolerances
to modify. on it. At building edges, flows are concen- Movement tolerances
trated and wind speeds higher. Rainfall can
Layered structures with fused bonding add to facade run-off water and accumulate Assembly Adjustability, fixing
Sequences
Rod-shaped, planar or three-dimensional as it flows down the building. The positioning Independence from weather
structures (e.g. honeycombs, lattices) can be of joints in the direction in which precipitation
fused together (using mortar or adhesive, for and facade water runs off, which is determined Maintenance Necessity
example) to form larger planar components. by gravity and wind, is an important factor in Options /access
One special form of this technique is sandwich their loading. Joints parallel to the flow direc-
construction. tion of facade water (vertical joints) are usually Disassembly Removability
Recycling
subject to lower loads than those that do not Reusability
“Sandwich structures” follow run-off direction. Changes in the volumes
Bonding thin-walled surface layers resistant to and lengths of adjoining structural components Joint pattern Overlapping
tensile and compressive forces together with due to loads, temperature fluctuations and Shadow gap
a shear-resistant core (usually in a very open moisture absorption or release also impose Undercut
Profiled
or porous structure) produces a structural unit loads on all kinds of joints. This is most evident Change of materials
that is highly resistant to bending and makes in prefabricated modular facades, but wet- Colour
economical use of materials. Structures with on-wet construction methods also do not form
A 2.1.12
well-insulated intermediate layers are generally rigid structures.
suitable for producing light, opaque facade Butt joints
panels. Principles of joint sealing A butt joint between two structural components
Joint sealing is designed to curb or prevent without any sealing element is the oldest form
Panels with ribs or frames a mix of air and water (fluid) entering into a of contact seal (in Fig. A 2.1.13 not shown).
Ribs/frames combined with planar panels and joint. Sealing elements at the edges of facade The uneven surfaces mean that the gap can
infill can mutually stabilise each other to pro- components are never completely seamless, be reduced but not entirely closed, not even
duce planar structural components with very so the sealing effect is always only relative. with elastic or plastic materials and the applica-
good load-bearing capacity that also make Only bonded materials create a complete seal. tion of force.
economical use of materials. Cavities can be If a joint cannot be sufficiently closed with a
filled with insulating materials. sealing element in its plane, other strategies Overlapping
will be required. Seals that use several layers Overlapping is the simplest, oldest and most
Profiled components and various sealing elements (multilayer effective sealing principle and is still used
This principle can be used to produce very sealing systems) have proven their worth in in many sealing systems. Overlapped elem-
rigid units with a minimal use of materials. A this context. ents must follow the flow direction of facade
U-shaped or Z-shaped element is a profiled Joint sealing relies on a few basic principles water.
component, and they can be put together that can be implemented in a wide range of
to form larger planar units. Profiled compo- ways (Fig. A 2.1.13). In choosing a sealing Figure A 2.1.14 shows examples of reliable
nents can be made of various materials system, the extent to which and direction in facade water run-off over a horizontal joint with-
resistant to tensile and compressive forces which structural components will move or are out sealing elements based on overlapping
by means of sheet metal and solid forming, expected to move is crucial [7]. principles. Some versions allow for horizontal
extrusion or casting techniques (such as ex- movement between structural components
trusion moulding). Contactless sealing systems (e.g. for opening sashes).
Structural components are deliberately kept
Joining facade components at a specific distance from each other and Bonded material seals
Almost every facade is an assembly of individ- their edges formed to impede flows due to Bonded material seals are connections made
ual structural components, and thereby creates turbulence in the joint. This principle allows with grouting or adhesive bonding or by
a range of different joints that break through for large relative movements and is appropri- welding, soldering, brazing or milling and
layers and shells (e.g. weatherproof envelope) ate for the first layer in a multilayer sealing can provide a complete seal in some cases.
and often form potential weak points, which system. The joint in a labyrinth seal is bent They can generally not withstand relative
have to be sealed as best as possible. In other and folded in keeping with the overlapping movements or can do so only to a limited
cases, joints remain open so that principle. extent.

32
 Surfaces – structural principles

Basic principles Examples (basic principles) Combinations Examples

Contact-free +
Open /contact-free Gap sealing Labyrinth seal Labyrinth seal overlapping Angled seal Staggered Labyrinth seal
labyrinth seal

Overlapping Rebate Tongue With contact Material-bonded Scarf Finger joint Sealing compound
with or without and groove pressure and
contact pressure cover profile

Material-bonded +
overlapping +
Material-bonded Bond Solder or braze Weld sealing element Bellows H-profile Sealing compound
membrane

Overlapping + Tongue and groove + Porous profile + Chamber profile

Sealing element Sealing Porous profile Chamber profile
sealing element(s) + sealing compound
without external compound
contact pressure

Bellows Lipped profile Brush seal + Sealing + Grooved gasket + Lipped profile
membrane compound

Sealing element Flat seal Profile gasket Grooved gasket Other Joint tape Fir tree gasket + Labyrinth seal
with external seam sheet as brush seal
contact pressure A 2.1.13

Sealing compounds Lipped profile A 2.1.12 Aspects of joint formation

Sealing compounds are suitable for uneven A lipped profile is an elastically deformable A 2.1.13 Principles of joint sealing
A 2.1.14 Examples of horizontal joints for draining off
surfaces. Their sealing effect is based on an element with one or more sealing lips that
facade water, left: outside
adhesive bond between the sealing element internal spring forces press onto a structural
and sides of the joint. Rigid sealing compounds component’s edges. They can absorb large
can produce load-bearing, friction-locking translational movements parallel to a joint axis.
connections. Sealing compounds with plastic Profiles with specific forms may also be able
or elastic deformation properties can absorb to absorb movement across a joint axis to a
slight relative movements. Mistakes made in limited extent.
using these compounds often only become
apparent some time after completion. Sealing elements that use contact pressure
The application of external force can be used
Porous and hollow-chamber profiles to tightly fit a sealing element’s surfaces to
Porous and hollow-chamber profiles are larger the edges of structural components. The con-
than the joint’s maximum volume before they tact pressure of profiled seals operates on
are installed and in a prestressed state when small areas of the elements’ surfaces. Water is
compressed. They can absorb slight relative stopped from penetrating into cavities through
movements across the joint axis, yet measures capillary action, and wind pressure due to tur-
must be taken to prevent shifting if they are bulence is reduced. Such joints can only barely
to withstand movements along the joint axis. withstand relative movements, and it is import-
The greater internal prestressing of hollow- ant that the sealing element stays in place.
chamber profiles makes them more suitable
for frequently alternating loads and larger Combinations
movements in joint areas than porous profiles. The basic principles outlined above can be
combined to form more complex, very effect-
Bellows membranes ive, usually multilayer sealing systems. A
Bellows membranes can absorb large relative seal’s impermeability is always relative, so
movements both across and along the joint supplementary measures (e.g. glass rebate
axis. They can be inserted between adjoining ventilation/drainage) should be taken to com-
structural components in various ways, such pensate for a possible complete or partial
as a press-fit or adhesion. failure of sealing systems.
A 2.1.14

33
Surfaces – structural principles

The principle of double sealing is that a first • Creation of uncontrolled cavities Typical structures and how they work
external seal prevents water on the surface • Attachment problems: penetration of water- Figure A 2.1.15 shows a selection of schematic
from penetrating and a second seal, perhaps bearing or insulating layers, creation of representations of structures classified accord-
with a hollow-chamber profile, stops air from bending moment in the anchoring of facing ing to functional and structural criteria (see also
flowing through. Turbulence in the interstice shells “Classification of design solutions”, p. 27f.).
(e.g. in labyrinth form) reduces wind pressure • Greater cost and effort involved in manu- The number and thickness of the layers and
and any water that has penetrated can run off. facture shells vary greatly. They can be divided into
• Greater maintenance cost and effort solid and lightweight structures and are suit-
Installation sequences • Building a wall may involve several trades able for temperate climate zones.
Two general principles govern the installation and responsibilities, which can increase the
and dismantling of joints based on overlapping cost and effort involved in coordinating them Protection from driving rain
principles: and result in overlapping liabilities Moisture-absorbing materials require protec-
• Individual elements can only be installed in • Problems in separating and thus disposing tion from frost, and any moisture that may pene-
a certain strict order and must be disman- of individual layers trate must be able to periodically completely
tled in precisely the opposite order. Individ- evaporate. Facade water can be drained off
ual elements in such a chain can only be The following tendencies are currently pre- through various layers. Some facade water will
exchanged with some restrictions and sub- dominant: run off down the back of the cladding of venti-
sequent damage (e.g. of sealing elements or • Increasing performance of functional lated weatherproof shells with open joints. This
rebates). Special solutions may be required layers reduces the risk of soiling since less dirt is
for joining and sealing reused or refitted • Reducing the space required for layers (e.g. deposited on horizontal surfaces because it
structural components (e.g. in Fig. A 2.1.13, vacuum insulation) through to miniaturising is regularly washed off.
p. 33 “tongue and groove” and “grooved” of functional structures (e.g. prismatic light
components). deflection systems less than 0.1 mm high) Windproofing
• There is no fixed sequence for installing and • Surface coatings using nanotechnology Facades usually need to be windproof. The
dismantling individual structural compo- • Combination of several functions in a single inner facade layer of a multilayer facade must
nents. Elements in the same system can be polyvalent layer be windproof, as must joints with other struc-
replaced (e.g. in Fig. A 2.1.13, p. 33 “gap tural components.
ring”, “cover profile” and “sealing compound” The functions of layers and shells
joints). This is especially recommended if The following functions (often also combined) Thermal insulation
there is a risk of damage (e.g. in the plinth can be allocated to individual layers or shells, Material layers that trap a large proportion of
zone) and an element has to be replaced. e.g.: stationary air guarantee good insulating prop-
• Visual effects, information media erties. Open-pored insulating materials that
From monolithic to multilayer / multi-shell • Mechanical protection can absorb moisture and water through capil-
Homogeneous shell structures made primarily • Protection from driving rain lary action, which greatly impairs their func-
of just one material (often referred to as mono- • Windproofing tioning, must be effectively protected from
lithic) are unlikely to meet the current increased • Blocking /restricting of vapour permeability moisture.
thermal insulation demands made on building • Light refraction and diffusion
envelopes. • Reflection of light radiation and thermal Water vapour diffusion
Planners can precisely adapt a facade’s radiation The water vapour diffusion resistance of layers
performance profile to meet certain require- • Absorption of thermal radiation must generally diminish from the inside to the
ments by creating differentiated structures • Reflection of electromagnetic radiation outside to prevent condensation from forming
that assign individual functions to different • Absorption of sound in a structural component (and avoid steam
layers with a specific material and structure. • Reflection of sound traps). Condensation that collects in wall struc-
Making layers or shells modifiable allows the • Heat storage tures during the heating period must be able to
building envelope’s properties to adapt to • Reduction of heat transition evaporate completely in warmer seasons.
periodically changing external conditions. • Transfer of loads
Individual layers and shells can be subse- • Discharge of heat Rear ventilation
quently added or replaced, making it possible • Absorption and release of water vapour Effective rear ventilation of a facing shell
to adapt the building envelope to differing • Conversion of solar energy into thermal or requires a distance of at least 20 mm between
requirements during its use. This means that electrical energy cladding and shell and adequate ventilation
an outer weatherproof shell designed to be a openings of at least 50 cm2 for every metre of
“wearing course layer” can be renewed after Other layers may be formed based on struc- wall length [8] to efficiently release moisture
a period of use without the underlying struc- tural requirements, e.g.: (infiltrated facade water and/or condensation)
ture having to be changed. This principle can • Release of water vapour and heat (in summer). Layers of stationary air
also be useful in subsequent retrofitting for • Discharge of condensation or surface (no rear ventilation) have an additional insula-
renovating and optimising existing exterior wall water tion effect.
structures. • Balancing out unevenness
• Layers for material-bonded joints (adhesive Heat storage
Assigning individual functions to layers and layers) Inside layers with good heat storage capacity
shells may, however, also have disadvantages • Measures for stabilising layers (e.g. prevent- can be activated to help regulate the interior
depending on quality of the materials and con- ing thermal insulation layers from swelling) climate.
struction methods chosen: • Substructures for connecting layers and
• Creation of lots of interfaces between differ- shells Sun shading
ent materials and structural components with • Separating layers that are required because Sun shading devices that reduce the input
the risk of material incompatibilities of materials incompatibilities of energy through layers that are permeable
• Increased number of joints and therefore of • Sliding layers allowing for unrestrained to solar radiation are most effective mounted
potential weak points movement outside. Their rear ventilation counteracts the

34
 Surfaces – structural principles

Not permeable Not permeable Not permeable Not permeable Not permeable
Not modifiable Not modifiable Not modifiable Not modifiable Energy producing
Modifiable

Load-bearing or non-load- Load-bearing or non-load- Load-bearing or non-load- Load-bearing or non-load- Load-bearing or non-load-
bearing bearing bearing bearing bearing
Single-layer Multilayer Multilayer Multilayer Multilayer
Single-shell Single-shell Double-layer Double-shell Triple-shell
Not rear-ventilated Not rear-ventilated Not rear-ventilated Rear-ventilated Rear-ventilated (outermost shell)

Material structure determines Improved insulation due to the Robust external shell provides Facing shell can be exchanged; Rear-ventilated shell made of
performance; can only be ad- insulation layer; inner and outer physical protection for the insu- mounting may not be allowed light-deflecting louvres; trans-
justed by changing the wall wear and protective layer; heat lation layer and against driving to impede rising airflows; con- lucent shell with transparent
thickness; any moisture that has storage capacity can be used rain; outer and inner shells may densation and any penetrating insulation in front of a solid ab-
penetrated must be able to peri- to heat the interior be partly connected, but do not moisture are safely extracted; sorber; overall structure opaque;
odically completely evaporate form a structural unit ventilation openings required energy production modifiable
and can be regulated with con-
trol circuit technology

Not permeable Not permeable Permeable (light) Permeable (light) Permeable (light)
Not modifiable Not modifiable Not modifiable Not modifiable Modifiable and regulated

Load-bearing or non-load- Load-bearing or non-load- Non-load-bearing Non-load-bearing Non-load-bearing

bearing bearing Single-layer Single-layer Multilayer
Multilayer Multilayer Single-shell Double-shell Single-shell
Single-shell Double-layer Rear-ventilated or not rear-
Not rear-ventilated Rear-ventilated ventilated

Lightweight structure; inner and External, rear-ventilated wear The structure itself is not energy- Low level of insulation because Functional unit made of several
outer layer usually joined to form and protective layer; diffusion producing, even though it is air circulates in the cavity translucent or light-refracting
a structural unit; vapour trap pre- resistance declines towards permeable to solar energy, (heat losses due to convection); layers, with reflecting layers if
vented by a barrier on the inside; the outside; separate wind which is absorbed by structural shells do not form structural required; permeability to light
as stud wall also part of the load- protection layer; inner lining components in the interior; no unit; risk of condensation form- can be modified
bearing structure; sandwich is a separate layer insulation ing in the cavity
structures are a special case

Permeable (to light) Permeable (light) Permeable (light and air) Permeable (light) Permeable (light)
Modifiable Modifiable Modifiable Not modifiable Not modifiable

Non-load-bearing Non-load-bearing Non-load-bearing Non-load-bearing Non-load-bearing

Multilayer Multilayer Multilayer Multilayer Single or multilayer
Single-shell Double-shell Four-shell Single-shell Double-shell
Rear-ventilated Rear-ventilated
Functional unit made of several Pneumatic structure with trans- Membranes as two structurally
translucent layers; improved Good thermal insulation due to Double facade, outer and inner lucent layers that form a single separate shells; layer of air or
insulating due to thermal insula- two stationary layers of air / inert glazing; openable, air cavity structural unit, depending on controlled ventilation for extract-
tion; permeability to light can gas and possibly reflective coat- between shells has controlled the system, i.e. a single-shell ing water vapour and heat;
be modified and is self-regulat- ing (Low-E); adjustable or fixed ventilation, louvres and glare structure but there are heat losses due
ing, with thermotropic glass, louvres as rear-ventilated facing protection on the inside; separ- to convection
for example shell ate shell for regulating per-
meability to light

Opaque material Translucent Opaque thermal Translucent Light-refracting

structure material structure insulation thermal insulation system
A 2.1.15 Structures /assemblies of
layers and shells perpendicu-
Rear ventilation Windproofing Vapour barrier Reflection of Light refraction, lar to the plane of the facade,
radiation glare protection left: outside

35
Surfaces – structural principles

a b c
A 2.1.16

F Vertical loads

C = T = M/h

T
h

C
heating of surfaces that would otherwise radi- load-bearing structural hierarchy. Figure
ate heat into the interior. Such functional layers A 2.1.17 shows that increasing the distance h
e
have the characteristics of shells. between attachment points can greatly reduce
M=Fxe the compressive and tensile forces that have
Connecting layers and shells to be transferred. This does not affect shear
A 2.1.17 Layers and shells must be put together to form loads, although wind suction also subjects
a structural unit, the facade. Functional and attachments to tensile forces.
Geometry Point-by-point structural physical aspects are more important
Linear in determining the sequence of their installation Anchorings or attachments for facing shells
Planar than construction issues are. A functional layer often penetrate thick layers of insulation, creat-
will be exposed to various loads depending ing a powerful lever arm effect. Connecting
Detachability Detachable on its position in the structure. Some planar elements made of materials like metals that
Not detachable structural components, due to their material conduct heat well can become “thermal bridges”
properties and/or thicknesses, are not or only on which condensation can accumulate, requir-
Method Interlocking bond somewhat able to absorb and transfer forces ing the metals used to be rustproof. Not even
Friction-locked,
load-bearing bond (e.g. thin foils, soft fibrous insulation, fills, layers galvanised zinc-coated steel connections
Material bond of air etc.). Clear load-bearing hierarchies that are permissible here [9]. Insulating material
establish which structural components bear must be tightly packed around connecting
Loads and stresses Compression which planar structural element are therefore elements to ensure that such structural weak
Tension required. points are not further weakened. It is also
Bending
advisable to minimise cross sections through
Shear
Torsion A facade’s functional layers are identified as which heat can escape. Another strategy is to
layers or shells depending on the degree of use plastic spacers to create a thermal separ-
Movability Not sliding their structural autonomy. Layers are not or ation between the connecting element or con-
Sliding in one direction only somewhat load-bearing and /or parts of nection. Drip edges over connecting elements
Sliding in two directions a superordinate structural unit, such as struc- perpendicular to the structure prevent facade
turally-irrelevant foils and coatings, layers water, melt water, dew or condensation from
Adjustability Not adjustable of air, insulation, layers of plaster, individual getting into insulating layers or other layers or
In one direction panes in multi-pane insulating glazing and shells by means of adhesion.
In two directions individual membranes in a pneumatic struc-
In three directions ture. Shells are largely load-bearing structures Connecting layers is less problematic than
A 2.1.18 ranging from partly up to entirely three-dimen- connecting shells because layers are gener-
sional and/or structurally autonomous. A shell ally closer together. Attachments should impair
can consist of several layers, such as the inner or penetrate functional layers (e.g. weather-
and outer skin of a double facade, structural proof shells, sealing layers, windproofing,
components separated by air layers (e.g. rear moisture barriers, thermal insulation) as little
ventilation) or non-load-bearing layers of insu- as possible so as not to impair their effective-
lation. ness and to keep the risk of structural-physical
problems and resulting damage to the building
A facade structure (e.g. post and beam) either to a minimum.
a b c joins several shells that are high up in the load- Uncontrolled cavities and continuous penetra-
bearing structural hierarchy or joins them as tive joints should always be avoided (so joints
the substructure (e.g. to brackets) of a struc- should be staggered). Layers of air between
turally subordinate component (e.g. a facing shells should generally be ventilated and
shell) to a component higher up in the load- drained. Horizontal substructures must not
bearing structural hierarchy. In the latter case be allowed to constrict necessary ventilation
the vertical loads of the subordinate shell due cavities. Air cavities must be permanently
to the distance e (= lever arm effect) cause a protected from small animals (insects, small
bending moment, which must be absorbed rodents) by means of gratings, perforated
d e f
by the substructure or shell that is higher in the sheets or nets.
A 2.1.19

36
 Surfaces – structural principles

A 2.1.16 Spatial and structural aspects resulting from the

addition of functional layers:
a At a distance, not joined
b At a distance, joined via a substructure
c No gap, directly joined, no substructure
A 2.1.17 Interplay of forces involved in attaching facing
shells
A 2.1.18 Criteria for attaching layers and shells
A 2.1.19 Attachments of planar structural components
a Planar
b Linear, perpendicular
c Linear, horizontal
d Linear, circumferential
e Point by point
f Point by point
A 2.1.20 Examples of substructures for facing shells
(top: vertical section, bottom: horizontal
section) a b c d e f

A 2.1.20

Direct contact of functional layers with each Which principle is appropriate in a particular Notes
other or between connecting elements must case depends on the following factors: [1] VDI-Richtlinie 2221: Düsseldorf 1993. p. 39f.
VDI-Richtlinie 2222: Düsseldorf 1997, p. 5f.
be prevented if there is a risk of material incom- • Size and weight of individual planar structural [2] VDI-Richtlinie 2221: Düsseldorf 1993. p. 39f: “Effect:
patibilities from corrosion (galvanic or contact components in the cladding an invariable, predictable occurrence resulting from
corrosion). This type of corrosion can also • Options available for attaching facade clad- physical, chemical or biological natural laws.”
occur in metals not in direct contact if there ding (e.g. transfer of forces that is linear or [3] The revised classification builds on typological
investigations carried out during a research projects
is a risk of water acting as a medium. at points)
on building envelopes:
• Requirements due to rear ventilation Herzog, Thomas; Krippner, Roland: Gebäudehülle.
Attachment strategies • Options for attachments to and loading of Synoptische Darstellung maßgeblicher baulicher
There are various ways of connecting layers shells higher up in the structural hierarchy Subsysteme der Gebäudehülle mit Schutz- und
to each other or shells to substructures (and (Can large tensile forces be transferred and Steuerungsfunktionen als Voraussetzung für die
experimentelle Arbeit an ihrer energetischen und
vice versa). The following must be taken into absorbed, for example?) baukonstruktiven Optimierung. Abschlussbericht
account: • Structural and physical aspects (significance (unpublished). TU Munich 2000.
• Secure transfer of all loads and risk of thermal bridges) Herzog, Thomas; Krippner, Roland: Synoptical
• Constraint-free supports for structural com- Description of Decisive Subsystems of the Building
Skin. In: Pontenagel, Irm: Building a New Century.
ponents with anchor and sliding points Very heavy facing shells or other elements
5th Conference Solar Energy in Architecture and
• Stipulation of installation sequences and (balconies, trellises etc.) attached to the front Urban Planning. Proceedings. Published by Euro-
possible subsequent replaceability of thermally separated envelopes should have solar. Bonn 1999, p. 306 – 310
• Identification of interfaces between different their own structure and perhaps a foundation [4] Nitz, Peter; Wagner, Andreas: Schaltbare und regel-
trades and firms for transferring vertical forces. Shells only then bare Verglasungen. Published by Fachinformations-
zentrum Karlsruhe. BINE Themeninfo, I/02. Karlsruhe
• The adjustability of connecting structural have to be anchored to transfer horizontal 2002
components made by different trades and forces and prevent buckling. [5] The definition of shells in the literature is inconsistent
those manufactured with differing tolerances and partly contradictory. The definition made here
Adjusting connections seems to be the most plausible. Confusion is caused
when the classification refers only to a specific type
Attaching facing shells The following strategies can be used to make
of structure (e.g. a single-layer concrete wall) and not
Facing shells and rear-ventilated cladding are connections adjustable: to the whole envelope system (e.g. a double-shelled
attached by means of substructures (leaving • Underlay or lining structure with a concrete wall and an aluminium pro-
space for insulation and /or rear ventilation) to • Spacer screws and bolts filed sheet metal weatherproof shell). See “Connect-
planar structural components higher in the load- • Fasteners that can slide in long slots or on ing layers and shells”, p. 36f.
[6] Herzog, Thomas; Nikolic, Vladimir: Petrocarbona
bearing structural hierarchy. For taller build- rails (e.g. Halfen channels) Außenwandsystem. Bexbach 1972
ings, suspended (top-supported) installation • Connections in oversized slots that are sub- [7] The description and to some extent classification of
is preferable to standing (bottom-supported) sequently filled in joint sealing systems is based on the following re-
installation. Several types of substructures are • Available and sufficient options for position- search report: Scharr, Roland; Sulzer, Peter: Beiträge
zum methodischen Vorgehen in der Baukonstruktion.
available (see Fig. A 2.1.20): ing fasteners on surfaces offering a mater-
Außenwanddichtungen. Published by the VDI. Düssel-
a Posts ial bond (an adhesive surface or “welding dorf 1981. It used scientific methods to investigate
b Beams embedment”), very precise setting of screws, and demonstrate “elements and structures of sealing
c and d Vertical and horizontal load-bearing bolts and dowels etc. in installation systems in exterior walls with an analysis of built
elements, rear ventilation and draining must structures” in construction.
[8] See DIN 18 516 Part 1: Berlin 1999. This does not
not be impaired by horizontal load-bearing apply to “small-format slabs” with a surface ≤ 0.4 m2
elements; variant d is problematic in this and dead weight ≤ 5 kg
respect [9] See DIN EN ISO 8044: 2015-12 Corrosion of metals
e Substructure made of tension /compression and alloys and DIN 18 516 Cladding for external
members and diagonal suspension to walls, ventilated at the rear
absorb vertical loads, or combinations with
other linear load-bearing elements (vertical
or horizontal)
f Brackets clamped into the load-bearing shell;
combinations with other linear load-bearing
elements (vertical or horizontal) are another
possible solution

37
 Edges, openings

A 2.2 Edges, openings Edges ings should be modifiable because fluctuations

in exterior conditions are pitted against a desire
So far, we have dealt with building envelopes for stable conditions inside. Openings in the
as continuous surfaces and their structure in building envelope mediate between inside and
terms of thickness. Surfaces in and around a out and control the exchange between the inter-
building envelope are, however, finite, so every ior and exterior climate. Individual parameters
surface is also defined by its edges. When such as heat, light, air, sound, moisture etc.
the structural, functional and design properties can be summed up by the term “regulation
of a building envelope change, they can be of permeability”, for which elements that close
described as different definable areas. Any openings are used [2]. The most familiar of
change in their properties is usually one of these is the window, which through appropri-
permeability. ate material lets light in, even when they are
closed, although air can only be exchanged
Openings are the parts of a building envelope if the window sashes are open, through slot
permeable to flows of energy and materials, ventilation between the sash and the frame,
which is generally the case when the parts or through adjustable slits in the frame. The
can be opened entirely, e.g. the sashes of functions of lighting and ventilation can of
windows [1]. It therefore seems expedient course be provided separately. The simplest
to expand the word “opening” to include the form is fixed glazing with a separate (opaque)
link to the physical process. A skylight, for sash for ventilation [3].
example, is an opening in a roof through which
light can enter. The advent of extensively glazed facades (e.g.
in greenhouses) in the 18th century and con-
A change in properties (performance) also struction of buildings like the Crystal Palace in
involves a change in structure. The word London (1851) and the Glaspalast in Munich
“edges” as used in this chapter refers not to (1854) represented a transformation. A window,
the edges of an individual structural compo- once a transparent element in an opaque wall
nent that is put together with many similar surface, was now an opening element in an
parts to form a whole (e.g. bricks in masonry), entirely transparent facade. Analogous to win-
but rather to transitions from a planar surface dows in a solid wall, the openable elements of
to an opening. a (transparent) glass facade were also called
windows.
The reveal
A reveal’s depth depends primarily on the sur- Position and geometry
rounding wall structure (Fig. A 2.2.5, p. 41). An opening’s arrangement and geometric
Reveals can be increased in size by adding shape are always related to the space behind
additional elements, but cannot be made it. Its position and geometric form affect day-
smaller. The reveal’s geometric form has a light levels inside, ventilation and users’ views
direct influence on daylight entering the build- of the outside. An opening’s position is always
ing and on views and lines of sight. Figure related to its use in horizontal and vertical
A 2.2.4, p. 40 illustrates some basic features. positions. A change of floor plan usage can
The design of reveal surfaces is connected modify the horizontal relationship to openings.
with the (structural) terminations of structural In contrast, it is not usually possible to modify
components used in and around openings the relative vertical arrangements of open-
(e.g. windows). A reveal can also help to reflect ings because of the difficulty of raising or low-
daylight into the interior. As well as geometry, ering a room’s floor.
the properties of specific surfaces must be
taken into account here. Vertical structuring of the facade surface
The depth of the reveal is always in proportion The facade of a storey can generally be divided
to the opening size, and it in turn in relation to into three areas (Fig. A 2.2.2, p. 40):
the wall’s surface. A facade’s external three- • Upper window area (a)
dimensional effect is largely created by the • Eye-level area, from the interior looking
offsetting of individual areas of the facade and out (b)
the resulting shadows. • Floor to parapet area (c)
Structural aspects involved in building reveals
include: The following terms describe upper and lower
• Transferring wind loads areas around openings (areas around edges)
• Dissipating the structure’s own weight in punctuated facades.
• Sealing against wind, precipitation etc. • “Lintel area” describes the area above a
window /door up to the roof
• “Dado area” describes the area under a
Openings window /door down to the floor

Openings in the building envelope are indis-

pensable for using the interior and supplying it
with light and air. Their protective and supply A 2.2.1 House, Paderborn (DE) 1995, Thomas Herzog
functions mean that the permeability of open- and Andrea Heigl

39
Edges, openings

a a a

b b b d

c c c e
A 2.2.2 A 2.2.3 A 2.2.4

Lines of sight Ventilation • Cross ventilation: To make use of thermal lift

A desire for fresh air is often accompanied Put simply, ventilation is “the exchange of air in in this case, the vertical distance between
by a desire to stand directly at an opening a space for outside air” [8]. Enough air should the air intake and air outlet should be as
(an open window), so manual operation of be exchanged in a space to meet hygienic large as possible. This distance is not im-
moveable closures and contact with the out- demands, taking structural physical aspects portant in systems that employ wind-induced
side must be taken into account in planning into account (removal of pollutants in the air, pressure differences.
openings. The opening should allow for this as discharge of moisture). Based on their drive
well as closing the inside off from the exterior. forces, a distinction is made between mechan- Brief, intensive periods of ventilation require
Here a distinction is made between visual and ical ventilation (which moves air mechanically) openings with the largest possible ventilation
physical links. The figures below indicate a and free ventilation, also called natural venti- cross-sections:
user’s average visual axis based on various lation. Natural ventilation moves air by using • Ventilation from one side: The neutral zone
positions in the room [4]: differences in pressure between the inside and in the middle of the opening means that the
• ca. 175 cm standing outside. These pressure differentials result from surface can be divided into two parts by a
• ca. 130 cm sitting down to work the following forces that are produced by nat- vertical distance.
• ca. 80 cm sitting on the floor ural conditions [9]: • Cross ventilation: Air flows through in only
• ca. 70 cm lying down (at a height of • Wind forces: differences in pressure between one direction.
30 cm) inside and outside caused by wind impacting
the facade result in the exchange of air The exchange of air as well as the movement
An opening’s position and partitioning must be • Thermal lift: forces that arise due to differ- of air are relevant considerations in ensuring
adapted to its type of use and position. ences in density because of temperature comfort [12], including:
differences (thermal stratification). When • Air speeds at interior air intakes
Light wind pressure increases, thermal lift adds • Maximum air speeds occurring in the room
The amount of light entering a space through to its force. • Average air speed in the room
a facade diminishes in the space’s depths Figure A 2.2.6 [10] shows the basic principle • Average air speed at occupant levels
(Fig. A 2.2.3 [5]) and is measured in the form of air exchange through a facade opening (1 metre above the floor)
of the daylight factor (DF). It specifies ratios due to thermal stratification without the influ-
of illumination levels inside and out (only ence of wind. There is no movement of air The upper limit value of air speed for comfort
diffuse light) under standard conditions as in the area of the imagined plane N (neutral is regarded as 0.2 m/s. In office and admin-
a percentage [6]. zone). Changing the opening’s vertical position istration buildings in particular, paper will
and the influence of wind forces can shift this be blown about at this air speed [13]. A
The external factors influencing interior plane vertically. As well as the formation and draught is defined as the “undesirable local
light are: positioning of ventilation openings in a facade, cooling of the human body” by a flow of air
• The structure’s orientation their variability is a crucial factor in the context [14]. There are no absolute values governing
• Time of day of the physical properties of the building’s draughts, which is why reference is often
• Local solar radiation conditions (climatic envelope and mass [11]. made to a “risk of draughts” [15]. To prevent
conditions, local shade from the surround- draughts, it is preferable to distribute air enter-
ings, such as from vegetation and /or other Continuous ventilation requires small ventila- ing the room through the space as much as
buildings) tion openings that are easy to regulate. Par- possible.
ticular attention must be paid to interior airflows
The positioning and geometry of openings in because this kind of ventilation continues for a Problems in the “comfortable incoming air sup-
the facade is of fundamental importance in this long period. ply” arise in summer with the ingress of warm
context. High window openings let more light • Ventilation from one side: To make efficient outside air and in winter with draughts result-
into the depths of rooms. use of thermal lift, two openings should be ing from the ingress of cold outside air (which
A room’s actual luminance is largely deter- positioned at the greatest possible vertical cold air downdraughts at the facade adds to).
mined by the reflectivity of interior surfaces, distance from each other. Systems that are Distributed building technology for preheating
which in turn depends heavily on the predom- easy to regulate prevent undesirable cooling or cooling incoming air in and around facade
inant colours [7]. and draughts. openings can counteract this problem.

40
 Edges, openings

A 2.2.2 Areas of a facade, based on usage A 2.2.3 Influence of the position and size of openings on
a Upper window area incoming daylight levels
b Eye-level area a Middle
c Floor to parapet b Low Exchange of air resulting from
temperature stratification,
c High
with the influence of wind,
A 2.2.4 Influence of the shape of the reveal (in a wall of neutral zone at 1/2 H
even thickness with the same form on all sides)
a Parallel

Height (H)
b Sloping outwards
c Sloping inwards Neutral zone (N)
d Parallel, trapezoid, sloping inwards
e Parallel, trapezoid, sloping outwards
A 2.2.5 Influence of wall thickness on lighting levels from
Warm Cold
daylight and views
a a Thick wall
b Thin wall
A 2.2.6 Principle of the exchange of air through facade
openings resulting from temperature stratification
without the influence of wind forces, neutral zone
N at 1/2 H

b
A 2.2.5 A 2.2.6

The effect of mechanical ventilation is more ventilation. The very low levels of turbulence cross ventilation, the maximum possible room
predictable than fluctuations in external condi- ensure that this system is also effective in depth is up to 5 times the clear height [18].
tions, so observations and investigations often the depths of the room. The surfaces must be If ventilation is on one side and an opening
only deal primarily with mechanical ventilation. very close to the air intake. The position and is set high up, ventilation is effective up to a
Only in recent years have we seen an increase geometry of incoming air openings (window room depth of up to 2 H. Adding a lower and
in approaches that take fluctuating conditions aperture positions) must also be taken into an upper opening increases the effectiveness
involving free ventilation into account in simu- account. The lower the temperature of supply to up to 3 H [19]. These figures are not at all
lations and measurements. Increasing know- air compared with interior air, the greater the absolute and can only serve as rough guides.
ledge of natural ventilation and the growing risk of draughts. Exterior air entering a room The type of opening has not been taken into
importance of using environmental energy, can be pre-warmed by positioning incoming account.
especially solar energy, has resulted in more air openings adjacent to heat sources. The
consideration being given to windows for ven- incoming air should be able to warm up from Small window openings must be precisely
tilation. Aerodynamic factors affecting air in- structural components by means of convec- positioned and formed because an airtight
takes (gaps in partly opened windows, profile tion. Window ventilation is only possible at a building envelope magnifies the effect of
formation) must be defined for windows as certain outdoor temperature, if the guidelines streams of air in the room like a jet effect. If
they are for mechanical ventilation, for which established to maintain comfort are to be com- ventilation cannot be regulated by means of
precise figures are available on all compo- plied with. Depending on the type of window, window openings, additional elements (e.g.
nents. Some effects familiar from air-condition- an outdoor temperature of 0 to 6 °C has been flaps) can be set into the facade. The tables in
ing technology can be applied to windows. specified as the lowest limit [17]. DIN 5034 specifying a minimum window size
When outside temperatures are close to the for dwellings refer to adequately supplying
Displacement ventilation, which uses relatively range required for comfort, incoming air should rooms with daylight and the size of ventilation
low air speeds, spatially separates incoming be able to reach users in the room as directly openings cannot be deduced from them.
air from exhaust air in a displacement flow as possible without being heated by warm
moving upwards. Air enters at a low tempera- structural components. When outside tempera-
ture in a stratum near the floor (laminar strati- tures are high, incoming air can be cooled Changing permeability
fication of incoming air near the floor), and (slightly) by cooler structural components by
internal heat sources use thermal lift to draw means of convection. Effective thermal masses Structural devices can influence permeability.
air out of the incoming air layer and extract can release the thermal energy absorbed dur- Rigid and modifiable, i.e. moveable elements
exhaust air at ceiling height. Displacement ven- ing night time ventilation or as structural com- can be used to do this.
tilation is usually used together with mechan- ponents cool.
ical ventilation and can also be used with nat- Window ventilation can only be of limited use Rigid elements
ural ventilation if ventilation openings in the on days when outside-air temperatures are Solar radiation and climatic conditions vary
facade allow incoming air to enter the room high, if comfort is to be maintained. over the course of the day and year, so the
at floor level. effects of immoveable elements change with
The positioning of ventilation openings in the them (shading, reflection, light refraction)
The Coandă effect can be used to make the facade and type of ventilation (ventilation from depending on the sun’s height.
ingress of incoming air as deep as possible one side or cross ventilation) determine the Various principles can be used to provide
into a space. When laminar jets of air are depths of the room at which free ventilation shade (Fig. A 2.2.8, p. 42):
blown through slots not right under the ceiling through openings in the facade is effective. • Complete direct coverage of the facade
but somewhat lower than it, the turbulence The type of ventilation can also make a major surface
induced causes the jet to follow a surface, contribution to comfort. Without referring to • A projecting element
“sticking” to it in a sense. This effect, familiar specific details on the arrangement of the • The addition of other, smaller elements
from mechanical ventilation and sometimes opening sash, the general rule of thumb is (e.g. louvre or grid structures)
called the turbulence boundary surface effect that rooms that can only be ventilated from
[16], can be applied to window ventilation one side are regarded as being able to be Louvre structures can be divided into two cat-
under certain conditions. An exterior air flow is “naturally ventilated” up to a maximum room egories based on their positioning, orientation
directed along smooth surfaces as tangential depth of 2.5 times the clear height (H). For and the related height of the sun:

41
Edges, openings

a b

a c d

b e f
A 2.2.7 A 2.2.8

• Horizontal louvres angled appropriately can Second consideration: degree of movability

prevent sunrays hitting a south-facing sur- A window’s degree of movability is determined
face at a steep angle from penetrating inside by its freedom of movement, which is in turn
a building. governed by the window’s frame and sash
• Vertical louvres can keep sunlight striking an structure and type of fittings.
east or west-facing facade at a shallow angle
out of the building. Third consideration: type of movement
Windows can be further differentiated based
Both principles can provide shade while on the way they move. This movement is
also allowing building occupants to see out often also reflected in the term used for the
(Fig. A 2.2.7). window.
• Partial change of place, movement around
Moveable elements a vertical axis (rotation):
The chapter on “Manipulators” (p. 266ff.) deals - Pivoting window
in detail with moveable and modifiable elem- - Side-hung window
ents in and around openings and shows • Partial change of place, movement around
examples. The observations below deal with a horizontal axis (rotation):
moveable windows. - Hopper window
Windows are primarily characterised by the - Top-hung window
possibility of partially opening and closing - Pivoting window
the building envelope. Of all a window’s • Movement involving a complete change
various possible features (material, type of of place without changing the element
movement, structure of the window frame, (translation):
attachment to the wall) the type of opening - Sliding window
(type of sashes), with its function of opening - Push-out window
the facade, defines a window’s structural • Movement involving a complete change of
and design characteristics. place and element (transformation):
The various kinds of window openings can - Folding window
be further classified as types by defining four - Roller shutter
considerations (Fig. A 2.2.9) [20]: • Combinations
• Movability
• Degree of movability The folding windows usually used are in fact
• Type of movement often windows with pivoting panes whose entire
• Other distinguishing characteristics surface is not folded but consists of several
individual frames, in contrast, for example, to
First consideration: movability of the facade the folding walls used as partitions, where the
surface entire wall surface folds.
Facade surfaces can be divided into fixed and
openable based on their movability. Window A facade as part of the building envelope has
openings are classified based on static (load- the fundamental function of vertically separat-
bearing) and structural aspects (elements for ing two spaces. The types of window move-
fixed glazing and moveable sashes). The size ments can therefore also be differentiated in a
of individual transparent fields depends on the secondary consideration by their relationship to
availability of materials (e.g. panes of glass) the facade plane – usually outside /inside and
and defines the window’s partitioning. upper / lower, e.g.:

42
 Edges, openings

Facade surfaces

Fixed surfaces Opening surfaces

Partial change of place Complete change of place

Movement around a vertical axis Movement around a horizontal axis No change to the element Element changes
(rotation) (rotation) (translation) (transformation)

Turning Pivoting Tilting Fold out Swing out Sliding Push out Folding Rolling

Hori- Hori- Hori-

Inside Outside Inside Outside Inside Outside Vertical Outside Inside Vertical Vertical
zontal zontal zontal

Number of Structural
Translucency Materials Drive Position locking Load-bearing
moveable sashes principles

A 2.2.9

• Turning: inwards /outwards possible combinations: • System

• Folding: inwards /outwards • Side-hung window with side-hung or sliding • Subsystem
• Sliding: horizontal (to the right / left) / fittings • Structural element /component
vertical (upwards /downwards) • Side-hung hopper (turn and tilt) • Element
• Top-hung window: push-out, top-hung • Material
Further distinguishing features window
Distinctions can also be made in this context • Folding (combination of pivoting and sliding The choice of scale or section considered
based on construction principles and result- movement) can result in a shift in this system (e.g. in
ing features. As well as distinctions made for • Folding window: folding, sliding window urban development: city = system, building =
all moveable surfaces based on the number • Pivot-hung window; pivoting /sliding element).
of sashes, specific features also define types window
of opening. • Pivoting window Assembly and installation sequences
The number of sashes (moveable sashes, • Sliding windows: upwards sliding, lift and Construction processes involve the chrono-
those that lock in place or can be moved only slide, hanging, drop-sliding, drop, horizontal logical progress of assembly, and until con-
for cleaning or maintenance, fixed surfaces) lift and slide struction is complete, there are various inter-
can indicate varieties of possible openings. • Parallel push out sash; tilt and parallel sash; mediate states. Depending on the situation,
One distinguishing feature that has gained in turn and parallel sash external conditions can influence construction.
importance in the context of controlled natural In inner cities, in particular, materials for large
ventilation is the way sashes are moved, which Types of movement have developed through construction projects can only be transported
can be manual or mechanical. individual steps into a multitude of vari- to a certain extent. Climatic conditions also
Specific construction principles involve various ations. Some types from the middle of the last directly influence construction processes.
types of openings, so they can only be differ- century that are now largely no longer pro- Changing weather conditions can result in
entiated by the principles of their movement. duced are still frequently found in existing delays that affect the entire further construc-
Some features are based primarily on construc- buildings. Such windows are no longer used tion process. Erecting a facade as protection
tion and only secondarily on the opening mech- because of joint sealing problems, among from the weather makes it possible to continue
anism, regardless of the opening’s typological others, and higher modern structural physical erecting the building largely independent of
classification. requirements that involve heavier panes and changes in the weather.
make much higher demands on fittings and
Performance range of the type of movement frames. In tackling joint sealing problems, an
Movement mechanisms have various features adequate exchange of air has become less
that are of fundamental importance because important than reduced heat losses (partial
of their influence on function, construction optimisation), instead of solving the problem
and design [21]. The performance range in its context.
A 2.2.7 Shading from louvres: influence of orientation
of an openable element in the building enve- a South-facing facade: horizontal louvres
lope is made up of functional properties b East / west-facing facade: vertical louvres
(Fig. A 2.2.10, p. 44): Building with facade elements A 2.2.8 Principles of sun shading: screening / filtering
Architects need a precise knowledge of types of direct sunlight
a Projection: screening
of movement and related performance pro- A building envelope cannot usually be made
b Projection: shading due to the screen and
files to make effective use of windows as com- in one piece, so it has to be worked on in reflection for use of daylight
ponents of the building envelope in terms of individual pieces during construction. Some c Louvre structure: screening
energy balance and user comfort. [22]. fundamental terms used in scientific systems d Louvre structure: screening and reflection for
have been expanded to stipulate five steps use of daylight
e Covering: screening
Possible combinations for architecture in this context, resulting in the f Filtering: perforation
The terms used highlight the diversity of the following series of classifications (Fig. A 2.2.11, A 2.2.9 Typological classification of types of movement
types of movements of windows resulting from p. 45): of windows

43
Edges, openings

Comparison of window Side-hung Pivoting Hopper Top hung Horizontal Horizontal Vertical Push-out
movement types window window window window pivot sliding sliding window
to determine their opening window window window
performance profile inwards

Obstruction of usable opening width 1/2 opening minimal none 1/2 opening none none none
floor space related to the width (if outward width (if outward
depth of the room opening) opening)
Options for installation yes no yes yes only if yes yes yes
in high-traffic areas (if outward (if outward opening is (if outward
opening) opening) limited opening)
Views through: 100 % 100 % with no clear no clear 100 % with 50 % with 50 % with no clear
maximum clear aperture vertical aperture aperture horizontal vertical horizontal aperture
and partitioning partitioning partitioning partitioning partitioning
Geometric description 1≈ gap at the 2≈ gaps at sides 2≈ gaps at sides 2≈ gaps at sides 4≈ gaps at sides 2≈ gaps at sides top and circumferential
of the minimum /smallest side, top and top and bottom angled, top angled, bottom, angled, top slot aperture bottom gap
opening area possible bottom angled 2≈ angled slot aperture slot aperture and bottom,
slot aperture
Geometric description complete complete 2≈ gaps at sides 2≈ gaps at sides complete 50 % of opening 50 % of opening circumferential
of the maximum / largest opening area opening area, angled, top angled, bottom, opening area, area as area as gap
opening area possible perpendicular slot aperture slot aperture horizontal perpendicular horizontal
partitioning partitioning partitioning partitioning
Suitability for slot ventilation limited limited limited limited limited good good good

Suitability for complete good good no no good good good no

opening for brief, intensive
airing
Adjustability of openings only with only with only for with the fitting no good good good
extra fitting extra fitting maximum used for (mechanical
tilt position opening drive)
Protection from weather no no yes yes yes no above: yes limited
(from precipitation) below: limited (with element
for slot ventilation added to
upper opening)
Movement type no no no with extra no yes yes yes
against slamming in wind fitting

Potential for combination no no limited yes no yes yes yes

with interior manipulators

Potential for combination yes no yes no no yes yes limited

with exterior manipulators
Outside can be cleaned yes yes with no yes no with extra no
from the inside detachable (detachable)
fitting fitting
Notes on sealing also outward horizontal bottom rebate for use in vertical bottom rebate bottom rebate no protection
opening (in seals offset not always windy areas seals offset possible, con- possible, con- from weather,
wind and rain) possible tact pressure tact pressure not even when
requires requires minimally open
additional additional
feature feature
Notes on fittings projecting loads borne sash must be sash must be sash can sag high, narrow compensation scissor
sash produces centrally secured against locked in when window formats for sash's own must transfer
moment falling position when is open can jam weight required, wind forces
window is open can jam
A 2.2.10

44
 Edges, openings

Term Example
A 2.2.10 Comparison of types of movement of win-
System Building
dows for identifying different performance
Subsystem Envelope (roof, facade), load-bearing structure, supply and disposal, profiles
inner partitioning, access A 2.2.11 Basic terms for an architectural systems
analysis
Structural element /component Window sash in window frame
Elements Profile, insulated glazing, fittings, seals
Material Metal sheeting, glass
A 2.2.11

Prefabricated components made of elements Notes:

To enable construction to proceed largely [1] In this chapter the word “window” (as used in com- [20] Westenberger, Daniel: Vertikale Schiebefenster –
mon speech) refers to a moveable, transparent Zur Typologie der Bewegungsarten von Fenstern
independently of weather conditions, individual closure of an opening in a wall. als Öffnungselemente in der Fassade. In: Fassade /
parts can be prefabricated under controlled [2] Dietze, Lothar: Freie Lüftung von Industriegebäuden. Façade 03/2002, p. 23 – 28
conditions in factories almost anywhere, which Berlin 1987, p. 18 [21] Westenberger, Daniel: Vertikal verschoben – Eigen-
can greatly reduce construction time on site [3] Le Corbusier made this distinction in his work schaften und Leistungsspektrum von vertikalen
for the La Tourette cloister (1960). Schiebemechanismen bei Fensteröffnungen. In:
and the associated risks. Prefabrication can
[4] Pracht, Klaus: Fenster – Planung, Gestaltung und db 09/2003, p. 86 – 91
also offer much greater precision and lower Konstruktion. Stuttgart 1982, p. 102 [22] This chapter contains sections from the dissertation
tolerances. [5] Graphic based on Müller, Helmut; Schuster, of Daniel Westenberger. Westenberger, Daniel:
Windows in punctuated facades are set into Heide: Tageslichtnutzung. In: Schittich, Untersuchungen zu Vertikalschiebefenstern als
recesses in the facade structure. Methods Christian (ed.): Solares Bauen. Munich / Basel Komponenten im Bereich von Fassadenöffnungen.
2003, p. 63 Diss. TUM, Munich 2005
based on two different principals are used [6] VDI Guideline 6011. Dusseldorf 2016
to build non-load-bearing exterior walls for [7] Miloni, Reto P.: Von Aperturfläche bis Zenitlicht.
facades with large areas of glass construction, Kleines Tageslicht-ABC. In: Fassade / Façade
with the distinction in this case made based 01/2001, p. 12
[8] Meyringer, Volker; Trepte, Lutz: Lüftung im Woh-
on their assembly.
nungsbau. Published by the Federal Ministry
for Research and Technology. Karlsruhe 1987,
Element facades p. 11
These are facades made up of individual pre- [9] A distinction is made between drive forces
fabricated units that are put together to form depending on a building’s local situation because
wind forces are created by climatic conditions
a whole facade on site. The term refers not to due to solar radiation and differences in tem-
the sequence in the systemic context above perature.
(see p. 43), but to their prefabrication and the [10] Graphic based on Zürcher, Christoph; Frank,
assembly process. Prefabricated elements Thomas: Bauphysik. Vol. 2: Bau und Energie –
Leitfaden für Planung und Praxis. Zurich / Stuttgart
in glass facades usually consist of panes of
1998, p. 80
glass held in frames, so this type of construc- [11] As for Note 7, p. 33 – 36
tion is also referred to as frame construction. [12] Givoni, Baruchi: Passive and Low Energy Cooling
Element facades are suitable for tall adminis- of Buildings. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York /
trative buildings. The elements are lifted into London / Bonn 1994, p. 42
[13] In specifying air speed figures, it should be noted
place by a crane and installed without scaf- that air speeds above 0.15 m/s can be subjectively
folding. (physically) perceived. Hanel, Bernd: Raumluft-
strömung. Heidelberg 1994, p. 6
Post and beam facades [14] Fanger, Ole: Behagliche Innenwelt. In: Uhlig,
In contrast to element facades, a post and Günther et al.: Fenster – Architektur und Technolo-
gie im Dialog. Braunschweig / Wiesbaden 1994,
beam facade consists of individual elements: p. 217. For a design using very airtight windows,
vertical facade posts and horizontal facade ventilation openings were installed above radiators
beams that are put together on site. The term to ensure a minimum supply of air.
describes their structural principle. Post and [15] Draughts as well as noise are the main reasons for
dissatisfaction with air conditioning and ventilation
beam facades are now used mainly for low- systems. Recknagel, Hermann; Schramek, Ernst-
rise buildings. Rudolf (eds.): Taschenbuch für Heizung und Klima-
technik einschließlich Warmwasser- und Kälte-
technik. Munich 2001, p. 59
[16] Recknagel, Hermann; Sprenger, Eberhard; Schramek,
Rudolf (eds.): Taschenbuch für Heizung + Klima-
technik. Munich 1999, p. 1207
[17] Zeidler, Olaf: Freie Lüftung in Bürogebäuden. In:
HLH, Vol. 51, 07/2000
[18] Daniels, Klaus: Gebäudetechnik – ein Leitfaden
für Architekten und Ingenieure. Zurich / Munich
1996, p. 260
[19] Baker, Nick; Steemers, Koen: Energy and environ-
ment in architecture. London 2000, p. 58

45
Authenticated | antonio.zulu.666@gmail.com
Download Date | 10/13/19 5:50 AM
 Modular coordination

A 2.3 Modular coordination Buildings usually consist of a range of differ-

ent individual parts (structural components or
elements) that are generally produced by dif-
ferent manufacturers and built in and installed
in varying chronological orders, so consistent
geometric rules must be followed to produce
a structure free of defects. This “grammar”
applies to the overall structural and the tech-
nical context of (building-related) subsystems,
such as the support structure, exterior walls,
interior structure and supply and disposal
(Fig. 2.3.4), and is generally referred to as
modular order [1].

From column orders to modular coordin-

ation systems
A 2.3.2
The dimensional coordination of a building’s
structure is not a new topic. Vitruvius de-
scribed a “modulus” as calculated part, a
basic measurement that was based on the
lower (half of) a column’s radius, on which
“symmetry … is based [as] an interrelation
of individual separate parts for planning the
building as a whole” [2].
In Antique and Renaissance architecture, fun-
damental dimensions (spacing and height of
columns, entablature height and projection)
were specified in “column moduli”. The struc-
ture and form of columns were based on the
proportions of the human body, so there was
a close relationship between the “module and
the measure of man” [3].
These orders of columns and proportions and
the related module (modulatio) theory are also
connected to the square grids laid over build-
ing floor plans and facades, where the dis-
tance between individual lines is also referred
to as the module. This invisible module is the
abstract basic unit of a (theoretical) geometric
system for organising spatial dimensions and
structuring buildings. A 2.3.3
Geometric and modular orders are not only
found in European architecture. Japanese A 2.3.2 Perspective view of the floor plan of a typical
single-storey Japanese house
dwellings are often measured using a tatami A 2.3.3 Arcade system based on the work of Jean-
mat as the basic unit, which is unique in archi- Nicolas-Louis Durand
tectural history. Tatami, hard-pressed, rect- A 2.3.4 “ARMILLA”, tools for computer-assisted technical
angular straw mats with an aspect ratio of about installation route planning in high-tech buildings,
layout of secondary lines, Fritz Haller
1:2, are laid out in homes and can serve as
the fundamental module of their structure and
dimensions. The tatami is however just one
element in the modular system of a wooden
Japanese house. Developed in an attempt
to bring about standardised measurements
for structural components, there is not just
one ideal size, but depending on two spe-
cific distances between columns, one module
for the city (approx. 95 ≈ 190 cm) and another
for the country (approx. 90 ≈ 180 cm). Dis-
crepancies in the tatami modular system are
the result of manual work by skilled craftsmen
(Fig. A 2.3.2) [4].
Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand’s work heralded a
paradigm shift in the (modular) planning and
A 2.3.1 Eames House, Los Angeles (US) 1949, Charles design of buildings. Around 1800 he departed
and Ray Eames from anthropometric, hierarchically structured
A 2.3.4

47
Modular coordination

100 mm architecture and based all construction and with other adjoining or associated structural
architectural elements on a standard grid components to be recorded. Modular order
1M 1M 1M with rational dimensions (Fig. A 2.3.3, p. 47). aims to ensure:
a His system’s starting point was the distance • Overall geometric and dimensional coordin-
between columns, which as the “structural ation of the structure
material-related size of a girder” also takes • Replaceability of products
3M 3M aspects of a design’s economy and practi- • A limit to the wide range of potentially applic-
b cality into account [5]. Durand’s work formed able products
an important basis for developing the mod- • Prefabrication and controlled and consistent
ule system, which subsequently became the installation on site
6M foundation of the development of industrial
c construction.
A 2.3.5
Konrad Wachsmann also dealt with the indus- Terminology and units
A 2.3.5 Modular order
a Basic module
trial production and the coordination of stand-
The basic module is the unit size used in ardised elements in his book “The Turning Modules
dimensional coordination. The basic module Point of Building” (1959). Modules are ratios in technical dimensions. In
M agreed on EU-wide measures 100 mm. Europe, the basic modular unit is M, which is
b Multiple module Modular coordination systems based on 10 cm (Fig. A 2.3.5 a).
A multiple module is a standard multiple of
a module with a whole-number multiplier. square grids or planar surfaces can influence To limit the wide range of possible dimensions
Multiple modules include 3 M, 6 M, 12 M. floor plan and facade design as well as spa- of structural components and appropriately
c Construction module tial organisation. Coordination systems of design modular dimensions and functions
A construction module is a multiple of multiple this kind are the result of precise theoretical of structural components, preferred incre-
modules and the figure that defines the coord-
inating dimensions for the load-bearing
and practical investigations of “measure- ments – multiples of modules –, i.e. a multiple
structure. ments, measurement methods, the definition of M (M = n ≈ M), are specified. Multiples
of dimensions and dimensioning, from the of modules or planning modules define a de-
1 smallest component through to the complete sign’s systematic construction (Fig. A 2.3.5 b).
2 5 3 building” [6]. DIN 18 000 on “Modular coordination in build-
The transition from manually crafted construc- ing” proposes various planning modules,
4 10 6 15 9
tion to (partly) industrialised construction pro- namely 3 M, 6 M, 12 M, which build on the
8 20 12 30 18 45 27 cesses made it necessary to define the pos- basic module [9].
16 40 24 60 36 90 54 135 81 sible leeway in the relative positions of individual Multiples of planning modules are put together
32 80 48 120 72 180 108 270 162 405 243 parts in an increasingly precise way. Tech- to form a construction module, which deter-
A 2.3.6
nical manufacturing processes can make parts mines the structure and coordination of con-
A 2.3.6 Preferred increments with very precise dimensions, so defining and struction (Fig. A 2.3.5 c). Common construc-
Preferred increments are selected multiples of controlling tolerances are essential elements of tion modules such as 36 M, 54 M, 72 M etc.
modules. Applied together with modules, pre- geometric modular order. are classified according to their type of use.
ferred increment figures make up multi-modular
or modular dimensions. For practical reasons
The Modulor, developed by Le Corbusier Construction modules can be added or sub-
they must be limited to specific multiples of mod- between 1945 and 1955, was a clear depar- tracted to form parts or multiples of them,
ules. Coordinating dimensions should ideally be ture from this technological approach and which DIN 18 000 refers to as preferred incre-
made up of preferred increments. uniform modular grids. His Modulor propor- ments. Preferred increments should be limited
Preferred increments are:
tion system is based on a series of numer- to a certain number of multiples for practical
1, 2, 3 to 30 times M
1, 2, 3 to 20 times 3 M ical values, although they are not based on reasons. Application-oriented preferred incre-
1, 2, 3 to 20 times 6 M the same initial dimension, so it is a method ments with multiple applications are charac-
1, 2, 3 etc. times 12 M based more on a “directional, dynamic struc- terised by several options for subdivision
ture” [7]. (Fig. A 2.3.6). Based on preferred increments
or multiples of modules, functional modular
12 dimensions can be defined to accommodate
Dimensional coordination and modular various human activities such as standing,
8 order sitting, lying or walking (Fig. A 2.3.7) [10].
9

3 Modular order is a system of coordinating Reference systems

8
2 dimensions made up of moduli and rules for Reference planes, lines and points are required
6 5 coordinating the dimensions of technical parts to determine a modular structural component’s
4 6 whose position and function in a system must position and general dimensions as well as its
1 4 7 be compatible. It uses moduli to regulate “with relationship to adjoining components.
the help of grids and coordination systems
6 8 9 10 18
the position and size of and links between Grids
A 2.3.7
technical elements” [8]. Dimensional coordin- A grid is a geometric spatial coordination sys-
A 2.3.7 Numerical values for the length and width of ation establishes rules for the dimensions of tem that has a regular sequence of constantly
frequently-used spatial dimensions, expressed in
structural components, forming the basis for spaced reference lines, the grid dimension.
modules based on the scale of the human body:
1 Person standing planning, manufacture and installation, coord- They determine the spacing and position of
2 Person sitting inating processes and those involved in them, lines in the system depending on the planning
3 Person sitting in a chair and determining the degree of industrialisation dimensions chosen. A grid’s spacing is built
4 Person standing with legs apart of construction. on a module or multiples of a module. In most
5 Person walking with baggage
6 Two people standing
This system enables the position of every struc- cases the grid’s basic form is a rectangle or
7 Three people standing in a row tural component, dimensions important for square. Grids can be used to plot every struc-
8 Person sitting on a sofa connections and the dimensions coordinated tural component in its position and coordinate

48
 Modular coordination

it with other structural components. Reference A 2.3.8 Types of reference

is also sometimes made to axial dimensions, a Axial control line
The structural component is positioned so that
which determine the spacing of a structure’s
its central axis coincides with coordinating
grid lines and form a coordinating system lines in at least one dimension, i.e. its position
based on construction modules. is shown. a
b Face control line
Types of references The structural component is defined in at least
one dimension between two parallel coordin-
Types of references are established rules for ating lines so that it is aligned with them,
plotting modular and non-modular parts of i.e. its dimensions, position and often its form
coordination systems. There are two basic are shown.
c Combination b
means of plotting structural components on a
A combination of axial control and face control
modular grid:
Iines show a structural component's position in
• Axial control lines (grid reference /axial one dimension and its dimensions in a second
dimensions, centre-to-centre measurements) dimension.
• Face control lines (planning grid /standard A 2.3.9 Geometric definitions
measurement) c
A 2.3.8
Axial control lines establish a relationship
between a structural component and the refer-
ence system by making a structural compo-
nent’s axial line coincide with a reference line,

M
≈
i.e. the structural component is centred on

2
n
the reference line. This shows the structural
component’s position and centre-to-centre
M

n3 ≈ M
≈

spacing of structural components, but does

1
n

not define their cross-sectional form or their

dimensions, so the dimensions of adjoining
structural components cannot be deduced in n4 ≈ M
this case (Fig. A 2.3.8 a).
Face control lines or standard measurements
use at least two lines in the reference system
n5 ≈ M

to plot a structural component, showing its

position and general size (in two dimensions)
(Fig. A 2.3.8 b). A combination of axial con-
trol lines and standard measurements defines
a structural component’s position in one di-
mension and its size in a second dimension
(Fig. A 2.3.8 c).
Structural components are three-dimensional,
so they can be clearly plotted using types of
references in a coordination system in all three
dimensions. The choice of a type of reference
and their combination will depend on the indi-
vidual case at hand. DIN 30 798/3 specifies
the following “rules of thumb” for classifying
technical parts:

• Face control lines in all three dimensions

(cubic elements /cubicles)
• Face control lines in two dimensions, axial
control lines in one dimension (planar parts /
wall elements) n
Fa ≈M
• Face control lines in one dimension, axial ce
co
6

control lines in two dimensions (linear elem- M ntr

on

≈ ol
iti

line n
os

ents /columns) n2 7 ≈M
lp
tra

• Axial control lines in all three dimensions

en

(punctiform elements /nodes)

C
M
≈
1
n

When arranging structural components that

can have different sizes in one or two dimen-
n l
tio ra

sions, a distinction is made between their cen-

si he

e
po rip

in

tral or inner position and peripheral or outer

ll
Pe

ro
nt

position. A centrally positioned structural com-

co
ce

ponent’s central axis coincides with the central Ax

Fa

ial
axis of the modular zone, while a structural co
ntr
component in a peripheral position has a pri- ol
lin
e
mary reference surface aligned with one of the
A 2.3.9

49
Modular coordination

Primary and secondary grid congruent Primary and secondary grid offset coordination lines. Here structural components
Structural grid Planning grid Structural grid Planning grid of different dimensions have the same reference
plane. Central or inner position and peripheral
material zones

or outer position are usually used in conjunction

Overlapping

with axial and face control lines. If a structural

component varies from the normal position, the
dimensions for adjoining structural components
will also vary, making special formats neces-
sary (Fig. A 2.3.9, p. 49) [11].
Special connecting elements All wall elements identical Special connecting elements All wall elements identical
axial control lines face control lines axial control lines face control lines
Geometric specifications
Modular systems are created by alternating
positioned separately

the spacing of parallel coordination lines with

one or more modules, so modular grids can
Material zone

be based on one or on different modules in

each of the three spatial dimensions.

Primary and secondary grids

Coordinating individual structural components
All wall elements identical Cover face All bays identical All bays identical requires superimposed planes of reference,
axial control lines control lines axial control lines face control lines
so they have to be prioritised, i.e. a primary
A 2.3.10
and a secondary grid must be defined. Usually
the structural grid is identified as the primary
grid and the fit-out grid as the secondary grid.
The most common geometrical relationships
Primary and secondary grid congruent Primary and secondary grid offset
between a facade and a structural grid are off-
set and congruent positions.
Structural grid Planning grid Structural grid Planning grid
When material zones overlap, as with axial con-
trol lines, the differing dimensions of adjoining
Exterior wall

fields make special element formats (shorten-

ing) necessary. Separating material zones en-
ables the load-bearing structure and facade to
be positioned independently of each other, so
the same elements can be used (Fig. A 2.3.10).
Cross-wall junction

Junctions and corner joints

Overlapping or independent positioning of
modular zones (material zones for the load-
bearing structure and facade / fitting out), com-
bined with a congruent or offset positioning of
the reference system, imposes various different
structural conditions on the dimensions and
connections of structural components and on
Interior corner

connections between a load-bearing structure

and a facade, especially in and around internal
and external corners (Fig. A 2.3.11).
Exterior corner

Dimensional coordination
The dimensions specified in modular orders
are only general, so the production of special
A 2.3.11 structural components requires coordinating
or standard measurements (R), which regu-
late the spacing of reference planes defin-
ing the structural component’s position and
dimensions and are usually a modular meas-
K K K K urement (R = n ≈ M). The manufacturer’s
standard measure (H) can be deduced from
R=n≈M R=n≈M these measurements, taking the proportion
of joints, the structural component’s connect-
ing planes, and dimensional tolerances into
Structural component Structural component
account: H < R.
Depending on the formation of connections,
the manufacturer’s standard measure can also
Manufacturer’s Manufacturer’s extend beyond the modular space: H > R. In
standard measure (H) standard measure (H) this case a fitting dimension, which regulates
the dimensions between structural components,
a b must be taken into account (Fig. A 2.3.12) [12].
A 2.3.12

50
 Modular coordination

1 2 3 4 5
Geometrical position relative to the load-bearing
structure
The facade’s position relative to the load-bear-
ing structural zone results in various connec-
tion requirements as well as structural physical
consequences and can have a range of effects
on a building’s appearance. For non-load-bear-
ing exterior walls (viewed from the outside look-
A
ing in), a facade plane can have the following
positions (Fig. A 2.3.13) [13]:
• In front of columns (1)
• Attached to the front face of columns (2)
• Between columns (3)
• Attached to the rear face of columns (4) B
• Behind columns (5)

These geometric spatial relationships deter-

mine factors such as the extent to which the
load-bearing structure becomes a design C
element, the independence of partitions in
the facade from its load-bearing structure,
A 2.3.13
the formation of interior wall connections and
A 2.3.10 Primary and secondary grids (selection) structural components may extend beyond the
the degree of penetration of exterior walls by
A 2.3.11 Elements and corners modular space.
columns and slabs. A 2.3.12 Coordinating dimension – manufacturer’s stand- A 2.3.13 Geometrical positions of facades relative to the
Further distinctions can be made in the way ard measure: Different types of joints mean that load-bearing structure
in which horizontal, load-bearing slabs are
integrated into vertical, load-bearing elements
such as columns. In the case of non-load- Tolerances Notes:
bearing exterior walls, elements can: “Tolerances are designed to limit divergences [1] Fundamental and additional observations in Herzog,
Thomas: Zur Kunst des Fügens oder: Nachdenken
• Be between columns and integrated into from the standard sizes, shapes and positions über das Standbein. In: Der Architekt 02/1987,
them (A) of structural components and buildings” [14]. p. 86 – 89
• Project from columns (B) There are three main types: [2] Naredi-Rainer, Paul von: Architektur und Harmonie.
• Be flush with the column face (C) • Manufacturing tolerances Zahl, Maß und Proportion in der abendländischen
Baukunst. 2. ed., Cologne 1984, p. 17
• Assembly tolerances [3] ibid. p. 130
The position and arrangement of load-bear- • Tolerances due to changes in the form of [4] Nitschke, Günter: Architektur und Ästhetik eines
ing elements relative to the exterior wall structural components Inselvolkes. In: Schittich, Christian (ed.): Japan.
can be characterised by highlighted verti- Munich / Basel 2002, p. 24ff.
cal and /or horizontal elements, i.e. pilasters, Joints are spaces between two modular struc- [5] Nerdinger, Winfried: “Das Hellenische mit dem
Neuen verknüpft” – Der Architekt Leo von Klenze
columns or projecting slabs, or by a grid tural components resulting from dimensional als neuer Palladio. In: Nerdinger, Winfried (ed.):
effect. From a construction standpoint, the discrepancies in manufacture and installation. Leo von Klenze. Architekt zwischen Kunst und Hof
position and orientation of columns is crucial In installing adjoining structural components, 1784 –1864. Munich / London / New York 2000, p. 11
to the facade’s formation and fixed super- the joints require a certain margin for move- [6] Wachsmann, Konrad: Wendepunkt im Bauen.
Nachdruck der 1959 in Wiesbaden erschienenen
structure, involving aspects such as connec- ment, resulting in permissible deviations in
Erstausgabe, Dresden 1989, p. 54
tions between columns and beams and their defining a structural component’s minimum [7] As for Note 2, p. 133
spatial formation, interior wall joints and and maximum size. [8] DIN 30 798 Part 2: 1982
technical installation routings, right up to fire Manufacturing tolerances are permissible [9] DIN 18 000: 1984
safety factors. Structural and physical aspects deviations in dimensions in the manufacture [10] Bussat, Pierre: Modulordnung im Hochbau. Stuttgart
1963, p. 30 – 33
mean that the position of columns relative to of building and structural components and [11] As for Note 9
the exterior wall can impose further require- result from the difference between minimum [12] Rinninsland, Jutta: Projekt MOSS – OE 06/11. Part 1:
ments because of: and maximum sizes. Grundlagen der Modulordnung. Gesamthochschule
• Deformations (changes to length due to Kassel, Prof. Thomas Herzog. Kassel 1974
[13] Trbuhovic, L.: Untersuchungen des Strukturschemas
variations in temperature) Assembly tolerances define a range of per-
und der Fassadenentwicklung beim Stahlbeton-
• Thermal bridges (heat conduction from missible deviations in the position of struc- Skelettbau. In: Girsberger, Hans (ed.): ac panel.
adjoining structural components) tural components in assembly and can be Asbestzement-Verbundplatten und -Elemente für
• Acoustic bridges (transmission of sound linear, planar or three-dimensional. During Außenwände. Zurich 1967, p. 46 – 49
between inside and out) construction, particularly in building work [14] DIN 18 201:1997
[15] As for Note 1
• A need for protection from the weather and detailed planning, it must be ensured
(e.g. protection from corrosion for steel that appropriate tolerances are allowed for
columns) in each case. Different types of tolerances
can often overlap or be added at joints
The position and orientation of columns also between adjoining structural components.
influences facade partitioning. If columns are Variations in dimensions and relative move-
close together, the bays between them can ment must be able to be accommodated,
be evenly spaced. Special elements may, seals ensured for the long term and ther-
however, be required for exterior columns set mal bridges avoided (see also “Aspects
wide apart due to the varying dimensions and of building physics and planning advice”,
depending on their position and arrangement. p. 52f.) [1].

51
 Aspects of building physics and planning advice

A 3 Aspects of building A facade is a central element in managing and cold, interior wall and facade surface
physics and planning and regulating users’ demands on a build- temperatures and inside air temperatures
ing’s interior and changing external condi- must be balanced to ensure users’ physical
advice tions (see “External and internal conditions”, comfort. Architects designing and building
p. 19ff.). Prevailing weather conditions, facades should also try and prevent draughts,
such as solar radiation, outside temperature, which can be caused by structural leaks, and
humidity, precipitation and wind, vary in inten- cold downdraughts, which can occur when
sity depending on the time of day and year. the temperatures of a space’s surfaces are
Building users, however, expect stable con- very low. This in turn means that facades must
ditions ranging within relatively narrow limits have adequate insulation and thermal trans-
in terms of air quality, humidity, air speeds mission resistance. National and international
(Fig. A 1.12 –15, p. 22), acoustic environment, standards prescribe compliance with relevant
the amount of light and light quality, and the threshold limits [2].
temperature of the inside air and surfaces
(Fig. A 1.1, p. 18). As well as maintaining comfortable conditions,
thermal weak points must be avoided to pre-
The comfort requirements of a building’s vent condensate from accumulating and the
users place direct and wide-ranging func- associated risk of mould formation.
tional demands on its facade, involving fac-
tors such as thermal insulation, protection In view of efforts to reduce emissions of CO2
from sun and glare, a supply of daylight, and other gases harmful to the climate, there
protection from precipitation, damp and wind, has been a growing focus on the ecological
and an adequate exchange of air. A facade significance of insulation in discussions of
must therefore be able to react flexibly to these issues in recent years. National stand-
fast-changing weather conditions and re- ards and the EU’s Energy Efficiency Directive
spond to further demands, such as allowing (EED), passed in 2012, have contributed to [3]
for views of the outside and preventing fire much greater demands on improved insu-
and break-ins, which result in additional lation – especially in and around facades –
requirements such as resistance to fire and because of the high proportion of heating
mechanical strength. energy requirements in buildings’ total energy
requirements. Preventing heat losses through
As well as influential variables, such as weather the facade can play a central role [4] in min-
conditions and demands for comfort, other imising the consumption of fossil fuels and
parameters resulting from a building’s location related CO2 emissions.
and its type, usage and function must be taken Another advantage of improved insulation is
into account. Wind loads on a facade on or reduced operating costs. Maximum heating
near the coast will be much greater than those and cooling needs are usually lower in well-
in an inner city in a lowland area. Another insulated buildings than in badly insulated ones
example of the influence of a building’s type and can result in lower operating and invest-
on its facade is in the area of fire protection for ment costs for technical building equipment.
high-rise buildings, where increased require-
ments are imposed below the high-rise limit As insulation requirements increase so do
to prevent fire from spreading to other storeys. demands on the planning and construction of
The influence of a building’s usage is also facades. Highly insulated, opaque exterior
clear in the planning of administrative build- walls often now consist of various inseparable,
ings, for example, with regulations and guide- interconnected materials and layers, which
lines applying to these kinds of buildings must meet structural, insulating and moisture
imposing more stringent sun and glare pro- resistance criteria equally. The resulting diffi-
tection requirements [1]. culties in recycling these building materials will
have to be taken into account in choosing such
hybrid structures and in positioning and joining
Structural and physical aspects them in future.

Criteria based on location, type and usage Transparent facade structures and optimised
make it clear that it is not just structural and thermal insulating glazing must also have very
design aspects that are crucial in planning well-insulated frames to minimise heat losses.
facades. Functional demands, including com- Window frame profiles with optimum insulation
fort, fitness for use, durability, low energy can have Uf-values of 1.0 W/m2K and lower, so
consumption and more, are also essential. a holistic approach is advisable for optimising
Structural and physical aspects such as those a facade’s thermal insulation and can help to
outlined below are also of vital importance. prevent thermal and hygric weak points in and
around joints between precisely manufactured
Thermal insulation metal and glass facade elements and solid
Providing adequate insulation and a comfort- structural components made on site.
able interior climate is one of the main func-
A 3.1 Swiss Re company headquarters, London (GB) tions of facades in most of the Earth’s climatic While well-insulated exterior solid or wooden
2003, Foster and Partners zones. As well as protecting people from heat walls can fairly easily achieve U-values of

53
Aspects of building physics and planning advice

Thermal insulation functions

Structural Physiological Ecological Economical

functions functions functions functions

Hygienic Comfort-related
functions functions

Protection from Minimising usage- Minimising energy

Preventing damage Preventing
excessive cooling related energy costs (heating and
from condensation mould formation
and overheating consumption cooling costs)

Reducing Extending the Extending

Preventing damage Reducing interior
dust formation building’s functional the building’s
due to diffusion air speeds
and vortices and service life service life

Adapting and Minimising the

Preventing investment and
harmonising the
constraining operating costs of
temperatures of air-conditioning
stresses
wall surfaces systems
inside rooms with A 3.2 Thermal insulation functions
the rooms’ air A 3.3 Facade with roller blinds (inside)
temperature and louvre system outside, Munich
(DE) 2001, Peter C. von Seidlein
A 3.2

0.15 W/m2K, even good triple insulating can greatly impair the function and durability ents will determine the risk of condensate
glazing, inert gas-filled glazing or vacuum of structural components, increase heating forming inside exterior walls.
insulating glazing has U-values of around energy consumption, have negative ecologic- Effective prevention of condensation is a fun-
0.6 W/m2K. In other words, nowhere near the al effects and be harmful to one’s health if damental precondition for ensuring both a
thermal values of the well-insulated exterior mould forms. facade’s durability and a healthy interior cli-
walls made of opaque building materials men- mate. We now know that mould can form even
tioned above. Standard commercially avail- Protection from moisture in the absence of visible condensate, resulting
able window frames may well have U-values Exterior weather factors such as precipitation in critical surface temperatures being redefined
of > 1.0 W/m2K, so thermal weak points can and fluctuating extremes of temperature make in DIN 4108-8. The basic rule of construction in
easily develop around them. intensive demands on facades, which are also Central Europe is that the inside of a building
exposed to considerable loads from moisture should be more vapour-proof than the outside.
In joining window frames or frame profiles in hitting the splash water zone of the building’s This basic rule is reversed for warm, damp
glass facades to solid walls, details should plinth, damp from surrounding soil and humid- climates, where the outside should be more
be appropriately constructed to ensure that ity inside the building. vapour-proof than the inside.
thermal resistance is as consistently effective
as possible at every point in the facade to Water must not be allowed to penetrate struc- Condensate can form in multilayer glass
prevent thermal bridges and the risk of con- tures in and around closed facade surfaces facades when moist air inside cavities of the
densation forming. Planners should consider (such as plastered masonry), punctuated facade meets cold surfaces. The risk of this
factors such as heat transmission, convection facades and partitioned exterior wall struc- occurring can be reduced by improving the
and the exchange of long-wave radiation in tures (like glass facades). Any water that does quality of insulation between exterior layers
choosing the properties of materials, structural penetrate must be extracted in a controlled and ventilating the cavities [5].
components and connections. This is espe- manner. The moisture content of materials The demands on a facade’s moisture protec-
cially important in and around joints, at the sensitive to damp, such as certain insulating tion depend largely on the building’s usage
bonded edges of glazing and panels, and in materials and timber, must also be kept low. and technical equipment. Air in indoor swim-
the area of fastening elements because linear ming pools (and in winter in air-conditioned
or intermittent thermal bridges and leaks can As well as choosing adequate materials, plan- buildings generally), for example, is more
increase the risk of heat losses, condensation ners must make every effort to prevent ther- humid, increasing the risk of condensate
and mould formation. mal bridges in building facades because they forming.
are usually also weak points in terms of mois-
Horizontal and vertical corners, inside and ture and can pose an increased risk of con- One phenomenon often overlooked in planning
out, attics and footings, and projections and densate forming on interior surfaces and inside is the formation of condensate or hoar frost on
recesses in insulating and sealing layers are the facade. a facade’s exterior surface. This risk increases
in practice particularly critical, especially at with the quality of insulation and is especially
junctions between different types of facades The permeability to vapour of individual com- great with highly insulating panels and triple
and structures. ponents and the application of sealing meas- glazing, whose exterior surfaces barely warm
Mistakes made in planning or construction ures in and around joints and fastening elem- up at all due to these units’ low heat transfer.

54
 Aspects of building physics and planning advice

The result is that the steamed-up glass surface Moving systems, in contrast, are almost ideal.
hardly dries under cold weather conditions. They can immediately react to the weather,
This phenomenon will become increasingly and with the use of appropriate components,
common in future. incoming daylight can be reflected onto a
room’s ceiling, where the reflected light can
Sun protection provide even illumination into the depths of the
After thermal insulation, protection from over- space. The sun protection and light refraction
heating is one of a facade’s most important effect of adjustable louvre systems can be
functions. This is crucial not only in tropical optimised if:
and subtropical climate zones but also • The pitch angle of louvres covering upper
in temperate climates like Central Europe’s windows and areas of window users look
because of changing climatic conditions and through is adjustable
users’ increasing comfort requirements. Plan- • The topsides and underside of louvres have
ners need to find a balanced relationship different degrees of reflectivity
between the glazing percentage or type of • Louvre surfaces have a geometric structure
glazing and the sun-shading system to provide
a consistent overall solution. Common perforated louvre systems (e.g.
The intensity of solar radiation on “permeable” blinds or shutters) generally transmit slightly
(or transparent) facade surfaces is more or more radiation and increase cooling loads
less transient due to changing solar radiation marginally compared with non-perforated
levels and geometric variables in and around systems with similar structures and surfaces.
building openings. Relevant for an adequate Systems that do not completely block out
and consistent supply of daylight is the build- direct sun may require appropriate anti-glare
ing’s specific geometry, with its projections screens. What is essential for a facade’s sun
and recesses, and the dimensions, distribu- protection effect is not just the type of sun
tion, orientation and angles of transparent or protection used, but also its position. It is
translucent facade components. The illumin- important to ensure that sun protection is
ation of interiors by daylight, thermal loads from attached outside the glazing. In windy locations
solar radiation, and visual contact with the in particular, stable construction of moveable
outside are influenced by the size, orientation sun protection systems is crucial in ensuring
and position of openings in the facade, by their protective function when there is both
radiation’s physical characteristics and by the sunshine and wind.
photometric properties of glazing. This also
applies to added components such as sun- Glare protection
shading devices and anti-glare screens and to External interference should not be allowed
deflected daylight (Fig. A 3.3). to impair visual function and comfort. The dis-
tribution of luminance in a user’s field of vision
Sun protection systems and resulting contrasts are decisive in en-
The primary function of sun protection systems abling them to recognise objects and for the
is to prevent overheating and ensure a com- occurrence of glare and absolute levels of
fortable interior climate. They also greatly influ- luminance. A distinction is made between
ence the resulting energy consumption used physiological glare, which directly impairs
in cooling, which accounts for a large propor- vision, and psychological glare, which can
tion of power consumption in tropical and sub- cause premature fatigue and adversely affect
tropical climate zones. Solutions are required performance and well-being.
that ensure an adequate supply of daylight in
the interior without overheating it. This can be Direct glare is directly caused by a light
achieved by blocking out direct sunshine as source, while reflected glare is the result of
far as possible, while diffuse daylight can be reflections from light surfaces onto shiny sur-
transmitted into an interior as necessary to illu- faces. The crucial variables for direct glare
minate it. are the observer’s visual angle relative to their
Sun shading systems can be classified into environment and the luminance perceptible
fixed or moving systems. Fixed components in the viewing direction. The brighter the envir-
are structural components that can project from onment is, in a tolerable range, the lower the
an exterior wall, be freestanding or consist of risk of glare is.
fixed louvres (see Fig. A 2.2.8, p. 42). Moving
systems, such as roller blinds and folding shut- The low luminance of computer monitors
ters, are dealt with in detail in the chapter on (10 –100 cd/m2) means that rooms with com-
“Manipulators” (p. 266ff.). puter workstations are subject to increased
requirements for glare-free interior illumination.
One advantage of fixed systems is that they For this reason, windows in such rooms must
require little maintenance. The sun’s position be able to be completely screened against
constantly changes over the course of the day direct sun-light and its associated heat radi-
and the year in a defined way, so fixed systems ation and glare. Appropriate measures should
occasionally let some direct sunlight through. be taken to prevent glare from reflecting off
Some solar radiation may, however, be blocked surfaces the sun shines onto. These demands
out, which can reduce light in the interior. are constant, even in the face of strong wind,
A 3.3

55
Aspects of building physics and planning advice

so anti-glare screens must be protected from radiation transmission and correspondingly

wind and should be either inside or in the greater cooling requirements are to be
facade cavity. expected from perforated louvre structures.

Use of daylight Blinds and shutters with louvres whose tilt

Intelligent daylight systems make targeted use angle can be adjusted to various extents at
of daylight. Besides the use of appropriate sun different heights have also been available for
protection systems to regulate levels of solar some years now. The upper louvres are less
radiation transmitted into a room, a second illu- steeply angled than the lower ones so they can
mination strategy can be employed that uses both refract light and provide shade against the
only the visible part of the overall spectrum of sun. The degree of reflectivity of the louvres’
solar radiation to illuminate interiors. The infra- topsides and undersides can also be optimised
red range of light in particular can overheat to meet varying requirements. Light surfaces
rooms, so this approach uses specially coated offer better light refraction characteristics, while
glazing that screens sunlight selectively, i.e. it dark colours reduce glare in interiors. Louvres
only allows the transmission of solar radiation in with different colours and degrees of reflectivity
the visible range. on the louvres’ topsides and undersides are
now commercially available.
Fixed systems
One special form of glazing that improves day- Sound insulation
light usage is insulating glazing with compo- The sound insulation demands made on
nents that refract daylight. These units use facades in keeping out outside noise are based
two and three-dimensional reflecting grids on exterior noise levels and admissible and
and aluminium honeycomb sheets made of actual sound levels in the interior (Fig. A 3.4).
specially formed and partly high-gloss coated
metal or plastic structures that are placed in DIN 4109 specifies the main sound insulation
the space between the panes like a miniature requirements for facades. If, compared to
form of a fixed sun shading system. Prism the partitions and joints between sections of
systems that refract light can also improve a building and between partitions, a facade
spaces’ illumination levels, refracting mainly has a disproportionate level of soundproofing
light from the zone near the zenith into the to protect against outside noise, or back-
room. Prism systems can, however, obstruct ground noise levels inside are lower than
views of the outside, so their installation should expected, the subjective disruptive effect of
be restricted to the parts of openings outside interior noise from adjoining rooms, especially
users’ fields of vision. high-frequency sounds, can be problematic.
Sound insulation between adjoining rooms
Moveable systems is based not only from the sound insulation
A much simpler and more widely used form are of separating ceilings and walls, but on their
moveable sun shading systems. The advan- connections to the facade. There is also a risk
tage of these compared with fixed systems is of flanking sound transfer through facades,
that their position and state can be changed, which is much more pronounced in post
so incoming light and views are not impaired, and beam facades than in element facades
even when the sky is completely overcast. if joints between facade elements are in or
around joints with separating ceilings and
A desire for visual contact with the outside walls. DIN 52 210 classifies facades based on
world as well as effective sun protection and their evaluated sound reduction index in sound
demands for highly transparent facades have insulation classes 1– 6 in accordance with VDI
resulted in the development of perforated Standard 2719. During the planning and con-
shades (blinds and shutters) through which struction process, a facade’s necessary sound
the surroundings remain visible, even when insulation properties must be secured for the
they are closed. Most commercially available long term (Fig. A 3.5).
products are about 9% perforated. The diam-
eter of each hole depends on the thickness of The sound-insulating effect of facades and
the sheet metal and dimensions of the louvres. joints with partition walls and separating ceil-
Holes often have a diameter of 0.6 to 1.1 mm. ings can be greatly increased by the following
structural measures:
The degree of radiation transmission for indi- • Increasing the weight of components, e.g.
vidual louvres under perpendicular incoming filled with sand or heavy gas or lead panels
radiation is 8 %. As well as the transmission • Increasing the number of consecutive,
of reflected radiation passing between lou- decoupled shells, e.g. by using double
vres, there is also always direct transmission shells, preferably with materials of different
because the perforated louvre is not lightproof. thicknesses and masses
On average, with surrounding reflectivity of • Increasing the elasticity of components
20 %, radiation transmission increases by 4 to by laminating together several thin sheets
6 % due to perforation. This means that com- of metal or glass, or appropriate acoustic
pared with a louvre system with a fairly closed decoupling for connections and mounts, by
structure and surface finish, a 1.6 increase in installing soft seals, for example

56
 Aspects of building physics and planning advice

• Increasing the structure’s asymmetry in terms these, building law regulations regulate the Noise level dB [A]
of the weight of successive layers requirements imposed on buildings’ smoke Jet engine
(at a distance 140
• Increasing spaces between surfaces adjoin- extraction openings. of 25 metres)
ing the layer of air Jet engine
130 starting (at a
• Increasing the absorption of surfaces adjoin- Classifications / load classes
distance of
ing the layer of air, e.g. by using porous Fire-resistant glazing is usually installed in 100 metres)
120
materials or labyrinthine configurations transparent structural units consisting of a
frame, one or more transparent elements,
Pop group 110
If a facade is to meet the demands imposed brackets, seals and mounting materials.
by sound insulation classes 4– 6 based on Depending on their classification, they can Jack-
100
VDI Standard 2719, very thick panes of insu- resist fire for 30, 60, 90 or 120 minutes. hammer
lating glass (especially outside) with large
spaces between the panes filled with a heavy DIN 4102/13 divides fire-resistant glazing into Heavy traffic 90
gas will have to be installed. Much thinner F and G classes (Fig. 3.6). These are transpar- Average
panes and more cost-effective facade struc- ent vertical, slanting or horizontal structural 80 traffic
tures can be built with laminated glass, with units that prevent fire and smoke from spread-
cast resin or PVB-foil lamination replacing sin- ing depending on their fire resistance rating. 70
gle glazing. This can enable a single pane of
Conver- Office
glass in sound insulation class 4 to achieve Unlike G-glazing, F-glazing also prevents 60
sation
sound insulation class 5 or 6, which ordinarily high-temperature heat radiation from passing
requires two panes. Expertly planned and con- through it. F-glazing becomes opaque when 50
structed double-skin facades (depending on exposed to fire and forms a heat shield. These
the size of ventilation openings in the exterior units behave like walls in terms of their fire Library 40 Dwelling
glazing and sound absorption in ventilation protection properties, so according to the
openings and the facade cavity) can reduce specifications of building inspection authority 30
outside noise levels by 4 – 8 dB compared with approvals, F-glazing can be used without
a single-shell glass facade equivalent to an restriction as space-enclosing walls or for par- Bedroom
20
internal facade. tial areas in them. Forest

10
Protection from fire and smoke In contrast, fire-resistant glazing in fire resist-
Ensuring that facades provide protection from ance class G (G-glazing) remains transparent
0
fire and smoke mainly involves measures and in fire and reduces the temperature of heat
A 3.4
provisions to: radiation passing through it to the outside, so
• Prevent fire these are special structural components for fire
• Inhibit or stop fire from developing protection purposes. G-glazing may only be Noise Exterior Required Of the exterior
• Impede or suppress the spread of fire installed where there are no technical fire pro- level noise R'W, res structural component
range level dB [A]
• Ensure fire alarm and warning measures tection concerns, e.g. as window openings in
dB [A] Recre-
• Enable fire fighting the walls of corridors that serve as emergency Bed ation Offices 2)
• Secure the rescue and safety of users and escape routes. The bottom edge of the glass rooms1) rooms etc.
the fire brigade must be at least 1.80 m above the floor so that II 56 – 60 35 30 30
• Extract smoke and heat the corridor will be shielded from heat radiation III 61– 65 40 35 30
and offer people protection in case of fire.
IV 66 –70 45 40 35
A facades’ fire and smoke protection proper-
V 71–75 50 45 40
ties are crucial in preventing fire and protecting A local building supervisory authority will decide
3)
the lives and health of people and assets. A on other potential applications of G-glazing in VI 76 – 80 50 45
3) 3)
multiplicity of regulations that can be different individual cases, taking into account heat radi- VII > 80 50
in specific states (Länder) within Germany must ation and the risk of rollover or flashover if flam- 1)
Wards in hospitals and sanatoria
2)
be observed. In Germany, state building regu- mable materials are stored, built or attached No requirements are imposed on the exterior structural
lations and rules laid down by trade supervis- within the range of such radiation. G-glazing components of rooms in which noise penetrating from
outside makes only a minor contribution to interior noise
ory boards (Gewerbeaufsichtsämter), building must remain effective as a physical barrier levels due to the activities carried out in those rooms.
inspection authorities (Bauaufsicht), the Tech- enclosing a space. No flames can be allowed 3)
Here requirements must be determined based on local
nical Inspectorate (Technischer Überwachungs- to develop on the side away from the fire. conditions.
A 3.5
verein – TÜV) and general DIN and VDE stand-
ards and guidelines all exercise an influence The responsible building authority usually
on fire protection. decides for each building individually which
fire resistance class applies in a facade, taking
Guidelines and standards laid down by the the building type, storey height, nature and
regional fire brigade, the German authority extent of fire loads, as well as other measures
for approving non-regulated construction prod- in the building’s specific fire protection con-
ucts and types of construction (Deutsches cept, into account (Fig. A 3.7, p. 58).
Institut für Bautechnik – DIBt) and the German
association of non-life insurers (Verband der General regulations, such as the German model
Sachversicherer – VdS) must also be taken building code (Musterbauordnung), prescribe
into account in this context. Basic precondi- methods to stop fire from spreading from one
tions for preventative fire protection include storey to the one above it in high-rise buildings A 3.4 Noise levels from various causes
ensuring fire alarm options and structures that (top edge of the FFL of the top storey > 22 m), A 3.5 Noise level ranges and prescribed sound reduction
are accessible to the fire brigade. As well as which can be achieved by partitions made of index R’ based on DIN 4109, table 8

57
Aspects of building physics and planning advice

Fire resist- Building inspection authority Fire resist- Fire resistance class for structural
ance class description ance duration components based on DIN EN 13 501-2
based on in an ISO with spatial enclosure no spatial enclosure
DIN 41021) standard fire
load-bearing non-load-bearing load-bearing
F 30 – B Fire-resistant ≥ 30 min REI 30 EI 30 R 30
F 30 – A Fire-resistant, made of non- ≥ 30 min
flammable building materials
F 60 – AB 2) Highly fire-resistant ≥ 60 min REI 60 EI 60 R 60
F 60 – A Highly fire-resistant, made of ≥ 60 min
non-flammable building materials
F 90 – AB Fire-proof ≥ 90 min REI 90 EI 90 R 90
F 90 – A Fire-proof, made of non-flammable ≥ 90 min
building materials
(F120) (Highly fire-proof) (≥ 120 min)
(F180) (Fireproof to the highest degree) (≥ 180 min)
Firewall – REI – M 90 EI – M 90
I = Insulation. The time it takes to produce an increase in temperature on the cold side of the structural element, usu-
ally 140 °C.
E = Integrity. The length of time that the structural element retains its integrity against flames or hot gases in a stand-
ard fire.
R = Load carrying capacity. The length of time that the relevant structural element is able to carry the current load in a
normal fire development phase.
M = Mechanical effect. The ability of the structural element to cope with the mechanical impact in a standard fire.
1)
based on DIN 4102-2 for walls, columns, ceilings, beams and stairs
2)
AB: made largely of non-flammable materials A 3.6

Building material Building material class Euro class

as defined in DIN 4102-1
Non-flammable building material (e.g. steel truss girder) A1 A1
A 2 (e.g. plasterboard interior
Non-flammable building material with flammable parts A2
panelling in a wooden building)
Building material not very flammable (e.g. oak
B1 B
parquetry on floor screed)
Slight contribution to fire C
Normally flammable building material (e.g. glued
B2 D
laminated timber beam) A 3.6 Behaviour of building materials in fire based
Acceptable behaviour in fire E on the European DIN EN 13 501 standard
Easily flammable building material (e.g. untreated A 3.7 Examples of building materials and their flam-
B 31) F
coconut fibre matting) mability and building material / Euro class
1)
not permitted in construction classifications
A 3.7

non-flammable material F 90 (or W 90) that must smoke. If fire does break out, smoke and toxic a simultaneous opening of incoming and
extend either 1 metre in a vertical direction or gases can spread very quickly through joints exhaust air vents, the cross sections of both
1.50 metres in a horizontal direction (e.g. fire- throughout the building and pose risks for openings can be the same size. Door open-
resistant projections). Parapet cover plates building users that could otherwise be avoided ings can also be taken into account for this
also require mechanical fixing in this case. A based on the fire incident. purpose. There are currently no rules on smoke
series of facades of this kind, including some extraction through vertical facade elements, a
not backed by masonry or concrete parapets, Structural measures separate technical approval in each individual
have been approved and built in recent years. In the event of fire, smoke extraction openings case is required for them.
are either automatically activated or are manu-
The same applies to the interior corners of ally operated by emergency responders. As Fire and smoke protection at weak points in
multistorey office and administrative buildings. well as typical smoke and heat extraction sys- facades
Building fire-resistant glazing into such areas tems, the size of which DIN 18 230 defines As well as the typical thermal bridges in a
serves to extend a firewall and prevents fire depending on the risk group, openings in the facade (such as those due to gaps between
from spreading horizontally to the facade of a facade (side-hung or bottom-hung sashes) frames and sash frames and structural con-
part of the building that is separate in terms of can provide the necessary cross-sectional nections and between the frames holding infill
fire safety. If a low-rise extension is added to sizes in individual cases, after consultation panels and their edge bonds) any irregular-
a multistorey building, the wall separating the with fire safety experts. The prerequisite is that ities in a facade pose particular fire safety risks.
building’s two parts must be a firewall up to the the openings open directly outside. Slender, undivided posts and beams in the
higher building’s roof. area of partition walls and their connections
Staircases required as emergency and escape Effective smoke extraction depends largely with the structure can also be weak points
routes in case of fire are also areas where on the right dimensioning of systems and in terms of the spread of fire in curtain wall
glass can be used to ensure fire safety for adequate calculations of amounts of incoming facades. Structural compensations must be
facades. If parapets, lintels or projections can- air. In determining the cross section required made for a facade’s movements and deform-
not meet standards required to prevent fire for smoke extraction, regulatory bodies distin- ations, which can be far greater than normal
from spreading, fire safety authorities must guish between aerodynamic smoke extraction in the event of fire due to the higher tempera-
determine the extent to which a sprinkler sys- and the size of a geometrically calculated tures in and around the connections and joints
tem could meet these demands. opening. Sashes must open in the right way, between the facade and the structure and
and a sufficiently large incoming air vent interior partition walls.
For fire safety reasons, it should be ensured cross section is necessary – normally one with
that joints between a building’s facade and 1.5 times the surface of the ventilation opening. Special measures for improving fire safety
its shell are properly built and impervious to If appropriate building automation ensures properties in this context could include:

58
 Aspects of building physics and planning advice

• Materials that foam up when exposed to heat, the section on “Principles of joint sealing” in • Deformations in the building, e.g. resulting
forming a seal and improving fire resistance “Surfaces – structural principles”, p. 32f.), from the structure’s own weight and traffic
and mechanical integrity especially in the form of and in and around loads
• Materials that vaporise when exposed to heat fastening elements and cable routing (e.g. • Manufacturers’ specified tolerances
and compensate for the heat’s effects for sun protection or photovoltaic systems). • Dynamic, horizontal movements in slabs
In these cases, and to form structural connec- caused by wind pressure, wind suction or
Facades exposed to particular risks tions, various groups of tradespeople often earthquakes
When installed in double-skin facades on multi- work together on critical structural and phys- • Changes in length within structural com-
storey buildings, fire-resistant glazing mainly ical interfaces. ponents and between adjoining structural
has a protective function of preventing fire from elements due to differing materials and
spreading to the storey above. Vertical paths The same applies to connections between temperatures
along which fire can spread must be equipped interior structures (mainly partition walls) and
with F 30 glazing. The W 90 fire resistance class facades, where flexible new partitioning of Facade structures
required for high-rise building parapets must spaces to accommodate changing conditions The static, structural and physical properties
be integrated into the inner layers of double can play a crucial role. of single-layer (monolithic) exterior walls are
facades. Designs in which the facade is venti- determined entirely by their material and thick-
lated by multistorey cavities like shafts, where Particular attention must be paid to special ness, so the wall’s material and joints must
smoke cannot be prevented from spreading areas of facades such as the building’s bot- meet multifunctional requirements in this case.
to adjoining storeys if windows are open due tom and top edges (at the base and rooftop) In multilayer or multi-shell facades, however,
to the pressure ratios caused by fire, require and vertical and horizontal exterior and inter- the materials of individual layers or shells can
special testing. ior corners (especially in and around offset be optimised to secure various functions.
insulating and sealing layers) in planning (see
Fig. A 2.1.7, p. 29). As described in detail in the chapter on “Sur-
General planning advice faces – structural principles” (p. 26ff.), a layer
Issues such as air- and watertightness, ther- of air can be enclosed between shells in a
In planning facades, all the functional and mal insulation, protection from damp, sun, multi-shell facade and be either enclosed,
resulting structural and physical requirements glare, noise, fire and smoke and the use of inward and/or open to the outside. Depending
must be met by appropriate materials and solar energy and daylight have to be dealt with on the desired functional or design characteris-
structural components, with the components holistically while taking framework conditions tics, the external weather protection layer can
subsequently coordinated and properly and into account as such measures often affect be transparent, translucent or opaque.
durably joined. each other.
In planning such facades, architects must
In terms of a facade's structural type, the issue Facade types ensure that insulating and moisture protection
of whether the load-bearing system chosen From a structural point of view, facades can be layers remain airtight, and suitable sealing
is a solid structure with load-bearing exterior basically classified into load-bearing and non- systems must be used, especially to close
walls and intermittent window openings or a load-bearing. In the former, windows are set up joints. If these layers are on the inside,
concrete, steel or timber frame with a separate, or integrated into a load-bearing exterior wall they must be more vapour-tight than the outer
usually non-load-bearing facade, is crucial in (Fig. A 3.8, p. 60). These can be individual weather protection layer. In practice, a weather
planning. windows or be combined into horizontal (also protection layer with vapour pressure equal-
storey-high) or continuous vertical bands of isation openings through which moisture can
Which facade type or structure should be windows (over several storeys). Structural con- escape from a structure unimpeded has been
chosen for different facade zones must be nections around window frames require espe- shown to have proven benefits (Fig. A 3.12,
decided in the planning process, taking these cially careful planning to ensure appropriate p. 61). Water can get into air cavities through
general conditions into account. As described thermal insulation and protection from environ- the openings in unfavourable conditions
in the chapter on “Surfaces – structural princi- mental moisture and noise. The exteriors of such as driving rain, so it must be directly dis-
ples” (p. 26ff.), the following options are avail- facade bays between windows can be clad charged outside through appropriate openings
able for managing a facade’s load-bearing with sheet metal or opaque glass. This can in a controlled way. Creating two coordinated
behaviour, structure, permeability to radiation often make them look like non-load-bearing sealing layers can effectively secure a water-
and construction principles: facades, but they are built in a completely dif- tight facade.
• Load-bearing or not ferent way (Fig. A 3.9, p. 60). If such facades are properly planned and built,
• Single or multi-shell they offer better protection not only from rain,
• Single or multilayer Non-load-bearing facades completely cover but also from damp, wind and noise. For this
• Opaque, translucent, transparent the building shell and form an extra closed reason, multilayer or multi-shell facades are
• Rear-ventilated curtain wall facade, post and weather protection cover into which elements preferred for buildings exposed to high noise
beam facade or element facade such as glazing, individual windows and levels or wind loads and from which a high
bands of windows are integrated. Experience standard of comfort is expected.
Among the conditions governing a facade’s has shown that there are often structural and
design are the type of structure and choice of physical weak points in and around slab and Joint formation
materials as well as technical building equip- wall connections. Soundproofing and fire and Regardless of a building’s construction method,
ment planning (e.g. whether a building is air- smoke protection problems often arise in con- junctions and connections between different
conditioned or not). struction practice, especially between adjoin- structural components and the resulting joints
ing rooms, if joints are not properly planned must be especially carefully planned in all
Any irregularities or leaks in a facade pose and built to ensure adequate insulating and facades to ensure central functions such as
particular structural physical risks and increase sealing functions. This is especially the case sealing the building against moisture and
the likelihood of damage. These include all if the following aspects have not been suffi- damp, ensuring adequate thermal insulation
types of penetrating joints between structural ciently taken into account and compensated and airtightness across the entire facade sur-
components in and through the facade (see for in the structure: face in the long term.

59
Aspects of building physics and planning advice

In planning joints in buildings, it should be noted continuous air cavity. Moisture moving from
that different trades, e.g. concrete, masonry, the inside to the outside by means of vapour
timber and steel construction etc., allow for diffusion can also escape in this way. Correctly
A 3.8
different dimensional variations. These are built, rear-ventilated curtain wall facades are
prescribed in the relevant standards, although effective, durable systems. They are available
the dimensional tolerances they specify usu- in a wide range of colours and materials so
ally refer only to the planning and construc- they also offer designers extensive creative
tion of buildings or structural components. freedom [6].
They do not take time-dependent deformations
that result in divergences from prescribed Light, non-load-bearing facades can be clas-
nominal dimensions into account, so particular sified in terms of their construction into post
attention must be paid to these. These include and beam and element facades. Whether
plastic deformations because of material creep individual components (post and beam) or
or changes in form due to swelling or shrink- structural components (elements) ready to
age, changes in temperature or the effects use are delivered and assembled on a building
of temporary or ongoing loads (e.g. structures’ site is the essential factor here.
own weight, traffic loads, wind loads, snow
loads etc.). The post and beam facade type is very wide-
Architects must take any discrepancies from spread among curtain wall facades (Fig. A 3.10).
nominal dimensions resulting from these fac- The longitudinal and intersecting connections
tors into account in planning by ensuring the between the posts and beams are built to be
appropriate arrangement, dimensioning and able to slide. Infill panels, such as windows,
formation of joints and connections between glazing or panels, sit in a glass rebate, whose
structural components (see also p. 32ff.). depth must be able to accommodate the expect-
Compliance with this stipulation will prevent ed tolerances, expansions and deformations.
problems during the construction process
and ensure that facade structures retain their In contrast, facade elements that are ready
functionality in the long term. for use in element facades, including glass,
panels, metal sheeting and insulation through
Construction methods to the integration of external cladding with
Rear-ventilated curtain wall facades are the natural stone or installation of sun protection
most widespread form of opaque facades due systems (including sensors and drive technol-
to their wide range of functional features and ogy) and distributed ventilation technology, can
design options. They are non-load-bearing be mechanically processed and prefabricated
facades attached to a load-bearing exterior in a factory (Fig. A 3.11). One major advantage
wall by means of an appropriate substructure. of this is that in contrast to the situation on a
(see p. 34ff.) building site, a high degree of automation and
precision can be achieved in a factory’s con-
In structural terms, an exterior curtain wall trolled, industrial conditions, ensuring consist-
facade shell or facade cladding is designed ently high product quality and reliable quality
to absorb only wind loads, which are directly assurance.
transferred to the exterior wall through the
substructure. Its outer layer protects the struc- Finished prefabricated elements are trans-
ture from the weather, while insulation, usually ported to the building site for assembly,
directly adjoining the exterior wall, ensures attached to brackets that have already been
appropriate protection from extreme tempera- attached to the building’s shell and adjusted.
tures. A gap between this weather protection Element facades, where facade profiles form
and thermal insulation ensures that any rain- frames with material-specific connections,
water that gets in through leaks in the outer are one example of this kind of facade type.
skin can escape though the exterior layer’s The rubber-sealed edge profiles of adjoining
A 3.9

60
 Aspects of building physics and planning advice

A 3.10 A 3.11 A 3.12

A 3.8 Vertical section of a load-bearing exterior wall with A 3.10 Post and beam facade
windows A 3.11 Element facade
A 3.9 Vertical section of a non-load-bearing, curtain wall A 3.12 Vapour pressure equalisation in post and
post and beam facade (top – parapet, middle – beam facades
ceiling slab joint, bottom – base)

facade elements are interlocked during assem- of an effective facade is an essential element
bly on the building site in a labyrinthine config- in creating a comfortable, durable, energy-
uration. This enables them to absorb tolerances, efficient and valuable building.
expansions and deformations and ensures that
joints between elements meet the standards In creating such buildings, the structure’s spe-
of insulation, soundproofing and air and water- cific requirements and framework conditions
tightness required of them. Inadequately built must be coordinated in an integrated planning
intersections between facade elements are typ- process involving all planners. Especially in
ical weak points in this kind of structure. the context of users’ comfort requirements and Notes:
the insulation required to meet them, there is [1] See also German workplace regulations (Arbeits-
stättenverordnung ArbStättV), section 9 (2); German
Building element facades involves more mater- great potential for optimising the costs and screen display work regulations (Bildschirmarbeits-
ial and a greater effort in manufacture and benefits and the design and functional proper- verordnung – BildscharbV), p. 7; German workplace
requires experienced designers and builders. ties of a building. safety regulations involving screen display work
Mistakes in planning cannot easily be cor- (Unfallverhütungsvorschrift Arbeit an Bildschirm-
geräten) VBG 104, sections 9, 16 and 25 and the EU
rected by subsequent supplementary work As well as qualified planning, construction
Display screen equipment Directive, 90/270/EWG
by tradespeople. Element facades are more work on the building site must be closely [2] See also DIN 4108 and European standards DIN EN
complex to plan, so they require appropriate coordinated with the companies carrying 13 162 to 13 171
(planning) lead times, which is one factor that it out and supervised. Particularly when [3] See also the Energy Efficiency Directive: http://
must be taken into account when tendering sophisticated facade structures that are ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-efficiency/
energy-efficiency-directive. As of 05.03.2016. The
for contracts. These kinds of facades are suit- equipped with moveable, adjustable compo- EED aims to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels
able for high-rise buildings and other large- nents are involved, it must be ensured that by 20 % by 2020, compared with 2005 consumption
volume buildings, particularly those with regu- building services control systems are coord- levels.
lar structures. inated with the facade’s mechanical sys- [4] Energy for space heating makes up 69 % of house-
hold energy consumption. German Environment
tems to ensure that building’s automated
Agency (Bundesumweltamt) (2012): https://www.
systems work effectively with the facade. Cor- umweltbundesamt.de/daten/private-haushalte-
Concluding remarks rect initial operating of the systems built by konsum /energieverbrauch-der-privaten-haushalte.
workers from all trades – including the facade As of 06.02.2016
The choice of a facade’s materials and struc- construction – as soon as the building is com- [5] DIN 18 516 “Cladding for external walls” must be
complied with.
ture plays a decisive role in its design, func- pleted, is required to ensure the productive [6] See also DIN 18 516-1: Cladding for external walls,
tional and structural-physical characteristics. interaction of building technologies, facade ventilated at rear, part 1: requirements, principles
Skilled professional planning and construction and users. of testing

61
Authenticated | antonio.zulu.666@gmail.com
Download Date | 10/13/19 5:52 AM
 Part B Structures built with specific materials

Anyone involved in planning and building

facades in compliance with generally accepted
rules will at some point need to make deci-
sions on materials. This entails making targeted
use of the properties of existing construction
materials and of those that may need to be
developed as well as taking them into account
in planning and construction.

Architects face a series of guidelines, consider-

ations, recommendations and ideas with a local
or regional or sometimes even a global back-
ground that are of a functional, economic, eco-
logical and/or cultural nature and arise out of
planning and approvals law constraints, rules,
standards and regulations. A facade is one
subsystem in the wider system of the “build-
ing”, a large and complex technical object
whose use of materials determines phases
in its production in a workshop or factory, its
composition of elements into structural compo-
nents, and its transport, assembly and installa-
tion in both intermediate and final states. This
means that a building's subsequent mainten-
ance and upkeep, operation and options for
exchanging parts must all be well thought out
in terms of the spaces, organisation and effects
on structural details involved.

A knowledge of the structural, physical and

technical features of the building materials
involved and of the construction, technology
and manufacture of structural elements and
components, taking the structure’s special char-
acteristics and technical context into account,
are among the essential skills required of
architects responsible for designing buildings.
The following examples are designed to pro-
Wrapped Reichstag, Berlin (DE) 1995, vide them with guidance and orientation in
Christo & Jeanne-Claude their work.

63
 Natural stone

B 1 Natural stone The Stone Age is regarded as the first major

cultural epoch because it was when people
began using a naturally occurring material to
make various tools. In the past stone was used
to make artefacts ranging from simple tools
and weapons through to graves and walls
and up to precisely worked treasures such
as jewellery.

Stone directly extracted from the Earth’s crust

is called “natural stone”. Natural stone can be
divided into three main groups based on its
genesis:
• Igneous rock (magmatites) B 1.2
• Sedimentary rock (sedimentites)
• Metamorphic rock (metamorphites)

These three stone “families” are subdivided

into around 30 types of stone, including gran-
ite, sandstone and marble. All the types of
stone found in the Earth (4,500 – 5,000) belong
to one of these groups. Natural stone can be
used in various ways on the outsides of build-
ings (see Fig. B 1.10, p. 67). Granite, for ex-
ample, is suitable for use in applications rang-
ing from the construction of solid structures
to facade cladding.

Ashlar
Before natural stone can be used in con-
struction, it must be worked and shaped
into a specific form by splitting, sawing or
milling. The resulting product is also called B 1.3
“ashlar”.
Stone is classified as hard or soft depending
on its compressive strength (hard stone: e.g.
granite, diorite – soft stone: e.g. limestone,
tuff or tufa). Ashlar to be used in masonry must
have certain physical prerequisites such as
minimum compressive and tensile strength,
frost resistance etc. [1].
Figure B 1.11 (p. 67) shows the most import-
ant material properties of ashlar, such as bulk
density, thermal conductivity and compressive
and tensile strength. Artificially produced stone
(e.g. brick, concrete) is called artificial stone
and produced in the form of modular, prefabri- B 1.4
cated elements.

Natural stone in facades

The historic development of stone facades is

closely connected with that of masonry struc-
tures. Stone is one of the oldest construction
materials. In early cultures, such as those of
Mesopotamia and Egypt, stone was used to
build load-bearing walls and is still used for
that purpose today, as well as to make rear-
ventilated, non-load-bearing facade cladding.
Humanity’s first stone buildings were devel- B 1.5
oped out of local conditions and were initially B 1.2 Graves, Petra (JO) 4th century BC
often only piles of stone added to pre-existing B 1.3 Stairs, retaining wall, architecture and sculp-
natural spaces such as caves and similar ture, Temple of Athena Nike, Athens (GR)
5th century BC
structures. Ancient forms of exterior stone B 1.4 Mountain village in Tessin (CH)
B 1.1 German Pavilion, Barcelona (ES) 1929 /1986, walls served mainly to create permanent sites B 1.5 Panel under a display window decorated with
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and places of safety, while later cultures show petrified ammonites

65
Natural stone

Natural stone

Igneous rock Metamorphic rock Sedimentary rock

Orthogneiss / Paragneiss

Solnhofen limestone
Volcanic tuff or tufa

Calcareous tufa
Shell limestone
Chlorite schist

Conglomerate
Serpentinite

Greywacke
Lava stone

Sandstone

Limestone
Mica slate

Travertine
Migmatite
Quartzite

Granulite

Dolomite
Trachyte

Diabase
Rhyolite
Gabbro

Breccia
Granite
Syenite

Phyllite
Marble
Diorite

Basalt

Shale

Onyx
B 1.7
B 1.6
examples of stone facades cut from stone with The appearance of large secular buildings Before windows with transparent panes of
the highest precision and aesthetic standards played an increasingly important role in their glass were developed, thin, polished stone
(Fig. B 1.2). construction, as the “Palazzo dei Diamanti” in often provided translucent protection from
Ferrara by Biagio Rossetti strikingly illustrates the weather (Fig. B 1.23, p. 69). One modern
The extraction of natural stone for construction (Fig. B 1.6). example of the use of natural stone’s trans-
purposes began around 5,000 BC. When In many cases the facade was for the first lucent properties is the St. Pius Church in
bronze and hard tools were developed (approx. time completely detached from the rest of Meggen by Franz Füeg (1966, p. 74f.).
2,500 BC) it became possible to shape stone the structure, becoming an independent
precisely into ashlar. architectural element in the overall building. Some architects have developed novel and
In Italy in particular, facades whose form and unusual ways of using natural stone in specific
As Greek building culture flourished, techniques materials clearly distinguish them from load- projects. For a vineyard in Yountville, California,
for grinding and cutting hard stone, which the bearing walls were built at enormous expense Herzog & de Meuron (1998) used wire mesh
Egyptians practised with great precision to and effort. baskets of stones, which are used in landscap-
make hieroglyphs and reliefs, were refined. The ing, as facade material. Light passing through
Greeks’ development of entasis and the curva- In one particular technical version, an outer them produces fascinating effects in the inter-
ture of the plinth zone bears witness to their layer of thinly cut and worked stone panels ior. The facade’s large masses of stone enable
efforts to transform the appearance of facades was laid in mortar on a load-bearing exter- it to regulate temperatures, and its coarse
and perfect them (Fig. B 1.2, B 1.3, p. 65). ior wall, which is referred to as “incrust- structure makes the facade very permeable
The Romans further developed stone-cutting ation”. In Tuscany and Umbria especially, out- (and a haven for reptiles), an effect that can
techniques. Vitruvius was the first to record standingly highly crafted incrusted facades be compensated for by structural measures
practical knowledge of natural stone in writing made of different stone panels were built (see the example of the Mortensrud Church by
in his “De architectura libri decem” (Ten Books (Fig. B 1.8). Jensen & Skodvin, p. 77).
on Architecture). Around 2,000 years ago this
work was the basis for generally accepted
technical building rules across the European
continent within the boundaries of the Roman
Empire. The Romans’ systematic separation
of load-bearing elements from cladding estab-
lished clear principles for designing a structure
and organising a building site.

Modular prefabrication using stone made of

clay has been practised for centuries, but the
use of natural stone was only re-established in
the early Middle Ages. Increasing demands
resulting from the building of large cathedrals
resulted in the further development of tech-
niques for constructing natural stone facades,
making the prefabrication of ashlar in large
quantities possible. The development of frame
and horizontal construction using continuous
horizontal bed joints also shortened construc-
tion times. These processing methods, devel-
oped during the Romanesque period, were
further refined, leading up to their maximum
expression in the construction of Gothic facades
from the 13th century on [2].

At the beginning of the Renaissance, the desire

to express secular power in architecture grew.
B 1.8

66
 Natural stone

Raw Thermal Com- Bending

Solid
structure

Floor
covering

Steps

Facade
cladding

Sculptural
work
density conduct- pressive tensile
ivity strength strength
[kg/m2] [W/mk] [N/mm2] [N/mm2]
Basalt 2,700 – 3,000 1.2 – 3.0 250 – 400 15 – 25
Basalt ° ° ° -
Granite 2,500 – 2,700 1.6 – 3.4 130 – 270 5 –18
Granite • • • • •
Marble 2,600 – 2,900 2.0 – 2.6 80 – 240 3 –19
Marble - ° ° ° °
Slate Slate 200 – 2,600 1.2 – 2.1 50 – 80
°
Sandstone - Sandstone 2,000 – 2,700 1.2 – 3.4 30 – 200 3 – 20
°
Limestone • - - - Limestone 2,600 – 2,900 2.0 – 3.4 75 – 240 3 –19
°
• Suitable B 1.10 B 1.11
° Limited suitability
- Somewhat suitable

B 1.9
Natural stone extraction wall) – but with incised stone – in his facade • Thermal insulation layer (if the exterior
design for the spa building in Vals (Fig. B 1.13). wall does not have the necessary insu-
Various methods are used to extract blocks In the 20th century, modernism returned to lation)
of raw stone in quarries depending on the this technique in the form of suspended, rear- • Attachment and anchoring of cladding
stone’s type, stratification and commonness ventilated facades, which are usually attached panels on various substrata
(Fig. B 1.14 –16, p. 68), but what they all have by corrosion-proof metal load-bearing and
in common is the goal of producing the lar- restraining anchors to absorb vertical and hori-
gest and most perfect blocks without wasting zontal forces. The technical approach of treat-
material. Roughly-worked raw stone blocks are ing layers of masonry differently based on their
sawed or gang-sawed into the desired forms function is now again being used in facades
to make ashlar. Computerised cutting technol- in which natural stone is used solely as clad- B 1.6 Palazzo dei Diamanti, Ferrara (IT) after 1493,
ogies can now be used to make almost any ding material, detached from the load-bearing Biagio Rossetti
form, including round forms. wall (see Fig. 1.27– 30, p. 70f.). B 1.7 Stone types and “families”
Economical and structural physical advan- B 1.8 Cathedral of S. Maria del Fiore, Florence (IT) 1296
(–1887), Arnolfo di Cambio, Filippo Brunelleschi
tages mean that this type of construction is
et al.
Construction and design now almost exclusively used to build natural B 1.9 German Pavilion, Barcelona (ES) 1929 /1986,
stone facades. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
There is a wide range of construction options B 1.10 Use of various kinds of natural stone for exteriors
available for creating stone facades and their Natural stone exterior wall cladding is often [3]
B 1.11 Material-specific properties of natural ashlar [4]
individual appearances. The first precursors structured as follows: B 1.12 “Fallingwater”, Mill Run (US) 1937, Frank Lloyd
of suspended stone facades were built in • Natural stone panels Wright
the early 20th century: buildings such as the • Rear ventilation zone B 1.13 Thermal spa, Vals (CH) 1996, Peter Zumthor
Postal Savings Bank building by Otto Wagner
in Vienna (1912). From the second half of that
century, this became one of the most common
and most economical forms of stone facade
construction.
The "Finlandia" concert and congress hall
in Helsinki by Alvar Aalto (1975) shows the
aesthetic potential inherent in this technical
solution [5].
Today’s architects are becoming increasingly
aware of the centuries-old construction prin-
ciple of the facing wall. They have clear ad-
vantages over thin, suspended stone facades
in terms of their mechanical resistance to
horizontal forces. A facing wall is also the
simplest structural solution for creating the
distinct impression of horizontally stratified
stone facades.

One outstanding example of a building with a

natural stone facing wall is the Kaufmann resi-
dence ("Fallingwater") by Frank Lloyd Wright.
Its outer walls’ rough, stratified structure is
analogous with the stratified structure of the
bed of the river the house was built above
(Fig. B 1.12).
A good six decades later, Peter Zumthor used
the same construction technique (a facing
B 1.12 B 1.13

67
Natural stone

B 1.14 B 1.15 B 1.16

Sizes of natural stone panels

The static bending strengths and breaking

loads for dowel holes holding natural stone
panels must be verified. DIN 18 516, Part 3
prescribes the following minimum thick-
nesses:
• Angle of inclination greater than 60° relative
to the horizontal: 30 mm
• Angle of inclination up to a maximum of 60°
relative to the horizontal: 40 mm B 1.17

In deciding on the thickness of natural stone

panels with greater bending strengths, archi-
tects should normally adhere to the minimum
thicknesses prescribed in the DIN standard.
The dead weight of panels with an angle of B 1.18
inclination of 0 to 15 °C is increased by a factor
of 2.5 due to the reduced bending strength
and breaking load for dowel holes caused Retaining
anchor
by permanent loads, vibrations, shocks and Dowel hole
dynamic loads. Sliding sleeve

Dowel
Load-bearing
anchor
Anchoring
2

Loads are transferred through stone slabs into

Joint spacer
a substructure or anchor base individually, Sliding sleeve in joint width
i.e. through each slab. Substructures (e.g.
rail systems) of facing masonry structures that
do not have sufficient load-bearing strength
must be able to transfer forces from the struc-
ture’s dead weight load and wind loads into B 1.19
load-bearing structural components. Each B 1.20
panel is normally held by three to four anchors
whose geometric positioning ensures that the
panels are kept in place free of restraining
stresses (Fig. B 1.17).
a b g h
Appropriate structural measures must ensure
that large panels that need more than four
anchor points are installed free of restraint
stresses for structural reasons. Fastening elem-
ents can be divided into four main groups: c d i j
• Dowels
• Screw anchors
• Profiled webs
• Other (e.g. adhesive)

e f k l
B 1.21 B 1.22

68
 Natural stone

Candle in a
mm 2–3 2–5 3–7 5 –10 8 –15 12 – 30 dark room

Mica-free Limestone Coarse- Fine- Onyx Alabaster

quartzite grained grained without without
marble marble pigment bitumen
B 1.23 B 1.24
Joints

Joints absorb movements that can occur due

a a
to temperature variations or structural and
dynamic effects. Joints in natural stone facade
cladding generally measure 8 –10 mm and
can be left open. If joints are closed, perman-
ently elastic filling material must be able to
withstand calculated maximum movements.
In most cases panels are attached along joints,
so it must be ensured that attachments are
matched with the load-bearing structure’s joints
and that adjoining slabs have an allowance for
movement on only one side of the anchoring.

bb
Colours and surfaces

A stone’s colour and texture result from the

mixture of the minerals and pigments found
in it. Limestones also often contain fossils,
which add to their optical effect (Fig. B 1.5,
p. 65).
Stone can lose its natural colour due to phys-
ical, chemical or biological soiling, although
soft, porous types of stone tend to fade even
without such influences, especially when used
on exteriors. Water on the surface of natural b
stone often intensifies its colour. Depending
on a natural stone’s hardness and individual
characteristics, its surface can be further
worked by machine or by a stonemason. b
aa
B 1.25
Dowel length
B 1.14 Havixbeck quarry, Münsterland (DE), 1952 = constant
B 1.15 Sectioning a block of stone with an iron bar
B 1.16 Using a special wedge technique to split a block
of stone Reference plane
B 1.17 Geometrical conditions for positioning attach- of the substructure
ments
B 1.18 Cross-sectional forms of dowel pins
B 1.19 Grouted dowel in a sliding sleeve, horizontal
cross-section
B 1.20 Axonometric view of load-bearing and retaining
dowels
B 1.21 Load-bearing (a – h) and retaining dowels (i – l)
B 1.22 Dowel that can be finely adjusted
B 1.23 Marble windows of the Arsenale in Venice (IT)
B 1.24 Translucent light stone (translucency in equivalent Dowel sleeve mounted Gap width varies depending
flush with the panel on panel thickness tolerances
material thicknesses) [6]
B 1.25 Slots and grooves used to fit load-bearing and
retaining dowels
B 1.26 Undercut anchors for flush and spaced mounting
B 1.26

69
Natural stone

B 1.27 Hotel, Berlin (DE) 1996, Josef Paul Kleihues B 1.28 Office building, Berlin (DE) 1996, Jürgen Sawade
The facade of the Four Seasons hotel is made of This elegant, very flat facade is made of pol-
prefabricated storey-high panels hung on storey ished, black, shiny African granite. Its window
slabs. Each panel is made of polished Roman elements are set flush into the stone. The basic
Travertine slabs 30 mm thick. The panels overlap grid measures 1.20 ≈ 1.20 metres and the
and are attached with stainless steel pins. An panels are 30 mm thick. The use of a temporary
aluminium frame supports the rear-ventilated, facade hoist meant that the facade could be
insulated natural stone cladding and window assembled without scaffolding, greatly acceler-
surrounds separated by a thermal break. ating construction.

B 1.27

B 1.28

70
 Natural stone

B 1.29 Office building, Berlin (DE) 1997, Klaus Theo B 1.30 Residential and commercial building, Berlin (DE)
Brenner 1996, Josef Paul Kleihues
This strictly structured stone facade is made of A traditional punctuated facade with aluminium-
green dolomite with striking stainless steel attach- frame windows in the middle of the wall and
ment elements that prevent its upright stone slabs windows' projecting stone frames that reinforce
from falling out of the facade. the effect of the openings. The frames are made
Shadows cast by the stainless steel elements vary of polished green serpentinite, with polished,
depending on the time of day and year, lending open-pored, yellow travertine wall and parapet
the building an individual character. elements.

B 1.1.29

B 1.30

71
Natural stone

B 1.31 B 1.32

Natural stone from German quarries:

B 1.31 Fürstenstein diorite (igneous)
B 1.32 Greifenstein basalt (igneous)
B 1.33 Dorfprozelten sandstone (sedimentary)
B 1.34 Mosel slate (sedimentary)
B 1.35 Aachen bluestone (sedimentary)
B 1.36 Odenwald quartz (metamorphic)
B 1.37 Zöblitz garnetiferous serpentinite (metamorphic)
B 1.38 Jura marble (metamorphic)
B 1.39 Colour of natural stone [7]
B 1.40 Techniques for working stone with machines [8]
B 1.41 Stonemasonry techniques for working stone
by hand [9]
B 1.33 B 1.34
Surface treatments for natural stone:
B 1.42 Coarsely pointed
The surface is chipped off with a tapering
pyramid-shaped pointed chisel and must be
completely worked. The type of blows make
the difference between a roughly and finely
pointed surface.
B 1.43 Toothed
The end of a toothed or claw chisel, applied
in various ways (straight, arched or criss-cross),
can be used to produce a wide variety of
surfaces.
B 1.44 Drove-chiselled in a herringbone pattern
Drove chisels with alternating widths (8 –15 cm)
and various blows can be used to produce
different surface effects.
B 1.45 Pointed, bush-hammered, axed and ground
These four different kinds of working create
different surfaces.
B 1.35 B 1.36 B 1.46 Bush-hammered
The surface is worked with a bush hammer,
finely or roughly depending on the hammer head.
A 7 ≈ 7 hammer head is used for fine textures,
while for coarse textures a 4 ≈ 4 hammer head
with pyramid-shaped teeth is used.
B 1.47 Bush-hammered, brushed and waxed
The wax protects the surface and makes colour
more intense.
B 1.48 Polished
Polishing creates a smooth, intensely shiny sur-
face. Any holes are filled to optimise the polish-
ing’s effect.
B 1.49 Flame-treated
This technique makes use of the various thermal
expansion properties of particles found in nat-
ural stone. Brief flame treatment of a stone sur-
face causes parts to flake off evenly, creating a
rough surface. The reduction in material must be
taken into account in determining the thickness
of panels.
B 1.37 B 1.38

72
 Natural stone

Notes:
[1] DIN 18 516-1: 2010-06; DIN 18 516-3: 2001-11
[2] Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas. Basel / Munich
2001, p. 17f.
[3] Müller, Friedrich: Gesteinskunde. Ulm 1994, p. 196f.
[4] Hugues, Theodor et al.: Naturwerkstein. Munich 2002,
p. 72
[5] A + U 05/1983, Alvar Aalto, p. 160 –167
[6] ibid., p. 171
[7] As for Note 3, p. 169
[8] As for Note 4, p. 74
[9] ibid.

B 1.42 B 1.43
Black
Dark grey
Pale grey
White
Cream
Yellow
Reddish
Red
Brown
Olive
Dark green
Grey-green
Light green
Light blue

Basalt • ° - ° ° -
Granite - ° ° • • - - -
Marble - ° • • - - °
Slate • - ° - ° • ° -
Sandstone - - - • • • • • ° ° ° -
Limestone ° ° ° - • ° • • • -
- Some sorts
° A few sorts
• Many sorts
B 1.39 B 1.44 B 1.45
Sawn

Ground and
slightly roughened

Milled

Polished

Sandblasted

Rubbed

Flame-treated

Polished

Basalt • • • • • •
Granite • • • • • •
Marble • • • • •
Slate • • •
Sandstone • • • • •
Limestone • • • • • •
B 1.40 B 1.46 B 1.47
Roughening
Bossage
Pointing
Bush hammering
Axed
Crandalling
Batting
Tooth chiselling
Grooving
Scabbling
Rubbing

Basalt • • • •
Granite • • • •
Marble • • • • • • • • • •
Slate •
Sandstone • • • • • • • • • •
Limestone • • • • • • • • • •
B 1.41 B 1.48 B 1.49

73
Natural stone

St. Pius Church

14
Meggen, CH 1966

Architect:
Franz Füeg, Solothurn
with Peter Rudolph and Gérard Staub

º A+U 11/2003
Bauen + Wohnen 05/1966 and 12/1966 17
Casabella 677, 2000
Detail 03/1967 18
Stock, Wolfgang Jean (ed.): Europäischer
Kirchenbau 1950 – 2000. Munich, 2002
16

• Steel frame structure with a 1.68 m basic grid

• Roof support structure made of steel piping
Ø 63.5 mm; spanning 25.50 m
• Translucent marble panel facade
(h ≈ w = 1,020 ≈ 1,500 mm)
• Unusually festive atmosphere inside

Isometric view not to scale

Ground floor layout • Section Scale 1:750
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20
Details of panel mounting, vertical and horizontal
Scale 1:5 21 10
4

20 7

aa cc
4 4

1 Circumferential wooden batten 12 Angle, 35/35/4 mm

2 Flat steel, ¡ 550/10 mm 13 Angle, 40/25/4 mm
3 Marble panel, 150/102/21 mm, 14 Spacer, 25/25/4 mm
sanded smooth on the outside 15 Spacer, 30/30/3 mm with sealing
4 Facade column Å IPB 240 16 M8 with hexagon socket
a a 5 Steel truss rafter made of hollow 17 Flat steel panel support,
steel tubing, Ø 63.5 mm ¡ 20/20/15 mm, covered with
b b 6 Flat steel, ¡ 260/10 mm rigid foam
7 Marble panel, 150/102/28 mm, 18 Angle, 40/40/4 mm
sanded smooth on the outside 19 Rigid foam strip to prevent contact
8 Flat steel, 240/10 mm between marble and steel
9 Steel sheeting condensate channel, 20 Insulated steel sheeting box,
edged with rainwater downpipe,
10 Fresh air inlet Ø 125 mm
11 Fresh air duct 21 Condensate channel drain

74
 Natural stone

6
17 18
12
1 13

19
14
2 5
7

15
16 4
17

12 13

17
8

4 3 5

c c

8 9

10

11

bb

75
Natural stone

House

Sarzeau, FR 1999

Architect:
Eric Gouesnard, Nantes

º A+U 06/1999
L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 320, 1999
LOTUS 105, 2000. Special issue: a a
Aperto over all

• Use of the same material to clad the

facade and roof gives the building’s exter-
ior a monolithic look
• 50 ≈ 50 cm dark grey shale slate panels
• Concealed rainwater gutters

1
Ground floor layout Scale 1:200
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Slate panels, 20 mm
Substructure made of steel Z-profile sections 3
Cement render, 20 mm
Masonry, 200 mm
Closed-pore thermal insulation
Vapour barrier b b
Plasterboard composite panel, 3
100 mm
2 Aluminium sheeting rain downpipe,
concealed
3 Rainwater downpipe 1

bb aa

76
 Natural stone

Mortensrud Church

Oslo, NO 2002

Architects:
Jensen & Skodvin, Oslo

º Architectural Review 12/2002

Architektur Aktuell 01– 02/2003
A+U 08/2002
Byggekunst 04/2002
Detail 11/2003
Living Architecture 19, 2004

• Inside the church the bedrock has been left Section • Floor plan
exposed in places Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section of the western facade
• External glass facade with interior oiled Scale 1:20 a
steel frame
• Broken slate slabs laid dry without mortar
• Broken stone fill is stabilised by large steel
plates between columns 1 metre apart
• Price per square metre is similar to that of
b
public housing prices in Oslo

aa
a b

1 Steel profile section, fi 80/40/4 mm between the panes 15 + laminated safety

Insulating glazing glass 7 mm
1 Toughened safety glass 6 + space 6 Tubular steel facade posts, ¡ 160/80/8 mm
between the panes 16 + laminated safety 7 Steel profile section column, IPE 300
glass 8 mm 8 Slate, laid dry
Tubular steel, ¡ 80/80/4 mm 9 Flat steel stone fill support, ¡ 250/5 mm
2 Steel tubing, Ø 38/5 mm as central glass 10 Lintel made of steel profile sections
pane support 2≈ fi 300/100 and 2≈ flat steel, ¡ 100/10 mm
2 3 4 3 Steel plate, 360/80/15 mm 11 Flat steel, 2≈ ¡ 100/10 mm
4 Steel profile section, fi 80/40/5 mm 12 Steel profile section, fi 80/40/5 mm
5 Insulating glazing 13 Steel grating, 30 mm
Toughened safety glass 6 + space 14 Tubular steel handrail, Ø 30 mm

7 6 5

8
14

13 12

9
11

10

bb

77
Natural stone

Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte /

Archaeological Museum

Frankfurt am Main, DE 1989

Architect:
Josef Paul Kleihues, Berlin / Dülmen
with Mirko Baum (Project Manager)

º Arkitektur 08/1989
Baumeister 06/1989
Casabella 481, 1982
Feldmeyer, Gerhard: The New German
Architecture. New York 1993

Floor plan • Cross section Scale 1:1,000

• Rear-ventilated natural stone curtain wall Axonometry
4
facade in materials and colours that har- 1 Vertical cross section Scale 1:5
monise with the church building
• Exposed fastenings function as technically 1 Red sandstone,
no veining,
necessary ornamentation and yellow-green sandstone
2 from the Würzburg region
2 Spacer with
5 special screw,
visible from the outside
3 Support anchor,
not visible on the outside
4 Bracket for exposed
screw fastening
6
of retaining spacer
5 Mounting rail with
standard perforation
6 Wall anchor
7 Steel-reinforced concrete
7

aa

b b

a a

bb

78
 Natural stone

Office of the Federal President

Berlin, DE 1998

Architects:
Gruber + Kleine-Kraneburg, Frankfurt am Main

º Detail 06/1999
Burg, Annegret; Redecke, Sebastian:
Kanzleramt und Bundespräsidialamt der
Bundesrepublik. Boston / Berlin / Basel 1995

• Dark, polished natural stone (Nero Impala)

• The (elliptical) cut of the stone emphasises
the building's form
• Windows flush with the exterior stone cladding
2 3
1

a bb 4 5
7 6

Floor plan Scale 1:3,000 8

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20 9

1 Natural stone, 40 mm
Air cavity, 85 mm
Insulation, 100 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete 300 mm
Gypsum plaster, 25 mm
2 Window structure:
Aluminium bracket on three sides
with plastic chock wedges 4
providing thermal separation 3
3 Anthracite stove-enamelled aluminium window, 10 11
Glazing: b b
Ground floor 16 mm laminated safety glass made
of 2≈ toughened safety glass
1st – 3rd floors 10 mm toughened safety glass 5
4 Timber-frame window, dark stained oak,
Insulating glazing - laminated safety glass 6 mm +
space between the panes 14 mm + toughened safety
glass 4 mm
5 Aluminium profile section safety barrier, 20/20 mm
6 Aluminium cover plate, 3 mm
Aluminium ribbed profile fastener with integrated
rubber seal, both sides of the butt joint 2
Aluminium profile section substructure fi 50/3 mm,
screwed into aluminium profile section fi 40/3 mm, 1
screwed onto wooden plank
7 Aluminium angle, 50/50/2 mm aa
8 Retaining anchor
9 Supporting anchor
10 Ventilation grille
11 Sunshade – can be lowered to 100 mm
above the window sill
(for air circulation)

79
Natural stone

Museum of Modern Art

Vienna, AT 2001

Architects:
Ortner & Ortner Baukunst, Vienna
with Christian Lichtenwagner
Structural engineers:
Fritsch Chiari & Partner, Vienna

º A+U 01/2002
Materia 39, 2002
Dernie, David: Neue Steinarchitektur.
Stuttgart 2003
aa bb

• Rear-ventilated curtain wall facade of

basaltic lava stone
• Panel formats increase in size with the
height of the building
• Curved roof clad with basalt panels
• Diamond-sawn stone with a porous but
smooth surface

1 Heated stainless steel gutter 8 Steel angle profile, 100/100/10 mm with thermally
2 Overflow gutter separate wall connection
3 Retaining anchor 9 Tubular steel door frame, | 100/100/6 mm
4 Supporting anchor 10 Tubular steel frame, | 60/60/4 mm with steel lugs
5 Natural stone - Mendig basaltic lava to attach the natural stone panels
a a 100 mm, hung in elements with 11 Door leaf: natural Mendig basaltic lava stone,
grouted anchors, 40 mm, attached with undercut anchor dowels
Bed joints filled with permanently elastic Mineral wool, 60 mm
material Rigid polystyrene foam, 20 mm
Ventilation cavity, 50 mm Aluminium sheeting, 2 mm
c c Mineral wool, 80 mm 12 Double window glazing:
Steel-reinforced concrete, 300 mm inside – laminated safety glass made of
Wooden battens, 50 mm 2≈ toughened safety glass + space between
Three-ply plywood, 25 mm the panes + toughened safety glass
Plasterboard, 2≈ 12.5 mm outside – toughened safety glass + space between
6 Insect screen the panes + toughened safety glass
7 Limestone, 250 mm 13 Stainless steel cover plate, 2 mm

80
 Natural stone

1 e

12 13

12
5 8 9 10 11 e 5

dd

d d

Cross sections • Entrance floor plan

Scale 1:1,000
Facade – vertical cross section
Scale 1:50 5
Horizontal cross sections of fire
door and slit window
Scale 1:20
Vertical cross section of slit window
7
Scale 1:20

12

13

cc ee

81
Natural stone

Jewish Center a

Munich, DE 2006/2007

Architects:
Wandel Hoefer Lorch, Saarbrücken
Structural engineers:
Sailer Stepan Partner, Munich
Facade consultants:
Schiller und Partner, Kornwestheim

º Archithese 02/2009 b
Naturstein 09/2007
Fleckenstein, Jutta; Purin Bernhard (ed.):
Jüdisches Museum München. b a
Munich, 2007

• A building complex consisting of the main

synagogue, a cultural and community centre
and the Jewish Museum
• Circumferential storey-high, roughly textured
natural stone (travertine) slab plinth
• Transparent roof lantern with a filigree steel
structure
• Glass facade encased in bronze metal mesh

aa

82
 Natural stone

10
12
11
9

6 7

Floor plan • Cross section

Scale 1:500
2 Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Rough travertine slabs, 80 –120 mm

Air cavity, 50 mm
Thermal insulation, 120 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete, 300 mm
3 4 5 Battens, 80/100 mm
Cedar wood plywood, 19 mm
2 Cedar wood three-ply plywood, 22 mm
3 Steel profile angle, 120/80/8 mm
1 5 4 Timber beams with felt strips, 160/40 mm
5 Steel profile, IPE 120
6 Travertine slab, 50 mm
Steel grating on a height-adjustable steel frame,
50 mm
7 Stainless steel turnbuckle
8 Post and beam facade:
Bronze profile covering strip with insulating
solar protection glazing
Laminated safety glass 8 + space between the
panes 16 + float glass 8 mm
9 Stainless steel suspension cable, Ø 6 mm
10 Steel tubing, Ø 50.4/4 mm
11 Bronze spacer, ¡ 35/10 mm
12 Triangular truss
bb Steel sheeting, 20 mm

83
Natural stone

Arts Centre

Würzburg, DE 2001

Architects:
Brückner & Brückner, Tirschenreuth aa
with Norbert Ritzer

º AV Monografías / Monographs 98, 2002

Bauwelt 14/2002
Detail 10/2002 a a
b b

• Burenbruch shell limestone used in the

ground floor and plinth
• Udelfang sandstone
• Cogent dialogue between the old and new
buildings
• Converted building has been integrated
into the new function

Cross section • Floor plan of the upper floor

Scale 1:1500
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:1500

1 Udelfang sandstone louvres, 100/225 mm

Air cavity
Insulating rendering
Thermal insulation, 40 mm
Sealing sheeting
Steel-reinforced concrete parapet, 250 mm
2 Steel columns, HEB 300
3 Insulating glazing - toughened safety glass 8 mm +
space between the panes 16 mm + float glass 10 mm
4 Aluminium pipe, | 50/50 mm
5 Heating pipes, copper piping, Ø 24 mm
6 Ground floor and plinth: Burenbruch shell limestone,
100/225 mm
7 Flat steel with lugs, 250 mm
8 Flat steel, 500/10 mm, welded to 250/10 mm flat steel
9 Exterior wall (pre-existing): whitewashed brick inside,
untreated natural stone outside

84
 Natural stone

cc

3 6

7 2

4
5

c c

bb

85
 Clay

B 2 Clay Fired clay, the main component in ceramic

building materials, has been used in construc-
tion for many thousands of years. Although the
basic principles of its production are largely
unchanged, new production methods and
applications mean that ceramic materials are
still among the most “modern” of building
materials.

Artificial stone

In recent decades, the range of artificially

produced stone, including clay brick, has B 2.2
expanded greatly. One main reason for this
is the development of different additives
that can greatly influence artificial stone’s Additives Clay Water
properties (thermal conductivity, compressive
strength, colour etc.). The great diversity of Feeding
products available notwithstanding, three
groups can be differentiated based on the Milling / mixing
method used to produce them:
• Dried (the oldest form of artificial stone) Pressing
• Hardened
• Fired Cutting

Dried types of artificial stone include various Drying

kinds of mud brick, which have undergone
extensive further development recently due to Firing
their ecologically relevant qualities. Sand-lime,
concrete and lightweight concrete blocks are Quality control
masonry units that are hardened by means of
steam and pressure. Bricks are fired and are Packing
available in many formats, hardnesses and
colours. Figure B 2.4 summarises the material Storage
properties of some types of artificial stone.
Transport

B 2.3
Clay brick in facades

In the Nile Valley there are traces of buildings Bulk Thermal Com- Bending
made of hand-formed mud bricks that are density conduct- pressive tensile
ivity strength strength
estimated to date from around 14,000 BC
These kinds of clay structures can disinte- [kg/m2] [W/mk] [N/mm2] [N/mm2]
grate if they are exposed to the weather with- Mud
1,800 – 2,000 0.64 – 0.93 2.40 0.52
out protection from other construction meas- brick
ures. Its specific properties make clay (a mix Sand-lime
600 – 2,200 0.23 – 0.98 4 –6 **
of clay and quartz sands) sensitive to moisture. brick
Clay and mud does not set hard when it dries Aerated-
out, it only hardens. If it is again exposed to concrete 350 –1,000 0.07– 0.21* 2– 8 **
blocks
water (e.g. in the form of rain or soil moisture
Concrete
etc.), it softens and loses strength. For this 500 – 2,400 0.24 – 0.83 2– 48 **
blocks
reason, similar structural solutions designed
Granulated
to protect mud-brick buildings from erosion
slag brick 1,000 – 2,000 ** 6 –28 **
are found all over the world (e.g. building
Brick 1,000 – 2,000 0.18 – 0.56* 4 – 60 **
them under overhanging rock walls, on natural
stone bases or cladding them with fired brick Ceramic
building 1,600 – 2,000 ** 36 – 66 7– 20
or natural stone etc.). To make mud-brick walls materials
more durable, people began firing bricks from
* Dry values, 50 % fractile
around 5,000 BC. If bricks are fired at a tem- ** No figures available
perature of 1,000 °C, they sinter, producing a B 2.4
building material that offers good protection
from weathering. At this time people were also
already able to glaze surfaces and make artifi- B 2.1 Apartment house, Rue de Meaux, Paris (FR) 1991,
Renzo Piano Building Workshop
cial stone with coloured additives (Fig. B 2.5, B 2.2 Traditional mud-brick buildings, Yemen
p. 88). Artificial stone has been a common B 2.3 Diagram outlining the production of clay bricks [1]
building material for millennia. It has been used B 2.4 Material-specific properties of artificial stone [2]

87
Clay

Horizontal
expansion joint

B 2.5 B 2.9
in a wide range of very different buildings in describe the relevant construction methods
various local, climatic and geological condi- for walls and openings in detail [5].
tions, aesthetic styles and social contexts. The following examples document mainly non-
Crucial progress towards the mass production load-bearing exterior walls that serve mainly
of fired bricks was made in Roman antiquity. as exterior protective shells for the buildings
There were brickworks supplying all kinds of behind them. Some buildings also show how
building projects with their materials all over the brick elements can be used to create walls
Roman Empire [3]. In England and Germany that are permeable to light and air as well as
fired clay materials became important in the functioning as screens and sunshades.
Middle Ages, as is manifest in the term “brick
Gothic” (Fig. B 2.6). The structure of clinker brick facades
The invention of the extrusion press, ring or Their similar external appearance can lead
Hoffman kiln, and shortly after it the continu- people to confuse facing brickwork with
ous or tunnel kiln in the 18th century made exposed brickwork, leading to misunder-
it possible to mass produce bricks. Clay dis- standings of their structure in the planning
solves easily in water but becomes highly of a brick-faced wall, which now usually has
physically and chemically stable when fired. non-load-bearing, rear-ventilated facade clad-
Its high resistance to soiling, flue gas, algal ding. This type of exterior shell must be per-
growth and frost made this building material manently attached to the building’s frame. In
very suitable for exteriors [4]. At the end of contrast to other facade cladding, individual
the 19th century, clinker masonry cladding elements (clinker bricks) in a masonry shell
B 2.6 was the standard weatherproof material for can be quickly joined using mortar to form an
facades in many places; almost always with overall system. It must meet various require-
a wide range of historicising decorations, at ments depending on the facade’s orientation,
least facing the street, which could be ordered height and colour. As well as transferring loads,
from catalogues. “Stony Berlin”, with its huge it is essential that it can absorb the movements
tenements, was built largely of brick. Modernist caused by hygric and thermal influences.
architects, such as Alvar Aalto and Mies van
der Rohe et al., also often used brick. From Anchoring
the mid 20th century others, such as Eladio Facade cladding serves primarily to bear
Dieste, continuing an Iberian tradition, created loads from the structure’s own weight and
wonderfully inventive architecture using fired wind suction and pressure. The relatively heavy
clay brick as an essential element in load-bear- weight of brick-faced walls means that this is
ing structures, as in his church in Atlántida. of primary importance in their construction.
Here the material conveys the character of a Building elements with structural functions,
light, undulating shell (Fig. B 2.14). Today’s such as columns, slabs and load-bearing walls,
B 2.7
ceramic cladding can be just a few centimetres are suitable for bearing loads. In practice, loads
thick, and its resistance to weathering makes from the structure’s own weight are usually
it especially suitable for protecting insulation transferred into the slabs of each storey. Around
panels or mats. facade openings, structurally effective anchor-
ing transfers loads from the structure’s own
weight on the section of facade above the lintel
Ceramic facades into a load-bearing structural component. A
range of different prefabricated lintels are now
When brickwork is used for buildings’ exterior commercially available. Anchor pins extending
walls, load-bearing walls also take on the into the brick backing (cavity wall ties) ensure
functions of building shells. A wide range of the stability required to withstand wind loads.
alternatives and design variants that were They must be flexible enough to absorb the
developed over centuries in different cultural different movements of the outer and inner
regions are available. Many publications shells. The required number of anchor pins
B 2.8

88
 Clay

B 2.5 Ishtar Gate, Babylon 562 BC

B 2.6 Town Hall, Tangermünde (DE) 1430
B 2.7 Decoration, Berlin (DE) 1891, Franz Schwechten

_ar
B 2.8 Industrially-produced, coloured brick, around

>
1880
B 2.9 Brackets for supporting facing masonry

x
B 2.10 Brick production, Pakistan 1999

y
B 2.11 Support brackets for facing brickwork in a plain
facade wall surface, at an opening and with a
thermally separated cantilever slab
B 2.12 Chile House, Hamburg (DE) 1924, Fritz Höger
B 2.13 School, Hamburg (DE) 1927, Fritz Schumacher
B 2.14 Church, Atlántida (RO) 1959, Eladio Dieste
B 2.10
per metre can range from five (middle) to nine
(corner, opening) depending on their position
in the facade [6].

Joints
Cladding shell
Expansion joints can be horizontal or vertical.
They range in width from 10 to 20 mm and

_ ar
normally have a permanently elastic seal.
>
The space between vertical joints should
be 15 metres in a continental climate and
x

25 metres in a maritime climate [7]. Euro-

code 6 stipulates that the distance between
movement joints may not exceed 12 metres, Joints with
x2

durable elastic
although the facade’s colour and orientation
sealants
play a crucial role here.
bv

The spacing of horizontal joints depends on

the building’s height. Movement joints can be
dispensed within buildings up to 12 metres
high, while a horizontal movement joint at least
every 9 metres is prescribed for higher build-
ings. In practice, one movement joint is usually B 2.11

B 2.12 B 2.13 B 2.14

89
Clay

Vertical expansion joint Horizontal expansion joint Expansion joint

l < 0.5 · expansion

joint spacing
Expansion joint
40 – 50 mm

1
12 – 20 mm

2
l < 0.5 · expansion
3 joint spacing
Layer of air and Core insulation
20 mm 3 2 1 4 insulation [m] [m]
(min. 15 mm) Concrete blocks 6 5–6

1 Closed-cell foam 3 Elastoplastic joint Sand-lime brick 6–8 6–8

profile sealing mass
Brick 12 8 –12
2 Bonding coat 4 Support bracket
Expansion joint Expansion joint
B 2.15 B 2.16 B 2.17
built for each storey or every two storeys
directly behind the structural anchoring layer.
Window sills, corners, changes in facade clad-
ding or any expected dilation in the overall
building system are special cases requiring
extra movement joints. The facade is ventilated
at the back through open, vertical joints (butt
joints) between single elements.

Appearance
Many components make up a brick facade’s
aesthetic impression. One of the most import-
ant is the bond, which depends heavily on
the basic module of stones, bricks or blocks.
Its material (basic material, firing, added
colour /glaze) and structure (mix of different
B 2.18 B 2.19 stones and their arrangement) shape a
facade’s appearance.
Joints are a technical necessity but also greatly
influence the look of a building. The colour,
width and depth of joints can determine a
facade’s appearance, as can various formats
and colours of stone or brick (Fig. B 2.18 –23).
Reliefs are now rarely used as a way of differ-
entiating designs, although bricks’ small dimen-
sions allow elements made of them to be
varied. To enliven an otherwise monotonous
facade surface it is often enough to have single
bricks or stones protrude slightly out of the
facade plane. Small-scale openings in exterior
ceramic walls let through air and light, offer
protection from sun and glare and allow for
views. They also shape the appearance of
B 2.20 B 2.21 many historical buildings.

Ceramic panel facades

Newer ceramic panel systems are available

only in the form of suspended, rear-ventilated
facades that have clear structural and phys-
ical advantages. Small, medium and large-
format systems are available. Small-format
systems have the great benefit that they can
be adjusted to buildings’ geometries and
structures in finely graduated increments.
DIN 18 516 states that panels can be used
without separate structural planning verifica-
tion if they are less than a maximum of 0.4 m2
in size and 5 kg in weight.
B 2.22 B 2.23

90
 Clay

30
8 14 8

8 7 15
B 2.24 B 2.25
Frames
The frames of ceramic panel facades must
transfer the static loads of the structure’s own
weight, wind suction and pressure, and ther-
mal changes in mass without any restraining
stresses to the load-bearing structure. Connec-
tions with load-bearing structures are usually
made of rust-resistant steel or aluminium [8], so
they often also create a thermal bridge, which
can be alleviated by installing plastic isolators.
In some limited cases the frame can be made
of appropriately treated timber depending on
the building’s height.

Facade panels
Various methods can be used to make facade
panels. If they are incrementally pressed into B 2.26 B 2.27
negative moulds, the side walls of moulds must
be conical. This process does not allow for any
undercutting. The form of an extrusion press’s
mouthpiece determines the cross section of the
panels it produces (Figs. B 2.25 and B 2.30).
Installing individual panels separately gives
them a limited freedom of movement and only
a few joints that must be harmonised with the
building shell are necessary.

Water can be drained off facades in a variety

of ways:
• In horizontal joints by arranging panels like
scales (or shingles) or using shiplaps
• In a vertical direction along water-draining
joint profiles
B 2.28 B 2.29

B 2.15 Joint formation, proposed by the German

Masonry Construction Association (Deutsche
Gesellschaft für Mauerwerksbau)
B 2.16 Arrangement of vertical expansion joints around
a corner
B 2.17 Standard spacing of expansion joints (LDF)
B 2.18 –23 Bond patterns for vertical format facades
B 2.24 Facade structure, axonometry, ceramic panels
on an aluminium frame held in place by clips
and no other fasteners
B 2.25 Modular height increments for upright rectangular
panels
B 2.26 Structure of a vertical format facade
B 2.27 Vertical standard section
B 2.28 Structure of a horizontal format facade
B 2.29 Horizontal standard section
B 2.30 Drying kiln
B 2.31 Printing works, Munich (DE) 1993, Walter Kluska
B 2.30 B 2.31

91
Clay

B 2.32
If joints are open, as is often the case when
fine ceramic stoneware is used, appropriate
dimensioning of the air cavity must be carefully
calculated. Ventilation cross-sections must
comply with those prescribed in DIN 18 516,
Part 1. One important aspect in planning
ceramic panel facades is the option of re-
placing single damaged panels, for which the
frame and form of facade panels must allow
(Fig. B 2.46).

Colour and surface

Most ceramic panels are the inherent colour
of their materials. Firing temperature, oxygen
content of air in the kiln, type and amount of
iron content, and raw and additional materials
B 2.33 B 2.34 can all influence the colour of ceramic building
materials. In the ordinary production of ceramic
panels, surfaces can only be provided with
designs before they are fired. If panels are pro-
duced by extrusion presses, a profiled screw
press mouthpiece can influence their surface
design. The higher cost and effort involved
means that added colours (glazes) are now
rarely used.
One current example of a non-load-bearing
ceramic brick exterior wall is a car park built
by the Renzo Piano Building Workshop firm
in 1992 in Genoa, where brick panels are
held in steel frames, each attached to two
round steel bars, with metal disks as spacers
(Figs. B 2.40 and B 2.41). Another innovative
structure is the BP Studio in Florence show-
B 2.35 B 2.36 room (2001) designed by Claudio Nardi,
where long extruded panel strips were slid
onto metal profiles (Figs. B 2.44 – 46).

Notes:
[1] Ramcke, Rolf: Mauerwerk in der Architektur. In
Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas. Munich /Basel
2001, p. 15
[2] ibid., p. 15, 122 –159, p. 204 – 234; DIN 1053
[3] As for Note 1
[4] ibid., p. 22
[5] ibid., p. 122 –159, p. 204 – 234. Acocella, Alfonso:
L’architettura del mattone faccia a vista. Rome 1990
[6] DIN 1053 -1:1996 -11
[7] ibid.
[8] See also the guidelines on choosing materials in
DIN 18 516, Part 3
B 2.37 B 2.38

92
 Clay

B 2.32 Colour palette (selection)

B 2.33 –38 Openings in walls
B 2.39 Large-format system
B 2.40 – 41 Car park, Genoa (IT) 1992, Renzo Piano
Building Workshop
B 2.42 Fine ceramic facade panel with bonded,
concealed fasteners
B 2.43 Fine ceramic facade panel with mechanical,
visible fasteners
B 2.44 Section of the showroom facade, Florence (IT)
2001, Claudio Nardi
B 2.45 Extruded linear structural elements for partially
permeable facade structures: detail
B 2.46 Assembled state

B 2.40

10
20 5
5
50

B 2.39 B 2.41

B 2.42 B 2.43 B 2.44

B 2.45 B 2.46

93
Clay

Funerary chapel

Batschuns, AT 2001

Architects:
Marte.Marte, Weiler
Structural engineers:
M+G, Feldkirch

º Detail 06/2003
L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 346, 2003
Waechter-Böhm, Liesbeth (ed.):
Austria West Tirol Vorarlberg. Neue
Architektur. Basel / Berlin / Boston 2003

1
• Compacted clay with no chemical additives
1 Steel sheeting, 3 mm
• Clay was laid between shuttering in layers
2 Light
with no joints about 12 cm high 3 3 Compacted clay ex-
• Compacted using handheld machines ternal wall, 450 mm
• Slight weathering of the surface due to rain 2 4 Steel-reinforced
is not a problem as the earthen structural concrete rail,
205/120 mm
components were built slightly oversized 5 Squared oak timber,
2
4 80/80 mm,
represents a cross
as set into the hori-
zontal lines of the
layers of clay
6 Tamped concrete,
coloured like the
earth
7 Steel-reinforced
concrete beam,
300/200 mm
8 Oak door leaf,
7 2≈ 24 mm
5 9 Solid oak threshold
Floor plan on a hollow steel
Scale 1:500 section,
Vertical cross ¡ 200/100/7 mm
section 10 Stainless steel
Scale 1:20 8 sheeting, 240/10 mm
11 Steel beam made
of flat steel,
b ¡ 380/15 mm and
2≈ ¡ 180/20 mm,
a a welded
b 12 Float glass, 8 mm
bonded in a steel
sheeting frame
13 Steel angle,
∑ 220/150/10 mm
Sealing layer
14 Infill capillary barrier
to prevent rising
damp
11

11

9 13 12

10

14
6

aa bb

94
 Clay

1 2
Rauch House

Schlins, AT 2008

Architects:
Boltshauser Architekten, Zurich
and Martin Rauch, Schlins
Structural engineer:
Josef Tomaselli, Bludesch

º Arquitectura 363/2011
Baumeister 07/2009
Werk, Bauen und Wohnen 03/2008
Kapfinger, Otto; Sauer, Marko (eds.):
Martin Rauch – Gebaute Erde.
Munich, 2015

• Exterior walls made of compacted clay 1 Fired mud brick, 40 mm, infill
sourced on site (construction pit) Lava gravel; bitumen sealing sheeting, 3≈ 4 mm;
• The compacted clay structural components three-ply spruce panel, 27 mm; reed insulation
matting, 4≈ 50 mm; bitumen sealing sheeting, 4 mm;
not stabilised (no cement or limestone added) cork-loam mixture, sloping
4
and the facade surfaces left untreated 2 Dippelbaum timber beam ceiling, approx. 180 mm,
• Horizontal brick strips project 2 cm to protect filler timber, loam panels, 25 mm,
against erosion (calculated erosion) loam render 5 mm
3 Rammed earth, 450 mm; reed insulation matting, 5
• Fired mud-brick slabs for terrace and roof 2≈ 50 mm; loam render, 30 mm with wall heating
• The walls and ceilings of the living room and (Fine marble powder plaster base)
bedrooms are loam-rendered 4 Oak window, untreated on the outside, oiled on the
inside, insulating glazing 3
• Compacted clay floors, with fired tiles (Raku
technique) in wet rooms 5 Three-ply spruce panel, 27 mm with several layers of
casein coating, sanded and waxed
6 Erosion protection, fired mud brick, 280/120/30 mm
7 Trass lime ring beam with reinforcement,
300/150 mm
Isometry, no scale 8 Splash guard, fired mud brick,
6
Floor plan, first floor 400 – 600/300/40 mm
Scale 1: 400 9 Bitumen sealing sheeting, 2≈ 4 mm,
Vertical cross section, facade foam glass, 100 mm, 7
Scale 1:20 bitumen sealing sheeting, 4 mm

a 8

aa

95
Clay

Trade fair administration building

Hanover, DE 1999

Architects:
Herzog + Partner, Munich

º Architectural Review 01/2001

modulo 10/2002
Gissen, David (ed.): Big & Green.
Toward Sustainable Architecture in the
21st Century. Washington 2003
Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Nachhaltige
Höhe – Sustainable Height. Munich /
London / New York 2000

• Rear-ventilated, curtain wall brick facade

system on an aluminium frame
• The ceramic material has a natural light pearl
grey colour (no surface colour added)
• Facade panels with horizontal grooves
(grooved ceramic panels) to prevent facade
run-off water from being driven upwards when
it rains and reduce stress peaks in the manu-
facturing process

Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20

Floor plan
Ground floor • Standard upper floor
Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:5

96
 Clay

6 5 7

1 Aluminium capping sheeting, 3 mm

with sound-insulating coating 4
2 Extruded aluminium section
3 Grooved clay-brick panels, 200/400 mm
4 Aluminium end profile
5 Thermal insulation, 60 mm
6 Steel-reinforced concrete. 300 and 400 mm
7 Stainless steel sheeting; positioned in
coordination with the
glass and steel facade
aa

a a

5 4
6

97
Clay

Museum Brandhorst
a b
Munich, DE 2009

Architects: b
Sauerbruch Hutton, Berlin
Structural engineers:
Ingenieurbüro Fink, Berlin

º Architectural Review 1349/2009

Architektur Aktuell 03/2009
Baumeister 04/2009
a
Brandhorst, Annette (ed.):
Museum Brandhorst. Die Architektur.
Ostfildern 2011

• Facade cladding made of multicoloured

glazed ceramic rods mounted vertically in
front of horizontal, folded aluminium sheet
elements
• Horizontal strip window with light-deflecting
elements that fold outwards
• A grid above the ground floor's glass roof,
which can be walked on, lets in natural
daylight

1 Oak timber grid above ventilation duct

2 Plasterboard acoustic panel, 10 mm
Mineral fibre insulation, 30 mm
Aluminium profile, fi 60/30 mm
3 Motorised adjustable anti-glare blind
4 Motorised adjustable sunshade blinds
5 Insulating glazing, toughened safety glass 6 +
space between the panes 10 +
float glass 4 + space between the panes 8 +
laminated safety glass 12 mm
6 Insulating glazing, toughened safety glass 4 +
acrylic glass light-deflecting prisms in space between
the panes 10 + laminated safety glass 8 mm
7 Tubular steel louvre support, ¡ 100/60/6.3 mm
8 PMMA pipe profile, Ø 50 mm
9 Light diffusing film for luminous ceiling
10 Polycarbonate panel, 6 mm
11 Steel bracket
12 Hollow ceramic cladding profile, 40/40/9 mm
Perforated aluminium sheeting, 2 mm,
acoustic fleece
Aluminium frame, mineral fibre thermal insulation,
120 mm, steel-reinforced concrete, 250 mm
Wall heating system with facing brick layer, 150 mm
Internal plastering, 20 mm

98
 Clay

aa

3
4 2

10 9 8 7

11

12

Floor plan, ground floor

Cross section Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 bb

99
Clay

House

Brühl, DE 1997 a

Architect:
Heinz Bienefeld, Swisttal-Ollheim

º A+U 10/2001
Baumeister 11/1997
Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas.
Munich / Basel 2001
b

a b

• The solidity of the house’s cubic form is

emphasised by the choice of materials and
the way in which the roof seems almost to
float above it
• Clinker brick-facing facade
• Wild bond
• Wall almost 50 cm thick with multilevel lintels

Floor plan • Cross section, ground floor

Scale 1:250
Horizontal cross section • View with glazed door
Scale 1:20
Vertical cross section, facade
Scale 1:20

1 Rainwater gutter, fi 140 mm 6 Taunusstein clinker brick, NF 115 mm

2 Steel purlin, 2≈ ∑ 80/80/10 mm wild bond, bed joints, 20 mm
3 Steel-frame window, galvanised Poroton lightweight brick
frames, Lime plaster, 25 mm
micaceous iron oxide finish, Lime slurry render with marble powder
insulating glazing 7 Jack arch lintel, 15 mm rise
4 Steel profile, fi 40/35 mm, 8 Steel-framed glass door, galvanised
in front of steel piping, frames, micaceous iron oxide finish,
aa ¡ 50/25 mm insulating glazing
5 Sheet metal windowsill covering, 9 Steel profile, galvanised, micaceous
bent up at the ends and set into iron oxide finish, fi 120/40/8 mm
the masonry joint 10 Prefabricated concrete step

100
 Clay

4 8 b

2 9

10 6
cc
b
b

4
5

8
9

c c

10

bb

101
Clay

Art museum
a
Ravensburg, DE 2013 b

Architects: 7
LRO Lederer Ragnarsdóttir Oei, Stuttgart
Structural engineers:
Ingenieurbüro Schneider & Partner,
Ravensburg

º Arquitectura viva 158/2013

Baumeister 01/2013 c
Conarquitectura 10/2015
DBZ 08/2014 a c
Detail 06/2013 b
wettbewerbe aktuell 01/2013

• Multilayered external walls with facing brick-

work made of roughly jointed recycled bricks
• Load-bearing, insulated steel-reinforced
concrete wall
• Multilayered arching roof with untreated
recycled bricks on the inside
• Triple-glazed, timber-frame windows

aa

bb

102
 Clay

1 Two-ply bitumen sheet roof sealing, 4 Duplex steel support bracket,

slate top layer to minimise thermal bridge effect, 2
Thermal insulation, 300 mm material cross section minimised
Vapour barrier, undercoat 5 Thermal insulation, 300 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete to distribute 6 Copper sheeting, 0.7 mm
loads, 200 mm 7 Two-ply bitumen sheet roof sealing,
Stainless steel anchor, Ø 4 mm, slate top layer
1
in the mortar joint Thermal insulation, 280 mm
Recycled brick, 115 mm Emergency seal / vapour barrier
Arc radius, evenly conical, 1.50 – 5.50 m undercoat,
2 Top parapet cover, copper sheeting, Sloping screed, 2 %, 40 – 95 mm
0.7 mm, gradient 6 % Steel-reinforced concrete, 3
3 Facing brickwork 200 mm plastered
Recycled brick, 115 mm 8 Fixed glazing:
“Finger gap”, 10 mm timber frame with triple glazing,
Stainless steel cavity wall anchor, U = 0.84 W/m2K
Ø 4 mm, in the mortar joint 9 Peripheral LED light strip
Thermal insulation, 240 mm 10 Copper sheeting windowsill, 1.5 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete, 250 mm 11 Thermal insulation, 240 mm
Gypsum plaster smoothed with 12 Cast steel manhole cover
emulsion paint 13 Cement-bonded waterproofing slurry

2
5
6
7

Floor plan
Ground floor
Cross section
Scale 1:500
Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

10

11

12

13

cc

103
Clay

Israel Museum extension

Jerusalem, IL 2010

Design:
James Carpenter Design Associates, New York

º DETAIL 06/2011
Element + Bau 04/2011 a
Intelligente Architektur 75/2011
a

• Renovation and expansion of one of Israel’s

most important museums
• The design respects the existing building
and surrounding garden designed by Isamu
Noguchi
• Smooth transition between inside and outside
• Extruded clay ceramic louvres specially
developed for this site and facade orientation
provide high quality daylight illumination
• The louvres on each side are of different
widths
• The louvres thus screen the interior from
direct sunlight on all sides

a b

104
 Clay

Floor plan Scale 1:1,000

1 Diagram of daylight, light deflection
2 No scale
a 1 pm
b 5 pm
Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20
3 Vertical cross section of louvres, no scale
Axonometry brackets

1 In-situ poured concrete beam,

120 ≈ 25 cm
2 Eaves, 110 ≈ 16 cm,
prefabricated steel-reinforced
concrete
3 Roof parapet, 50 ≈ 4.5 cm,
prefabricated concrete
4 Steel columns, Ø 20 cm,
painted
5 Low-iron, laminated safety glass,
2 ≈ 8 mm,
facade posts, painted
6 Ceramic louvre
7 Window grid
aa 8 Mechanical ventilation

105
106
 Concrete

B 3 Concrete Concrete, the first artificially-produced hetero- concrete composite slab in England in 1854.
geneous building material, was an important At around the same time, François Coignet
developmental step in the history of construc- developed the tamped concrete, or “Béton
tion. It is extremely durable, easy to work, aggloméré” process, adapted from rammed
readily available and structurally robust in com- earth techniques and used it to build a three-
bination with steel. Steel-reinforced concrete storey house.
is widely used in load-bearing structures, and Pioneering construction projects around 1900
its plastic malleability is continuously leading were accompanied by a range of experimental
to novel construction methods. investigations into concrete’s material behav-
In facades concrete has a range of applica- iour and the further development of calculation
tions, although these are often ignored in methods for a general theory of steel-reinforced
favour of simplistic pragmatism. As a mono- concrete construction. This led to new applica-
lithic building material worked in a single tions, especially for load-bearing structures
piece, it can be used to make seamless tran- with long spans.
sitions between elements. As well as exposed
concrete facades made of concrete poured
on site, an extensive range of structural and Concrete in facades
design options is available in forms ranging
from large panels to small blocks. The term Use of this new material became established
“concrete facade” usually refers to general around 1900, especially in industrial and
applications for cement-bonded and cement- commercial buildings such as wholesale mar-
based building materials. This section focuses kets and factory halls. These buildings were
on the effective use of concrete in building usually built around linear skeleton structures
design, which can be divided into five main made of columns and beams. One pioneer
areas: in this area was Auguste Perret, whose town-
• Exposed concrete facades house in the Rue Franklin in Paris (1903) high-
• Precast elements lighted concrete in a house’s facade for the
• Concrete panels first time.
• Exposed concrete blocks From around 1910, steel-reinforced concrete
• Cement-bonded panels construction was influenced by more formal
approaches. Designs such as those by Tony
These various applications involve different Garnier (“Une Cité Industrielle”, 1901–1917),
production, manufacturing technology and Le Corbusier’s design for the reinforced con-
normative requirements. Various material- crete structure “Dom-Ino” (1914) and Ludwig
specific adjustments can also be made, with a Mies van der Rohe’s design for an office build-
diverse range of colours and structural options ing (1922) and a steel-reinforced concrete
available for designing surfaces to make them country house (1923) all worked with panels
• Heavy/ light and continuous parapets.
• Insulating /storing
• Densely-structured /open-pored In-situ concrete
At this time concrete was regarded as a mod-
ern building material. Around 1900 architects
From opus caementicium to (steel-rein- and entrepreneurs hoped that poured and
forced) concrete cast concreting techniques would have vari-
ous advantages, although the degree of mech-
Despite being a very old material, concrete anisation of work processes and formwork
has had a lasting influence on the develop- systems required had a major influence on the
ment of modern architectural forms [1]. Lime economic success of their ventures.
mortar was in use as a building material around Exterior walls were still often built as conven-
12,000 BC, and based on experience with it, tional punctuated facades and their surfaces
opus caementicium was made from the 2nd rendered in the same way as masonry walls.
century BC Using this concrete the Romans Three sacred buildings and one “amateur”
created masterly architectural achievements project marked concrete’s early years and gave
such as the Pantheon in Rome (118 AD). expression to the material’s specific qualities.
At the end of the Roman Empire, opus cae- Frank Lloyd Wright worked on the Unity Church
menticium’s importance as a building material in Oak Park in Illinois (1906) with various plas-
was lost for almost 1,500 years. The develop- tic forms and added special aggregates to
ment of Portland cement (around 1824) marked concrete to extend both his design freedom
the beginning of the development of modern and the range of colours in exposed concrete
concrete. surfaces. In 1922 Auguste Perret left the sur-
In the mid 19th century efforts were made in faces of a skeleton structure in the Notre-Dame
France and England to reinforce concrete. church in Raincy near Paris visible and made
Experiments were carried out in an attempt to the largely separate outer walls a light, tracery-
find a substitute for wood and natural stone like concrete grid. For the St. Antonius church
because it was hoped that a new material in Basel (1927), Karl Moser chose a strict,
B 3.1 Art and Architecture Building, Yale University, would offer better protection from encroaching cubic formal language, designing exposed
New Haven (US) 1964, Paul Rudolph damp. A patent was issued for an iron and concrete surfaces that bear the marks of the

107
Concrete

B 3.2
formwork and powerfully highlight the material used industrial textured formwork for the Art and
of the facade and interior. Architecture Building at Yale University in New
One building in which concrete was expertly Haven (1958 – 64) (Fig. B 3.1, p. 107). The fluted
used in the facade’s modelling is the Goethe- profiling of its coloured surfaces, alternating
anum in Dornach (1928) by Rudolf Steiner, smooth grooves with rough, broken piers, cre-
although building such plastic, organic designs ates a sophisticated play of light and shade.
involves a great deal of work and sophisticated Adding locally available materials to concrete
artisanal formwork techniques. and/or structuring damp surfaces can open
up further design options, as Auer + Weber
In the 1950s concrete became a mass-market demonstrate in their ESO Hotel at Cerro Paranal
building material, used in all kinds of con- (2001) (see p. 123) and Herzog & de Meuron
struction tasks. One main driving force was at the “Schaulager” art storage facility in Basel
Le Corbusier, who sought to highlight con- (2003) (Fig. B 3.8).
B 3.3 crete’s immediate, “raw” materiality – “Béton
brut”. He used it skilfully as a design medium More recently architects have often sought to
in relief and /or plastic facade surfaces, such express the impression of a monolithic con-
as the Sainte-Marie-de-la-Tourette priory (1960) struction method, down to the last detail. The
in Éveux near Lyon (Fig. B 3.2). avoidance of any construction joints, dispens-
While Swiss firm Atelier 5 used raw exposed ing with visible formwork ties, and structural
concrete for (small) residential buildings in components with extremely pared-down cross
building the Halen housing estate near Bern sections and novel appearances has subjected
(1961), Louis Kahn chose very smooth sur- this high-performance material to enormous
faces for the Jonas Salk Institute in La Jolla technical challenges.
(1965). Kahn was also the first to structure
concrete facades along orthogonal lines by Prefabrication
using shadow joints and carefully positioning Producing concrete on a building site has
formwork ties, making the facades’ production structural and technical disadvantages, so
B 3.4 process legible. efforts have been made to break structures
In the 1960s and 1970s many architects down into similar, transportable elements that
increasingly used the options concrete offered can be serially produced in prefabrication
for moulding exterior walls and buildings and plants. These make it possible to work in any
the various design possibilities of its surfaces. weather and ensure higher quality and greater
Unique buildings from this period include the precision in production and higher standards
Pilgrimage Cathedral in Neviges (1968) and in surface finishes.
the Town Hall (Rathaus) in Bensberg (1969) by The first field factory for precasting concrete
Gottfried Böhm. These buildings – especially elements opened in France in the early 1890s.
the church – model a plastic, rugged structure In 1896 French stonemason François Henne-
with powerful, opaque surfaces whose fine tex- bique made the first building prefabricated in
ture of formwork structures prevents them from a series, using a transportable cubicle made
appearing monotonous (Fig. B 3.3). of 5 cm thick, reinforced concrete slabs.
Another very plastic use of concrete as a From 1920 assembly-based construction
material is evident in an office building by Bar- methods using steel-reinforced concrete
bosa & Guimarães Arquitectos in Porto (2009) became increasingly important. Architects
(Fig. B 3.5). Here polygonal facade surfaces like Ernst May, who applied a system of wall
determine not only the building’s outside appear- blocks of various sizes that he developed in
ance but also its interior spaces. While Carlo a series of housing estates in Frankfurt am
Scarpa explored concrete’s mouldable qual- Main (Praunheim, 1927), and Walter Gropius,
ities in an almost (skilled) craftsmanly manner, who used a small-format construction method
especially in the Brion family monument in San and hollow slag concrete blocks for the
Vito d’Altivole near Asolo (1975), Paul Rudolph Dessau-Törten estate (1927), worked on con-
B 3.5

108
 Concrete

B 3.6 B 3.7
cepts involving extensive prefabrication. One form of unreinforced facade cladding is system, he was seeking an alternative to large-
Although these systematic approaches did small-format, concrete artificial stone panels. format panel construction. Starting from a
not become established in construction tech- Panels fixed with mortar are a robust, easily- square basic module, he worked with variously
nology or economy, these experiments were worked building material that has been used shaped bricks and stones. Buildings like his
an important (first) step on the path to indus- in construction for more than 100 years, espe- John Storer house in Hollywood (1923) feature
trialising building [2]. cially at the bases of buildings. One of the richly ornamented facade surfaces with alter-
In the 1950s and 1960s large panel construc- earliest examples of this in Germany was the nating patterns of smooth and structured
tion – building with large format, load-bearing Town Hall (Rathaus) in Trossingen (1904), stones (Fig. B 3.6) [3].
walls – became widespread. While prefabri- where concrete panels clad the plinth and
cated system construction resulted in the splayed door jambs. The wide range of ways Egon Eiermann focused on the motif of a trans-
building of very schematic facades on a mas- that concrete can be worked and shaped lucent wall, using concrete grid blocks with
sive scale, postmodern architecture almost and the combinations of different aggregates (coloured) glass infills in the St Matthew Church
reversed this approach, using prefabrication possible have been used to create orna- in Pforzheim (1956), and the Kaiser-Wilhelm
and the plastic malleability of concrete elem- mental structural elements such as (demi-) Memorial Church in Berlin (1963).
ents to create arbitrary interplays of colours columns, balusters, gables, rosettes and the Another application for exposed masonry
and forms. like. Concrete panels are now widely used as blocks is as opaque surface filling in a steel-
Architects like Angelo Mangiarotti (see p. 116), a suspended, rear-ventilated, small-format reinforced concrete structure, a technique fre-
Bernhard Hermkes (Architecture faculty build- cladding material, as in the red facade of the quently found in Herman Hertzberger’s work.
ing at the Technische Universität Berlin, 1968, German School in Beijing (2001) by Gerkan In buildings such as the Centraal Beheer office
Fig. B 3.4), Gottfried Böhm and Eckhard Ger- Marg + Partner. building in Apeldoorn (1972, Fig. B 3.7), the
ber formulated architectural responses. Böhm’s Vredenburg music centre in Utrecht (1978)
administration building for Züblin AG in Stutt- Concrete blocks and the Apollo Schools in Amsterdam (1983),
gart (1984) shows a sophisticated treatment Concrete blocks offer the advantages of en- untreated exposed masonry, visible inside and
of the forms and colours of precast elements. abling small-format, light construction with a out, with its the slightly porous surfaces and
Gerber used orthogonal planar steel-reinforced wide range of colours and surface treatments. variously coloured textures, contrasts strikingly
facade elements in a structurally clear way to From 1914 Frank Lloyd Wright explored various with smooth exposed concrete and glass
clad the columns and spandrel panels of an ways of using them. With his “Textile Block” (brick) surfaces [4].
office building in Dortmund (1994). “Heavy-duty
prefabrication” is once again an option from a
technical and design point of view. Architects
such as Thomas von Ballmoos, Bruno Krucker
(Stöckenacker housing estate in Zurich, 2002)
and Léon Wohlhage Wernik (Sozialverband
headquarters in Berlin, 2003) have planned
buildings with storey-high, multilayered precast
elements that vary slightly in size and create a
harmonious result.

B 3.2 Priory of Sainte-Marie-de-la-Tourette, Éveux (FR)

1960, Le Corbusier
B 3.3 Pilgrimage Cathedral, Neviges (DE) 1968, Gottfried
Böhm
B 3.4 Architecture faculty TU Berlin (DE) 1967, Bernhard
Hermkes
B 3.5 Vodafone Headquarters, Porto (PT) 2009, Barbosa
& Guimarães
B 3.6 John Storer House, Hollywood (US) 1924, Frank
Lloyd Wright
B 3.7 Office building, Centraal Beheer, Apeldoorn (NL)
1972, Herman Hertzberger
B 3.8 Schaulager, Basel (CH) 2003, Herzog & de Meuron
B 3.8

109
Concrete

Ticino architect Mario Botta has also used important standard governing its design
concrete blocks, whose small format and col- and construction. Concrete’s main constitu-
our are a deliberate reference to the region’s ents are
tradition of building with granite quarry stone, • A binding agent
to build a series of detached houses. • Aggregate
• Additives
Cement-bonded panel materials • Admixtures
Fibre cement panels offer a range of different
applications for mineral-based bonded building Cement, made by burning then grinding
materials. A patent for asbestos cement, a lime and clay or marl, is the binding agent
composite of asbestos fibres and cement, was used. The main cement now in use is Portland
registered in Austria around 1900. The Eternit cement, which contains 3 to 5 % gypsum or
company produced panels of the same name anhydrite. Cement hardens when water is
from 1903 [5]. added to it. The resulting cement stone is a
In the 1970s asbestos fibres were found to be strong, water-resistant material.
carcinogenic. Sprayed asbestos was banned EN 197-1 classifies normal cements into five
in 1979 and the use of asbestos-cement panels main types (CEM I–V), covering 27 products B 3.9
(with a fibre content of approx. 10 %) was with varying main constituents. The most com- B 3.9 High-rack storage warehouse, Laufen (CH) 1987,
phased out in the late 1990s. After asbestos mon kind of cement now in use is CEM II, a Herzog & de Meuron
B 3.10 Classification of types of “concrete in facades”
had to be replaced as a material, cement- Portland composite cement containing at least
bonded panels with new fibre material aggre- 65% Portland cement clinker by mass and at
gates that pose no risk to health, such as wood least one other main constituent.
shavings, became commercially available. Concrete consists of about 70 % aggregate
This material has a high level of mechanical by volume. Limestone, quartz, granite or por- Types of concrete
strength, even at low thicknesses, is fireproof, phyry in a round, rounded-sand or gravel form Hardened concrete’s two most essential prop-
and can be made in various sizes and formats. is extracted from rivers or gravel pits, while erties are its bulk density and compressive
Initially developed as light roofing material, crushed sand, stone chippings or double- strength.
small-format shingles and large-format panels crushed chips, crushed stone, comes from Concrete can be mixed to have specific prop-
were soon also used as facade cladding. From quarries. erties depending on its manufacture and
1912 small-corrugation panels and from 1923 Additives such as concrete plasticiser and aggregates. A dense concrete offers good
large-corrugation panels expanded the range superplasticiser, air-entraining agents and load-bearing capacity and sound insulation,
of these products. As well as having positive stabilisers have chemical or physical effects while porous aggregates improve concrete’s
material properties and being easy to work that modify concrete’s material properties. thermal insulation function. Various types of
with, composite panels were industrially mass- Additives such as pigments, or more rarely concrete are classified by their dry bulk dens-
produced from the outset, making them a cost- powdered rock, can be used to dye concrete ity as follows:
effective building material. almost any colour. • Heavy concrete: > 2,600 kg/m3
Concrete quickly achieves high compressive Aggregates e.g. iron ore, iron granulate,
One pioneer in the deliberate use of this ma- strength and good durability, although it has barytes
terial in facade design was Marcel Breuer. a fairly low tensile strength. This is compen- Applications include concrete offering radi-
In the early 1930s he used corrugated fibre sated for by adding reinforcement to it, usu- ation protection
cement panels for a shopfront in Basel. ally steel reinforcement, making concrete • Normal concrete: > 2,000 –2,600 kg/m3
In Germany millions of asbestos cement panels an outstanding composite material with proper- Aggregates e.g. sand, gravel, stone chip-
were built into facades, especially in the 1950s ties that can be very precisely adapted. These pings, blast furnace slag
and 1960s. Renowned architects like Ernst properties govern its uses, functions and This type of concrete is used in most con-
Neufert, who published a Well-Eternit Hand- potential applications. Requirements such struction applications. If there is no risk of
book in 1955, and Egon Eiermann used fibre as strength, corrosion and frost resistance confusion, normal concrete is also just called
cement panels in industrial, residential and etc. are generally defined, and the exposure “concrete”.
administration buildings, as did Rolf Gutbrod classes distinguish between impacts on the • Lightweight concrete: 800 –2,000 kg/m3
in his design for an office and commercial concrete and on its reinforcement. Concrete Its features are primarily determined by
building in Stuttgart (1952). exterior elements that freeze and thaw if they - Properties of lightweight aggregates such
More recent examples show that fibre cement become even moderately damp and whose as expanded shale and clay etc.
panels are still often used as light and robust reinforcement must be protected from carbon- - Type of concrete texture, with a porous
facade cladding material, in buildings such ation caused by alternating exposure to mois- lightweight aggregate or dense
as the Lagerhaus Ricola in Laufen (1987) by ture are classified in exposure classes XC 4 - Porosity, porous, foam or aerated concrete
Herzog & de Meuron, where they are arranged and XF 1. This concrete must be in strength Porous lightweight concrete is used mainly
in stepped bands of varying sizes (Fig. B 3.9) class ≥ C 25/30 and have a water-cement ratio for thermal insulation applications. It has
or the Technology Centre in Zurich (1992), by (w/c ratio) of ≤ 0.60 and cement content of a lower load-bearing capacity than nor-
architects Itten and Brechbühl, with its exten- ≥ 280 kg/m3. mal concrete but is adequate for general
sive planes and visible fastenings [6]. Fresh concrete for use in exposed concrete building.
surfaces should be easy to work, i.e. it should
be stable and not bleed and separate, as Concrete is also classified in compressive
Concrete technology specified in consistency class F 3. To ensure strength classes. Double figures after the C
uniform content and consistent granulometry, (Concrete) result from standardisation with
Concrete is artificial stone made by hardening i.e. particle size and form, sufficient quantities DIN EN 206-1 and indicate cylinder and cube
a mixture of cement and water (cement paste) of fine particles of cement and aggregates compressive strengths in N/mm2:
to form cement stone and bonding aggregate are important parameters in ensuring this con- • Normal-strength concretes (C 8/10 to
to form a solid matrix. EN 206-1 is the most crete’s workability. C 50/60)

110
 Concrete

Concrete in facades

Type of Reinforced Unreinforced

reinforcement

Mats Textile Fibres

Reinforcement
Steel Plastic Glass Plastic Glass Wood
material

Normal Lightweight Porous Lightweight Normal

Concrete
concrete concrete concrete concrete concrete

Glass fibre Translucent Fibre cement Artificial

Applications concrete stone
concrete concrete panel

Concrete cast Precast elements Large-format Small-format Facing

in situ (1–14 m2) panels panels masonry units

Single-layer curtain Multilayer curtain Non-load-bearing, rear- Fixed with mortar

Sandwich panel
wall panel wall panel ventilated (0.2 –1 m3) (≤ 0.12 m2)
B 3.10

• High-strength concretes (C 55/67 to this material can open up new concrete and facades. The production and appearance of
C 100/115) lightweight construction applications. It has such concrete surfaces is subject to particular
• Lightweight concretes (LC 8/9 to LC 50/55) been shown that cement-bonded materials requirements. It has been shown in practice
can achieve exceptionally high strengths and that designing special features requires archi-
Lightweight concretes are divided into six bulk be used to produce extremely dense exposed tects to have expert knowledge of these par-
density classes from D 1.0 to D 2.0, which plan- concrete surfaces. These developments are ticular requirements.
ners must select depending on the application. providing new impetus, especially in construc- A concrete wall’s surface can be given a range
tion with precast components [7]. Another area of different design effects through
High-performance and textile-reinforced concretes undergoing further development is self-com- • Special use of formwork
Wide-ranging research is continuing into con- pacting concrete, which is greatly expanding • Specific composition of the concrete
crete manufacture to improve the material’s the range of potential applications, in the con-
performance. Self-compacting and very strong text of sophisticated formwork geometries, for Surface treatments
concretes are one focus of this work. The goal example. DIN EN 206, Part 9 contains more One essential precondition for a concrete sur-
is to add chemical materials to produce high information on this area. face is the formwork system. A concrete surface
flowability concretes with precisely adjusted consists of a layer of mortar made of cement
viscosity that can deaerate without mechanical stone and the finest aggregate constituents, so
intervention and (self) compact. These would Construction aspects it reproduces the surface of the formwork used.
make it much easier to make very slender The formwork influences the surface depend-
structural components with close-meshed Despite the wide range of concretes available, ing on whether it is
reinforcement and sophisticated geometric most base mixtures used in practice are based • Absorbent (e.g. rough-sawn, unplaned
forms with high-quality, dense exposed con- on normal concrete. In the 1970s an enormous planks; uncoated particle board)
crete surfaces. quantitative and qualitative expansion in the • Slightly absorbent (e.g. multi-ply boards with
Other developments are focusing on improving use of concrete was expected from the devel- special surface finishes)
concrete’s strength and protecting it from pene- opment of various forms of lightweight con- • Not at all or very slightly absorbent (e.g. steel
trating moisture. Very strong concretes with crete. These expectations were not met and sheeting, plastic matrices, particle board)
cylinder compressive strengths > 125 N/mm2 (structural) lightweight concrete for external
are now being used in construction. These con- walls is used almost exclusively in detached How often formwork has been used and its
cretes have a low water /cement ratio and, due or semi-detached housing or commercial build- cleanliness influence the development of
to the use of ultra-fine fillers such as microsilica ing construction and, apart from a few excep- pores, marbling, blushing and differences in
or microfine cement, a much denser texture tions, rendered or used in the form of masonry colour. A major role in a concrete surface’s
and produce extremely low-porosity surfaces. blocks or precast components joined with mor- look is also played by the position and arrange-
tar or adhesive. ment of:
As well as these constructional “superlatives”, The diverse possibilities of working concrete • Joints
combining concrete with corrosion-resistant give rise to very different facade construction • Formwork joints
textile fibres for use as reinforcement material conditions. On the one hand, there are purely • Formwork ties
is becoming increasingly important. “Textile- material-specific demands. On the other hand,
reinforced concrete” is a composite material there are forms of construction that are subject Trapezoidal or triangular fillets (e.g. 7 mm,
that uses textile AR-glass or carbon fibre fabric to standards and guidelines that also apply to 10 mm) can be used to accentuate construc-
to produce relatively thin-walled concrete struc- the use of other building materials (Fig. B 3.10). tion and dummy joints or conceal them by put-
tural components that need only a thin, struc- ting them in shaded areas. It must be ensured
turally-necessary concrete covering of their Exposed concrete that these areas have a sufficient concrete
reinforcement. Results available to date confirm When we speak of concrete facades, we are cover.
that beyond the substitution of conventional usually referring to concrete poured on site, It is impossible to make formwork joints com-
composite materials and existing construction, meaning in this context exposed concrete pletely watertight, and the water /cement ratio

111
Concrete

Joint spacing Guidelines for Required Joint sealing mass thickness

joint width w1) minimum
in conditions joint width
L [m] +10 °C [mm] min w [mm] tF2) [mm] permissible
divergence [mm]

Up to 2 15 10 8 ±2

More than 2 – 3.5 20 15 10 ±2

More than 3.5 – 5 25 20 12 ±2

More than 5 – 6.5 30 25 15 ±3

More than 6.5 – 8 35 30 15 ±3

1)
Permissible divergence: ± 5 mm
2)
Figures provided refer to the end state, so shrinkage in the volume of the joint sealant's mass must be taken into
account.
B 3.11
around joints also changes (which can cause quality and structural element costs, so it is conditions as for in-situ concrete apply. Much
discolouration), so particular attention should advisable to draw up a formwork sample plan more slender reinforced structural components
be paid to joints. Regularly arranged formwork that establishes special design features such ranging from ≥ 7 cm to 14 or 16 cm thick can
ties and the shape of the anchor cones also as structuring of the space, surface textures be made in precasting factories. Precast
influences the overall effect of a facade sur- and structural details. Test surfaces that are elements can have surfaces ranging up to
face. It has been shown in practice that filling similar in terms of scale, position and produc- 14 m2 in size, although the maximum length
indentations by trowelling them level with the tion conditions are an important control medium of 5 metres for facing shells should not be
surface often leads to unsatisfactory results. in ensuring the desired quality. exceeded.
Sharp edges require special measures to pro- Exposed in-situ concrete facades have a unique Precasting factories can offer a range of eco-
tect them from damage, which should be taken appearance and production that cannot be nomical ways of processing concrete surfaces.
into account in planning. Spalled areas must reproduced exactly because they are the result Surfaces can be given a more plastic form with
be repaired, which, however, usually produces of many influential factors. Making concrete on projections and indentations and divided up
varying colours. the building site also limits options for treating with dummy joints. Veneer layers with (frost-
Another important parameter is the thick- its surface [8]. resistant) undressed stone and rubble, facing
ness of external walls, which depends on brick and natural stone and ceramic panels
the positioning of reinforcement and proper Precast components can also be fabricated. This involves position-
technical placing and compacting of the con- Producing precast concrete components [9] ing the materials with the facing side on the
crete. Given the usual diameter of a poker offers a wide range of advantages compared bottom of the formwork then bonding them to
or immersion vibrator (about 40 mm) and with using in-situ concrete because its pro- the precast component with several layers of
required minimum spacing of reinforcement duction and processing will be of a piece. Hori- concrete.
bars, thicknesses of ≥ 16 cm for facing shells, zontal production can produce very dense con- Normal concrete is most commonly used in
or better ≥ 24 cm, have been proven to be cretes with a less porous surface, although precasting factories, although self-compacting
most effective. the transport and installation options available concretes with very soft consistencies that are
Exposed concrete facades require detailed make it difficult to use large, heavy, precast therefore very easy to work, making them espe-
preplanning to ensure construction quality, components economically. In terms of the cially suitable for making exposed concrete
assessment and guaranteeing of the surface’s thicknesses of structural components, similar surfaces, are increasingly being used.

The positioning and formation of joints is an

essential detail in working with precast con-
crete elements, and their minimum width of
10 mm depends on the length of the panel.
Joint widths in dark surfaces that are especially
sensitive to temperature must be increased by
10 – 30 % (Fig. B 3.13).
A wide range of strips, permanently elastic
sealants and concreted-in plastic profile sec-
tions are available for forming joints. Vertical

B 3.11 Guidelines for planning joint widths and permis-

sible minimum joint widths in construction pursu-
ant to DIN 18 540-1–3
B 3.12 Formwork tie holes:
a Plug flush with shadow gap surface
b Fibre-reinforced concrete plug
B 3.13 Minimum thicknesses and lengths of precast
concrete elements
B 3.14 Fastenings of large-format precast concrete
elements:
a On cast-in elements
b On dowels
c On anchor rails
a b B 3.12

112
 Concrete

Element minimum thickness [cm]

16 Facade panel
fastener

14
Pressure screw

12

10
Connecting pin

8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Element lengths [m] a b c
B 3.13 B 3.14
joints at the corners of buildings require special Concrete stone panels and surface treatments. External walls in Cen-
care. It is generally regarded as more eco- One form of non-reinforced facade cladding tral European climates are usually double
nomical to reduce the number of joints by using is small-format, suspended concrete stone layered with a non-load-bearing facing shell.
larger formats. panels [10] measuring 0.2 –1 m2. They are Depending on the building’s height and struc-
Building with precast concrete components usually rear-ventilated and mounted on a tural requirements, bricks 9 or 11.5 cm thick
requires more detailed advance planning and substructure. One advantage of small-format are used. There are two masonry unit systems:
despite improved production techniques, usu- panels is that they can be attached to masonry. • Modular formats (M 10 specified in DIN
ally larger numbers of components if they are Panels can be fastened with (Fig. B 3.15): 18 000)
to be economical. • Single ties set in mortar • Octametric formats (M 8 specified in DIN
Three main types of precast concrete compo- • Single ties fastened with dowels 4172)
nents can be used to build facades: • Support rail substructures
• Single-layer suspended wall panels Octametric formats are based on 1/8 M
• Double-layer suspended wall panels Panel thickness depends on the concrete’s (= 125 mm) like ordinary brick formats. Modu-
• Sandwich elements strength and is usually 4 cm, although depend- lar formats are based on 1/10 M (= 100 mm)
ing on the panel dimensions, they can also be and allow for a wider variety of formats. Walls
Large-format, single and double-layer pre- ≥ 2 cm thick. The same requirements specified that are 90, 115, 140, 190 and 240 mm thick
cast concrete elements are hung free of con- in DIN 18 516 for natural stone panels apply to can be built with the different brick sizes, and
straining forces on a load-bearing structure their sizes and fastening. the two formats can be combined.
with facade plate anchors. Depending on A greater proportion of metal elements in the As well as various colours, there are four main
the system, elements are hung in load-bear- substructure increases costs of such facades design options for surfaces: smooth, porous,
ing brackets cast in concrete or screwed or proportionately. There are not usually any sandblasted and rough-split. White cement is
bolted on with dowels or anchor rails. Anchor economic advantages compared with natural usually used, which intensifies the effect of
rails offer more options for subsequently stone facades. the bricks’ colours. This colour palette can be
adjusting installation and joint patterns. Adjust- Concrete stone panels can be produced with a expanded or individually adjusted for specific
able horizontal anchors with pressure screws wide variety of surface treatments and colours project solutions.
or bolts or wind-load anchors absorb pres- depending on the aggregate used.
sure and suction forces, define their position Fibre cement board
in respect of the load-bearing layer, while Facing masonry units Cement-bonded board is now usually made of
their pins ensure precise integration in the Facing masonry units are in the tradition of a combination of wood fibres (52 %), a Portland
facade plane, including during installation. masonry construction. Normal concrete (with cement binding agent (38 %), water (9 %) and
All fasteners must be made of rust-resistant porous aggregates) can be combined with wood mineralising materials.
steel (Fig. B 3.14 –16). different aggregates (e.g. double-crushed These construction materials have a range
Normally sandwich elements combine a load- fine grade chippings) and coloured pigments, of advantages, such as substantial moisture
bearing and insulating layer in a single com- offering a range of ways to optimise the ma- resistance, frost resistance and a low level
ponent with a concreted facing surface. Facing terial’s properties to improve durability and of swelling, that make them suitable for rear-
layers should be at least 7 cm thick to cover design. ventilated curtain wall facades. Depending
reinforcement and to prevent greater cyclic A distinction is made between facing bricks on the material’s composition, fire protection
deformations but should be no more than 10 cm and facing blocks, the difference being the requirements can also be met.
thick. Elements, like wall panels, should not be height of a course (up to 125 mm = bricks, up
more than 5 metres long (Fig. B 3.13). to 250 mm = blocks). Cement-bonded board [11] is available in a
Individual elements are joined with load-bear- This distinction is not consistently maintained, wide range of different formats. Maximum
ing anchors (vertical forces) and horizontal not even in DIN 18 153, so in practice the standard sheet sizes are 3,100 ≈ 1,250 mm
anchors (horizontal forces). Binders and con- term “facing bricks” has become established. (L x W), and their thicknesses generally range
necting pins absorb wind loads and warping Their bulk density, which ranges from 1,800 from 12 to 18 mm.
caused by temperature fluctuations. The num- to 2,200 kg/m3, means that they offer a high One advantage of these light facade elements
ber of thermal bridges increases with the num- degree of dimensional accuracy and good is that they are fairly easily cut to fit and can
ber of fasteners and binders. soundproofing and fire protection properties. be readily used in even complex geometric
Sandwich elements can be installed as load- A wide range of coordinated brick formats formats. The material is easy to saw, drill and
bearing components or without a load-bearing are available and can be used to structure a mill, although the usually unfinished edges
function. facade with different masonry bonds, colours require careful handling during installation.

113
 Concrete

Panels are screwed onto a load-bearing batten produce new surfaces. Removing the top layer
and counter-batten substructure or combined partly exposes the cement stone matrix and
with metallic spacers. These types of struc- aggregate. White cement, coloured aggregates
tures can be used in buildings up to a height and colour pigments can be used here to cre-
of 22 metres. ate special effects (Fig. B 3.20).
Joints can be covered with strips, left open, Other mechanical surface treatment methods
or concealed behind plastic or metal joint are used in the production of precast elem-
bands or profiles. 10 mm has proven the best ents, and a distinction can be made between
width for open joints in large-format sheets textures created during production (by grind-
b B 3.15
in practice. Joint spacings ≤ 8 mm are not per- ing or sanding, sawing or splitting blocks)
mitted and those > 12 mm are not advisable without further measures, and fine working
(Fig. B 3.17). (fine grinding, polishing) to create very smooth
Fibre cement panels have a coloured primer or shiny surfaces.
and are available with industrial colour coat- The colours of aggregates determine the
ings that do not need any additional surface appearance of treated concrete surfaces
treatment. by up to 80 %. The rest of the cement stone
is influenced by the colour of the cement,
the finest particles or by any pigments mixed
Surfaces into it.

As well as the design options for concrete that Treatments

formwork offers, surfaces can be worked or Various silane, siloxane or acrylate coatings
treated to further modify them. A distinction is can be applied to a concrete surface for the
made between the two processes. A fresh or purposes of
hardened concrete surface is mechanically, • Waterproofing
B 3.16 thermally and/or chemically “worked”, while the • Coating
waterproofing, coating or sealing of a finished • Sealing
surface is referred to as “treatment”. Various • Repelling dirt and oil
colour options are also available [12].
A “wet effect” surface treatment can change
Working concrete’s colour. Products must resist yellow-
_ 80

Working concrete surfaces can specifically ing, which makes preliminary tests on sample
>

highlight the colour of aggregates and make areas necessary. Surface treatments usually
the surface colour more even. DIN 18 500 have only a limited durability.
describes the various techniques that can be
used, including in combination. Colour
The most frequent processes used are washing Apart from coloured seals and coatings, which
>
_ 25 (≥ 2 mm) and fine washing (≤ 2 mm), which can be glazes or opaque, there are various
remove the top layer of fine mortar. This can ways of accentuating concrete’s colour during
be done by applying retardant to the formwork its production, such as by using
so that the aggregate and its inherent colour • Cements with special colour (white or Port-
predominate in the surface’s design. land oil shale cement)
Acid treatments, sandblasting or flame blasting • Aggregates with special colour (red granite,
_5 >
> _ 15 techniques can be used to abrade and roughen Carrara marble etc.)
_ 30

Joint concrete, evenly exposing the cement stone • Pigments (e.g. iron oxide yellow, chrome
>

band
and aggregate surfaces and giving them a oxide green)
slightly matt look.
Stone masonry working methods (bush-ham- A concrete surface’s appearance is influenced
Facade mering, pointing, grooving and chiselling), mainly by the colour of its cement. A relatively
>
_ 25 8 –10 fastening screw carried out by machine or by hand, can also high iron content gives Portland cement its
B 3.17

114
 Concrete

B 3.18 B 3.19
dark grey colour. Low-iron raw materials (lime- used, green colours are obtained by adding Ageing / soiling
stone and kaolin) make cement whiter. Portland chromium oxide and chromium oxide hydrate The ageing of facades from weathering
oil shale cement contains cement clinker and pigments, while mixed crystal pigments (e.g. depends on the material used and is often
burnt oil shale, which creates a reddish shade. cobalt-aluminium-chromium oxide pigments) due to defects in structural details. Environ-
Grey cement produces more muted, darker produce blues. Small amounts (2 – 3 % of mental soiling and the type of rainwater chan-
colours, while white cement makes colours look cement content by mass) are usually enough nelling on a facade can change its appear-
lighter and purer. to produce the desired colour. Slight surface ance, with wind direction and lee or windward
profiling enhances the effects of colours. Con- sides determining the amount of water accru-
Surface treatment highlights the colours of crete pigmentation is durable and weather- ing. A facade’s location and position play an
aggregates. Depending on the treatment, par- resistant (Fig. B 3.18). important role in levels of self-cleaning and
ticle sizes can produce varying intensities, so One new form of (coloured) surface design is soiling effects. Deep surface textures and their
consistent proportions of powder and finest photo concrete, which is produced by applying direction (horizontal, vertical) and cross-sec-
sand must be used for a smooth surface. Con- a photographic template to a surface with a tion geometry (ribs, grooves) in particular can
crete can be easily dyed by adding colour screen. The effect’s intensity depends on the have a negative impact on dirt deposits and
pigments to it. For red, yellow, brown and various degrees of the concrete’s hardening water run-off.
black shades, mainly iron oxide pigments are and curing (Fig. B 3.19).

Notes: B 3.15 Fastenings of small-format artificial concrete B 3.18 Atelier Bardill, Scharans (CH) 2007, Valerio Olgiati
[1] Merkblatt Sichtbeton. Regelwerke, Sichtbeton- stone panels: B 3.19 Library, Eberswalde (DE) 1999, Herzog & de
klassen, Planung und Aussschreibung, Ausfüh- a Single ties set in mortar Meuron
rung, Beurteilung. Published by the Deutschen b Dowel attachment B 3.20 Various surface treatments using the same
Beton- und Bautechnik-Verein e. V. (DBV) / B 3.16 Can be anchored in a horizontal or a vertical concrete mix:
Bundesverband der Deutschen Zementindustrie joint. above: smooth formwork finish
e.V. (BDZ). 3rd revised edition, Berlin / Düsseldorf B 3.17 Minimum edge distances for fastening fibre from left to right: sand-blasted, fine-washed,
2015 cement panels on timber substructures acid-treated, finely ground, chiselled, pointed
[2] Junghanns, Kurt: Das Haus für alle Fälle. Berlin
1994, p. 113, 116 –145
[3] Ford, Edward R.: Die Pionierzeit des Betonsteins.
“Textile-Block”-Häuser von Frank Lloyd Wright.
In Detail 04/2003, p. 310 –315
[4] modul. Schriftenreihe zur Verwendung von Modul-
Betonsteinen in der neuen Architektur. Rheinau-
Freistett 05/1992
[5] Eternit Schweiz. Architektur und Firmenkultur seit
1903. Zurich 2003
[6] Grimm, Friedrich; Richarz, Clemens: Hinterlüftete
Fassaden. Konstruktionen vorgehängter hinter-
lüfteter Fassaden aus Faserzement. Stuttgart /Zurich
1994
[7] Hegger, Josef; Will, Norbert: Bauteile aus textil-
bewehrtem Beton. In DBZ 04/2003, p. 68 –71
[8] Kling, Bernhard; Peck, Martin: Sichtbeton im Kon-
text der neuen Betonnormen. In Beton 04/2003,
p. 170 –176
[9] Döring, Wolfgang et al.: Fassaden. Architektur
und Konstruktion mit Betonfertigteilen. Düsseldorf
2000
[10] Fassaden aus Stein. Published by the Dyckerhoff
Weiss Marketing und Vertriebs-Gesellschaft.
Wiesbaden 2004
[11] Eternit Dach- und Fassadenplatten. Planung und
Anwendung. Heidelberg 2014
[12] Kind-Barkauskas, Friedbert et al.: Beton Atlas.
Munich / Düsseldorf 2001, p. 65 –77; see also [10]
B 3.20

115
Concrete

Apartment blocks

Monza, IT 1972

Architect:
Angelo Mangiarotti, Milan

º A+U 12/1978
Bona, Enrico D.: Angelo Mangiarotti. Il
Processo del Construire. Milan, 1980
Finessi, Beppe (ed.): Su Mangiarotti:
Architettura, design, scultura. Milan, 2002
Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Bausysteme von
Angelo Mangiarotti. Darmstadt, 1998

• Storey-high precast concrete facade sand-

wich elements
• Used in two different housing blocks in
Monza and Arioso /Como (1977, a five-storey
building that is even more structured by pro-
jections and recesses in its facade)
• Flexible floor plan leaves open spaces for
residents to use as they wish

Isometry, no scale
Floor plan 1st, 2nd and 4th floors 1 5 4
Scale 1:500
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

1 Storey-high precast steel-reinforced concrete wall

panel, with integrated rigid polystyrene thermal
insulation, 120 mm
2 Precast steel-reinforced concrete roof edge element
3 Fir wood window element
4 Fir wood-frame window with insulating glazing,
4 mm toughened safety glass + 9 mm space between
the panes + 4 mm toughened safety glass
5 Wooden folding shutter
1
3
3

1 a b

116
 Concrete

Apartment blocks

Zurich, CH 2002

Architects:
von Ballmoos Krucker Architekten, Zurich

º Archithese 01/2003
Werk Bauen + Wohnen 7– 8/2003
Nerdinger, Winfried et al. (ed.):
Wendepunkt /e im Bauen. Von der seriellen
zur digitalen Architektur. Munich, 2010
Von Ballmoos Krucker Architekten:
Register, Kommentare. Zurich, 2007

• Housing complex of three slightly different

d
buildings with 51 apartments based on a
functional living room-kitchen-balcony spatial 1
group arrangement
• A reinterpretation of heavy prefabrication
and high-rise “Plattenbau” (with the advan-
tages of durability and quality ageing, among 2
3 10 d
others)
• Storey-high, triple-layer, slightly-washed con-
crete sandwich elements of different widths
• Facade openings not positioned in the panels
but created by wall element spacings

c c cc

3 4

5
8

aa

10
dd

1 Powder-coated, folded
aluminium sheeting top parapet cover
2 Precast steel-reinforced concrete parapet element,
b b washed surface
a 3 Storey-high precast steel-reinforced concrete
wall panel
Steel-reinforced concrete outer layer, 80 mm,
6
washed surface,
a 7 Rigid polystyrene thermal insulation, 180 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete inner layer, 140 mm
4 Lime-cement interior render, 15 mm
5 Mortar joint on elastomer
6 Precast steel-reinforced concrete plinth element
Floor plan, first floor 7 Two-ply bitumen sheet plinth sealing
Cross section 8 Precast steel-reinforced concrete sunscreen cover
Scale 1:500 9 Aluminium sunscreen blind
Vertical cross section 10 Timber-aluminium window with insulating glazing
Horizontal cross section laminates safety glass + space between the panes +
Scale 1:20 bb toughened safety glass

117
Concrete

Production and office building

a

Munich, DE 2013

Architects:
tillicharchitektur, Munich
Structural engineers:
Hemmerlein Ingenieurbau, Bodenwöhr
b
º Detail 07– 08/2014
Industriebau 01/2015 b
Opus C 06/2013
a

• Four different, geometrically folded wall

modules (measuring 6.60 ≈ 3.90 m, max.
depth 62 cm) built with prefabricated sand-
wich elements that are offset, storey by
storey
• (Anthracite) dyed concrete with a semi-matt
surface
• Clearly accentuated joint pattern
• Polyester textile sunscreen roller blinds stay
stable in windy conditions (5.20 m wide,
2.10 m high)

aa

118
 Concrete

Floor plan, ground floor • Cross section aluminium pressure bar

Scale 1:400 3 Precast concrete sandwich element,
2 Vertical cross section • Horizontal 6.60 ≈ 3.90 m:
cross section Facing shell 80 – 240 mm
Scale 1:20 dyed anthracite with iron oxide
c c pigment
Thermal insulation, 180 mm
1 Extensive green roof, 90 mm, Load-bearing steel-reinforced
approx. 94 kg/m2 saturated concrete shell, 200 mm
protective layer, 30 mm drainage with adhesive gypsum plaster,
layer grouted joint,
Two-ply polymer bitumen sealing water-repelling surface
sheeting 4 Permanently elastic joint sealing tape,
Sloping rigid foam insulation, 20 mm recessed
3 max. 300 mm 5 Screed sealing, 76 mm
Bitumen sealing sheeting, with underfloor heating
vapour barrier (using process heating)
4 Steel-reinforced concrete, 340 mm, Separating layer
of which precast truss slab 50 mm EPS footfall sound insulation, 20 mm
render EPS thermal insulation, 30 mm
2 Triple thermal insulating glazing - Separating layer
Uf = max. 0.7 W/m2K Steel-reinforced concrete slab,
5 toughened safety glass 8 + space 340 mm, of which precast truss slab
between the panes 12 + float glass 4 50 mm render
+ space between the panes 12 + 6 Hollow steel door frame,
toughened safety glass 8 mm clad with steel sheeting, painted
in larch post and beam facade with Insulation, 60 mm

bb 3 cc

119
Concrete

Pinakothek der Moderne

Munich, DE 2002

Architect: 8 9
Stephan Braunfels, Berlin / Munich
Structural engineers:
Seeberger Friedl + Partner, Munich
Walther Mory Maier, Münchenstein, CH
Facade planning: R+R Fuchs, Munich

º domus 853, 2002

Braunfels, Stephan: Pinakothek der cc
Moderne. Basel / Boston / Berlin 2002
Herwig, Oliver: Sechs neue Museen in 1 10
Bayern. Tübingen / Berlin 2002

• New gallery building for four collections

(modern art, drawings, architecture and
design)
• Up to 16-metre-high jointless, exposed
concrete facades with core insulation, large-
format 5-metre (formwork) grid
• Flexible connection ties designed to absorb
movements between the outer and inner
shells, outer shell prestressed with horizontal
steel strands
• Construction joints just under horizontal
triangular fillets, the shadows cast conceal
any imprecisions

Floor plan, ground floor • Cross section

Scale 1:2,000
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
Southern facade Scale 1:20 aa

a a

120
 Concrete

1 Glazed exposed concrete, 6 115 mm masonry facing shell:

160 mm, with integrated retaining system
sliding foil Interior render, 15 mm
2 3 Styrodur thermal insulation, 60 mm 7 Plasterboard suspended ceiling
Steel-reinforced concrete, 280 mm 8 Blind with plain-edge louvres
Interior render, 15 mm 9 Blackout blind
2 Rubber granulate sheet on a 10 Double casement window:
separating layer with gutter heating steel frame
3 Glued waterproof plywood outside: 12 mm toughened white
4 Light-diffusing ceiling, safety glass,
matt laminated safety glass inside: B 1-I insulating glazing,
5 Steel hollow box girder white laminated safety glass

7
8 9

c c

10

bb

121
Concrete

Extension to the Leibniz Supercomputing

Centre at the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
and Humanities

Garching, DE 2012
aa
Architects:
Thomas Herzog Architekten, Munich
Project Manager: Roland Schneider

a a

• Large-format precast, self-compacting 2

concrete elements used; length 12 m,
height 2.40 m, each weighs approx. 45 t
• Horizontal-format precast elements with
dummy joints in the plane spaced 30 cm
apart
• Solid concrete cube as compositional coun-
terweight to the metallic mesh screen of the
large “computer cube” opposite
• Concrete surface with small-format structure
made up of offset prisms; specially devel-
oped formwork was used

4 3
5

6
7

122
 Concrete

ESO Hotel

Cerro Paranal, CL 2001

Architects:
Auer + Weber, Munich

º Architectural Review 06/2003

Bauwelt 25/2002
Casabella 704, 2002
Intelligente Architektur 09 –10/2003
L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 343, 2002

• Hotel for ESO (European Southern Observa- 1 1 Rust-coloured exposed concrete parapet,
tory) staff at Cerro Paranal, located 2,600 m 200 mm
2 Aluminium-frame window with fixed glazing
above sea level 3 Rust-coloured exposed concrete, 100 mm
• The concrete facade in front of the hotel Insulation, 75 mm
rooms provides effective protection from the 2 Veneered particle board built-in furniture
sun and overheating 4 Painted tubular steel safety rail,
¡ 50/20 mm, attached at the sides
• Steel-reinforced concrete is a thermally inert
5 Painted tubular steel barrier posts,
mass that buffers the effects of daily tempera- 3 ¡ 50/20 mm, set into steel sections
ture fluctuations (approx. 20 K) embedded in the concrete slab
• Window ventilation with small extra radiators 6 Sealed steel-reinforced concrete
for extremely low temperatures 7 Anti-glare screen
8 Aluminium glass door with insulating
• Exposed concrete surface dyed with iron- glazing
oxide pigments alludes to the colours of the
Atacama Desert

Cross section Scale 1:500

Floor plan 1st floor
Scale 1:1,500 4
Vertical cross section Scale 1:50
5

aa

b
b
a bb

123
Concrete

Contemporary Arts Centre

Córdoba, ES 2013

Architects:
Nieto Sobejano Arquitectos, Madrid
Media facade design:
Nieto Sobejano Arquitectos, Madrid
in cooperation with realities:united, Berlin

º AV Monographs 159/160, 2013

Best of Detail: Fassaden, 2015
Detail 06/2013 a
Licht + Raum 04/2013
World architecture 269, 2012 a

1
• Arts centre with exhibition spaces and work-
shop area at the edge of Córdoba’s historic
centre
• Representing Córdoba’s architectural history, 2
irregular hexagons are a clearly legible cen-
tral design motif in the floor plan and facade.
• White, glass-fibre-reinforced concrete panels
in three different sizes
• Even surfaces alternate with varying plastic
recesses 4
3
• LED lighting integrated into the facade

8
10
Floor plan, ground floor Scale 1:1,500
Facade – vertical cross section Scale 1:20

1 Glass-fibre-reinforced white 6
concrete panel, 100 mm,
Top layer, 20 mm,
PS insulation, 60 mm 5
2 Hollow steel roof beam
¡ 100/80/4 mm
3 Steel profile, Å 320 mm
4 Glass-fibre-reinforced white 9
concrete panel, 200 mm
Cover layer, 20 mm,
PS insulation, 160 mm
Fixed by means of integrat- 7
ed steel rails and brackets
to a substructure
5 Facade substructure,
steel section vertical frame
¡ 120/80/4 mm
and horizontal steel section
| 100/80/4 mm
6 Grating crosspiece
30 ≈ 300 ≈ 30 mm
Steel profile, ∑ 90/9 mm
7 LED light
8 Sloping concrete,
11 12
Geotextile separating layer
Insulation, 40 mm, sealing
Steel-reinforced concrete
composite slab, 200 mm 13
9 Brick masonry, 115 mm
10 Rainwater guttering
connected to downpipe
11 Steel-reinforced concrete,
300 mm,
Exposed concrete surface,
plank shuttering 14
Insulation, 40 mm
12 Float glass, 4 mm
13 Translucent plastic panel,
4 mm
14 Concrete layer, 200 mm;
steel-reinforced concrete,
300 mm aa

124
 Concrete

Student accommodation 1

Coimbra, PT 1999
2
Architects:
Aires Mateus e Associados, Lisbon

º Architectural Review 12/2000

Casabella 691, 2001
Detail 07– 08/2003

cc
Cross section • Floor plan Scale 1:1,000
• Closed concrete facade with masonry facing Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
made of precast, matt white hollow blocks Scale 1:20
• Autonomous reference to other concrete
facades on campus 1 White concrete hollow blocks,
390/140/190 mm
• Narrow slit windows let light into common
Rear ventilation cavity, 15 mm
rooms Insulation, 20 mm
• Small-format blocks, network of joints and Masonry, 110 mm
surface finish similar to undressed stone give Smooth-surface plaster, 15 mm
the surfaces a lively, structured look. 2 Reveal block
3 Lintel block,
390/140/190 mm

c c

3
aa

a a

b
b

bb

125
Concrete

Office and residential building

Kassel, DE 1999

Architect:
Alexander Reichel, Kassel
Structural engineers:
Hochtief, Kassel

º Byggekunst 06/2001
Detail 04/2001
Kind-Barkauskas, Friedbert et al.:
Beton Atlas. Munich / Düsseldorf 2001
aa bb

• Townhouse featuring a 3.00 ≈ 3.50-metre

support grid
• Steel-reinforced concrete frame, large areas
of the facade clad with suspended, non-
load-bearing precast glass-fibre-reinforced
concrete elements
• Fine-grained concrete with aggregates
< 4 mm and alkali-resistant glass fibres as
reinforcement against tensile forces and
cracking, approx. 2 – 4 mm; the surface is
hydrophobic to protect it from moisture
• Storey-high untreated larch frame windows
and bi-fold shutters provide functional and
aesthetic accentuation

a a

Cross sections • Floor plan, basement

and 1st / 2nd floors
Scale 1:500

126
 Concrete

d c
1 2 3 4

d 5 c

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section

Scale 1:20

1 Glass-fibre-reinforced concrete, 30 mm,

bonded at the corners
2
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 120 mm
2 External kitchen wall:
untreated larch weatherboard, 22/88 mm
Rear ventilation cavity,
7 cement-bonded chipboard, 8 mm
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 140 mm
Vapour barrier,
OSB board, 15 mm
Installation space with
8 mineral wool, 40 mm
Plasterboard, 12.5 mm
3 External bathroom wall:
Glass-fibre-reinforced concrete, 30 mm
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 120 mm
4 Bi-fold shutters
untreated larch, 50 mm
4 5 In-situ concrete column, 240/240 mm
6 Hand crank for bi-fold shutters
8 7 Glass-fibre-reinforced concrete, 30 mm
3 5 Mineral wool thermal insulation, 120 mm
Steel-reinforced slab, 200 mm
8 Larch wood frame window with a
transparent varnish

cc dd

127
Concrete

Festival hall of the Tiroler Festspiele

Erl, AT 2012

Architects:
Delugan Meissl Associated Architects, Vienna

º a+a 02/2014
A & D Architecture and Detail 41, 2013
Architektur Aktuell 01– 02/2013
Archithese 02/2013
DBZ 01/2013
Detail 05/2013
Icon 117/2013
Zement Beton 01/2014
3
1
• Concert hall that can accommodate events
all year round and seat 862
• A prism-shaped, black monolithic building, 2
clearly visible from a distance
• Fibre-reinforced cement panel cladding with
a seemingly irregular grid

Cross section Scale 1:1,000

Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

1 Gravel, 80 mm
Separating fleece
Plastic sealing sheeting 5
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 180 mm
Vapour barrier 7
Timber framework, 50 mm
Squared timber rafters, 140/200 mm
2 Heated rain guttering
3 Folded sheet metal top parapet cover
4 Fibre-reinforced cement panel, 8 mm
Profile frame, 40/40 mm
Omega profile, 60 mm
8
Adjustment layer
Vapour-permeable sealing foil
Vapour-permeable MDF board, 16 mm
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 100 mm
between 100/100 mm squared timber
OSB board, 12 mm
Timber framework, 50 mm
Timber beams, 180/100 mm,
hung between
steel secondary structure
5 Metal cassette
6 Anti-glare roller blind
7 Insulating glazing
8 Composite timber fibreboard window
ledge

128
 Concrete

School extension and renovation

Lauterach, AT 2000

Architect:
Elmar Ludescher, Lauterach

º A & D Architecture and Detail 19/2002

Detail 07/2001

• Extension and renovation of a 1960s school

building
• Facades of the two three-storey buildings
with anthracite coloured opaque and semi-
transparent fibre cement panels
• Perforated facade elements filter light

b b

2 3

Floor plan, ground floor

Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Anodised aluminium-frame window

with fixed glazing
2 Rectangular hollow steel column, ¡ 150/100/8 mm
3 Perforated fibre cement panel, 8 mm
4 Hollow steel section, | 40/40 mm 4
5 Hollow steel section, ¡ 40/60 mm
5

bb

aa

129
 Timber

B 4 Timber Timber is a building material with almost uni-

versal potential applications. The first complex
timber buildings were built in the Neolithic Age.
Trunks, branches and the whole diverse range
of natural “timber products” were used to bind
frames and weave walls (Fig. B 4.3). Squared
timber frames for buildings and longer spans
and structures made of solid wood left round
(like log cabins and stave churches) followed
much later.
Today’s main wood processing techniques,
such as sawing and chipping, date back to
the preceding millennium and became widely
used during industrialisation. The precursors
of modern timber construction were built mainly
in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Among
the forerunners in the development of modern
timber walls and facades were greenhouses
in England and half-timbered buildings in
Central Europe. One outstanding highlight
was the Crystal Palace, built in 1851 in London, B 4.2
in whose frame, especially the roof beams,
17,000 m3 of timber combined with cast iron
was used. Timber facade techniques now
in use range from specialist production and
installation by craftsmen through to technic-
ally and structurally very advanced solid
timber wall elements that are completely auto- a d
matically manufactured and large panels and
room modules and cubicles that can be put
together in very short installation times to make
buildings.
b e
Material properties
Among timber’s wide range of physical and
technical properties, the following should be
mentioned in the context of facade construc-
tion:
• High level of strength and light weight c f
• Good working options and very well devel-
oped processing techniques
• High level of thermal resistance
• Hygroscopic behaviour facilitates a moisture
balance in timber installed on the inside of a
facade.
• More resistant woods can be used for exteri-
ors without coatings. g

Constituents and growth

Timber is a natural product and 100 % recyc-
lable. Water, nutrients from soil and CO2 react
with the help of chlorophyll and solar energy
to create starch and release oxygen. Starch is
the basic building block for cellulose, which h i j
makes up about 50 % of timber. Other constitu- B 4.3
ents include around 25 % each of hemicellu-
lose and lignin and small quantities of pigments,
tannins and resins. B 4.2 Gokstad ship, Bygdøy (NO) approx. 900 AD
B 4.3 Sidamo house, Hagara Salam (ET)
a Cylindrical structure
Wood’s structure
b Roof structure set on the ground
Cells are the basic building blocks of wood, c Roof fitted onto the cylinder,
and the many various types are classified Bamboo leaf sealing
according to their functions in the living tree, d Floor plan
such as stabilisation, material transport and e, f Cross sections
g Elevation of the cylinder
storage. Most of these cells have an elongated h Cylinder, detail
B 4.1 Komyo-Ji Pure Land Temple, Saijo (JP) 2000, form, so they are referred to as “fibres” and lie i Roof, detail
Tadao Ando almost entirely longitudinally in the trunk. The j Covering, detail

131
Timber

B 4.6

Wood rays
Annual Pith
growth ring Bark
Cambium Early wood
Sapwood Late wood
Heartwood

B 4.4 B 4.5 B 4.7

exception are “rays”, whose cells are arranged Density • Buildings closed on all sides, heated, 9 ± 3 %
radially in wood. Coniferous wood is older in The density of pure cell wall substances is • Buildings closed on all sides, unheated,
evolutionary terms and has a simpler structure, around 1.5 g/cm3 in all types of timber. In con- 12 ± 3 %
consisting mainly of one type of cell that trans- trast, cell wall thicknesses and pore sizes vary • Covered, open structures, 15 ± 3 %
ports water and materials as well as stabilising within different types and within a single type • Structures exposed to the weather on all
the tree. Cells in deciduous tree wood are more of wood. Early wood’s cells usually have larger sides, 18 ± 6 %
specialised and form vessels. The relative pos- pore volumes than the cells of late wood. Tim-
ition and direction of cells and vessels, together ber’s density is determined by the ratio of cell Timber’s ability to absorb and release moisture
with annual rings, create the wood’s grain – wall and pore volume and ranges from a pore can favourably influence an interior climate,
an essential feature for the clear identification volume of over 90 % for balsa wood with a dens- but the possible consequences must be taken
of different timbers. The decisive factor for a ity of 0.1 g/cm3 up to around 10 % for lignum into account in construction. The absorption
wood’s strength and elasticity is the elementary vitae with a density of more than 1.3 g/cm3. and release of water causes wood to swell and
structure of its cell walls. The cell walls’ four Spruce has a pore volume of around 70 % and shrink and change dimensions. Timber’s load-
layers consist of lignin for absorbing compres- an average density of 0.45 g/cm3, while the bearing ability declines and the risk of destruc-
sive forces and fibrils for absorbing tensile pore volume of oak is less than 60 % and its tive fungi and insects grows when its moisture
forces, which, together with lignin, form a power- density more than 0.60 g/cm3. Density greatly content increases. Unfavourable consequences
ful bond. influences timber’s load-bearing ability. can be largely avoided by using timber with a
moisture content that is to be expected at the
Anisotropy Insulating properties installation site over the long term. Potential
Wood consists of millions of cells with cell Its porous structure gives Central European changes in dimensions must be taken into
walls and cell lumina (pores). It can be most construction timber, with its average densities, account for all timber structural elements likely
simply described as a bundle of tubes offset very good thermal insulation properties. Timber to be subjected to fluctuating moisture con-
from each other longitudinally, which is what experiences only minimal changes in length tents, such as those exposed to the outdoors.
gives timber its various anisotropic proper- under the influence of heat, and as such, these This especially applies to timber facade clad-
ties in a longitudinal and transverse direction. changes play very little role in practice. Ther- ding, which is exposed to the effects of sun
One optical characteristic of anisotropy is the mal expansion depends on the type of timber and rain. Rapid fluctuations in moisture content
completely different look of longitudinal, trans- and can be: are likely to cause timber to crack.
verse and radial sections and the different • Along the grain 2.55 to 5 ≈ 10-6 K-1
behaviour of timber along and across its grain • In a radial direction 15 to 45 ≈ 10-6 K-1 Other characteristics
(Figs. B 4.6 and B 4.7). This has an effect on • In tangential direction 30 to 60 ≈ 10-6 K-1 Depending on the type of wood and specific
the forces that can be allowed to be imposed site conditions of the individual tree, timber can
on it. For spruce wood along the grain these Timber does not usually increase in volume have other characteristics such as knotholes,
forces are: because it starts drying out when tempera- slope of grain, pith, annual ring widths, cracks,
• Up to 11 N/mm2 for tensile forces tures rise, so it shrinks and reduces in volume. bark pockets, resin galls, warps, discolour-
• Up to 9 N/mm2 for tensile forces Timber’s strength decreases at higher tem- ation, compression wood and insect damage in
but across the grain only: peratures, but at the temperatures usually varying frequencies and concentrations. These
• Up to 2.5 N/mm2 for compressive forces occurring in buildings, it is not necessary to properties mean that solid wood’s quality varies
• Up to 0.05 N/mm2 for compressive forces take this into account. widely, which plays a vital role in determining
where and for what purpose a particular timber
Another consequence of anisotropy is the dif- Moisture can be used in construction.
ferent rate of swelling and shrinking in the three Living trees contain water in their cell walls
planes along and across the grain, in a radial and pores. A tree’s mass can have a moisture
or tangential direction. Swelling and shrinking content of up to 70 %. Maximum moisture Exterior wall cladding
rates for every 1 % of change in spruce wood’s absorption in the cell walls is referred to as
moisture content, for example, are: fibre saturation and ranges from 22 to 35 %. Exterior wall cladding protects structures from
• Longitudinal, less than 0.01 % Regardless of its use, timber remains hygro- moisture (especially driving rain), extreme tem-
• Transverse and radial, from 0.15 to 0.19 % scopic, i.e. it absorbs and releases water peratures (winter and summer heat insulation),
• Transverse and tangential, from 0.27 to 0.36 % depending on ambient moisture conditions. sunlight and wind, and is also an aspect of a
The following equilibrium moisture contents building’s design. Timber is available in small-
tend to become established in timber: format elements (e.g. shingles), as linear clad-

132
 Timber

Solid wood Wood-based material

Processing Debarking Splitting Sawing Sawing Paring Machining De-fibering

Semi-finished
Log Shingles Sawn timber Sawn timber Veneers Wood wool Chips Fibres
product

Solid plywood Laminated Lightweight Flat pressed Soft, porous

Product Normal shingles Profiled boards
panels veneer lumber chipboard particle board fibreboard
with wood wool Calender
cover layer particle board

Decorative Plywood Parallel strand Wood wool Laminated strand Medium-hard

Profiled boards
shingles block wood lumber panel lumber (LSL) fibreboard

Wooden strips, Multilayer Lightweight multi- Hard wood

Veneer plywood OSB flat boards
slats and battens sheeting layer boards fibreboard

Rhomboid Synthetic Medium-density

Coreboard Particle board
panels resin-bonded fibreboard (MDF)
particle board
B 4.8 Gypsum-bonded Gypsum
Glulam
particle board fibreboard
B 4.4 Barn and stable, Veneto (IT) 1930s Cement-bonded Cement
B 4.5 Chapel, Sumvitg (CH) 1988, Peter Zumthor chipboard fibreboard
B 4.6 Deformations in a transverse section of solid wood
B 4.7 Tree trunk sections Chipboard with Fibre-reinforced
B 4.8 Classification of timber products and wood-based fibrous facing plasterboard
materials based on type of processing
Veneered Bituminised
chipboard wood fibreboard

ding (e.g. boards, slats) and in medium-sized • Further profiling (rebates, tongues and be produced depending on the tools avail-
to large-format panels. The choice of exterior grooves) if required able. Planks are made to order in a planing
cladding greatly influences the impact of a mill and can be bought from timber merchants
building’s design. Glued laminated timber (glulam) (Fig. B 4.16, p. 136).
Glued laminated timber is a hardened solid
Wood and wood-based materials wood that eliminates to some extent the weak- Shingles
Many new solid wood and wood-based mater- ening influence of the defects and imperfec- Shingles are individually split from a block,
ials have been developed recently [1], pro- tions inherent in wood growth. It is made of usually by hand with a splitter or riving knife.
viding a range of solid woods that have been at least three dried softwood boards or lamin- They have a tapering cross section, and
slightly altered but ensure the same quality ations glued together with the grain parallel. It depending on the type of shingle, may also
(Fig. B 4.8). In developing wood-based mater- can be used to make simple, straight structural be chamfered. Sawn shingles are suitable
ials there has been a focus on optimising their elements as well as forms with variable cross for wall cladding, although their rough-cut sur-
strength and surface qualities. Below is a selec- sections or that turn around their longitudinal faces are less robust and weather more quickly.
tion of solid wood and wood-based materials axis and /or single or double curves.
that can be used to build timber facades. Wood-based materials
Steps in its production: The timber industry offers a large variety of
Logs and round timbers • Softwood planks are kiln-dried to reduce the mainly planar wood-based materials optimised
Round timber is made of tree trunks or log wood’s moisture content to around 12 % to make the best possible use of timber’s prop-
sections. • Boards are graded for strength, visually or erties for construction applications. The main
by machine, and major defects removed if optimisations include:
Steps in manufacture: necessary • Size, i.e. length, width and thickness, to
• Bark is stripped off the trunk • Boards are finger-jointed to form laminations make larger structural components and elem-
• Calibration of the cross section along the • Laminations are planed and cut to length ents covering larger areas. Materials made
length of the trunk as required • Adhesive is applied to the broad face of of planks or veneers usually achieve much
• Cutting of relief grooves in larger cross laminations greater strengths than solid timbers from the
sections to prevent cracking if required • Laminations are bonded in a straight or same kind of wood
• Air drying followed by kiln drying if required curved press • Strength, with the aim of providing a timber
• Visual grading of the timber’s strength • Boards graded into different classes can with greater load-bearing capacity
be positioned at various levels in the cross • Surface quality, with the goal of ensuring wide-
Sawn construction timber, solid hard and section ranging conformity in terms of appearance
soft wood • Hardening under pressure (element surfaces) or weathering (facades)
Sawn construction timber is produced by • Boards are usually planed, chamfered and
cutting or shaping logs. cut to length after curing Defects such as knotholes, cracks and spiral
graining, which can greatly reduce timber’s
Steps in manufacture: Tongue-and-grooved and profiled boards strength, are unavoidable in naturally grown
• Cutting with a gang saw or log bandsaw Planed and profiled timbers are sawn, planed wood but play no or only a subordinate role
• Air and /or kiln drying and milled from logs. in wood-based materials because adjoining
• Visual grading of the timber’s strength As well as the forms and dimensions de- timber elements neutralise them. This makes
• Finger jointing and gluing of timbers if required scribed in DIN 4072 and DIN 68 126 Part 1, wood-based materials more homogeneous,
• Planing and chamfering if required many different profiles and dimensions can and they usually swell and shrink much less

133
Timber

Softwoods Douglas fir Spruce Scots pine Larch Pine Fir Western Western
Silver fir Hemlock Red Cedar
DGA FI KI LA PIP TA HEM RCW
Wood colour yellowish early wood pale yellow yellowish yellowish early wood early wood white,
Sap / heart white / yellowish- white / reddish reddish / almost light brown- red-brown,
wood red brown, white, red-white, brown, yellowish white, grey, darkens,
darkens, late wood turns darkens, to reddish, late wood late wood late wood
late wood reddish- brown, late wood brown, pale red, darkens, darker
darker yellow, late wood dark brown late wood sapwood / sapwood /
sapwood / darker dark heartwood heartwood
heart wood indistin- indistin-
indistin- guishable guishable
guishable
Resistance average, low, low to average to sapwood – low, low to very high
to fungus sapwood sensitive to average, low low, sensitive average
sensitive to blue stain sapwood heartwood – to blue
blue stain very average stain
sensitive to
blue stain
Resistance average low low average low to low low high
to insects to high average than solid wood. Anisotropy, i.e. the directional
Range West coast Europe Europe, Central Southern / Central and North-west North-west behaviour of wood-based materials, diminishes
of North North-West Europe south-east southern North North as wood sections are made smaller.
America, Asia North Europe America, America
grown in America, grown in
Europe Central Europe Synthetic resin-bonded wood-based materials
America Synthetic resin-bonded wood-based materials
are bar-shaped or planar products made of
crushed woodchips and adhesive (phenolic
and resorcinol resin and other resins).
Hardwoods Maple Red Beech Oak Meranti Intsia Robinia Teak
ironwood (Copper dark-red
(Bongossi) beech) Multilayer panels
AH AZO BU EI MER MB ROB TEK These panels consist of three or five boards
Wood colour yellowish pale red pale yellow grey / grey- yellowish yellowish pale yellow grey / gold- crossed at right angles to each other, stacked
Sap / heart white, silky, brown / to red-grey, yellow, grey to white / light- to greenish yellow, later and glued together. The cover boards lie
wood shiny, sap- deep red- sapwood light- pink-grey / brown to yellow / medium- to
parallel to each other. Panels are available in
wood and brown with and heart- to dark- red-brown red-brown, green- dark brown,
heartwood a slight wood brown, darkens yellow to often narrow a wide range of strengths, a property that can
barely violet tone barely darkens olive yellow, black veins be modified depending on the quality of the
distin- distin- later shiny timber used and thickness ratios of individual
guishable guishable red-brown layers (Figs. B 4.13 and 4.15, p. 136).
Resistance very low, high very low high high to very high very high very high
to fungus also to average
blue stain
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and structural
Resistance partly very high low high average high to high very high
veneer lumber (SVL)
to insects very low to high very high (termite- Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is made by
proof) bonding approximately 3 mm thick, cured soft-
Range Europe West Africa Europe Europe South-East South-East South-East South-East wood, and more recently, 4 mm thick, much
to Asia Asia Asia, Mada- North Asia, grown stronger beech wood veneers (Fig. B 4.11,
Minor gascar, America, in other p. 136). Veneer configurations can vary as
Papua New grown in tropical
Guinea Europe regions
follows:
• Type S: The grain of all veneer plies lie paral-
a
lel, lengthwise to the production direction,
mainly for linear structural elements and loads.
Wood- Three and Laminated Flat chipboard, Facade Wood Cement • Type Q: The grain of all plies is mainly paral-
based five-layer veneer lumber particle board plywood / fibreboard fibreboard lel, although some plies run in a transverse
material plywood siding
direction, for planar structural elements and
plywood
loads.
Wood type / soft woods, pine (Kerto) adhesive- plywood mainly made cellulose-
Material mainly spruce Douglas fir, bonded particle with thin, of spruce, fir reinforced • Type T: The grain of all veneer plies lie paral-
and Douglas Southern pine board, wood blemish-free pine, beech calcium-silicate lel like Type S, but this lumber is made of
fir, synthetic (Microlam) chips: top veneer birch, poplar, panels made lighter (lower density) veneers with lower
resins wood synthetic resins, pine, beech, specially for eucalyptus, of Portland load-bearing capacity. Veneers in each ply
preservative SVL: birch, alder etc. facades woody fibre cement,
are generally joined by a scarf joint or over-
if required Oregon pine, woody fibres from annual siliceous
Douglas fir synthetic resins; plants, with or aggregates lapped
acc. to cement-bonded without extra and cellulose
DIN 68 705-3 particle board: bonding agent, fibres SVL (Structural Veneer Lumber) is mainly used
Beech wood chips: synthetic resins, to make bar-shaped structural elements. It
(BauBuche) spruce, fir, as natural resins,
reinforcement, water-repelling
consists of veneer lumber laminations glued
mineral bonding agents (waxes / to cover layers. Laminations made of several
agent: Portland paraffin) and 2.5 mm thick veneer plies are glued together
cement, magne- substances to with the grain parallel to the length of the board
site bonding protect against
and joined along their length by means of fin-
agent pests and fire
ger joints (Fig. B 4.14, p. 136).
b B 4.9

134
 Timber

Solid wood products Logs Construction timber Profiled boards Shingles

(round sections) (Solid hard and
soft woods)
Type of wood spruce, fir, spruce, fir, pine spruce, fir, Western Red Cedar
pine, larch larch, Douglas fir pine, larch larch
Douglas fir, beech [Wood type Douglas fir oak
other types group A], oak
of wood as in [Wood type group A],
DIN 1052-1 /A 1, Red Ironwood [Wood
Tab. 1 type group C], teak
[Wood type group A]
Surface from debarked rough-sawn, levelled or split or
qualities to a smooth also planed planed rough-sawn
B 4.9 a Characteristics of soft and hard woods [1] surface and chamfered
b Wood-based materials and their constituents
B 4.10 Solid wood products and their constituents B 4.10

Particle board / chipboard Fastening elements a fastening is to an edge, the more likely a pilot
Particle board is made by pressing small wood Nails and screws are mainly used to join and hole will be required. Self-drilling screws can
particles together and adding adhesive or a fix timber in facade construction. Nails must be used as an alternative.
mineral bonding agent. Particles should lie par- be driven in to a sufficient depth, with 35 mm
allel to the surface and are usually arranged in a recommended standard depth. Nail heads Substructures
several layers or pressed with a smooth transi- must not be allowed to protrude out of a timber A substructure is permanently connected to
tion into the board’s structure. element’s surface or damage the surface. the support structure and must compensate
Screws have the advantage of being easily for any unevenness in walls.
Wood fibreboard unscrewed if renovations have to be carried Some substructures also bear insulation.
Hardwood fibreboard (HFB), medium-hard out. The minimum depth for screws is 25 mm. Timber facades can be built with or without
fibreboard (MHF) and medium-density fibre- Screw heads must also not protrude out of rear ventilation cavities. If facades do not have
board (MDF) are made using a dry process the surface or be too deeply sunk in the tim- a rear ventilation cavity, the rear sides of their
with adhesives (HFB and MDF) or using a ber. Only Phillips or crosshead screws or torx timber elements should be coated and vapour-
wet process without adhesives (HFH and screws with partial threads should be used. permeable, rainproof sheeting installed. A
HFM) with strong compression. Their bond Screws with a drill tip are less likely to cause continuous rear ventilation cavity is advisable
is based on the felting of fibres and their inher- cracking and can be screwed in closer to because of the risk of moisture penetration
ent bonding ability. Hard fibreboard used for edges. (20 – 40 mm). Ventilation openings must be
load-bearing and stiffening purposes must Facade elements can also be installed using carefully closed with screens because other-
have a minimum density of 950 kg/m3 and clips, clamps or special fastening hooks. The wise small animals and insects can get in
medium-hard /medium-density fibreboard a surface should in this case be coated and and damage organic material in various ways.
minimum density of 650 kg/m3. Hard fibre- impregnated with resin (so that screws better Structural elements behind open joints in a
board behaves almost identically in both direc- resist pulling out). One almost unavoidable facade must be rainproof. The substructure’s
tions of a board’s plane. The boards’ properties disadvantage of these types of fastenings is dimensions must accommodate relevant struc-
can be changed by modifying the compressive that they “pinch” or crimp the timber’s surface. tural considerations [4].
force, temperature and adhesives used to Fastening hooks, clamps and clip are used
make them. for concealed fastenings (Fig. B 4.36, p. 139). Surfaces
They are nailed or screwed to a substructure or The effects of weathering and ultraviolet light
Cement fibreboard slot into a tongue-and-groove profile, although tend to turn untreated timber grey. Photo-oxi-
Cellulose-reinforced calcium silicate board is the greater cost and effort required to install dation degrades the lignin in timber and rain
made of Portland cement, siliceous aggregates them can be a disadvantage. Fastenings must washes it out. This can cause fibres in the top
and cellulose fibres (for applications see "Con- be durably protected from corrosion to prevent layers to peel off and, depending on the type
crete", p. 106ff.). surface discolouration caused by rusting metal of wood, can result in discolouration due to
parts or by chemical reactions with constituents fungal infestation.
Wood-based materials with new applications of heartwood. Only stainless steel connectors
• OSB board combined with composite mater- should be used with heartwoods such as oak Chemical preservation agents
ials to make structural elements and larch. Chemical timber preservatives used to protect
• Timber, hemp, linen and jute fibres like wood from fungus and insects can be classi-
those used in the car industry to make inter- Fastening spacing fied depending on their constituents into water-
ior elements The number of fastenings in a board will depend soluble (mainly inorganic salts), oily (e.g. coal
• WPCs (Wood Plastic Composites) made on its dimensions. Up to a width of 120 mm, tar oil), solvent-based products, and emul-
using extrusion and injection processes one fastening will suffice. Boards wider than sions. Chemical timber preservatives usually
120 mm must be fixed with two fastenings, one contain toxins in the form of biocides. Structural
Fastenings in each third of the board’s length. Maximum measures should be exhaustively explored
Fastenings can be visible or concealed but fastening spacing along a board is 100 cm. before chemical timber preservatives are used.
they must reliably fix facade components The edge distance perpendicular to the grain Chemical timber preservatives are generally
and in particular prevent solid wood sections, should be at least 1.5 cm and parallel with only necessary if there is a risk of infestation
such as boards, from warping. They must the grain at least 5 cm. This spacing can by destructive insects. If there is no risk of the
also allow for the timber’s anticipated swell- be reduced if screws with drill tips are used wood’s moisture content exceeding 20 %, there
ing and shrinkage so as to prevent crack- (depending on the type of wood). The greater is not usually any danger of infestation by dam-
ing [2]. a timber’s density and hardness and the closer aging fungi. Insect infestation is also unlikely if

135
Timber

B 4.11 Laminated veneer lumber

B 4.12 Board
B 4.13 Three-ply timber panel
B 4.14 SVL (structural veneer lumber)
B 4.15 Five-layer timber
B 4.16 Shiplap boards
B 4.17 Plywood (BFU)
B 4.18 Extruded wood-fibre profiles
B 4.19 –22 Examples of timber cladding panels
B 4.23 –26 Special structures

B 4.11 B 4.12
the wood’s moisture content remains under
10 %. Chemical timber preservatives can
usually be dispensed with in timber structures
that are open and can be checked for insect
infestation, apart from for load-bearing struc-
tural elements.

Biological preservation agents

Timber can also be impregnated with water-
soluble boric salt solutions (borax mixtures,
boric acid), waxes (hard wax, balsam and
other solutions), natural resin products (paints,
oils, glazes), oils, wood vinegar, wood tar,
pitch, compounds containing citrus oils and
extracts from naturally resistant types of wood.
Biological wood preservatives are, however,
B 4.13 B 4.14 not currently approved by building regulatory
authorities. Apart from boron compounds, their
effectiveness has also not been thoroughly
verified, and such coatings and treatments
may need longer drying times.

Surface treatments
Impregnation
Impregnation creates a water-repelling surface,
and the biocides they may contain can protect
wood from insects and microorganisms. They
are open-pored and do not from a film or pene-
trate timber. Coloured pigments can be used to
indicate impregnation.

Glazes
Glazes, with their limited ability to penetrate
B 4.15 B 4.16 materials and relatively thin surface film finish,
are a treatment somewhere in between impreg-
nation and paint. Depending on their pigment
content, the wood grain remains more or less
visible under the glaze. The UV protection they
offer can be adjusted by varying the density of
their pigments. Glazes are highly vapour-per-
meable.

Paints
Paints form a closed surface that repels water
and resists abrasion. They greatly reduce a
surface’s vapour permeability and almost
entirely impede moisture regulation between
the wood and air. A distinction is made between
colourless varnishing paints (form a film, less
penetrating, result in gloss to semi-gloss and
B 4.17 B 4.18

136
 Timber

B 4.19 B 4.20
smooth surfaces, no adequate UV protection,
not fungicidal) and paints that produce an
opaque coating (form a film, penetrate the
surface only slightly, surfaces usually shiny
and smooth and offer good UV protection).

Dispersion paints
Water-soluble dispersion paints form an
opaque coating. Their pigmentation contents
vary from that similar to a glaze through to
opaque coatings. They form a film, do not
penetrate timber and swell significantly when
exposed to moisture, so they largely prevent
vapour diffusion. They can produce a matt fin-
ish and emphasise the surface’s texture when
thinly applied. They offer good UV protection
and are rarely fungicidal. B 4.21 B 4.22

Stains
Staining is a way of colouring timber by apply-
ing pigments (pigmented or coloured stains)
or a chemical process (chemical stains). The
wood grain remains visible and, depending
on the staining method, can even be empha-
sised. Stains have no protective function so
stained surfaces are very sensitive to moisture.
Pigmented stains are also very light-sensitive.
Unlike glazes and paints, stains can only be
removed by planing or sanding them off.

Waxes
Pores and small cracks are filled with wax and
waxed surfaces remain largely permeable to
vapour. They are less scratch-resistant than B 4.23 B 4.24
painted and glazed surfaces and less imper-
vious to the effects of heat and water. It is usu-
ally advisable to impregnate timber before
waxing it. Waxes are especially suitable for
smooth, dry surfaces that are protected from
the weather.

Oils
Oils are the simplest, cheapest method of treat-
ing timber surfaces and the best from an eco-
logical point of view, although oiled surfaces
are less robust (especially when subject to
mechanical damage). Linseed, herb oil var-
nishes and a linseed-turpentine oil mix can be
used to oil timber. Oils offer better protection
against moisture and soiling than waxes.
B 4.25 B 4.26

137
Timber

B 4.27–30 Examples of horizontal sidings

B 4.31–34 Examples of vertical sidings
B 4.35 Horizontal clapboard or weatherboard siding
B 4.36 Bracket profiles
B 4.37 Horizontal shiplapped and overlapped timbers /
shingles
B 4.38 Vertical cover boards
B 4.39 Vertical shiplapped boards
B 4.40 Vertical timber siding
B 4.41 Large-format timber panels
B 4.42–46 Examples of traditional forms and structures
permeable to light and air
B 4.47– 49 Examples of shingles

B 4.27 B 4.28
Covers
Wood-based products can be not only veneered
but also covered. Here a distinction is made
between decorative and rolled laminates, foils
and linoleum.

General remarks on coatings

Lighter, more intensive and completely opaque
pigmented coatings (e.g. glazes) should be
applied to exterior timber exposed to direct
sunlight to keep surface tensions caused by
varying temperatures (swelling and shrinkage)
to a minimum. Structural elements painted
black can heat up to 70 °C under strong sun-
light, while surfaces painted white heat up only
to 40 °C (Fig. A 1.9, p. 21). Hardwoods contain
B 4.29 B 4.30 less resin, so are more suitable for glazing than
softwoods. Dark glazes should not be applied
to timbers with a high resin content (especially
pine and larch) in areas where the wood is
exposed to sunlight because the resin will
bleed out, causing blotches. Rounding edges
will improve the durability of surface coatings.
Interior surface coatings should be more vapour-
tight than external coatings (i.e. paints or glazes
inside /thin-film glazes outside) to prevent
external coatings from flaking off due to water
vapour diffusion [5].

B 4.31 B 4.32

Notes:
[1] Hegger, Manfred et al.: Holz und Holzwerkstoffe.
In: Baustoff Atlas. Munich/Basel 2005, p. 66 –75
[2] Volz, Michael: Grundlagen. In: Holzbau Atlas.
Munich/Basel 2003, p. 31– 46
[3] Scheibenreiter, Johann: Befestigung. In: Holzfassa-
den. Published by Holzforschung Austria. Vienna
2002, p. 34 –39
[4] Fachregeln des Zimmererhandwerks 01. Außen-
wandbekleidungen aus Holz- und Holzwerkstoffen.
Published by Bund Deutscher Zimmermeister.
Berlin 2006, p. 20 –27
[5] Volz, Michael: Holzschutz. In: Holzbau Atlas. Munich /
Basel 2003, p. 60 – 63
B 4.33 B 4.34

138
 Timber

B 4.35

B 4.42 B 4.43

B 4.36

B 4.37 B 4.44 B 4.45

B 4.38 B 4.39 B 4.46 B 4.47

B 4.40 B 4.41 B 4.48 B 4.49

139
Timber

B 4.50 Kinderhaus, Uttenreuth (DE) 2012, B 4.51 Extension for the Freie Universität Berlin,
KJS + Architekten Berlin (DE) 2015, Florian Nagler Architekten

The exterior wall of this single-storey day-care This building’s opaque exterior wall elements
facility for children is a timber-frame structure with are clad with vertical cedar boards of four differ-
rhomboid batten cladding. On a vertical substruc- ent widths that were glazed silver-grey by the
ture (40 ≈ 40 mm timber battens), larch planks manufacturer. Horizontal galvanised steel sheet-
(30 mm) with surfaces 30, 60 and 90 mm wide are ing bands that mark out each storey and have a
positioned in an alternating sequence across the fire prevention function add further structure to
entire facade, allowing small-scale adjustments to the facades. Its exterior and interior corners are
be made for the edges of openings and facades. convex and concave.

B 4.50

B 4.51

140
 Timber

B 4.52 Great (Bamboo) Wall House, Badaling (CN) 2002, B 4.53 Hotel Lanserhof, Marienstein (DE) 2014,
Kengo Kuma & Associates Ingenhoven Architects

Erected near the Great Wall of China, this building This four-winged complex, built around a square
is made almost entirely of bamboo. Slender verti- inner courtyard, features expansive glazed areas
cal bamboo walls open up the facade to light and and spacious balconies. Storey-high sliding screens
wind, creating an ephemeral boundary between with slender vertical larch wood louvres filter light
inside and out. Joints of differing widths vary both and can screen rooms from view, enabling guests
the intensity of daylight and contact between the to create private or open areas and providing pro-
interior and surrounding landscape. tection from the sun.

B 4.52

B 4.53

141
Timber

Sea Ranch

California, US 1965

Architects:
Moore Lyndon Turnbull Whitaker, Berkeley
Structural engineers:
Davis & Morreau, Albany

º A+U 09/1989
DBZ 02/1994
Marrey, Bernard: Des Histoires de Bois.
Paris, 1994
MLTW / Moore Lyndon Turnbull and
Whitaker: Sea Ranch. Tokyo, 1981

• Simple, robust timber-frame structure with

1
rough-sawn fir wood columns
• Profiled redwood planks b 4
1
• No impregnation and therefore no mainten-
ance required
• Overhanging roof inadvisable because of 3
constant strong winds
• All beams are connected through side or b cc
set on a column
• Squared timber cross-braces (101.6/101.6 mm), 1
joined by means of exposed quarter-circle 2
metal plates, stiffen the building against the
wind and earthquakes 5
• Weathering has greatly changed the timber’s 6
colour
• No insulation required to maintain warmth
in winter

3 3 3 3
aa
4

2 4

a a

c c

Cross section • Floor plan

Scale 1:500
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Redwood vertical siding, 25.4/203.2 mm, shiplapped

Sealing
Rough-sawn fir planks, vertical tongue and groove,
with opaque paint finish on inside areas,
50.8/203.2 mm
2 Columns, 254/254 mm
3 Beams, 101.6/254 mm
1
4 Extra beams around windows, 101.6/101.6 mm
5 Aluminium-frame skylight
6 Redwood roof covering, 25.4/203.2 mm
Sealing
Rough-sawn fir planks, vertical tongue and groove,
50.8/203.2 mm bb

142
 Timber

Residence and studio

Paris, FR 1983

Architect:
Roland Schweitzer, Paris
with Alexandre Levandovsky

º AC 110, 1984
Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas
Munich / Basel 2003

1
• Vertical timber siding
• Glazed exterior boards
• 60 cm grid, prefabricated wall elements
• Very low construction costs

2 e e

aa
4

a a

c c d d

Cross section • Floor plan, ground floor

Scale 1:200
Horizontal cross section • Vertical
cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Sheet metal capping plate, folded and painted black

75/100 mm
bb cc
2 Vertical shiplapped timber siding, 100/25 mm
Crossbar, 38/142 mm,
Air cavity in between, 82 mm
Thermal insulation, 60 mm
Vapour barrier
Plasterboard, 2≈ 15 mm
3 Vertical shiplapped timber siding, 100/25 mm
Crossbar, 38/90 mm, 5
Air cavity in between, 30 mm
Thermal insulation, 60 mm
Plasterboard, 13 mm
4 Holes drilled to equalise vapour pressure and
allow for drainage every 15 cm, d = 10 mm 6 7
5 Post, 38/142 mm
6 Post, 38/90 mm
7 Partition wall dd ee

143
Timber

Law courts

Bordeaux, FR 1998
a

Architects: b
Richard Rogers Partnership, London
Structural engineers:
OTH Sud-Ouest, Bordeaux

º architecture 01/1999 b
Bauwelt 27/1998
Lemoine, Bertrand: Frankreich 20. Jahr-
hundert. Basel / Berlin / Boston 2000

• Seven court rooms inside an open hall

• Cool air is pumped into the building over
an outside waterfall and pool and once
heated inside, flows upwards due to the
building’s form.
• The flask-like form lets a relatively large
amount of daylight in through an opening
in the top of the building envelope.
• Diagonal cedar wood siding
• Acoustic panels in the courtrooms limit the
amount of noise entering from outside and
minimise reverberation inside

Floor plan • Cross section Scale 1:1,000

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20

aa

144
 Timber

8
2 1
4

1
5

6
6
1 Zinc sheeting capping
2 Laminated veneer timber, 2≈ 39 mm
3 Painted aluminium-frame window with
insulating glazing,
toughened safety glass 6 + space between the
panes 12 + laminated safety glass 2≈ 4 mm
4 Diagonal western red cedar timber siding, 18/70 mm
8 Pine batten substructure, 27/60/40 mm
9 Sealing
Plywood, 5 mm
10 Vertical pine battens, 32/32 mm, with sealed joints
Thermal insulation, 80 mm
Mineral fibre insulation, 50 mm, air cavity
Sound insulation, 40 mm, between a
11 wooden substructure, 20 mm
Maple wood panel lining
5 Plywood, 20 mm
6 Diagonal western red cedar timber siding, 18/70 mm,
nailed to vertical counter-battens, 38/38 mm
Sealing
Plasterboard, 10 mm
Thermal insulation, 80 mm between (8)
Mineral fibre insulation, 50 mm, air cavity
Sound insulation, 40 mm, between a
wooden substructure, 20 mm
Maple wood panel lining
7 Air extractor hood for the ventilation system
Diagonal western red cedar timber siding, 18/70 mm,
laid on a timber frame
8 Wood frame made of Douglas fir/spruce laminated
veneer timber forming a ring between vertical,
10
slightly curving wooden posts, glulam 110/180 mm
9 Glulam reveal, 58 mm
12 10 Hinge
11 Door leaf
Western red cedar veneer, 10 mm
Plywood, 10 mm
Hardwood frame with insulation, 35 mm
Maple cladding, 10 mm, with integrated lead layer
bb 12 Painted flat steel bracket as support for (8)

145
 Timber

Forestry depot

Turbenthal, CH 1993

Architects:
Burkhalter Sumi, Zurich

º Burkhalter, Marianne; Sumi, Christian:

Die Holzbauten. Zurich 1996
DBZ 07/1996
Detail 03/1995
Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 2003

• Prototype for forestry depots using a three-

part modular system consisting of an office
section, garage and open shed
• Differentiated by the type and colour of their
exterior sidings
• High level of prefabrication 1 1
• Garage made of concrete for fire safety
reasons

2 2

1 Folded sheet metal capping

2 Office section:
Horizontal timber siding, 21/230 mm
Battens, 40/80 mm
Vapour-permeable wind paper
Thermal insulation, 120 mm
between wooden studs,
Vapour barrier,
Pine panel, 19 mm
3 Log, Ø 300 – 380 mm
4 Solid larch timber, 120 mm
Garage section:
Vertical timber siding, 21/230 mm
Battens, 40/80 mm 4
Vapour-permeable wind paper
Thermal insulation, 80 mm
(where necessary)
Steel-reinforced concrete, 200 mm

3 aa bb

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section

Scale 1:20

a
2

146
 Timber

House and studio

Tsukuba, JP 1995

Architects:
Naito Architect & Associates, Tokyo a a

º Bauwelt 38/1997
Detail 04/1996
l’ARCA 12/1995
The Japan Architect 46/2002

• Double-layer walls
outside: cedar timber siding, gaps closed
with acrylic glass panels
inside: cedar timber lining
• Sliding wooden elements

1 2

b b

3 4

Floor plan, upper floor

Scale 1:250
Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20
Detail of a sliding door element
Scale 1:5

1 Sliding element to close off 4 Japanese cedar boards,

aa a balcony 12/150 mm,
with Japanese cedar boards, with cover strips, 12/10 mm
12/150 mm Windproofing
2 Timber-frame window with Timber walls with 105 mm
fixed glazing thermal insulation between them
3 Guide rails for a Plywood, 6 mm
flat steel sliding door, 5 10 mm gap, closed with a 2 mm
1 5
bent to shape, 6 mm acrylic glass panel
bb

147
Timber

Housing complex

Regensburg, DE 1996

Architects:
Fink + Jocher, Munich

º A+U 04/1997
Bauwelt 25/1997 a a
DBZ 03/1999
Detail 01/1997
Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Der neue Holzbau. b b
Aktuelle Architektur – Alle Holzbausysteme –
Neue Technologien. Munich, 1998

• Horizontal larch battens

• Built in four months from the laying of the
foundations 1
• Part of a Bavarian building authority pilot
project to develop cost-effective, largely aa
prefabricated houses that can be built in Floor plan, ground floor • Cross section
Scale 1:750
large numbers Vertical cross section • Horizontal
cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Three-ply plywood panel, 40 mm c c

with sheet metal capping 4
2 Timber-frame glass door with insulating glazing 3
3 Safety barrier:
welded flat steel
4 Wooden interior door
5 As for 7 but without battens on the inside
6 Partition wall,
plasterboard on a timber stud wall
7 Load-bearing exterior wall, (gable end):
Horizontal larch siding, 48/24 mm
on battens, 40/20 mm
Wind paper
OSB particle board
Wall frame posts, 60/120 mm,
with mineral fibre thermal insulation between
Plastic foil vapour barrier 6 5
OSB particle board
Battens, 80/60 mm
Plasterboard, 12.5 mm

cc bb
2 3 c

148
 Timber

Temporary lecture hall building

Garching, DE 2011

Architects:
Deubzer König + Rimmel Architekten, b b
Munich
Structural engineers:
bauart Konstruktion, Munich
Klumpp Konstruktion, Weikersheim
a

º Detail 10/2013 a
Holzbau Die Neue Quadriga 03/2012

• Temporary university building, built in a short 1 Rhomboid spruce battens, glazed black
6
30° chamfered, Laminated safety
time and with a low budget. Two lecture halls
rough-sawn, glass 2≈ 6 mm + space
of different sizes (seating 479 and 288) sep- Black open-pored glaze, between the panes
arated by a narrow corridor 22/84 mm 12 mm + toughened
• Load-bearing timber-frame structure based Undulating veneered safety glass, 10 mm
on a 2.50-metre grid, timber element infill plywood panel, 5 Spruce glulam,
60/70 – 260 mm planed, 240/240 mm
• Undulating facade made of rough-sawn, Squared spruce timber, 6 Gravel fill, 100 mm
rhomboid spruce panels with narrow annual 30/90 mm Polymeric bitumen
growth rings and painted with a black glaze 2 Spruce glulam column, sealing sheeting
• Interior partition walls made of OSB panels planed, 240/240 mm Polystyrene insulation,
3 OSB panel, 25 mm 200 mm
and planks and – as far as possible – visible Thermal insulation Bituminous primer
glulam roof structure Mineral wool, 200 mm OSB board panel,
between solid spruce, 28 mm
1 3 80/200 mm Spruce glulam,
Wood fibreboard, 15 mm planed, 100/140 mm
Floor plan, ground floor Scale 1:750 Two-ply vapour permeable Glulam beam
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section windproofing Planed spruce,
Scale 1:20 4 Spruce frame 240/850 –1,000 mm

c c

2 1

4
bb

1
5

aa

cc

149
Timber

Multistorey car park

Heilbronn, DE 1999

Architects:
Mahler Günster Fuchs, Stuttgart

º A+U 03/2001
Bauwelt 06 – 07/2000
Casabella 691, 2001

• 40/60 mm squared timber battens,

15 metres long
• Building envelope not insulated
• Timber facade modules
• Details visible on the inside and outside
• Squared timber battens screwed on with
concealed screws on both sides

Elevation • Floor plan, ground floor

Scale 1:1,500
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

150
 Timber

1 3 7

bb

1 3

1 Square timber battens, 10 Steel profile column,

Douglas fir, 60/60 mm HEB 320
and 30/60 mm 11 Steel profile bracket,
2 Steel profile timber HEA 260
facade fastening, 12 Hot-dip-galvanised wire
∑ 120/80/12 mm mesh, 40/40/3.1 mm
2 4 6
3 Galvanised steel profile, 13 Round Douglas fir
∑ 70/70 mm glulam facade columns,
4 Facade timbers, Ø 120 mm
5 untreated Douglas fir, 14 Stainless steel tension
12 40/60 mm cable, Ø 10 mm
5 Flat steel bracket 15 Squared Douglas fir
6 Galvanised tubular steel timber, 70/100 mm,
brace, Ø 44 mm steel dowel covered
7 Door on rotating pins, with a wooden plug,
13 three-ply veneer plywood Tubular steel spacer,
11 door leaf, 2≈ 28 mm Ø 40 mm
8 Folded stud plate 16 Precast concrete stairs
9 Steel profile joists, 17 Galvanised tubular steel
HEB 450 handrail, Ø 22 mm
9

10 6

14

b b

7 17

8 16

15

aa

151
Timber

Café

Helsinki, FI 2000

Architect:
Niko Sirola, Woodstudio 2000,
Helsinki University of Technology
Structural engineers:
Nuvo, Espoo

º Architectural Review 12/2000

Detail 05/2002
Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 2003

• Spruce glulam elements Cross section • Floor plan Scale 1:500

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20
• 62 cm wide panels, assembled on site
1 2
• Flame-treated timber surface impregnated
with creosote
• Reapplying creosote twice a year provides
adequate protection from rain
4 11
3 2
7

4 9

aa
12

a 5 6 9

8
10

b b

4
c c
a

cc

1 Galvanised steel sheeting parapet

cover, black-coated
2 Stainless steel dowel, Ø 12 mm
3 Galvanised steel pins, Ø 10 mm
4 Glulam element 145 mm, flame-
treated on the outside, impregnated
with creosote and sanded inside
5 Screw, Ø 10 mm
6 Glulam element door, 100 mm
7 Spruce glulam element, glued,
145 mm
8 Floor light
9 Fixed glazing, toughened safety
glass, 10 mm
10 Sliding door with toughened safety
glass, 10 mm
2 7 8 7
11 Planed timber fill, 25/35 mm
12 Flat steel, painted black, ¡ 10/50 mm
13 Waterproof plywood, 16 mm

bb 13

152
 Timber

Student accommodation

Coimbra, PT 1999

Architects:
Aires Mateus e Associados, Lisbon

º Architectural Review 12/2000

a a
AV Monografías / Monographs 83, 2000 b b
Casabella 691, 2001
Detail 07– 08/2003

1
• Smooth timber panels, 80 cm wide, in three
different heights 2
• Each apartment has windows of medium
panel height and double the panel width,
with a pair of folding shutters
• The timber facade changes constantly with
the residents' comings and goings

3
aa

Standard floor plan • Cross section 4

Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Concrete slab, 50 mm
2 Glass-fibre-reinforced render
3 Plywood shutter, 20 mm
4 Plywood panel, 8 mm,
phenolic-resin-bonded
Rear ventilation cavity, 20 mm
Insulation, 50 mm
Masonry, 200 mm
Smooth plaster, 15 mm

c c

4
3

bb cc

153
Timber

Guest building for a youth education centre

Windberg, DE 1990

Architects:
Thomas Herzog with Peter Bonfig
and Walter Götz, Munich

º Arch+ 126/1995
a a
Byggekunst 06/1997
Costruire 167/1997
db 08/2009
DBZ 01/1992
Techniques et Architecture 398/1991
Worldarchitecture 02/1999

• New building for young guests at the centre 2 3

with functional floor-plan zoning and two sec-
4
tions made of completely different materials
• Translucent thermal insulation in front of a
lime sandstone wall enables the solid build-
ing’s southern facade to produce passive 5
aa
solar energy
• The north-facing facade of this timber-frame
building is clad with weatherboard timber in a
clearly structured vertical and horizontal grid 2 3
• Opaque ventilation hatches (north-facing
facade) and gable ends made of smooth b b
veneer plywood
• Module: 15 cm 8
• Larch weatherboard siding with a colourless 8 1
bb
glaze
• Regularly-positioned Z-profiles protect the
building from rain

Cross section Scale 1:400 2

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

1 North-facing external wall, 197 mm

Larch weatherboard siding, 22/137 mm
Ventilation cavity, 20 mm
Perforated foil that “breathes” 7
Thermal insulation, 140 mm
PE foil vapour barrier
Plywood panel, 15 mm 1
2 Glulam column, 150/175 mm
3 Glulam post, 70/175 mm
4 Glulam beam, 120/300 mm
5 Glulam crossbar, 60/160 mm
6 Glulam threshold, 60/160 mm 6
7 Aluminium Z-profile every 45 cm
8 Ventilation hatch

154
 Timber

GucklHupf

Innerschwand am Mondsee, AT 1993

Architect:
Hans Peter Wörndl, Vienna

º Architectural Record 04/1999 a a

A+U 05/1998
Techniques + architecture 441, 1999
Bahamon, Alejandro: PreFab. Barcelona
2002

• Lightweight structure for temporary use

• The building can be transformed in varying
states ranging from entirely open to com-
pletely closed
• Variable relationship between inside and out
• Red Okoumé plywood panels bonded with
waterproof glue and painted with three coats
of highly transparent spar varnish

aa

Floor plans 1 Spruce column, 120/120 mm Spruce battens, 20/30 mm

Scale 1:200 2 Spruce beam, 60/120 mm with insulation between, 20 mm
Vertical cross 3 External wall panel 35 mm: Red Okoumé plywood panel,
section Red Okoumé plywood panel, 8 mm, panel area, 1,200/2,500 mm,
Scale 1:50 6 mm, painted with two coats of highly
Panel area, 1,200/2,500 mm, transparent spar varnish
bonded with waterproof glue, 4 Cable with winch for
painted with a triple coat of highly flexibility: turning, folding,
transparent spar varnish tilting, pulling
Plywood, 8 mm Silver anodised aluminium
Roofing / wind paper 5 Glazing with foil backing

155
Timber

School caretaker’s house

Triesenberg, LI 1994

Architect:
Hubert Ospelt, Vaduz
with Marcus Freund

º Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas.

Munich / Basel 2003

2 3 bb

• Four-storey timber building Elevation • Floor plan, ground floor and gallery
• Fine shingle texture on a clear stereometric Scale 1:400
1 Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
building
Scale 1:20
• Ceiling, walls and roof made of edge-nailed
timber panels 1 Copper sheeting rain guttering
• Flush beech glued laminated timber joists 2 Larch shingles, double-lapped
transfer floor loads to columns without add- Horizontal siding
Vertical battens, 80/80 mm
itional support Horizontal siding, 40/60 mm
3 Edge-nailed timber panels, 80 mm
3 Aluminium-wood windows with insulating glazing
b b 4 Larch window sill

a
aa

156
 Timber

The Olperer hut in the Zillertal Alps

Ginzling, AT 2007 b b

Architects:
Hermann Kaufmann, Schwarzach
Structural engineers:
Merz Kaufmann Partner, Dornbirn

º Architektur, Vienna 07/2008 aa

Detail 06/2008 a a
Zuschnitt 30/2008

• Reconstruction of an alpine hut with 60-bed

2
accommodation at an altitude of 2,400 metres
• Extensive use of prefabricated elements and
short construction time; structural components
were transported to the alpine building site by 1
helicopter
• Solid timber structure made of 7.8 –17.6 cm
thick spruce plywood board elements; spruce
shingle facade cladding
• The main building is only used in the summer 5
months, so no additional thermal insulation 4
was required.
• 14 % of the building’s extremely low power
requirement of 29 kWh is provided by a photo-
voltaic system and 86 % by a rapeseed oil-
fired cogeneration heat and power plant.
6
Cross section • Floor plan, ground floor Scale 1:1,000
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

1 Three-ply spruce panel, with frame and plywood,

42 mm glued, 27 mm
2 Larch shingles, 10 Plywood threshold, 7
Weatherboard siding, 160/94 mm
24 mm 11 Larch threshold,
Rear ventilation cavity, 200/50 mm
100 mm Bitumen sheeting, 5 mm
Roof membrane, spruce Bed of mortar, 15 mm
plywood board element, 12 Steel-reinforced concrete,
exposed timber quality 200 mm
underneath, 176 mm 13 Winter protection:
3 Copper sheeting under Solid spruce shutter
a photovoltaic panel element with guide rails
4 A flue /ventilation duct hung in runner rails,
ventilates rooms 25 mm
5 Plywood beam binder, 14 Sealed joint
166 mm 15 Spruce shingles
6 Solid larch folding Spruce plywood, 8
shutter, smooth, 25 mm Exposed timber quality 9
7 Timber-frame window inside, jointless,
with insulating glazing 2≈ 98 mm, screwed down
8 Plywood frame, 16 Spruce shingles, plywood
160/94 mm element, exposed timber
c c
9 Three-ply spruce panel quality inside, 148 mm

16 10

11
13 14 15 cc 12 bb

157
158
 Metal

B 5 Metal In many places progress in human civilisation

was accompanied by developments in metal-
working technologies. The discovery of a way
to make bronze (around 2,500 BC) and iron
(from approx. 750 BC) was revolutionary
because the new materials improved the effect-
iveness of tools and weapons and stimulated
general, broad-based cultural evolution.
Other than casting, only a few metalworking
techniques, such as forging, bending and
beating, were initially available. Gradually this
repertoire was expanded and refined, and
newly discovered metals and alloys increased
the range of metal’s applications.
Technological progress in metalworking is
clearly demonstrated by the example of arma-
ments, which, as well as having a protective
function, show a desire for prestige. These two
divergent requirements resulted in a diverse
range of forms of shaping and working metal
(Figs. B 5.2 and B 5.3). B 5.2
Metal was used very early in construction. Lead,
bronze and copper have been used, especial-
ly for roofs, since antiquity. The Greeks used
large amounts of bronze and iron to clamp
stones and lead to seal joints in building tem-
ples and large walls. Some of these buildings
were subsequently destroyed to recover the
coveted metals, especially during wars. Many
Gothic buildings would not stand firm without
the (usually concealed) use of iron anchors
and ties.

Apart from these applications, the use of metals

was for a long time restricted to covering dis-
crete points and enclosing projections, porches
etc. Only with the emergence of large glass
windows did metals appear in facades in a new
form and to a greater extent.
The further development and spread of metal
and glass were closely interdependent because
it was the metals’ load-bearing properties
B 5.3
(tensile and compressive strength) that made B 5.2 Greek bronze helmet
it increasingly possible to break up solid walls B 5.3 Squire's breastplate, approx.1480, chain mail
16th century.
into individual elements. B 5.4 Cast-iron balcony and porch, London (GB)
19th century.
Wrought iron, cast iron and steel
The replacing of charcoal with coke and hard
coal from around 1720 made it possible to
mass-produce pig iron, with the first iron sheet-
ing made in England in the mid-18th century.
The use of metal in building facades coincided
chronologically with the development of railway
rails (around 1830) and a more widespread use
of steel (from 1855). In 1854 the first wrought
iron Å-beams became available in France, and
James Bogardus built a five-storey facade fa-
cing the street that was made of prefabricated
cast-iron elements for Harper & Brothers pub-
lishers in New York (1854).
At this time the steel and iron elements visible
in facades were generally part of the support
structure, like those in the foundry hall of the
Sayner smelting works by C. L. Althans, or they
were combined with glass (1830) or brick, as
B 5.1 Distribution warehouse, Chippenham (GB) 1982, at Jules Saulnier’s Menier chocolate factory in
Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners Noisel-sur-Marne (1872).
B 5.4

159
Metal

B 5.5 B 5.6
Other typical 19th-century applications for cast on the criteria mentioned above. Based on This type of construction was important in the
iron were prefabricated balustrades, railings the principle of railway rails, whose profile development of metal facades because visible
and parapets, and entire balcony and porch cross section was designed for a specific load-bearing metal sections often had to be
systems (Fig. B 5.4, p. 159) like those that still purpose and a defined installation situation, matched with the material of closed panels
characterise the New Orleans streetscape “standard steel profile sections” were devel- around windows and storey slabs. The result
today. Metal’s great strength and the type of oped from the early 20th century to meet was facades whose appearance was charac-
production (casting) made it possible to build specific load conditions. terised by large areas of glazing and by the uni-
delicate, open structures that were also very fying effect of metal. Coated steel and metals
economical, resulting in such structures being Architects such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe such as stainless steel, aluminium, bronze or
produced and stocked in large quantities used these ideas to develop special facade weathering steel were used.
during this period. profiles and elements, creating a completely The Lake Shore Drive Apartments (Mies van
One early example of an almost completely new, self-supporting type of facade consisting der Rohe, 1951) and the Chicago Inland Steel
opaque metal facade is an office building in of elements hung from a load-bearing frame, Building by SOM (1955, Fig. B 5.11) are not-
the Rue Réaumur in Paris built by Georges a structure referred to as a “curtain wall”. This able examples of the use of stainless steel in
Chédanne in 1905. Spaces between the struc- new principle of load bearing in facades, made buildings, the Seagram Building in New York
ture’s visible steel frame are filled with riveted possible by greatly reduced profile cross sec- by Mies van der Rohe (1957, Fig. B 5.12) of
metal sheeting, and steel is the material that tions combined with improved glazing tech- the use of bronze, the Alcoa Building in Pitts-
dominates its design. niques, was a major step on the way to the all- burgh by architects Harrison & Abramovitz
glass facades of visionary designs by Mies (1953) of aluminium and the Chicago Civic
Prefabrication and systems van der Rohe and Bruno Taut in the early 20th Center (Charles F. Murphy with SOM,1965,
Using metal in construction allows for high century. Fig. B 5.13) of the use of weathering steel.
levels of prefabrication and great precision.
Parallel developments in car and railways con-
struction led to ideas and systems approaches
for building components that could also be
mass-produced. The Steel House in Dessau
by Georg Muche and Richard Paulick (1927),
Buckminster Fuller’s “Dymaxion Deployment
Unit” of 1929 and 1945 (Fig. B 5.5) and the
series of system houses by Stahlhaus AG (from
1928) testify to these developmental trends,
although none of these experiments led to
a larger series and most did not progress
beyond the prototype phase.
This was not, however, the case with another
approach – that of building not the entire
B 5.7 B 5.8
facade, but just part of the exterior wall based

B 5.5 “Dymaxion Deployment Unit” prototype, 1945,

Buckminster Fuller
B 5.6 Office building facade, Maison du Peuple, Clichy
(FR) 1939, Jean Prouvé
B 5.7 Demonstration of the stability and lightness of
the aluminium shell of a caravan
B 5.8 Streamlined aluminium cladding on a railway
carriage
B 5.9 Aluminium panels, Financial Times printing centre,
London (GB) 1988, Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners
B 5.10 Smooth aluminium panels, terrace houses, London
(GB) 1988, Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners
B 5.9 B 5.10

160
 Metal

B 5.11 B 5.12
Facades built based on the “curtain wall” prin- ments as well as an aesthetic sensibility drawn sheath of the Auditorium Parco della Musica in
ciple in a technically developed form began to from this area play a special role in architec- Rome (Renzo Piano Building Workshop, 2003;
be built in Europe from around 1955. ture. Metals in building exteriors convey an Fig. B 5.15, p. 162).
image of “high-tech”. Current developments in
Jean Prouvé’s contribution metal facades often focus on the possibilities New developments, new metals
Jean Prouvé (1901–1984) was a trained artisan of using metals as cladding on very free-form The further development of metal alloys made
metalworker and eminent designer of metal buildings. This has become feasible due to the it possible to adapt their material properties
facades. When he began his career, the main use of sophisticated computer-assisted plan- more precisely to accommodate various
semi-finished products such as metal sheeting ning processes and forming technologies that applications. A series of new techniques
and profiles were available, but their applica- make it possible to mount very thin sheet metal have also produced other three-dimensional
tion in facades had been barely explored. on highly complex frames. materials, such as metal foams (Fig. B 5.17,
Prouvé’s interest in metalworking by machine Metal’s unique surface properties often contrib- p. 163). Their main potential applications would
was oriented towards industrial practice, and ute to the very sculptural effect of buildings it be in lightweight, load-bearing structures, so
he made great progress in the area of sheet is used in or on. Among the examples of such experiments with these materials are currently
metal working. effects are the smooth, shimmering titanium
He resisted the prevailing trend of an increas- skin of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao
ing division of tasks and specialisation by (Frank O. Gehry, 1997; Fig. B 5.16, p. 162), the B 5.11 Stainless steel facade, Inland Steel Building,
carrying out planning, experiments and manu- zinc sheeting cladding on the Jewish Museum Chicago (US) 1955, SOM
B 5.12 Bronze facade, Seagram Building, New York (US)
facture in his own workshop, keeping the in Berlin (Daniel Libeskind, 1998), the Thames 1957, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
main processes under his control. He also Barrier structures (Rendel Palmer & Tritton, B 5.13 Weathering steel facade, Civic Center, Chicago
explored the possibilities of new manufactur- 1982; Fig. B 5.14, p. 162) and the rough lead (US) 1965, Murphy and SOM
ing techniques such as autogenous and arc
welding.
Prouvé worked with the most important archi-
tects of his time as a designer and manufac-
turer and was one of the first to investigate the
possibilities of thermally separate structures.
He developed the first entirely sheet metal
“curtain wall” facade for the Maison du Peuple
in Clichy (1939; Fig. B 5.6). Among his other
major works was an apartment block on the
Square Mozart in Paris (1954; Fig. C 2.1, p. 266)
with vertical sliding, adjustable sunshading
elements and the showcase facade of the
Citroën showroom in Lyon (1932), which is
characterised by rhomboidal profile panels
made of folded sheet metal [1].

From the 1960s Prouvé especially influenced

architects such as Fritz Haller (see p. 174f.),
Norman Foster (see p. 176f.) and Nicholas
Grimshaw (Figs. B 5.9 und B 5.1, p. 158), who
advanced the use of metal in prefabricated
panels and sandwich construction by refining
production and joining techniques.

Visual impact
Metal is durable, so it is widely used to make
the outer skins of vehicles, aircraft, railway car-
riages and ships. The major technical achieve-
B 5.13

161
Metal

B 5.14 B 5.15
focused mainly on the area of vehicle con- commonly used in facades, sorted according for example, can change its volume up to a
struction. to their atomic number. Metals with a maximum factor of 7 when it corrodes. Leaching can
Many new features are expected from the density of 4.5 g/cm3 are classed as “light discolour other metals (copper, weathering
use of composite materials that combine metals”, which normally include titanium, even steel) or they can be very toxic, even in small
the effects of individual materials’ specific though it has a density of 4.51 g/cm3. All metal amounts (lead). As well as corrosive pitting,
properties. materials are impermeable to both gas and contact corrosion can occur if different metals
Developments in the area of coating tech- vapour. Their thermal expansion is crucial in are either directly combined or if moisture
nologies are now also making important construction because any resulting movement such as rainwater creates a bridge for trans-
contributions to the optical impact of facades. must be absorbed by the type of joints and porting ions (electrolysis) from the surface of
Extremely thin metal coatings designed to assembly. one metal to another. The oxidative reactivity
reflect solar radiation are being applied to a Air temperature and solar radiation are essen- series of metals classifies metals as base (with
growing number of substrate materials (glass tial factors in the heating of materials, which is low electric potential, easily oxidised) or pre-
and plastics, including membrane and foil also determined by the colour and reflection cious (high electric potential, resist oxidising).
materials). and absorption properties of individual metal The electrical difference of a metal’s actually
materials. effective chemical form (often an oxide) deter-
Figures B 5.18 and B 5.24, p. 165, show the mines its risk of corrosion. A neutral intermedi-
Material properties characteristics of various metal surfaces. Most ate layer or insulation will have to be provided
of these materials react to environmental influ- in some cases [2].
Most of the metals in facades are used not in ences by changing their appearance. Corro- As Figure B 5.18 shows, some metal materials
their pure form but are alloys. Figure B 5.19 sive processes in some metals can make using resist corrosion while others either naturally
shows the main properties of the metals most them in construction very problematic. Steel, form a regenerative anti-corrosion layer (pat-
ina) or can be made to do so artificially. A
third group (iron and steel) need special treat-
ment to withstand environmental influences.
Measures to protect against corrosion and
other surface treatments must be carefully
coordinated.

Production technologies and semi-finished

products

The fundamental metalworking processes are:

• Casting and shaping
• Separating and cutting
• Joining
• Coating
• Modification of material properties

B 5.14 Thames Barrier, London (GB) 1982, Rendel

Palmer & Tritton
B 5.15 Lead facade, Auditorium Parco della Musica,
Rome (IT) 2003, Renzo Piano Building Workshop
B 5.16 Titanium facade, Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao
(ES) 1997, Frank O. Gehry
B 5.17 Metal foam (scale approx. 1:1)
B 5.18 Metal materials and their surfaces
B 5.19 Properties of metal materials (selection), sorted
according to the primary metal's atomic number,
in ascending order
B 5.16

162
 Metal

B 5.17

Pure metals Iron alloys

(Selection1) Gold Titanium Iron Aluminium Copper Lead

Alloys Stainless Weathering Titanium-zinc

Steel Bronze
(Selection 2) steel steel alloy

Corrosion
Corrosion-resistant Needs additional protection Automatically forms an anti-corrosion layer that changes the
behaviour 3
(without changing form) against corrosion metal’s appearance (process can be artificially accelerated)

Necessary measures to
Solid coating Galvanising,
protect against corrosion, Liquid coating
(powder coating, enamelling) electroplating
combinations possible

Surfaces,
Mechanical surface treatment Chemical surface treatment does not cause coating Chemical surface treatment causes coating
combinations
possible • Sandblasting • Polishing • Cleaning • Burnishing • Build-up • Enamelling • Galvanising
• Shot-blasting • Water-jetting • Chemical deburring • Metal spraying welding • Plating • Painting
• Brushing • Embossing • Etching • Hot-dip • Anodising • Laminating
• Sanding /grinding • Cambering • Pickling galvanising • Oxidising • Printing
1 2 3
Metals used in facades, primary metal content greater than 90 % Alloys commonly used in facades Basis: normal outdoor environment
B 5.18

Metal material Alum. Titan Iron Copper Zinc Tin Gold Lead
Chem. Symbol (OZ) Al (13) Ti (22) Fe (26) Cu (29) Zn (30) Sn (50) Au (79) Pb (82)
Steel Stainess Weathering Construction Tombac Titanium-
Alloy steel steel bronze zinc
Density [g/cm3] 2.7 4.51 7.87 7.8 7.98 8.92 8.73 8.5 7.2 7.2 7.29 19.32 11.34
1
Modulus of elasticity [kN/mm2] 65 110 210 210 200 200 132 100 85 90 80 50 75 15
Specific heat capacity [J/(kg K)] 900 530 460 400 390 380 380 390 398 230 130 130
Thermal expansion coeff. 2 [10-6m/(mK)] 23.8 10 12.1 11.7 17.3 11.7 16.8 18.5 19 36 20 20.5 14.2 28.3
Thermal conductivity [W/(mK)] 160 22 80.4 65 15 305 67 50 116 109 35.3 317 34
Standard potential [V] -1,69 -0.44 +0.35 -0.76 -0.16 +1.38 -0.13
Electrical conductivity [m/mm2Ohm] 35 1.25 10.3 10.2 60 9 16 16.9 17 8.7 45.7 4.82
1
1 kN/mm2 = 1 GPa 2
at 20 °C
Corrosion behaviour
Forms a protective
oxide coating • • ° ° ° • • • • • • • ° •

Extra corrosion
protection required ° ° • • ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
Colour continues
to develop ° ° • • ° • • • • • • • ° •

Discolours in runoff water ° ° • • ° • • • • ° ° ° ° °

Semi-finished sheet metal products for facades
Standard thicknesses mm 0.3 –1 0.35 – 3 0.5 – 3 >3 0.6 – 0.8 0.7–1.5 2.25 – 3.0
Recommended minimum t = sheet metal
2t 1– 2 t 2t 1.75 t
inner bending radius thickness
• yes ° no B 5.19

163
Metal

Continuous casting Permanent mould (no model)

Casting
Mould casting Lost mould with permanent model
Lost mould and model
Forming

Single sintering
Sintering Double sintering
Powder forging

Electroforming

Free forming
Pressure forming Drop forging
Drawing Indentation forming
Impact extrusion
Tensile- Deep drawing Extrusion
Extrusion moulding
compressive Pressing Rolling
forming Plunging
Upset bulging
Shaping

Roll bending
Die bending
Drawing Round bending
Expanding (internal Turning
Roll straightening
high pressure forming) Milling, countersinking, reaming
Bending
Stretching Milling
forming
Drawing (stretch Shaping, slotting These primary processes can be subdivided
forming /drawing) Broaching
Shear forming
Twisting
Sawing further into many other processes that are
Displacement undergoing constant development. Figure
Filing, rasping
Cutting Machining with brush tools B 5.20 shows the relationships between manu-
Wedge-action cutting With geometrically Scraping, chiselling facturing techniques and individual product
Cutting
Tearing defined cutting
groups in terms of their use in facades.
Breaking

Machining With geometrically Grinding Forming and shaping methods are used to
Water jet
undefined cutting Abrasive blasting make semi-finished products in continuous or
Abrasive
Honing
Separating

water jet cyclical processes. Products are then further

Lapping
Thermal Blowtorch cutting
processed using techniques such as folding,
Material
removing Plasma jet drilling, drawing or pressing to make even
Laser more complex products. As well as creating
Electron beam specific optical effects, processing is usually
Detachable Friction sawing
designed to optimise certain properties, e.g.
Electric discharge
machining Electro-chemical improve stability.
Etching Metals are often combined with other mater-
Cleaning Chemical Pickling ials to create composite materials such as the
multilayer sheeting shown in Fig. B 5.22. Steel
In clearance holes
Screwing Anti-slip pretensioning
and aluminium as well as copper are the main
Inserting With dowel screws Cold pressing~ Spot~ metals used.
Clamping Ultrasonic~ Projection~
Braiding, stranding Friction~ Roller seam~ Sheet metal sandwich elements
Reversible Splicing Arc~ Butt seam~ Metals’ properties (e.g. high strength and
Joining

Resistance~ Inductive~
Pressure welding Gas press~ good workability) make them especially
Permanent Welding Fusion welding Gas~ suitable for making complete composite com-
Soldering Soft soldering < 450 °C Laser~ ponents, so-called sandwich elements (see
Riveting Brazing 450 – 900 °C Plasma~ Fig. B 5.21 and “Surfaces – structural prin-
Shrinking Hi-temp. brazing > 900 °C Electron beam~
Adhesive Pressure welding Arc~
ciples”, p. 27ff.). To make these, two sheets
Manual arc~
bonding Fusion welding Wolfram of metal are usually joined to both sides of
inert gas~ a shear-resistant insulated core to form a
Dipping Metal rigid construction unit (like the cross section
Liquid Spraying inert gas~ of a bone). Their specific properties can be
Painting, roller application Metal
active gas~
enhanced by first shaping the sheet metal,
Electrostatic powder coating which can increase its ability to bear structural
Solid
Coating

Enamelling loads in one direction (e.g. by folding it) or in

two directions (e.g. by deep drawing).
Gaseous Vapour deposition

Galvanising These structural components’ size is generally

Anodic oxidation only limited by transport requirements and the
Ionised
Electrolytic dip galvanisation available sheet metal widths. Their high rigidity
Chemical dip galvanisation Diffusion annealing
Coarse-grain annealing
Changing material props.

Normal annealing
Annealing Soft annealing
Thermal Hardening Stress-free annealing B 5.20 Metalworking and production techniques
Tempering Recrystallisation annealing B 5.21 Various steel sheeting sandwich panels
B 5.22 Various aluminium multilayer panels
Thermo- Diffusion of non-metals Heating to red heat B 5.23 Relationship between manufacturing techniques
technical Diffusion of metals Nitriding and products
B 5.24 Surfaces of metal materials with natural and artifi-
Magnetised cial forms of corrosion and patina (selection)
B 5.20

164
 Metal

B 5.21 B 5.22

Forming, Rolling
shaping Casting Extrusion Drawing
(hot / cold)
methods

Product or
semi-finished Bar, Hollow Bar, Hollow Hollow
Cast part Foil Sheet Wire
product open profile section, pipe open profile section, pipe section, pipe

Products Profiled Perforated Expanded

Grating sheeting sheeting metal Pipe Mesh Cable

B 5.23

Weathering steel Bronze Lead

Aluminium Copper Titanium-zinc

B 5.24

165
Metal

means that even relatively thin, light elements

can be used to build long spans in short con-
struction times, while their insulation properties,
vapour-tightness and mechanical stability mean
that the sandwich element principle is often
expedient for use in a facade surface. Sand-
wich element joints and edges do, however,
require especially careful handling. Aluminium,
steel and stainless steel are the metals usually
used in the outer layers.

Metal facades – basic forms

Building on the systematic description of gen-

eral basic principles of facade construction
(see “Surfaces – structural principles”, p. 26f.),
figure B 5.26 shows a selection of the most
common forms of metal facades.

As well as the treatment of construction joints,

the type of attachment to the substructure is
important in curtain wall facades depending
on the material involved. In metal facades,
these are generally detachable (e.g. screws
and bolts) and can be in or around the joints
or elsewhere. Some soft metals, such as lead,
can be nailed. Self-tapping screws are used
to join sheets of metal to each other or to the
substructure. Visible joint rivets, which for a
long time predominated in metal construction
application designs, are now very rarely used.
A distinction is also made between ventilated
and unventilated structures and those with
and without additional elements to cover or
close joints.
Another essential criterion is the way facade
elements are stabilised, which can be done
by choosing a suitable format based on the
material and its thickness, or by taking add-
itional measures (e.g. folding, corrugation
or deep drawing) or by using sandwich elem-
ents. Certain shaping methods, such as
extrusion, can also produce elements with
stable forms.

Metals may be perhaps the most suitable

material for use in highly prefabricated fa-
cades. The sizes of metal sheets available,
shaping techniques and their relatively low
weight and robustness in resisting weather-
ing (especially aluminium) make it possible
to use large-format elements in the form of
panels, coffers or louvres to produce very
economical solutions. Traditional manual
metalworking techniques involving the use of
bending or folding equipment on site are also
still used.

Metal facade planners must take installation

and structural tolerances and accommodation
for considerable expansion due to changes
in temperature into account. No restraining
B 5.25 forces that could damage the structure and
Residential and commer-
cial building, London
cause acoustic disturbances can be allowed
(GB) 1991, Michael to develop, so joints must be adequately
Hopkins and Partners dimensioned and connections able to slide.

166
 Metal

H+V H+V H+V V V H+V

Panels with open joints Sheet metal folded Coffers Louvres Overlapping planar Overlapping planar elem-
around a frame elements (sheet metal) ents with stabilised forms
• Fastenings visible or • Edges on all sides • Linear folds or extruded
concealed • Hard to maintain tension stabilise the form elements • Fastenings concealed • Manufacturers offer
• Second, airtight water • Second, airtight water • Detachable joints • Louvres should be under overlapping varying formats
runoff layer required runoff layer required spaced so that no water elements • Stability not even in both
can get in through them • Size of elements limited directions
• Butt joints require • Steel can corrode if
backing water gets in (stainless
steel only)
• Lead, zinc, copper
typically used

H+V H+V V H+V H+V H+V

Cross welt seam Standing seam Overlapping panels with Fastening concealed in Special extruded forms Stable individual elements
additional local fastening insert joined with a third element
• Can also be combined • Also possible without element • Cells must be ad- concealing the butt joint
with fastenings fastening • Individual elements equately ventilated
• Folded on site • Folded on site • Risk of contact corrosion cannot be replaced • Not possible to make • Tensile-compressive
• Detachable joints • Lends surfaces a definite from unsuitable material an adequate joint forming (deep drawing)
structure combinations between elements in creates a stable form
• Detachable joints • Local fastening element the other direction • Individual elements can
visible on the surface • Substructure must be exchanged
be perpendicular to
the webs
• Individual elements
cannot be exchanged

H+V H+V H+V H H H

Sandwich elements with Sandwich elements joined Panels joined by means Sheet metal backing Strip covering a vertical Multipart clamped joint
attachments in joints with a third element con- of additional sealing butt joint over a local attachment
cealing the butt joint elements • Supplementary edge element
• Attachment is concealed folds stabilise forms • Cannot be used for
• Substructure in only one • Can be integrated into • Individual elements can • Individual elements can horizontal joints because • The element's folds
direction required post-and-rail structures be exchanged if sealing be exchanged it disrupts water runoff stabilise its form
• Individual elements • Individual elements can element can be opened • Individual elements can • Individual elements can
cannot be exchanged be exchanged be exchanged be exchanged
(installation sequence)
• This method requires
either a continuous H = Horizontal cross section V = Vertical cross section
sealing strip or good
ventilation
• Second airtight layer
required

B 5.26 Metal facades – basic forms (selection)

167
Metal

B 5.27 Stainless steel sheeting embossed with pyramid-

shaped studs
B 5.28 Sheet metal with studded surface
B 5.29 Sheet metal embossed with lozenges
B 5.30 Sheet metal embossed with a lozenge-grid
pattern
B 5.31 Sheet metal embossed with a herring bone
pattern
B 5.32 Sheet metal with a fine rib panel
B 5.33 Sheet metal with trapezoidal corrugations
B 5.34 Sheet metal with asymmetrical corrugations

B 5.27 B 5.28

B 5.29 B 5.30

B 5.31 B 5.32

B 5.33 B 5.34

168
 Metal

B 5.35 Square perforations, stainless steel

B 5.36 Triangular perforations, stainless steel
B 5.37 Offset slits, stainless steel
B 5.38 Aluminium expanded metal
B 5.39 Aluminium expanded metal
B 5.40 Circular perforations, folded, tombac
B 5.41 Lanced perforations, stainless steel
B 5.42 Grating (bars/wires), stainless steel

B 5.35 B 5.36

B 5.37 B 5.38

B 5.39 B 5.40

B 5.41 B 5.42

169
Metal

Metallic textiles (meshing)

Diaphanous (translucent) metallic textiles have

their origins in industrial applications (e.g. filter
and food technology). Like perforated sheet
metal, they offer options for building perme-
able building envelopes. The effect achieved
depends greatly on the distance at which they
are viewed and is largely determined by the
reflective properties of the material used, mesh
size and the material’s thickness and structure.
Besides their striking appearance, metallic
textiles can be functional (e.g. offer protection
from the sun, weather and wind, screen out
views, refract light, offer protection from light-
ning and radar, and improve security etc.).
Interiors can be more or less screened from B 5.43
view by varying the size of openings and relief
depths in metal surfaces [3].

Similar to membrane materials, metal mesh can

be installed in a prestressed state (i.e. stabil-
ised in the plane). Springs are often used to
maintain this prestressing as temperatures
change (Figs. B 5.44 and B 5.45). Connections
can also be made to be re-tensioned.
Manufacturers can now produce materials
of almost unlimited sizes that expand in both
directions without visible joints and seams.
Woven materials are, however, usually avail-
able with a maximum sheet width of 8 metres.
Figures B 5.46 a – h show various methods of
joining metal meshes like those used in the
classic textile industry. Metal knits and meshes B 5.44 B 5.45
(nets) are also now available [4].
Metallic textiles can be made of various metal
materials or combined with plastics. Among
the special textiles available are:
• Illuminated textiles with fibre-optic fibres
woven into them
• Textiles with graphics and texts woven into a b
them (e.g. company logos)
• Textiles whose translucency can be varied
(in steps or gradual)

c d

Notes:
[1] Among the works on Jean Prouvé, those by Peter e f
Sulzer are authoritative, e.g. Sulzer, Peter: Jean
Prouvé, Œuvre complète. 4 Vols. Basel 2008; Sulzer,
Peter: Jean Prouvé. Highlights 1917– 44. Basel /
Boston / Berlin 2002
[2] Karl Täumer & Söhne GmbH (ed.): Dachdecker- und
Spenglerarbeiten. Munich 1993, p. 95
[3] Use of two-ply metal textiles such as that used in
the altar wall of the Herz-Jesu church in Munich by
Allmann Sattler Wappner (2000) is a rarity.
[4] Schäfer, Stefan: Fassadenoberflächen aus metalli-
schen Werkstoffen. In: Detail 01– 02/2003, p. 90f. g h
B 5.46

170
 Metal

B 5.43 Cologne-Bonn airport multistorey car park (DE)

2000, Murphy /Jahn
B 5.44 Two sections joined with tensioning springs
B 5.45 Example of fastenings using tensioning springs
(Vertical cross section and elevation of a top
attachment point)
B 5.46 Types of metal meshes
a Plain weave
b Plain Dutch weave
c Twill weave
d Twilled Dutch weave
e Reverse plain Dutch weave
f Long-mesh weave
g Multiplex weave
h Five-heddle twill weave
B 5.47 Net made of round, stranded cable, stainless
steel, tinned copper pressed sleeves
B 5.48 Stainless steel, rounded wire knit
B 5.49 Plain Dutch weave (warp and weft), stainless steel
B 5.50 Plain weave (warp and weft), stainless steel
B 5.51 Stainless steel double wire long-mesh weave, B 5.47 B 5.48
stainless steel
B 5.52 Plain weave, stainless steel
B 5.53 Plain weave with stainless steel strands and bars
B 5.54 Spiral-woven mesh made of flat strands and
round bars, stainless steel

B 5.49 B 5.50

B 5.51 B 5.52

B 5.53 B 5.54

171
Metal

Semiconductor assembly plant

Wasserburg am Inn, DE 1968

Architect:
Von Seidlein, Munich
Peter C. von Seidlein with Horst Fischer
Responsible for the facade:
Thomas Herzog

º db 01/2002
Grube, Oswald W.: Industriebauten
international. Stuttgart 1971
Von Seidlein, Peter C.: Zehn Bauten
1957– 97. Exhibition catalogue,
Architekturgalerie Munich, 1997

• 1.50-metre grid system used throughout

• Heavy rolled profile sections used instead of
single-member systems
• Application of a directional system resulting in
a
varying column connections
• Columns and wind bracing between exterior
uninsulated and interior insulated metal shells
• Bent vertical aluminium sheeting with con-
cealed fastenings
• Auxiliary building with cooling hood slits in the
aluminium facade for ventilation

a
aa

172
 Metal

12
1 13 1

12
2
3

4 11 15
16
5

bb cc

7 8 7 8

4 10 10

5 11

3 6

Cross section • Floor plan Scale 1:750

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
17 Scale 1:20

A Elevation of the long side showing closed areas of

the facade
B Front side with windows

1 Steel column, IPB 200

2 Steel angle, 80/40/5 mm
3 Hollow steel section, 60/60/5 mm
b b c c
4 Steel Z-section, 30
5 Anodised aluminium sheeting cladding, 250 mm
6 Insulated panel, 25/500 mm
7 Steel secondary beam, IPE 550
8 Insulation panel
9 Steel beam, IPE 360 mm
10 Insulated, suspended ceiling
11 Steel T-section, T 50
12 Steel angle, 100/50/5 mm
13 Steel angle, 40/40/4 mm
14 Steel angle, 100/50/5 mm
15 Tubular steel roller blind clamping pot, Ø 30/2 mm
15 19 16 Flat steel or T-section for attaching a radiator
14 17 Fixed glazing frame, 50/50/5 mm
18 18 Steel angle, 100/50/6 mm
A B 19 Steel angle, 40/20/5 mm

173
Metal

Technical college

Brugg-Windisch, CH 1966

Architect:
Fritz Haller, Solothurn
Facade design:
Hans Diehl, Neuenhof Baden

º Bauen + Wohnen 08/1968

Detail 01/1969
Wichmann Hans (ed.): System Design
Fritz Haller. Bauten – Möbel – Forschung.
Basel 1989

• An early example and model of perfect sheet

metal shaping by machine
• The facade elements were specially designed
for this building
• No notable ageing thanks to the structural
solution applied and use of stainless steel
• Vertical joints between facade components
and rounded elements are unifying details

Floor plan Scale 1:1,500

Vertical cross section • Horizontal
cross section
Scale 1:20
Details Scale 1:5

1 Sheet metal roof capping

2 Sheet metal storey slab cover
3 Closed facade element:
deep drawn stainless steel sheeting
Thermal insulation,
smooth stainless steel sheeting
4 Louvre blind
5 Insulating glazing
6 Horizontal stainless steel muntin
7 Hollow tubular steel column,
Ø 318 mm
with fire-resistant cladding
8 Condensation drain, Ø 8 mm
9 Air-conditioning unit, sprayed a
cladding
10 Primary ventilation duct a
11 Sprayed edge covering metal sheet
12 Steel angle, 70/70/6 mm
13 Vertical stainless steel mullion
14 Support structure for the curtain
wall facade
15 Stainless steel glazing rebate strip
16 Stainless steel capping

174
 Metal

13 14 15

2
3

3 5 16

bb cc

6
7

8 9

b b

10

11

c c
7 a 9

È 31 6

12

aa
16 a 5

175
Metal

Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts

Norwich, GB 1978

Architects:
Norman Foster & Associates, London
Structural engineers:
Anthony Hunt Associates, Cirencester

º L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 09/1991

Foster, Norman: Foster Associates Buildings
and Projects, Vol. 2. Hong Kong 1989
Von Busse, Hans-Busso et al.: Atlas Flache
Dächer. Nutzbare Flächen. Munich /
Basel 1992

• Exhibition spaces, restaurant, offices and

common areas in a large neutral space
• Roof and facade built with similar elements
• Services (technical building services, sani-
tary facilities) housed in a 2.40-metre wide
peripheral area

1 3 a

4
2

1 Plain roof edge panel 6 Steel pipe with diagonal bracing,

2 Glazed roof edge panel Ø 120 mm
Floor plan 3 Plain panel: ribbed 7 Flat steel, ¡ 180/45/12.5 mm
Scale 1:1,500 aluminium sheeting welded to No. 6 and No. 8
Vertical cross section Thermal insulation, 75 mm 8 Flat steel, ¡ 180/100/3 mm
Scale 1:50 flat aluminium sheeting 9 Aluminium profile substructure
Vertical cross section • 4 Glazed panel: 10 EPDM sealing
Horizontal cross section tinted laminated glass with a UV filter 11 Connecting bolt
Scale 1:5 5 5 Panel with ventilation louvres 12 Steel profile section, fi 50

176
 Metal

3
2

b b

3
11

10
6

12

6 7 8

cc

7
c
8

aa 3 9 c 12 10 4 11 bb

177
Metal

Art museum

Ahrenshoop, DE 2013

Architects:
Staab Architekten, Berlin aa
Structural engineers:
ifb frohloff staffa kühl ecker, Berlin

º Architektur Aktuell 11/2013

Bauwelt 37/2013; 40 – 41/2015
db 12/2013
Detail 11/2004

• Museum housing paintings, graphic works

and sculptures from the local Ahrenshoop
artists’ colony
• Museum design based on the local building
tradition
a
• Facade and roof cladding made of irregularly
corrugated brass sheeting
• Skylights illuminate the interiors

b
b

cc

10

15

11

14

16

178
 Metal

1 2 3

5 4

7 6

1 Galvanised steel sheeting maintenance walkway

2 Triple insulating glazing, toughened safety
glass 8 + space between the panes 20
(with prisms) + toughened safety glass 6 mm +
space between the panes 16 + laminated safety
glass 20 mm, bottom pane satin-finished
3 Painted steel section, welded from flat steel,
¡ 60/15 mm and ¡ 85/15 mm
4 Cable-operated anti-glare blind
5 Painted steel sheeting, 5 mm, folded
6 Power rail for object beam lighting
7 Fluorescent lighting
8 Untreated brass sheeting, 0.7 mm, corrugated
9 Roof:
Untreated brass sheeting, 0.7 mm, corrugated
Rear ventilation cavity, 85 mm / substructure,
corrugated aluminium sheeting
Tensioned membrane
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 200 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete with building
component activation, 200 mm
Render, 15 mm
Fine plastering, 3 mm
10 Facade:
Untreated brass sheeting, 0.7 mm, corrugated,
Rear ventilation cavity, 85 mm / substructure
corrugated aluminium sheeting
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 140 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete wall 250 mm
Render, 15 mm 10
Fine plastering, 3 mm
11 Oiled oak-frame door with triple insulating
glazing, toughened safety glass 6 + space
between the panes 12 + toughened safety
glass 6 + space between the panes 12 +
laminated safety glass 18 mm
12 Concrete outside step with white cement c c
aggregate, made on site
13 Concrete slab, 50 mm
11 14
Drainage mat, 20 mm
EPS thermal insulation, 120 mm
Two-ply bitumen sealing,
Steel-reinforced concrete, 250 mm
14 Timber-frame door covered with cheesecloth
15 Oiled oak planks, 28/135 mm, butt-jointed 12 13
Rear ventilation cavity / battens 28 mm,
Wooden studs, between them
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 140 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete wall, 250 mm
Render, 15 mm, Cross section • Floor plan
Fine plastering, 3 mm Scale 1:500
16 Untreated brass corner plate with several folds, Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
0.7 mm bb Scale 1:20

179
Metal

House

Sottrum-Fährhof, DE 1995

Architects:
Schulitz + Partner, Braunschweig

º Bauzeitung 04/2001
DBZ 12/1997
Schulitz, Helmut C. et al.: Stahlbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 1999

• Steel-frame system building based on a 1 Lightweight metal clamping profile, 45/26 mm

7 6
rigorous grid 2 Insulating glazing, 24 mm
• Post-and-rail exterior wall structure 3 Glulam post and rail structure
• System grid 1.80 ≈ 1.80 metres 4 Lightweight corrugated metal sheeting,
18/76 mm
Battens / ventilation cavity, 45 mm
Wind and rainproof membrane
Particle board, 19 mm
Battens with mineral fibre insulation
between them, 50 mm
Mineral fibre insulation, 70 mm
Vapour barrier
Plasterboard, 2≈ 12.5 mm
5 Hollow steel section, ¡ 50/100/2.9 mm
Isometric view Not to scale 6 Hollow steel section, | 80/80/2.9 mm
Horizontal section, skylight area 7 Squared timber
Scale 1:5 8 Folded steel sheeting –
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section spacer for ventilation
Scale 1:20 4 8 9 1 2 9 EPDM sealing

2
3

1 2

4
5

a a
7

aa

180
 Metal

Office building

Dornbirn, AT 2012 a

a 1
Architects:
Hermann Kaufmann Architekten,
Schwarzach
Structural engineers:
Merz Kley Partner, Dornbirn

º DBZ 12/2012
Detail 12/2012
2
Competition 306/2012

• Eight-storey, 26-metre high prototype for 1 Gravel, 50 mm, fleece, plastic sealing sheeting
a composite timber modular system used Sloping insulation, 500 – 580 mm
Bitumen sheeting
to build a multistorey building
2 Prefabricated timber-concrete hybrid slab,
• Prefabricated timber facade elements with 2.70/8.10 m:
exterior aluminium cladding Steel-reinforced concrete panel compression chord,
• Composite timber-steel-reinforced storey 80 mm
slabs Glulam beam, 240/280 mm
Installation cavity, covering panel 3
• Concrete staircase core poured on site Perforated steel sheeting, 2 mm, with heating /
cooling pipes b b
3 Thermal insulation glazing, toughened safety
glass 4 + space between the panes 18 +
toughened safety glass 4 + space between the
panes 18 + toughened safety glass 4 mm
Floor plan, upper floor in a timber-aluminium frame
Scale 1:400 4 Aluminium sun protection blind
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section 5 Ceiling element attachment on supports:
Scale 1:20 Steel bolts Ø 40 mm
Joints poured with concrete
6 Prefabricated facade element, 10.80/3.30 m:
Brushed aluminium sheeting, 3 mm
Substructure /rear ventilation cavity, 86 mm 5
Cement-bonded particle board, 18 mm
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 320 mm
OSB panel, 18 mm, vapour barrier
Facing shell, 33 mm, plasterboard panel, 15 mm 4
and spruce glulam columns, 2≈ 240/240 mm
6

6 bb aa

181
Metal

Pavilion

Amsterdam, NL 2000

Architects: 1 Steel T-section, lation panel, 80 mm

60/60/5 mm Sand-lime brick,
Steven Holl, New York
2 Flat steel, ¡ 100/6 mm 150 mm
Rappange & Partners, Amsterdam 3 Perforated, patinaed Timber section,
copper sheeting, 60/55 mm
º Architectural Record 10/2000 Element size, Steel section, fi 120
Baumeister 09/2000 1,000/2,100/4 mm, Perforated, birch-
Attached with stainless veneer MDF panel,
DBZ Sonderheft Büro + Architektur, 2001 steel screws to a 16 mm
domus 830, 2000 powder-coated support 4 Transparent
Schittich, Christian (ed.): Gebäudehüllen. structure insulating glazing
2nd ed., Munich / Basel 2006 Glass-fibre panel coat- 5 Translucent
ed with synthetic resin insulating glazing
Rigid foam thermal insu- 6 Lighting
1

• Perforated copper sheeting used inside

and out 2
• Three overlapping layers interspersed with
cutouts offer varying levels of permeability
• Very thick facade – approx. 120 cm
• Stark contrast between day and night
• Interior walls partially painted with fluorescent
paint, indirect lighting

b b

Floor plan Scale 1:750

Vertical cross section Scale 1:50
Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20

a a

4 5

aa 3 bb

182
 Metal

The Nordic embassies

Berlin, DE 1999

Architects:
Berger + Parkkinen, Vienna
Pysall Ruge, Berlin
Structural engineers:
IGH, Berlin
Facade technology (copper band):
DEWI, Vienna

º AIT 12/1999
A+U 384, 2002
domus 07–08/2000
L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 07– 08 /2000

• A permeable autonomous copper louvre

wall with various angles forms a connecting 1
“curtain” linking the six Nordic country 2
embassy buildings
3
• Differentiated openings refer to the buildings 5
behind them 4
• Opening and closing louvres regulate levels 6 5
of light and air and views
• Copper band 226 metres long in total
• Total of 3,926 copper louvres

a a 4

6 3
2

8 7 8 7 aa

9
Partial cross section Scale 1:750
Facade – vertical cross section 12
Louvres – horizontal cross section 13
Scale 1:20 10

1 Anti-pigeon wire
2 Hollow stainless steel section, | 100 mm
3 Stainless steel profile section, fi 120/50/3 mm
4 Stainless steel sheeting, 4 mm
5 Copper sheeting louvres, pre-patinaed
6 Stainless steel guy rope
7 Sandblasted stainless steel hollow section,
| 120/120 mm, screwed onto No. 2 with
a stainless steel angle fi
8 Sandblasted stainless steel web plate, 10 mm 11
9 Wind protection for the lower facade sections,
glazing fixed at discrete points
10 Stainless steel screw attachments with sliding
sleeves on one side
11 Copper sheeting louvres, pre-patinaed
Air cavity, 100 mm
Sealing
Mineral wool thermal insulation,
120 mm, clad with black fleece
Steel-reinforced concrete, 200 mm
12 Stainless steel Z-profile
13 Copper sheeting

183
Metal

Kalkriese Museum

Bramsche, DE 2002
a c
Architects:
b b
Gigon & Guyer, Zurich
with Volker Mencke

º Architecture 09/2002
A+U 10/2000
Casabella 706 –707, 2002/2003
DBZ 06/2002
Detail 01– 02/2003 a c
El Croquis 102, 2000

• Located at the presumed site of the “Battle

of Teutoburg Forest” in the 9th century AD
• Weathering steel used throughout, including
in the design of the surrounding landscaped
park
• Material that develops a patina was chosen
to symbolize the passing of time

d
e e

Floor plan • Cross section Scale 1:750

Vertical cross section – facade Scale 1:20
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Stair tower Scale 1:20 aa bb

184
 Metal

1 Perforated sheet metal ventilation Vapour barrier

outlet Precast aerated concrete element,
2 Steel T-beam, IPE 300 175 mm
3 Load-bearing steel beam, HEB 300 Steel sheeting, hot-rolled or pickled
4 Fixed toughened safety glass (depending on the section of build-
glazing, 15 mm ing), painted with a clear lacquer
Steel angle frame 90/60/8 mm and ¡ 400/120/3 mm, 4 mm joints,
flat steel ¡ 90/5 mm positioned 100 mm in front of the wall
5 Insulating glazing, 2≈ 5 laminated 7 Tubular steel handrail, Ø 37 mm
safety glass + space between the 8 Steel sheeting landing element,
panes + 8 mm float glass, 10 mm
Steel angle frame, 65 mm, welded 9 Weathering steel sheeting facade
to sheet metal with a foam core panel, 15 mm, sandblasted surface
6 Weathering steel sheeting facade 10 Horizontal fastener, steel bracket
panel, ¡ 5,900/3,100/15 mm, 6 for each panel, joined to the load-
sandblasted surface, bearing structure and facade panels
horizontal edges with 10 ° chamfer, with threaded bolts welded on
20 mm joints 11 Vertical fastening, 2 adjusting screws
Mineral fibre insulation, 100 mm hold each panel

1
3

3 2

9
4
6

10

11

dd

10

cc ee

185
Metal

Museum of Contemporary Art

Chicago, US 1996

Architect:
Josef Paul Kleihues, Berlin / Dülmen
Local contact architect:
A. Epstein and Sons, Chicago

º Architectural Record 08 /1996

DBZ 03/1997
Mesecke, Andrea; Scheer, Thorsten (eds.):
Museum of Contemporary Art
Chicago. Josef Paul Kleihues. Berlin 1996

• The proportions defining the design are

based on a square; they are integrated into
the facade in a grid of bands
• Facade made of light pyramid-shaped, cast
aluminium panels blasted with iron filings and
hung on stainless steel screws
• Irregular shading (patination) of the facade is
due to corrosion of the small iron particles left
in the soft aluminium surface after blasting

aa

186
 Metal

11

2 1

cc

6 Cross section • Floor plan of the 2nd floor

2 Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
7 Scale 1:20

1 Facade panel:
Square cast aluminium panels
with a textured surface,
attached with visible specially-
made
stainless steel screws
Air cavity
Galvanised steel sheeting
Extruded rigid polystyrene foam
thermal insulation
Mineral fibre thermal insulation
5 Steel sheeting
4 2 Hollow steel section frame,
| 65/65 mm
3 Flat steel for attaching the steel
frame to the primary load-bearing
structure
8 4 Grating to cover heating pipes:
anodised aluminium in timber
frames
5 Aluminium-frame window
with insulating glazing
toughened safety glass 16 +
space between the panes 12 +
toughened safety glass 6 mm
6 Electrically-operated anti-glare
roller blind
c c 7 Suspended plasterboard ceiling
8 Fire protection seal
9 EPDM sealing strip in an
open joint
1 10 Plinth area:
11 Limestone panel, attached
with visible specially-made
stainless steel screws
11 Plasterboard partition wall
9

10
bb

187
 Glass

B 6 Glass Glass is one of humanity’s oldest materials.

The use of naturally occurring volcanic glass
to make knives and arrowheads, as well as the
production of opaque glass, has been dated
back to 5,000 BC. One major developmental
step towards the glass we use today was the
invention of the glassblowing pipe in the 2nd
century BC in Syria, which first made it pos-
sible to make hollow vessels. The Romans
were the first to successfully develop a pouring
technique for producing flat, although barely
transparent, sheets of glass.

From natural glass to universal building

material

Flat sheet glass

In the 1st century AD improved glass formu-
lations and blown cylinder sheet glass was
used to produce the first flat, transparent B 6.2
B 6.2 Sainte-Chapelle, Paris (FR) 1248
sheets of glass. The invention of the crown B 6.3 Crystal Palace, London (GB) 1851, Joseph Paxton
glass method in the 4th century AD meant B 6.4 Fagus factory, Alfeld (DE) 1911, Walter Gropius
that clear panes with very smooth surfaces B 6.5 National library, Paris (FR) 1997, Dominique
could be made. These processes, developed Perrault
in Syria, were further optimised over time and
continued to be the main glass production
methods well into the late 19th century [1].

The next major developmental step along the

way to flat glass production was the drawn
glass process, which emerged after 1905. It
involves drawing the hot, still viscous glass
mass over rollers or through a fired clay nozzle
and then cooling it. This technique made it pos-
sible for the first time to inexpensively produce
large quantities of high-quality sheet glass.

Alastair Pilkington’s invention of the float pro-

B 6.3
cess in 1959 was the most significant step
towards the cost-effective production of high-
quality sheet glass. His technique entails pour-
ing molten glass onto a molten tin “bath” at
about 1,000 °C. Its lower specific gravity means
that the glass spreads perfectly evenly over
the tin’s surface. The glass mass comes out
almost solid with parallel planes, is transported
over rollers, gradually cooled, then cut. This
process is now used all over the world to pro-
duce a wide variety of glass types [2].

Glass bricks and blocks

One interesting late-19th century invention
was the hand-blown glass brick, which was B 6.4
developed in 1886 by Frenchman Gustave
Falconnier and used by renowned architects
such as Hector Guimard, Auguste Perret
and Le Corbusier. The reinforced concrete
glass block, a solid form used after 1907,
had grooved sides for forming an interlock-
ing bond between the glass and concrete,
making it possible for the first time to make
large, load-bearing, transparent panels. Hollow
glass blocks made of two concave sections,
which can be built in with their openings facing
B 6.1 Bauhaus Dessau (DE), 1926 /1976 /2011, inwards or downwards, were used in the con-
Walter Gropius struction of glass-roofed arcades in Prague,
B 6.5

189
Glass

Budapest and other European cities. The glass Fire safety properties
block familiar today was developed around Glass is not flammable, but it begins to soft-
1930 as two concave glass sections perman- en at around 700 °C, and its low resistance
ently joined by means of heat and pressure – to changing temperatures means that it
a technique still used to make them today. barely withstands temperature differences
of more than 60 K. Glass is also almost
entirely permeable to the heat radiation
Material properties generated by fire.

Composition Acoustic properties

Glass consists mainly of silica sand, soda, lime Compared with other building materials,
and other additives, which are melted together glass conducts sound well due to its low
at temperatures over 1,000 °C (Fig. B 6.7) for mass, but this effect can be counteracted by
production. The melt gradually solidifies with- installing multiple panes. The space between
out crystallising at temperatures under about the panes creates an acoustic decoupling
680 °C (float glass). Its transition from a fluid between inside and out that inhibits sound
to a solid state remains reversible. Its high transmission. Multi-pane glazing units are
degree of transparency is due to its lack of a available in varying thicknesses, and the
crystalline molecular structure, enabling light spaces between their panes can be filled
to pass through glass without diffusing. Glass’s with a heavy gas.
molecular structure makes it an amorphous,
isotropic material, so its physical properties are
independent of direction. Types of glass used in facades
B 6.6
Optical properties Float glass
The spectral transmittance of glass for solar Float glass (plate glass) is a high-quality,
radiation ranges from about 300 to 2500 nm. clear flat glass with even, plane-parallel
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 69 –74 % Glass is impermeable to long-wave radiation surfaces. It is the basic material used in most
Calcium oxide (CaO) 5 –12 % in the infrared range above 2,500 nm and single and multiple-pane glazing units now
to biologically effective UV radiation below made for facades. The maximum pane size
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 12–16 %
315 nm (Fig. B 6.8). Most short-wave solar is 321 ≈ 600 cm, although more expensive,
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0–6% radiation passes through glass and heats longer panes are also available. This glass is
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 0–3% surfaces behind it, which in turn release heat available in thicknesses up to 19 mm [3].
in the form of long-wave radiation that can
EN 572-1 stipulates this composition for Europe.
B 6.7
barely penetrate the glass. This type of heating Sheet glass
of a room is referred to as “the greenhouse Sheet glass is a machine-drawn, transparent
effect”. flat glass of slightly higher quality than float
glass due to the drawn glass process used to
Transmittance [%] Thermal properties make it. Corrugations in the glass perpendicu-
100 Soda-lime-silica glass is the main type of glass lar to the drawing direction, which are visible
80 used in construction. Its rate of thermal expan- when you look through it and in reflections, are
sion is similar to that of steel, although well characteristic of this kind of glass.
60
below the coefficient of thermal expansion of
40 aluminium, which must be taken into account Antique glass
20 in designing glazed facades. Glass’s high ther- Antique glass is made by hand-blowing glass
mal conductivity means that a 4 mm thick pane into a hollow cylindrical form that is then cut
200 1000 2000 2800 of float glass has a heat transfer coefficient of open and flattened (blown cylinder sheet glass
Wave length [nm] 5.75 W/m2K. process). Pane size is therefore limited but
2 mm 4 mm 6 mm 10 mm small quantities of coloured glass can be made
B 6.8 Mechanical properties and strength in this way.
The silica in glass gives it its hardness and
strength, as well as a marked brittleness. In Cast glass
contrast to more elastic materials, such as A continuous rolling process is used to make
Properties Symbol Value and unit metal, glass breaks as soon as the limits of its cast glass (patterned glass). Profiled rollers
Density at 18 °C r 2,500 kg/m3 elastic deformability are exceeded. Glass’s are used to make panes of glass with tex-
Hardness 6 units
compressive strength, 1,000 N/mm2, is compar- tured surfaces that can be used to create a
on the Mohs scale able with that of steel but the bending strength wide range of design effects. This kind of
Modulus of elasticity E 7 ≈ 1010 Pa
of standard float glass ranges from just 30 up glass can be used to screen out views from
to a maximum of 60 N/mm2. outside or evenly diffuse daylight. Maximum
Poisson’s ratio m 0.2
pane sizes vary from manufacturer to manu-
Specific heat capacity c 0.72 ≈ 103 J/(kg ≈ K) Chemical properties facturer.
Average coefficient The silica in glass also makes it highly chem-
of thermal expansion a 9 ≈ 10-6 K-1
ically resistant to aggressive substances, apart Wired glass
Thermal conductivity l 1 W/mK from hydrofluoric acid, hot alkaline solutions Like cast glass, wired glass is produced in a
Average refractive index in and water. Water is a particular risk if glass is continuous rolling process, with wire mesh
the visible wavelength range exposed to it for a long time, as horizontal outer inserted during the rolling process to improve
of 380 nm to 780 nm n 1.5
panes are. its resistance to break-ins and its fire protec-
B 6.9

190
 Glass

Glass products for facades

Cast glass Plate glass 1st stage

Pressed glass Float glass (forming)
(rolling process) (sheet glass)

Profiling of the Profiling of the 2nd stage

Metal inlay (forming during the
cross section surface
production process)

3rd stage
(refining,
Prestressing tempering)

Laminating

Bonding with
spacers

Hollow glass Cast glass, Toughened

Profiled Normal Laminated Insulating
blocks, solid patterned Wired glass safety glass / heat-
glass glass safety glass glass
glass blocks glass treated glass
B 6.10

tion properties. Wired glass can be polished Modifying the specific material properties and solidifies while its inner core remains
to make plane-parallel surfaces with better of glass hot and soft. As its core cools and solidifies,
optical properties. The maximum pane size compressive stress builds up on the glass’s
is 198 cm wide and 382 cm long. Wire is at Glass’s properties can be adapted to meet surface, which increases its bending strength
risk of rusting along the pane edges, which specific requirements in a diverse range of (approx. 90 –120 N/mm2) and ability to with-
require special protection to prevent dis- ways by changing the glass formulation, by stand changes in temperature (float glass
colouration and the breaking of glass due thermally or chemically treating the glass, by 40 K, toughened safety glass 200 K). Ther-
to increases in the steel wire’s volume as a modifying the glass’s surface, or by producing mally prestressed glass cannot be mechan-
result of corrosion. laminated and insulating glazing units. ically worked after treatment. Toughened
safety glass breaks into small, blunt shards,
Profiled glass Modifying the composition of float glass which greatly reduces the risk of it causing
Profiled glass is produced in a second rolling Slight impurities in float glass (such as iron injury (Fig. B 6.15 c, p. 193).
process that bends a hot ribbon of glass to oxide) give it a slight greenish cast that is
form a u-shaped profile. This form gives the particularly noticeable in thicker panes and Heat-treated glass
glass a high load-bearing capacity so that it multi-pane and multilayered glazing. The Heat-treated glass is also heated to over
can be used to build glass facades without chemical composition of glass melt can, 640 °C but less intensively blasted with cold
glazing bars. Profiled glass is available in however, be changed to produce completely air so there is less compressive stress on
widths of 22, 25, 32 and 50 cm and a maximum colourless glass and glass with specific phys- its surface. Its bending strength (approx.
length of 600 cm. ical properties. 40 –75 N/mm2) and resistance to changes
in temperature are not quite as high as that
Hollow glass blocks Special metal oxides can be added to glass of toughened safety glass (float glass 40 K,
Hollow glass blocks are made by fusing two to slightly colour it in shades ranging from heat-treated glass 100 K, toughened safety
hot half-blocks together. As the air between green or blue to bronze and grey. Colouring glass 200 K), and it disintegrates into larger
them cools, a partial vacuum is created in reduces glass’s radiation transmission and with shards when it breaks (Fig. B 6.15 b, p. 193).
the sealed cavity that improves their thermal it the heating of spaces behind the glass and Used as laminated safety glass, heat-treated
insulation properties and prevents condensa- can to a certain extent screen out glare. Glass glass retains a certain structural effective-
tion from forming in them. Due to the many can be coloured in almost any shade by the ness when it breaks, which can be a posi-
thermal bridges, their thermal insulation values addition of certain metal compounds. As well tive effect in facades and overhead glazing.
are much worse than that of modern insulating as solid-coloured glass, the flashing technique Like toughened safety glass, panes of heat-
windows. Hollow glass blocks cannot bear can be used to make glass with different-col- treated glass cannot be subsequently mechan-
vertical loads so they can only be used as oured layers. ically worked.
non-load-bearing elements. Standard sizes
are 15 ≈ 15 cm and 30 ≈ 30 cm, with depths Thermal treatment
of 8 –10 cm. To improve glass’s bending strength and
ability to resist changing temperatures, flat or
Solid glass blocks bent flat glass can be thermally prestressed B 6.6 Sainsbury Centre, Norwich (GB) 1978,
Solid glass blocks are made in a pressing pro- by heating. This also makes it stronger. Norman Foster & Associates
cess and in contrast to hollow glass blocks B 6.7 Composition of glass
can bear structural loads. They are available in Toughened safety glass (ESG) B 6.8 Spectral transmission curves for various thick-
nesses of float glass with an average iron oxide
square, rectangular and round forms but their Toughened safety glass is made by heating (Fe2O3) content of 0.10 %.
applications are limited due to their low thermal glass to over 640 °C then immediately blast- B 6.9 General physical characteristics of glass
insulation properties. ing it with cold air. The glass surface contracts B 6.10 Manufacture of glass products for facades

191
Glass

Bent glass pure hydrofluoric acid or its vapours, which Online processes
Bent glass is made by thermally treating float can create a finely nuanced, smooth, matt Online processes apply a coating material
glass in a tunnel or muffle furnace. It can then surface with a very even appearance. Wax can in a liquid, vapour or powder form that bonds
be bent into cylindrical or spherical forms or be applied before etching to create patterned permanently with the glass surface in a chem-
into two superimposed panes. Its bending glass. Etching does not make glass harder to ical reaction. Glass treated with this hard-
radius depends on the thickness of the pane clean and maintain. coating process resists wear and tear and
of glass. Sandblasting can also roughen or abrade a chemical impacts and can be used as single
glass surface to a lesser or greater extent glazing.
Fire-polished glass depending on the grain size used. It creates
Fire-polished glass is heated to 500 to 700 °C. a rougher surface structure than etching, Offline processes
Surface tension makes the plastic, viscous which could allow grease or cleaning agents Glass treated with an offline method is coated
glass surface shrink and become shiny. to adhere to the pane of glass and perman- in an immersion or vacuum process. The
ently impair its appearance. immersion process coats both surfaces of a
pane of glass, while a vacuum process can
Mechanical treatments Chemical strengthening coat just one side. Applying different individual
Another surface treatment is the chemical layers in several operations can specifically
The processes outlined below can be used strengthening of glass, which involves dip- modify glass’s radiation transmission proper-
to cut to size and finish the edges of panes ping a pane of glass in a hot molten salt. ties. Coatings applied using an offline method
of glass. The replacement of ions increases the glass are usually softer and less robust than the fired
surface’s compressive strength and improves coatings of online methods, so panes of glass
Scoring its resistance to thermal and mechanical treated in this way are used only as insulating
Glass can be scored then broken with a ma- loads. Unlike thermally strengthened panes and laminated glass.
terial harder than glass (e.g. diamond). Apply- of glass, chemically strengthened glass can
ing various liquids (petroleum, oil) can reduce be cut. Other coatings
the likelihood of the glass splitting along the Other forms of coating, such as enamel,
score line. Coatings applied during glass manufacture screen-printing or painting, can modify
Some coatings are applied during glass manu- glass’s design and radiation transmission
Cutting facture in an online or offline process, such characteristics.
Thick glass and armoured or bulletproof glass as the cathode-ray process (sputtering). Such
is usually cut with a (diamond-blade) cutting coatings include those containing metal oxides, Enamelling
disk or a laser. which reduce radiation transmission. Heat Applying an enamel frit (ground glass, addi-
gains or losses through panes can be reduced tives and colour pigments) to glass then re-
Abrasive water-jet cutting by modifying the configuration of coatings. firing it gives the glass a ceramic, corrosion-
Glass can be cut or – by reducing the jet’s Anti-reflection coatings on glass decrease the resistant coating. Only thermally strengthened
pressure – notched using a very high-pressure amount of radiation it reflects and can reduce glass can be enamelled because only it can
water jet. Unlike scoring, almost any shapes the mirror effect of a single pane of glass from absorb the increased thermal stresses caused
can be cut in panes of glass up to 7 cm thick. 8 to 1 %. by the colour pigments.
This method can also be used to cut laminated
glass. The cut can be started in the solid ma- In contrast, dichroic coatings break up inciden- Screen-printing
terial, which reduces the cutting gap compared tal light into its spectral colours. Depending on Glass can also be screen-printed. After
with other cutting methods. the light’s angle of incidence, it is then transmit- printing with colour pigments, the glass is
ted or reflected in different colours. This play of fired in an enamelling furnace. This tech-
Edge treatments colours offers interesting design possibilities. nique can be used to reproduce coloured
Glass edges can be treated to reduce the risk
of injury, although they can be left untreated
if there is no risk of injury from the specific
installation situation. Grinding and polishing
can smooth edges to a range of different qual-
ity standards. Edges cut to fit can have some
imperfections, but the ground edges of tables
or mirrors must be absolutely smooth.

Glass surface treatments

A pane of glass’s properties can be modified

by changing its chemical composition or by
treating its surface in various ways.

Matt glass
Chemical and mechanical processes can be
implemented to reduce glass’s transparency.
Etching involves treating a glass surface with

B 6.11 Peckham Library, London (GB) 1999, Alsop +

Störmer
B 6.11

192
 Glass

graphics and photos. Pane size depends on Fire-resistant glazing

the screen size and is generally a maximum of Fire-resistant glazing uses adhesive foils and
2.00 ≈ 3.50 metres. aqueous gels to protect glass from fire based
on the evaporation heat of water. When the
Painting pane on the side exposed to fire breaks, the
This technique involves painting finely ground gel on the side not directly exposed to the fire
coloured glass dissolved in a liquid (e.g. tur- remains bonded to that pane and gradually
pentine) onto glass and then firing it at 550 °C. releases water vapour in the direction of the
fire so that most of its radiant energy is con-
sumed. When combined with safety glass,
Multilayer laminated glass these panes can resist fire for a long time
(Fig. B 6.16, p. 194). G-class glass prevents
Multilayer laminated glazing consists of two the passage of flame, smoke and gas for a
or more panes of glass bonded together with specific period of time but not the transmis-
a viscoplastic synthetic foil or casting resin. sion of radiant heat. F-class glass, in contrast,
Depending on the glass used, multi-pane glaz- prevents the passage of all of them.
ing units offer many possible combinations B 6.12
enabling the glazing’s properties to be adapted Sound insulation glazing
to specific requirements. Laminated glazing Varying the thicknesses of laminated glass and
can be flat or curved. inserting a heavy gas in spaces between the
panes can greatly improve the sound reduc-
Laminated safety glass tion index of insulating glazing. While ordinary
When several panes of glass are bonded double glazing (4 mm + 16 mm space between
together with foil, shards of glass stick to the panes + 4 mm) has a sound reduction
the viscoplastic foil when the glass breaks, index Rw of 30 dB, a unit with asymmetrically
greatly reducing the risk of injury. Lamin- configured panes (4 mm + 16 mm space
ated safety glass is made of ordinary float between the panes + 8 mm) and an appropri-
glass, toughened safety glass or heat-treated ate gas filling can achieve a sound reduction
glass. index of 35 dB [4]. An increase in the sound
reduction index of over 47 dB can be achieved
Bonding with printed or coloured foils by using several panes of laminated glass
Using coloured adhesive foils is an inexpen- and increasing the space between the panes
sive way to make coloured laminated glass. (Fig. B 6.17, p. 194), although the unit’s greater
Printed foils can also be used for this pur- weight will require special frame and fitting B 6.13
pose. Panes of laminated glass with holo- systems. Individual panes above a certain B 6.12 Laminated safety glass with ceramic printing,
Neue Messe (new trade fair grounds), Leipzig
graphic optical elements (HOE) offer various thickness will block out a certain frequency
(DE) 1996, Gerkan Marg und Partner
forms of light refraction, creating effects like range of exterior noise, so the sound insula- B 6.13 Grooved glass facade, university institute building,
those of prisms and lenses. The high lumi- tion properties of glazing can be specifically Paris (FR) 1998, Brunet & Saulnier
nous intensity of holograms is due to the adapted to meet requirements. B 6.14 Etched glass, Kunsthaus Bregenz (AT), 1997,
directional emission of light within a specific Peter Zumthor
B 6.15 Fracture patterns (not to scale):
angular range, which is determined by the Thermotropic glass
a Normal glass
diffraction grating used in the hologram’s Thermotropic glazing units use a liquid consist- b Heat-treated glass
creation. ing of two components, e.g. water and a gas c Toughened safety glass

c
B 6.14 B 6.15

193
Glass

Glass (thick)
Heavy gas
Glass filling
Gel Glass (thin)

B 6.16 B 6.17

Clear state Activated state (hydrogel), that is fixed between two panes because these gases conduct less heat and
(low temperature) (high temperature) of glass or foils. Up to a specific temperature tend to have lower convection levels than air.
the mixture remains homogeneous, and the Argon is preferred to more expensive krypton
trapped layer is transparent. If the limit tem- and xenon for economic reasons, although the
perature is exceeded, the two constituents other gases offer the best thermal insulation. To
separate, causing the layer to turn cloudy and prevent water from condensing on the insides
reflect most light in a diffuse manner, which of the panes, the sealed edges of such units
reduces the amount of radiation the panes contain a desiccant.
transmit (Fig. B 6.18).
Evacuated space between the panes
Electrochromic glass There is no thermal conductivity in a vacuum,
Homogeneous Scatter Electrochromic glass is made by applying a so evacuated insulating glazing units with
mixture material
microscopically-thin tungsten oxide or polyan- a total thickness of 6 – 8 mm can achieve a
Covering layer / Matrix material iline coating to the inside of a pane of laminated U-value of approx. 0.6 W/m2K. The strong
substrata
glass and activating it with a low-voltage elec- vacuum in the space between the panes
B 6.18
tric current that causes it to change colour. means, however, that spacers are required at
When it is not activated, the glass is a light regular intervals to prevent contact between
grey-blue colour, but when a current is applied, the inner and outer panes, and such units’
g-value Translucency Appearance it darkens and looks blue-grey. The glass’s bonded edges must be reliably hermetically
Thermotropic 0.18 – 0.55 0.21– 0.73 white to transmission of daylight changes from around sealed (Fig. B 6.23, p. 196).
glazing clear 70 % when the current is off to around 7 %
Electrochromic 0.14 – 0.49 0.07– 0.69 blue to when the current is on. Its g-value ranges from Fillings with translucent thermal insulation
glazing neutral 0.49 down to 0.14 (Fig. B 6.19) [5]. Installing translucent thermal insulation in the
Gasochromic 0.15 – 0.53 0.15 – 0.64 blue to space between the panes of a glazing unit
glazing neutral Laminated glass with photovoltaic cells (PV glazing) prevents convection and improves its thermal
These figures for switchable sun protection glazing may Very thin layers of solar cells can be fixed insulation properties. Transparent and trans-
change significantly over time due to ongoing develop- between two panes of glass with an adhesive lucent materials, such as glass, acrylic glass,
ments.
B 6.19 foil or casting resin, providing optimum pro- polycarbonate, aerogel and quartz foam in
tection from weather for the cells and wiring. various forms, can be used as translucent ther-
Depending on the configuration, type and mal insulation (Fig. 6.24, p. 196; see also “Solar
spacing of solar cells, transparent, translucent energy”, p. 294ff). The common characteristic
Four means of heat transfer and opaque modules can be produced (see of these materials is that they are translucent
“Solar energy”, p. 294ff.). when installed but not completely transparent.

Fillings that improve protection from the sun

Insulating glazing Different sunshading, anti-glare and daylight
1. Radiation 67 %
refraction elements can be integrated into the
Insulating glazing units consist of two or more space between panes of glass, where they are
panes of glass with an airtight space between protected from weather. These include elec-
the panes of 8 to 24 mm (Fig. B 6.20). Their tronically controlled shading systems such as
U-values and g-values can be improved in blinds or foil roller blinds and fixed systems
2. Convection many ways by adding special fillings or extra such as sun shading grids, reflective surfaces
foils in the space between the panes or by or prism panels (Fig. B 6.25, p. 196).
coating the surface of the innermost pane.
3. Heat transfer
33 %
through fillings Filling the space between the panes with gas
The space between panes of glass can be B 6.16 Configuration of panes of fire-resistant glazing
B 6.17 Configuration of panes of sound insulating glazing
filled with dried air or with an inert gas for B 6.18 Configuration of panes of thermotropic glazing
4. Sealed edges
better thermal insulation. Using argon, krypton B 6.19 Properties of switchable functional glazing
or xenon can reduce a glazing unit’s U-value B 6.20 Heat transfer in insulating glass
B 6.20

194
 Glass

Main applications / functions

Better breakage behaviour (safety)

Greater resistance to breakage (robustness)
Fire-resistance
Sound insulation
Thermal insulation
Permanent sunscreen
Adjustable sunscreen
Self-regulation sunscreen
Protection from electromagnetic radiation
Light filtering
Light diffusion
Light refraction
Light transmission
Views in
Views out
Flat glass
Basic production methods
B 6.21
Float glass • • •
The use of glass in facades
Plate glass • • •
Antique glass • • •
Most glass facades are now made of various
Modified production methods
kinds of flat, insulating toughened safety
glass or laminated safety glass units in a wide Flashed glass • •
range of combinations. The glass’s weight Metal-coated glass (online) • • • • •
acting on the plane of its surface and wind UV-permeable glass • • •
and impact loads perpendicular to the plane Radiation protection glass • • • •
of the pane must be taken into account to Phototropic glass • • •
ensure that loads are transferred into the sup- Low-expansion sheet glass • • • •
port structure and panes of glass are fastened Coloured glass • • • • • •
securely [6]. Opaque sheet glass • • • •
Wired glass • • •
Load transfer
Profiled glass • •
Loads acting on a pane of glass can be trans-
Patterned glass • •
ferred to the support structure in three different
First processing stage
ways depending on the type and magnitude
Thermally toughened glass
of the load. (toughened safety glass, heat-treated glass)
• • • • •

Chemically toughened glass (toughened safety glass) • • • • •

Contact
Etched glass • •
Only compressive forces acting perpendicular
Sandblasted glass • •
to contact surfaces can be transferred into
the support structure by means of contact, Second processing stage
so contact surfaces must be large enough Enamelled glass • •
to ensure a sufficient distribution of stresses. Metal-coated glass (offline) • • • • •
This is especially important in planning small Broadband anti-reflective glass • • •
contact surfaces (e.g. punctiform supports). Space between the panes filled with
Hard supports, such as glass on steel, must Gas • • • • •
be avoided or compensated for by the use Vacuum • • • • •
of elastic interlayers (EPDM or plastic). Panes Hydrogel • • • • • •
can be fixed in the plane of the glass and per- Thermotropic layer • • •
pendicular to the plane either continuously Electrochromic materials • • • •
or at discrete points (Fig. B 6.26, p. 196).
Laminated safety glass made with
Loads can be transferred through glazing bar
Foils • • • • •
clamps, clamp plates, point holders and /or
Printed and coloured foils • • • • • •
holding and spacing blocks.
Casting resin • • • •
Friction
Loads can be transferred through the mechan- Moulding resin
ical interlocking of two contact surfaces and Glass blocks • • • • •
by adhesion. To prevent local stress peaks, Solid glass blocks • • •
glass should not be in direct contact with other
hard materials such as steel. The interlayer’s Glass fibres
elasticity and fatigue strength is crucial to the Membrane • • •
Glass wool • •

B 6.21 Glass foyer, Herrenhäuser Gardens, Hanover (DE) Foamed glass

1966, Arne Jacobsen Aerogel • • •
B 6.22 Glass products and their main applications and
Foamed glass • •
functions
B 6.22

195
Glass

a a a b

b b c d
B 6.23 B 6.24 B 6.25 B 6.26

durability of a friction bond. Soft metals such stance’s adhesion enables such joints to glass and secure them against wind suction.
as pure, annealed aluminium, fibre-rein- remain fairly stable, even when subject to ten- It also separates the functions of sealing
forced plastic or natural materials (e.g. cork, sile forces. The joint width and adhesive used and mechanical fastening, so it offers more
leather or fibreboard) can be used as inter- determine the joint’s flexibility and resilience scope for optimising the two functions
layers. (Fig. B 6.27 b). (Fig. B 6.28 c) as well as making it much
easier to replace panes if they break. The
Adhesive bonds (material bonding) Glazing surfaces of glazing beads need no further
Adhesive bonds are now common in glass Window and facade glazing usually incorp- treatment after installation.
structures, as long as bonds need to absorb orates the following functional elements:
only relatively minor forces. Planners must • Glazing element (e.g. pane of glass) Glazing bar mounts
make sure that an adhesive surface, whose • Support structure (e.g. posts, rails, frames) Curtain wall facade systems make use of spe-
permanent bond is ensured with elastic adhe- • Fastening (e.g. glazing bead) cial load-bearing structures to which panes
sives, is large enough for this purpose. The • Joints (e.g. EPDM, silicone joints) of glass can be attached by retaining strips
magnitude of forces to be absorbed, tempera- or bars. These kinds of glazing bars mean
tures and load duration are the most important These elements can be combined in differ- that two adjoining panes can be fastened with
influencing factors here. Heat usually causes ent ways depending on the type of joint and one element, making assembly easier and
adhesive bonds to fail in the event of fire. In load transfer. A classic glazing bar construc- allowing for slender structural components
Germany adhesive bonds are permitted in tion combines different functional elements, (Fig. B 6.28 d). Preformed, permanently elas-
facades higher than 8 metres only if additional while punctiform fastenings separate joining tic sealing profiles seal the inner and outer
mechanical brackets are provided to prevent and load-transfer functions and allow for layers. If insulating glazing is used or a greater
structural components from falling out. separate installation operations. Other types insulating effect required, it must be ensured
of glazing, such as “structural sealant glaz- that glazing bars and support structure are
Joints ing” combine both “joint” and “fastening” thermally separated.
Joints between individual glass elements must functions.
accommodate mechanical movements (such Linear support without a glazing bar
as those caused by linear expansion) and per- Leadlight glazing Panes of glass can also be installed with linear
manently withstand the effects of weather such Leadlight glazing is the oldest way of making support but without a glazing bar, with two
as rain and wind. large areas of glass. Small individual glass opposing sides of a pane of glass held in
pieces are laid in an H-shaped lead came and place by glazing bars and the other two sides
Contact seals tapped into place. Metal completely encloses joined flush with adhesive silicone. If laminated
Contact seals between glass surfaces and the piece of glass, while the subsequent appli- safety glass is used, it is essential that the
structural components supporting them can cation of putty provides an additional bond adhesive foil and joint materials are compat-
be created with a permanently elastic sealing (Fig. B 6.28 a). ible. If insulating glazing is used, it is advisable
profile, which can be a solid block or have to integrate two layers of sealing and provide
sealing “lips”. Sufficient contact pressure and Rebate and putty separate drainage for the inner void between
clean glass surfaces are required to ensure a Traditional glazing used a pane of glass laid the two joints.
tight seal (Fig B 6.27 a). in an open rebate and sealed with putty. The
rebate is either directly in the masonry, in a Mounting glass along points at its edges
Putty timber frame or in a cast or rolled metal section Mounting panes of glass at points along the
The traditional way of fixing and sealing glass (Fig. B 6.28 b). Over the centuries this way of edges combines the advantages of glazing
with putty is now less commonly used because bonding a pane of glass and a load-bearing bars and pointwise fastening. Small brackets
once putty hardens, it forms a very rigid bond section meant that this simple type of glazing that have only a minimal impact on the facade’s
that is unable to absorb movement or deform- could be used to build large delicate struc- appearance absorb loads in the plane of the
ation. The resulting cracks can then allow mois- tures, as the many 19th century glasshouses pane of glass through narrow setting blocks,
ture to penetrate joints (Fig. B 6.28 b). still standing today demonstrate. while clamping plates absorb forces acting
perpendicularly on the plane of the pane. Ther-
Adhesive seals Rebate and glazing bead mally toughened glass is used to withstand the
Permanently elastic “putty” (silicone) can The glazing bead was designed to ensure heavy mechanical loads around the brackets,
be used to form elastic joints and the sub- the necessary reliable fastening of panes of which increases the costs of such structures,

196
 Glass

a a b c

b d e f
B 6.27 B 6.28

although this type of glazing makes drill holes in Notes:

the glazing unnecessary. Unsupported edges [1] Staib, Gerald: Von den Ursprüngen bis zur klassi-
schen Moderne. In Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau
only have to function as sealing. Atlas. Munich, 2006, p. 10 –29
[2] Button, David; Pye, Brian (eds.): Glass in Building.
Fastenings at points with drill holes A Guide to Modern Architectural Glass Performance.
Fastening panes of glass by means of drill Oxford 1993
[3] Compagno, Andrea: Baustoff Glas – Entwicklungen
holes at various points completely separates
und Tendenzen. In: Kaltenbach, Frank (ed.): Trans-
load-bearing from sealing function. Loads are luzente Materialien. Munich 2003, p. 10 –25
transferred into the plane of the glass through [4] Saint Gobain Glass (pub.): Memento Glas Handbuch.
the drill holes, while unsupported edges per- Aachen 2000, p. 32
form a sealing function. Such structures can [5] These figures refer to double insulating glazing with
a single-sided pane of laminated safety glass. Data
appear delicate and offer greater scope for provided by Gesimat GmbH, January 2016
creative design, although the quality of seals [6] Sobek, Werner et al.: Konstruieren mit Glas – Festig-
around the fastening points (especially in insu- keit und Tragverhalten. In: Schittich, Christian et al.:
lating glazing) and along unsupported edges Glasbau Atlas. Munich 2006, p. 93–94
[7] For a detailed overview of different types of glazing
is crucial here (Fig. B 6.28 e).
and specific drawings of them, please see Schittich,
Christian et al., Glasbau Atlas. Munich 2006, B 6.29
Structural sealant glazing – SSG p. 160 –183
The adhesive bond between the glass and B 6.23 Diagram of vacuum glazing
B 6.24 Principles of translucent thermal insulation:
support structure in this type of glazing has a Cell-like structure
both a load-transfer and a sealing function. This b Tubular structure
kind of bond is only suitable for transferring B 6.25 Insulating glazing with integrated elements for
short-term loads such as wind loads. Mechan- controlling levels of daylight:
a Acrylic glass light-refracting elements,
ical mounts hold the pane’s own weight in place
b Louvres with a highly reflective coating
(Fig. B 6.28 f). B 6.26 Methods of supporting panes of glass and
transferring forces:
Notes on insulating glazing a Supported in the plane of the pane of glass,
Spacers and panes of glass are normally forces transferred via the edge
b Forces transferred perpendicular to the
bonded with Thiokol polymer, which ensures plane of the pane of glass, supported by
a very high-quality, gas-tight edge seal. Thiokol holes along the edge
is not, however, UV-resistant, so these edge c Supported in the plane of the pane of glass,
seals must be completely enclosed, either with forces transferred along the opening edge
d Forces transferred perpendicular to the
glazing bars or UV-impermeable printing or by
plane of the pane of glass, supported along
sealing the edge with adhesive silicone. Units the opening edge
made with these methods may not be gas-tight, B 6.27 Means of joining glass:
so it is not advisable to use noble gases in this a Contact seal, movement accommodated
type of glazing [7]. by sliding and deformation of sealing lips
b Adhesive seal with permanently elastic
(silicone) “putty”, movement accommodated
by the material compressing or stretching
B 6.28 Left: outside / Right: inside
a Leadlight glazing
b Rebate with putty
c Rebate with glazing bead
d Glazing bar
e Fastening at points with drill holes
f Structural sealant glazing (SSG)
B 6.29 Dichroic glass (glass coated with coloured
crystals whose colours change depending
on the angle of incidence and direction of
oscillation of light), New York (US) 1999, James
Carpenter

197
Glass

Office building for Willis Faber & Dumas

Ipswich, GB 1975

Architects:
Foster Associates, London
Structural engineers:
Anthony Hunt Associates, Cirencester
Facade consultants:
Martin Francis and Jean Prouvé

º Architectural Review 09/1975

A+U 02 /1974
Bauen + Wohnen 02– 03/1976
Wigginton, Michael: Glas in der Architektur.
Stuttgart, 1996

• One of the earliest examples of a single-

glazed curtain wall facade
• Panes of glass fastened with clamping
plates
• Facade braced with glass fins
• Size of joints between slab edges and panes
of glass minimised with EPDM seals
• Grey-tinted solar glazing

Floor plan Scale 1:2,000

Isometry facade Scale 1:50
Glass mounting Scale 1:20

1 Roof terrace safety 5 Threaded bar,

railing posts Ø 38 mm
2 Chamfered flashing 6 Glass mounting:
3 Steel channel, horizontal glazing bar
‰ 230/100 mm with EPDM seal
4 Flat steel, 7 Toughened 12 mm
¡ 570/750/22 mm safety glass with solar
bolted onto steel-rein- tint, fastened at discrete
forced concrete slab points

3 5
4

198
 Glass

Information, communications and

7
media centre

Cottbus, DE 2004

Architects: 9
Herzog & de Meuron, Basel
Structural engineers:
Pahn Ingenieure, Groß Gaglow 10
8
º Architektur Aktuell 06/2005
Archithese 02/2005
Hochparterre 05/2005 3
cc
Werk Bauen + Wohnen 04/2005
Xia Intelligente Architektur 51/2005
1

• Media library (books, magazines, CD-ROM 1 Laminated safety glass capping sheet, 10 mm
files, etc.) with 700 workstations. 2 Gravel, 16/32 50 mm, polymeric bitumen roof sealing,
bonded at edges
• Its enclosing multilayer facade of printed and Mineral fibre thermal insulation, 200 mm
curved glass maximises the use of daylight. Vapour barrier, steel-reinforced concrete 250 – 300 mm
• The printed white text on the glass signals its 3 Curtain wall facade: toughened safety glass
function as a university building and regulates 8/1,000/1,000 mm 3 2
White screen-printing 40 %, open joints
incident light.
4 Painted plaster, 20 mm
• Circular, compact service cores allow for Mineral fibre thermal insulation, 120 mm
spacious, interconnected usage zones. Reinforced concrete, 250 mm
5 Insulating glazing opening sash (7th floor only)
4
6 Metal mesh suspended ceiling, 20 mm,
74 % ventilation cross section
7 Insulating glass facade: float glass 6 + space between
the panes 16 + toughened safety glass 8 mm,
Structural glazing inner pane
Elements 1,500/3,500 mm, screen-printing 30 – 40 %,
U = 1.46 W/m2K, aluminium post-and-rail facade
Floor plan, ground floor • Cross section 8 Aluminium spider bracket with stainless steel
Scale 1:1,000 countersunk point fasteners
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section 9 Galvanised hollow steel section, Ø 127 mm
Scale 1:20 10 Galvanised hollow steel section, Ø 70 mm
a

b
b

aa
a
6

8
7

c c

10

bb

199
Glass

Herz Jesu Church

Munich, DE 2000

Architects:
Allmann Sattler Wappner, Munich
Facade planning:
R+R Fuchs, Munich
Glass entrance portal design:
Alexander Beleschenko

º Bauwelt 47/2000
DBZ 03/2001
Detail 02/2001
GLAS 02/2001
aa

• External skin is a post-and-rail structure with

insulating glazing, outer panes are stepped
so that glazing bars are flush with the panes
• Horizontal and vertical glass fins brace the
glass facade against wind
• Panes of glass printed with varying intensity
ranging from transparent in the portal area to
translucent around the altar
• Entry portal made from 14-metre-high printed
glass walls
• Inner shell made from light-coloured maple
lamella
• Steel frame made from square hollow sections

Cross section • Floor plan

Scale 1:750
Vertical cross section Scale 1:50
Horizontal cross section through corner / door
Scale 1:20 a

200
 Glass

2
3

6 5 16

15

1 Aluminium hinged panel for exhaust air /

smoke extraction
2 Hollow steel section, 80/80/4 mm
7 9 3 Height-adjustable facade suspension
mount
4 Welded hollow steel edge beam
¡ 420/500/20 mm, with integrated 20 21
lighting
8 9 5 Double box beam, consisting of 19
2≈ flat steel, 170/60 mm and
2≈ flat steel, 300/30 mm
6 Insulating glazing, laminated safety
glass 8 + space between the panes 16 +
toughened safety glass 10 mm, printed
(acetone screen-printing), printed
outer panes of glass, stepped (crystal 18
granulate screen-printing)
7 Glazing bar, flush
8 Hollow steel section, 50/70/5 mm
9 Bracing glass fin 36/300 mm
10 Steel bracket to support glass fins
11 Convector
12 Aluminium hinged panel for incoming air
13 60 mm sandstone panel with ventilation
slits
Grating 60 mm, steel bracket 17
14 Solid maple threshold, 240/50 mm
15 Maple lamella attached to frames
5
with dowels
16 Solid maple frame 240/120 mm
17 Steel profile, 170/90/10 mm
18 Door glazing:
Toughened safety glass 5 + space
between the panes 20 + toughened
safety glass 5 mm
Panes printed on both sides, 9
755/767 mm
19 Aluminium glazing bar 70/40/8 mm
20 Secondary frame:
Hollow steel section, 100/60/4 mm
21 Primary frame:
Hollow steel section, 280/150 mm 8 7 6

13 14

10

12 11

bb

201
Glass

Rodin Museum

Seoul, KR 1997

Architects:
Kohn Pedersen Fox Associates, London /
New York

º Architecture 11/1998
Kennon, Kevin: The Rodin Museum, Seoul.
New York 2001

• High-profile location in central Seoul

• Double glass skin for facade and roof in
translucent laminated safety glass with
variably-spaced panes attached at discrete
points
• Rustproof steel frame
• Space between the panes ventilated with
incoming air pre-warmed in winter and cooled
a a
in summer

b b

aa

Floor plan • Cross section Scale 1:750

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:50
Details Scale 1:5

1 Coated laminated safety glass, 2≈ 10 mm

2 Stainless steel glass mount, rigid
3 Stainless steel glass mount, flexible
4 Silicone sealing
5 Hollow stainless steel section, 100/40/4 mm
6 Hollow stainless steel section, 60/40/4 mm
7 Bracing steel bar, Ø 20 mm
8 Hollow stainless steel section, 100/60/4 mm
9 Folded stainless steel sheeting, 2 mm
Thermal insulation
Powder-coated aluminium sheeting
10 Aluminium flashing, 3 mm
11 Hollow stainless steel section, 450/250 mm
12 Insulating glazing
Toughened safety glass 8 + space between the
panes 12 + laminated safety glass 2≈ 7 mm
13 Hollow stainless steel section, 300/150 mm
14 Suspended laminated safety glass ceiling, 2≈ 8 mm
15 Insulated stainless steel panel, 83 mm
16 Hinged stainless steel grating,
17 Lighting
18 Stainless steel sheeting, removable
19 Ventilation duct cover,
stainless steel grid 35/35 mm

202
 Glass

2 3
1

16 17 cc 1 4

1 4

1 7 1 10 11 12

5
13
6
8

14

c c
16

17
15 18
19

bb

203
Glass

bb
Elbphilharmonie

Hamburg, DE 2017 a
8

Architects:
Herzog & de Meuron, Basel
Structural engineers:
Schnetzer Puskas, Basel 1 5 7
Facade technology: Type 1: Loggia mono-facade
a
Gartner, Gundelfingen

º Bauwelt 35/2010
db 06/2011
El Croquis 01– 02/2006
Glaswelt 11/2008
Hochparterre 06 – 07/2010

• This new concert hall building, which can

seat 2,150 people, was added to a 1960s
warehouse
• 110 metres high
• Its facade features concave and convex
panes of glass up to 5 metres high 9
• Strongly modulated glass facade made from
sculpturally-formed, coated panes of glass
with screen-printing
• Density of printing depends on solar protec-
tion requirements

Cross section Scale 1:2,000

Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Horizontal cross section Scale 1:50

1 Solar protection / thermal insulation glazing, hot-

worked and flat, concave or convex, h = 3,350 mm,
w = 2,150/2,500 mm:
Laminated safety glass 2 ≈ 8 + space between 8
the panes 16 + laminated safety glass 2 ≈ 6 mm
U = 1.1/1.3 W/m2K, g < 25 %
2 Insulating aluminium sandwich panel, 80 mm
3 Manually operated opening sash
4 Cover plate for central mullion, bent stainless steel 8
5 Black aluminium profile, (RAL 9005) b b
6 Aluminised anti-sun /glare blind
7 Hot-worked single pane of glass, curved outwards,
axial dimension h = 3,350 mm w = 2,150/2,250/
2,500 mm: Laminated safety glass 3 ≈ 8 mm
8 Parapet with integrated glazing bar,
prefabricated glass-fibre-reinforced plastic part
with Gelcoat coating, white (RAL 9016)
9 Suspended ceiling, organic fine plaster on plaster
base board
10 Planed oak planks, 30 mm
11 Loggia drainage

10

11

aa

204
 Glass

dd

c
4

3
5 2
1
Type 2: Insulating facade
c

6 1

d d
3

cc

205
Glass

Faculty of Law
1 1

Cambridge, GB 1995

Architects: 2 3
Sir Norman Foster and Partners, London
Structural engineers:
Anthony Hunt Associates, Cirencester
Facade planning:
Emmer Pfenninger Partner, Münchenstein

º Architectural Review 03/1993

Bauwelt 35 /1995
Foster Catalogue 2001. Published by
Norman Foster et. al. Munich / London /
New York 2001
6
• Barrel-shaped, arched north facade with
silicone structural glazing to maximise the
use of daylight on all floors
3
• Substructure in double-shell, curved hollow
steel section design with triangular geometry
for reinforcement
• Panes of glass can be adjusted in all three
dimensions, pane side lengths 280 cm and
380 cm 4
• Movement due to changes in temperature
accommodated by sliding bearings
• Insulating glazing with solar protection and
Low-E coatings 5

Cross section Scale 1:500

Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Detail Scale 1:5

1 Primary load-bearing hollow steel section frame,

Ø 140 mm, welded nodes, painted white
2 Hollow steel section horizontal bracing, Ø 140 mm,
painted white
3 Stepped glass – toughened safety glass 10 + space
between the panes + laminated safety glass 2≈ 8 mm,
stepped rebate bonded to aluminium frame
4 Specially formed frame member
5 Inspection opening for district heating
6 Silicone seal

206
 Glass

Warehouse

Marktheidenfeld, DE 1999

Architects:
schneider+schumacher, Frankfurt am Main

º Archithese 04/1999
Baumeister 04/2000
GLAS 05/2000

• Main facade of two layers of translucent pro-

filed glass 0.24 ≈ 7.30 m along the long side
• Continuous strip of skylights in the flat roof
running parallel to the glass facade makes 1
the facade look bright and light
• Primary load-bearing steel structure on a
steel-reinforced concrete plinth

3 9
1 4
a
7

2 1
5 5

6 a 8

Floor plan Scale 1:1,500 10

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
of profiled glass facade Scale 1:20 11

1 Existing building
2 New warehouse
3 Insulated panel, 80 mm,
concealed screws
4 Support column, HEA 140 4 8
5 Aluminium-zinc corner plate
6 Aluminium-zinc flashing
7 Steel-reinforced concrete plinth
8 Profiled glass
9 Flat panels, 250 mm, laid horizontally
10 Chamfered flashing on retaining profiles
11 Bracket to hold the top of profiled glass sheeting,
folded metal d = 3 mm

aa

207
Glass

Hermès store

Tokyo, JP 2001

Architects:
Renzo Piano Building Workshop, Paris
Structural engineers: 5 15
Ove Arup & Partners, London / Tokyo 16
17
º Detail 07/2001
Fassade / Façade 03/2002
GLAS 02/2002

b b

aa

• Floor-to-ceiling glazing with a curtain wall

facade out of specially developed 45 ≈ 45 cm
glass blocks
• Glass blocks attached with square steel sec-
tions fitted into the joints to absorb vertical
and horizontal loads and improve safety in
the event of an earthquake
• Steel sections encased with EPDM with lip
seals join the glass blocks, providing elastic
support for blocks and absorbing movements
up to 4 mm

208
 Glass

a a
13
5 14
15
16
17

Cross section Scale 1:600

Horizontal cross section Scale 1:5
4 Vertical cross section, glass block edge
Scale 1:5
bb Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

1 Glass block, 450/450/120 mm fire-resistant coating, 25 mm

2 Double floor with parquet surface 10 Articulated support with Ø 140 mm
3 Steel-reinforced concrete slab on steel spherical head, 1
permanent corrugated sheet metal in fire-resistant design
formwork, 150 mm 11 Suspended plasterboard ceiling,
4 Insulated steel sheeting panel, 12.5 mm
50 mm 12 Tubular steel column, Ø 180/40 mm
5 Steel beam IPE 375/300 mm with with fire-resistant coating, 10 mm
fire-resistant coating, 25 mm 13 Hollow steel section, 100/50/5 mm
6 Steel section, HEA 200 14 Steel angle ∑ 140/140/15 mm
7 Ø 16 mm steel bar with threaded ends 15 Steel section, 80/53/3 mm
and fire-resistant coating 16 Permanently elastic silicone seal
8 Inspection hatch 17 EPDM seal
9 Steel beam, IPE 250/125 mm with 18 Glass block edge element
18

3 2

9 5

10

8 6

11

12 7

209
Glass

Kempinski Hotel entrance lobby

(now Munich Airport Hilton)

Munich, DE 1994

Architects:
Murphy /Jahn, Chicago
Structural engineers for the cable net facade:
Schlaich Bergermann und Partner, Stuttgart

º Arch+ 124 –125, 1994

A+U Extra Edition 293, 1995: Helmut Jahn
– Hotel Kempinski Munich Airport
Knaack, Ulrich: Konstruktiver Glasbau.
Cologne, 1998

• Suspended cable net structure, 45 metres

wide and 25 metres high
• Wind loads transferred through horizontal
prestressed stainless steel cables, 22 mm
in diameter
• Vertical loads borne by prestressed stainless
steel cables, 22 mm in diameter
• Laminated safety glazing with 10 mm thick
panes measuring 1.50 ≈ 1.50 m
• 45° chamfer at the edges to accommodate
cable clamping plate screws
• Panes mounted “floating” in clamping plates
to compensate for facade movements of up
to 90 cm

Cross section Scale 1:750

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20
Detail of clamp Scale 1:5

210
 Glass

24 24

28 29

1 2 21 3
20
18
19
4
21
5
9

6 7
22
24

23 b 5

24 25
24 24 26

27

a a
8 29

aa
24
9

1 HEB 220 and recess Ø 106/2 mm 20 Bearing plate, 100/80/40 mm,

2 End plate 220/220/15 mm, 12 Steel frame Ø 40 mm hole at the centre
welded on both sides, 240/220/15 mm, 21 Ø 70/10 mm hollow steel tube
100/100/10 mm Ø 120 mm hole, Ø 127/3.2 mm with EPDM ring inside
3 Flat steel, ¡ 175/200/20 mm steel tube, welded on 22 Double clamp ring
4 Flat steel, welded to tubular 13 Steel sheeting assembly part 23 Steel sheeting transverse
10
16 steel section and web plates ¡ 240/220/15 mm, with bulkhead
11 12 5 Bottom flange, 265/20 mm Ø 120 mm hole in the centre, 260/40 mm, Ø 120 mm hole
6 Flashing, 265/5 mm steel tube 24 Stainless steel cable,
7 Steel channel, 40 Ø 127/3 mm, welded on, bolts, Ø 22 mm
8 Laminated safety glass, 10 mm 4≈ M 18 25 Threaded fitting M 36,
9 Cable clamp 14 Threaded bars 4≈ M 16 M 36 lock nut
10 Steel tube Ø 101.6/71/2.6 mm 15 Sheet metal frame, 70/15 mm, 26 Threaded rod, M 22
with screw-on mounting plate holes 4≈ Ø 17 mm 27 Steel sheeting anchor plate,
17 13
welded to it 160/160/4 mm, 16 Brushed stainless steel air 300/70/20 mm,
screwed onto the clamping plate nozzles 2≈ Ø 23 mm holes,
14 with 4 x M 6/15 after tensioning 17 Ventilation duct M 22 nuts on both sides
15 11 Clamping plate, 210/190/40 mm 18 Top flange, 500/20 mm 28 EPDM bearing
bb with countersunk hole Ø 65/52 mm 19 Flat steel 560/100/10 mm 29 Cylinder screw, M 10/20

211
Glass

Circulation towers for the Museo Reina Sofia

Madrid, ES 1990

Architect:
Ian Ritchie, London
with José Luis Iñiguez & Antonio Vázquez
Structural engineers:
Ove Arup & Partners, London a a
b b Floor plan, standard storey •
º Architectural Design 11–12/1991 View from roof • Cross section
Scale 1:500
Architectural Review 12/1991 Isometries, not to scale
Baumeister 09/1991 Vertical cross section
DBZ 10/1992 Scale 1:20
l’ARCA 11/1991
Progressive architecture 02/1994

• Glass and cable network walls 36 metres high

• Glass panes fixed at points along their edges
to mounts with articulated connections to spe-
cially shaped “dolphin” brackets
• Changes in the length of panes of glass due
to temperature variations are absorbed by
spring-like equalising elements at the foot of
the steel cable guys
• Bracing elements at the edges transfer wind
loads into the main load-bearing structure

aa

212
 Glass

1 Stainless steel “dolphin” bracket

2 Connection plate
3 Shim
4 Stainless steel plate, 6 mm
5 Round stainless steel end plate
to secure a spring element bb

213
Glass

Extension to a glass museum

Kingswinford, GB 1994

Architects:
Design Antenna, Richmond
Structural engineers:
Dewhust Macfarlane & Partner, London

º Detail 01/1995
Knaack, Ulrich et al.: Konstruktiver
Glasbau 2. Cologne, 2000
a

• Structure made entirely of glass

• Demonstration of glass's technical capabilities
• Load-bearing structure of triple-glazed,
casting-resin-bonded, toughened glass
• Beam spacings 1.10 m, spans 5.70 m
• Bridle joint connections between columns
and roof beams
• Insulating and solar protection glazing
• Ceramic coating on the underside of the roof
glazing screens direct sunlight
• Roof can be walked on for cleaning

Floor plan Scale 1:500

Axonometric view Not to scale
Detail of a door lintel Scale 1:5
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:5
7
9

1 Insulating glazing
toughened safety glass –
solar protection glass
16
8 + space between the panes 10
+ toughened safety glass 8 mm
2 Silicone seal
3 Hole for door pivot
4 Acrylic glass corner profile
5 Stainless steel door fitting
6 Glass door 15 mm
7 Insulating glazing
toughened solar protection safety
glass 10 + space between the
panes 10 + laminated safety glass
2≈ 6 mm 1 8
8 Laminated safety glass column,
32 ≈ 200 mm
9 Silicone-filled joint 1
10 Silicone seal
11 Stainless steel angle,
150/150/10 mm
12 Cork board 5 mm
13 Steel support bracket
14 Acrylic glass mount
15 Toughened safety glass, 10 mm 10 13
16 Laminated safety glass beam, 14
300 ≈ 32 mm 11
15

214
 Glass

1 8

2
3
4
5

bb 6

16

b b

9
15

10

11
14

12

13

aa

215
216
 Plastics

B 7 Plastics The majority of plastics now used in construc-

tion were invented between 1931 and 1938
and further developed for use on an industrial
scale. PVC was being marketed as a material
for pipes and fittings by 1935.
Plastics were initially used to make interior
fittings and furniture (Fig. B 7.2). In the late
1950s intensive developmental work began
on constructing entire buildings out of these
materials [1], something made possible by
new processing methods, such as laminating,
and the production of moulded glass fibre-
reinforced components.

The development of plastics for use in

building external walls B 7.2

Shells and panels

Richard Hamilton and Marvin Goody began
work in cooperation with the Monsanto com-
pany in 1957 to build the distinctively de-
signed “House of the Future”, an example
of the new production potential of plastics
(Fig B 7.3).

In 1968, Matti Suuronen designed the “Futuro

House”, made from self-supporting glass fibre-
reinforced plastic sandwich elements with a
polycarbonate shell and polyurethane foam
core insulation (Figs. B 7.4 and B 7.5).
The Olivetti Training Centre, designed by James
Stirling and built in 1973 in Haslemere in south-
ern England, is another striking example of B 7.3
the use of plastics from this period. Stirling
combined plastic’s various material properties
to create shell-like, self-supporting structural
elements. The Centre’s external walls and roof
merge seamlessly and contribute to its overall
insulation (Fig. B 7.8, p. 218).
The roof of Munich’s Olympic stadium, which
was completed in 1972, is an outstanding ex-
ample of a transparent building envelope and
the first large-scale use of large 3 ≈ 3 metre
elongated acrylic glass panels (Fig. B 7.10,
p. 219). Further milestones in this development
were the temporary IBM Pavilion, designed
in 1984 by Renzo Piano, and the exhibition
pavilion for BMW completed in 1999 (Fig. B 7.12,
p. 220).
B 7.4
Tensile-stressed structures
As panels and shells were being developed,
synthetic fabrics and films were also soon
used to make light, often translucent and ten-
sile-stressed shell structures.

B 7.1 Air-filled (pneumatically stabilised) cushion struc-

ture, Eden Project, St Austell (GB) 2001, Nicholas
Grimshaw & Partners
B 7.2 Stackable chair, 1960, Verner Panton
B 7.3 “House of the Future”, Part of “Tomorrowland”,
Disneyland, California (US) 1957, Richard Hamilton
and Marvin Goody
B 7.4 “Futuro House”, 1968, Matti Suuronen
B 7.5 “Futuro House”, interior
B 7.5

217
Plastics

Pneumatic structures polyethylene and polypropylene are also

In 1948, Walter Bird designed the first air-filled often used.
pneumatic structure to protect sensitive radar Plastics have become important in construction
equipment. Based on his design, pneumatic because of their advantageous properties for
structures were further developed for civilian individual applications:
uses, such as roofs over swimming pools and • Sufficient compressive and tensile strength,
tennis courts. rigidity, hardness and wear resistance
Buckminster Fuller caused a furore in 1950 with • High levels of transparency
his proposal to build a dome over Manhattan • Can be coloured in shades ranging from
(Fig. B 7.6) [2]. In 1959, Frei Otto started work crystal clear through to black
with Kenzo Tange on plans to roof over resi- • Adequate to outstanding resilience
dential complexes in the Arctic. These devel- • High elasticity
opments peaked in 1970 at the World Expo in • Low density
Osaka, which resembled an exhibition of the • Satisfactory temperature resistance
possibilities for pneumatic structures available • Good electrical insulation properties and low
at that time [3]. thermal conductivity
B 7.6 • Weather resistance
Tent structures • Low water absorption
From around 1950, Frei Otto worked inten- • Highly resistant to chemicals
sively on further developing applications for • Easy to process and work
tensile-stressed structures, which until then • Very good surface qualities
had been almost exclusively produced from • Surfaces can be painted
natural materials (Fig. B 7.7) [4], and laid the
foundations for the use of plastics in such The material properties of plastics can be
structures. Synthetic fabrics and films are now extensively modified by changing the manu-
among the leading materials used to build tent facturing process and formulation used to
structures due to their outstanding material make them so that construction materials with
properties. the same designation can be designed in
various ways to meet specific requirements.
With regard to their resistance to ageing, it
Plastics manufacture should be noted that many plastics products
are much younger than the life expectancy of
Plastics consist of materials that do not exist in buildings. This aspect should be particularly
B 7.7 nature in their final form. They are usually made taken into account in planning building elem-
from petroleum-derived products and their ents that are highly exposed to various risks,
main characteristic is a macromolecular struc- such as facade elements and roof seals.
ture. Plastics are made in a controlled chemical
reaction in which hydrocarbon molecules are Reaction of plastics to fire
split and recombined to form long macromole- Fire safety properties become especially
cules in the following processes [5]: important when plastics are used in and
• Polymerisation around a building envelope. The main criteria
• Polycondensation here are:
• Polyaddition • Flammability
• Ignition temperature
• Disintegration temperature
Classification of plastics • Smoke and gas formation
• Toxicity of decomposition products
Whatever process is used to make them, the • Corrosion caused by decomposition
macromolecules of plastics can be structured products
in long molecular chains, be ramified or form
a network. As well as producing highly toxic gases, the
The following types of plastics are differenti- smoke caused by fire can greatly impede visi-
ated based on their degree of cross-linking bility, so the choice of a suitable plastic must
(Fig. B 7.9): depend on its potential toxicity and smoke
• Thermoplastics release. Decomposition products from smoke
• Elastomers may also have a very corrosive effect on other
• Duroplasts or thermosetting plastics materials. Flammability can be reduced by
using a fire retardant.

Material properties
Semi-finished products for exterior walls
General characteristics
The construction sector is now the second- A wide range of semi-finished plastic products
largest market for plastics manufacturers for use in exterior wall structures is available
after the packaging industry. It uses more on the market. Depending on the planned
than 30 different types of plastics, with PVC load, they can be used to build rigid (resistant
predominating, although polystyrene foam, to mechanical loads) or flexible (stable under
B 7.8

218
 Plastics

compression or when subjected to tensile

stresses) structures. Plastics in facades (synthetic plastics)
Plastics can have a variety of physical prop-
erties because a targeted combination of
various materials or the modification of mate- Thermoplastics,
Elastomers,
Thermoset plastics,
rial properties can produce a great diversity open cross-linked
not cross-linked tightly cross-linked
structure
of characteristics. Further processing raw
materials in certain ways can produce a wide
range of different semi-finished products
Silicone rubber Formaldehyde
(Fig. B 7.11, p. 220). Polystyrene (PS)
(SIR) resin

Flat, corrugated and multi-wall panels Polyurethane Unsaturated

Polyethylene (PE)
Plastic panels are usually produced by extru- (PUR) polyester (UP)
sion, calendering (rolling) and pressing, tech-
niques that can produce flat, corrugated and Polypropylene (PP) EPDM Epoxy resin (EP)
multi-wall sheets.
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and poly-
Polyvinyl chloride Polysulphide Cross-linked
carbonate (PC) are usually used to make flat, (PVC) rubber polyurethane (PUR)
transparent panels. Their high level of trans-
parency and resistance to weather and impact Polymethyl meth- Chloropropene Vinyl ester resin
makes them well suited for use in facades. The acrylate (PMMA) rubber (VE resin)
common commercially available panel format
is 205 ≈ 305 cm. The light transmission level Fluoroplastics PMMA,
(ETFE, PTFE) crosslinked
through material 4 mm thick is about 90 %. This
material is classified in building material class
B 2 in terms of its behaviour in fire. Polyamide (PA)
Flat thermoplastic polyester (PET, PETG)
panels withstand breaking well and are clas- Polycarbonate
sified in building material class B 1. Plastics (PC)
reinforced with glass fibre (GFRP) can be
used to produce opaque, free-form panels. Saturated
polyesters
Their corrugated cross section and the result-
ing greater rigidity mean that corrugated B 7.9
PMMA panels can be made in sizes up to
104.5 ≈ 700 cm and polycarbonate panels
up to 126.5 ≈ 400 cm. Corrugated panels up
to 300 ≈ 2,000 cm in size can be produced
with the addition of GFRP.

PMMA, PC and GFRP can also be used to make

panels with a wide range of different cross
sections (Fig. B 7.16, p. 221). Their webs and
additional diagonal structuring can make them
more rigid. PMMA and PC panels are available
in lengths up to 700 cm. Integrating cavities
into panels gives them a relatively low thermal
transmittance coefficient of about 2.5 W/m2K
for single-layer panels and up to 1.6 W/m2K
for double-wall panels. Using triple or multi-
wall panels or filling cavities with insulation can
further improve this figure. Applying protective
coatings or forming multilayer cavities makes it
possible to modify the panels’ sound insulation
and lighting properties to meet specific require-
ments. GFRP panels are especially suited to
this purpose. They are available in a wide range
of cross sections and lengths up to 1,500 cm.

B 7.6 Dome over Manhattan (US), 1960, Buckminster

Fuller
B 7.7 Tanzbrunnen, Cologne (DE) 1957, Frei Otto
B 7.8 Olivetti Training Centre, Haslemere (GB) 1973,
James Stirling
B 7.9 Classification of plastics according to degree of
crosslinking and resulting material properties [6]
B 7.10 Tent roof made from prestressed acrylic glass
panels, Olympic Stadium Munich (DE) 1972,
Günter Behnisch + Partner, Frei Otto and others
B 7.10

219
Plastics

Processing methods used in making plastic products for facades

1st stage Calendering Hollow-mould Injection

Extrusion Pressing Casting Foaming
(Forming) (rolling) casting moulding

2nd stage Injection-

(Semi-finished product) Monofilaments Films Panels Hollow elements Foams
moulded parts

3rd stage
(Shaping, Blowing,
Weaving Laminating
further processing) deep drawing

Multi-wall and corrugated Laminate panels, Flat sheeting, Foamed

Fabrics Films Moulded parts
Product sheet sections, pipes moulded parts panels sheeting, panels
B 7.11
Moulded parts (casting and laminating) Joining moulded parts and attaching them
Casting and laminating techniques can to a substructure usually requires individually
produce structural components of almost developed connections. Depending on the
any shape in virtually all dimensions. Some materials used, these can range from mech-
are manufactured industrially, but a signifi- anical fastenings and butt joints through to
cant proportion are also made by hand, bonded and welded joints.
which does however entail high production In contrast, planar semi-finished products can
costs. be connected and joined using familiar tech-
Among the best-known manufactured niques commonly used in timber, metal and
products are glass-fibre-reinforced plastic glass facade construction [7].
moulded parts. Reinforcing materials (fibres,
knits or fabrics) can be added to greatly Plastic foils and fabrics
improve the mechanical properties of plas- PVC, polyester, PTFE and ETFE plastic films
tics used in the structural components made and fabrics are often used in combination to
from them. consolidate the advantages of the individual
materials. Figure B 7.18 (p. 222) shows an
B 7.12 Synthetic resins are also used to make struc- overview of properties of the plastics currently
tural components. The constituents of the resin used in membrane structures.
are mixed and hardened together with rein- The development of new plastics that are
forcing substances (laminating materials). transparent, resilient and promise greater
The type of reinforcement (fibres, knits, fab- durability (e.g. ethylene tetrafluoroethyl-
rics) and material (glass, carbon, aramid) ene or ETFE) means that they can now be
determines the strength, elasticity and costs used to build single and multilayer exterior
of structural components made using them. walls.
All laminating processes require a mould in These types of film structures have a range
which the structural component must remain of advantages that make it possible to
until it is completely hardened. build light exterior walls with long spans
and hitherto unknown levels of transpar-
Exterior walls made from panels and moulded parts ency. The advantages of ETFE foils are spe-
The high coefficient of expansion of semi- cifically:
finished panels and plastics used to make • Low weight (dead or self-weight)
moulded parts means that all clamps and holes • Highly permeable to light and UV radiation
must have flexible seals to ensure uncon- • High levels of transparency
strained attachments. • Highly resistant to chemicals
The wide range of available materials and • Long life cycles
semi-finished products make it possible to • Largely recyclable
adapt materials and cross sections to spe-
cific requirements. Among the criteria to be Surface coatings
considered in selecting them are: In contrast to films, fabrics are often used
• Structural requirements in membrane structures in several layers,
• Thermal insulation with a PVC-P, PTFE or silicone “coating” to
• Sound insulation protect the fabric from damp, UV radiation,
• Weather resistance microbes, mould and fungus. This greatly
• Lighting properties improves the resistance of membrane fab-
• Fire safety classification rics to water permeation and soiling as well
• Mechanical loads as their durability. PTFE and silicone age
• Chemical resistance much better than PVC-P, with no identifiable
• Prevailing temperature range changes over 25 to 30 years. PVC-P, in con-
• Working and assembly options trast, is much less durable because of its
• Recycling sensitivity to UV light.
B 7.13

220
 Plastics

W
W

H
Sealing Sealing compound

B 7.14
Exterior wall structures subject to tensioning
Forces from wind and snow loads that impact
membrane structures are usually transferred
by pretensioning the film or fabric as evenly
as possible. This can usually be done by build- a b c
ing pneumatic or mechanically pretensioned
structures [8].

Pneumatic structures
The development of gas-tight, flexible, load-
bearing plastics has made it possible to build f
pneumatic, air-inflated structural envelopes
that can cover large spans with a minimum
d e B 7.15
amount of material, which is due in particular
to the use of translucent, PVC-P coated poly-
ester fabrics.

An alternative type of structure can be made

with UV-permeable fluoropolymer film cush-
ions, which were developed for greenhouses.
Coated ETFE, polyester or aramid fibre fabrics, a f
which have a much greater tensile strength
than unreinforced films, are usually used
to absorb the mechanical loads imposed by
longer spans.

Mechanically prestressed structures b g

The prestressing of material required to sta-
bilise it to withstand external loads is achieved
by restraining membrane or film materials
along a defined edge of high and low points,
or – for flat edges or those curved in only
one direction – by intermittent or linear high
c h
and low points in the surface [8]. The sur-
face’s curvature results in two effective direc-

B 7.11 Processing methods for making plastic products

for exterior walls
B 7.12 Temporary exhibition pavilion (BMW Bubble),
1999, ABB Architects, Bernhard Franken with d i
Bollinger + Grohmann
B 7.13 House, Tokyo (JP) 1996, FOBA
B 7.14 Profile cross sections of a selection of available
transparent or translucent plastic corrugated
sheeting
B 7.15 Methods of attaching multi-wall sheeting using
glazing bars (a), rebates and screws (b – f)
B 7.16 Profile cross sections of a selection of available
transparent or translucent plastic semi-finished
sheeting products e j
B 7.16

221
Plastics

tions for every point on the membrane’s sur- ply membrane material. These structures
face. Depending on the effective load, one can be optimised by the use of multilayer
direction takes on a load-bearing function, films, which can greatly improve their sound
while the other has a tensioning function [9]. insulation properties. Much better thermal
The smaller a membrane surface’s curvature, insulation properties can be achieved with the
the greater the stresses will be in the mem- use of multi-ply films or fabrics with mineral
brane. This should be considered when fibre fillings [10].
using films with a lower load-bearing cap-
acity because there is a smaller surface to
be spanned. B 7.17 Olympic shooting venue, London (GB) 2012,
One major advantage of tensioned structures Magma Architecture
B 7.18 Overview of materials now used in membrane
is the small amount of material required to construction [11]
cover large areas. However, this can also be
a major disadvantage, because such exterior
wall structures may offer relatively poor thermal
and sound insulation due to their thin, single-
B 7.17

Fabric material Material Weight per Minimum Fabric’s Tear Kink UV Material class Translucency Expected
(not incl. meshes) type unit area tensile elongation resistance resistance resistance for fire safety [%] life span
[g/m2] strength at break [%] [N] classification (a)
acc. to [N/5 cm] warp / weft warp / weft acc. to
DIN 55 352 warp / weft acc. to acc. to DIN 4102
acc. to DIN 53 354 DIN 53 363
DIN 53 354

Cotton fabric 350 1,700/1,000 35/18 60 very good adequate B2 varies <5
520 2,500/2,000 38/20 80

PTFE fabric 300 2,390/2,210 11/10 about very good very good A2 up to > 25
520 3,290/3,370 11/10 500/500 approx. 37
710 4,470/4,510 18/9

ETFE fabric, 250 1,200/1,200 very good very good B1 up to > 25

THV-coated approx. 90

Polyester fabric, Type I 800 3,000/3,000 15/20 350/310 very good good B1 up to > 20
PVC-P-coated Type II 900 4,400/3,950 15/20 to approx. 4.0
Type III 1,050 5,750/5,100 15/25 1,800/1,600
Type IV 1,300 7,450/6,400 15/30 580/520
Type V 1,450 9,800/8,300 20/30 800/950
1,400/1,100
1,800/1,600

Glass fibre fabric, 800 3,500/3,500 7/10 300/300 adequate very good A2 up to > 25
PTFE-coated 1,150 5,800/5,800 up to 2 /17 to approx. 13
1,550 7,500/6,500 500/500

Glass fibre fabric, 800 3,500/3,000 7/10 300 adequate very good A2 up to > 20
Silicone-coated 1,270 6,600/6,000 bis 2 /17 570 approx. 25

Aramid fibre fabric, 900 7,000/9,000 5/6 700 good adequate B1 basically zero > 20
PVC-P-coated 2,020 24,500 /24,500 4450

Aramid fibre fabric, project-related, limited adjustability good adequate A2 basically zero > 25
PTFE-coated

Film material Material Weight per Tensile Elongation Tear Kink UV Material class Translucency Expected
type unit area strength at break resistance resistance resistance for fire safety [%] life-span
[g/m2] [N/mm2] [%] [N/mm] classification (a)
acc. to acc. to acc. to acc. to acc. to
DIN 55 352 DIN 53 455 DIN 53 455 DIN 53 363 DIN 4102

ETFE film 50 μm 87.5 64/56 450/500 450/450 adequate very good B1 up to > 25
80 μm 140 58/54 500/600 450/450 approx. 95
100 μm 175 58/57 550/600 430/440
150 μm 262.5 58/57 600/650 450/430
200 μm 350 52/52 600/600 430/430

THV film 500 μm 980 22/21 540/560 255/250 good good B1 up to > 20
approx. 95

PVC-P films good adequate B1 up to <5

approx. 95
B 7.18

222
 Plastics

B 7.19 Various types of seams and joints used in

exterior membrane material walls
a HF welded seam in PVC polyester fabric
b HF welded seam in PTFE glass fibre fabric
with intermediate PTFE film a b c d
c Sewn seam with sealing strip in PVC poly- B 7.19
ester fabric
d Butt joint with clamping strips
B 7.20 Various types of reinforcement used in exterior
membrane material walls
a Double layer to bear low loads
b Double layer to bear high loads
c Cable in pocket
d Strap in pocket
B 7.21 Various types of edge joints for exterior walls
made from membrane materials
in pockets: a b c d
a Edge strap sewn on
b Cable B 7.20
c Edge cable and strap
d Tube in pocket
clamped edge:
e Edge clamping strip with perforation of the
membrane, without tensioning option
f Edge with no perforation of the membrane,
can be tensioned
g Edge with clamping strip and connecting
straps a b c d
tied edge:
h Tied edge
B 7.22 “Airquarium” temporary structure, 2000, Axel
Thallemer

e f g h
B 7.21

Notes:
[1] Eisele, Jo; Schoeller, Walter: Kunststoffe in der
Architektur. In: Detail 12/2000, p. 1,540 –1,543
Knippers, Jan et al.: Atlas Kunststoffe + Membranen.
Munich 2010, p. 10 – 27
[2] Krausse, Joachim; Lichtenstein, Claude (eds.): Your
private sky. R. Buckminster Fuller. Design als Kunst
einer Wissenschaft. Baden 1999, p. 436 – 437
[3] Herzog, Thomas: Pneumatic Structures. Handbook
of Inflatable Architecture. New York 1976
[4] Otto, Frei: Das hängende Dach. Gestalt und Struk-
tur. Berlin 1954
[5] Weber, Anton: Kleine Werkstoffkunde der Baukunst-
stoffe. In: Bauen mit Kunststoffen. Published by the
Institut für das Bauen mit Kunststoffen e. V. Berlin
2001, p. 44 – 45
[6] This overview was drawn up in conjunction with
Rainer Letsch, research assistant at the Centre for
Building Materials at TU Munich.
[7] Kaltenbach, Frank: Kunststoff – Transluzente Platten-
halbzeuge. In: Kaltenbach, Frank (ed.): Transluzente
Materialien. Munich 2003, p. 40 – 56
[8] Koch, Klaus-Michael: Bauen mit Membranen.
Munich 2004
[9] Rein, Alfred; Wilhelm, Viktor: Das Konstruieren mit
Membranen. In: Detail 06/2000, p. 1,044 –1,049
[10] Moritz, Karsten; Barthel, Rainer: Bauen mit ETFE-
Folien. In: Kaltenbach, Frank (ed.): Transluzente
Materialien. Munich 2003, p. 70 –78
[11] Moritz, Karsten: Membranwerkstoffe im Hochbau.
In: Detail 06/2000, p. 1,050 –1,058

B 7.22

223
Plastics

Factory building

Bobingen, DE 1999

Architect:
Florian Nagler, Munich

º db Sonderheft 06/2000
Detail 03/2001
GLAS 05/2000
Schwarz, Ulrich: Neue Deutsche
Architektur. Stuttgart 2002

• Translucent external skin of double-walled

polycarbonate panels, 10 metres high
• Panels are the same height as the building,
fixed at the bottom, but with sliding fastenings
at the eaves to accommodate temperature-
related changes in length
• Concealed metal clips fasten panels to
suspended facade rails
• Ventilation of the building via doors, emer-
gency exits and smoke extraction vents in
the ceiling

16 17 3

a a b b
15 2

Axonometric view – not to scale 1 Mill-finished aluminium sheeting folded to fit, 9 Door shaft
Cross section Scale 1:200 2 mm 10 Door drive gear
Detail of corner Scale 1:5 2 Polycarbonate double-wall sheeting 40/500 mm, 11 Counterweight
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section U-value 1.65 W/m2K 12 Solid polycarbonate panel, 8 mm
Scale 1:50 3 Spruce glulam rail, 60/280 mm 13 Impact barrier: 27 mm facing board on
4 Round steel bar, Ø 12 mm galvanised steel frame
5 Glulam double column, 2≈ 120/400 mm, 14 Glulam facade post, 160/400 mm
joined with 3-ply panels, 40 mm 15 Polycarbonate angle, 80/80 mm riveted to
6 Spotlight double-wall polycarbonate panels (no. 2)
7 Steel section, IPE 330 16 Spacer
8 Vertical door lift motor 17 Mill-finished aluminium wind suction anchor

224
 Plastics

14 c

11
12
2 3

13 aa 7 c bb
1

10

b b

11

12

13

cc

225
Plastics

Laban Centre

London, GB 2003

Architects:
Herzog & de Meuron, Basel
Structural engineers:
Whitby Bird & Partners, London

º Architectural Record 06/2003

Arkitekten 15/2007
Detail 07– 08/2003
Domus 858, 2003 a a
Werk, Bauen und Wohnen 04/2003
1

• Rear-ventilated double facade Floor plan, ground floor

• Outer facade of three-ply polycarbonate Scale 1:1,000 aa 3
panels backed with a coextruded coloured Vertical cross section • Horizontal
cross section
layer Scale 1:20
• Inner facade of translucent double insulating
glazing 1 Plastic sealing sheeting 5
• Concave curved entrance facade Polyurethane thermal insulation, 6
50 mm
• Light wells allow daylight deep into the build- 2
2 Anodised aluminium ventilation louvres
ing’s interior 3 Anodised aluminium sheeting, 2 mm 4
4 Three-ply polycarbonate panel,
40/500 mm, transparent,
backed with coextruded coloured layer
5 Anodised aluminium frame for poly-
carbonate panel, 55/80 mm
6 Wind suction anchor bracket, 8
square aluminium hollow section,
20
50/50/4 mm
7 Steel section L 60/60/4 mm
8 Grey rock wool thermal insulation, 18
100 mm, coated 9
9 Galvanised hollow steel bar, 10 12
80/80/4 mm
10 Galvanised hollow steel post
11 14 18 19
80/80/4 mm
11 Hollow aluminium post 50/120 mm
12 Square aluminium hollow section,
50/60 mm
13 Insulating glazing, 15
toughened safety glass 10 + space 7
between the panes 16 + laminated
safety glass 2≈ 6 mm with matt foil 5
14 Aluminium clamping plate, Ø 60 mm
15 Galvanised grating, 40 mm
16 Aluminium panel, 100 mm
17 Perforated aluminium sheeting, 2 mm 13
16
18 Textile cover
19 Plywood panel, 20 mm b b
20 Sound insulation, 50 mm

bb

14

13

16

17

13

226
 Plastics

Gordillo’s artist’s studio

Madrid, ES 2002 b

Architects:
Abalos & Herreros, Madrid a a
Facade design:
Jesús Rodríguez
b
º Arquitectura 331, 2003
Detail 12/2002
El Croquis 118, 2003

Floor plan • Cross section

• Facade, skylights and exterior doors from Scale 1:500
double translucent corrugated polycarbonate Vertical cross section •
panels Horizontal cross section
• Even diffuse light important as the building is Scale 1:20
an artist’s studio
• Opaque facade areas made from insulated 1 6
steel-reinforced concrete panels clad with
single-layer corrugated sheeting 2
• Rear of the building set into a slope

7 8 4 cc

c c

aa

1 Steel section, IPE 80 5 Hollow square steel

2 Rectangular hollow steel section | 100/100 mm
section, 100/50 mm 6 Green wall
3 Double corrugated poly- Reinforcing mesh mat
carbonate panel with Rigid foam 5
UV-resistant coating, Polyethylene 50 mm
screwed down Filter fleece
4 Corrugated polycar- Thermal insulation
bonate panel with Extruded rigid poly-
UV-resistant coating, styrene foam panel,
screwed to rectangular 40 mm
hollow steel section, Sealing, 1.2 mm
100/50 mm Steel-reinforced con-
Thermal insulation crete, 250 mm
Extruded rigid poly- Ventilated cavity /
styrene foam panel battens, 46 mm
30 mm Plasterboard 2≈ 13 mm
Sealing 7 Rectangular hollow steel
Steel-reinforced section, 100/50 mm
concrete 250 mm, 8 Door opening
ventilated cavity / Steel frame / double
battens, 46 mm polycarbonate panel
Plasterboard, 2≈ 13 mm with UV-resistant coating bb

227
Plastics

Institute building

Grenoble, FR 1995/2001

Architects:
Anne Lacaton & Jean Philippe Vassal, Paris

º Bauwelt 16/1996
Detail 12/2002
Hintergrund 19, published by Architektur-
zentrum Wien. Vienna, 2003

• North and south-facing buffer facades

resembling conservatories, full of plants
• Outer skin made from corrugated poly-
carbonate sheeting
• Inner skin consists of sliding aluminium
windows
• Exposed concrete structural elements with
insulation on the inside
• Facade cavity ventilated by a strip of
opening panels at the top of the outer skin

aa

b b
a

228
 Plastics

1 6 2 7

Cross section •
Floor plan
Ground floor
Scale 1:800
9
Horizontal cross
section •
Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

16
c c
1 3 2 4

10

11 12 13 14 5

15

cc
17

1 Transparent polycarbonate edge ate panel (as in 2) on a steel frame 4

trim with UV-resistant coating, 50/50/5 mm with square steel
hot-formed hollow section bracing, 20/2.3 mm
2 Transparent corrugated polycarbonate 9 Electric motor for opening panels
panel with UV-resistant coating 10 Steel grating, 40 mm
177/51/3 mm 11 Galvanised steel sheeting, folded
3 Galvanised rectangular hollow steel 12 Galvanised steel beam, IPE 140
section substructure, 70/50/4 mm 13 Galvanised steel beam, HEA 100
4 Galvanised steel column, HEA 120 14 Heating pipes
5 Steel-reinforced concrete beam 15 Aluminium sliding window with
6 Galvanised rectangular hollow steel insulating glazing
section, 100/50 mm 16 Spandrel element with insulating
7 Galvanised steel beam, HEA 120 glazing
8 Opening panel, corrugated polycarbon- 17 Plant container bb

229
Plastics

Unilever headquarters

Hamburg, DE 2009

Architects:
Behnisch Architekten, Stuttgart

º db 12/2009
Detail Green 01/2010
Opus C 05/2012
RTS Magazin 05/2010
wettbewerbe aktuell 11/2009

• Office building in Hamburg that is exposed

to strong winds
• Polygonal floor plan with graduating project-
ing storeys Site plan Scale 1:2,500
• Double facade with transparent, single-ply Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
ETFE film as external weather protection;
preload of outer facade skin by means of
centrally arranged rear-tensioned pressure
props
• Opening lights in the inner glass facade 1
provide natural ventilation
2
• Sheltered, mobile sun protection in the facade
cavity

3
5
1 Grating maintenance walkway on steel brackets
100/50/6 mm 4
Pin-ended horizontal hollow steel section support
120/5 mm, 6
thermally separated attachment to steel-reinforced
concrete projection
2 ETFE membrane
3 Hollow square steel panel frame, 140 mm
4 Stainless steel pressure rod, crosswise rear-
tensioned
5 Solar protection slats
Box mounting bracket with acrylic glass cover,
sheathed stainless steel tensioning cable
6 Window glazing
Safety glass ESG-H 8 + SZR 6 with argon filling +
laminated safety glass 10 mm
7 Aluminium panel on thermally separated frame
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 140 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete, 200 mm
8 Embossed aluminium sheeting, 3.5 – 5 mm
24 mm multiplex board on
aluminium profile sections, 50/30/3 mm
Sealing
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 140 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete, 350 mm

230
 Plastics

Gerontology technology centre Flinthöhe

Bad Tölz, DE 2004

Architect: aa
Diethard Johannes Siegert, Bad Tölz
b a
º db 02/2005 b
Glaswelt 01/2008

• A single-ply ETFE film “climate control

envelope” protects the reception area facing
the building’s courtyard from the weather and 1
3
forms a zone of intermediate temperature
• Film printed with a matrix of silver dots pro-
vides solar protection and disperses light
• ETFE film fastened with special aluminium
sections
• Reception area is naturally ventilated by 4
adjustable glazed flaps in the floor and roof
areas 5
• Main building consists of a steel-reinforced 2
concrete frame and modular facade

Cross section • Floor plan

Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Flashing, chamfered
2 Welded seams in the membrane
3 Tubular steel section, Ø 160 mm
4 Hydraulic cylinder
5 Ventilation opening,
laminated safety glass, 2≈ 5 mm
6 Square steel hollow section,
40/40/2 mm

bb

231
Plastics

Bavarian Mountain Rescue Service

training centre

Gaißach near Bad Tölz, DE 2008

Architects:
Herzog + Partner, Munich
Structural engineers:
Sailer Stepan and Partners, Munich
Facade technology planning:
Hightex, Rimsting

º a+w 12/2008
Baumeister 07/2009
Kunststoffatlas p. 260 –261
Tec 21 05/2009
Umrisse 02/2009
UED 06/2016

• Minimal structural requirements make this 3

simple, transparent protection from the 1
weather sufficient 8
5
• Facade made of mechanically tensioned 6 3
ETFE film panels
• Panels pretensioned by curved vertical
compression struts
• Self-cleaning effect of the ETFE film keeps
maintenance and cleaning costs low

7
Top view • Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section b b
Frame panel
9
Scale 1:20
Cross section detail
Scale 1:2.5

1 Steel profile, 240 mm

2 M12 screw
3 Steel Z-bracket, 3 mm
bolted on to form part of the frame
4 Hollow EPDM weather strip, Ø 8 mm
5 ETFE film, 0.20 mm, 0.25 mm or 0.30 mm,
depending on structural requirement
6 Hollow steel compression strut, Ø 35 ≈ 8 mm
7 Hollow steel chord, Ø 8 mm
8 Flat steel section, 60/120/5 mm
9 Steel profile section, HEB 240 mm

a 6
5
2
4 1
3
3

5 9

8
6
7 a
A bb aa

232
 Plastics

Allianz Arena

Munich, DE 2005

Architects:
Herzog & de Meuron, Basel

º Archithese 04/2005
Arquitectura viva 91, 2003
Baumeister 06/2005
Hochparterre 08/2005

• 66,500 m2 two-ply pneumatic foil cushion

building shell made of fire-resistant ETFE
• The ETFE structure has a high level of
daylight transmission and an extremely low
dead weight of less than 1.0 kg/m2
• Ventilators create a nominal internal pres-
sure of 450 Pa (facade) and 300 Pa (roof) 4
to stabilise the forms of the diamond-shaped
cushions, which can measure up to 4.60 ≈
17 metres. 5 7 8
10
• Internal pressure can be adjusted to with-
stand varying wind conditions and snow
loads.
• LED lights mounted behind the foil cushions
can evenly light up the membrane cushions in 9
all the colours in the spectrum. The standard 6
lighting is restricted to red, blue and white.
11
1 LED lights – 24 for each cushion 2
2 Sun protection roller blind
3 Insulating glazing cladding a post-and-rail facade 3
4 Prefabricated spun concrete supports, Ø variable
5 Screw connection for spun concrete support 4
6 Smoothed and painted fibre-cement panel,
2≈ 12.5 mm, mineral wool 100 mm, steel-reinforced
concrete edge beam
7 Hollow steel section, 200/300 mm, with rails for
lift system
8 Flat steel facade bracket, 2≈ 100/80 mm
9 Compressed air for facade cushion, Ø 100 mm 13
10 PE compressed air pipe, Ø 50 mm
11 ETFE foil facade cushion, 0.2 mm
12 Ladder for lift system
13 Hollow steel section secondary structure, 1
120/220 mm
14 Galvanised steel sheeting rainwater gutter, 6 mm 12
15 Polyolefin profile gutter sealing around the joint,
with profiling to absorb movement
16 Flat steel binding piece, 2≈ 250/30 mm
17 Hollow steel section secondary structure, 120/220 mm 5

1
17 11

15

16 Vertical cross section

14 Scale 1:50
Detail cross section
Scale 1:20
aa bb

233
Plastics

Hotel Burj al Arab

Dubai, AE 1999

Architects:
Atkins, Epsom
Facade technology:
Hightex, Rimsting

º Bauwelt 44/1998
DBZ 07/2000
Fassade / Facade 01/2001
b

• 7,500 m2, 200 metre-high, double membrane

structure made from PTFE-coated fibreglass
fabric
• Structure is divided into twelve individual
bays over a steel frame
• 50 % less dead weight than a comparable
glass structure
• Translucent membrane facade lets through
10 % of daylight
• Membrane surface can be used as a projec-
tion screen at night

a a

aa

234
 Plastics

2 1 2
3
12 13
14
4
15

5
6

16

11
10
7
6 17

19

8
Floor plan of a standard floor • Cross section
Scale 1:3,000
c c Floor plan with curving trussed girder 1:500
Vertical cross section of membrane facade Scale 1:20 18
Horizontal cross section of the interface between the
membrane facade
and residential wing Scale 1:20 cc

1 Horizontal beam, special channel section, 8 Horizontal steel cable supporting the membrane
9 500/120 mm 9 Trussed girder made of rectangular hollow
2 Aluminium clamping rail, screwed down steel sections, 125/270/12 mm bolted to a
3 Angle, 60/60/4 mm T-section, 150/10 mm
4 Inner and outer layers 10 Tubular steel section, Ø 400 mm
Sandwich panel 120 mm: 11 Steel angle, 100
Aluminium 4 mm 12 Aluminium panel, 215 mm
Vapour barrier with integrated vapour barrier and
Thermal insulation, 60 mm thermal insulation
Aluminium 4 mm 13 Steel channel, 152/76 mm
Thermal insulation between panels, 200 mm 14 Brush seal to keep dust out
5 Flat steel, 150/10 mm 15 Moveable connection
6 Tubular steel rails for cleaning equipment, Extruded aluminium section with
Ø 80 mm, on a flat steel bracket EPDM sealing
7 Two-ply PTFE fibreglass fabric membrane 16 Steel channel, 280
panel, 0.6 – 0.7 mm, white with fluoropolymer 17 Insulating glazing
protective coating on both sides, UV-resistant, 18 Special aluminium section corner trim
bb 500 mm air cavity 19 Tubular steel column, Ø 280 mm

235
 Part C Special topics

Interest in facades specifically designed to

take on specific functions is growing. This inter-
est is of an experimental nature, on the one
hand because building envelopes are being
assigned entirely new functional characteristics
for which different architectural solutions are
currently still being sought. Sufficient experi-
ence with such solutions, with their long-term
durability, for example, is still lacking. On the
other hand, this interest opens up completely
new design opportunities whose cogency in
terms of the “logic of form” has yet to be proven.
Technical correctness, construction methods
suitable for specific materials and manufactur-
Tsinghua University Campus, Beijing (CN) 2006, ing technologies are all fundamentally import-
Mario Cucinella ant issues in this context.

237
 Multilayer glass facades

C 1 Multilayer From storm windows to multilayered

glass facades
glass facades
The development of multilayer, transparent
building envelopes was closely connected
with the increasing use of glass in construc-
tion in the 17th and 18th centuries, when
progress in glass production and the inven-
tion of the cast-glass process in 1687 made
it possible to make better-quality flat panes
of glass with less cost and effort [1]. First
mentions of the use of multilayered window
systems date from around 1690 [2] in texts
advising on ways to improve the thermal
insulation of windows and recommending
the use of double windows to cover windows
during the cold seasons of the year. These C 1.2
types of “storm windows” were frequently used
in Central Europe from the early 18th century
and can often still be found in rural areas.
Many types of multilayered windows such
as the double box-type casement window
and glazed loggia were developed in the
18th and 19th centuries and some are still
in use today.

The technique of improving the functional

qualities of single glazing by adding an
extra glass skin was also used in the glaz-
ing of large facade openings, such as those
in the “Iron House” in the Nymphenburg
Schlosspark in Munich, which was rebuilt
in 1867 after a fire, and in the late 19th-cen-
tury “Galerías Gallegas” in La Coruña, the C 1.3 C 1.4
entire exterior wall of which is clad with a
second glass skin (Fig. C.1.11, p. 241). Other
forms of double glazing such as bay windows,
glazed loggias, integrated atria and lean-to
conservatories were also developed at this
time with the common goal of improving
thermal insulation and using the greenhouse
effect to heat the air in rooms. One of the best
known historical examples of such a double
facade is the buffer facade of the Steiff factory
in Giengen an der Brenz, built in 1903. Its
completely enclosing double glass skin makes
maximum use of daylight and improves the
building envelope’s thermal insulation (see
p. 247). Such window and facade systems
were commonly used until the 1950s, when
the development of coupled windows and
later insulating glazing improved windows’
thermal insulation properties in a simpler way
that also saved space.

Shortages of raw materials beginning in the

mid 1970s and resulting discussions on
finite resources led planners to return to
ways of improving thermal insulation and
solar energy use, such as adding external
glass skins to buildings. The invention of

C 1.1 Post Tower, Bonn (DE) 2003, Murphy / Jahn

C 1.2 Storm window, farmhouse, Flims (CH)
C 1.3 Storm window
C 1.4 Exhaust air window
C 1.5 Double casement window, Krems (AT)
C 1.5

239
Multilayer glass facades

Multilayer, transparent glass facade systems

Position of Window systems in fenestrated Facade elements added in Double-skin facade systems
the second facades (second glass skin within front (second glass skin in front (second glass skin extends over
glass skin the exterior wall) of areas of the exterior wall) the entire building envelope)

Position of Ventilation openings Ventilation openings No ventilation Ventilation openings Ventilation openings Ventilation openings No ventilation
ventilation in both skins in the inner skin openings in both skins in both skins in the inner skin openings
openings

Lean-to
Storm window Exhaust air Coupled Double-skin Exhaust air
conservatory, oriel, Buffer facade
Casement window window windows facade facade
glazed loggia

Segmenting Facade cavity Facade cavity Facade cavity vertically

of the facade not segmented horizontally segmented and horizontally segmented
cavity

Unsegmented Integrated Building-within-a- Double casement

Corridor facade Shaft facade
double-skin facade atrium building principle window facade

C 1.6

insulating glazing led to the further develop- Design-specific features of facades

ment of existing forms such as the lean-to enclosed in glass skins
conservatory and integrated atrium.
In the 1980s, new systems came into use, Structural features largely determine the func-
such as exhaust air windows and facades tional and design characteristics of multilayer
with windows or facade cavities that were glass facade systems. Starting with the cat-
combined with the building’s ventilation egorisation shown in Figure C 1.6, these struc-
system to support interior air conditioning. tural features and their impact on the functional
Multilayered glass facade systems were properties of various double glass facade sys-
further developed in the 1990s as increasing tems are described below [4].
thermal insulation requirements and user
demands favoured their development. Double Position of the second glass skin relative to the
glass facades are of interest because they exterior wall
can potentially reduce energy consumption The position of the two layers of glazing rela-
and optimise user comfort. Their common tive to the exterior wall has a major influence
feature is the ventilated glass skin in front on a facade’s functional and design charac-
C 1.7 of the actual glass facade that allows for a teristics.
natural exchange of air, even in very polluted
or windy locations. Double glass facades Second glass skin within the exterior wall
with unsegmented or segmented facade structure
cavities are an important type of this facade. In window systems in facades with two panes
Their structural and functional characteristics of glass, one behind the other (double win-
will be described below. As well as users’ dows), loads are usually transferred through
increased awareness of energy consumption a solid exterior wall so the positioning and
and greater comfort requirements, one main size of openings in the wall will depend on
reason for the swift spread of these types structural requirements. The relatively low
of double glass facades may be discussions proportion of glass in such facades means
on “sick building syndrome” [3], which has that their design is very different from that of
been associated with completely air condi- glazed double skin or curtain wall facades.
tioned buildings. Naturally ventilated, individ- Storm windows, double casement windows,
ually adaptable, multi-layered glass facades exhaust air windows (Fig. C 1.2 –1.5, p. 239)
have clear advantages in this context and can and coupled windows are all forms of double
improve users’ comfort. windows. The development of insulating glaz-
C 1.8

240
 Multilayer glass facades

C 1.9 C 1.10 C 1.11

ing and resulting improvement of thermal glazed window, usually flush with the exterior energy to force air through the space between
insulation means that these types of window wall, to improve the window’s thermal insula- the panes, which usually involves greater
systems now play only a minor role in con- tion properties (Fig. C 1.3, p. 239). Their main investment and operating costs needed by
struction. Exhaust air windows for example, characteristic is the way in which the window’s buildings without air-conditioning equipment
are only installed in air-conditioned buildings thermal insulation properties can be adapted to (Fig. C 1.7).
such as museums. different times of year, although they are less
able to accommodate fluctuations in tempera- Window systems in fenestrated facades –
Second glass skin in front of areas of the ture during the day [6]. no ventilation openings in the skin
exterior wall Coupled windows
The main feature of the double facade is Double casement windows Coupled windows consist of two consecu-
a second glass skin in front of the exterior Double casement windows have two opening tive window frames directly joined together
wall at some distance from it, which creates window sashes, usually single-glazed, pos- with very little space between them. The two
a zone with an intermediate temperature itioned one behind the other about 10 – 20 cm sashes are not separated, except for cleaning,
that can accommodate various temporary apart. In many cases, separate opening sashes so in contrast to double casement windows,
usages [5]. Installing a glass skin in front in the frame or tilting sashes at the top of the they offer no options for adapting to changing
of areas of a facade greatly influences window openings allow for ventilation at night outside conditions over the course of the day
its appearance, although the exterior wall while maintaining protection from rain or break- or year.
proper usually remains identifiable. Lean-to ins. Their thermal insulation and soundproofing
conservatories, bay and oriel windows and properties and the rate of air exchange can be Structures in front of facades – ventilation open-
glazed loggias are some of the different easily adapted to varying external conditions ings in both skins
structures that can be used to form facade over the course of the day. Structures built in front of facades usually have
envelopes. Many of these types of facades ventilation openings in the outer and inner skin
are still built today to make use of the options Window systems in fenestrated facades – venti- that ensure a natural exchange of air. They can
offered by zones with an intermediate tem- lation openings in the inner skin include the following types.
perature. Exhaust air window
Exhaust air windows combine a window’s Lean-to conservatories
Second glass skin extending across the entire conventional and air-conditioning functions Lean-to conservatories are formed by installing
exterior wall by allowing a room’s exhaust air to escape a single glass skin in front of the exterior wall
Completely glazed facades have a second through a space between the double win- at a considerable distance, creating a space
glass layer in front of or behind the actual dow panes. To prevent transmission heat with intermediate temperatures that can be
glass facade. Such multilayer glass facade loss, the outer panes are usually made of used for a wide range of purposes (Fig. C 1.9).
structures are generally referred to as double insulating glass. The inner pane’s surface These zones can serve as a thermal buffer or
facades without linking them with any specific temperature is higher due to the preheated airlock, preheat incoming air or make direct
functional properties. Double facades include interior air that flows through the space use of solar energy [7].
double glass facades, exhaust air windows between the panes. This greatly improves
and buffer facades. Although these types of comfort for users near windows, especially Bay and oriel windows, glazed loggias
facade often have very similar designs, they during the cold seasons of the year. The Similar to lean-to conservatories, bay and
differ greatly from each other in terms of the space between the panes can also accom- oriel windows and glazed loggias are zones
natural ventilation options they offer. modate solar protection, which can be low- with intermediate temperatures if they can
ered in adverse weather conditions, such
Positioning of ventilation openings in inner and outer as strong wind. If solar protection systems
facade skins are installed inside the glazing, the absorbed
C 1.6 Types of multilayer, transparent glass facade
The following systems can be classified based solar radiation and its conversion into long-
system
on the arrangement of their ventilation openings: wave thermal radiation can cause undesir- C 1.7 Exhaust air facade, Museum of Applied Arts,
able heating of interiors. Installing solar Frankfurt (DE) 1984, Richard Meier
Window systems in fenestrated facades – venti- protection in the space between the panes C 1.8 Integrated lean-to conservatory, private house,
lation openings in both skins means that this does not happen with ex- Regensburg (DE) 1979, Thomas Herzog
C 1.9 Lean-to conservatory
Storm windows haust air windows, because ventilation pre- C 1.10 Glazed loggia
Storm windows consist of a second single vents any overheating. Such windows do C 1.11 Glazed loggias, houses, La Coruña (ES) late
glazed window installed in front of a single however always require the use of mechanical 19th century

241
Multilayer glass facades

C 1.12 C 1.13 C 1.14

be closed off from the interior with doors. Curtain wall facade systems – ventilation open- Curtain wall facade systems – ventilation open-
Their exterior window openings mean that ings in both skins ings in the inner skin
they can be effectively linked with facade Double glass facades Exhaust air facades
functions such as exchange of air, thermal The main feature of double glass facades is As with the exhaust air window, heated inter-
insulation in winter and summer and sound the positioning of a second skin in front of ior air is channelled through the facade
insulation. the actual exterior wall that does not impede cavity of an exhaust air facade and returned
natural ventilation. The outer skin is usually through the facade to a central air condition-
One major difference between these struc- suspended in front of the wall as a non-load- ing unit [9]. The outer skin functions as pro-
tures and the lean-to conservatory is their bearing element (Fig. C 1.12). Such facades tection from the weather and thermal insulation
spatial position relative to the facade proper. usually have better sound and thermal insula- and lets in daylight. Its air duct function also
Bay and oriel windows and glazed loggias tion properties than single-skin facades and makes it part of the air-conditioning system
usually have a direct functional connection allow for natural ventilation even in areas sub- (Fig. C 1.13).
with the space behind them, with which they ject to high wind speeds [8]. The facade’s outermost layer is usually built
form a unit in terms of heating, ventilation with insulating glazing to reduce transmis-
and soundproofing requirements. These Shaft, corridor and double casement window sion heat loss. The advantages of this type of
zones with intermediate temperatures are facades and facades in which the second facade are very like those of the exhaust air
directly connected with the heated air of skin is positioned at some distance from the window outlined above.
the adjoining room, making permanent use external wall are some subgroups of double-
possible, unlike the lean-to conservatory skin facades (including integrated atria and Curtain wall facade systems – no ventilation
(Figs. C 1.10 and C 1.11, p. 241). the building-within-a-building principle). openings in either skin
Buffer facades
Buffer facades with a second suspended
glass skin further screen a building’s
interior from certain exterior conditions
without notably reducing incident daylight
(Fig. C 1.14).
A desire for better thermal insulation is
often the main reason for their construction,
although other environmental influences
such as traffic noise can favour this type
of construction. In terms of ventilation, the
facade cavity is a self-contained unit that
does not allow for any exchange of air.
Instead, air is exchanged through separate,
box-type window elements built into the
buffer facade.

C 1.12 Double-skin facade

C 1.13 Exhaust air facade (air flows from top to
bottom)
C 1.14 Buffer facade
C 1.15 Exhaust air facade: Lloyds headquarters,
London (GB) 1986, Richard Rogers Partnership
C 1.16 Integrated atrium
C 1.17 Unsegmented double-skin facade
C 1.18 Double glazed facade, office building, Munich
(DE) 1997, Steidle + Partner
C 1.19 Glazed atrium, Museum of Hamburg History,
Hamburg (DE) 1989, by Gerkan, Marg
und Partner with Schlaich Bergermann
Partner
C 1.15

242
 Multilayer glass facades

C 1.16 C 1.17 C 1.18

Segmenting of the facade cavity • Soundproofing: Sound can spread unimpeded These types of facade have similar functional
Considering double glass facades in terms through an unsegmented facade cavity, which properties, although installing a suspended
of the space between their glazing, they have may adversely affect adjoining rooms. curtain wall, depending on its connections with
a wide range of practical varieties with very • Fire safety: Fire and smoke can spread the rest of the building, may result in different
different functional properties. There are two unimpeded through an unsegmented facade construction, design and specific uses.
main groups of structures: cavity in much the same way sound does.
• Unsegmented double-skin facades • Thermal performance: Depending on vertical Unsegmented double-skin facades
• Segmented double-skin facades expansion, a clear temperature gradient Unsegmented double-skin facades have a
from the cavity’s highest to lowest point can second glass skin installed in front of the
Double-skin facades with an unsegmented be created to use thermal lift to improve the exterior wall and this facade cavity is not seg-
cavity facade cavity’s ventilation in summer. If venti- mented for ventilation purposes. This is one
The following types of facade are among lation is insufficient however, this can very of the simplest types of facade to build. An
the types of double facade with unsegmented quickly lead to high air temperatures in upper unsegmented facade cavity may however
cavities: areas of the cavity and adversely affect ad- make greater demands in terms of preventing
• Unsegmented double-skin facade joining spaces. A simple way to control the internal odour and sound transmission and
• Integrated atrium rate of air exchange in the facade and its ensuring fire safety, especially in the facades
• Building-within-a-building principle buffer effect will be beneficial in this context, of multistorey buildings.
as installing ventilation flaps at the facade’s
Facade systems with unsegmented cavities base and eaves will be sufficient to vary the Integrated atrium
have the following structural properties: sizes of air intake and outlet openings. Seen as a form of suspended glass skin, the
integrated atrium has similar properties to the
lean-to conservatory but is normally enclosed
by two to four wings of a building.
There is an intensive interaction between
the atrium and surrounding wall surfaces
(Figs. C 1.16 and C 1.19). This type of struc-
ture is often referred to as a glass atrium
or “climate-controlled hall”. In terms of the
building’s interior climate, solar gains and
transmission heat loss from the facades of
adjoining buildings ensure that its inside
air temperature remains higher than that of
the outdoor air all year round. This can expand
the room’s range of potential uses as well as
greatly reducing structural demands on adjoin-
ing facade elements.

Building-within-a-building principle
The building-within-a-building principle makes
use of a multilayer, transparent glazed building
envelope to completely enclose a building
(Fig. C 1.20, p. 244). Solar energy can be
used to directly raise the ambient temperature
of interior building sections to reduce trans-
mission heat losses and ventilation heat losses.
Like the lean-to conservatory and integrated
atrium, the great advantage of the building-
within-a-building principle is the creation of a
zone of intermediate temperatures that can be
used for various purposes. Air can circulate
C 1.19

243
Multilayer glass facades

C 1.20 C 1.21 C 1.22

freely inside the envelope and internal airflows struction cost and effort than unsegmented because vertical and horizontal separating
can result in temperatures much greater than facades due to the number of ventilation open- panels are usually aligned with the spaces
that of the outside air, even in areas of the ings required. behind them. In contrast to unsegmented
building that receive far less sun [10]. double-skin facades and shaft facades, only
Shaft facades limited use can be made of thermal lift to move
Double-skin facades with segmented cavities The main feature of this type of facade is verti- air through these facade cavities so ventilation
Double-skin facades with segmented cavities cal ventilation or exhaust air shafts extending openings must be large enough to prevent
can be classified into the following main types: over several storeys that use thermal lift (stack them overheating (Fig. C 1.26).
• Corridor facades effect) to ventilate the facade. To ensure a
• Shaft facades controlled supply of fresh air to interiors and
• Double casement window facades minimise vertical sound transmission between Costs and benefits of double facade
storeys, the vertical exhaust air shafts are usu- systems
The shared characteristic of these systems ally combined with casement window-type
is that they can influence a facade’s func- facade elements along their sides so this type Depending on their structural formation, double
tional properties. The type of facade cavity of facade is also often called a “shaft-box” glass facade systems can have a wide range
segmentation, which can be horizontal, vertical facade [11]. Outside air flows into the facade of functional characteristics that make their
or in both directions, is especially important cavity through ventilation openings in the lower construction seem more advantageous than
because it determines the facade’s fire safety section of a casement window and into the single-layer facades. Arguments for their use
and soundproofing properties and greatly influ- interior through ventilation openings. Warm include:
ences the type and controllability of the facade interior exhaust air is extracted at ceiling level • Natural ventilation, even in very windy loca-
cavity’s ventilation. near the casement window through openings tions
in the sides of the vertical exhaust air shaft due • Prevention of “sick building syndrome” due
Corridor facade to the negative pressure in the shaft that also to greater natural ventilation options which
A corridor facade’s cavity is segmented by hori- causes it to rise (Fig. C 1.25). Unlike corridor can be individually regulated by users
zontal walkways in the floors and ceilings of and double casement window facades, sound • Greater user comfort due to the higher sur-
adjoining storeys, creating a generally access- or smoke is prevented from spreading verti- face temperatures of inner facade surfaces
ible facade corridor on each floor (Fig. C 1.21). cally through a shaft facade cavity by horizon- in cold weather
Fresh air usually flows into the lower section tal partitions in the upper and lower area of • The energy balance is improved because
of each storey and exhaust air exits the facade the casement windows. Planners must pay buildings with exposed thermal storage
corridor at the top. The risk of mixing outgoing particular attention to interactions between the masses can cool down at night
exhaust air and incoming fresh air in corridor exhaust air shaft, building height and pressure • Improved use and protected position of solar
facades can be avoided by laterally offset- conditions in the shaft to ensure that these protection elements
ting ventilation openings or by an adequate facades function properly. • Better soundproofing in noisy locations
vertical spacing of inflow and outflow openings • Floor-to-ceiling glazing can offer optimum
(Fig. C 1.23). Double casement window facade use of daylight
A corridor facade involves only slightly more The double casement window facade is the
construction cost and effort than an unseg- most complex and costly type of double facade The necessary protection from fire spread
mented double-skin facade and they can to build because the facade cavity is horizon- means that floor-to-ceiling glazing can only
greatly reduce or eliminate a number of struc- tally segmented, storey by storey, into separate be used in the facades of high-rise buildings if
tural problems. Fire safety requirements can shaft-like sections. Like a traditional casement the facade is horizontally partitioned, with a
be met by appropriately designed corridor window, each window element is a self-con- cantilevered slab, for example. Otherwise, fire-
floors and ceilings. Segmenting prevents heat tained unit that is not connected to adjoining resistant spandrel elements must be installed.
from building up at the top of the facade. They panels for ventilation purposes. Each facade Not only do these reduce natural light, but
do not entirely solve the problem of interior unit has its own ventilation openings. The risk of often are not desirable for design reasons. A
sound transmission but appropriate design and short-circuiting flows of incoming and exhaust cantilevered slab can be an inexpensive way
construction can almost completely prevent air between segments in a vertical direction, as of partitioning a facade with an insulating glass
it in a vertical direction. Like unsegmented in a corridor facade, can be reduced by diag- outer skin because the glass skin’s better ther-
double-skin facades, a corridor facade’s buffer onally offset ventilation openings. This type of mal insulation properties make a complicated
effect can be controlled by adjustable ventila- facade’s main advantages lie in the avoiding of thermal separation of the slab unnecessary.
tion flaps, although they do involve greater con- problems with fire safety and sound insulation Profitability calculations indicating the insuffi-

244
 Multilayer glass facades

C 1.23
cient profitability of a second skin are often • Use of standard or near-standard structural maintenance, inspection and running costs,
cited to counter arguments for building double components must be considered in any comparison of the
facades, although they usually only take into • Installation of simple, hand-operated opening costs of single and multilayer glass facades.
account the extra glass skin’s additional costs, elements Double facades do not need to be cleaned
which depend heavily on the building’s type, • Taking into account the necessity of closable more often than single-layered structures. Any
construction details and size. To reliably ana- openings as well as thermal insulation and greater cost and effort involved in cleaning two
lyse the costs and benefits of such facades, soundproofing requirements glass surfaces is required only about once
investment and operating costs and the build- • Dimensioning the facade cavity to meet a year. The fact that interior solar protection
ing’s technical systems over its entire life cycle functional requirements such as integrated is shielded from the weather means that it
must be taken into consideration. It must be solar protection and maintenance, repair needs cleaning far less often than the exterior
noted for example, that a multilayer glass and cleaning solar protection of a single-layer glass facade.
facade’s interior glass skin can be much sim- • Designing the facade cavity floor to be Annual maintenance, inspection and operating
pler to build than a single-skin glass facade generally inaccessible or accessible only
in terms of its construction and subsequent for cleaning purposes
thermal performance, fire safety and sound • Use of closed exterior wall areas to prevent C 1.20 Building-within-a-building principle
insulation features. Technical construction fire from spreading C 1.21 Corridor facade
C 1.22 Building-within-a-building principle, training
issues must be precisely coordinated to fit in • The number of different construction types
academy, Herne (DE) 1999, Jourda et Perraudin
with functional requirements. The accuracy should be as low as possible with Hegger Hegger Schleiff
of general statements on costs must always • Prefabricated and modular facade elements C 1.23 Corridor facade, Olivetti company building,
be reviewed in terms of the specific individual can bring further cost advantages to large Ivrea (IT) 1940, Figini & Pollini
solution in question. The following aspects can construction projects. C 1.24 Double casement window facade
C 1.25 Shaft facade
play a significant role in optimising the costs C 1.26 Double casement window facade, RWE AG office
of multilayer glass facades so their relevance Apart from these aspects, the costs of oper- building, Essen (DE) 1997, Ingenhoven Overdiek
should be examined in each case [12]: ations and upkeep, mainly cleaning, services, Kahlen und Partner

C 1.24

C 1.25 C 1.26

245
Multilayer glass facades

C 1.27 Deutsche Bank, Berlin (DE) 1997, Benedict Tonon

and Nowotny Mähner Associates
C 1.27
costs are usually estimated at about 0.5 – 3 % Notes: indoor plantings see also Daniels, Klaus, Technolo-
of investment costs, although the precise [1] Staib, Gerald: Von den Ursprüngen bis zur Klassi- gie des ökologischen Bauens. Basel / Boston / Berlin
schen Moderne. In Schittich, Christian et al.: Glas- 1995, p. 194 –197
amount greatly depends on the number and bau Atlas, Munich / Basel 1998, p. 10 [11] www.baunetzwissen.de/standardartikel/Fassade-
construction quality of moveable structural [2] First mention of this type of construction was made Doppelfassaden-Arten_1462707.html, published
components [13]. in texts on construction written in 1691 (Davilers, 14 September 2016
In calculating the investment costs of solar Cours d’Architecture). It was first mentioned in [12] An interesting treatment of issues around the
German texts dating from 1725 and 1730. See also profitability of double-skin facades can be found
protection, it should be considered that solar
Lietz, Sabine: Das Fenster des Barock. Munich / in Oesterle, Eberhard et al., Doppelschalige
protection shielded from the weather in the Berlin 1982, p. 123 Fassaden: Ganzheitliche Planung. Munich 1999,
facade cavity can be much simpler to install [3] Kröling, Peter: Das Sick-Building-Syndrom in klima- p. 178 –198
than exterior solar protection. This can have a tisierten Gebäuden: Symptome, Ursachen und [13] ibid. p. 187
particularly strong impact on the required con- Prophylaxe. In: Innenraum Belastungen: erkennen,
bewerten, sanieren. Published by Friedhelm Diehl.
struction quality of high-rise buildings due to Wiesbaden / Berlin 1993, p. 22– 37
the heavy wind loads to which they are subject, [4] Lang, Werner: Zur Typologie mehrschaliger
because wind loads increase exponentially Gebäudehüllen aus Glas. In Detail 07/1998,
with a building’s height. p. 1,225 –1,232
[5] An intensive treatment of the topic of zones of
intermediate temperatures und building envelopes
Interactions between a building’s technical can be found in Herzog, Thomas; Natterer, Julius
systems and its facade must also be taken et al.(ed.): Gebäudehüllen aus Glas und Holz.
into account in cost calculations. Given all Maßnahmen zur energiebewussten Erweiterung
these factors, multilayer glass facades can von Wohnhäusern. Lausanne 1984
[6] Zimmermann, Markus: Fenster im Fenster. In
be very economical if they can reduce the use Detail 04/1996, p. 484 – 489
of air-conditioning equipment to a minimum. [7] A detailed description of the main correlations of
Depending on the correct design of ventila- energy transmission and storage can be found in
tion openings and the type and quantity of Herzog/Natterer, as for Note 5, p. 4 –11
[8] Depending on the building’s location and design,
glazing and solar protection, profitability may
it can be assumed that the runtimes of mechanical
also depend heavily on the behaviour of build- ventilation systems in office buildings can be re-
ing users. duced to 35 % of the building’s operating period
Profitability calculations should not be ori- if they can also be naturally ventilated. See also
ented solely towards investment and operat- Werkbericht 12. Gebäudetechnik für die Zukunft –
“weniger ist mehr”. Published by HL Technik AG.
ing costs. Factors such as user satisfaction, Munich 1994, p. 39 – 53
employee productivity and potential savings Regarding the necessary runtimes of air-condition-
in the use of (much more short-lived) air con- ing systems, it can be assumed that on days when
ditioning and heating systems must also be outside-air temperatures are between 5 and 22 °C,
these systems can be dispensed with altogether.
included to gain a complete picture. The
For Düsseldorf for example, this would be 63 % of
wide range of systems available requires a working hours. For 29 % of the year it is colder than
precise definition of the requirements profile 5 °C during operating hours, while temperatures
for the functions of a double facade in each above 22 °C for only 8 % of working hours over the
case to ensure a satisfactory solution in all year. See also Thiel, Dieter: Doppelfassaden – ein
Bestandteil energetisch optimierter und emissions-
areas when decisions on forms of design and armer Bürogebäude. In conference transcript for
construction are made. A double-skin facade Workshop “Lichtlenkende Bauteile” and the Interna-
can greatly contribute towards improving a tionales Forum Innovative Fassadentechnologie.
building’s comfort and energy balance in windy Published by the Institut für Licht- und Bautechnik
FH Köln. Cologne 1995, p. 30
or polluted locations. The success of double-
[9] Early descriptions of the operational principles and
skin facades depends heavily on the qualifica- potential applications of multilayered ventilated
tions of those involved in planning them. Plan- glass walls can be found in Le Corbusier’s essay on
ners should see the facade system not as an “Die Technik als Grundlage des Lyrismus eröffnet
isolated subsystem, but as part of the whole eine neue Epoche in der Architektur” dated 5 Octo-
ber 1929. In Le Corbusier, 1929 – Feststellungen zu
building in its interactions with users, the build- Architektur und Städtebau. Bauwelt Fundamente 12.
ing’s technical systems, construction and Braunschweig / Wiesbaden 1987, p. 70 –72
energy balance. [10] For an overview of ways of improving interior air with

246
 Multilayer glass facades

Steiff soft toy factory

Giengen an der Brenz, DE 1903

Planning:
Eisenwerke München
Richard Steiff, Giengen an der Brenz

º Bauen + Wohnen 07/1970

Baumeister 11/2003
Bauwelt 44/1992
Finke, Barbara: Der Ostbau der Steiff-
Fabrik in Giengen / Brenz. Unpublished
Master’s degree dissertation, TU Berlin
1998

• First known buffer facade fully glazed from

floor to ceiling in Germany. It has better 3
thermal insulation than a single-layer glass 1
c c
facade
• Load-bearing steel frame within the facade
cavity 4
• Facade sections connected with u-shaped 2
steel lugs
• Double casement windows in the facade
allow for air exchange and exterior views
b 4 3

5
b
Cross section • Floor plan of the 1st floor Scale 1:500 1 Battened columns, steel channel with 8
Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20 riveted web connectors (secondary support 9
Detail of facade post Scale 1:5 structure) and fastening lugs
2 Compound corner column (primary
support structure)
3 Steel section facade column, IPE 130/80 mm
with riveted fastening lugs 7 6
4 Fastening lug, riveted to facade columns
5 Steel section longitudinal beam, 60/140 mm 10
6 Steel section cross-beam, IPE 140/70 mm
7 Clay plank ceiling with top concrete layer
11
and wooden floorboards on battens
8 Steel T-section glazing bar, 20/30 and
25/30 mm
9 Putty
10 External glazed curtain wall facade
extends over all floors, Rhenish glass
aa 11 Inner floor-to-ceiling glazing,
cathedral glass (matt glass) 3 mm
bb

6 11

4
a a
5

8 9 10
cc

247
Multilayer glass facades

Office building

Würzburg, DE 1995

Architects:
Webler + Geissler, Stuttgart
Structural engineer:
Rudi Wolff, Stuttgart

º Arch+ 113, 1993

Architectural Review 11/1996
A+U 05/1997
Bauwelt 27/1996
Byggekunst 08/1996
GLAS 06/1996
Techniques + architecture 434, 1997

• Unsegmented glazed double-skin facade with

adjustable ventilation flaps at roof and floor
• Insulating glass used for both layers of the
facade to improve thermal insulation
• Vertical glass separating elements in corners
with integrated axial fans to distribute pre-
heated incoming air throughout the facade
cavity
• Aluminium blinds with different interior and
exterior colours
• Reflective exterior improves the building’s
solar protection
• Absorbent coated inner surface enables solar
energy to preheat cold incoming air

b b

a a

aa

1 Aluminium sheeting with anti-drum coating Summer day Summer night

2 Upper ventilation flap with brush seals at the sides
3 Aluminium ventilation louvres with insect screen
4 Exterior glazing
toughened safety glass 8 + space between
the panes 22 with inert gas filling, float glass 6 mm,
Low-E coating
5 Perforated lightweight metal louvred blind,
upper section coated white on both sides,
lower section has a dark coating on one side,
each section can be independently controlled
6 Aluminium grating
7 Inner glazing:
toughened safety glass 6 + space between
the panes 16 with inert gas filling aa
Float glass 6 mm, Low-E coating
Aluminium frame, thermally separate Winter day Winter night
8 Aluminium post-and-rail frame,
thermally separate
9 Lower ventilation flap

248
 Multilayer glass facades

Floor plan Scale 1:1,500

Cross section Scale 1:500
Isometric view Not to scale
Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

3
1

4 5

8 7

bb

249
Multilayer glass facades

Gallery for Architecture and Labour

Gelsenkirchen, DE 1995

Architects:
Pfeiffer Ellermann und Partner, Lüdinghausen
with Andrzej Bleszynski, Axel Rüdiger
Structural engineers:
Spiess Schäfer Keck, Dortmund
Interior climate concept:
Kahlert, Haltern

º Bauwelt 27/1996
Byggekunst 08/1998
GLAS 06/1996

• Unsegmented double-skin facade with a

lightweight concrete wall 60 cm behind it
• Casement window-type openings closed off
from the surrounding facade cavity c c
• Facade cavity with top-hung sashes at the 4
top and bottom of the facade that can be
opened outwards 1
• The two glass skins are about 90 cm apart 3
• Ventilation openings between the unseg-
mented double-skin facade and casement 2
window elements can be regulated to make
use of preheated outside air in winter
3

a a

6 7

b b
10
3 6 4
Floor plan upper floor Scale 1:400
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section 8 9
Scale 1:20
10
Details Scale 1:5
11
1 Adjustable facade attachment
2 Electrically operated window opening
3 Steel frame in 60 mm flat steel,
grid size 1,020 ≈ 1,020 mm
4 Frameless fixed glazing,
toughened safety glass, 8 mm,
glass fastened at discrete points
5 Peripheral sealing gasket 10/6 mm 7
11
6 Frameless toughened safety glass 8 mm, 9
fastened with hinges at various points,
can be manually opened outwards
7 Steel-reinforced concrete frame, 200 mm
8 Window stay 12
9 Individually adjustable ventilation opening 8
10 Untreated pine timber window with
insulating glazing
11 Lightweight concrete, 365 mm, exposed
concrete quality
12 Toughened safety glass (as in 6) electrically
operated, opening outwards aa 3 6 4 bb

250
 Multilayer glass facades

Petrol and service station

Lechwiesen, DE 1997

Architects:
Herzog + Partner, Munich
with Arthur Schankula, Roland Schneider

º db 04/1998
Herzog, Thomas: Architektur + Technolo-
gie. Munich / London / New York 2001

1
• Multifunctional double glass facade provides
soundproofing as well as air flow in winter
• In winter stale room air is drawn down through
the facade cavity and fed back into the heat 2
recovery system A 4
• This heats up interior glass surfaces during 5
cold weather and improves users’ comfort
• Roof bar above the double glass facade 6 3
can be raised to allow heated interior air to
escape in summer
• Interior layout and roof incline optimised to
B
enhance airflows
7

Cross section Not to scale

Vertical cross section south facade C
Scale 1:20

A Winter:
mechanical ventilation,
ventilation flaps closed 8
B Summer:
natural ventilation,
ventilation system operating 9 10 11
C Summer: 12
natural ventilation supported
by axial fans powered by a
photovoltaic system 9 13

1 Stainless steel capping sheet,

2 mm
2 Steel angle frame, 100/50/6 mm
3 Lifting mechanism with rack-and-
14
pinion drive electronic motor
4 Frame, 65/115 mm
5 Steel channel frame, 120
6 Cover strip, 50/25 mm
7 Thermal insulation glazing,
28 mm
8 Steel section, 50/38mm
9 Flat steel frame
¡ 120/15 mm and
¡ 147/15 mm, welded
10 Rear anchor bar, tension /
compression strut Ø 30/2 mm
11 Wind bracing, Ø 16/1.8 mm
15
12 Timber support beam with
rear anchoring
13 Glazing, toughened safety glass,
8 mm
14 Horizontal glued maple
glazing bars
15 Steel grating, 20/3/16 mm
above air vent

251
Multilayer glass facades

Office building

Kronberg im Taunus, DE 2000

Architects:
schneider+schumacher, Frankfurt am Main

º Architektur Aktuell 246 – 247, 2000

8
db 03/2000
DBZ 01/2001
Fassade / Facade 04/2001
GLAS 05/2000
Schittich, Christian (ed.): Gebäudehüllen.
Munich / Basel 2001
3 4
cc

• Double casement window-type facade with

single-glazed, frameless side-hung windows
that are motor-driven and open outwards
• Inner facade has fixed insulating glazing
elements that can be opened for cleaning
and maintenance
• Ventilation flaps out of insulated aluminium
panels, thermally separate
• Offices on building’s periphery naturally
ventilated
• Night-time cooling of offices cool in summer

aa

a a

Horizontal cross section at corner Scale 1:20

Cross section • Floor plan Scale 1:2,000
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Window details, horizontal cross section • Vertical
cross section
Scale 1:5

252
 Multilayer glass facades

3 9 7

8 4 dd

10
1

3 1 Aluminium capping sheet, 5

c c 3 mm
2 Aluminium sheeting, 2 mm
3 Outer pane, toughened
safety glass, 12 mm
4 4 Window frame and sash: 4 3
Press-drawn section
Aluminium, thermally separate
Glazing d d
toughened safety glass 6 +
space between the panes 14
+ laminated safety glass 8 mm
5 Water pipes for
heating / cooling ceiling,
Ø 20 mm
6 Grating for air inlet to hall
7 Slits for equalising
differences in air pressure
8 Ventilation flap:
aluminium sheeting on 7
both sides
with sealing and
magnetic bracket
9 Electric motor
10 Lightweight brick

bb

253
Multilayer glass facades

Stadttor high-rise building

Düsseldorf, DE 1997

Architects:
Overdiek Petzinka und Partner, Düsseldorf
(Design and approvals planning)
Petzinka Pink und Partner, Düsseldorf
(Working drawings and implementation)
Structural engineers:
Ove Arup und Partner, Düsseldorf
Facade consultant:
Erich Mosbacher, Friedrichshafen

º Oesterle, Eberhard et al.: Doppelschalige

Fassaden. Munich, 1990

• Corridor facade with 1.4-metre wide access-

ible facade cavity
• Safety barriers also absorb wind loads
• Adjustable ventilation openings
• Diagonally offset openings prevent mixing of
incoming and outgoing air

A B aa

Principle of airflow through corridor facade

A Winter
Ventilation elements: closed at night (insulation func-
tion) and open during the day (to preheat outside air);
Heated air is fed into the atrium
B Summer
Ventilation elements open: Cooling ceiling is cooled
with cooler air from the ground

Cross section • Floor plan of a standard storey

Scale 1:2,000
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Horizontal cross section, handrail / facade bracing
Scale 1:5

254
 Multilayer glass facades

1
2

11

3 18
c b 12 13
4

5 19

a 20

6 2
cc

1 Flat steel railing posts, 80/8 mm 10 Stainless steel sheeting, 3 mm

4 7 2 Glazing: toughened safety glass, 11 Tubular hollow aluminium handrail,
12 mm Ø 40/4 mm
3 Alternating ventilation inlets / outlets 12 Cast aluminium, 28/40 mm
3 mm stainless steel sheeting 13 Flat steel railing posts, 100/12 mm
4 Aluminium ventilation louvres 14 Flat steel strut, 15 mm
5 Extruded aluminium airflow guide plate with stainless steel glazing bracket
6 Aluminium ventilation panel 15 Square steel hollow section,
8 a Open 50/50/3 mm
9 b Rain position 16 Special profile with opening for
c Closed condensation
7 Sunblind: 17 Natural stone, 40 mm
electrically operated Ventilation cavity, 80 mm
8 Beech windowframe with insulating Thermal insulation, 60 mm
glazing 18 Clamping sleeve
9 Grating, alternately non-slip steel 19 Solid stainless steel bar, Ø 24 mm
floor plate 20 Stainless steel glazing bar

10

c c

11 12

13 14

15

16

17
bb

255
Multilayer glass facades

Trade fair headquarters

Hanover, DE 1999 Principle of natural air-

flow through the corridor
Architects: facade (inflow from the
Herzog + Partner, Munich, north)
A Winter
with Roland Schneider B Summer

º Detail 03/2000 + Wind pressure

Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Nachhaltige – Wind suction
––o Facade opening
Höhe – Sustainable Height. Munich /
Flow of air con-
London / New York 2000 trolled by tempera-
ture sensors in the
corridor facade
>>> Incoming air
A B ¡ Exhaust air shaft

• Structural framework, facade and building

services technology are interlinked to form a
complete energy system
• High level of comfort and quality workplace
with low energy consumption
• Ventilation tower uses thermal lift to naturally
ventilate the whole building
• Ventilation elements in the outer facade can
be regulated in response to varying air pres-
sure ratios.
• Sliding doors opening onto the double
facade's cavity allow for individual natural
ventilation

256
 Multilayer glass facades

Floor plans • Cross section

Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section • Horizontal
cross section
1 Scale 1:20
2
1 Clear insulating glazing
8 + 16 space between the panes
+ 8 mm
2 Aluminium ventilation element
with louvres to protect against
2 13 weather
3 Cover strip serves as a guide rail
19 25 for the service lift
4 Insulating glazing
d d 8 + space between the panes 16
+ 8 mm, outer pane printed white
12 13 15 20 5 Aluminium section with opening
17 for drainage
6 Cast aluminium bracket
7 Galvanised steel section
c c 100/100/10 mm
14 painted and bolted in place
3 11 14 23 8 Smoke-proof hardwood facade
16
connection, 20 mm
21 22
9 Steel T-section edge trim
8 9 10 40/40/4 mm, flush moulded
10 Reinforced concrete ceiling,
300 mm, with a coated surface
11 Facade post with mounting slot
12 Solar protection:
Aluminium blind
13 Cable conduit with aluminium
flashing
4 14 Reinforced concrete column,
Ø 500 mm
6 7
15 Veneer plywood panel covering
5 plasterboard stud wall (on service
floor only)
16 Hemlock supply air duct with
inspection hatch and air outlet
aa bb
on inside
17 Glass louvres for corridor
b a ventilation
20 24 18 Insulating glazing
8 + space between the panes 16
+ 8 mm
19 Hemlock facade panel
19 coated with a thick varnish
18 20 Fixed glazing
20 19 4 + space between the panes 16
+ 6 mm
9 17 11 21 Hemlock veneer plywood inspec-
tion hatch, 35 mm
cc 22 Hemlock veneer plywood
cladding, 35 mm
23 Skirting board channel with air
outlet for mechanical ventilation
24 Sliding window for natural
2 ventilation
3 4 25 Textile glare protection
dd
b a

257
Multilayer glass facades

RWE headquarters

Essen, DE 1997
1 Safety barrier, clamped white toughened safety glass,
Architects: 12 mm with tubular aluminium handrail, Ø 100 mm
Ingenhoven Overdiek Kahlen und Partner, 2 Grating over drainage channel
3 Cover plate
Düsseldorf 4 Tubular aluminium posts for double-storey terrace
glazing, 50/280 mm, stove-enamelled
º db 04/1997 5 Metal grating
Fassadentechnik 05/1997, 06/1997, 01/1998 6 Heated metal gutter 4 mm, drainage outlets in facade
grid lines in the suspended ceiling
Briegleb, Till (ed.): Hochhaus RWE AG
7 Facade cavity ventilated through perforated alumin-
Essen. Basel / Berlin / Boston 2000 ium sheeting in alternating bays (adjoining bay
Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas. closed), 4 mm, anodised, natural colour
Munich / Basel 1998 8 Solar protection: aluminium louvre blinds
9 Textile glare protection roller blind
10 Multifunctional ceiling panel, stove-enamelled sheet

29
• Building 127 metres high, diameter 32 m
• Reinforced concrete frame
• Floor-to-ceiling glazing allows for optimal use
of daylight
• Ground floor – 8.40-metre high facade made
from clear glass, point-fixed: insulating glazing
with toughened safety glass on exterior and
11
laminated safety glass on interior
• Supply air enters through tubular aluminium
facade posts
• Centrally-controlled solar and glare protection 21 30
Glare protection: room-side 31
Solar protection: in facade cavity
• Standard floor with modular casement window
facade for natural ventilation, 197 ≈ 359.1 cm
• Alternating areas of fixed glazing and sliding,
manually operated door panels
18 19
• Multifunctional ventilation element at ceiling bb
height with laterally offset air inlets and outlets

25

24 23
cc

a Floor plan, standard storey Scale 1:1,000

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
a Scale 1:20

Horizontal cross section through partition wall

connection
Horizontal cross section, ground floor
Vertical cross section through ground floor entry hall
and upper facade connection

258
 Multilayer glass facades

aa
1
2

metal, partly perforated glazing, clear glass in an aluminium frame 3

11 Floor convector 22 Silicone joint sealing on backer rod
4
12 Closed aluminium sheeting (adjoining bay perfor- 23 Insulating toughened safety glass 10 mm +
ated) 4 mm, anodised, natural colour, upward space between the panes 14 + laminated safety
opening via hinge glass 12 mm
13 Cleaning and inspection walkway 24 Stainless steel point mounting for insulating glazing
14 Butt joint for construction purposes 25 Aluminium facade post
15 Fastener for service lift 26 Metal grating
16 Horizontal ventilation slit with aluminium airflow guide 27 Adjustable column base
louvres, anodised, natural colour 28 Aluminium glazing bar
17 EPDM sealing gasket 29 Modular office partition wall, 175 mm, perforated
18 External facade, clear toughened safety glass, 10 mm beech panels, matt finish
19 Stainless steel point mounting 30 Sliding door panel with crank handle 5
20 Aluminium facade post, 50/120 mm (in alternating bays)
21 Inner facade, floor-to-ceiling thermal insulation 31 Facade divider, clear toughened safety glass

6
9

7
8
11 10

12
13

15
14 16
17

18

19
20
21
b b

22

23

24

7 25

c c

26 28 26

27

259
Multilayer glass facades

Office block facade renovation

Stuttgart, DE 1996

Architects:
Behnisch Sabatke Behnisch, Stuttgart
Project architect:
Carmen Lenz

º Bauwelt 43 – 44/1996
GLAS Sonderheft 02/1997
Knaack, Ulrich: Konstruktiver Glasbau.
a
Cologne, 1998
Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 1998
a

• Complete refurbishing of a prefabricated

steel-reinforced concrete building built in
1969
• Unsegmented double-skin facade with
external glass skin with glass slats that can
be adjusted storey by storey
• Maximum airflow through the facade cavity
when glass slats are open ensures good
protection from overheating
• Cross ventilation through openings in corridor
walls that can also be used to cool the build-
ing at night in summer

Floor plan, ground floor Scale 1:250

Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

260
 Multilayer glass facades

7 6 5 4 3

2 1 6 mm toughened windowsill
safety glass 11 Dado duct, covered
2 Glass clamp connected 12 Wooden grating
to support structure 13 Plasterboard
3 Aluminium blind cladding
4 Wood soffit 14 Services duct
5 Vertically pivoting 15 Timber cladding
window in timber frame 20/60 mm,
6 Aluminium fins, on a frame
10/140 mm Ventilation cavity,
7 Suspended plaster- 30 mm
board ceiling Closed-cell insula-
8 Toughened safety glass tion, 80 mm
divider, 14 mm Precast concrete
9 Veneered plywood spandrel
panel, 200 mm 16 Precast reinforced
8 10 Aluminium sheeting concrete ceiling

10
9

11

12 13

14

16 15

aa

261
Multilayer glass facades

Event and congress centre

San Sebastián, ES 1999

Architect:
Rafael Moneo, Madrid

º Detail 03/2000
domus 722, 1990
El Croquis 98, 2000: Special issue
Rafael Moneo 1995 – 2000

• Buffer facade with internal steel frame

• Two facade layers 250 cm apart
• Glass protects the spaces behind it from the
salty air
• Windows with insulating glazing integrated
into the buffer facade provide specific views
into the surrounding landscape

Elevation Scale 1:1,500

Vertical cross section, facade
Scale 1:20
Details Scale 1:5

262
 Multilayer glass facades

1
3 7
11
2

3
4 12

5
7
6 8
9
10
13

15
1 Curved glass panels, laminated safety glass,
2,500 ≈ 600 mm
made from translucent profiled glass 4 – 5 mm
and sandblasted float glass, 19 mm,
vertical joints sealed with silicone
2 Extruded aluminium glazing bar,
glass bonded with silicone adhesive
3 Hole for drainage and pressure equalisation,
1 outside opening shielded from the wind
4 Cast aluminium section
5 Translucent silicone sealing
7 6 White silicone sealing
7 Extruded aluminium rail
8 Stainless steel bolts
9 Aluminium connection element,
adjustable in three directions
9 10 Facade posts
Extruded aluminium section, 50/140 mm
11 Sandblasted laminated safety glass, consisting of
11 2≈ float glass 6 mm, pane size 2,500 ≈ 600 mm
12 Aluminium glazing bar cap with cedarwood cover strip
13 Facade posts
14
12 Extruded aluminium section, 50/100 mm
10 14 Steel sheeting frame, welded, with
fire-resistant coating
15 Aluminium sheeting roof edge trim, folded, insulated
13
16 Aluminium profile cladding, 20/40/500/5 mm
17 Cladding cut to fit the curved glass
18 Aluminium plinth trim, 30/250/330/10 mm
19 Cedar soffit
7 20 Insulating glazing consisting of 2≈ laminated safety
glass, 16 mm
16 21 Exposed concrete plinth
19

20
17

21

18

263
Multilayer glass facades

Renovation of the Tour Bois le Prêtre

Paris, FR 2011

Architects:
Frédéric Druot and Lacaton & Vassal, Paris

º Archplus 203/2011
Arquitectura viva 139/2011
Metamorphose Bauen im Bestand 01/2012
Moniteur architecture AMC 209/2011
Ruby, Ilka and Andreas (eds.): Druot,
Lacaton & Vassal. Tour Bois le Prêtre.
Berlin 2012

• Renovation and extension of a 17-storey

high-rise residential building, built in 1961,
with the involvement of its residents
• Existing facade replaced by prefabricated
extension modules faced with multilayer,
transparent and translucent panes of glass
and polycarbonate panels
• Living space extended by weather-protected
intermediate temperature zones and balconies
• Inner glass facade comprises sliding elements
with insulating glazing
• Outer glass facade comprises sliding elem-
ents with single glazing and corrugated poly-
carbonate panels

Cross section Scale 1:750

Floor plan Scale 1:500
Isometries Not to scale
Vertical cross section Scale 1:50

b
aa
a b

264
 Multilayer glass facades

1 Laminated safety glass safety barrier

2 Steel cantilever
3 Main beam, IPE 220 mm 6 8
4 Secondary beam, IPE 100 mm 7
5 Corrugated sheet, 60 mm 9
6 Sliding door with single glazing 1
7 Solar protection
8 Sliding door with insulating glazing
9 Thermal insulation curtain:
reflective material on glass side 5
Thermal insulation
decorative material on inside

2
3 4

bb

265
266
 Manipulators

C 2 Manipulators Every building has components designed to opment of systems available in the building
influence the type and extent of outer and inner envelope is an urgent task. Ideally architects
factors and their interactions. Solid areas of should be involved in this development
an exterior wall separate the interior from the because they have long been responsible for
outside. Yet its colour, materials, dimensioning the overall composition and optimisation of
and proportions can also enable the same buildings and for the effective integration of
wall to temporarily store energy flows between important subsystems in them.
inside and out. Walls also contain openings
that let in light, heat and air and allow for views, Translucent components (windows)
all criteria that determine the quality of the in- Besides glass, other materials such as ala-
terior climate. Interactions between the outdoor baster, marble, horn, animal skins, canvas
climate (weather, day-and-night rhythm, sea- and paper have been used for translucent
sons of the year, etc.) and interior variables window surfaces. Window openings first
(heat sources, constant or changing moisture became a technologically-developed part of
levels etc.) in the building create conditions the building with the use of glass in Roman
that are usually very different from the extremes times, although glazed window openings were
of the outdoor climate and approximate the the exception rather than the rule until well
comfort criteria usually desired in interiors. into the 12th century. Early translucent or trans-
parent windows were usually fixed. Although
Depending on demands and requirements, side-hung sashes were known in the ancient
the openings through which air, light, heat world, they are widely regarded as a medi-
and moisture are preferably exchanged eval invention. Sliding sash windows, where
can be designed to have specifically variable the sashes move in parallel and horizontally
qualities. Increasing and reducing permeability to the plane of the window, date back to the
then becomes a control measure so a build- 13th century.
ing’s users can manipulate its interior climate
by means of variable structural components. Opaque components
The simplest form of closing window openings
The simplest and best-known manipulators [1] with opaque elements is the shutter. Wood,
are windows and doors. Their changing states stone and iron have been used throughout
of openness and closure and outfitting with history to make shutters to close off window
specific materials have for a long time funda- openings and provide additional protection
mentally influenced the interior climates of (Fig. C 2.3, p. 268). Architectural and art histo-
buildings and the appearance of their facades. rians differentiate the different types according
to the way they are hung and move [2]:
It seems plausible therefore, that effects such • Loose shutters: wooden panels wedged in
as the greenhouse effect (heating of rooms as required
by solar energy through transparent surfaces • Hinged shutters (can be folded and tilted):
in the building envelope using natural solar attached by hinges above or below windows,
radiation in temperature ranges well above date back to the 12th century
the outdoor air temperature) are as achievable • Folding shutters (moved by pivoting):
as they are preventable. An unwelcome influx attached by hinges at the sides, traced back
of heat due to this effect can be prevented by to the ancient world
an appropriate use of solar protection devices. • Sliding shutters (sliding horizontally):
At the same time, temporary thermal insulation attached at the sides, mainly for smaller
and shading devices allow users to directly window openings, inside or out, set into a
influence interior thermal and lighting condi- frame, were used in Ancient Greece
tions and give them the option of regulating any • Sliding shutters (sliding vertically): above
changes at any time and as required. or below windows, usually set into the
facade cladding, appear between the 15th
Manipulators have therefore become increas- and 18th centuries, particularly in eastern
ingly important in the context of a targeted use Switzerland [3].
of environmentally friendly energy, especially
solar energy. Users can now modify interior cli- Shutters have been used as additional elem-
mates in response to inner requirements and ents to cover glazing since the 15th century.
outside climate conditions by manually regulat- From the 18th century on, they usually supple-
ing the building envelope without any notable mented transparent window closures [4]. As
external energy input, just as we are used to well as sliding and folding shutters (commonly
doing with our clothing. called folding shutters) there are:
If such systems are used correctly, the logical • Roller shutters or shades, made of slender
and desirable outcome will be a drastic reduc- slats strung on cords or chains, in use since
tion in the need for other interventions in interior the 18th century
climates from the building’s heating, cooling, • Venetian blinds: folding blinds made of slop-
ventilation and lighting systems. ing (possibly moveable), horizontal wooden
louvres for regulating incident light and air-
C 2.1 Apartment building on Mozart Square, Paris (FR) Their interaction with the building’s energy bal- flows; used from the early 18th century, espe-
1954, Jean Prouvé ance as a whole means that the further devel- cially in France.

267
Manipulators

Permeability
Wall surface
properties
(air, radiation)

Permeable (openings) Not permeable

Non-variable properties Variable properties

Element’s Manoeuvrable element

Immoveable element (rigid)
manoeuvrability (manipulators)

Temporarily manoeuvrable
Permanently manoeuvrable
(fixed)

Segmenting of element /
One piece More than one piece
size when stowed

Size when stowed Size when stowed Size when stowed

unchanged reduced greatly reduced

C 2.2 C 2.6
Just as general technological develop- Manoeuvrability
ment has altered the performance profile Elements with variable properties can be
of buildings, the functions of the window divided into:
and elements in front of openings in build- • stationary elements
ing envelopes have increasingly become • moveable elements
more sophisticated and complex. In recent
years, the diversity of movement mech- Stationary elements include thermotropic
anisms available for manipulators has grown coatings and gasochromic or electrochromic
considerably. glass. Elements that allow for movement can
be characterised by two adjectives [5]:
In this context, window manufacturers also • temporarily/seasonally manoeuvrable, i.e.
seem to be offering more diverse movement can be moved – e.g. storm windows
mechanisms as alternatives to the turn-and-tilt • permanently manoeuvrable, i.e. made to
C 2.3 windows common in Germany, which are also move
problematic with respect to heating energy
consumption criteria. The word manipulator refers to facade compo-
nents with variable properties, with permeability
to air, light, heat and moisture which can be
Classification of manipulators varied by movement.

The wide range of well-known varieties of Segmenting of elements / size when stowed
manipulators is classified below and may Changes in the size of manipulators (their
serve as inspiration for new functional, geo- size when stowed) are crucial to various
metric and technical combinations. Three construction, functional and design aspects
factors can be considered when classifying of moveable elements in facades. Possible
manipulators: changes in the size of manipulators can be
• Permeability properties defined as:
C 2.4 • Manoeuvrability of the element • unchanged
• Segmenting and stowing of the element • reduced
(changes in volume and /or size) • greatly reduced

Permeability A manipulator usually consists of one or more

Surfaces permeable to air, light, heat and parts that can be further subdivided into vari-
moisture are distinguished from those that are ous parts. Together with the type of movement,
impermeable (or almost so). Permeability may this results in different states and a range of
or may not be variable. The type and extent features of surfaces with modifiable properties.
of permeability largely determines a surface’s Differences in the size of elements when they
function. If the functional performance profile are extended or retracted directly influence
of a surface is designed to be able to assume operation and may determine functional prop-
different states, the surface’s permeability erties as well as construction and design char-
must be variable. acteristics.
C 2.5

268
 Manipulators

C 2.2 Classification of the word “manipulator”

C 2.3 Stone shutters, Torcello (IT) unchanged unchanged

horizontal
C 2.4 Facade opening with folding shutters and perme-
able arches for refracting light and regulating unchanged
ventilation, Montagnana (IT)

Sliding
C 2.5 Translucent panels, traditional house, Takayama
(JP) unchanged unchanged unchanged
C 2.6 Combination of several manipulators at Palazzo

vertical
Pitti, Florence (IT)
C 2.7 Classification of common manipulators
Figures above the drawings refer to changes in
the size of moveable elements when expanded
or retracted.

of the facade
perpendicular
unchanged

to the plane
Push-out
unchanged unchanged unchanged unchanged unchanged

vertical axis
around a
unchanged

unchanged unchanged unchanged unchanged reduced

horizontal axis
around a
Turning

unchanged unchanged reduced

of the element
around an axis
perpendicular
to the plane

Further distinguishing features

Further aspects of manoeuvrable elements
can be differentiated by taking a fourth factor
into account, e. g.: reduced reduced reduced reduced
horizontal

• Position relative to the climatic border:

outside (at a distance from the opening),
Folding (turning – sliding)

outside, integrated into the plane of the

window, inside
reduced reduced reduced
• Position relative to the opening: above, in
vertical

the middle of, below, at the side of, on one

or several sides

The way components are arranged can directly greatly reduced

influence functional factors. Installing a blind
circular

to prevent glare in an opening’s upper area

can reduce the amount of light reaching deep
into an interior. Installing interior solar protec-
tion may result in an unwelcome input of heat greatly reduced greatly reduced greatly reduced
horizontal

energy.

Types and directions of movement

The fundamental types of movement for elem-
ents in the facade are classified in a list in greatly reduced greatly reduced
Gathering

vertical

the chapter on “Edges, openings” (p. 38)

based on the movement mechanisms used
for windows.

The types of movement of manipulators used greatly reduced

circular

often combine various movement principles.

Figure C 2.7 shows an overview of the wide
range of movement options and directions for
manipulators [6]. The overview covers types of
greatly reduced greatly reduced
movement used in practice but does not claim
horizontal

to be exhaustive.
greatly reduced
Rolling

If a system consists of a combination of vari-

ous manoeuvrable elements, the movement greatly reduced greatly reduced greatly reduced
mechanisms used become fundamentally
vertical

important. Elements can only move independ-

ently if they do not have a mutually adverse
effect on each other [7]. Various aspects can
C 2.7

269
Manipulators

C 2.8
make high demands on facade systems in panels, fabrics or foils. Manipulators may also Notes:
terms of the integration of elements. Interior be perforated or allow for ventilation through [1] Use of the word “manipulator” for manoeuvrable
conditions can only be efficiently regulated integrated fixed or adjustable louvres. As elements in a building envelope is based on a disser-
tation by Waldemar Jaensch supervised by Thomas
if components regulating levels of lighting, shown in figure C 2.7, a wealth of combin- Herzog. “Verfahren zur Beurteilung kinetischer Manip-
sound and heating can be separately con- ations of individual manipulators are possible, ulatoren an der Gebäudeoberfläche als Maßnahme
trolled – as was the case with their historic with different possible positions in the plane zur Regulierung des Gebäudeklimas. Untersuchung
forerunners. of the facade relevant to heating issues: mit Hilfe von Simulationsmodellen” (Procedure for
evaluating kinetic manipulators on building surfaces
• Horizontal sliding shutters as a means of regulating the building’s climate. Inves-
Operating manipulators • Vertical sliding shutters tigation using simulation models). Kassel 1981, p. 28.
Manipulators can be manually or mechanic- • External side-hung shutters The word “manipulator” contains the Latin words
ally operated. Building users can operate • Internal side-hung shutters “manus”, meaning “hand”, and “manipulation” mean-
them manually as required. Depending on • Shutters pivoting around a horizontal axis ing, "intervention, to use something to your own
advantage"; borrowed in the 18th century from
the movement mechanism and effort needed • Shutters folding horizontally to one side the French word, “manipulation”, derived from “ma-
to produce movement, it may be possible to (turning and sliding) nipuler”, meaning "to influence something to your
operate several manipulators simultaneously. • Shutters folding vertically to one side (with / own advantage" (according to Kluge, Friedrich:
A mechanical drive can be used to automat- without ventilation openings) Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache.
Berlin / New York 1989, p. 459). In the field of technol-
ically control manipulators and such systems • Shutters folding horizontally in the middle
ogy, the word means a "device for handling objects"
can be integrated into the building’s energy • Blinds, gathered horizontally (dtv-Lexikon. Vol. 11. Munich, 1997, p. 240).
concept. Users can make individual adjust- • Push-out windows [2] Reallexikon zur Deutschen Kunstgeschichte. Vol. 7
ments within certain limits. • Windows with pivoting sashes and 8. Munich 1981
Combining various elements to regulate the • Horizontal sliding windows [3] Herzog, Thomas; Natterer, Julius et al. (eds.): Gebäu-
dehüllen aus Glas und Holz. Lausanne 1984, p. 20f.
permeability of building envelopes can help • Vertical sliding windows [4] Gerner, Manfred; Gärtner, Dieter: Historische Fenster.
to optimise user comfort and energy con- • Folding windows (turning, sliding) Stuttgart 1996, p. 68
sumption. • Venetian blinds (blinds with horizontal [5] Krippner, Roland: Entwicklung beweglicher Mani-
louvres) pulatoren im Bereich der Außenwände mit wärme-
dämmenden und weiteren Funktionen. In Abschluss-
States of manipulators • Gathered awnings
bericht ISOTEG. TU Munich, Chair of Building Tech-
As well as open and closed states, manipu- • Roller awnings nology, 2001 (unpublished), p. 88 – 89
lators can assume intermediate states and [6] Building on graphics in ibid.
depending on the type of movement, perme- The use of manipulators offers a wide range [7] This chapter includes parts of the dissertation
ability can be regulated in this way. Hinged of design options and can heavily influence a “Untersuchungen von Vertikalschiebefenstern als
Komponenten im Bereich von Fassadenöffnungen”
shutters and venetian blinds can be men- facade’s appearance by changing the size of (Studies and trials of vertical sliding windows as
tioned in this context: both are used to regu- its surfaces and varying their positions. facade opening components) (2005) by Daniel
late incident light. Exterior contact through Westenberger, written at the Faculty of Building
hinged shutters can be adjusted only to a Technology at TU Munich.
certain extent, while with louvred blinds in con-
trast, incident light and consequently views
can be varied by changing the angle of the
louvres. The situation is similar when using a
window for ventilation. Sliding windows allow
users to vary the opening gap and adjust it
to provide slot ventilation. This can only be
done with windows with turning or pivoting
sashes if they have appropriate fixing and
adjustment fittings (see also “Edges, open-
ings”, p. 38 ff.).

Applications
Almost all materials commonly used in con-
struction are used to make manipulators. Their
surfaces can be solid in the form of boards,

270
 Manipulators

C 2.8 Procuratie Vecchie, St. Mark's Square, Venice (IT)

C 2.9 –16 Examples of building envelopes that can be
changed functionally and aesthetically by manipu-
lators

C 2.9 C 2.10

C 2.11 C 2.12

C 2.13 C 2.14

C 2.15 C 2.16

271
Manipulators

C 2.17 C 2.18

C 2.19 C 2.20

C 2.21 C 2.22

C 2.23 C 2.24

272
 Manipulators

C 2.17–32 Examples of facades that can be changed

functionally and aesthetically by manipulators

C 2.25 C 2.26

C 2.27 C 2.28

C 2.29 C 2.30

C 2.31 C 2.32

273
Manipulators

Dial-Norm factory

Kirchberg, CH 1972

Architect:
Fritz Haller, Solothurn
Facade planning:
Hans Diehl, Neuenhof Baden

º Werk 10/1974

• Round, rotating all-glass sashes in circular Cross section • Floor plan

window openings Scale 1:500
Horizontal cross section •
• Built using the USM HALLER “MAXI” steel 1
Vertical cross section
building system Scale 1:5
• Large facade panels minimise the number
2 3
of joints per unit of area A Fixed glazing
• Prefabricated panels meant shortened B Butt joint between elements
C Moveable element
assembly times
• Facade built without any direct metallic
connections between interior and exterior
(so no thermal bridges)

4
1 Aluminium sheeting 2 mm
r = 150 mm
5 2 Thermal insulation, 40 mm
6 3 Folded steel sheeting 3 mm
4 “USM Haller MAXI” steel frame,
IPE 400 and IPE 220 (on the
short side)
8 5 Load-bearing sandwich panel,
c c 1 mm aluminium sheeting,
stove-enamelled on both sides,
aa 9 plastic core
PU-foam thermal insulation
11 15
Stove-enamelled aluminium
10 sheeting 3 mm
6 EPDM rebate profile
7 EPDM filler profile
a a
8 Reflecting hardened solar
protection glass, 8 mm
9 Central glass bracket, special
chromium-plated steel section
b
10 Chromium-plated steel disk,
Ø 60 mm
b
11 Chromium-plated steel handle
12 Rectangular hollow steel
section, 25/20/2 mm
13 Steel angle, 50/20/3 mm
12 14 Aluminium sheeting
15 Column, IPE 120
13 16 Aluminium clip
17 EPDM cover
14
bb

8 7 6 6 11
15 15

A 16 17 B 10 8 C 17 16 cc

274
 Manipulators

Nakagin Capsule Tower

Tokyo, JP 1972

Architects:
Kisho Kurokawa & Associates, Tokyo

º Detail/jpn 33, 1972

L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 06/2000
Kurokawa, Kisho: From Metabolism to
Symbiosis. London / New York 1992
Detail /jpn 33, 1972

1 Round base plate, Ø 140 mm,

• Fan-shaped window blinds control internal adhered to glass
and external views 2 Two-piece inner guide ring, polished brass,
• Industrially prefabricated room modules screwed onto metal divider
(2.30 ≈ 3.80 ≈ 2.10 m) suspended from two 3 Round inner cover plate, Ø 120/5 mm,
bolted onto fixed glazing
concrete towers 4 Metal divider 1.2 mm
9
• Windows 1.30 metres in diameter 5 Frame for plastic-coated paper:
angled aluminium sheeting, 2 mm
8 6 Plastic-coated paper
7 Aluminium bracket with clip for frames
Floor plan Scale 1:500 8 Outer guide rail
Detail • Vertical cross section Scale 1:5 9 Guide rail bracket, attached to the
window reveal
10 Threaded sleeve, Ø 20 mm
11 Fixed toughened safety glass glazing, 6 mm,
a Ø 1300 mm
12 Rubber seal
13 Aluminium profile section screwed onto aluminium
sheeting, 40/40/4 mm

open state

4 3

10 2 1 10

2
5
closed state
6

11 6

6
b b
9 8 8
8 12
7 7
9
5 13
bb

aa

275
Manipulators

Institut du Monde Arabe

a
Paris, FR 1987

Architect:
Jean Nouvel, Paris
with Gilbert Lezenes, Piere Soria,
Architecture Studio

º Architectural Review 1088, 1987 and

1113, 1989
El Croquis 65 – 66, 1994: Jean Nouvel
l’ARCA 15, 1988 b
L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 12/1998
Progressive Architecture 09/1995
b a

• Multiple opening elements based on the prin-

ciple of a camera shutter control the amount
of daylight entering the building
• Mechanisms and control elements visible
• Repetitive ornamental geometric design
reflects a traditional Arabic architectural motif
(“Mashrabiya”: decorative window lattice)
• Mechanism is delicate and requires extensive
maintenance

aa

Floor plan, 4th floor • Cross section

Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section through the facade screen
Horizontal cross section through the facade screen
Scale 1:5

276
 Manipulators

1 EPDM joint
2 Breaks in the seals to ventilate
the cavity
3 Perforated infill panel
4 Toughened safety glass,
6 mm
5 Ventilation opening
6 Polyurethane thermal break
7 “Camera shutter” mechanism
8 Insulating glazing
4 + space between the
panes 12 + 4 mm
9 Toughened safety glass, 8 mm 10 9 1 4
10 Facade mounting bracket cc

1
1

c c

3 4

2
7

8 9

bb

277
Manipulators

Residential and commercial building

Munich, DE 1996

Architect:
Von Seidlein, Munich 1 2
Peter C. von Seidlein, Horst Fischer,
Egon Konrad, Stephan Röhrl
Facade planning:
Stephan Röhrl

º Detail 03/1998
Seidlein, Peter C. von: Zehn Bauten
1957– 97. Exhibition catalogue for the
Architekturgalerie München, 1997
3 4 cc

• External louvre blinds (blinds with horizontal 1 Horizontal sliding windows:

louvres) laminated niangon wood frames and sashes
Insulating glazing:
• Large, opening sliding elements open up laminated safety glass 10 + space between
apartments on the south side to the outside the panes 15 + float glass 4 mm
• Large vertical sliding windows in the pitched 2 Internal glazed spandrel panel, toughened safety
roof glass, 10 mm
3 Flat steel, 10/55 mm
• Metal facade attached to a timber frame in
4 Flat steel bracket, 10/120 mm,
front of a steel-reinforced concrete structure connected with the steel-reinforced concrete frame
to avoid thermal bridges at floor level
by glulam posts, 100/100 mm,
5 Aluminium louvre blind, cord guides,
not flanged at the sides, operated by electrical motor
5 aluminium sheeting housing, 2 mm
6 Tubular steel handrail, Ø 31/2,25 mm
7 Aluminium sheeting, 3 mm
Cross section • Floor plan, 1st floor 3
scale 1:750 All steel elements spray-galvanised and powder-coated
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross
section 1
Scale 1:20

6 2

c c

aa

b b

a a

bb

278
 Manipulators

Development centre

Ingolstadt, DE 1999

Architects:
Fink + Jocher, Munich
Structural engineers:
Schittig, Ingolstadt

º Bauwelt 08/1999
Detail 03/1999
Intelligente Architektur 11–12/2000
L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 07/2000
World architecture 07– 08/2000

• Louvre blind in the facade cavity (south- 1 Folded aluminium sheeting, 2 mm,
facing facade) hard foam thermal insulation
2 Insulating glazing 6 + space between the panes
• Hall's southerly orientation is part of the 22 + 5 mm,
building's energy concept light-refracting louvres in the space between the
• Facade extends over all four storeys panes, stove-enamelled aluminium b = 16 mm,
white on the outside, silver-grey on the inside
3 Aluminium glazing bar
2
4 Square hollow steel section post-and-rail structure,
| 90/90 mm and ¡ 180/100 mm
with metallic grey coating
5 5 Vierendeel strut,
3 square hollow steel sections, 120/120 mm
4
aa 6 Aluminium grating
7 Steel grating on angled frame
Cross section Scale 1:750 8 Air intake flap:
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Aluminium sheeting, 2 mm
Scale 1:20 Hard foam thermal insulation, 40 mm
Details Scale 1:5 Aluminium sheeting, 2 mm

a a
4
b b
3

5 4
6

7 4 2

bb

279
Manipulators

University building

Brixen, IT 2004

Architects:
Kohlmayer Oberst, Stuttgart
Shade profile developed in conjunction with
the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy
Systems (ISE), Freiburg

º Intelligente Architektur 07– 09/2005

Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 02/2005 aa
db 02/2005

• Exterior highly reflective rolling sun blinds made

from specially-shaped stainless steel louvres
• Sunblinds provide complete shade when
position of the sun is greater than 20°
• The facade’s special geometry also allows
for external views (surrounding landscape)
• Modular facade with recesses and projections
and push-out ventilation elements in the
recesses

Cross section • Floor plan of the ground floor and

2nd floor Scale 1:1,500
Sunshade louvres Scale 2.5:1
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20
Detail Scale 1:5

1 Aluminium flashing, chamfered 3 mm

2 Aluminium sheeting, 3 mm
Sealing
Extruded rigid foam insulation, 80 mm
3 Insulating glazing, laminated safety glass 8 + 6 + space
between the panes 16 + toughened safety glass 10 mm
4 Push-out ventilation flap, 3,200 ≈ 250 mm
5 Double aluminium sheeting, 3 mm, slits in top cover
6 Solar protection: 6 mm-wide stainless steel bands,
150 mm apart, with stainless steel louvres riveted
to them, operated by an integrated tubular motor
7 Steel fin partition connection
8 Aluminium sheeting, 4 mm, can be walked on
9 Steel sheeting lighting unit, 350 ≈ 180 ≈ 1,280 mm,
with dichroic reflectors
10 Insulating glazing, toughened safety glass 10 +
space between the panes 16 + laminated safety glass
6 + 8 mm
11 Mineral wool insulation, 100 mm
12 Flat steel, 20 mm
13 Sealing
14 Mineral wool insulation 80 mm
15 Folded aluminium sheeting 3 mm
16 Stainless steel inlet pipe, Ø 50/2 mm, with lateral
inlet guides
17 Detachable rail for installing and removing solar
protection

20°

b b

a a
6

280
 Manipulators

3 4 8 10
5

11

6 12

13
14
10
7

15

c c

8 6

16

13

15 17

3
3

3
3

bb cc
5 4 10 8

281
Manipulators

Retirement complex

Neuenbürg, DE 1995

Architects:
Mahler Günster Fuchs, Stuttgart
Structural engineer:
Wolfgang Beck, Neuenbürg

º Architectural Review 06/1997 7

Bauwelt 05/1997
Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas.
1
Munich / Basel 2003
Schunk, Eberhard et al.: Dach Atlas.
Munich / Basel 2002 8
aa
5 6

• Buildings feature sliding timber shutters

• Four identical separate buildings
• Reinforced concrete dividers with thermally
insulated, rear-ventilated timber cladding
• Timber is untreated
• Solar collectors on roof areas under corru-
gated acrylic glass panels
• The roof’s transparent exterior skin leaves its
timber frame visible

Vertical cross sections • Horizontal cross sections

Scale 1:5
A Large sliding shutter 1 5 6 bb
B Small sliding shutter

1 Facade structure around floor / ceiling slabs:

Weatherboard, 100/21 mm, divided by vertical battens
Ventilated cavity, 22 mm
Water-repelling wind paper
Thermal insulation, 80 mm
Reinforced concrete
2
2 Steel T-section, 95/80/5 mm
fastened at points to vertical battens
3 Aluminium guide rail
4 Embedded guide rail 3
5 Sliding three-ply panel element, 25 mm
6 Plastic rollers
7 Safety barrier
8 Steel section, 95/40/5 mm 4
fastened at points to vertical battens

a a b b

6
6

A B

282
 Manipulators

Housing complex

Hanover, DE 1999

Architects:
Fink + Jocher, Munich
Structural engineers:
Bergmann + Partner, Hanover

º A+U 10/2001
db 07/2000
Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas.
Munich / Basel 2001

• Folding wooden shutters

• Shutters fold back into a niche in the masonry 5 6
• Floor-to-ceiling French windows
• Low-energy building standard
• Top-hung folding windows opening outwards
in staircases 1

Floor plan Scale 1:2,000

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section 9 7 3 bb
Scale 1:20

a
2
a

b b

1 Peat-fired clinker bricks in a stretcher bond,

NF 115 mm 4
Cavity ventilation 10 mm
Mineral fibre thermal insulation, 120 mm 5
Aerated concrete, 175 mm
2 Rigid foam thermal insulation, 60 mm
3 Quadripartite folding three-ply plywood sheet shutters 6
15 mm edge beading in weatherproof glue, guide
rails top and bottom, painted pale grey, attached at
the sides by
galvanised bands to double-thickness panels
4 Ventilation element 7
5 Timber-frame windows with two sashes and
insulating glazing
6 Galvanised flat steel safety barrier, 8
painted metallic grey, 35/8 mm
7 Precast reinforced concrete window sill
50 mm overhang with drip lip
8 Steel section to support window sill 9
9 Peat-fired clinker bricks NF 115 mm
Cavity ventilation 10 mm
Mineral fibre thermal insulation, 120 mm
Reinforced concrete, 180 mm aa

283
Manipulators

Housing complex

Innsbruck, AT 2000

Architects:
Baumschlager & Eberle, Lochau

º Architectural Record 02/2002

Architectural Review 06/2001
Bauwelt 16/2001
Casabella 698, 2002
Detail 03/2002
Techniques + architecture 454, 2001

• Folding shutters mounted on frames

• Copper patination to prevent glare (neigh-
bouring airport)
• Six compact tower blocks (favourable
A/V ratio) with the same floor plans
• Buildings stepped as they rise to fit in with
the site's slope (and let more light in)
• Although huddled together, the buildings
have a close relationship with the surround-
Floor plan
ing landscape Scale 1:750
• Unusually high standard of construction for Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
subsidised public housing due to simplifica- Scale 1:20
tion and standardisation 1
1 Pine cladding 18 mm,
• Passive building system with controlled
glazed red-brown
ventilation of apartments Mineral wool thermal insulation, 80 mm
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 200 mm
Vapour barrier
Reinforced concrete 180 mm
Interior plaster, 15 mm
2 Quadripartite folding and sliding shutter: 2
pre-oxidised copper sheeting 0.6 mm
adhered and riveted to frames 3
Stainless steel hollow square section,
4
30/20/2 mm
3 Clip to lock shutters in position b b
4 Stainless steel handrail
5 Laminated safety glass parapet, 12 mm, 5 6
matt PVB film 9
6 Balcony partition wall, matt, 8 mm toughened
safety glass
7 French door with triple glazing
a 8 V 100 veneered chipboard
9 Precast reinforced concrete element,
6,000 mm long, 8
a Insulated rebar connection

2
3

9 5

bb aa

284
 Manipulators

Office building

Berlin, DE 1999

Architects:
Sauerbruch Hutton, Berlin
Facade consultants:
Emmer Pfenniger + Partner, Münchenstein

º A+U 09/2002
Architectural Review 12/2000
Intelligente Architektur 21, 2000
Schittich, Christian (ed.): Gebäudehüllen.
Munich / Basel 2001

• Sliding, folding perforated sheet metal shut-

ters, painted different colours on the outside
• Unsegmented, prefabricated, modular west-
facing facade (exhaust-air facade)
• Narrow footprint
• “Wind roof” (aerodynamic wing, Venturi effect)
1 5
to strengthen the lift effect on the exhaust-air
facade

1 3 4

Partial vertical cross 1 Outer facade western side: Insulating glazing

section extruded aluminium section, 6 + space between
Scale 1:20 toughened safety glass infill the panes 14 + 8 mm
Detail panels, 10 mm, 1,800/3,300 mm Parapet:
Scale 1:5 2 Steel cantilever arm perforated aluminium
3 Solar protection shutters, sheeting, 2 mm,
600/2,900 mm, perforated fleece-laminated mineral
aluminium insulation, 20 mm
sheeting 1.5 mm, pivoting 18 mm fire-resistant panel
and sliding on a steel frame
4 Inner facade, western side: with integrated thermal
suspended extruded aluminium insulation, 100 mm
elements 1,800/3,250 mm, 5 Grating

285
Manipulators

House

Amsterdam, NL 2000

Architects:
Heren 5, Amsterdam 10 7 2
with Ed Bijman, Jan Klomp,
Bas Liesker, Dirk van Gestel
Steel facade:
Limelight, Breda

º Architectural Review 06/2001

Werk Bauen + Wohnen 01– 02/1999 8 9 1
Schittich, Christian (ed.): Gebäudehüllen.
Munich / Basel 2001 bb

• Vertical folding and pivoting shutters 1 Pre-oxidised steel sheeting 4 Veneered plywood, 18 mm
chamfered and perforated Insulation 50 mm
(fold around a horizontal axis)
485/30 mm 5 Aluminium grating,
• Weatherproof steel on the north and south 2 Steel T-section, 100/5 mm
facades is a reference to historic industrial 70/70/8 mm 6 Drive for rotating /sliding
buildings 1 3 Prefabricated shutters
facade element: 7 Insulating glazing
fibre cement plate 5 mm 8 Galvanised steel channel
2 Insulation 90 mm 9 Galvanised steel section,
Vapour barrier 50/70/5 mm
Plasterboard, 12.5 mm 10 Sand-lime brick 115 mm
3

Floor plans of ground floor and first floor

Scale 1:400
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
south facade
Scale 1:20

5
6

b b

a
aa
a

286
 Manipulators

Office building

Unterschleißheim, DE 2002

Architects:
Baader + Schmid, Munich
with Maurice Mayne

º Baudokumentation. Hameln 2003

4
• Elements covered with a membrane form a Floor plan Scale 1:1,000
second skin that screens out sun and glare Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20
• Horizontal pivoting louvres covered with a
membrane on both sides 1 Parapet panel with closed-pore 1
• Louvres in front of spandrel panels covered membrane covering both sides
2 Fixed louvres consisting of an aluminium
with an open-pore membrane on one side to
frame covered with a membrane on
allow for views from inside out one side: 5
material is open-pored in front of spandrel 2
panels to allow for views and otherwise
close-pored to screen out sun and glare
3 Moveable louvre consisting of an aluminium
frame covered with a PTFE-coated mem-
brane on both sides, glass fibre fabric,
6
13 % translucency,
7
electrical motor integrated into
post, louvres can be centrally and
individually regulated
4 Folded aluminium sheeting
a a 5 Hot-dip galvanised grid flooring,
30/11 mm
6 Flat steel, 200 mm 3 8 13
7 Insulated aluminium panel
thermal insulation, 120 mm
8 Fixed insulating glazing 9
9 Aluminium post, 120/55 mm
10 Openable insulating glazing
b 10 b
11 Convector with displacement air diffuser
12 Thermal insulation, 100 mm
13 Rectangular hollow steel section, 130/50 11
14 Square hollow steel section, 120/120 mm

13

14

7
7

12

bb aa

287
Manipulators

Paper Museum

Shizuoka, JP 2002

Architects:
Shigeru Ban Architects, Tokyo
Folding facade elements:
Bunka Shutter, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo

º Detail 07– 08/2003

domus 03/2003
aa

• 10-metre-high roller shutter doors at the

western and eastern ends
• Solar protection elements folding out up to
90° on the museum’s south side are an
element of traditional Japanese architecture
(“shitomido”)
• Storey-high facade segments on cantilevered
guide rails on the gallery building’s southern
side can be pushed out as a roof over the
terrace in front of the building
• Translucent GFRP multi-wall sheets used in a
range of different ways

bb

b b
a
d d

c c

288
 Manipulators

Cross sections • Floor plans Scale 1:750

Vertical cross section of the museum Scale 1:20
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Gallery building Scale 1:20
5 6

10 17
12 13
14 15 16 18

11

19 20 21

1 Pivot for awning-type 340/250 mm

facade element 11 Steel beam,
2 Facade element 250/125 mm
23 22 4 GFRP multi-wall 12 Coil
sheeting 13 Steel cable, Ø 8 mm
100/300/40 mm, 14 Round steel bar,
in aluminium frames Ø 20 mm
100/50/2 mm and 15 Steel angle frame,
e e 84/32/2 mm 45/70 –180 mm
3 Steel beam, 16 Steel angle,
21 600/400 mm 50/50/4 mm
19 4 Drive gear rim 17 Tubular steel section,
10 23 5 Actuator, Ø 114/3.6 mm
20 100/50/3.2 mm 18 Square steel hollow
24
8 6 Guide pulley section
15 7 Guide rail for actuator 150/150/9 mm
8 Hollow square 19 Guide rail
aluminium section 20 Castor
ee
50/50/1.6 mm 21 GFRP panel 50 mm
9 9 Toughened safety 22 Pull cord
glass glazed sliding 23 Steel post,
door in aluminium 150/150/7/10 mm
frames 24 Steel channel,
10 Steel stanchion, 150/75/6.5 mm

cc dd

289
Manipulators

Office building

Wiesbaden, DE 2001

Architects: Floor plan 1st floor

Herzog + Partner, Munich Scale 1:4,000
Lighting technology and design: System cross sections
Not to scale
Bartenbach Lichtlabor, Aldrans
a a Horizontal cross
Structural engineers of outer facade: section through
Ludwig & Weiler, Augsburg ventilation openings
Scale 1:5
º Detail 07/2001 Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20
Dialogue Taiwan 68, 2003
THE PLAN 003/2003
Nikkei Architecture 04/2003

• Combination of two sunshading elements,

each of which pivots around a horizontal axis
on the southern facade: upper element with
light-refracting louvres for regulating incident
daylight, lower element can be pushed out to
allow for exterior views
• Southern side: sunshading elements with
light-refracting fins let in (diffuse) daylight,
even when skies are overcast
• Northern side with fixed light-refracting
elements that let in zenith light, similar to
the system on the southern facade
• Opaque ventilation flaps with integrated air
inlets combine controlled natural ventilation
with free ventilation
• Technical building services for offices inte-
grated into the facade

Daylight refraction
on the south side
on a sunny day

Daylight refraction
on the south side 4
on a cloudy day

2
Controlled, centrally 5
regulated, natural 3
ventilation

10

290
 Manipulators

1 Aluminium cable duct 6 Fibre cement facing reflector, light-

2 Tsuga frame, five glued sheets, panel, 12 mm diffusing glass and
50/15 mm 6 7 160 mm polyurethane- integrated anti-glare
3 Plastic ventilation element coated precast screen
4 Baffle plate behind ventilation steel-reinforced 12 Highly reflective
element, toughened safety glass concrete cantilever extruded section for
5 Ventilation flap: element refracting direct light
Makore veneer plywood, 7 8 Aluminium light 13 Highly reflective
removeable 15 mm reflector extruded section for
air cavity, 9 mm 9 Facade seal, extruded shading and indirect
Makore veneer plywood, 6 mm aluminium section with lighting
Spruce frame, several sheets EPDM seal 14 Spindle lifting motor
glued together, 60 mm or 9 10 Triple insulating glazing 15 Flat steel, 100/12 mm,
PU rigid foam insulation with powder-coated bead-blasted
Makore veneer plywood, 8 aluminium glazing bars 16 Powder-coated
10 mm 11 Light with aluminium aluminium frame

10

11

12

13

14

15

16
11

aa

291
Manipulators

Training academy

A
Unterschleißheim, DE 2004

Architects:
Ackermann and Partner, Munich
Structural engineer:
Christoph Ackermann, Munich 2
3 4
1
º Detail 04/2005
15

aa

• Training academy in a heterogeneously- 8

developed commercial and industrial zone
to the north of Munich
• Post-and-rail glass facade with solar protec-
tion glazing 5 6
• Entrance facade oriented towards the south-
east faced with pivoting aluminium solar 7
protection elements the same height as the
9
building
• Workshops extending over the entire height
of the building positioned behind the long
facades

Cross section Scale 1:750 13

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section 11
10
Scale 1:20

1 Extruded aluminium section

2 Anodised aluminium sheeting,
riveted on 3 mm
3 Aluminium T-section, 100/60/5 mm
12 14
4 Aluminium sheeting frame 5 mm
5 Steel Å-beam, IPE 500
6 Solar protection louvres,
Anodised aluminium sheeting 3 mm
7 Aluminium sheeting panel, 2 mm
8 Aluminium flashing, 3 mm
9 Steel section purlin edge, HEB 180
10 Awning panelled with
aluminium sheeting
11 Connecting rods
12 Post-and-rail facade
a a
aluminium section with insulating glazing
13 Steel beam, IPE 500
14 Column, HEB 180
15 Hollow aluminium section, Ø 140/10 mm
16 Accessible grating in steel section frame

15
16

292
 Manipulators

Apartment building

Madrid, ES 2007
a

Architects:
Foreign Office Architects, London

º Arca 248/2009
Arquitectura 356/2009 b
Arquitectura Viva 114/2007
b
a

• Six-storey social housing comprising 1 Insulated fascia with sheet metal covering
100 apartments 2 Solar protection louvred shutter element
with bamboo lattice
• 1.50-metre wide balcony extends along the 1 3 Aluminium louvre blind
entire length of each facade 4 Timber plank balcony floor
• Facade consists of glazed sliding doors 30 mm with protective surface coating
• Exterior folding and sliding shutters clad with Hollow square steel section support structure,
50 ≈ 50 mm
vertical bamboo louvres screen interiors from Steel section HEB 160
view and shade them from the sun 5 Aluminium sliding window with
insulating glazing 4 + space between the
panes 6 + 4 mm
6 Iron railing safety barrier

aa
c c
Floor plan
Scale 1:1,000
Cross section
Scale 1:750
Vertical cross section 4
Horizontal cross section of folding shutter
Scale 1:20
a open
b closed

5
2

6
a

bb
b cc

293
 Solar energy

C 3 Solar energy The envelope is the most important structural energy is available in the summer – energy
subsystem in a building’s energy balance. that can currently only be stored in costly and
Technical systems used to produce solar complex storage units. This restricted avail-
energy are usually visibly integrated into a roof ability can restrict the use of solar energy. At
or exterior wall so the building envelope is the the same time, recent studies (“extreme scen-
main visible reference in the integration of solar ario”, not including transport and industrial
energy systems as the interface between archi- processes) have shown that it is technically
tecture and solar energy technology. These and economically feasible to have 100 % of
systems have various protective functions and the energy required for heating and electricity
must be coordinated to fit in with the building’s in Germany supplied by renewable energies
construction and appearance. by 2050 [3].
Since the early 1990s, facades incorporating
solar thermal systems have increasingly been Energy yields (orientation and inclination)
used to expand the range of walls’ general Two important parameters determine whether
climate protection and buffering functions and the use of solar energy in buildings is advis-
actively supply heat. This approach can be able. One is the exposure of relevant surfaces,
applied to all forms of building-related use of i.e. their orientation, and the other is their
solar energy in the facade and includes struc- angle of inclination and freedom from shade.
tures ranging from glazed annexes in front of Solar radiation as a whole (global radiation)
facades through to photovoltaic modules. is made up of the sun’s direct rays and dif-
fuse, i.e. indirect, radiation dispersed through
clouds or fog and reflected through the envir-
Direct and indirect usage onment (sky radiation) (see Fig. A 1.8, p. 21).
In Central Europe, more than 50 % of total
Solar energy takes a range of different forms, radiation over the year is diffuse radiation.
with solar radiation the major source of energy Energy radiated onto horizontal surfaces varies
for buildings. A distinction is made between from country to country and even within Ger-
direct “passive” and indirect “active” use. many, depending on geographical location
Direct use refers to a targeted use of structural (within Germany it is an annual average of up
measures for collecting, storing and distribut- to 300 kWh/m2a).
ing solar energy that largely dispenses with
technical equipment. Specific measures for
regulating interior climates and energy bal- From shaded lobby to energy-generating
ances for buildings and especially building facade
envelopes include the fundamental principles
of solar heating and cooling and the use of The main directly effective principles of solar
daylight. energy use such as compact buildings, south-
This energy can also be used indirectly by ern orientation, offset interiors and structural
deploying additional technical measures solar protection (in summer) can be traced
to collect, distribute and store solar energy, back to Ancient Greece. For centuries the
especially collector technology to enhance facade, intentionally or unintentionally, has
heating and cooling, and photovoltaics for been an important subsystem in the use of
power generation. Both types of application solar energy during the heating period. The
can be classified within a variety of systems, (window) opening and the room behind it is
so a wide range of instruments are available a first “collector”. Steps towards optimising
for utilising solar energy in specific build- the exterior wall to change the interior climate
ings [2]. have led to its breakdown into and differen-
tiation between different zones. Open inter-
mediate or transitional zones such as shaded
Climatic parameters and classification lobbies, arcades etc. offer protection from the
principles weather and the sun (Fig. C 3.4, p. 297). In
Central European climates, such spaces can
Available solar radiation have a wide range of potential uses.
The amounts of solar radiation available fluc-
tuate greatly over the course of a day and To directly use solar energy more effectively
year and are heavily influenced by prevailing and minimise the flow of heat out from heated
local weather conditions. While solar radiation spaces, it can be advisable to create a separ-
energy levels can vary by a factor of 10 on ate spatial and thermal zone. Various usually
two consecutive days, levels on a clear sum- transparent, multilayered structures (ranging
mer’s day can be 50 times greater than they from casement, bay and oriel windows through
are on a cloudy winter day. In Central Europe, to glazed loggias and lean-to conservatories)
seasonal and daily solar radiation is not always have been specifically developed to make
available as the same time as the need for use of solar energy. As increasingly large
heat. Short-term variations can be compen- panes of glass have been produced, these
sated for by heat accumulators but seasonal zones of intermediate temperatures have
C 3.1 Residential complex, Munich (DE) 1982, fluctuations are a problem. In Germany, around become increasingly important in heating
Thomas Herzog and Bernhard Schilling [1] three quarters of the annual solar radiation buildings. Research into more efficient sys

295
Solar energy

Type of use
Direct Indirect

Transfer Water /
Radiation Air
salt solution

Window / Transparent Systems Flat plate Flat plate

Storage wall PCMs Solid absorber Tube collector
glazed annex insulation collector collector

Permeability
Opaque Translucent

Application
Daylight Interior heating Daylight Space heating Space heating Warm water Process heat
C 3.2
tems and entirely new usage concepts inten- seasonal use and can recirculate heat from Storage walls
sified in the middle of the second half of the the building, preheat outside air, and accom- One of the first storage or solar wall concepts
20th century. modate solar protection or temporary thermal to passively use solar energy was developed
This direct form of solar energy use has also insulation systems. by Félix Trombe and Jacques Michel in the
been supplemented by the development There are three basic types of such thermally 1950s (Fig. C 3.3) [6]. It worked on the prin-
of technical systems that use solar energy effective structures, which in practice take vari- ciple of a combination of a south-facing area
indirectly. Collectors for heating water and ous forms: airlocks, air-heating solar collectors of glazing with a solid wall coated matt black
interiors and PV generators for generating and heat buffers. The structural principle at behind it that functions as an absorber, and
electricity are now integrated almost as a work ranges from the formation of narrow layers a layer of air between the wall and the glass
matter of course into building envelopes. of air in front of an exterior wall through to tem- that stores thermal energy. During the day,
The expanded basic structural strategies and porary extensions to living areas (Figs. C 3.5 solar radiation heats the storage wall and in
technical systems for using solar energy now and C 3.6), including: the evening and at night it releases the heat
available have enormously increased the range • Entrances, vestibules and porches into the room behind it. To better control the
of facade design options. • Glazed loggias and balconies release of heated air in the cavity which func-
• Conservatories and lean-to conservatories tions as a collector zone, adjustable ventila-
• Functional spaces that beyond their pri- tion flaps at the top and bottom of the storage
Direct “passive” systems mary use also act as heat buffers and wall are connected with the interior, so heat
airlocks [5] and thermal radiation on the inside of the
The best-known form of direct solar energy use storage wall is released by convection. If the
is through glazed window openings, which Glazed annexes absorber temperature rises above room tem-
function as simple collector and storage sys- Glazed annexes are usually unheated spaces perature (and it can rise up to 70 °C if exposed
tems in association with the spaces directly that are heated directly by solar radiation. This directly to solar radiation), air will start to circu-
behind them. Their functioning and energy heat can be enough to make them suitable for late. Thermal lift means that the rising heat
yields depend largely on climatic and local use even in windy and cold outdoor weather or can be relatively easily used to directly supply
conditions and on their compass orientation they can be used like a large air-heater solar heat to an interior. Protective measures are
and the inclination and size of openings. A collector to heat rooms further inside the build- essential to avoid overheating in summer.
building’s equipment and the construction of ing, as long as the temperatures reached make Temporary thermal insulation can be installed
its walls, ceilings and floors also greatly influ- this possible. Such zones of intermediate tem- between glazing and the storage wall to reduce
ence its interior climate and with it the extent peratures come in a wide range of structural heat losses at night [7].
and type of solar energy usage. Large areas forms and can be positioned around windows The solar gains of a storage wall depend heav-
of glazing without additional solar protection on each storey, extend over multiple storeys ily on the heat capacity of the materials involved.
measures may overheat in the summer months. or enclose a whole building. Central European Water has a heat capacity that is a factor of
This must usually be considered when planning climate conditions mean that such spaces, 2– 4 by volume greater than that of solid wall
facades facing east and west, i.e. planners even if unheated and single glazed, can be materials. To make use of this effect, trials with
need to try and optimise solar radiation, open- used to extend the use of living space for up water tanks installed or stacked in the facade
ing sizes, heating requirements, shade, tech- to two thirds of the year. were carried out for the first time in the 1970s
nical equipment and thermal storage mass in and 1980s (Fig. C 3.7).
each individual case [4]. Solar gains are influenced by exposure, the
area of glazed surfaces and any shade cast Translucent thermal insulation
by the building, adjoining buildings and /or Another form of direct solar energy use is
Zones with intermediate temperatures plants. As with windows, solar protection the principle of translucent thermal insulation.
and effective ventilation systems must usually Polycarbonate or fine glass tubes oriented
Various overlapping functional requirements be added to prevent overheating in summer. perpendicular to the plane of the facade trans-
on a building envelope and general structural Further special structural and technical meas- port rays of sun striking it through inner reflec-
properties can lead planners to enclose heated ures are required to make use of superfluous tion to a dark solid wall or inside of the building.
spaces with various (spatial) zones. A stag- solar heat. A wall between a glazed area and This principle was developed and tested by
gered configuration of functional spaces can adjoining living area can for example store heat physicists from the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar
help to reduce heat losses and make better and then release it later into the living area. Energy Systems (ISE) and first used in a new
use of solar gains. These zones of intermediate Various “storage wall” concepts are based on building in Europe in 1986 –1989 (Fig. C 3.12,
temperatures offer additional possibilities for this principle. p. 298). Independently of this development,

296
 Solar energy

C 3.3 C 3.4
biologists discovered in the 1980s that the tures. Their main parameters are UV resist-
sun’s rays are transmitted through individual ance, mechanical stability and temperature
hairs in polar bears’ fur to their black skin, stability. Typical translucent thermal insulation
where they are absorbed as thermal radiation – materials include polymethyl methacrylate
another example of analogous effects at work (PMMA), polycarbonate (PC) and glass. Card-
in biology and technology [8]. board honeycombs and specially-milled timber
Combining appropriate thermal insulation profiles have also been used in such systems
and direct solar energy production with this more recently.
system can further reduce heating energy
consumption. Translucent thermal insulation Direct gain systems (translucent)
is permeable to radiation [9] and functions Direct gain systems use special forms of glaz-
based on a principle that not only further ing. Translucent thermal insulation material
reduces transmission heat losses, but can is laid between the inner and outer panes of
also increase solar gains. A distinction is glass, which provides good thermal insulation
made between solid-wall systems and direct- and allows for natural lighting but greatly limits
gain systems. views. Thermal storage surfaces in the inter-
ior use solar radiation so these systems may
Solid wall systems (opaque) also require measures to protect against over-
Solid wall systems use a radiation-permeable heating in the summer months. As well as the
material covered with exterior panes of glass plastics and glass mentioned above, silica
positioned in front of a solid, matt black wall aerogels are also used. Translucent thermal C 3.5
with a large thermal storage mass. Solar radi- insulation currently mainly takes the form of
ation passing through the light-conducting glass fabrics laid in single and multilayer pro-
insulating material heats the wall surfaces filed glass systems.
based on the greenhouse effect principle.
The wall functions as an absorber and heats Latent heat storage or phase change materials
up gradually. Insulating material prevents Initial trials of latent heat storage materials
heat from escaping outwards during the night (also called Phase Change Materials or PCMs)
so most of the heat (up to 95 %) flows inwards, were carried out in the 1940s at an early stage
where it is released into the room in the form of the development and construction of stor-
of long-wave radiation and convection from age walls.
the wall surface. The wall’s material and thick- PCMs (e.g. paraffin and salt hydrates) open
ness determine its storage effect, heat ab- up new heat storage options for lightweight
sorption capacity and the time delay of the structures lacking thermally “heavy” structural
release to the inside (about 6 – 8 hours). Such component masses. By changing phase –
systems can effectively bridge the differ- from solid to liquid for example – latent heat C 3.6
ence between available radiation and heating storage materials can store large amounts
requirements (for a short time) over the course of heat within a relatively small range of tem
of the day [10].
Translucent thermal insulation surfaces must
be protected from overheating by solar pro-
tection. Passive structural measures such C 3.2 Classification of thermal energy systems
C 3.3 Diagram of the Trombe wall principle
as overhanging roofs, balconies, plantings
C 3.4 Cloister at San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice (IT) 1566
or the like are usually sufficient for a translu- (design), Andrea Palladio
cent thermal insulation area of 5 to 15 % of C 3.5 Glazed balcony, Barcelona (ES) around 1900
floor space. Manipulators must usually be C 3.6 “The growing house”, prototype development,
installed in large-scale systems (Fig. C 3.9, Berlin (DE) 1932, Martin Wagner
C 3.7 House with a stack of cylindrical metal drums
p. 298). Translucent thermal insulation systems filled with water behind slightly reflective fold-out
are comparable only to a limited extent in terms temporary insulation panels. New Mexico (US)
of the basic materials used and different struc- 1972, Steve Baer
C 3.7

297
Solar energy

Global radiation figures relative to exposure Global radiation figures relative to exposure (figures
(figures for April to September) for October to March)
Solar
radiation Surface Surface
0° 20° 40° 60° 90° 0° 20° 40° 60° 90°
inclination inclination

Heat release
and loss Orientation Orientation

Heat gains
Opaque
thermal insulation East > 95 % 93 % 86 % 72 % 46 % East 58 % 57 % 53 % 45 % 32 %
C 3.8
Solar
Southeast > 95 % > 95 % 93 % 81 % 50 % Southeast 58 % 75 % 83 % 83 % 69 %
radiation

South > 95 % 100 % 95 % 82 % 49 % South 58 % 82 % 96 % 100 % 88 %

Heat release Heat gains
and loss Southwest > 95 % > 95 % 93 % 81 % 50 % Southwest 58 % 75 % 83 % 83 % 69 %
Absorption layer
Translucent West > 95 % 93 % 86 % 72 % 46 % West 58 % 57 % 53 % 45 % 32 %
thermal insulation
C 3.9 C 3.10 C 3.11
peratures. In the temperature range around building envelopes. This is the result of the
the melting point, their ability to store heat is goal of decentralised energy supply and immi-
many times that of conventional perceptible nent implementation of EU Directive EPBD
(i.e. palpable) heat accumulators such as con- 2010 on the energy performance of buildings,
crete or sand-lime brick. The energy absorption which will apply to public buildings from 2019
does not initially increase the temperature and and from 2021 to all planned new buildings.
is not perceptible, so it is described as “latent”. The Directive has already set a new standard
Only when the storage material is completely for the construction of all new buildings as
melted does the structural element’s tempera- zero-energy and plus-energy buildings. The
ture increase and it releases stored heat into result is that as well as roofs, facades are now
the space as it cools. The melting point should being completely and partly used as surfaces
be (well) below 26 °C in order to minimise the for generating heat and electricity.
number of temperature peaks for better thermal
comfort. For good heat-storing performance, But this is not a new topic. In 1982, tube col-
it must be ensured that accumulators can lectors and PV modules were for the first time
release heat by means of effective ventilation integrated into the envelopes of buildings in
at night. PCM systems still usually need exter- a Munich housing estate as a constituent part
nal protection from the sun. of the architectural concept (Fig. C 3.1, p. 294).
In the 1970s, a concept was developed that In 1991, crystalline PV cells were used for the
involved filling glass bricks with Glauber’s salt first time in a renovation of the stairwell of the
(melting temperature 32 °C) [11]. Latent heat city of Aachen’s municipal utility offices in the
storage materials have been used to increase facade’s insulating glazing.
the thermal storage capacity of structural
components in lightweight structures for some Thermal solar collectors
years. This involves adding mainly encapsu- Thermal solar collectors are technical systems
lated PCMs (e.g. powdered paraffin in a poly- that absorb solar radiation and convert it into
mer shell to prevent the material from escaping heat. In contrast, structural elements that con-
when it heats up and becomes liquid) to plas- vert solar radiation into electrical power are
terboard, composite engineered wood mater- called photovoltaic systems.
C 3.12
ials, screed or plaster. Thermal solar collectors are classified into
different types of constructions (not covered,
Like translucent thermal insulation materials, covered) and heat transfer medium (air, water
PCMs are used mainly in direct gain systems. and anti-freeze agents) and are usually used
Encased in protective shells of translucent to heat water and to supplement space heat-
plastic materials (e.g. salt hydrates in multi- ing. There are also special types for produ-
skin polycarbonate sheeting), they function cing process heat (for commercial applica-
as effective heat accumulators while allowing tions) and cooling. The collector forms the
for natural lighting and partial views. Integrating core of a solar thermal system and together
prism glass into insulating glazing provides with classic building services components
effective solar protection in summer, while solar (pipes, heat exchangers, pumps, storage
radiation can heat the storage material unim- units) forms the complete system. Different
peded in winter (C 3.18). system configurations can be chosen to fit
in with various types of usage. Conventional,
covered collectors are classified into flat plate
Indirect “active” systems collectors (air and water) and evacuated tube
collectors.
The frequent integration of solar collectors
and photovoltaic modules in the design and Collector systems
planning of energy-efficient buildings is proof The collector systems available on the market
of an increasing trend towards solar-activated can be divided into the following subgroups:

298
 Solar energy

Absorber Mirror

C 3.13 C 3.14 C 3.15

Solar absorbers module consists of up to 30 vacuum tubes
The simplest form of collector is an exposed, positioned next to each other in an insulated
uncovered absorber, mainly black tubes or connection box (manifold) and connected to
plastic mats. Solar absorbers are inexpensive the solar circuit. Evacuated tube collectors
systems, but relatively inefficient. They are function based on two main principles: direct
usually used to heat water for outdoor pools, connection with a coaxial double tube in the
where the amount of solar radiation available absorber for separate flow and return of the
and heating requirements largely coincide. heat medium, and an indirect, dry connection
Unglazed, metallic surfaces have been used with a heat pipe with the carrier medium and
as solar absorbers to generate energy since solar circuit separate. In other systems, the
the 1990s. Their advantages are inexpensive, absorber is a glass tube so these systems can
rapid and large-scale assembly, their highly have more slender cross sections and appear
weather-resistant metals, and their potential almost transparent (Figs. C 3.14 and C 3.15).
for adapting to complex building envelope This modular configuration has the advantage
geometries (Fig. C 3.17). that tubes can be replaced while a system is in
operation. Evacuated tube collectors also lose
Flat plate collectors (air) much less heat than flat plate collectors, which C 3.16
Air can be used as a carrier medium to directly is an advantage especially if operating tem-
heat and dry rooms. Air collectors usually have peratures are high (process heat).
a metal absorber covered by a transparent
plate at some distance and facing the sun. The Applications
absorber directly heats outdoor air entering These systems are used in various areas and
from below which then flows through the unit for a variety of purposes.
to an outlet opening into the interior. Air collect-
ors are unlikely to face problems resulting from Heating water
stagnation, frost or corrosion and structural Solar collectors are especially suitable for heat-
components do not have to be as tightly sealed ing water in the geographical and climatic con-
as they do in systems using water as a heat ditions prevailing in Central Europe. Operating
transfer medium. Air’s specific heating cap- temperatures range from 30 up to 60 °C. Ordin-
acity is however four times lower than water’s so ary flat plate collectors work very efficiently in
these systems require relatively large amounts
of air, larger duct cross sections and powerful
ventilators. C 3.8 Principle of opaque insulation
C 3.9 Principle of translucent insulation C 3.17
C 3.10 Energy yields for collectors with various orienta-
Flat plate collectors (water) tions and inclinations (located in Berlin)
Water collectors are the most common type C 3.11 Energy yields for collectors with various orienta-
of collectors. Unlike solar absorbers, flat plate tions and inclinations (located in Berlin)
collector absorbers are made of metal, usually C 3.12 Semi-detached house, Pullach (DE) 1989,
Thomas Herzog, Michael Volz with Michael
copper, and covered with transparent, hail- Streib
resistant safety glass (Figs. C 3.13 and C 3.16). C 3.13 Flat plate collector
Selective coatings are now usually used C 3.14 40 mm-thick evacuated tube collectors with
instead of matt black paint to coat absorbers. glass absorber tubes, went into production in
2003
They almost completely absorb solar radiation
C 3.15 First installation of the evacuated tube collectors
(up to 98 %), convert it into heat and also lose shown in Fig. C 3.14, Zentrum für Umweltkommu-
much less heat radiation (emissivity ≤ 4 %). nikation, Osnabrück (DE) 2002, Herzog + Partner
C 3.16 Apartment building “Kraftwerk B”, Bennau (CH)
Evacuated tube collectors 2009, Grab Architekten
C 3.17 CeRN highway maintenance building, Bursins
Removing the air between a collector’s (CH) 2007, Atelier NiVo
absorber and the cover greatly reduces con- C 3.18 Eulachhof housing development, Winterthur (CH)
vection and heat radiation losses. A collector 2007, Dietrich Schwarz Architekten
C 3.18

299
Solar energy

Crystalline Thin-film Cell types

cell types cell types

Monocrystalline Polycrystalline Amorphous Copper indium Cadmium Organic

silicon silicon silicon selenide (CIS) telluride (CdTe) photovoltaics
(solar dye cells)

Module structure
Single-layer Multilayered

Glass / PV / Glass / PV / film / Glass / PV / film /

Glass / PV / film film glass insulating glazing toughened safety
toughened glass insulating
safety glass glazing

Translucent Permeability
Opaque Transparent
(semi-transparent)
C 3.19
this range. The amount of energy required heating period from November to February, a need a power inverter to convert it into 230 V
to heat water remains fairly constant over the south-facing surface can only produce 12 to alternating current voltage with a frequency
year, so such systems can make optimum use 15 % solar energy during this period. This fact of 50 Hz for use in ordinary household appli-
of the high amounts of solar radiation available can limit the options for using solar space heat- ances. Such solar power plants are usually
in summer. ing systems. operated as grid-connected systems, con-
Collector systems must be comprehensively To be able to release useable heat to a storage nected to the supply grid, which stores the
coordinated with actual heating requirements unit, the absorber’s operating temperatures energy. Stand-alone power systems that store
(number of people, consumption, equipment must range from at least 40 up to 60 °C. Flat superfluous power in rechargeable batteries
features etc.) and the extent to which the sys- plate collectors with selective coatings and are rarer.
tem should meet these requirements. A col- evacuated tube collectors are suitable for this Following changes to remuneration for energy
lector with optimum southern orientation and an purpose. A collector with an area of about a fed into the grid in Germany, users’ own con-
area up to 8 m2 (and 300-litre storage unit) in quarter of the heated living space can meet sumption of the solar power they generate is
the facade can supply hot water for a 4-person between 15 and 30 % of the annual heating becoming increasingly important there. Such
household. Such a system would largely meet requirements of a very well-insulated detached systems can be improved further by intelligent
normal hot water requirements during the warm house. For a very well-insulated house this power consumption management and storage
half of the year and could meet an annual aver- would entail a 10 m2 (evacuated tube collec- solutions in the house (e.g. lithium-ion batteries
age of 40 to 60 % of requirements. tors) to 20 m2 (flat plate collector) collector. to span chronological disparities between the
amount of solar radiation available and need
Space heating Photovoltaic systems for electricity) and there is additional potential
In Central Europe, the amount of solar radiation Photovoltaic (PV) systems directly convert for integrating electrically-powered vehicles
available over the course of a year does not solar radiation into electricity. The core of such into such systems.
match heating requirements. While around systems are solar cells combined into modules.
60 % of annual space heating is needed in the They produce direct current voltage so they Depending on the amount of solar radiation
available, the exposure and inclination of
module surfaces also determine a photovoltaic
system’s annual yields. Unlike thermal collect-
ors, these systems can continue to produce
solar power when solar radiation levels are
below 200 W/m2. In Central Europe, south-
facing fixed systems with an inclination of 30°
relative to the horizontal plane can yield the
greatest annual amount of radiation. Yields
from vertical facade surfaces are generally
much lower.
Photovoltaic system output is usually specified
in Wp or kWp, with “p” standing for “peak”. This
refers to the peak output that can be released
a b
to an electricity circuit connected to the sys-
tem. This figure is usually based on 1,000 W/m2
incident radiation energy and a cell tempera-
ture of 25 °C. Averaged out over the year, (sum-
mer / winter, day / night), this is about one tenth
of peak output.
Photovoltaic system surfaces must be kept
free of shading from vegetation, masts,
surrounding buildings or the building itself
because even small shadows (e.g. from
antennas, frame profiles etc.) can greatly
reduce yields. Because all the units in a sys-
tem that are connected in series are reduced
c d C 3.20

300
 Solar energy

Global radiation figures relative to exposure

Surface inclination 0° 30° 60° 90°

Orientation

East 93 % 90 % 78 % < 60 %

South-east 93 % 96 % 88 % 66 %

South 93 % 100 % 91 % 68 %

South-west 93 % 96 % 88 % 66 %

West 93 % 90 % 78 % < 60 %

C 3.21 C 3.22
to the system’s lowest output, even small areas • Amorphous silicon cells: Thin-film cells with
of shade can incapacitate larger modules. Par- wafer-thin silicon steamed into a backing
allel connections can limit such falls in output material, relatively inexpensive and materials-
(with the disadvantage of lower voltages and saving manufacture, efficiency rate between
higher currents). 5 and 7 %, especially suitable for covering
large areas
Solar cells • CIS and CIGS thin-film cells: Solar cells
The basic material for most solar cells on the mainly made of copper, indium and
market is the semiconductor material silicon. selenium or copper, indium, gallium and
Cells made of monocrystalline and polycrystal- selenide use less material, can also be
line silicon wafers 200 to 300 μm thick are extensively steamed onto almost any
manufactured and further processed by means surface in any form. Efficiency rate up to
of various processes. There are also thin-film 12 % (Fig. C 3.22)
cells, usually made of amorphous silicon or • Organic photovoltaics (OPV): Solar cells
other semiconductor materials such as copper based on electrically conducive polymers,
indium gallium selenide (CIGS) or organic very thin, light and flexible, semi-transparent,
dyes. Solar cells can have relatively low effi- low-energy manufacture
ciency, depending on the material of which • Dye solar cells (DSC): A variety of organic
the cells are made. The maximum achievable photovoltaics that use organic dyes, devel-
efficiency of conventional (silicon) cells is cur- oped by Michael Graetzel (EPFL, 1992),
rently about 25 % (as of spring 2016). Put sim- efficiency rate in the laboratory up to 14 %,
ply, commercially available solar cells can be in production up to 5 %
classified as follows:
• Monocrystalline silicon cells with a very pure, Another advantage of thin-film technology is
completely consistent crystal lattice structure, relatively free formability. Unlike crystalline C 3.23
complex to manufacture, achieve efficiency cells, thin-film cells are not limited to standard-
in industrial production ranging from 18 up to ised wafer sizes, so modules can have varying
21 % (highly efficient, Fig. C 3.23) geometric shapes and be attached to curved
• Polycrystalline silicon cells, characterised by and flexible backing material. This type of cell
a less pure material and partially consistent is especially suitable for integration into areas
crystal lattice structure, easier to manufacture of buildings with possible insufficient rear venti-
and so less expensive, achieve efficiency up lation or (partial) shading. The appearance of
to 16 % (Fig. C 3.24) these modules is characterised by homoge-
neous surfaces structured by very thin, transpar-
Thin-film technology offers great technical ent cuts resulting from the modules’ manufac
and design potential. These types of cells use
less material because layers just a few micro-
metres thin (1– 6 μm) are enough to absorb
C 3.19 Classification of photovoltaic systems
light. Their manufacture can also be largely C 3.20 PV cells:
automated, which can result in enormous cost a Monocrystalline silicon cells
savings. b Amorphous silicon cells, semi-transparent
Thin-film cells have a range of advantages in c Polycrystalline silicon cells
d CIS thin-film cells
terms of dependence on incident energy levels
C 3.21 Energy yields for photovoltaic surfaces with
and specific temperatures and they tolerate various orientations and inclinations (100 % =
shade better. They make (somewhat) better 1,055 kWh/m2a)
use of diffuse, weak light and falls in output are C 3.22 “Solar Decathlon Europe”, Versailles 2014,
much lower if temperatures increase. The long, team rooftop, UdK Berlin & TU Berlin
C 3.23 Cité du Design, Saint-Étienne (FR) 2009,
narrow bands of cells also mean that individual LIN Finn Geipel + Giulia Andi
cells are less likely to be completely overshad- C 3.24 Technology and Future Centre, Herten (DE) 1995,
owed. A distinction is made between Kramm + Strigl
C 3.24

301
Solar energy

C 3.25
ture, i.e. the electrical separation and circuitry Integrating solar energy systems cost-benefit ratios of tracking systems must be
of layers. In integrating solar collectors and photovol- carefully reviewed because less than 50 % of
Solar cells can be specifically used as design taic modules, planners must first consider the radiation available on an annual average is
elements if, for example, their widths are whether they are intended for a cold or a warm direct radiation.
varied or more horizontal dividing lines are facade. Existing approaches have positioned
added. While reflective layers can expand solar energy systems before surfaces that The construction sector is of great relevance
the range of crystalline cell colours available, channel water or used them instead of con- for the success of Germany’s transition to
dark shades predominate in semiconductor- ventional opaque cladding materials or insu- renewable energy use. Fewer new buildings
based thin-film technology. Dye solar cells are lating glazing. Additional savings can be made are being built so the focus is on existing
available in various shades of yellow, green by replacing a structural component with a buildings. Although the potential uses of
and red. solar energy system. Whether added onto facades are often limited for various reasons
or integrated flush into the plane of a facade, and the energy yields may be less than those
Photovoltaic modules what is essential for a harmonious design from optimally oriented south-facing roofs,
Around 30 to 60 crystalline cells usually solution are the modules’ dimensions, the pro- collectors and PV modules can be integrated
form larger, prefabricated units 0.5 to 1 m2 portions of the whole element and its internal into almost every facade, although they are
in size. These PV modules are multilayered, form, especially its positioning in the plane. particularly effective used as rear-ventilated
i.e. cells are either inserted between panes Photovoltaic modules are also used in (bal- cladding material or as fixed components in a
of glass, embedded in synthetic resin or cony) parapets and as fixed or moveable solar glass facade system.
encapsulated between ethylene vinyl acetate protection systems.
(EVA) / polyvinyl butyral (PVB) films, set in Considering the construction aspects of inte-
casting resin or laid between glass and a Uniaxial and biaxial tracking systems are one grating solar power systems, it becomes clear
plastic laminate. Depending on requirements, alternative to fixed units. Depending on their that manufacturers are constantly refining and
their rear sides can be opaque, translucent orientation and installation situation, their axis improving installation conditions – especially
(matt glass / light-diffusing films) or transpar- of rotation can be horizontal or vertical. Biaxial fastenings and seals at the sides. New types
ent (clear glass / transparent films). Thin-film tracking photovoltaic modules can theoretically of frame sections make assembly easier and
cells can also be applied on soft materials use about twice as much solar radiation per shorten construction times as well as reducing
such as membranes. “Sawn”, semi-transpar- year as optimally-oriented fixed systems. The section heights and visible widths.
ent monocrystalline cells are now available energy yields of biaxial tracking systems are
on the market. Thin-film cells can also be only slightly higher than those of uniaxial sys- There are now many ways to flexibly inte-
printed in a wide variety of ways. Manufactur- tems because of the energy the system uses, grate solar energy systems into building
ers offer modules in various standard sizes, so biaxial systems’ more complex mechanism envelopes and increasing numbers of com-
although custom-made systems are usually and additional demands due to integration plete solutions that better combine solar-
used in facades. must be considered when planning them. The thermal and photovoltaic systems within a
type of construction technique with each
other and with other elements in the envelope.
A wide range of tried and tested systems for
common types of facades is available on the
market [12].
Collectors and PV modules must be inte-
grated into the building’s technical services
and, depending on the type of use, cable
routing and additional technical apparatus
may also be required. The relatively slender
structures and flexible, thin electricity cables
of photovoltaic systems make them espe-
cially suitable for integration into facades.
Water collectors, in contrast, have pipes with
a much larger diameter that must not leak
and the system must usually be filled with anti-
freeze agent.
C 3.26

302
 Solar energy

C 3.27
In terms of formal aesthetic criteria, there is a Notes:
wide range of design options for integrating [1] PV modules and tube collectors were used for
the first time in 1982 in a Munich housing estate
solar power systems into building envelopes.
designed by Thomas Herzog and Bernhard
The range of colours of absorber surfaces Schilling, working with the Fraunhofer Institute for
and formal diversity of profiles influence the Solar Energy Systems in Freiburg.
look of systems, as do elements connecting [2] Krippner, Roland: Die Gebäudehülle als Wärmeer-
sides and facade surfaces. Architects will zeuger und Stromgenerator. In: Schittich, Christian
(ed.): Gebäudehüllen. Konzepte, Schichten, Mate-
often hear that the wide range of colours avail- rial. 2nd ed., Munich 2006, p. 48
able is a special bonus of photovoltaic systems [3] Henning, Hans-Martin; Palzer, Andreas: 100 %
(Fig. C 3.27). Adding colours and forms to a Erneuerbare Energien für Strom und Wärme in
building envelope is an especially sensitive Deutschland. Im Rahmen von Eigenforschung
erstellte Studie. Freiburg 2012, p. 4f.
design task that impacts a building’s appear-
[4] Koblin, Wolfram et al.: Handbuch Passive Nutzung
ance and requires careful and thorough con- der Sonnenenergie. Schriftenreihe des BMI für Rau-
sideration. In the context of colour, there is mordnung, Bauwesen und Städtebau 04, Bau- und
currently often a demand for very consistent Wohnforschung. Bonn 1984, p. 93 – 99
surface designs that use crystalline PV mod- [5] Herzog, Thomas et al.: Gebäudehüllen aus Glas und
Holz. Maßnahmen zur energiebewussten Erweite-
ules. Colouring conductors (bus bars) and rung von Wohnhäusern. Lausanne 1986, p. 8, 15
rear-side contacts can make cells fit in and [6] As for Note 4, p. 118, 135ff.
look like homogeneous surfaces so that films or [7] Goetzberger, Adolf; Wittwer, Volker: Sonnenenergie.
glass coatings of the same colour connected Thermische Nutzung. Stuttgart 1993, p. 146f.
[8] Nachtigall, Werner; Pohl, Göran: Bau-Bionik. Natur –
with modules are almost no longer identifiable
Analogien – Technik. 2nd edition, Berlin / Heidelberg
as such (Figs. C 3.25 and C 3.26). 2013, p. 41– 46
Architecturally integrating solar power systems [9] Also sometimes referred to as “transparent” thermal
into a building envelope is a momentous under- insulation. The adjective “transparent” is confusing
taking. It involves incorporating systems into here because these materials are permeable to
radiation but not necessarily transparent. A clear
roofs and walls in a structurally and functionally distinction must be made for construction purposes
cogent manner and in an aesthetically consist- between “diaphanous / translucent” and “clear /
ent form that takes the building’s specific char- transparent”, so it is referred to as “translucent”
acteristics into account and combines them thermal insulation.
[10] Herzog, Thomas: Transluzente Bauteile. Anmer-
to form a single architectural entity comprising
kungen zu ihrer Wirkung. In: Almanach 90/92.
the building’s features and (compositional) FB Architektur der TH Darmstadt. Darmstadt 1992,
lines of solar energy systems. The quality of p. 94ff.
this integration is influenced by the construc- [11] Krippner, Roland: Architektonische Aspekte solarer
tion, material, colour, surface, size, proportion Energietechnik. In: 9th Symposium on Thermal Solar
Energy. Conference transcript. Regensburg 1999,
and arrangement of components and the struc- p. 237
tural system as a whole must always be borne [12] Krippner, Roland (ed.): Gebäudeintegrierte
in mind [13]. Solartechnik. Detail green books. Munich 2016
[13] Krippner, Roland: Solartechnik in Gebäudehüllen.
In: Detail Green, 01/2012, p. 53 – 57

C 3.25 Aktiv-Stadthaus apartment building in Frankfurt

(DE) 2015, HHS Planer und Architekten
C 3.26 Children’s daycare centre, Marburg / Lahn (DE)
2014, opus Architekten
C 3.27 Paul-Horn-Arena, Tübingen (DE) 2004, Allman
Sattler Wappner

303
Solar energy

House and studio

Gleißenberg, DE 2001

Architect:
Florian Nagler, Munich

º Archicrée 309, 2003

Architekturjahrbuch Bayern. Published
1
by the Bayerische Architektenkammer,
Munich 2002
db 01/2003
2
3

4
cc

• “Solar wall” (multi-skin sheeting / simple 5 1 Weather and insect screen,

timber panel construction method) screwed down, perforated
lower edge for draining off
• Set-back basement positioned across the 6 condensation
slope supports the rest of the two-storey 2 Galvanised steel drainpipe,
building 13 Ø 40/2 mm
3 3 Timber batten, 60/80 mm,
• Transparent weather skin made of an inex- 14
4 screwed and with a lap joint
pensive, weatherproof plastic material 4 Flat suction tie, screwed down
• Gable ends translucent, eaves sides form 7 5 Aluminium sheeting, folded to fit,
a temperature buffer and protect the timber 2
joint covered with aluminium film
wall behind from the weather 6 Verge board, 60/240 mm
7 OSB panel for clamping
• Red cedar shingle roof covering polycarbonate sheets at the
15
building corners
8 OSB panel, 18 mm
8 9 Polycarbonate triple-skin panel
Ventilated cavity, 220 mm
9 Polycarbonate panel
15
10 Timber window frame with
16 insulating glazing
a a 11 Chamfered aluminium sheeting
for clamping polycarbonate
10 sheeting and allowing it to
expand longitudinally
12 Wooden plank 60/240 mm
d d with ventilation inlets
13 Insect screen
c b 14 Titanium/zinc sheeting box
11 gutter on dividing layer
15 Timber battens, 30/50 mm
c b 16 Timber door with insulating
glazing
17 Polycarbonate triple-skin panel
aa bb
Floor plan Scale 1:400 Ventilated cavity, 220 mm
Vertical ventilation opening OSB panel, 22 mm
Scale 1:20 Thermal insulation, 120 mm
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section OSB panel, 22 mm
Scale 1:20 18 Galvanised steel bracket
19 Squared timber facade posts
60/100 mm
12 20 Partition wall connection
20 11 4 9

18

19 11
10

17

dd

304
 Solar energy

Pharma Service Center

Binzen, DE 2003

Architects:
Pfeifer Roser Kuhn, Freiburg
Project manager:
Wolfgang Stocker
Structural engineer – facade:
Silke Gauthier, Radebeul
8 10 11 bb
º DBZ 01/2003
Der Architekt 11/2002

1
• Production, logistics and office building 2
• Regulation of abundant waste heat from 4 3
the production process through high ther-
mal storage masses in exterior walls and
floor slabs and division of the building into
various zones
• Wall functions as air collector
• Controlled cavity ventilation uses a natural
thermal effect to help cool the concrete 5
wall in summer; air heated by solar energy
reduces heat losses in winter

a
6

a 7

9
10

Cross section Scale 1:2,000 1 Aluminium flashing, 15 mm insulating glazing

Vertical cross section • 2 Load-bearing steel angle, 9 Larch 13 mm
Horizontal cross section 100/65/7 mm Sound insulation, 50 mm
Scale 1:20 b b 3 Aluminium channel, 50/80/3 mm Continuous steel bracket
4 Ventilation device with grating Plywood, 13 mm
to protect it from the weather 10 Aluminium flashing
5 Patterned glass 11 Patterned glass
Ventilation cavity, 135 mm Ventilation cavity, 150 mm
Double-skin, edge-glued timber Double-skin, edge-glued
wall, filled with mineral wool, timber wall,
11 breathable underlay 80 + 40 + filled with mineral wool
80 mm with breathable underlay,
Separating layer 80 + 40 + 100 mm
3 Steel-reinforced concrete, 200 mm Interior vertical acoustic
12 Vapour barrier profiling
13 Rigid PUR foam, 60 mm 12 Fly screen
14 Plastic sealing sheeting 13 Aluminium tube, 60/34/3 mm
6 Galvanised steel angle, 14 Load-bearing steel angle,
15 60/60/8 mm 100/100/10 mm
7 Aluminium tube, 32/25 mm 15 Perimeter insulation, 80 mm
aa 16 8 Larch wood window frame with 16 Sealing

305
Solar energy

House

Herisau, CH 1998

Architect:
Peter Dransfeld, Ermatingen

º Detail 03/1999

• Energy concept based around a compact, Floor plan ground floor

Scale 1:200
highly insulated building with transparent
Cross section through south-facing
thermal insulation in front of a south-facing facade • Horizontal cross section through
masonry wall. south-east corner
• Central, wood-burning, night-storage stove Scale 1:20
to meet heating requirements
1 Three-ply spruce panel,
• Evacuated tube collectors independent of 1 horizontal grooves to absorb stresses
the building 2 Timber window frame with aluminium
• Protection against overheating provided by facing
3 Triple insulating glazing
shading louvres in the upper section of the 2
4 Solid wood sunshading louvres
transparent thermal insulation and integrated to shade the upper section of the
plastic prisms in the lower section transparent thermal insulation
5 Transparent thermal insulation element
3 in aluminium frame:
Low-iron solar protection glass, 5 mm
Cavity, 12 mm
Plastic tube insulation 140 mm
Glass panel, 5 mm
Cavity
Reinforced concrete, 250 mm, painted
black on the outside
Interior render 15 mm
6 Extruded aluminium section,
powder-coated with a thermal break
4 7 Transparent thermal insulation element
in aluminium frame:
Low-iron solar protection glass, 5 mm
Plastic prism panel in the cavity
to reflect sun in summer
5
Plastic tube insulation, 100 mm
Glass panel, 5 mm
Cavity
Sand-lime masonry, 250 mm,
painted black on the outside
6
Interior render 15 mm
8 Transparent thermal insulation element
(as for 5) but without shading
9 Fibre-cement panels
10 Vertical weatherboard,
7 rough-sawn spruce with a triple-coat,
high-build red stain finish
Ventilation cavity
b b Thermal insulation, 140 mm

10
9

aa 8

306
 Solar energy

Factory

Eimbeckhausen, DE 1992

Architects:
Herzog + Partner, Munich
with Bernd Steigerwald and Holger Gestering

º Arch+ 126, 1995

Architectural Review 01/1994
Flagge, Ingeborg et al. (ed.):
Thomas Herzog. Architektur + Technolo-
gie. Munich / London / New York 2001

• Design of factory building based on eco-

logical aspects; functionally differentiated
building concept, timber load-bearing frame
and facades
• Production halls naturally lit and ventilated;
transparent thermal insulation panels also
direct incoming daylight
• PV canopy with frameless, semi-transparent
ASI modules (4 kWp) to supply the electric
fork lifts with electricity
• Roofs extensively planted to prevent over- a
heating in summer, reduce noise emissions
and slow down rain run-off a

2
3
7
4

bb

b b

Floor plan Scale 1:1,500

6
Vertical cross section Scale 1:50
Details Scale 1:5
8
1
1 Panel with translucent thermal insulation
Float glass 5 mm
Glass fibre fleece
Capillary fill, 24 mm
Glass fibre fleece
Float glass 5 mm 6 4
2 Glulam posts, 60/100 mm
3 2 x steel channels, 160 mm
4 2 x steel T-sections, 50 mm
Facade posts to absorb wind loads,
3
welded to flat steel sections
5 Flat steel section, 50/40/10 mm
6 Glulam rail, 60/100 mm
7 Extruded aluminium section, vertical
8 Extruded aluminium section, horizontal aa

307
Solar energy

Office building

Zurich, CH 2007

Architects:
Beat Kämpfen, Büro für Architektur, Zurich
Energy consultants:
naef energietechnik, Zurich

º Detail Green 01/2009

Holzbulletin 90, 2009

• First zero-energy office building in Switzer- 1

land
• Three-storey timber-frame building with
custom-made wood composite boards
• Around 50 % PCMs (salt hydrate) were
installed in the south-facing facade cavity
to store solar heat; the roof overhang, full-
length balconies and textile blinds prevent
the building from overheating
• The monopitch roof with a 12° slope is 2
completely covered with small photovoltaic
panels which form an anthracite “scaled”
roof skin

Floor plan Scale 1:500

Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Diagram of energy yields / consumption
Not to scale

1 Thin-film cell photovoltaic panels

2 Horizontal timber cladding, 100/25 mm
3 Vertical awning
4 PCM panel to act as storage mass
5 Larch sill
6 Wood composite board, 20 mm,
on battens 30/30 mm
Vapour-permeable wind paper 4
Breathable MDF board, 15 mm
Thermal insulation, 80 mm, 5
between battens

aa

308
 Solar energy

Housing development

Batschuns, AT 1997

Architect:
Walter Unterrainer, Feldkirch

º db 10/2000; 05/2007
Detail 03/1999

• Active solar technology integrated into the Cross section Scale 1:250
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross
building envelope
section
• Complex comprising four two-storey and two Scale 1:20
three-storey, low-energy residential units
• Compact building structure; high insulating 1 South-facing facade:
standard and airtightness make an additional Insulating glazing
Hot water collector / absorber
heating system unnecessary Mineral wool insulation, 120 mm
• Heating requirements met by controlled venti- Brick masonry 90 mm
lation and a heat pump Flax insulation 30 mm
1 Three-ply plywood 19 mm
• Water collectors in the facade and on the flat
2 Aluminium clamping strip
roof with a 750-litre solar boiler provide hot
3 Chamfered aluminium sheeting
water for each unit Foam insulating panel, 20 mm
Three-ply plywood 2≈ 19 mm
Thermal insulation 40 + 30 mm
4 Larch frame window with
aluminium facing
5 Timber batten 4/14 mm
c c 6 Triple thermal insulating glazing with
a thermal bond
7 Foundation:
Fibre cement panels on a frame
Perimeter insulation 60 mm
Reinforced concrete 250 mm
2 8 240 mm reinforced concrete ceiling
with ventilation pipes, Ø 80 mm
9 Vertical larch boarding, 24 mm
Battens 30/50 mm
Foam insulation 60 mm
3
Three-ply plywood 18 mm
Foam insulation 2≈ 60 mm
10 Porous brick masonry 180 mm
aa Interior render 8 mm
8 5
10 Aluminium louvre blind
4

a
1
a b b

bb 9 cc

309
Solar energy

Technical college

Bitterfeld, DE 2000

Architects:
scholl, Stuttgart
Building services technology:
ARGE HLSE, Leipzig / Bitterfeld
Facade consultants:
PBI, Wiesbaden

º AIT 05/2001
Bauwelt 26/2001
Beton Prisma 81, 2002
Intelligente Architektur 30, 2001
L’ARCA 178, 2003

• New building (three wings) complements the 1 Precast exposed concrete facing
existing arts centre (1953) and swimming pool shell, 170 mm
2 Mineral fibre thermal insulation
• Low-energy building 80 mm
• Opaque surfaces in exposed concrete Reinforced concrete 350 mm
• 70-metre-long multistorey collector wall on the exposed concrete surfaces inside 1
south side integrated in exposed concrete 3 Solar glass collector
toughened safety glass 4 mm
• Ecologically safe materials used, rainwater
Water collectors – copper absorber
seepage system on site with a selective coating
Pine plywood backing panel 2
Vertical squared timber frame
in rear ventilation level 80 mm,
Horizontal squared timber frame
between 120 mm thermal insulation
Cross section Scale 1:500
Reinforced concrete 350 mm,
Floor plan, ground floor 3
exposed concrete surfaces inside
Scale approx. 1:3,000
4 Horizontal glazing cap,
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
anodised aluminium
Vertical and horizontal cross sections
(conical glazing caps to better
Scale 1:5
drain rainwater would be preferred
nowadays)
5 Fresh air inlet:
aluminium grating on steel brackets 4
6 Drainage gap
7 Chamfered aluminium sheeting
8 Grooved splice plate
9 Sheet metal side cladding
10 Insect screen
11 Water run-off membrane
12 Butt joint on collector element
13 Permanently elastic seal

aa

b b
1
a a 5

bb

310
 Solar energy

8 7 13

cc

3 12 13 4

10

4 7 8 9

11

c c

7 8 10
11
1
bb

311
Solar energy

Business start-up centre

Hamm, DE 1998

Architects:
Hegger Hegger Schleiff, Kassel
General contractor:
Hering Bau, Burbach
Technical building services:
Gerhard Hausladen, Munich
Rempe + Polzer, Gießen

º DBZ 10/1998
Hausladen, Gerhard (ed.): Innovative
Gebäude-, Technik- und Energiekonzepte.
Munich 2001
bb 1 Parapet coping with Thermal insulation, 80 mm
• Business start-up centre on site of a former
zinc sheeting cover Exterior plaster render 20 mm
coal mine 2 Steel frame, hollow 3 Steel section IPE 120 with
• Complex consists of a four-storey office 4 square steel sections, end plate, EPDM underlay
building and single-storey, multi-bayed halls. 100/80/4 mm, serves
• Office building as solid construction with to support collectors / as thermal break and
ventilation grille compensates for tolerances
bonded glulam floor slabs
3 Rear ventilation 110 mm 4 Recycled brick,
• Halls heated via an underground channel Airtight membrane 217/100/66 mm
(geothermal heating and cooling) or via four- Thermal insulation 80 mm Rear ventilation 50 mm
storey collector facade (120 m2) Sand-lime brick masonry Airtight membrane
240 mm Thermal insulation 90 mm
2 Interior plaster render 15 mm Sand-lime brick masonry
only at parapet: 240 mm
1 Sealing Interior plaster render 15 mm

Isometric view, not to scale

Elevation Scale 1:500
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section 2
Scale 1:20

b b

aa

312
 Solar energy

Library

Mataró, ES 1995

Architect:
Miquel Brullet i Tenas, Barcelona

º Detail 03/1999
Werk, Bauen + Wohnen 09/1998
Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Solar Energy
in Architecture and Urban Planning.
Munich / London / New York 1996

4
• Multilayered, south-facing glass facade
• Polycrystalline solar cells in dual glass 1
modules (thermally toughened 2-m2 glass
panels glued to frames) on exterior, insulating 2 3
glazing on interior
• 15 cm cavity effectively ventilates photovol-
taic modules in summer and preheats incom-
ing air in winter
• Semi-transparent solar cells installed at a
distance from the facade generate electricity,
provide protection from direct sunlight and
cc
allow daylight into the building Cross section Scale 1:500
• When it was completed it was one of the Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
largest photovoltaic systems to be installed Horizontal cross section Scale 1:5
in a building in Europe
1 Ventilation opening with filter
2 Planar facade element:
insulated metal panel 40 mm
Ventilation cavity 60 mm
1 insulated metal panel 40 mm
3 Exhaust air flap
4 Photovoltaic module, south facade
6,495 ≈ 1,050 mm:
Laminated safety glass with integrated
solar cells adhered to framework
Cavity 150 mm
Insulating glazing
5 Horizontal facade support beam
aa

4 5

c c

3
b b

a a 1

bb

313
Solar energy

Training academy 1

Herne, DE 1999
2
Architects:
Jourda et Perraudin, Paris
Hegger Schleiff, Kassel
Structural engineers:
Ove Arup and Partner, Düsseldorf 3
Schlaich Bergermann and Partner, Stuttgart

º Architectural Record 12/1999 4

Architectural Review 10/1999
Detail 03/1999 5
Hagemann, Ingo B.: Gebäudeintegrierte
Photovoltaik. Cologne, 2002

• Glazed building acts as a microclimatic 5

envelope for the passive use of solar energy
• Around half of the roof and the facade surface 6
are covered with photovoltaic glass modules
with a total output of up to 1 MWp 7
• 30 % of the facade glazing has been replaced
with monocrystalline photovoltaic cells
• Shading provided for interior building 8
9
elements
• Various types of photovoltaic modules and
a modular power inverter concept ensure
efficient energy conversion

aa

Elevation Scale 1:1,000

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20
10
1 Laminated safety glass roof glazing
heat-treated, extra-clear glass 6 mm
Photovoltaic cells in casting resin 2 mm
Heat-treated laminated glass 8 mm
2 Power inverter
3 Galvanised steel gutter a a
4 Rainwater quick draining system
5 Facade structural sealant single glazing
on glulam facade posts 160/60 mm;
photovoltaic modules replace glass panels in
some areas
5
6 Glulam edge beam 300/400 mm
7 Opening sash
8 Timber roof girder
9 Timber frame for absorbing wind loads
10 Glulam facade rail

314
 Solar energy

Stadtwerke Energiewürfel (Municipal

utility company “energy cube”)

Constance, DE 2011

Architect:
Arnold Wild
Stadtwerke Konstanz
Facade design:
Gerhard Weber and Partner
IFP – Integrale Fassadenplanung

º Glaswelt 04/2013
1

• Customer service centre for Stadtwerke

Konstanz (municipal utility company)
• Cube-shaped, plus-energy building with
an edge length of 15 metres
2
• Double facade, exterior triple glazing,
3 ≈ 4-metre grids, the surface is 60 % trans-
parent and 40 % opaque
• South facade with semi-transparent crystalline
PV modules, 22 % transparent, element weight
1 t; the first photovoltaic module installation
on this scale

1 South facade:
Photovoltaic modules in triple glazing
set in post-and-rail elements
Facade cavity as thermal buffer 200 mm
Solar and glare protection provided by flat,
reflective aluminium louvres 60 mm
2≈ single glazing, slides on rollers,
Low-E-coating
2 Ventilation plate for mechanical extraction of air 4
from facade cavity
3 LED facade lighting cc
Floor plan • Cross section
4 Insulated facade structure: Scale 1:400
PV modules with crystalline, semi-transparent cells Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Cavity 48 mm
3 Horizontal cross section through posts
Stone wool thermal insulation 2≈ 100 mm
Scale 1:5
Aluminium sheeting 3 mm
Mineral wool thermal insulation 40 mm, fleece
Timber acoustic panels 16 mm

c c

b b
a a

aa bb

315
Solar energy

Office building at Central Station

Freiburg, DE 2001

Architects:
Harter + Kanzler, Freiburg

• South-west facade almost 60 metres high

and virtually shade-free
• Frameless toughened safety glass / film
standard modules (190 ≈ 70 cm) with
monocrystalline solar cells
• Film colour matches the cell colour, creating
a homogeneous look
• Modules clamped to an underlying frame
at six points
• 20 cm cavity ensures good ventilation, which
1
is further enhanced by the stack effect 2 5 1 6

3 4

Floor plan, 17th floor • Cross section

Scale 1:400
Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20

1 Special bracket 260/300 mm

2 Precast concrete panel 100/600 mm
3 Black aluminium section 25/50 mm
4 Frameless solar panel 9 mm
Ventilated cavity 186 mm
Black fleece-laminated thermal insulation
100 mm
Reinforced concrete 300 mm
Interior render, 15 mm
5 Support structure:
Bracket 220/200 mm
Aluminium tube 110/40 mm,
with clamping profiles
6 Sealing aa

316
 Solar energy

Children’s day-care centre

Marburg / Lahn, DE 2014

Architects:
opus Architekten, Darmstadt
Energy consultants:
ee concept, Darmstadt

º AIT 05/2015
Bauwelt 09/2016
db 09/2015
DBZ 09/2015
Detail Green 02/2015

• Day-care centre for children set in a park 1

landscape surrounded by historical buildings
• Plus-energy building standard
• Saw-tooth roof and pleated west facade
optimise use of solar energy and daylight
• 354 custom-made monocrystalline dual-glass
photovoltaic modules in the roof and facade
• Homogeneous, monochrome appearance
due to black coating on conductor strips and
opaque film on back of photovoltaic modules

a
1 Black monocrystalline PV modules
a (laminated safety glass)
Bitumen sealing, battens 80/80 mm
3
Bitumen sealing
Cladding 21 mm
Rafters / cellulose thermal insulation 360 mm
Vapour barrier, OSB panel 18 mm
2 Suspended ceiling:
Battens 28/60 mm
Acoustic felt, fleece overlay
Pine battens 35/20 mm
3 Black monocrystalline PV modules
(laminated safety glass)
Aluminium vertical + horizontal frame
PE foil sealing
Floor plan, ground floor OSB panel 15 mm
Scale 1:400 Timber studs / mineral fibre insulation 320 mm
Air-conditioning and ventilation concept Vapour barrier, OSB panel 15 mm
Summer / winter Battens 28/60 mm
Not to scale Acoustic felt, fleece overlay
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 Pine battens 35/20 mm

aa

317
Solar energy

Oskar von Miller Forum

Munich, DE 2009

Architects:
Herzog + Partner, Munich
Facade designed in cooperation with
FKN Fassaden, Neuenstein

º Baumeister 06/2010
UED 06/2016
World architecture 245, 2010
Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Oskar von Miller
Forum. Munich 2010
aa

• International meeting centre for the support Cross section Scale 1:750
of trainee construction engineers with a Vertical cross section Scale 1:5
multifunctional hall, library and bistro on the
ground floor, offices and apartments on the 1 Dual-glass photovoltaic module 12 mm
upper storeys 2 Aluminium U-profile frame 40 ≈ 3 mm
• 400 m2 of vacuum tube collectors provide 3 Frame attachment, flat aluminium section
stationary shade for the top floor and supply 60 ≈ 5 mm, cable routing in OL 90 cover
4 Square hollow aluminium spacer 20 ≈ 2 mm
20 % of the heating energy required in the 5 System attachment to posts, triple-screwed
building and 16 % of cooling energy require- 6 Double insulating glazing 39 mm
ments 7 Cavity for cable routing 80 ≈ 18 mm
• Slender photovoltaic louvres in front of glazed 8 Post attachments, fixed bearing
9 Post attachments, loose bearing
entry area on the south-east facade provide
10 Floor structure:
additional solar protection Natural stone in an adhesive mortar bed 30 mm
• Silver-grey glossy polycrystalline cells fixed Screed 90 mm
along longitudinal sides Reinforced concrete ceiling 150 mm

3
2

10

bb

318
 Solar energy

SwissTech Convention Center

Lausanne, CH 2012

Architects:
Richter Dahl Rocha & Associés, Lausanne

º DBZ 04/2015 A
Fassade, Facade 03/2014
Haustech 06/2014
Tec 21 49 – 50, 2013

• Main building for an extension to the École

polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 3 1
campus
• A convention centre designed to accommo- 4 2
date 3,000 people, central foyer with a glass
5
facade covers the full height of the building
• Angled, full-storey, dual-glass modules in
narrow strips cover 300 m2 of the west facade;
angles range from 7.5° to 45° in increments
of 7.5°
• Dye-sensitised solar cell modules in various a a
shades of yellow, green and red
• First use of Grätzel cells on this scale

2 3 4 5
aa

Cross section Scale 1:1,000

Vertical cross section, west facade Scale 1:20
Horizontal cross section through a facade detail
Scale 1:5

1 Steel facade support

2 Double glazing 14 mm + space between
the panes 17 mm + 8 mm, fixed along sides
in glazing bars
3 Anodised aluminium cover
4 Hollow square steel section 50/50/5 mm
5 Dual glass solar panels in anodised aluminium
frames
Four modules (2,100 ≈ 410 mm) in each panel
at 350 ≈ 500 mm, each with a 13 ≈ 2 cm-wide
strip of Grätzel cells
A

319
Solar energy

Centre for Photovoltaics and

Renewable Energy

Berlin, DE 2013

Architects: A
HENN, Berlin

• New building with 8,000 m² of production,

laboratory and office space that can be com-
bined and rented in various configurations
• Ground floor with a central foyer, adjoining
workshops, divisible production halls, a can-
3
teen and physics and chemical laboratories,
offices and meeting rooms on the upper floors
• Horizontal dual-glass photovoltaic louvres 4
with monocrystalline solar cells shade the
building-height foyer facade

1 2

Cross section Scale 1:1,000

5
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

7 9
6
8

1 Precast concrete facade cladding

panel
2 Stainless steel pressure screw,
200 mm, M16
3 Facade panel anchor 10
4 Hollow square steel section,
150/150/6.3 mm, with head and
foot plates
5 Steel H-beam, HEA 140, connected
to the main beam with head plates
6 Steel beam, HEA 260, rigidly
connected to facade supports
7 Sharp-edged flat steel hollow section
support, 300/30 + 100/15 mm
8 Steel H-beam HEA 240
9 Steel sheeting sandwich panel 40 mm
Thermal insulation 2≈ 140 mm 12 11
10 Double glazing 8 mm + 6 mm,
aluminium frame, motorised ventila-
tion flap 13
11 Aluminium post-and-rail facade
with tubular steel insert
Double glazing
12 mm + 8 mm
12 Photovoltaic module
(heat-treated, laminated glass 4 mm
+ EVA film 2 mm + heat-treated,
laminated glass 6 mm), format
710 ≈ 1,870 mm, rigidly mounted on
a hollow steel section
13 Sharp-edged flat steel hollow section
support, 300/30 + 60/15 mm A

320
 Solar energy

Technical equipment building for a solar

residential development
11

Emmerthal, DE 2000 a a

Architects:
Niederwöhrmeier + Wiese, Darmstadt
Structural engineers: 10
Bollinger + Grohmann, Frankfurt /Main 6

º db 10/2000
Fassade / Facade 04/2001
Hagemann, Ingo B.: Gebäudeintegrierte
Photovoltaik. Cologne 2002

• Energy supplied by combination of heat 1 2 4 5 6

pump and photovoltaic system
• Photovoltaic modules with film-backed single 8 9
panes with various photovoltaic cells, uniaxial
tracking along the front of the tower’s facade,
the solar vanes can rotate 180° and have
biaxial tracking
• Analyses indicate solar energy yields up
to 38 % greater than for a facade-integrated 7
system
• The energy tower was a registered Expo 2000
project

3
aa

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section

Scale 1:20,

1 Fixed aluminium louvres, 100 mm protect against

UV and weather
2 Underlay
Veneered plywood panel, 27 mm, colourless
impregnation
Black stained squared timber 50/80 mm
Thermal insulation 50 mm
Hot-dip galvanised steel sections, HEB 220
3 Hot-dip galvanised installation grid 30/30 mm with
steel section edge angle 150/100/10 mm
4 Coated aluminium sheeting, 2 mm
5 Hot-dip galvanised steel beam, HEB 220
6 HEB 220 steel section as the main support bracket
for the PV system, angled and tapered towards
vane bearings
7 Hot-dip galvanised flat steel 2≈ 150/15 mm, as verti-
cal support bracket, connected to the main support
bracket with hot-dip galvanised flat steel 100/10 mm
8 PV module, 1730/480 mm, heat-treated glass,
supported at six points, PVB laminate film
9 PV substructure: two-point steel / EPDM clamp
bracket, 6 mm steel ribs, torque tube
Ø 42.4/2.6 mm, hydraulic variable altitude angle
tracking via pressure rod and blade
Flat steel bracket, 50/10 mm, with plastic bearing
for variable altitude angle tracking
10 Hot-dip galvanised grating 30/30/3 mm
Steel frame 40/40/5 mm
Tubular steel spacers Ø 20/4 mm
Steel section frame 140 mm
11 Solar vane structure:
Flat steel diagonal bracket 50/10 mm, with
plastic bearing for variable altitude angle tracking
Steel section 100/60 mm
Diagonal tubular steel strut Ø 60,3 mm
Connected to torque tube Ø 168.3 mm
with steel sections, 2≈ 100/50/6 mm, screwed
through

321
 Integrated facades

C 4 Integrated facades As well as being surfaces on and in which of easy access, maintenance and renovation.
solar collectors and photovoltaic modules If cavities integrated into ceilings and floors
can be installed, facades are increasingly are dispensed with in favour of thermally
becoming a space for accommodating (sup- activated masses of load-bearing structural
plementary) building services technologies. components and interior walls are to be move-
Good interior air quality and natural ventila- able in the long term, especially in office build-
tion have a positive effect on users’ well-being ings, they must be largely free of pipes and
and can stimulate productivity and minimise cables. This means that exterior walls must
absenteeism due to illness, so decentralised make suitable provision for distributing and
ventilation systems (with heat recovery to pre- accessing electrical cabling, be able to supply
heat outside air) have been more frequently a building with air conditioning and heat, and
installed in the interface between the outdoor ensure the exchange of air. Smaller, decentral-
climate and the interior since the end of the ised counter-current system units have been
1990s [1]. Facades can incorporate integrated developed more recently to ventilate facades
decentralised building technology and be sin- while reducing ventilation heat losses and
gle or multilayered. ensuring efficient heat recovery during the
heating period.
Buildings’ technical systems are deeply
anchored in the European construction trad-
ition as functionally important elements and Facade-integrated decentralised ventilation
integrated into exterior walls using a range of systems
different methods, e.g. as fireplaces for heat-
ing. In Wells in southern England, in an early Unlike “passive” ventilation concepts such
European example of terraced housing (circa as windows, which make use of differences
1363), very high smoke-extracting chimneys in pressure between the interior and exterior
in the exterior stone walls are a distinctive fea- and wind speed and temperature differences,
ture of the streetscape (Fig. C 4.2, p. 324). facade-integrated decentralised building
ventilation systems use additional components
Installing radiators or convectors in interiors for ventilation, heating and cooling. Outside
under windows or decentralised air condition- air is fed in directly through special openings
ers on the outsides of buildings in hot climates in a facade or exterior wall that are connected
is now commonplace. The example of the to technical modules. The key component
semiconductor assembly plant in Wasserburg of these devices is a fan unit that filters air.
am Inn shows how the bearing brackets of They can also be combined with heating and
such technical devices can be elegantly inte- cooling coils, heat exchangers or storage units.
grated into modular facades in modern post- Devices are delivered ready for installation, so
war architecture (see p. 172). only an installation location, air intake and out-
let openings and any supply lines required for
To make interiors largely open spaces, which heating and cooling must be provided on site.
is essential for factory and exhibition halls, for All structural elements connected with outside
example, large ventilation ducts are arranged air have thermal and acoustic insulation and
in the facade. Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers low-noise ventilators to prevent sound passing
made ventilation ducts an expressive tech- through them. Their modular structure and
nical motif and, in large dimensions, an essen- compact form makes decentralised ventilation
tial means of architectural expression in their systems especially suitable when renovating
Centre Pompidou in Paris (1977) (Fig. C 4.3). buildings to improve their energy use. Ordinary
Similarly, the air-conditioning devices at the ventilation systems centrally regulate outside-
Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts by Norman air intake, treatment, preconditioning and the
Foster & Associates (1978) are installed in discharge of exhaust air, but decentralised
the building’ periphery, where they are partly systems make use of two different hybrid and
visible from the outside through glazing but stand-alone concepts:
permanently and effectively protected from the • hybrid: air conditioning can be supported by
weather (see p. 176). central system technology such as heating
The use of such elements, drawn mainly from elements and activated ceilings, outside air
the field of mechanical engineering as a major flows in through the facade, while exhaust air
structural subsystem and as almost a matter is centrally extracted inside the building.
of course on the front facades of buildings, • stand-alone: outside-air intake, exhaust air
was a paradigm shift at the end of the 20th cen- extraction and air conditioning (e.g. heating
tury [2], but the application of highly technical and cooling) take place via the facade.
building equipment with its high energy con-
sumption (and dependency) now needs to Operating principle
be reviewed. Such (large-scale) technical instal- Outside air flows in through facade openings
lations may still be advisable if they are able and a technical module filters out pollutants,
to conserve resources, by using renewable pollen and particulate matter. If the system
energy, for example. It can be expedient to uses heat recovery through a heat exchan-
C 4.1 i-modul facade, Capricornhaus, Düsseldorf (DE) separate them from the building’s framework ger, thermal energy is transferred from exhaust
2008, Gatermann + Schossig and protective building envelope for reasons air to incoming air before the fresh air enters

323
Integrated facades

the room. Constant-volume ventilators or interior climate, precisely regulate moisture and
volume flow limiters prevent draughts. In con- prevent mould growth. Buildings equipped
trolling the intake of fresh air, air quality sen- with heat recovery units can reuse up to 90 %
sors react to CO2 concentrations and pollu- of the heat in rooms and units can be com-
tants. After passing through a heat exchanger, bined with a central exhaust air system. Decen-
exhaust air is extracted through facade open- tralised units provide a constant supply of
ings. The openings are equipped with flaps fresh air in noisy locations where windows stay
to prevent an uncontrolled system shutdown closed and increase protection from burglary.
due to changing weather or wind pressure The filtering of outside air reduces incidences
conditions [3]. of allergic reactions to particulate matter and
pollen (Fig. C 4.4).
Advantages and disadvantages of decentralised
ventilation technology [4] The installation situation is the key feature in
Advantages: choosing ventilation systems for residential
• Lower storey heights, no ventilation ducts buildings. Systems can be installed in
are required, so suspended ceilings are not • Exterior wall surfaces
necessary • Opening edges: reveals / lintels /parapets
• Small plant rooms • Window frames
• Low energy costs
• Flexible use of space Exterior wall surfaces
• Systems only operate when individual users Decentralised ventilation systems for opaque
are in the room exterior walls are set into a recessed housing
C 4.2 • Users can individually influence the interior in a gap between masonry blocks (new build-
climate ings) or in a cylindrical outside-air intake open-
ing (> 160 mm for walls less than 30 cm thick)
Disadvantages: core drilled into an existing wall (Fig. C 4.8,
• The various devices involved require more p. 327). Ventilation concepts with central air
maintenance intake can also be installed during renovations,
• Maintenance must be carried out inside the with risers and horizontal air inlet ducts set into
room (which may be rented) the insulation layer (Fig. C 4.9, p. 327). A duct
• Depending on weather conditions, it may system distributes air across the facade surface
be difficult to dry or humidify interior air and releases it indirectly into rooms through
• Negative influence of wind pressure and openings in the wall or opening edge [5].
fluctuating temperatures on the facade’s
exterior Opening edges: reveals/lintels/parapets
Various manufacturers make decentralised
The available systems vary in terms of their ventilation systems for installation in and
structure, dimensions and installation site, around opening edges. Installing such a sys-
depending on the type of building. Some tem in a reveal, lintel or parapet affects direct
are installed in solid exterior walls (often in operability and the accessibility of units for
residential buildings), others in post-and-rail maintenance, e.g. filter replacement. Any
and modular facades (mainly offices / school reduction in aperture (permeable) surfaces
buildings). due to the installation of system components
must be considered when renovating existing
Residential buildings buildings (15 –20 cm on each side, depend-
Installing compact ventilation units in very ing on the system).
well-insulated exterior walls in tightly-sealed
residential buildings allows users to control Window frames
the exchange of air in each room individually Even more compact are units with a ventilation
and could also save energy, improve the system with heat exchanger, filter and controls
C 4.3

324
 Integrated facades

C 4.4
directly integrated into a window frame (e.g. for technical equipment has been demon-
made of composite fibre materials). Separate strated in buildings with decentralised ventila-
ventilation grilles for two ducts for preheated tion systems.
outside air and exhaust air are installed in the The option of dispensing with suspended ceil-
sides of frames or for exhaust air in the tops ings in multistorey buildings and the resulting
of frames, making additional structures and lower clear room heights and added space can
adjustments in and around the opening un- allow planners to add extra storeys, although
necessary. Special forms are systems that the potential for using decentralised ventilation
combine a prefabricated window element systems to reduce storey height has not (yet)
with a slender technical module (with heat generally been exploited [9]. Buildings’ tech-
exchanger, ventilators and filter) at the bottom nical components are much less durable than
of the frame to form a complete system for facade elements so it is important that the units
use in renovations of existing multistorey resi- and components in decentralised ventilation
dential buildings [6]. systems are easy to replace. Facade openings
with technical modules can be installed in vari-
Office and school buildings ous areas:
Flexible, space-saving technology is increas- • Ceilings (facing side)/floors (horizontal)
ingly used in the planning of office and school • Parapets (horizontal)
buildings. Here the goal is to avoid cable rout- • Facade surfaces (vertical)
ing in ceilings, which usually requires a sus-
pended ceiling, so the thermal storage mass For special solutions, technical modules
of a solid ceiling cannot be used to modify the can also be combined with opaque facade
interior climate. Facade-integrated decentral- panels and skylights to make use of daylight C 4.5
ised ventilation systems are therefore becom- (Fig. C 4.1, p. 322) [10].
ing increasingly important in these types of
buildings. Ceiling (facing surface) /underfloor ventilation
systems (horizontal)
For multistorey office buildings in particular, Air intake and exhaust openings are installed
facade technology has developed positively in the ceiling’s facing surface and a ventila-
to provide options allowing for extensive use tion unit, some with steam humidification,
of natural ventilation since the mid 1990s. is installed in the raw ceiling in front of the
As well as standard single-layer facades (inner) facade so is not visible in the room.
(Fig. C 4.14), multilayered facades are in- Air flows in and out through a grating in the
creasingly being installed on tall buildings floor (Fig. C 4.5).
(see also “Multilayer glass facades”, p. 238ff., In buildings with a hybrid ventilation concept
“Trade fair administration building Hanover”, such as the Post Tower in Bonn (Fig. C 4.13,
p. 96, and Fig. C 4.12). Completed buildings p. 327) exhaust air is extracted through adjacent
and a comparative study completed in 2008 [7] spaces or zones of intermediate temperatures
prove that decentralised ventilation systems (“sky gardens”) and centrally extracted. Under-
can be integrated into all common facade floor ventilation units variably regulate heating
types.

Office buildings with decentralised ventilation

C 4.2 Vicar's Close, Wells (GB) circa 1363
systems have been shown to consume much C 4.3 Centre Pompidou, Paris (FR) 1997, Renzo Piano /
less heating energy and power than buildings Richard Rogers
with centralised systems. Users also positively C 4.4 Exterior wall surface / Top-Air – Air DuoPlus com-
rate the thermal comfort and individual, room- pact fan
C 4.5 Underfloor system (horizontal)
by-room operation offered by decentralised C 4.6 Fraunhofer in-Haus Center, Duisburg (DE) 2008,
systems. A greater “spatial efficiency of 5 to Fraunhofer Institute for Microelectronic Circuits
15%” [8] due to the reduced space required and Systems
C 4.6

325
Integrated facades

and cooling room-by-room and are supported Notes:

by concrete core activation (base load). [1] cf. Concept-Fassade. Müller, Helmut F. O.; Nolte,
Christoph; Pasquay, Till: Die Mittel, aktiv zu
Such decentralised natural ventilation systems sein. Von der Aufgabenstellung zur Lösung. In:
can also be effectively combined with more Danner, Dietmar; Dassler, Friedrich H. (ed.): Die
recent facade developments such as the klima-aktive Fassade. Leinfelden-Echterdingen
Closed-Cavity Facade (CCF) [11]. Compact, 1999, p. 43f.
[2] Although “paradigm shift” has become a trendy
flat technical modules make it possible to build
expression in recent years, it should be noted in
storey-high facades with glazing that optimises this case that the classical Greek word παρα′δειγμα
the use of daylight (Fig. C 4.12). (paradigma) originally referred to an architectural
model specially made for competition.
Parapets (horizontal) [3] Röben, Jürgen: Fassadenintegrierte Lüftungs-
technik. Ästhetisch und energieeffizient. In: DBZ
Ventilation units with heat recovery installed 09/2013, p. 77
in opaque parapets are installed in the floor [4] Mahler, Boris et al.: DeAL – Evaluierung dezentraler
inside or attached to a solid parapet. These are außenwandintegrierter Lüftungssysteme. Abschluss-
usually 2-pipe or 4-pipe systems with air-water- bericht. Stuttgart 2008, p. 6
heat transmission for heating and cooling. As [5] cf. Giebeler, Georg et al.: Atlas Sanierung. Munich,
C 4.7 2008, p. 258 – 261
well as providing free cooling using incoming [6] cf. Stiegel, Horst; Krause, Michael: Minimalinvasives
air, cooling and air-conditioning functions can Sanierungssystem mit vorgefertigtem, multifunktio-
be expanded by connection to the cold-water nalem WDVS-Fassadenmodul. In: gi – Gesundheits-
network (Fig. C 4.10, C 4.15). ingenieur 06/2012, p. 290 – 302
[7] As for Note 4
[8] Mahler, Boris; Caspary-Weber, Monique: Flexibel
Facade surfaces (vertical) und flächeneffizient lüften. Evaluierung dezentraler
If ventilation units cannot be installed in a außenwandintegrierter Lüftungssysteme. In: Trans-
parapet, special slender vertical technical fer. Das Steinbeis Magazin 01/2009, p. 7
modules can be integrated, storey-high or on [9] As for Note 4
[10] cf. Gatermann, Dörte; Schossig, Elmar: Capri-
a parapet next to a window or area of glazing cornhaus Düsseldorf. i-modul-Fassade. In: Weiß,
(Fig. C 4.6, p. 325, C 4.11). Klaus D. (ed.): Gatermann + Schossig. Raum
Kunst Technik / Space Art Technology. Basel 2010,
The building services technology in these office p. 221– 223.
[11] Rudolf, Bernhard: Atmende Fassaden: Fassa-
buildings in Wiesbaden uses a dado duct, inte-
dentechnologien zur dezentralen und natürlichen
grated evolvent lights and installation cabinets Lüftung. In: Detail 07– 08/2012, p. 811f.
with small convectors on their outsides in all
offices. Manually-operated, insulated wooden
ventilation flaps with integrated revolving cylin-
ders are now exclusively used to individually C 4.7 Office building, Wiesbaden (DE) 2003, Herzog +
regulate outside-air intake when temperatures Partner
are low. Mechanical incoming and exhaust air C 4.8 Activated apartment block, Kassel (DE) 2015,
ventilation systems have been dispensed with HHS Planer + Architekten
C 4.9 Heumatt housing estate / complete refurbish-
for all offices (Fig. C 4.7). ment, Zurich (CH) 2005, Urs Primas with
Proplaning AG
What all these systems have in common is that C 4.10 Neues Gymnasium school, Bochum (DE) 2012,
units are not visibly integrated into the facade Hascher Jehle
C 4.11 Fraunhofer in-Haus Centre, Duisburg (DE) 2008,
on the outside, so they can be relatively easily
Fraunhofer Institute for Microelectronic Circuits
adapted to design requirements. Air intake and and Systems
outlet openings can have covers specifically C 4.12 Roche Diagnostic, Rotkreuz (CH) 2011,
designed for the building that are reduced to Burckhardt + Partner
being very inconspicuous or alternatively used C 4.13 Post Tower, Bonn (DE) 2002, Murphy /Jahn
C 4.14 ADAC headquarters, Munich (DE) 2012,
as contrasting design elements. Various indi- Sauerbruch + Hutton
vidual solutions for air outlets and covers in C 4.15 Laimer Würfel, Munich (DE) 2008, Plan2 Archi-
rooms are also available. tekten

326
 Integrated facades

C 4.8 C 4.9

C 4.10 C 4.11

C 4.12 C 4.13

C 4.14 C 4.15

327
Authenticated | antonio.zulu.666@gmail.com
Download Date | 10/13/19 5:58 AM
 Refurbishing existing facades

C 5 Refurbishing Construction, operation, maintenance and The word “reparare” (restore) means “repair”
dismantling or recycling are among the main in the sense of returning something to its
existing facades phases in a building’s life cycle. A building’s original, functioning condition. One example
support structure, interior fittings, envelope of this is the replacement of sections of
and technology often have differing “lifespans”, exterior wall cladding damaged in a storm,
as do its facade and the components that for example.
make it up. Insulating glazing units have an
average lifespan of 20 to 35 years, window “Sanare” (improve, remedy, stabilise) refers
frames 25 to 40 years, and exterior rendering to the restoration of functional capacity, such
30 to 60 years, although such average figures as adding insulation and protection from the
can vary considerably in some cases, depend- sun, glare and weather, which are described
ing on construction quality, external effects in detail in the chapters on “External and
and the effort put into maintaining a building. internal conditions” (p. 18ff.) and “Aspects
Regardless of the demands users make on it, of building physics and planning advice”
the facade is one of the areas of a building (p. 52ff.). Over the life of a facade, these func-
most subject to weathering caused by out- tions may become impaired or break down
door temperatures, which fluctuate markedly completely due to external influences (e.g.
over the course of days and years, as a result heat, cold, rain and wind) and interior effects
of radiation conditions as well as high winds (e.g. damp), requiring partial or complete
and rains. refurbishment of the facade. Other reasons for
refurbishing can include maintaining a build-
Decisions made during the planning process ing’s value by eliminating wear and tear and
on materials and construction and execution structural damage, and preventing the prema-
on the building site play a central role in deter- ture failure of individual structural components.
mining the durability of facades. Deficits in Reducing energy requirements by improving
these areas may cause individual compo- the building envelope’s thermal properties is
nents to fail prematurely and, if this leads to currently the primary reason for refurbishing
damage, elements may have to be repaired facades.
or replaced.
Buildings built in Germany prior to the passing
A change in cultural, economic or functional of the 2nd Thermal Insulation Regulation in
requirements may also initiate or require the 1984 are currently one focus of refurbishing
refurbishment of a facade. This is particularly activities. The U-values common at the time, at
so where renovations are intended to improve worst 2.2 W/m2K for a quarried stone wall and
a building’s energy use, the urgency of which at best 0.5 W/m2K for a studded timber wall
has greatly increased in Germany due to cur- with 8 cm of thermal insulation, make refurbish-
rent energy efficiency demands imposed on ing urgently necessary for these buildings in
existing buildings in recent years as a result order that heat losses through their facades
of the country’s transition to an energy supply can be drastically reduced.
based heavily on renewable energies (Ener-
giewende) (Fig. C 5.2) [1].
Refurbishing facades to improve
In the final decades of the 20th century, eco- energy use
nomic factors in particular, such as reducing
operating costs and the pursuit of independ- Refurbishing facades to improve energy use
ence from oil imports, contributed to increas- usually involves a wide range of measures
ing demands made on the energy efficiency aimed at greatly improving the facade’s tech-
of facades. Since the turn of the new millen- nical and functional quality and the building’s
nium, efforts have focused more on the environ- energy balance as well as meeting current
mental policy goal of drastically reducing CO2 energy efficiency goals. Here the focus is on
emissions. reducing thermal losses through structural elem-
ents that transmit heat (e.g. opaque exterior
walls or transparent or translucent structural
Renovating – Repairing – Refurbishing elements such as windows and glass facades).
Heat losses resulting from radiation or ventila-
Words such as “renovate”, “repair” and tion must also be reduced. Various insulating
“refurbish” are often wrongly used as syno- materials, reflective coatings and films, multi-
nyms to describe the restoring of facades pane insulating glazing units and vacuum glaz-
and exterior walls. Returning to the original ing units, which can greatly reduce heat trans-
Latin meanings of the three words, it becomes mittance from inside to out, are used to reduce
clear that there are distinct differences in the such losses. In this context, it is also often
definitions. necessary to greatly improve the seals around
windows, doors and structural joints to minim-
“Renovare” (renew) meaning “renovating” is ise undesirable heat losses due to draughts.
understood as eliminating damage caused by
wear and tear. For a facade, this could be a A refurbishing strategy designed to fit in with
C 5.1 House, Soglio (CH) 2009, Ruinelli Associati new coat of paint, for instance. existing buildings and optimum planning and

329
 Refurbishing existing facades
Annual primary energy requirements for heating [kWh/(m2·a)]

450
400
Minimum regulatory requirements
350
(WSchV / EnEv) depending on building geometry
300

250

200
Solar-powered Building
150 practice
buildings
100
Low-energy buildings
50
Passive / “3-litre” buildings
0
Zero heating energy buildings
-50 Plus-energy buildings
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 C 5.2

construction can usually improve insulation Influencing factors and measures or opaque facing shells of rear-ventilated
and can even allow a building to meet the cur- facade structures) [5].
rent demands made on new buildings. In this Measures to improve a facade’s energy bal-
context, studies have shown that EU Directive ance can be carried out in a wide range of Taking these aspects into account, a distinction
2012/27/EU, which aims to establish an almost different ways. Factors that may influence the can be made between the following possibilities:
entirely CO2-neutral building stock, can be choice of renovation concept include: • Interior insulation attached at a distance to
implemented with an assumed annual renova- • Building’s actual condition in terms of meas- a preexisting facade or exterior wall (house-
tion rate of 2 % [2]. ured energy consumption in-a-house concept, Fig. C 5.3)
• Actual state of a structure’s existing sub- • Interior insulation attached without any gap
Here the focus is on facades because, com- stance and energy consumption and the to a preexisting facade or exterior wall
pared with other areas of the building envelope structural and functional quality of the facade (Figs. C 5.4, C 5.11, p. 335)
such as the roof, cellar ceiling and foundation and exterior walls • Partial replacement, supplementation or
plate, they represent by far the largest area in • Actual condition of current building technol- complete replacement of preexisting facade
contact with the outside air or ground (with the ogies or window (Figs. C 5.12, C 5.13 and C 5.14,
exception of large halls). This is especially the • Architectural quality of existing structural p. 335)
case with multistorey buildings, which have a substance • Exterior insulation attached without any
much higher proportion of facade area com- • Legally-binding historic building and area gap to a preexisting facade or exterior wall
pared with roof area than one or two-storey conservation regulations and possibly copy- (Figs. C 5.15, C 5.16, p. 335)
buildings. right laws • Exterior facing shell attached at a distance
• Any planned changes in usage that may to a preexisting facade or exterior wall
Measurements of average multistorey 1950s impact future comfort requirements (Fig. C 5.17, p. 335)
apartment buildings have shown that the • Future energy supply options for the building
rate of transmission heat loss through their to be refurbished Various options for refurbishing and improv-
opaque exterior walls is about 16 % and 12 % • Relation between investment costs and any ing energy use are presented and explained
through windows. To this are added ventila- future reductions in operating costs below. It should be noted that in practice these
tion heat losses of around 20 %, so with a possibilities are often combined to achieve
total of 48 % they lose almost half of all their The analysis and prioritisation of these factors an optimum result, depending on the specific
heat through exterior walls or facades. The greatly influences the development of any over- conditions and requirements.
remaining heat is lost due to transmission all concept for refurbishing a facade in order to
heat losses through the roof (17 %) and cellar improve its energy use. A refurbishing strategy
ceiling (7 %) and power lost by heating sys- for a historic building listed as protected will Interior insulation
tems (28 %). By comparison, a typical 1960s usually be very different from the refurbishing
apartment building loses far more heat through of an average building that is not subject to Refurbishing of the inside of a facade or exter-
its facade – around 63 %. Here heat losses are such protection to modify its energy consump- nal walls to improve their energy use is usually
generally broken down as follows: windows tion. When a building is converted (e.g. from carried out if insulation cannot be added to the
19 %, walls 22 %, ventilation 22 %, roof 4%, commercial to residential use), the changed outside of existing exterior walls because they
cellar ceiling 4 % and unused heating energy comfort requirements will mean that refurbish- are part of an especially elaborate plaster, half-
29 % [3]. ing its facade will involve measures different timbered or clinker facade, or for design and /
from those that would be required if its use or historic building conservation reasons [6].
These heat loss rates make it clear that refur- were to remain the same. The advantages of this refurbishing method are
bishing measures to improve energy use must that it maintains the building’s external appear-
include facades. For a holistic solution that What all these measures have in common ance and does not require official approval. It
makes use of all energy-saving potential, the is the aim of improving the facade’s thermal is also usually less expensive to add insulating
insulation of roofs and cellars and optimisation performance. This can be done by partly or layers (e.g. mineral foam or calcium silicate
of heating systems must be equally considered completely replacing or supplementing indi- boards) to an interior than to install thermal
and coordinated in measures. Depending vidual structural elements, windows, glass insulation composite systems or rear-ventilated
on the building’s age, various measures may facades, glazing and/or frames. The thermal systems on the outside.
focus on different areas, although the facade performance of facades and exterior walls
always plays a central role ensuring adequate can also be optimised by adding extra layers A loss of floor space is however one disadvan-
thermal insulation [4]. (e.g. of insulation) or shells (e.g. glass skins tage of this approach for a structure’s physical

330
 Refurbishing existing facades

C 5.3
properties. Interior thermal insulation also Replacing windows and facades can make the interior climate uncomfortable. If
means that an exterior wall’s thermal mass there are also leaks in and around a window
can no longer compensate for the interior cli- The relatively high heat transmission coeffi- frame or glass facade, draughts and ventilation
mate. Interior thermal insulation also means cients of glazing installed in buildings decades heat losses can result in excessive energy con-
that during cold times of year the exterior wall ago means that the thermal performance of sumption, further undermining users’ wellbeing.
is no longer warmed, so it cools markedly and their windows and glass facades must be
temperatures may fall below freezing much carefully considered. Solar radiation can easily A range of overlapping factors (glazing and /or
more often. Thermal bridge effects, especially pass through windows or glass facades into frames with inadequate U-values, leaky and
around connecting walls and ceilings, also a building and cause it to overheat in summer. defective window frames) means that windows
have a major effect on temperatures. Steel In hot climates in particular, solar radiation can and facades are often completely replaced
Å-beams and timber beams penetrate the insu- intensely heat up glass and frame surfaces. with thermally separate window or facade sec-
lating layer at support points and project into This heat can be transferred to the interior by tions and multilayer insulating glazing (possibly
the cold exterior wall. Balconies are directly means of heat transfer, radiation and convec- with an inert gas filling) to greatly improve the
connected to the outside, so are at risk from tion, creating an uncomfortable indoor climate U-values of windows or facades.
condensation. Water, drainage and heating and usually increasing the energy consumption
pipes laid in the exterior wall are also at greater required for cooling. While a single-glazed timber window frame
risk of freezing due to more extreme cooling. Heat losses through windows and glass facades of the kind common until well into the 1950s
can cool down interiors during cold times of may have a UW-value of 5 W/m2K, a thermally
To prevent damp from damaging an exterior year. The interior surfaces of windows and glass separate window frame combined with triple
wall insulated on the inside, a vapour barrier facades can cause cold downdraughts and insulating glazing can currently achieve a
should be mounted on the inside to prevent draughts near glazing, and radiative cooling UW-value of 0.9 W/m2K [9].
condensation from accumulating, although a
vapour barrier may be dispensed with if vapour-
proof insulating material is used. Another alter-
native is the use of calcium silicate boards
because they are porous and can absorb
moisture and release it in into dry interior air.
Their high pH levels also prevent the growth
of mould. Structural surveys to resolve such
issues must always be carried out before such
measures are initiated to prevent any subse-
quent damage [7].

As well as insulation systems directly attached

to the inside of an external wall, there are other
refurbishing concepts that attach an additional
insulating layer at some distance from the ex-
terior wall. This additional zone of intermediate
temperature can serve as a thermal buffer or
weather-protected useable space [8].

C 5.2 Trends in energy-saving construction in Germany

since the passing of the 1st Thermal Insulation
Regulation in 1977
C 5.3 Two-ply film membrane interior insulation forms
a ventilated zone of intermediate temperature,
Siemens factory hall, Munich (DE) 1997, Thomas
Herzog with José-Luis Moro
C 5.4 Interior insulation, “Birg mich, Cilli!”, Viechtach (DE)
2008, Peter Haimerl Architektur
C 5.4

331
Refurbishing existing facades

a
Such frames, combined with lower energy Two fundamentally different alternatives are
transmittance glazing, can represent a good available for refurbishing solid exterior walls
compromise that ensures effective summer in buildings not listed for protection as historic
and winter insulation and can achieve energy as a means of improving their energy use.
performance qualities similar to those of a new One is the use of multilayer, composite
building standard. thermal insulation systems, where the exterior
wall is covered with thermal insulation panels
Solutions that retain existing design and mater- attached with dowels and /or adhesive. The
ial qualities while greatly reducing heat losses outermost surface is covered with a multilayer
and improving the comfort of interiors are ideal system made up of reinforced render, finishing
for listed historic buildings. plaster and a final coating to protect it from the
Refurbishing windows to improve their energy weather. Such systems are regarded as rela-
use usually involves installing sealing profiles, tively inexpensive, although potential problems
which can greatly reduce heat losses. Re- with impact resistance, fire safety, algae growth
placing single glazing or technically obsolete and damage by birds (woodpeckers) must be
1970s insulating glazing with modern gas-filled reviewed in detail before deciding on their use
b C 5.5 and /or appropriately coated double, triple (Figs. C 5.8, p. 334, C 5.15, p. 335).
C 5.5 Olympic Village, Munich (DE) 2012, Knerer und or vacuum glazing can also greatly reduce
Lang, detail of the facade: energy consumption. A curtain wall facade with thermal insulation
a before refurbishing
b after refurbishing panels attached directly to the outside on a
C 5.6 Olympic Village, Munich (DE) 2012. Historic windows, the frames of which often (lightweight metal, wood) batten and counter-
Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20 have delicate material cross sections and low batten frame, can also greatly improve an
C 5.7 Typical U-values [W/m2K] for structural compo- load-bearing capacity, can also be greatly opti- external wall’s insulating properties. Counter-
nents in existing buildings
mised to improve thermal performance and battens leave a gap of at least 30 mm, which
comfort by adding an extra window sash with allows for ventilation and moisture evaporation.
insulating glazing on the inside. In each case, The facade’s outermost layer is usually made
planners must investigate how making windows of a mechanically durable material such as
the focus of thermal insulation might affect the wood, natural stone, terracotta, metal, glass /
dew point. The possible effects of a more air- PV or composite materials. Separating the
tight facade on hygienic indoor air quality, rela- functions of thermal insulation and weather
tive humidity and the risk of mould formation protection – often with open joints protected
must also be examined. from driving rain – allows planners to precisely
adapt materials to requirements and offers a
high level of design freedom (see also “Aspects
External insulation of building physics and planning advice”,
p. 52ff.).
Transparent and translucent facades and
older, opaque exterior walls are often unsatis-
factory in terms of their thermal insulation per- Facing shells
formance. Typical U-values of opaque exterior
walls in old buildings are 1.4 W/m2K for single- Analogous to interior insulation attached at
layer masonry 38 to 51 cm thick (buildings a distance to an interior wall surface (see
built from 1880 –1948) and for lightweight hol- p. 330f.), attaching an additional transparent
low-block, honeycomb brick or aerated con- glass or plastic facade on the outside of and
crete masonry (buildings built from 1949 –1968) at a distance from an existing facade or exter-
(Fig. C 5.7). Although these U-values are much ior wall can further prevent heat transmission
better than those for windows in buildings of through the facade. The resulting rear-venti-
the same age, such exterior walls cause major lated facade cavity can also be used as a ther-
energy losses because they make up a large mal buffer or to preheat fresh air (Fig. C 5.17).
proportion of the facade’s entire surface. There is a detailed description of the functional,
C 5.6

332
 Refurbishing existing facades

Typical U-values [W/m2K] for structural components in existing buildings

Exterior wall Top storey ceiling / flat roof Pitched roof Cellar ceiling /
ground floor flooring
Prior to 1918

Brick or drystone wall D 2.2* Timber beam ceiling with D 1 No insulation, plaster on rush D 2.6* Timber beam ceiling with D 1
A cob cladding A matting or wooden slats A cob cladding A

Timber frame with wattle D 2.0* Cob between rafters, D 1.3* Stone floor on the earth or D 2.9*
and daub A plastered on the underside A vaulted cellar A

Brick wall 25 – 38 cm D 1.7* Timber beam ceiling with a D 0.8 No insulation, plaster on D 2.6* Timber beam ceiling with a D 0.8
A raised floor and puddle clay A rush matting or wooden slats A raised floor and puddle clay A
1880 –1948

Single-skin masonry 38 – 51 cm D 1.4* Cob between rafters, D 1.3* Solid, cylindrical vaulted D 1.2
or double-skin masonry A plastered on the underside A ceiling A
L

Lightweight hollow-block, D 1.4* Concrete ceiling, ribbed slab, D 2.1* Cement-bonded, wood wool D 1.4* Concrete ceiling, ribbed slab, D 1.5*
honeycomb block or aerated A reinforced concrete ceiling A panels 3.5 cm, plastered A reinforced concrete ceiling A
concrete masonry L with minimal footfall sound L
1949 –1968

insulation

Solid pumice masonry D 0.9 Timber beam ceiling with a D 0.8 Solid pumice blocks D 1.4* Timber beam ceiling with a D 0.8
A raised floor A between rafters A raised floor A

Insulation between rafters D 0.8

5 cm A
L

Lightweight porous brick D 1 Concrete ceiling with 5 cm D 0.6 Cement-bonded, wood wool D 1.4* Concrete ceiling with 2 cm D 1
masonry with normal mortar A insulation on upper side A panels, 3.5 cm, plastered A footfall sound insulation A
L L
1969 –1978

Precast concrete slab with A 1.1 Flat roof: concrete ceiling with D 0.5 Solid pumice blocks D 1.4*
core insulation or made from L 6 cm insulation on upper side A between rafters A
lightweight concrete (cold roof) L

Timber stud wall with 6 cm D 0.6 Timber beam ceiling with D 0.8 Insulation between rafters, D 0.8
insulation 4 cm insulation (timber / 5 cm A
prefab. building) L

Lightweight / vertically D 0.8 Concrete ceiling with 8 cm D 0.5 Insulation between rafters, D 0.5 Concrete ceiling with 4 cm D 0.8
perforated brick masonry A insulation on upper side A 8 cm A footfall sound insulation A
with light mortar L

Aerated concrete masonry D 0.6 Flat roof: concrete ceiling with A 0.5
1979 –1983

A 8 cm insulation (warm roof) L

Precast concrete slab with A 0.9 Timber beam ceiling with D 0.5
core insulation or made from L 8 cm insulation (timber /
lightweight concrete prefab. building)

Timber stud wall with 8 cm D 0.5

insulation

Lightweight / vertically D 0.6 Concrete ceiling with 12 cm D 0.3 Insulation between rafters, D 0.4 Concrete ceiling with 5 cm D 0.6
perforated brick masonry A insulation on upper side A 12 cm A footfall sound insulation A
1984 –1994

with light mortar L L L

Aerated concrete masonry D 0.5 Timber beam ceiling with D 0.3

12 cm insulation (timber /
prefab. building)
D = Detached house, A = Apartment house, L = Large apartment block / high-rise building Source: dena (The German Energy Agency)
* A general overall U-value of 1.0 W/m2K can be applied if insulating panels at least 2 cm thick are retrofitted.
C 5.7

333
Refurbishing existing facades

structural and design properties of such C 5.8 Abgeordnetenhaus [House of Representatives

systems in the chapters on “Multilayer building] Ismaninger Straße, Munich (DE) 2013,
Hild und K
glass facades” (p. 238ff.) and “Solar energy”
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
(p. 294ff.). C 5.9 Holiday house, Scaiano (CH) 2004, Markus
Wespi, Jérôme de Meuron
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Concluding remarks C 5.10 Renovation of an old barn, Bilka (CZ) 2012,
A2F Architekten
C 5.11 Holiday house, Scaiano (CH) 2004, Markus
As noted at the outset, refurbishing existing Wespi, Jérôme de Meuron
buildings to improve their energy use is a cen- C 5.12 Conversion of Astley Castle, Nuneaton (GB) 2012,
tral task in achieving Germany’s transition to Witherford Watson Mann Architects
C 5.13 Office building, Milan (IT) 2012, Park Associati
an energy supply based heavily on renewable
C 5.14 Office building, Düsseldorf (DE) 1998, Petzinka
energies and meeting the European Union’s Pink Architekten
energy efficiency goals, which set nearly zero- C 5.15 Abgeordnetenhaus [House of Representatives
energy standards for new and renovated build- building], Ismaninger Straße, Munich (DE) 2013,
C 5.8 ings [10]. The refurbishing of buildings’ tech- Hild und K
C 5.16 Renovation of a school, Buchloe (DE) 2011,
nical services and existing building envelopes müllerschurr.architekten
will play a central role in reaching these goals. C 5.17 Redevelopment of a block of baroque houses,
Refurbishing measures will especially focus on Ljubljana (SI) 2012, Ofis Arhiteki
facades because of their large area.

A wealth of strategies and construction options Notes:

are available for refurbishing facades that [1] cf. Richarz, Clemens et al.: Energetische Sanie-
make it possible to greatly improve their energy rung – Grundlagen, Details, Beispiele. Munich 2006,
p. 8
use while retaining their functional and design
[2] Nemeth, Isabell et al.: Energetische Gebäude-
qualities. Planners should seek solutions that sanierung in Bayern. Study by the Center for Sus-
take not just a facade’s energy properties into tainable Building at the Technical University of
account but also involve other qualities such as Munich commissioned by the Bavarian Industry
comfort, qualities of light and space, and archi- Association and the Bavarian Employers’ Associ-
ations for the Metalworking and Electrical Industries,
tectural/cultural aspects. Sensitive solutions Munich 2012
must be developed, especially for historically, [3] Energiegerechtes Bauen und Modernisieren.
artistically and architecturally valuable build- Published by the Wuppertal Institute for Climate,
ings which will preserve cultural heritage and Environment and Energy. Basel 1996, p. 143 –150
[4] ibid., p. 129 –162
the building’s identity for the future.
[5] A detailed description of the various combinations
of layers and shells that can be used in facade con-
At the same time, the refurbishing of buildings struction can be found in the chapter on “Surfaces –
to improve their energy use represents an structural principles”, p. 26ff.
enormous opportunity to give buildings with [6] Fachverband Wärmedämmverbundsysteme e. V.:
Leitfaden Innendämmung 2013. Baden-Baden
less cogent designs a new, more appealing 2013
functional and aesthetic face and, beyond [7] For detailed descriptions of the use of interior insula-
focusing on energy consumption requirements, tion see also Richarz, Clemens et al., Energetische
to upgrade buildings, and with them, perhaps Sanierung – Grundlagen, Details, Beispiele. Munich
p. 38 –40
whole neighbourhoods in an architectural /
[8] cf. Balkowski, Michael: Nachträgliche Innendäm-
cultural sense. As well as implementing Ger- mung von Außenwänden. In Detail 05/2011, p. 616ff.
many’s transition to an energy supply based [9] As for Note 1, p. 40
heavily on renewable energies, such refur- [10] Article 2, Paragraph 2 of the new Issue of EU Dir-
bishing efforts could yield a fear greater over- ective 2010/31/EU of 19 May 2010 on the energy
performance of buildings defines a “nearly zero-
all potential, one that must be utilised in order energy building” as one that has a very high energy
to achieve an overall upgrade of our built performance as determined in accordance with
environment. Annex I.
C 5.9

334
 Refurbishing existing facades

C 5.10 C 5.11

C 5.12 C 5.13

C 5.14 C 5.15

C 5.16 C 5.17

335
 Green facades

C 6 Green facades One special topic in the context of innovative Planting in and on facades
facade solutions for (energy-efficient) buildings
is green facades (also known as vertical gar- People have made targeted use of climbing
dens or living walls). Inspired by current discus- plants since antiquity. In regions with wine-
sions on ecology and sustainability in construc- growing traditions such as Egypt, pergola struc-
tion, facade landscapes including (kitchen) tures (arbours) covered with vines were de-
gardens (“skyfarming”) and “vertical forests” scribed as providing shade in around 2600 BC.
are now being incorporated into many con- The people in these regions identified with their
struction projects (Fig. C 6.8, p. 341). vines and developed a strong affinity with green
facades over the centuries.
While the green roof has been trialled and The first references to climbing plants such as
become established in recent decades, green ivy grown in “troughs” (tubs of earth) for this
facades seem to be a newer field. Green build- purpose date back to the mid 2nd century BC
ing surfaces have many ecological advantages, in Greece. The Romans also wrote in detail of
especially in densely-populated inner cities. their “pergolas covered in roses, vine-shaded
They improve the (micro) climate and plants are arbours and ivy-entwined grottos” [3] in public
essential elements in an environmentally-friend- and private spaces. Pliny the Younger was the
ly, humane living and working environment. first to mention a green facade in one of his
descriptions of buildings. “An abundant vine
In Central Europe, the first effects of expected grows over the entire building up to the roof
climate change are already making themselves ridge and climbs all over it. You lie here just as
felt. Air heats up much more quickly in urban if you were in a forest, only you do not feel the
areas than it does on a national average. Green rain as you do in a forest” [4].
facade surfaces naturally modulate the climate
in buildings and urban areas through adiabatic Roman gardening culture was rediscovered
cooling processes and can greatly reduce the in Central Europe in the Middle Ages. During
effect of urban “heat islands”, especially at hot the Renaissance, gardens were established
times of year and in southern regions. The city outside city walls and arbours, pergolas and
of Nuremberg’s Department of Environment espaliers with climbing plants (especially honey-
and Health has emphasised roof and facade suckle and roses) became more common.
greening measures as “climatically significant In the 17th and 18th centuries, the range of
design elements” in improving urban climates plant varieties planted was expanded. New
in polluted and largely paved and sealed areas discoveries, especially from North America
[1] and as satisfyingly combining functionality and East Asia, extended the range of climbing
with aesthetic concerns [2]. plant species. Systematic plant breeding also
began at around this time.
Together with green spaces and tree plant-
ings, green building surfaces have far-reaching In the second half of the 19th century, the
significance for wider urban green spaces first articles on “cladding plants” for covering
because they directly influence local environ- buildings with greenery were published. The
mental conditions: Lebensreform (life reform) movement, which
• Improving air quality criticised humanity’s alienation from nature
• Reducing noise levels due to industrialisation and urbanisation, fur-
• Cooling and humidifying the air thered this development in the years before
• Enriching the air with oxygen World War I. Renowned (landscape) architects
• Providing shade began to use climbing plants as design elem-
• Having a positive effect on human psychology ents (“Decorative plants […] for the horticul-
• Providing habitats for small animals and tural ornamentation of residential streets” [5]),
insects connecting nature with architecture. Specialist
books and magazines described types of
Despite their general popularity and a certain climbing plants and their potential uses in
“trendiness”, not all types of plants can be arbi- detail and discussed the influence of plants
trarily grown in any climatic condition or struc- on buildings, the urban landscape and the
tural situation, although a wide range of botan- “summer climate”.
ical and technical solutions is available, ranging
from plantings of self-climbing and climbing In the 1920s, housing cooperatives in particu-
plants through to completely green surfaces lar embraced this “flourishing” use of climb-
with textile substrata on special backing mater- ing plants, but after 1945 the topic gradually
ial and modular systems ranging in size from faded into the background. New formal lan-
small-scale through to storey height. guages and construction methods in architec-
Facades extensively planted with plants such ture, growing building heights, and hurdles
as Virginia creeper, ivy, clematis or wisteria to gaining building permits increasingly
require regular care to manage the plants’ detached construction from the local (urban)
growth. This is often underestimated in plan- climate and building greening largely disap-
ning and creating such plantings. As well as peared.
climbing plants, perennials, smaller shrubs With criticism of “inhospitable” cities (Alexander
C 6.1 Historic example of a green facade and mosses are suitable for green facades. Mitscherlich) growing from the mid 1960s and

337
Green facades

the environmental movement beginning in the • Climbing plants requiring support need a
1970s came a renewed focus on the import- trellis or similar and based on their climbing
ance of plants in buildings and life. The green behaviours can be classified into twining
roofs of suburban “eco-housing” estates in par- climbers (e.g. wisteria, honeysuckle) and
ticular became spaces for planting designs. creepers (e.g. grapevines, clematis). These
Facades have increasingly been used for this plants grow autonomously upwards along
purpose since around 1980. trellises / espaliers (Fig. C 6.3) – particularly
mesh or grid structures, but linear structures
with rods, tubes or cables can also be used.
The structural significance of plantings Their spread is largely limited by the trellis.
Climbing plants need regular pruning. It must
A functional use of vegetation can have nat- be ensured that the plants are accessible
ural, organic effects that positively influence and the cost and effort involved in maintain-
the microclimate around a facade. Plants can, ing them should be taken into consideration
for example, be used as natural sunshades in planning appropriate systems.
in front of transparent openings. Depending
C 6.2 on their type and position, growth habit and The speed of growth and climbing behaviour
degree of leaf coverage, shade plantings can of plants as well as the building’s height must
help regulate the temperatures of layers of be considered when designing soil-based
air near facades. The botanical features of green facades. Such plantings can last for 5 to
the type of plants used play a vital role in the 20 years (self-clinging climbing plants) or 3 to
effects that can be achieved [6]. 12 years (climbing plants). Around 150 types
Plantings on opaque walls can reduce their and species of climbing plants are suitable for
surface temperatures and positively affect green facades in Germany. Such plantings
the microclimate. Some types, such as ever- use a technique that has been developed and
green climbing plants (e.g. ivy or honeysuckle) refined for centuries and can be applied with
can form cushions of air with their dense foli- relatively little additional effort to a wide range
age across large areas, reducing the cooling of exterior wall surfaces [8].
of wall surfaces in winter and so functioning
as extra insulation. In contrast to conventional Construction technology
insulation materials, the effects that can be Soil-based green facades need a certain
achieved vary with different plants and nat- amount of space in front of the plinth of the
ural seasonal changes and depend on the exterior wall where plants can be planted and
C 6.3 plants’ development and, in the case of wall- develop roots. Planting substrata must be
mounted systems, on soil moisture. Studies carefully positioned to ensure that water can
have shown that even well-insulated walls can run off and roots can grow away from the
benefit from the additional insulating effects building.
of plants [7]. The construction and anchoring of trellises is
Decreasing facade surface temperatures can of vital importance. Fasteners (hanger bolts,
also reduce the need to use compact, decen- bolt and wall anchors, spacers) anchor planar
tralised ventilation units (see the chapter on or linear structures in the load-bearing layer
“Integrated facades”, p. 322ff.) while ensuring of the external wall. Possible thermal bridges
that growing demands for fresh-air quality are must be considered and mounting and fasten-
met with greater energy efficiency. ing components can be complex and costly if
layers of insulation are very thick.
Added structural loads must be considered if
Classifications plants such as wisteria are used in multistorey
plantings, although facade plantings usually
Green facades can be classified into soil- take many years to grow into huge, heavy
based types using climbing plants and wall- masses of vegetation. Structures must be able
C 6.4 mounted types with special planting systems to easily bear such loads from the outset. Suffi-
(Fig. C 6.6). cient distance from sunshading systems and
openings is important because plants can
Soil-based green facades quickly grow into cavities and /or moving parts
Plants used in soil-based green facades can and block them (Fig. C 6.1, p. 336). Structures
generally be classified based on their climbing added to the fronts of facades (Fig. C 6.10,
behaviour as self-clinging climbing and climb- p. 341) such as balconies and access and
ing plants requiring support: maintenance walkways are also suitable for
• Self-clinging climbing plants can cling direct- (subsequent) greening.
ly to a wall surface and spread out in a fan
shape. Direct planting with ivy or Virginia C 6.2 Castello Sforzesco, Milan, (IT) 1450ff.
creeper is inexpensive and requires relative- C 6.3 Goethe's garden house, Weimar (DE) 16th /
ly little maintenance but not every exterior 18th century
wall is suitable for this purpose. To avoid C 6.4 Villa Bonnier, Stockholm (SE) 1927
C 6.5 Magistratsabteilung 48 office building, Vienna (AT)
damage to buildings, such plants should 2010
only be planted against solid walls (masonry, C 6.6 Construction and vegetation parameters of deci-
concrete) (Figs. C 6.2 and C 6.4). sions on green facades [9]
C 6.5

338
 Green facades

Soil-based greening Facade greening

Planar growth directly Climbing plants that can Plants in horizontal plantings, Plants in vertical plantings – “vertical gardens”
on the facade be trained (depending on plant containers on support
climbing strategy) structures modular systems planar structures

Self-climbing plants: Root Climbing and twining plants, Perennials (e.g. grasses, ferns, Perennials (e.g. grasses, Perennials (e.g. grasses,
climbers, holdfast climbers shrubs on espaliers bulbs and tubers to some ferns), small shrubs, mosses; ferns), small shrubs, mosses;
extent), small shrubs, climbing root climbers to some extent, root climbers to some extent,
and twining plants, spreading spreading climbing plants spreading climbing plants
climbing plants to some extent

• No trellis necessary • Trellises / espaliers required • Substrata in containers (individ- • Substrata in elements consisting • Textile systems
(rods, tubes, cables, grids, nets) ual and linear containers) of baskets /gabions, mats, tubs • Textile substrata systems
• Substrate-bearing trough • Sheet metal systems with
system openings for plantings
• Directly planted artificial or nat- (textile or substrate carrier)
ural stone panels with rough sur- • Direct greening on nutrient-
faces conducive to plant growth bearing wall shells
Design criteria
Surface effect Surface effect Surface effect with
Surface effect with pre-culture: immediate
in 5 –20 years* in 3 –12 years* pre-culture: short-term

Scope for creative design: Scope for creative design:

Scope for creative design: large
low to medium medium
Structural and technical requirements
Rooting in substratum system / no connection with soil and soil moisture required,
Rooting in soil /connected to topsoil and soil moisture
no contact with subsoil

Water supply depends on location, as required Water and nutrient supply system required

Building authority approval may be relevant, certification of structural soundness necessary,

load-bearing structural elements must be protected from corrosion or made of a rustproof material

Facade must be protected from moisture and root penetration

Suitable for following walls
• Solid walls • Solid walls • Solid walls • Solid walls • Solid walls
(ensure joints are closed and • Timber structures, completely • Timber structures, completely • Timber structures, completely • Timber structures, completely
exterior skin is intact covered or filled in (limited*) covered or filled in (limited*) covered or filled in (limited*) covered or filled in (limited*)
Check that surface is suitable • Metal structures, completely • Metal structures, completely • Metal structures, completely • Metal structures, completely
for the plant physiology*) covered or filled in (limited*) covered or filled in (limited*) covered or filled in (limited*) covered or filled in (limited*)
• Facing shells (limited*) • Facing shells (limited*) • Facing shells (limited*) • Facing shells (limited*)
• Curtain wall facade (limited*) • Curtain wall facade (limited*) • Curtain wall facade (instead*) • Curtain wall facade (instead*)
• Composite thermal insulation • Composite thermal insulation • Composite thermal insulation • Composite thermal insulation
systems systems systems (limited*) systems
• Air collector facades • Air collector facades
Economic criteria
Investment costs: Investment costs:
Investment costs: low Investment costs: high
low to high medium to high

Potential savings in
facade design depending Immediate potential savings in facade design
on plant growth

Maintenance requirements: medium, increasing* Maintenance requirements: medium to high / horticultural*

Care and maintenance

Care and maintenance
cost and effort: Care and maintenance cost and effort: high
Ecological potential cost and effort: low*
medium to high*

Shading – relevant over the course of the year deciduous plants

Possible species
Possible species variety (flora / fauna) at the site: low to high* variety (flora / fauna) Possible species variety (flora / fauna) at the site: great*
at the site: medium*

Microclimatic relevance: Microclimatic relevance:

Immediate microclimatic relevance with pre-culture*
medium to long-term* medium-term*
* Figures supplied by the FBB (green buildings industry association), Projektgruppe Fassadenbegrünung (facade greening project group), FLL (Research society for landscape
development and landscaping), Regelwerk-Ausschuss Fassadenbegrünung Grundlage (facade greening regulations committee – sources): diagrams and content 1), additions
by the author, ©Nicole Pfoser, 07/2011
1)
FLL, 2000; Kaltenbach, 2008; Pfoser, 2009, 2010 a, 2010 b, 2011 a, 2011 b, 2011 c
C 6.6

339
Green facades

As well as the plants themselves, trellises, • Horizontal areas of vegetation As with solar facades, interfaces between
espaliers, grids, nets (Fig. C 6.14) and cables Wall-mounted plantings in pots, tubs (Figs. various trades are a major challenge for wall-
and their materials, formal structures and C 6.7 and C 6.13) or gabion-type containers. mounted green facade designers. The plants’
colours can influence the look of facades. These systems are available in various sizes requirements, the demands of construction
These can be directly attached to solid walls and different materials and can be fixed in (e.g. construction methods and design rules)
or at a distance from them. The materials’ various ways directly to a substructure on an and watering and drainage specifications must
very varied long-term durability (timber bat- exterior wall or in structures in front of the all be coordinated with electrical installations
tens, metal gratings or meshes, stainless facade. They require automated watering and occupational safety. Apart from smaller
steel cables) and the possibility of having to and regular maintenance. and larger tubs (plant pots and planters),
replace trellises under masses of vegetation systems often differ greatly in their structures
must be considered when choosing them. • Vertical areas of vegetation (functional layers), measurements, surface
Re-tensioning options must be planned for Wall-mounted vertical areas of vegetation weight, watering management and the mater-
meshes and cable systems because the weight can be further subdivided into: ials used for plant containers and fasteners.
of plants and wind, rain and snow loads can - Modular systems Many products currently on the market are also
exert substantial forces on trellises. It must Small prefabricated modules that can company-specific solutions[11].
be ensured at an early stage of planning that be assembled to form larger, floor-to-ceil-
green facades will be accessible for regular ing units and range from smaller areas Wall-mounted facade plantings are usually
maintenance. through to completely covered facades. fixed, i.e. it is the plants, with their various var-
They require automated watering. Modular ieties and growth habits (flowering and sea-
Wall-mounted green facades systems usually entail a greater technical sonal greenery) that constantly change the look
Wall-mounted systems represent a new and construction cost and effort. of the facade. Systems using plant troughs that
approach to green facades, with plants in - Water-retaining geo-fleece and porous can follow the sun along a horizontal axis are
pots and planters in front of windows as surfaces (Fig. C 6.11) now also available on the market.
the “prototype”. Since the mid 1990s, a wide Planar systems can be used to create
range of support systems for green facades freer designs ranging from smaller areas Facades of existing buildings can be planted
have been developed. French botanist Patrick up to completely covered facades. Their retrospectively, as demonstrated by the Vienna
Blanc has worked with renowned architects watering systems must be checked municipal authority with its office building at
and an artistic and conceptional approach to daily and such systems are susceptible Margaretengürtel 48 (Fig. C 6.5). Here a modu-
raise awareness of this topic (Fig. C 6.12). to frost. lar approach was chosen, using evenly-spaced
horizontal plant troughs on a special frame.
Wall-mounted systems offer a much greater Combinations can also be used, e.g. climbing These types of solutions prove that the evapor-
range of design options in the individual plants with trellises and tubs on each storey, ation of water in such systems can make a major
configuration of surfaces and combination of to more quickly create a green space for a contribution to cooling in summer, reducing the
different forms of plants than traditional soil- multistorey building, for example (Fig. C 6.9). number of air-conditioning units needed and sig-
based ones. Wall-mounted green facades nificantly lowering facade surface temperatures.
are however much more expensive because Structural technology issues
their initial costs are significantly higher and Vertical areas of vegetation are an unusual Plants on a facade open up new functional and
they require regular investment in maintenance place for plants to grow and if they are to design possibilities in construction and urban
and upkeep. thrive in the long term they must have a planning. They improve microclimates and the
continuously functioning watering system. quality of housing in the long term and are very
There are few limitations on the type of plants Planners must also consider the load-bearing, popular in private and commercial environments.
that can be used in wall-mounted green facades wind load, technical thermal insulation issues The varied potential of green facades on individ-
because their (artificial) site conditions can be and fire safety regulation aspects concerning ual buildings, plots of land and urban spaces
specifically influenced by the use of water and large areas of wall-mounted greenery. Pipe has been scientifically demonstrated and some
fertiliser [10] although interdisciplinary planning and cable routing and the electricity required practice-oriented guidelines are now available
at an early stage is essential to coordinate the for watering must be coordinated and a sep- [12]. Newer areas such as combinations with
requirements imposed by botany, construction arate utility room, which will also have to be rainwater use, evaporative cooling, decentral-
and building services technologies. The follow- easily accessible to allow for regular upkeep ised ventilation and solar technology (photo-
ing systems and techniques are among those and maintenance, may have to be added in voltaic systems) are currently being explored
that can be applied. planning. in more detail in ongoing research projects.

340
 Green facades

C 6.7 C 6.8
Notes:
[1] See also Klimafahrplan Nürnberg (Road map for
climate protection) 2010 – 2050. Published by the
City of Nuremberg / Department of Environment and
Health. Nuremberg 2014, p. 116, 126, 130
[2] One of the first to carry out a fundamental scientif-
ic survey of options for greening facades is Rudi
Baumann, who showed in his dissertation how much
potential there is for regulating local climates by
making appropriate use of vegetation, especially
twining plants, in temperate zones. Baumann, Rudi:
Pflanzliche Verschattungselemente an der Gebäu-
deoberfläche als Massnahme zur Reduzierung der
Strahlungsbelastung unter sommerlichen Bedin-
gungen [Plantings for shading building surfaces
and reducing solar radiation exposure in summer].
Kassel 1980
[3] Baumann, Rudi: Begrünte Architektur. Bauen und
Gestalten mit Kletterpflanzen. Munich 1983, p. 20
[4] Quoted by Fischer, Sören, in Paolo Veronese,
Andrea Palladio und die Stanza di Bacco in der C 6.9 C 6.10
Villa Barbaro als Pavillon Plinius des Jüngeren. In
Kunstgeschichte. Open Peer Reviewed Journal,
2013, p. 19
[5] Gerlach, Hans: Pflanzenschmuckkunst. Beispiele für
die gärtnerische Ausschmückung der Wohnstraßen.
In: Die Gartenwelt 15/1918, p. 113
[6] As for Note 3, p. 25 – 38
[7] Köhler, Manfred; Ottelè, Marc: Fassadenbegrünung.
In Köhler, Manfred (ed.) Handbuch Bauwerksbegrü-
nung. Cologne 2012, p. 116
[8] As for Note 7, p. 104
[9] As for Note 7, p. 105
[10] ibid., p. 105
[11] ibid., p. 126 –148; Kaltenbach, Frank, Lebende
Wände, vertikale Gärten – vom Blumentopf zur
grünen Systemfassade. In Detail, 12/2008,
p. 1,454 –1,466
[12] Pfoser, Nicole et al.: Gebäude Begrünung Energie.
Potenziale und Wechselwirkungen. Forschungs-
bericht. Darmstadt 08/2013
C 6.11 C 6.12

C 6.7 Tower Flower, Paris (FR) 2004,

Maison Edouard François
C 6.8 Bosco Verticale, Milan, (IT) 2006–12,
Steffano Boeri
C 6.9 Department of Physics at Humboldt University,
Berlin (DE) 2003, Augustin and Frank
C 6.10 Student accommodation, Sant Cugat del Vallès
(ES) 2011, dataAE
C 6.11 Sportplaza Mercator, Amsterdam (NL) 2006
CS Architects
C 6.12 Caixa Forum, Madrid (ES) 2008,
Herzog & de Meuron
C 6.13 z58, Shanghai (CN) 2006,
Kengo Kuma and associates
C 6.14 Student residence, Garching (DE) 2005,
Fink + Jocher
C 6.13 C 6.14

341
Authors

Thomas Herzog Roland Krippner Werner Lang

1941 Born in Munich 1960 Born in Frankfurt / Main 1961 Born in Marktoberdorf
1960 –1965 Studied architecture at the Technical Uni- 1976 –1980 Trained as a mechanic 1982 –1988 Studied architecture at Technical University
versity of Munich and in parallel completed training in 1982 –1987/1989 –1993 Studied architecture at the of Munich (TUM)
metalworking and ceramics trades University of Kassel 1985 / 86 Further studies at the Architectural Association,
1965 –1969 Employed in the architects’ firm of Prof. Peter 1993 Awarded his degree (II) and an award from the London
C. von Seidlein, Munich Deutscher Stahlbau-Verband (German Steel Construc- 1988 Awarded his degree (recipient of the Hans Döllgast
1969 –1973 Research assistant to the Chair of Building tion Federation), 3rd prize 1996 Prize) from TUM
Construction and Design at the University of Stuttgart 1988 –1989 Civilian service year at Landesamt für Denk- 1988 –1990 Fulbright Scholarship to study at the Univer-
1971–1972 Studied at Deutsche Akademie Villa Massimo malpflege Hessen (Hessen State Office for Historic sity of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)
in Rome Buildings Conservation) in Marburg 1990 Master of Architecture II (UCLA), Award for Best
1972 Doctorate from Rome’s La Sapienza University Since 1989 publishing work Thesis from the UCLA School of Architecture and
since 1971 he has worked with partners at his own firm 1993 –1995 Worked at the Büro für Architektur und Stadt- Urban Planning
in Stuttgart / Munich planung (BAS), Kassel 1990 –1994 Employed at Kurt Ackermann + Partner firm
1973 – 2006 university professor since 1995 Freelance architect (R&D projects), author, of architects, Munich
- at University of Kassel, for Design and Product Devel- lecturer Since 1994 publishing work
opment 1995 – 2006 Research assistant / assistant to the Chair 1994 – 2001 Research assistant to the Chair for Building
- at the Technical University of Darmstadt for Design for Building Technologies, Prof. Dr. (Rome University) Technologies, Prof. Dr. (Univ. Rom) Thomas Herzog,
and Building Technologies Thomas Herzog, Faculty of Architecture, TUM Faculty of Architecture, TUM
- at the Technical University of Munich (TUM), Institute 2004 Doctorate (Dr.-Ing.) at TUM on “Untersuchungen zu 2000 Awarded his doctorate (Dr.-Ing.) by TUM and
for “Design and Building Technology”, full professor Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Holzleichtbeton im Bereich recipient of the doctoral prize from Bund der Freunde
for “Building Technology” and Dean of the Faculty of von Gebäudefassaden” (Investigations into applications der TUM (the Friends of TUM)
Architecture for lightweight wood chip concrete in building facades) 2001– 2006 Employed at Werner Lang firm of architects,
since 2007 “Emeritus of Excellence” at the Technical (Deutscher Holzbaupreis 2005; shortlisted in the “In- Munich
University of Munich novative building products” category) 2001– 2007 Lecturer on “Special facade construction
Visiting professor in Lausanne, Copenhagen, Philadel- 2005 – 2006 Lectureship at Salzburg University of Applied topics” and “Building materials” at the Faculty of Archi-
phia and Beijing Sciences tecture, TUM
2006 – 2007 Research assistant to the Chair for Industrial 2006 Co-founder of Lang Hugger Rampp GmbH
Member of Akademie der Künste (Academy of the Arts, Design, Prof. Dipl.-Des. Fritz Frenkler, TUM Architekten architects’ firm, Munich
Berlin), Académie d’Architecture (Paris), the Bavarian 2006 – 2007 Deputy professorship for Environmentally 2008 – 2010 Associate Professor for Sustainable Planning
Academy of Fine Arts (Munich), the St Petersburg State Conscious Design and Construction at the University and Construction at the University of Texas at Austin
Academic Institute of Fine Arts, Sculpture and Architec- of Kassel School of Architecture (UTSoA)
ture, Fraunhofer Gesellschaft (Munich) and the Inter- 2008 Lectureship at Munich University of Applied 2009 – 2010 Director of the Center for Sustainable Devel-
national Academy of Architecture (Sofia). Sciences opment at UTSoA
Since 2008 Professor for Construction and Technology at Since 2010 University professor for Energy-efficient and
Awards (Selection): Technische Hochschule Nürnberg Georg Simon Ohm Sustainable Design and Building at TUM;
1981 Mies-van-der-Rohe Prize Head of the Centre for Sustainable Building at TUM;
1993 Gold medal /Grand prize from the Bund Deutscher spokesman for the Centre for Urban Ecology and
Architekten (Association of German Architects) Climate Adaptation (ZSK) at TUM
1994 Balthasar-Neumann Prize Director of the Oskar von Miller Forum, Munich
1996 Auguste-Perret Prize from the International Union of
Architects (UIA) for applied technology in architecture Awards:
1998 Den grønne Nål from the Association of Danish 2008 International Building Skin Tech Award, in collabor-
Architects ation with T. Herzog and K. Stepan, ZAE Bavaria
1998 Leo-von-Klenze Medal 2000 Bavarian Energy Prize from the Bavarian Ministry of
1998 “Grande médaille d’or d’architecture” from the Economic Affairs and Media, Energy and Technology
French Academy of Architecture 2000 Holzkreativ Prize from Friends of the Earth, Germany
1999 Fritz-Schumacher Architecture Prize (Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz), honourable mention
2005 Heinz-Maier-Leibnitz Medal in the timber construction category
2006 European Award for Architecture and Technology
2007 Honorary doctorate from Ferrara University in Italy www.langhuggerrampp.de
2009 Global Award for Sustainable Architecture www.oskarvonmillerforum.de

He has exhibited his work in numerous international

group and solo exhibitions and published books and
monographs in many languages.

www.thomasherzogarchitekten.de

342
 Modular coordination Clay
Image credits A 2.3.1 Andrew Neuhart, El Segundo B 2.2 Ulrike Enders, Hanover
A 2.3.2 Yoshida, Tetsuro: Das japanische Wohnhaus. B 2.3 Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas.
Berlin 1954, p. 69 Munich / Basel 2001, p. 57
A 2.3.3 Durand, Jean-Nicolas-Louis: Précis des B 2.5 Hirmer Fotoarchiv; Munich
leçons II. Paris 1819 B 2.6 Budeit, Hans Joachim; Kuenheim, Haug von,
The authors and publisher would like to sincerely thank A 2.3.4 Kunstverein Solothurn (pub.): Fritz Haller. Backstein, die schönsten Ziegelbauten
everyone who contributed to this book’s production by Bauen und Forschen. Solothurn 1988, p. 3.1.4 zwischen Elbe und Oder. Munich 2001, p. 33
providing images, granting permission to reproduce their A 2.3.7 Bussat, Pierre: Die Modulordung im Hochbau. B 2.7 Manfred Klinkott, Karlsruhe
work, and supplying other information. All the diagrams Stuttgart 1963, p. 31 B 2.8 Chabat, Pierre (pub.): Victorian Brick and
in this book were created especially for it. The authors A 2.3.9 DIN 18 000. 1984 Terra-Cotta Architecture. New York 1989, p. 18
and their staff created those graphics and tables for A 2.3.13 Girsberger, Hans (pub.): ac panel. Asbest- B 2.9 Halfen GmbH & Co. KG
which no other source is credited. Photos for which no zement-Verbundplatten und Elemente B 2.10 Ulrike Enders, Hanover
photographer is credited are architectural or work photos für Außenwände. Zurich 1967, p. 46 – 49 B 2.11 Halfen GmbH & Co. KG
or come from the archive of DETAIL magazine. Pfeifer, Günter et al., Mauerwerk Atlas.
Despite intensive efforts, we have been unable to identify Aspects of building physics and planning Munich / Basel 2001, p. 125
the copyright holders of some images, but their entitle- advice B 2.12 Kunstbibliothek Berlin
ment to claim copyright remains unaffected. In these A 3.1 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich B 2.13 Fischer-Daber, from l’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui
cases, we would ask you to contact us. Figures refer to A 3.2 Cremers, Jan (pub.): Atlas Gebäudeöffnungen. 205, 1979, p. 8
illustration numbers. Munich 2015, p. 50 B 2.14 Alessandra Chemollo, from Acocella, Alfonso,
A 3.3 Detail 9/2002, p. 1,070 An architecture of place. Rome 1992, p. 96
Shell, wall, facade A 3.4 – 5 Pfeifer, Günter et al., Mauerwerk Atlas. B 2.15–17 Halfen GmbH & Co. KG
1 Stefan Cremers, Karlsruhe Munich / Basel 2001, p. 186, p. 190 B 2.18 – 20 Jaume Avellaneda, Barcelona
2 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich A 3.6 Bollinger, Klaus et al.: Atlas Moderner Stahlbau. B 2.21– 22 Alfonso Acocella, Florence
3 Jan Cremers, Munich Munich 2011, p. 119 B 2.23 Roland Krippner, Munich
4 Christian Schittich, Munich A 3.7 Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas. B 2.24 – 29 Moeding Keramikfassaden GmbH,
5 Pepi Merisio, Bergamo, from Merisio, Pepi; Munich 2003, p. 71 Marklkofen
Barzanti, Roberto: Italy. Zurich 1975, p. 216 A 3.8 – 9 Schüco International B 2.30 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
6 Achim Bednorz, Cologne A 3.10 –11 Hart, Franz et al.: Stahlbau Atlas. Brussels, B 2.31 Peter Bonfig, Munich
7 Pepi Merisio, Bergamo, from Merisio, Pepi; 1982, p. 338f. B 2.32 Moeding Keramikfassaden GmbH, Marklkofen
Barzanti, Roberto: Italy. Zurich 1975, p. 218 A 3.12 Schüco International B 2.33 Roland Krippner, Munich
9 –11 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 2.34 Alfonso Acocella, Florence
13 Pictor International B 2.35 Werner Lang, Munich
14 Thomas, Herzog, Munich Part B B 2.36 Decorated walls of modern architecture.
15 Thomas Robbin, Herten p. 62 Wimmershoff, Heiner; Aachen Tokyo 1983, p. 30
16 Jan-Oliver Kunze / LIN, Paris / Berlin B 2.37– 38 Alfonso Acocella, Florence
17 doublespace photography, Toronto Natural stone B 2.39 Tectónica 15/2003, p. 21
19 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 1.1 Eloi Bonjoch, Barcelona B 2.40 – 41 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
20 Ogawa, Shigeo / Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo B 1.2 – 3 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 2.42 – 43 Tectónica 15/2003, p. 18
B 1.4 Christian Schittich, Munich B 2.44 Alessandro Ciampi, Florence, from: Acocella,
B 1.5 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich Alfonso, Involucri in cotto. Florence 2002, p. 96
Part A B 1.6 Luciano Chiappini, Ferrara und seine Kunst- B 2.45 Acocella, Alfonso. Involucri in cotto.
p. 16 From Lampugnani, Vittorio Magnago, Architektur denkmäler. Bologna 1979, p. 39 Florence 2002, p. 98
unseres Jahrhunderts in Zeichnungen. Utopie B 1.7 Hugues, Theodor et al.: Naturwerkstein. B 2.46 Alessandro Ciampi, Florence, from:
und Realität. Stuttgart 1982 Munich 2002, p. 72 Acocella, Alfonso, Involucri in cotto.
B 1.8 Pepi Merisio, Bergamo, from Florence 2002, p. 98f.
External and internal conditions Merisio, Pepi; Barzanti, Roberto: Italy. p. 94 Bruno Klomfar, Vienna
A 1.3 – 5 Federal Office for Building and Regional Zurich 1975, p. 247 p. 95 Beat Bühler, Zurich
Planning (Bundesministerium für Raum- B 1.9 Eloi Bonjoch, Barcelona p. 96, 97 Dieter Leistner / ARTUR IMAGES
ordnung, Bauwesen und Städtebau) (pub.): B 1.10 Müller, Friedrich, Gesteinskunde. Ulm 1994, p. 98 Annette Kisling, Berlin / Leipzig
Handbuch Passive Nutzung der Sonnenenergie. p. 196 –197 p. 99 Andreas Lechtape, Münster
Heft 04.097. 1984, p. 78 /52 B 1.11 Hugues, Theodor et al.: Naturwerkstein. p. 100 Klaus Kinold, Munich
A 1.6 DIN 4710 Munich 2002, p. 72 p. 102, 103 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart
A 1.9 Kunzel und Gertis, 1969 B 1.12 Thomas A. Heinz, Illinois p. 104, 105 Timothy Hursley / Moeding Keramikfassaden
A 1.10 Deutscher Wetterdienst, Klima- und Umwelt- B 1.13 Zooey Braun/ ARTUR IMAGES GmbH, Marklkofen
beratung. Hamburg B 1.14 –16 Sandsteinmuseum Havixbeck
A 1.11 Federal Office for Building and Regional Plan- B 1.17 Stein, Alfred, Fassaden aus Natur- und Concrete
ning Bundesministerium für Raumordnung, Betonwerkstein. Munich 2000, p. 58 B 3.1 Thomas Herzog, Munich
Bauwesen und Städtebau (pub.): Handbuch B 1.18 – 22 Detail 06/1999, p. 1026 B 3.2 Klaus Kinold, Munich
Passive Nutzung der Sonnenenergie. Heft B 1.23 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 3.3 Verlag Bau + Technik, Düsseldorf
04.097. 1984, p. 14 B 1.24 Müller, Friedrich: Gesteinskunde. Ulm 1994, B 3.4 BTU Cottbus, Lehrstuhl Entwerfen – Bauen im
A 1.13 –15 Kind-Barkauskas, Friedbert et al.: Beton Atlas. p. 171 Bestand (pub.): Architekt Bernhard Hermkes.
Munich /Düsseldorf 2001, p. 79 B 1.25 – 26 Detail 06/1999, p. 1032 Cottbus 2003
A 1.20 From Pültz, Gunter, Bauklimatischer Entwurf für B 1.27– 30 Christian Gahl, Berlin B 3.6 MIT Press, Cambridge
moderne Glasarchitektur. Passive Maßnahmen B 1.31– 37 From Hugues, Theodor et al.: B 3.7 Klaus Kinold, Munich
der Energieeinsparung. Berlin 2002, p. 89 Naturwerkstein. Munich 2002, p. 51ff. B 3.8 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich
A 1.23 European Wind Atlas B 1.38 Gundelsheimeer Marmorwerk, Treuchtlingen B 3.9 Grimm, Friedrich, Richarz, Clemens, Hinter-
B 1.39 Müller, Friedrich: Gesteinskunde. Ulm 1994, lüftete Fassaden. Stuttgart /Zurich 1994, p. 161
Surfaces – structural principles p. 196 –197 B 3.11 DIN 18 500 Parts 1– 3. 1991
A 2.1.1 Peter Bonfig, Munich B 1.40 – 49 Hugues, Theodor et al.: B 3.12 InformationsZentrum Beton, Erkrath
A 2.1.7 Herzog, Thomas; Nikolic Vladimir: Petrocarbona Naturwerkstein. Munich 2002, p. 74ff. B 3.13 –16 Heeß, Stefan: Mehr als nur Fassade.
Außenwandsystem. Bexbach 1972 p. 74 Doris Fanconi, Zurich Konstruktion von Betonfertigteil- und Betonwerk-
p. 75 Gregor Peda, Passau stein-Fassaden. Wiesbaden
Edges, openings p. 76 Philippe Ruault, Nantes B 3.17 Großformatige Fassaden. Fassaden mit Holz-
A 2.2.1 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES p. 78 Thomas Lenzen, Munich zement. Published by Eternit AG. Berlin 2001,
A 2.2.3 Schittich, Christian (pub.): Solares Bauen. p. 79 Stefan Müller, Berlin p. 12
Munich / Basel 2003, p. 63 p. 80 Rupert Steiner, Vienna B 3.18 Archive Olgiati
A 2.2.6 Zürcher, Christoph; Frank, Thomas: Bauphysik. p. 81 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich B 3.19 –20 Dyckerhoff Weiss Marketing und Vertriebs-
Bd. 2 Bau und Energie – Leitfaden für Planung p. 82, 83 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart gesellschaft
und Praxis. Zurich / Stuttgart 1998, p. 80 p. 84 André Mühling, Munich p. 117 Georg Aerni, Zurich
A 2.2.9 –10 Fassade /Façade 03/2002, p. 24f. p. 85 top: Victor S. Brigola, Stuttgart p. 118, 119 Michael Compensis, Munich
db 09/2003, p. 87f. p. 85 bottom: André Mühling, Munich p. 120 © Jens Weber, Munich

343
p. 121 Ulrich Schwarz, Berlin B 5.4 John Gay, London, from, Murray, John (pub.): und Konstruktion – Gläser, Häute und Mem-
p. 122 Roland Schneider Cast Iron. London 1985, p. 28 branen. Munich 1998, p. 36 (unpublished)
p. 123 Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES B 5.5 The Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller, B 6.23 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas.
p. 124 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart Santa Barbara Munich / Basel 1998, p. 120
p. 125 Daniel Malhão, Lisbon B 5.6 Erika Sulzer-Kleinemeier, Gleisweiler B 6.24 – 25 Kaltenbach, Frank (pub.): Transluzente
p. 126, 127 Christian Richters, Münster B 5.7 Ardean Miller, New York, from Airstream – Materialien. Munich 2003
p. 128 Brigida González, Stuttgart The history of the land yacht. San Francisco, B 6.26 – 28 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas.
p. 129 Bruno Klomfar, Vienna p. 69 Munich / Basel 1998
B 5.9 –10 Jo Reid & John Peck, Newport B 6.29 David Sundberg, New York
Timber B 5.11 Jan Cremers, Munich p. 198 Nigel Young, Surrey
B 4.1 Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo B 5.12 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich p. 199 Duccio Malagamba, Barcelona
B 4.2 Sawyer, Peter: The Oxford illustrated history B 5.13 Jan Cremers, Munich p. 200, 201 top: Florian Holzherr, Munich
of the Vikings. Oxford 1997, p. 191 B 5.14 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich p. 201 bottom: Christian Richters, Münster
B 4.3 Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas. B 5.15 Jan Cremers, Munich p. 202 top left: Kim Yong Kwan, Seoul
Munich 2003, p. 26 B 5.16 Dennis Gilbert / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES p. 202 top right, bottom: Timothy Hursley, Little Rock
B 4.4 Edoardo Gellner, Cortina d’Ampezzo B 5.17 Jan Cremers, Munich p. 203 Kim Yong Kwan, Seoul
B 4.5 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 5.21 Hoesch Siegerlandwerke GmbH; Siegen p. 204 top: Christian Schittich, Munich
B 4.6 –7 Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas. B 5.22 Alcan Singen GmbH; Singen p. 204 middle: Herzog & de Meuron, Basel
Munich 2003, p. 31– 33 B 5.24 Photos: Frank Kaltenbach, Munich p. 204 bottom: Maxim Schulz, Hamburg
B 4.8 Baus, Ursula, Siegele, Klaus, Holzfassaden. B 5.25 Peter Cook / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES p. 205 Herzog & de Meuron, Basel
Stuttgart / Munich 2001, p. 19 B 5.27 Heinrich Fiedler GmbH & Co. KG; Regensburg p. 206 top: Dennis Gilbert / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES
B 4.9 –10 Herzog, Thomas et al., Holzbau Atlas. B 5.28 – 32 Mevaco GmbH; Schlierbach p. 206 bottom: John Linden, Woodland Hills
Munich 2003, p. 34 – 46 B 5.33 – 34 Alcan Singen GmbH; Singen p. 207 Jörg Hempel, Aachen
B 4.11 Hans-Joachim Heyer, Boris Miklautsch / Werk- B 5.35 Heike Werner, Munich p. 208 Michel Denancé, Paris
statt für Photographie, University of Stuttgart B 5.36 – 37 Heinrich Fiedler GmbH & Co. KG; p. 209 Christian Schittich, Munich
B 4.12 Friedemann Zeitler, Penzberg Regensburg p. 210 Hans Ege, Waggis
B 4.13 Hans-Joachim Heyer, Boris Miklautsch / Werk- B 1.5.38 – 39 Heike Werner, Munich p. 211 John Linden, Woodland Hills
statt für Photographie, University of Stuttgart B 1.5.40 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich p. 212, 213 Jocelyne van den Bossche, London
B 4.14 Herzog, Thomas et al., Holzbau Atlas. B 1.5.41 Heinrich Fiedler GmbH & Co. KG; p. 214, 215 Dennis Gilbert / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES
Munich, 2003, p. 43 Regensburg
B 4.15 Hans-Joachim Heyer, Boris Miklautsch / Werk- B 1.5.42 AIM; Nürtingen Plastics
statt für Photographie, University of Stuttgart B 1.5.44, 46 From Kaltenbach, Frank (pub.): B 7.1 Simon Burt /APEX, Exminster
B 4.16 Herzog, Thomas et al., Holzbau Atlas. Transluzente Materialien. Glas, Kunststoff, B 7.2 Hans Hansen / Vitra, Hamburg
Munich, 2003, p. 40 Metall. Detail Praxis. Munich, 2003, p. 98 B 7.3 The MIT Museum, from Hess, Alan, Googie:
B 4.17 Hans-Joachim Heyer, Boris Miklautsch / Werk- B 1.5.47 Heike Werner, Munich Fifties Coffee Shop Architecture. San Francisco
statt für Photographie, University of Stuttgart B 1.5.48 V. Carl Schröter, Hamburg 1986, p. 50
B 4.18 Strandex Europe, Walmley B 1.5.49 – 50 Heike Werner, Munich B 7.4 – 5 Centraal Museum, Utrecht
B 4.19 Christian Cerliani, Zurich B 1.5.51 Hauer und Boecker; Oelde B 7.6 Buckminster Fuller Institute, Los Angeles
B 4.20 Ruedi Walti, Basel B 1.5.52 Heike Werner, Munich B 7.7 Frei Otto, Warmbronn
B 4.21 Jonathan Levi, Boston B 1.5.53 – 54 Gebr. Kufferath GmbH & Co. KG; Düren B 7.8 Richard Einzig /Arcaid, Kingston upon Thames
B 4.22 – 23 Christian Richters, Münster p. 172, 173 Dieter Lechner, Munich B 7.10 Christian Kandzia, Stuttgart
B 4.24 Eduard Hueber, New York p. 174, 175 Bernhard Moosbrugger, Zurich B 7.12 Werner Lang, Munich
B 4.25 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES p. 176 John Donat, London B 7.13 Tohru Waki / Shokokusha, Tokyo
B 4.26 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich p. 177 left: Werner Lang, Munich B 7.14 –16 Kaltenbach, Frank (pub.): Transluzente
B 4.27 Annegret Rieger, Munich p. 177 right: Ken Kirkwood, Desborough Materialien. Munich, 2003
B 4.28 Heike Werner, Munich p. 178, 179 Stefan Müller, Berlin B 7.17 Hufton + Grow, Hertford
B 4.29 Friedrich Busam /architekturphoto, p. 180 Werner Huthmacher, Berlin B 7.18 – 21 Detail 06/2000, p. 1,048 –1,054
Düsseldorf p. 181 Cree GmbH B 7.22 Ingmar Kurth, Frankfurt
B 4.30 Reto Führer, Felsberg p. 182 Paul Warchol, New York p. 224 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich
B 4.31 Christian Richters, Münster p. 183 Christian Richters, Münster p. 225 Wolfram Janzer /ARTUR IMAGES
B 4.32 – 34 Sampo Widmann, Munich p. 184 Heinrich Helfenstein, Zurich p. 226 Christian Richter, Münster
B 4.35 – 41 Informationsdienst Holz, Düsseldorf 1992 p. 185 Klemens Ortmeyer /architekturphoto, p. 227 Bleda + Rosa, Valencia
B 4.42 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich Düsseldorf ps. 228, 229 Philippe Ruault, Nantes
B 4.43 Werner Huthmacher /ARTUR IMAGES p. 186, 187 Hélène Binet, London p. 230 Adam Mork, Copenhagen
B 4.44 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich p. 231 Werner Lang, Munich
B 4.45 Roland Schweitzer, Paris Glass p. 232 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
B 4.46 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart B 6.1 Dennis Gilbert / VIEW/ARTUR IMAGES p. 233 Allianz Arena, Munich
B 4.47 Roland Schweitzer, Paris B 6.2 Achim Bednorz, Cologne ps. 234, 235 Skyspan (Europe) GmbH, Rimsting
B 4.48 – 49 Theo Ott Holzschindeln GmbH, Ainring B 6.3 Daidalos 66/1997, p. 85
B 4.50 Gerhard Hagen, Bamberg B 6.5 Georges Fessy, Paris
B 4.51 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich B 6.6 Werner Lang, Munich Part C
B 4.52 Satoshi Asakawa, Tokyo B 6.7– 9 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas. p. 236 Thomas Herzog, Munich
B 4.53 Hans-Georg Esch, Hennef Munich / Basel 1998
p. 142 top: Michael Freeman, London B 6.11 Roderick Coyne, London Multilayer glass facades
p. 142 bottom: Sampo Widmann, Munich B 6.12 Hans-Georg Esch, Hennef C 1.1 Zooey Braun /ARTUR IMAGES
p. 144, 145 Christian Richters, Münster B 6.13 Georges Fessy, Paris C 1.2 Werner Lang, Munich
p. 146 Heinrich Helfenstein, Adliswil B 6.14 Christian Schittich, Munich C 1.5 Werner Lang, Munich
p. 147 Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo B 6.15 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas. C 1.7 Waltraud Krase, Frankfurt
p. 148 Peter Bonfig, Munich Munich / Basel 1998, p. 90 C 1.8 Richard Schenkirz, Leonberg
p. 149 Henning Koepke, Munich B 6.16 –17 Herzog, Thomas: Sonderthemen C 1.11 Rudi Graf, Munich
p. 150 Christian Richters, Münster Baukonstruktion. Materialspezifische C 1.15 Richard Bryant, Kingston upon Thames
p. 151 Dietmar Strauß, Besigheim Technologie und Konstruktion – Gläser, C 1.18 –19 Werner Lang, Munich
p. 152 Marko Huttunen, Helsinki Häute und Membranen. Munich 1998, C 1.22 – 23 Werner Lang, Munich
p. 153 Daniel Malhão, Lisbon p. 11 (unpublished) C 1.26 Hans-Georg Esch, Hennef
p. 154 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES B 6.18 – 20 Schittich, Christian et al., Glasbau Atlas. C 1.27 Jürgen Schmidt, Cologne
p. 157 Büro Kaufmann, Dornbirn Munich / Basel 1998 p. 247 top: Achim Bednorz, Cologne
B 6.21 Klaus Littmann, https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/ p. 247 bottom: Werner Lang, Munich
Metal Gro%C3%9Fer_Garten_(Hannover)#/media/ p. 248, 249 unten: Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES
B 5.1 Jo Reid & John Peck, Newport File:Glasfoyer_im_Gro%C3%9Fen_Garten.jpg, p. 250 Christian Richters, Münster
B 5.2 N. P. Goulandris Foundation, Museum of CC BY-SA 3.0 p. 251 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich
Cycladic Art, Athens B 6.22 Herzog, Thomas: Sonderthemen Bau- ps. 252, 253 Jörg Hempel, Aachen
B 5.3 Münchener Stadtmuseum, Munich konstruktion. Materialspezifische Technologie p. 254 top: Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES

344
p. 254 bottom: Thomas Riehle /ARTUR IMAGES C 3.15 Schott Glas, Mainz The authors and publisher would like to thank the follow-
p. 255 Thomas Riehle /ARTUR IMAGES C 3.17 Bernd Thissen / Energie Solaire S.A., ing people, manufacturers and companies for providing
ps. 256, 257 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES Sierre information and / or drawings:
p. 258, 259 Holger Knauf, Düsseldorf C 3.18 Heiko Hellwig, Stuttgart
p. 260 Ralf Richter, Düsseldorf C 3.20 Schittich, Christian (pub.): Gebäudehüllen. Barbara Finke, Berlin (DE)
p. 261 top: Christian Kandzia, Esslingen Munich, 2001, p. 53 Böhmer Natursteinbau GmbH, Leutenbach (DE)
p. 261 middle: Ralf Richter, Düsseldorf C 3.21 Roland Krippner, Munich Cordelia Denks, Munich (DE)
p. 261 bottom: Martin Schodder, Stuttgart C 3.22 Team Rooftop, Berlin Dach + Wand Wolf GmbH & Co. KG, Dornbirn (AT)
p. 262 Duccio Malagamba, Barcelona C 3.23 Jan-Oliver Kunze, Berlin Delzer Kybernetik GmbH, Lörrach (DE)
p. 263 Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES C 3.24 Jochen Helle, Dortmund F. Brüderlin Söhne GmbH, Schopfheim (DE)
p. 264 Frédéric Druot, Paris C 3.25 – 26 Jakob Schoof, Munich Götz GmbH, Würzburg (DE)
p. 265 Torben Eskerod, Copenhagen C 3.27 Jens Passoth, Berlin Halfen GmbH & Co. KG, Langenfeld (DE)
p. 304 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich Hightex Group, Rimsting (DE)
Manipulators p. 305 Ruedi Walti, Basel Jörg Eschwey, ESO Chile (CL)
C 2.1 Jean-Marie Hellwig / Prouvé-Archiv Peter Sulzer, p. 306 Nick Brändli, Zurich Josef Gartner GmbH, Gundelfingen (DE)
Gleisweiler p. 307 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES Lavis Stahlbau GmbH, Offenbach (DE)
C 2.3 – 4 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich p. 308 Willi Kracher, Zurich Magnus Müller GmbH, Butzbach (DE)
C 2.5 Klaus Zwerger, Vienna p. 309 Margherita Spiluttini, Vienna Metallbau A. Sauritschnig GmbH, St. Veit / Glan (AT)
C 2.6 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich ps. 310, 311 Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES MEW Manfroni Engineering Workshop, Bologna (IT)
C 2.7 ISOTEG Final report. TU Munich, Chair p. 312 Jens Willebrand, Cologne Moeding Keramikfassaden GmbH, Marklkofen (DE)
for Building Technologies. Munich 2001 p. 313 Jordi Miralles, Barcelona nbk Keramik GmbH & Co., Emmerich (DE)
(unpublished) p. 314 top: Christian Richters, Münster NMP Naturstein Montage GmbH & Co. KG, Vienna (AT)
C 2.8 Werner Lang, Munich p. 314 bottom: Entwicklungsgesellschaft Akademie Serge Lochu, Cosylva Paris-Ouest (FR)
C 2.9 Margherita Spiluttini, Vienna Mont-Cenis mbH, Herne Stahlbau Wörsching GmbH & Co. KG, Starnberg (DE)
C 2.10 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich p. 316 Arnold Brunner, Freiburg Wortmann Projektbau GmbH, Wenden (DE)
C 2.11 Hans Werlemann, Rotterdam p. 317 Eibe Sönnecken, Darmstadt
C 2.12 Michael Heinrich, Munich p. 318 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
C 2.13 Christian Gahl, Berlin p. 319 top: Frank Kaltenbach, Munich
C 2.14 Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES bottom: FG+SG fotografia de arquitectura,
C 2.15 Eduard Hueber, New York Lisbon
C 2.16 Margherita Spiluttini, Vienna p. 320 top: Holger Groß, Berlin
C 2.17 Christian Richters, Münster bottom: Hans-Georg Esch, Hennef
C 2.18 Moritz Korn p. 321 Christian Richters, Münster
C 2.19 Dominic Büttner, Zurich
C 2.20 Klaus Kinold, Munich Integrated facades
C 2.21 Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo C 4.1 Reiner Rehfeld, Düsseldorf
C 2.23 Satoshi Asakawa, Tokyo C 4.2 Jan Cremers, Munich
C 2.24 Constantin Beyer, Weimar C 4.3 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
C 2.25 Ralph Feiner, Malans C 4.4 www.top-air.it
C 2.26 Hans-Peter Wörndl, Vienna C 4.5 www.trox.de
C 2.27 Ritchie Müller, Munich C 4.6 Fraunhofer-in-Haus-Zentrum,
C 2.28 Daniel Westenberger, Munich Duisburg
C 2.29 Andreas Gabriel, Munich C 4.7 Thomas Ott, Mühltal
C 2.30 René Furer, Benglen C 4.8 Constantin Meyer, Cologne
C 2.31 Thomas Lenzen, Munich C 4.9 Andrea Helbing, Zurich
C 2.32 Earl Carter, St. Kilda C 4.10 Maximilian Meisse, Berlin
p. 274 Therese Beyeler, Bern C 4.11 Fraunhofer-inHaus-Zentrum, Duisburg
p. 275 Tomio Ohashi, Tokyo C 4.12 Thomas Jantscher, Colombier
ps. 276, 277 bottom: Hisao Suzuki, Barcelona C 4.13 Rainer Viertlböck, Gauting
p. 277 top: Georges Fessy, Paris C 4.14 Daniel Reisch, Augsburg
p. 278 Ingrid Voth-Amslinger, Munich C 4.15 Daniel Reisch, Augsburg
p. 279 Michael Heinrich, Munich
ps. 280, 281 Günter Wett, Innsbruck Refurbishing existing facades
p. 282 Christian Richters, Münster C 5.1 Archiv Ruinelli Associati, Soglio
p. 283 Lukas Roth, Cologne C 5.2 Fraunhofer IBP
p. 284 Eduard Hueber, New York C 5.3 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich
p. 285 top: Jan Bitter, Berlin C 5.4 Elias Hassos, Munich
p. 285 bottom: Annette Kisling, Berlin C 5.5 © Jens Weber, Munich
p. 286 Kees Hummel, Amsterdam C 5.10 Ester Havlová, Prague
p. 287 top Dietmar Strauß, Besigheim C 5.11 Hannes Henz, Zurich
p. 288 Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo C 5.12 Phillip Vile, London
p. 289 Hiroyuki Hirai, Tokyo C 5.13 Andrea Martiradonna, Milan
p. 290 Robertino Nikolic, Wiesbaden C 5.14 Thomas Riehle /ARTUR IMAGES
p. 291 top: Robertino Nikolic, Wiesbaden C 5.15 Jakob Schoof, Munich
p. 291 bottom: Thomas Ott, Mühltal C 5.16 Michael Kiechle-Pausch / IMAGE FOR YOU,
p. 292 Richie Müller, Munich Mauerstetten
p. 293 top: Sergio Padura, Hecho C 5.17 Tomaz Greoric, Ljubljana
p. 293 bottom: Paul Riddle / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES
Green facades
Solar energy C 6.3 Roland Krippner, Munich
C 3.1 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich C 6.4 Roland Krippner, Munich
C 3.4 – 5 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich C 6.5 Roland Krippner, Munich
C 3.6 Arthur Köster / Stiftung Archiv der Akademie C 6.6 Nicole Pfoser, Darmstadt, from Köhler,
der Künste, Berlin Manfred (pub.): Handbuch Bauwerks-
C 3.7 Robert Krier begrünung. Cologne 2012, p.109
C 3.8 – 9 TWD Eigenschaften und Funktionen. C 6.7 Paul Raftery
Info-Mappe 2 des Fachverbands TWD. C 6.8 Werner Lang, Munich
Gundelfingen 2000, p. 5 C 6.9 Roland Krippner, Munich
C 3.10 –11 Roland Krippner, Munich C 6.10 Adria Goula, Barcelona
C 3.12 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES C 6.11 Luuk Kramer, Amsterdam
C 3.13 Viessmannwerke, Allendorf C 6.12 Christian Richters, Münster
C 3.14 Viessmannwerke, Allendorf C 6.14 Fink + Jocher, Munich

345
Literature

Anderson, Michael; Lyndon, Donlyn; Kaltenbach, Frank: Fassaden aus Stein. Published by: Dyckerhoff Weiss nen als Voraussetzung für die experimentelle Arbeit an
Sea Ranch – Wohnen an der Küste des Pazifik. In: Marketing und Vertriebs-Gesellschaft 2004. ihrer energetischen und baukonstruktiven Optimierung.
Detail 08/2000, p. 1,479 –1,481. Feldmeyer, Gerhard G.: Die neue deutsche Architektur. Abschlussbericht (unveröffentlicht). Munich 2000.
Architekturjahrbuch Bayern published by Bayerische Stuttgart 1993. Herzog, Thomas; Krippner, Roland: Synoptical Descrip-
Architektenkammer. Munich 2002. Finessi, Beppe: Su Mangiarotti. Architettura, Design, tion of Decisive Subsystems of the Building Skin. In: Irm
Bahamon, Alejandro: Bauen mit System. Architektur mit Scultura. 72 Progetti, 227 Inediti, 3 Contributi Critici. Pontenagel; Eurosolar (pub.): Building a new Century.
Fertigteilen. Stuttgart 2002. Milano 2002. 5th Conference Solar Energy in Architecture and Urban
Baker, Nick; Steemers, Koen: Energy and Environment in Fischer, Sören: Paolo Veronese, Andrea Palladio und die Planning. Bonn Germany, 27– 30 May 1999. Proceed-
Architecture. A Technical Design Guide. London 2000. Stanza di Bacco in der Villa Barbaro als Pavillon Plinius’ ings. Bonn 1999, p. 306 – 310.
Balkowski, Michael: Nachträgliche Innendämmung von des Jüngeren. Kunstgeschichte. Open Peer Reviewed Herzog, Thomas; Natterer, Julius; Schweitzer, Roland et
Außenwänden. In: Detail 05/2011, p. 616 – 622. Journal, von 2013 (urn:nbn:de:bvb:355-kuge-329-1). al.: Holzbau Atlas. Munich / Basel 2003.
Baumann, Rudi: Begrünte Architektur. Bauen und http://www.kunstgeschichte-ejournal.net/378/ Herzog, Thomas; Natterer, Julius; Tobey, Reinhold; Winter,
Gestalten mit Kletterpflanzen. Munich 1983. <03.04.2016>. Wolfgang; Kessel, Martin: Gebäudehüllen aus Glas und
Baumann, Rudi: Pflanzliche Verschattungselemente an Flagge, Ingeborg; Herzog-Loibl, Verena; Meseure, Anna Holz. Habiller de verre et de bois. Lausanne 1984.
der Gebäudeoberfläche als Maßnahme zur Reduzie- (pub.): Thomas Herzog. Architektur und Technologie. Herzog, Thomas; Volz, Michael: Holzschutz. In: Natterer,
rung der Strahlungsbelastung unter sommerlichen Be- Architecture and Technology. Munich 2001. Julius; Herzog, Thomas; Volz, Michael: Holzbau Atlas
dingungen – “Pullover”. Doctoral thesis. Kassel 1980. Ford, Edward R.: Die Pionierzeit des Betonsteins. Zwei. Munich 1996, p. 59 – 60.
Bauverlag BV GmbH (pub.): Leitfaden Innendämmung. “Textile-Block” – Häuser von Frank Lloyd Wright. In: Herzog, Thomas: Pneumatische Konstruktionen. Bauten
Planungsgrundlagen, Nachweise und Lösungen, Detail – Zeitschrift für Architektur + Baudetail, 44. Jg., aus Membranen und Luft. Stuttgart 1976.
Anwendungsbeispiele. Gütersloh 2013. 04/2003, p. 310 –315. Herzog, Thomas: Zur Kunst des Fügens oder: Nach-
Bona, Enrico D.: Angelo Mangiarotti. Il Processo del Frank, W.: Raumklima und thermische Behaglichkeit. In: denken über das Standbein. In: Der Architekt, 02/1987,
Costruire. Mailand 1980. Berichte aus der Bauforschung, Heft 104. Berlin 1975 p. 86 – 89.
Brandes, Christian: Anstriche und Beschichtungen für Gerlach, Hans: Pflanzenschmuckkunst. Beispiele für die Hornbogen, Erhard: Werkstoffe. Aufbau und Eigen-
Bauwerke aus Naturstein. Eigenschaften, Anforderun- gärtnerische Ausschmückung der Wohnstraßen. In: Die schaften von Keramik, Metallen, Kunststoffen und
gen und praxisbezogene Anwendung. Renningen- Gartenwelt, 22. Jg., Nr. 15 (12.04.1918)/1918, p. 113. Verbundwerkstoffen. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York
Malmsheim 1999. Gerner, Manfred; Gärtner, Dieter: Historische Fenster. 02/1979.
Braunfels, Stephan: Stephan Braunfels - Pinakothek Entwicklung, Technik, Denkmalpflege. Munich 1996. Hufnagl, Florian (pub.): Sechs neue Museen in Bayern.
der Moderne. Kunst, Architektur, Design. With texts Giebeler, Georg; Fisch, Rainer; Krause, Harald et al.: Bearbeitung / Redaktion: Oliver Herwig [Text]; Braun
by Michael Mönninger et al. Basel 2002. Atlas Sanierung. Munich / Basel 2008. Zooey [Fotografie]. Tübingen 2002.
Briegleb, Till; Baumgarten, Lothar: Hochhaus RWE AG Givoni, Baruch: Passive and Low Energy Cooling of Hugues, Theodor; Steiger, Ludwig; Weber, Johann:
Essen. Basel 2000. Buildings. New York 1994. Naturwerkstein. Detail Praxis. Munich 2002.
Budeit, Joachim; Kuenheim, Haug v.: Backstein. Die Goetzberger, Adolf; Wittwer, Volker: Sonnenenergie. Jaensch, Waldemar: Veränderbare Oberflächen. Ver-
schönsten Ziegelbauten zwischen Elbe und Oder. Thermische Nutzung. Stuttgart 1993. fahren zur Beurteilung kinetischer Manipulatoren an der
Munich 2001. Grimm, Friedrich; Richarz, Clemens: Hinterlüftete Fas- Gebäudeoberfläche als Maßnahme zur Regulierung
Burg, Annegret; Redecke, Sebastian (pub.): Kanzleramt saden. Konstruktionen vorgehängter hinterlüfteter des Gebäudeklimas. Schriftenreihe des Fachbereichs
und Präsidialamt der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Fassaden aus Faserzement. Stuttgart 1994. Architektur / Dissertation. Kassel 1981.
Internationale Architekturwettbewerbe für die Haupt- Grube, Oswald W.: Industriebauten - international. Junghanns, Kurt: Das Haus für alle Fälle. Zur Geschichte
stadt Berlin. Basel 1995. Stuttgart 1971. der Vorfertigung in Deutschland. Berlin 1994.
Bussat, Pierre: Die Modulordnung im Hochbau. La coor- Habermann, Karl J.: ...in die Jahre gekommen. Halbleiter- Kaltenbach, Frank: Kunststoff – Transluzente Platten-
dination modulaire dans le bâtiment. Stuttgart 1963. montagwerk / Pharmawerk in Wasserburg am Inn, 1969, halbzeuge. In: Kaltenbach, Frank (pub.): Transluzente
Busse, Hans-Busso v.; Waubke, Nils Valerian; Grimme, 1982 – 83. Architekt: Peter C. von Seidlein. In: Materialien. Detail Praxis. Munich 2003, p. 40 – 56.
Rudolf; Mertins, Jürgen: Atlas Flache Dächer. Nutzbare db – Deutsche Bauzeitung, 01/2002, p. 80 – 84. Kaltenbach, Frank: Lebende Wände, vertikale Gärten –
Flächen. Basel 1992. Hagemann, Ingo B.: Gebäudeintegrierte Photovoltaik. vom Blumentopf zur grünen Systemfassade. In: Detail
Button, David; Pye, Brian: Glass in building. A guide to Architektonische Integration der Photovoltaik in die 12/2008, p. 1454 –1466.
modern architectural glass performance: Pikington. Gebäudehülle. Cologne 2002. Kind-Barkauskas, Friedbert; Kauhsen, Bruno; Polónyi,
Oxford 1993. Hanel, Bernd: Raumluftströmung. Heidelberg 01/1994. Stefan; Brandt, Jörg: Beton Atlas. Entwerfen mit Stahl-
Compagno, Andrea: Baustoff Glas – Entwicklungen und Hausladen, Gerhard (pub.): Innovative Gebäude-, Tech- beton im Hochbau. Düsseldorf / Munich 2001.
Tendenzen. In: Kaltenbach, Frank (pub.): Transluzente nik- und Energiekonzepte. Munich 2001. Kling, Bernhard; Peck, Martin: Sichtbeton im Kontext der
Materialien. Munich 2003, p. 10 – 25. Hebgen, Heinrich: Bauen mit der Sonne. Vorschläge und neuen Betonnormen. In: Beton 04/2003, p. 170 –176.
Daniels, Klaus: Gebäudetechnik für die Zukunft – “weni- Anregungen. Published by: RWE-Anwendungstechnik. Kluge, Friedrich: Etymologisches Wörterbuch der
ger ist mehr”. HL-Technik, Werkbericht 12. Published Essen 1982. deutschen Sprache. Berlin 22/1989.
by HL-Technik AG. Munich 1994. Hegger, Josef; Will, Norbert: Bauteile aus textilbewehrtem Knaack, Ulrich: Konstruktiver Glasbau. Cologne 1998.
Daniels, Klaus: Gebäudetechnik. Ein Leitfaden für Beton. In: DBZ 04/2003, p. 68 –71. Koblin, Wolfram; Krüger, Eckhard; Schuh, Ulrich: Hand-
Architekten und Ingenieure. Munich / Zurich 02/1996. Henning, Hans-Martin; Palzer, Andreas: 100 % Erneuer- buch. Passive Nutzung der Sonnenenergie. (1984).
Daniels, Klaus: Technologie des ökologischen Bauens. bare Energien für Strom und Wärme in Deutschland. Published by Bundesbauministerium für Raumordnung
Basel 1995. Published by: Fraunhofer-Institut für Solare Energiesys- Bauwesen und Städtebau. Schriftenreihe 04.097.
Danner, Dietmar; Dassler, Friedrich H.; Krause, Jan R. teme ISE. Freiburg, 11/2012. Bonn-Bad Godesberg 05/1990.
(pub.): Die klima-aktive Fassade. AIT Edition Intelligente Henze, Wolfgang: Architektur- und Bau-Keramik. Koch, Klaus Michael (pub.): Bauen mit Membranen. Der
Architektur. Leinfelden-Echterdingen 1999. Halle / Saale 1955. innovative Werkstoff in der Architektur. Munich 2004.
Dernie, David: Neue Steinarchitektur. Stuttgart 2003. Herzog, Thomas (pub.): Bausysteme von / Building Sys- Köhler, Manfred (pub.): Handbuch Bauwerksbegrünung.
Dietze, Lothar: Freie Lüftung von Industriegebäuden. tems by / Sistemi Edilizi di Angelo Mangiarotti. Bearbei- Planung Konstruktion Ausführung. Cologne 2012.
Mit 54 Tabellen. Berlin 01/1987. tung und Redaktion: Roland Krippner, George Frazzica. Krausse, Joachim; Lichtenstein, Claude (pub.): Your
Dompke, M.; Keller, Michael B.: Sick Building Syndrome Darmstadt 1998. private sky. Richard Buckminster Fuller. Design als
II. Forschungsstand und Umsetzung. Eine Dokumenta- Herzog, Thomas (pub.): Solar Energy in Architecture and Kunst einer Wissenschaft. Baden / Zurich 1999.
tion zum Workshop in Holzkirchen am 21./22.02.1996. Urban Planning. Solarenergie in Architektur und Stadt- Krippner, Roland: Architektonische Aspekte solarer Ener-
Bonn 1/1996. planung. Munich 1996. gietechnik. Studien zur baulichen Integration und archi-
Döring, Wolfgang; Meschke, Hans-Jürgen; Kind-Barkaus- Herzog, Thomas (pub.): Sustainable Height. Deutsche tektonischen Einbindung solartechnischer Systeme in
kas, Friedbert; Schwerm, Dieter: Fassaden. Architektur Messe AG Hannover Administration Building. Nach- die Gebäudehülle. In: Neuntes Symposium Thermische
und Konstruktion mit Betonfertigteilen. Düsseldorf 2000. haltige Höhe. Deutsche Messe AG Hannover Verwal- Solarenergie. OTTI Technologie-Kolleg. Tagungsband.
Dümmler, Karl; Loeser, Karl: Handbuch der Ziegelfabrika- tungsgebäude. Munich 1999. Regensburg 1999, p. 236 – 240.
tion. Halle / Saale 1926. Herzog, Thomas: Transluzente Bauteile. Anmerkungen zu Krippner, Roland: Die Gebäudehülle als Wärmeerzeuger
Eisele, Jo; Schoeller, Walter: Kunststoffe in der Architek- ihrer Wirkung. In: Almanach 90 / 92. Fachbereich Archi- und Stromgenerator. In: Christian Schittich (pub.):
tur. In: Detail 12/2002, p. 1,540 –1,543. tektur der Technischen Hochschule Darmstadt. Darm- Gebäudehüllen. Munich / Basel 2006, p. 46 – 59.
Fanger, Ole: Behagliche Innenwelt. In: Günther Uhlig; stadt 1992, p. 92 – 95. Krippner, Roland: Entwicklung beweglicher Manipulator-
Niklaus Kohler; Schneid (pub.): Fenster. Architektur Herzog, Thomas; Krippner, Roland: Gebäudehülle. Synop- en im Bereich der Außenwände mit wärmedämmenden
und Technologie im Dialog. Braunschweig, Wiesbaden tische Darstellung maßgeblicher baulicher Subsysteme und weiteren Funktionen. In: Andreas Beck (pub.):
1998, p. 210 – 219. der Gebäudehülle mit Schutz- und Steuerungsfunktio- ISOTEG – Innovative Systeme und Optimierte Tech-

346
 niken zur Energetischen Gebäudesanierung. Abschluß- Nitschke, Günter: Architektur und Ästhetik eines Insel- by TUM, Lehrstuhl Prof. Thomas Herzog. Seminar-
bericht. Würzburg 2001. volkes. In: Schittich, Christian (pub.): Japan. Munich / broschüre Teil 1: Grundlagen. Munich 1998.
Krippner, Roland: Holzleichtbeton. In: DBZ 12/2002, Basel 2002, p. 14 – 31. Stadt Nuremberg / Referat für Umwelt und Gesund-
p. 74 –77. Nitz, Peter; Wagner, Andreas: Schaltbare und regelbare heit (pub.): Klimafahrplan Nuremberg 2010 – 2050.
Krippner, Roland: Solartechnik in Gebäudehüllen. In: Verglasungen. BINE Themeninfo, I/02. Karlsruhe 2002. Nuremberg 2014.
Detail Green 01/2012, p. 53 – 57. Oesterle, Eberhard; Lieb, Rolf-Dieter; Lutz, Martin; Heusler, Staib, Gerald: Glas in der Architektur. Von den Ur-
Lambot, Ian (pub.): Norman Foster. Volume 2. Winfried: Doppelschalige Fassaden. Munich 1999. sprüngen bis zur Klassischen Moderne. In: Schittich,
1971–1978. Foster Associates. Buildings and Projects. Otto, Frei: Das hängende Dach. Gestalt und Struktur. Christian u. a.: Glasbau Atlas. Munich 1998, p. 9 –33.
Hongkong 1989. (1954). Stuttgart 1990. Stiegel, Horst; Krause, Michael: Minimalinvasives Sanie-
Lang, Werner: Zur Typologie mehrschaliger Gebäude- Pfeifer, Günter; Achtziger, Joachim; Ramcke, Rolf; Zilch, rungssystem mit vorgefertigtem, multifunktionalem
hüllen aus Glas. In: Detail 07/1998, p. 1,225 –1,232. Konrad: Mauerwerk Atlas. Munich 2001. WDVS-Fassadenmodul. In: gi – Gesundheits-Ingenieur,
Le Corbusier: 1929 – Feststellungen zu Architektur und Pfeifer, Günter; Liebers, Antje; Reiners, Holger: Der neue 133. Jg., 06/2012, p. 290 – 302.
Städtebau. Mit einem amerikanischen Prolog und einem Holzbau. Aktuelle Architektur, alle Bausysteme, neue Stock, Wolfgang Jean: Europäischer Kirchenbau
brasilianischen Zusatz gefolgt von “Pariser Klima” und Technologien. Munich 1998. 1950 – 2000. European Church Architecture
“Moskauer Atmosphäre”. Berlin 1964 Pfoser, Nicole; Jenner, Nathalie; Henrich, Johanna et al.: 1950 – 2000. Munich 2002.
Le Corbusier: Die Technik als Grundlage des Lyrismus Gebäude Begrünung Energie. Potenziale und Wechsel- Sulzer, Peter: Jean Prouvé. Highlights 1917–1944.
eröffnet eine neue Epoche der Architektur. 2. Vortrag: wirkungen. Forschungsbericht. Technische Universität Basel 2002.
Samstag, 5. Oktober 1929, “Amigos del Arte”. In: Darmstadt 2013. Sulzer, Peter: Jean Prouvé. Œuvre complète / Complete
Le Corbusier: 1929 – Feststellungen zu Architektur Pracht, Klaus: Fenster. Planung, Gestaltung und Konstruk- Works. Volume 1: 1917–1933. Basel 1999.
und Städtebau. Berlin 1964, p. 47–72. tion. Stuttgart 1982. Sulzer, Peter: Jean Prouvé. Œuvre complète / Complete
Lemoine, Bertrand; Taroni, Brigitta: Birkhäuser Architek- Reallexikon zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte. VII. Band; Works. Volume 2: 1934 –1944. Basel 2000.
turführer Frankreich. 20. Jahrhundert. Basel 2000. Farbe, Farbmittel – Fensterläden. Published by. Zentral- Trbuhovic, L.: Untersuchungen des Strukturschemas und
Lietz, Sabine: Das Fenster des Barock. Fenster und institut für Kunstgeschichte Munich 1981. der Fassadenabwicklung beim Stahlbeton-Skelettbau.
Fensterzubehör in der fürstlichen Profanarchitektur Reallexikon zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte. VIII. Band. In: Hans Girsberger (pub.): ac panel. Asbestzement-
zwischen 1680 und 1780. Munich 1982. Published by Zentralinstitut für Kunstgeschichte Verbundplatten und -Elemente für Außenwände. Zurich
Mahler, B.; Himmler, R.; Silberberger, C., Matt, C.: DeAL Munich 1981. 1967, p. 46 – 49.
– Evaluierung dezentraler außenwandintegrierter Lüf- Rein, Alfred; Wilhelm, Viktor: Das Konstruieren mit Mem- Universität Ulm-West. Dokumentation Holzbauten in
tungssysteme. Published by: Steinbeis -Transferzentrum branen. In: Detail 06/2000, p. 1,044 –1,049. Baden-Württemberg. Published by Arbeitsgemein-
und Steinbeis -Forschungszentrum u. a. Abschluss- Richarz, Clemens; Schulz, Christina; Zeitler, Friedemann: schaft Holz e. V. et al., Düsseldorf; Landesbeirat Holz
bericht, STZ-Projekt-Nr. 24306. Stuttgart 2008. Energetische Sanierung. Detail Praxis. Munich 2006. Baden-Württemberg e. V., Stuttgart. Informationsdienst
Marrey, Bernard; Schweitzer, Roland: Des Histoires Rinninsland, Jutta: Projekt MOSS – OE 06/11. Teil 1: Holz 1993.
de Bois. Ouvrage réalisé à l’occasion de l’exposition Grundlagen der Modulordnung. Gesamthochschule Volz, Michael: Der Baustoff Holz. In: Natterer, Julius;
“LE BOIS: Essences et sens”. Paris 1994. Kassel, Prof. Thomas Herzog, Kassel 1974. Winter, Wolfgang; Herzog, Thomas; Schweitzer,
Mehling, Günther (pub.): Naturstein-Lexikon. Werkstoff, Röben, Jürgen: Fassadenintegrierte Lüftungstechnik. Roland; Volz, Michael: Holzbau Atlas. Munich 2003,
Werkzeuge und Maschinen, Wirtschaft und Handel, Ästhetisch und energieeffizient. In: DBZ 09/2013, p. 31– 46.
Gestaltung und Techniken von der Antike bis heute. p. 76 –78. Von Aperturfläche bis Zenitlicht. Kleines Tageslicht-ABC.
Munich 1973. Rudolf, Bernhard: Atmende Fassaden: Fassadentech- In: Fassade Facade 01/2001, p. 9 –14.
Mesecke, Andrea; Kleihues, Josef Paul; Scheer, Thorsten; nologien zur dezentralen und natürlichen Lüftung. Wachsmann, Konrad: Wendepunkt im Bauen. Reprint der
Kultermann, Udo; Binet, Hélène: Museum of Contem- In: Detail 07 – 08/2012, p. 806 – 814. 1959 im Krausskopf-Verlag, Wiesbaden, erschienen
porary Art Chicago. Josef Paul Kleihues. Berlin 1996. Sack, Manfred: Verlockungen der Architektur. Kritische Ausgabe. Dresden 1989.
Meyringer, Volker; Trepte, Lutz: Lüftung im Wohnungs- Beobachtungen und Bemerkungen über Häuser und Waechter-Böhm, Liesbeth: Austria West, Tirol, Vorarlberg.
bau. Ergebnisse eines Forschungsprogrammes. Städte, Plätze und Gärten. Lucerne 2003. Neue Architekur. Basel 2003.
Published by: Bundesministerium für Forschung und Schäfer, Stefan: Fassadenoberflächen aus metallischen Wanetschek, Margret; Wanetschek, Horst (pub.):
Technologie (BMFT). Karlsruhe 1987. Werkstoffen. In: Detail 01 – 02/2003, p. 90 –102. Naturstein und Architektur. Fassaden, Innenräume,
Modul. Schriftenreihe zur Verwendung von Modul-Beton- Scharr, Roland; Sulzer, Peter: Beiträge zum methodi- Außenanlagen, Steintechnik. Munich 2000.
steinen in der neuen Architektur. Heft 5. Rheinau- schen Vorgehen in der Baukonstruktion. Aussenwand- Weber, Anton: Kleine Werkstoffkunde der Baukunststoffe:
Freistett 03/1992. dichtungen. Forschungsberichte der VDI Zeitschriften, Bauen mit Kunststoffen. Jahrbuch 2002. Published by
Monk, Tony: The art and architecture of Paul Rudolph. Reihe 4, Nr. 61. Düsseldorf 1981. Institut für das Bauen mit Kunststoffen e. V. (IBK). Berlin
Chichester 1999. Schild, Kai; Weyers, Michael: Transparente 2001, p. 44 – 45.
Moritz, Karsten; Barthel, Rainer: Bauen mit ETFE Folien. Wärmedämmsysteme (TWDS). In: Schild, Kai; Weiss, Klaus D. (pub.): Gatermann + Schossig. Raum
In: Kaltenbach, Frank (pub.): Transluzente Materialien. Weyers, Michael: Handbuch Fassadendämmsysteme. Kunst Technik / Space Art Technology. Basel et al.
Detail Praxis. Munich 2003, p. 70 –78. Grundlagen – Produkte – Details. Stuttgart 2003, 2010.
Moritz, Karsten: Membranwerkstoffe im Hochbau. In: p. 151–168. Westenberger, Daniel: Vertikal verschoben. Eigenschaf-
Detail 06/2000, p. 1,050 –1,058. Schittich, Christian (pub.): Gebäudehüllen. Konzepte, ten und Leistungsspektrum von vertikalen Schiebe-
Müller, Friedrich: Gesteinskunde. Lehrbuch und Nach- Schichten, Material. Munich / Basel 2006. mechanismen bei Fensteröffnungen. In: db – Deutsche
schlagewerk über Gesteine für Hochbau, Innenarchitek- Schittich, Christian; Staib, Gerald; Balkow, Dieter; Bauzeitung, 09/2003, p. 86 – 91.
tur, Kunst und Restauration. Ulm / Donau 1994. Schuler, Matthias; Sobek, Werner: Glasbau Atlas. Westenberger, Daniel: Vertikale Schiebefenster. Zur
Müller, Helmut F. O; Schuster, Heide G.: Tageslicht- Munich 2006. Typologie der Bewegungsarten von Fenstern als Öff-
nutzung. In: Christian Schittich (pub.): Solares Bauen. Schramek, Ernst-Rudolf (pub.): Recknagel, Sprenger, nungselemente in der Fassade. In: Fassade Facade.
Munich / Basel 2003, p. 56 – 69. Schramek. Taschenbuch für Heizung und Klimatechnik 03/2002, p. 23 – 28.
Nachtigall, Werner; Pohl, Göran: Bau-Bionik. Natur – einschließlich Warmwasser- und Kältetechnik. Munich Wichmann, Hans (pub.): System-Design: Fritz Haller.
Analogien – Technik. Berlin, Heidelberg 2013. 69/1999 und 70/2001. Bauten Möbel Forschung. Industrial design – graphic
Naredi-Rainer, Paul von: Architektur und Harmonie. Zahl, Schulitz, Helmut C.; Sobek, Werner; Habermann, Karl J.: design, 6. Basel 1989.
Maß und Proportion in der abendländischen Baukunst. Stahlbau Atlas. Munich 1999. Wuppertal Institut für Klima, Umwelt, Energie; Planungs-
(1982). Cologne 1984. Schunck, Eberhard; Oster, Hans Jochen; Barthel, Büro Schmitz Aachen: Energiegerechtes Bauen und
Nemeth, Isabell; Elbel, Konstanze; Hoppe, Michaela Rainer; Kießl, Kurt: Dach Atlas. Geneigte Dächer. Modernisieren. Published by: Bundesarchitektenkam-
et al.: Energetische Gebäudesanierung in Bayern. Munich 2002. mer. Basel et al. 1996.
Studie des Zentrums für Nachhaltiges Bauen der TUM. Schwarz, Ullrich (pub.): Neue Deutsche Architektur. Zeidler, Olaf: Freie Lüftung in Bürogebäuden. In: HLH;
Munich 2012. Eine Reflexive Moderne. Ostfildern-Ruit 2002. 51. Jg., 07/2000, p. 71–73.
Nerdinger, Winfried: “Das Hellenische mit dem Neuen Seidlein, Peter C. v.: Zehn Bauten 1957– 97. Munich Ziegel-Lexikon. Ausgabe 2001. Published by Ziegelforum
verknüpft”. Der Architekt Leo von Klenze als neuer 1997. e. V. Bearbeitung / Redaktion: Walter Noack. Munich
Palladio. In: Winfried Nerdinger (pub.): Leo von Klenze. Sobek, Werner: Konstruieren mit Glas – Festigkeit und 2001.
Architekt zwischen Kunst und Hof 1784 –1864. Munich Tragverhalten. In: Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Zimmermann, Markus: Fenster im Fenster. In: Detail
2000, p. 9 – 49. Atlas. Munich 1998, p. 91– 92. 04/1996, p. 484 – 489.
Newhouse, Victoria: Wege zu einem neuen Museum. Sonderthemen Baukonstruktion: Materialspezifische Zürcher, Christoph; Frank, Thomas: Bauphysik. Bau
Museumsarchitektur im 20. Jahrhundert. Ostfildern-Ruit Technologie und Konstruktion. Gläser, Häute und und Energie. Leitfaden für Planung und Praxis, Bd. 2.
1998. Membranen. Vertiefungsfach WS 1997/1998. Published Zurich / Stuttgart 1998.

347
 2.1 Surfaces – structural principles DIN EN 13 125 Shutters and blinds: Additional thermal
Statutory regulations, DIN 18 351 Contract procedures for building works. resistance: Allocation of a class of air permability to a
Part C: General technical specification for building product. October 2001
directives and standards works: facade works. August 2015 DIN EN 13 363 Solar protection devices combined with
DIN 18 516-1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at glazing: Calculation of solar and light transmittance.
the rear. Part 1: Requirements, principles of testing. September 2007
June 2010 DIN EN ISO 10 211 Thermal bridges in building construc-
The EU has passed directives on a number of products DIN 18 540 Sealing of exterior wall joints in building using tion: Heat flows and surface temperatures – detailed
to ensure the safety and health of their users. These joint sealants. September 2014 calculations. June 2015
directives must be incorporated into binding laws and DIN 18 545-1 Glazing with sealants: rebates, require- DIN EN ISO 12 631 Thermal performance of curtain
statutory regulations in member states. ments. July 2015 walling – Calculation of thermal transmittance. January
The directives themselves do not contain any technical DIN EN 12 365-1 Building hardware – gaskets and weather- 2013
details, only fundamental binding specifications. The stripping for windows, doors and other joints and VDI 2719 Sound isolation of windows and their auxiliary
relevant technical values are specified in related tech- curtain wall facades, performance requirements and equipment. August 1987
nical rules and in harmonised European standards classification. December 2003
(EN standards). VDI 2221 Systematic approach to the development Part B Structures built with specific
Technical rules provide practical guidance and auxiliary and design of technical systems and products. materials
tools for everyday work. They are not legal regulations May 1993
but offer help in making decisions, form guidelines for VDI 2222 Part 1 Methodic development of solution prin- 1 Natural stone
correct technical procedure and /or render the contents ciples. June 1997 DIN 18 516-3 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at
of directives concrete. Anyone can apply technical rules the rear. Part 3: Natural stone; Requirements, design.
in their work. They only become legally binding (e.g. in 2.2 Edges, openings September 2013
building law) when they are incorporated into laws, statu- ASR 7/1 Visual contact with the outside. April 1976 DIN 18 332 German construction contract procedures.
tory regulations or codes or when the binding character DIN 107 Building construction: identification of right and Part C: General technical specifications in construction
of specific standards between the parties is stipulated in left side. April 1974 contracts: Natural stone work. September 2012
a contract. Technical rules include DIN standards, VDI DIN 1946-6 Ventilation and air conditioning: Part 6: DIN EN 771-6 Specifications for masonry units: Part 6:
directives and works referred to as codes of practice Ventilation for residential buildings: requirements, Natural stone masonry units. November 2015
(e.g. Technical rules for Hazardous Substances – TRGS). performance, acceptance (VDI ventilation code of DIN EN 1341-3 Slabs of natural stone for external paving.
Standards are divided into product, application and test- practice). May 2009 Part 3: Requirements and test methods. March 2013
ing standards and often deal only with a specific group DIN 33 417 Description of position, orientation and direc- DIN EN 1469 Natural stone products – Slabs for cladding
of materials or products. Standards are based on appro- tion of movement of objects. August 1987 – Requirements. May 2015
priate methods for testing and researching individual DIN EN 12 464 -1 Light and lighting: lighting of work- DIN EN 12 059 Natural stone products: Dimensional stone
materials. The newest version of a standard, which should places. Part 1: Indoor workplaces. August 2011 work. Specifications. March 2012
reflect the technological state-of-the-art, is always the DIN EN 12 519 Windows and pedestrian doors: Termin- DIN EN 12 326-1 Slate and stone for discontinuous roof
applicable one. A new or revised standard is made avail- ology. January 2015 and external cladding. Part 1: Specifications for slate
able for public discussion in the form of a draft standard DIN EN 13 829 Thermal performance of buildings: Deter- and carbonate slate. November 2014
before being adopted as standard. A standard’s title mining air permeability of buildings. January 2002
reveals its origins and scope. DIN plus a number (e.g. DIN EN ISO 7730 Ergonomics of the thermal environment. 2 Clay
DIN 4108) is a standard of mainly national significance Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal DIN 105 Clay masonry units
(drafts are prefixed with an E and pre-standards with a V). comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices DIN 1053 Masonry
DIN EN plus a number (e.g. DIN EN 335) identifies the and local thermal comfort criteria. May 2006 DIN 18 516-1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at
German edition of a European standard that has been German Energy Saving Ordinance (Energieeinsparver- the rear. Part 1: Requirements, principles of testing.
adopted unchanged from the European standards ordnung – EnEV). January 2016 June 2010
organisation CEN. DIN EN ISO (e.g. DIN EN ISO 13 786) VDI guideline 6011 Part 1 (Lighting technology) Düssel- DIN EN 1996-1-1 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry
designates a national, European and worldwide scope. dorf 2016 structures. Part 1-1: General rules: Rules for rein-
A European standard is drafted based on an ISO (inter- forced and unreinforced masonry structures.
national standards organisation standard) and then 2.3 Modular coordination February 2013
adopted as a DIN standard. DIN ISO (e.g. DIN ISO 2424) DIN 18 000 Modular coordination in building. August 1986
indicates the adoption of a ISO standard unchanged as DIN 18 202 Tolerances in building: buildings. April 2013 3 Concrete
a national standard. DIN V 18 151-100 Lightweight concrete hollow blocks.
The list below is a selection of ordinances, guidelines and 3 Structural physical aspects and planning Part 100: Hollow blocks with specific properties.
standards representing current state-of-the-art technology information October 2005
(November 2014). Only standards specification sheets DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and build- DIN V 18 152 -100 Lightweight concrete solid bricks and
with the most recent issue date from the DIN (Deutsches ing components. May 1998 blocks. Part 100: Solid bricks and blocks with specific
Institut für Normung e. V.) are binding. DIN 4108 Thermal protection and energy economy in properties. October 2005
Voluntary agreements on strict compliance with stand- buildings. July 2001 DIN V 18 153 -100 Normal weight concrete masonry
ards that are not required in building law and additional DIN V 4108 -4 Thermal protection and energy economy units. Part 100: Masonry units with specific properties.
features and requirements must be agreed on individual in buildings. Part 4: Characteristic values relating to October 2005
contracts. Statements made in contracts that all stand- thermal insulation and protection against moisture. DIN 18 333 German construction contract procedures.
ards must be complied with are meaningless and can no February 2013 Part C: General technical specifications in construction
longer be made in future contracts. To avoid inconsisten- DIN 4109 Sound insulation in buildings. Part 1: Minimum contracts: Cast stone works. September 2012
cies parties must definitively stipulate which standards requirements. July 2016 DIN V 18 500 Cast stone: Terminology, requirements,
must be complied with and which details of standards DIN 5034 Daylight in interiors testing, inspection. December 2012
should apply in each requirements category. DIN 18 073 Roller shutters, awnings, rolling doors and DIN 18 515 -1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at
other blinds and shutters in buildings – Terms and the rear. Part 1: Principles of design and application:
Part A Fundamentals requirements. May 2008 Tiles fixed with mortar. May 2015
DIN 5036-3 Radiometric and photometric properties of DIN 18 516 -5 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at
1 Exterior and interior conditions materials. November 1979 the rear. Part 5: Manufactured stone. Requirements,
DIN 1341 Heat transfer: concepts, dimensionless param- DIN 52 619-3 Testing of thermal insulation: determination design. September 2013
eters. October 1986 of the thermal resistance and thermal transmission DIN EN 197-1 Cement: Part 1: Composition, specifi-
DIN 18 073 Roller shutters, solar shading and black-out coefficient of windows: measurements at frames. cations and conformity criteria for normal cement.
equipment in building construction: concepts and February 1985 July 2014
requirements. May 2008 DIN EN 673 Glass in building: Determination of ther- DIN EN 206 Concrete. Specification, performance,
DIN 18 351 Contract procedures for building works. mal transmittance (U-value): Calculation method. production and conformity. July 2014
Part C: General technical specification for building April 2011 DIN EN 12 878 Pigments for the colouring of building
works: facade works. August 2015 DIN EN 1279 -1 Glass in building – Insulating glass units. materials based on cement and / or lime: Specifications
DIN EN 13 363 -1 Solar protection devices combined with Part 1: Generalities, dimensional tolerances and rules and test methods. July 2014
glazing: calculation of solar and light transmittance. for system descriptions. August 2015 FDB Codes of practice Nos. 1 –10. Published by the
September 2007 DIN EN 12 865 Hygrothermal performance of building Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau e. V.
DIN EN ISO 12 569 Thermal performance of buildings: components and building elements: determination of (FDB). Bonn, 2009 –2016
Determination of air exchange in buildings. February the resistance of external wall systems to driving rain Code of practice 1 Fair-faced concrete. Published by
2016 under pulsating air pressure. July 2001 the Deutscher Beton- und Bautechnik-Verein e. V. (DBV)

348
 (German Concrete and Construction Technology 7 Plastics / membranes DIN EN 13 659 Shutters and external Venetian blinds.
E.V.) / Bundesverband der Deutschen Zementindustrie DIN 53 350 Testing of plastics films and coated textile Requirements and classification. October 1999
e. V. (BDZ). Berlin / Düsseldorf 2015. fabrics: determination of stiffness in bending: method DIN EN 14 501 Blinds and shutters. Thermal and visual
according to Ohlsen. January 1980 comfort: Performance characteristics and classification.
4 Timber DIN 53 362 Testing of plastics films and textile fabrics February 2006
DIN 18 334 German construction contract procedures. (excluding non-wovens), coated or not coated fabrics: GUV-R 1/494 Richtlinien für kraftbetätigte Fenster, Türen
Part C: General technical specifications in construction method according to Cantilever. October 2003 und Tore. (Insurers’ guidelines for power-operated
contracts: Carpentry and timber construction works. DIN 53 363 Testing of plastics films: Testing of plastics windows, doors and gates) July 1990
September 2012 films: Tear test using trapezoidal test specimen with VDI 2719 Sound isolation of windows and their auxiliary
DIN 68 364 Properties of wood species: Density, modulus incision. October 2003 equipment. August 1987
of elasticity and strength. May 2003 DIN 53 370 Testing of plastics films: Determination of
DIN 68 800 Wood preservation. Part 1: General. October thickness by mechanical scanning. Nov. 2006 3 Solar energy
2011. Part 2: Preventive constructional measures in DIN EN ISO 305 Plastics: Determination of the thermal DIN 18 015-1 Electrical installations in residential
buildings. February 2012. Part 3: Preventive protection stability of polyvinylchloride (PVC), related chlorine- buildings.
of wood with wood preservatives. February 2012. containing homopolymers and copolymers and their Part 1: Planuning principles. September 2013
Part 4: Curative treatment of wood-destroying fungi compounds. October 1999 Part 2: Nature and extent of minimum equipment.
and insects and refurbishment. February 2012 DIN EN ISO 527 Plastics: Determination of tensile November 2010
properties Part 3: Wiring and disposition of electrical equipment.
5 Metal DIN EN ISO 2578 Plastics: Determination of time- September 2016
DIN 18 335 German construction contract proced- temperature limits after prolonged exposure to heat. DIN 18 516-4 Back-ventilated, non-load-bearing external
ures. Part C: General technical specifications in October 1998 enclosures of buildings made from tempered safety
construction contracts: Steel construction works. glass panels: Requirements and testing. February
August 2015 Part C Special topics 1990.
DIN 18 339 German construction contract procedures. DIN EN 410 Glass in building. Determination of luminous
Part C: General technical specifications in construction 1 Multilayer glass facades and solar characteristics of glazing. April 2011
contracts: Plumbing works. September 2012 Soundproofing DIN EN 674 Glass in building. Determination of thermal
DIN 18 360 German construction contract procedures. DIN EN ISO 717-1 Acoustic field measurement of sound transmittance (U-value): Guarded hot plate method.
Part C: General technical specifications in construction insulation in buildings and of building elements. Part 1: September 2011
contracts: Metalwork. September 2012 Airborne sound insulation: Impact: requirements and DIN EN 12 975 -1 Thermal solar systems and compo-
DIN 18 364 German construction contract procedures. testing. June 2013 nents. Solar collectors. Part 1: General requirements.
Part C: General technical specifications in construction VDI 2058 Part 3: Assessment of noise in the working area January 2011
contracts: Corrosion protection of steel and aluminium with regard to specific operations. August 2014 DIN EN ISO 10 077-1 Thermal performance of windows,
structures. September 2012 VDI 2719 Sound isolation of windows and their auxiliary doors and shutters. Calculation of thermal trans-
DIN 18 516 -1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at equipment. August 1987 mittance.
the rear. Part 1: Requirements, principles of testing. Aerophysics Part 1: General. May 2010
June 2010 DIN 1946-6 Ventilation and air conditioning. Part 6: Part 2: Numerical method for frames. August 2015
DIN EN ISO 12 944 Paints and varnishes: Corrosion Ventilation for residential buildings: General require- BS EN 50 583 Photovoltaics in buildings. Part 1:
protection of steel structures by protection coating ments, requirements for measuring, performance BIPV modules. January 2016. Part 2: BIPV systems.
systems. Parts 1–7. March 2000 and labeling, delivery / acceptance (certification) and January 2016
maintenance.
6 Glass DIN 33 403-3 Climate at the workplace and its environ- 4 Integrated facades
DIN EN 1051-1 Glass in building: Glass blocks and ments. Part 3: Assessment of the climate in warm and DIN 1946 - 6 Ventilation and air conditioning. Part 6:
glass pavers. Part 1: Definitions and description. hot working areas based on selected climate indices. Ventilation for residential buildings – General require-
April 2003 Part 2: Evaluation of conformity. December July 2011 ments. May 2009
2012 VDI 2083 Clean-room technology DIN Fachbericht 4108 -8 Thermal insulation and
DIN 1249 -11 Flat glass for building construction; Glass energy economy in buildings. Part 8: Avoidance
edges; Concept, Characteristics of edge types and 2 Manipulators of mould growth in residential buildings. September
finishes. September 1986 AGI F 20 Sonnen- und Blendschutzsysteme: Leitfaden 2010
DIN 1259 Glass. Part 1: Terminology for glass types and zur Auswahl. (Guidelines on choosing sunscreening DIN 4719 Ventilation and air conditioning – Require-
groups. September 2001 Part 2: Terminology of glass and blind systems) September 2004 ments, performance, testing and labelling. July 2009
products. September 2001 DIN 18 055 Criteria for the use of windows and exterior VDI 6035 Ventilation and air conditioning technology –
DIN 4242 Glass block walls: Construction and dimen- doors in accordance with DIN EN 14 351-1. November Decentralized ventilation systems – Wall-mounted
sioning. January 1979 2014 air conditioners (VDI ventilation rules). September
DIN 12 116 Testing of glass: Resistance to attack by a DIN 18 357 German construction contract procedures. 2009
boiling acqueous solution of hydrochloric acid: Method Part C: General technical specifications in construction EU Commission Regulation 1253/2014 on eco-design
of test and classification. March 2001 contracts: Mounting of door and window hardware. requirements for ventilation units of the 7th of July
DIN 18 545-1 Sealing of glazing with sealants. Part 1: September 2012 2014. Official Journal of the European Union, L 337/8.
Requirements on window rebates. July 2015 DIN EN 12 207 Windows and doors. Air permeability: Brussels 25.11.2014.
DIN EN 356 Glass in building: Security glazing: Testing Classification. January 2015
and classification of resistance against manual attack. DIN EN 12 208 Windows and doors. Watertightness: 5 Refurbishing existing facades
Draft, February 2000 Classification. June 2000 DIN V 18 599 Energy efficiency of buildings. Calculation
DIN EN 572 Glass in building: Basic soda lime-silicate DIN EN 12 210 Windows and doors. Resistance to wind of the net, final and primary energy demand for heating,
products. June 2016 load: Classification. May 2013 cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and lighting.
DIN EN 1063 Glass in building: Security glazing: Testing DIN EN 12 216 Shutters, external blinds, internal June 2013
and classification of resistance against bullet attack. blinds. Terminology, glossary and definitions. German Energy saving ordinance. May 2014
January 2000 November 2002
DIN EN 1279 Glass in building – Insulating glass units. DIN EN 12 400 Windows and pedestrian doors. Mechan- 6 Green facades
Part 1: Generalities, dimensional tolerances and rules ical durability: Requirements and classification. January DIN EN 1991-1-1 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures.
for system descriptions. August 2004 2003 Part 1-1 General actions – Densities, self-weight and
Part 2: Long-term test method and requirements for DIN EN 13 115 Windows. Classification of mechanical imposed loads for buildings. December 2010
moisture penetration. August 2008 properties: Racking, torsion and operating forces. DIN 1986 -100/A1 Drainage systems for private ground.
Part 3: Long-term test method and requirements for November 2012 Part 100: Specifications in relation to DIN EN 752 and
gas leakage rate and gas concentration tolerances. DIN EN 13 120 Internal blinds: Performance requirements DIN EN 12056. November 2013
August 2015 including safety. September 2014 DIN 18 195 Waterproofing of buildings: Principles,
Part 4: Methods of test for the physical attributes of edge DIN EN 13 125 Shutters and blinds. Additional thermal definitions, attribution of waterproofing types. June
seal components and inserts. August 2015 resistance: Allocation of a class of air permeability to a 2015
Part 5: Evaluation and conformity. November 2010 product. October 2001 DIN 18 916 Vegetation technology in landscaping:
Part 6: Factory production control and periodic tests. DIN EN 13 126 Building hardware. Hardware for windows Plants and plant care. June 2016
August 2015 and door-height windows: Requirements and test FLL Green-roofing guidelines. Guidelines for the plan-
DIN EN 1863 Glass in building – Heat-strengthened methods: Parts 1–17. February 2012 ning, construction and maintenance of green roofing.
soda-lime silicate glass. Part 1: Definition and descrip- DIN EN 13 561 External blinds and awnings. Performance Bonn: Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung
tion. February 2012 requirements including safety. August 2015 Landschaftsbau e. V., 2000.

349
 PTFE-coated ∫ 234, 287 113, 324 I
Index Sound insulating coating /anti-drum Facade type ∫ 59 Impact load ∫ 29, 195
coating ∫ 97, 248 Face control line ∫ 49f. Impregnation ∫ 136
Coefficient of thermal expansion ∫ 190 Facing bricks ∫ 113 Incoming air ∫ 40f., 58, 201, 241,
Collector ∫ 20 Facing shells ∫ 34ff., 112, 330, 339 323, 326
A Air collector ∫ 299, 305, 339 Facing wall ∫ 67 Incoming air openings ∫ 41
Absorber ∫ 296f., 299ff., 309, 310f. Flat plate collector ∫ 296 Fastening at points ∫ 197f. Incrusted facade ∫ 66
Solid absorber ∫ 35, 296 Solar collectors ∫ 296f. Fastening elements ∫ 54, 135 Inner shell ∫ 35, 38, 200
Acrylic glass ∫ 197, 217 Tube collectors ∫ 298 Fibre cement ∫ 110ff., 113ff. Inspection opening ∫ 206
Adhesive bonding ∫ 32, 164, 196 Vacuum tube collectors ∫ 299, 318 Fire protection ∫ 57ff., 193 Installation sequences ∫ 43
Aggregates ∫ 110ff., 113f. Water collector ∫ 18, 299, 302 Fire-resistant glazing ∫ 57, 193 Insulating glazing, double glazing
Air-conditioning technologies ∫ 18 Column orders ∫ 47 Fire resistance class ∫ 57 ∫ 28, 36, 45, 54, 77, 174, 306, 313,
Air speeds ∫ 18, 40f. Comfort ∫ 19, 40, 267, 270, 298, 332ff. Fire spreading ∫ 53, 58, 245f. 319, 329, 331
Air temperature ∫ 18, 22ff., 41ff., Visual comfort ∫ 22 Fit-out grid ∫ 50 Thiokol polymer ∫ 197
53, 243 Composite material ∫ 31, 110, 162, Fixed glazing ∫ 39, 42 Insulating properties ∫ 132
Airlock ∫ 241, 296 164, 332 Flanking transmission ∫ 24 Integrated atria ∫ 239
Alloys ∫ 159, 161 Compressive force ∫ 30ff., 132 Foil roller blinds ∫ 194 Interior illumination ∫ 55f.
Aluminium ∫ 70f., 91, 160ff., 196 Compressive strength ∫ 65, 110f., Folded plate ∫ 30ff. Interior insulation ∫ 330f.
Anchor ∫ 69ff., 80 190, 218 Forming ∫ 161, 164, 167, 191 Internal conditions ∫ 19ff.
Anchoring ∫ 34, 36f., 68f., 90ff., Concrete ∫ 107ff. Formwork joints ∫ 111
113, 115 Exposed concrete ∫ 107f., 110f. Formwork ties ∫ 108, 111 J
Angle of incidence ∫ 24 Glass-fibre-reinforced concrete Frost resistance ∫ 65, 110, 113 Joining ∫ 10, 53, 161
Aramid fibre fabric ∫ 221f. ∫ 126 Joint ∫ 24, 30ff., 51, 54, 58ff., 69, 108,
Ashlar ∫ 65ff., 67 Heavy concrete ∫ 110 G 111ff., 135, 166f., 196f., 348
Assembly ∫ 32f., 43ff. High-performance concretes ∫ 111 Gathered awnings ∫ 270 Bed joint ∫ 66, 80, 100
Construction time ∫ 45, 166, 302 In-situ concrete ∫ 107 GFRP panel ∫ 219 Construction joints ∫ 108, 166
Installation tolerances ∫ 32, 51, 166 Lightweight concretes ∫ 110, 333 Glass ∫ 189ff., 239ff. Joint sealing ∫ 32f., 37, 43, 112
Attachments ∫ 166, 183, 220 Opus caementicium ∫ 107 Antique glass ∫ 190, 195 Joint width ∫ 68, 112, 196
Axial dimensions /grid reference ∫ 49 Self-compacting concretes ∫ 111f. Armoured or bulletproof glass Movement joints ∫ 89
Textile-reinforced concretes ∫ 111 ∫ 192 Open joint ∫ 34, 135, 332
B Concrete blocks ∫ 90, 108ff. Bent glass ∫ 192ff. Shadow gap ∫ 32, 112
Backing material ∫ 301, 337 Concrete stone panels ∫ 113, 115 Cast glass ∫ 190, 239
Basalt panel ∫ 80 Concrete technology ∫ 110f. Colourless glass ∫ 191 L
Basic grid ∫ 70 Condensate ∫ 23, 53ff., 74 Dichroic glass ∫ 192, 197 Layers ∫ 27ff., 34ff., 193f., 330
Basic module ∫ 48f. Convection ∫ 22, 24, 25, 35, 41, 54, Electrochromic glass ∫ 194, 268 Leadlight glazing ∫ 196
Bay window ∫ 239, 241f. 194ff., 296, 299, 331 Etched glass ∫ 193, 195 Light ∫ 18, 21, 40, 55, 296, 348f.
Bending beams ∫ 30 Coordinating measurement ∫ 50 F-glazing ∫ 57f. Incident light ∫ 199, 267, 270
Bending stresses ∫ 30 Coordination of dimensions ∫ 20, 48 Fire-polished glass ∫ 192 Lighting ∫ 32, 39, 41
Bending tensile strength ∫ 87 Corridor facade ∫ 242 Fire-resistant glazing ∫ 57, 193 Light diffusion ∫ 34, 195
Binding agent ∫ 32, 110, 113 Corrosion ∫ 13, 37, 51, 67, 110, 162, Flat glass ∫ 190ff. Light refraction ∫ 11, 18, 35, 41, 55
Blinds and shutters ∫ 56, 194, 248, 186, 299, 339 Float glass ∫ 190ff. Translucence ∫ 27f., 31, 35
258, 348 Protect against corrosion ∫ 51, 135, G-glazing ∫ 57f. Light metals ∫ 162
Brick ∫ 22, 39, 65, 87ff., 90, 92, 109, 162f., 339 Laminated glass ∫ 192f. Lightweight structures ∫ 35, 111, 155,
159, 182 Corrugated panels ∫ 110, 219, 221 Laminated safety glass ∫ 185ff., 161, 180, 297
Brick formats ∫ 113 Curtain wall ∫ 160 192f., 195, 197 Lime mortar ∫ 107
Broken stone ∫ 77 Matt glass ∫ 302 Limestone ∫ 67, 73, 110, 115
Buffer facade ∫ 239ff. D Patterned glass ∫ 191, 195 Load-bearing anchor ∫ 68, 113
Building physics ∫ 22f., 53ff. Daylight factor (DF) ∫ 40 Plate glass ∫ 190ff., 195 Loggia ∫ 29, 204, 239, 241f., 296
Building with facade elements ∫ 43 Decorations ∫ 88 Profiled glass ∫ 191, 195, 297
Building-within-a-building principle Dimensional tolerances ∫ 51 Screen-printing ∫ 192, 199f. M
∫ 242f., 245 Diorite – soft stone ∫ 65, 72 Solar protection glazing ∫ 214 Maintenance ∫ 20, 43, 55, 63, 142,
Bulk density ∫ 23, 65, 110, 113 Discolouration ∫ 112, 132, 135, 191 Solid-coloured glass ∫ 191 179, 245f., 323f.
Dispersion paints ∫ 137 Sound insulation glazing ∫ 193f. Manipulators ∫ 42, 44, 267ff., 297
C Double corrugated polycarbonate panel Structural sealant glazing ∫ 197ff. Manufacturing tolerances ∫ 32
Cable mesh structure ∫ 30, 338 ∫ 219 Thermotropic glass ∫ 28, 193ff. Marble ∫ 65f., 67, 69f., 72f., 114, 267
Casement window facades ∫ 242, Double facade ∫ 7, 35, 226, 239, Toughened safety glass ∫ 191ff., 195 Masonry ∫ 39, 54, 60, 65, 67, 87ff.,
244f. 241, 256 Wired glass ∫ 190f., 195 107, 109, 111, 113, 196, 332f., 338
Cast iron ∫ 131, 159f. Double-skin facade ∫ 57f., 240ff. Glass blocks ∫ 189, 208, 349 Exposed brickwork ∫ 88
Casting resin ∫ 57, 195f., 302 Dowels ∫ 112f., 115 Hollow glass blocks ∫ 191f. Facing brickwork ∫ 88
Cement Draining of water ∫ 91, 314 Solid glass blocks ∫ 191, 195 Masonry wall ∫ 107, 306
Cement-bonded materials ∫ 107ff. Draughts ∫ 45, 53, 324 Glass fibres ∫ 31, 126, 222 Masonry bonds ∫ 113
Cement fibreboard ∫ 135 Drill holes ∫ 197 Glass infills ∫ 109 Material properties ∫ 65, 87
Cement render ∫ 76 Glass rebate ∫ 33, 60 Media facade ∫ 13
Cement stone ∫ 110, 114 E Glaze ∫ 90 Membrane ∫ 29ff., 35f., 195, 220f., 233,
White cement ∫ 113 Edge distance ∫ 135 Glazed annexes ∫ 296 235, 287, 302
Ceramic panel ∫ 91f., 96, 112 Energy can get into buildings ∫ 24 Glazes ∫ 92, 136ff. Membrane cushion ∫ 233
Chamfer ∫ 133 Energy consumption ∫ 330 Glazing bar ∫ 196f. Membrane materials ∫ 162, 170, 223
Chimney or stack effect ∫ 23 Epdm ∫ 196, 219 Glazing bead ∫ 196 Metal ∫ 159ff., 163
Clamps ∫ 135, 195, 220, 261, 316 ETFE ∫ 219ff. Green facades ∫ 337ff. Metal facade ∫ 160f., 166f.
Clapboard or weatherboard siding ETFE film ∫ 230ff. Greenhouse effect ∫ 24f., 190, 267 Metal foam ∫ 162
∫ 138, 154 Exchange of air ∫ 18f., 40f., 43, 53, Grid ∫ 48ff. Metal materials ∫ 162ff., 170
Clay ∫ 87ff., 333 240ff., 323f. Grid shells ∫ 30 Metallic textiles (meshing) ∫ 170f.
Clinker ∫ 88, 100, 110, 115, 283, 330 Exhaust air facade ∫ 242, 285 Metamorphites ∫ 65
Coatings ∫ 24f., 35f., 114, 131, 135, Expand longitudinally ∫ 29, 196 H Modular facade ∫ 30, 32
137f., 162f., 192ff., 197, 300 Expanded metal ∫ 169 Heat gains ∫ 192, 298 Module ∫ 47ff.
Absorber coating ∫ 299 Exterior shell ∫ 88 Heat losses ∫ 35, 43, 53ff., 241ff., 296, Modular formats ∫ 113
Anti-reflection coatings ∫ 192 External conditions ∫ 19ff. 305, 329, 332 Moisture penetration ∫ 110, 135, 196
Ceramic coating ∫ 193, 214 Heat recovery ∫ 18, 251, 323ff. Moisture protection ∫ 54
Coatings applied during glass F Heat storage capacity ∫ 23, 34ff. Moisture resistance ∫ 113
manufacture ∫ 192 Facade Heat transmission ∫ 22ff., 54, 331 Mortar ∫ 31, 66, 88, 113f.
Colour coatings ∫ 114 Corridor facade ∫ 244 Heavy gas ∫ 56, 190, 193 Moulded parts ∫ 220f.
Low-E coatings ∫ 28, 35, 206, 248 Suspended ∫ 29, 37, 67, 90, 109, Horizontal forces ∫ 29, 37, 67, 113 Mud ∫ 87, 95

350
Multi-layer ∫ 59, 102, 109, 111, 133f., Replacing facades ∫ 332 Stainless steel ∫ 71, 160f., 163f., UV radiation ∫ 220
191ff., 239ff., 332 Replacing windows ∫ 331 167ff., 171 UV-permeable ∫ 195, 221
Multi-ply board ∫ 111 Resistance to ageing ∫ 218 Standard measurement ∫ 49 UV-resistant ∫ 32, 197, 227, 235
Multi-shell ∫ 27f., 34, 59 Resistance to changing temperatures States of openness and closure ∫ 267
Multi-skin polycarbonate sheeting ∫ 191f. Steel ∫ 91, 103, 111, 159ff., 167ff., V
∫ 224, 304 Resistance to impact ∫ 219 184, 190, 195, 286 Vapour diffusion ∫ 34, 60, 137
Multi-web double sheets ∫ 31 Resistance to weather ∫ 219 Rust-resistant steel ∫ 91, 113 Ventilation ∫ 23f., 35, 39ff., 54, 240ff.
Retaining anchor ∫ 68f., 78f., 80 Weathering steel ∫ 163ff., 184 Brief, intensive ventilation ∫ 40, 44
N Roller blinds ∫ 54f. Storage mass ∫ 24f., 244, 296f., Cross-ventilation ∫ 40ff.
Natural stone ∫ 65ff., 107, 112f., 339 Roller shutter ∫ 42, 267 305, 325 Natural ventilation ∫ 41, 230,
Room temperature ∫ 22f., 296 Storage walls ∫ 296 241ff., 323
O Round timber ∫ 133 Stowing ∫ 268ff. Regulated or controlled ventilation
Opening mechanism ∫ 43, 268f. Structural sealant glazing SSG ∫ 24, 41, 244, 284, 309
Opening sash ∫ 39, 41, 199, 241 S ∫ 197ff., 314 Slot ventilation ∫ 39, 44, 270
Sandstone ∫ 65ff., 72f. Suction forces ∫ 113 Tangential ventilation ∫ 41
P Sandwich construction ∫ 32, 35, 161f. Sun’s position ∫ 25, 55 Ventilation openings ∫ 32, 34, 40, 57,
Paints ∫ 136ff., 164 Sandwich elements ∫ 112f., 164ff., 217 Sunshading ∫ 18, 43, 55ff., 161, 194, 135, 244, 246, 270
Panel ∫ 32, 54f., 68f., 161, 166, 325 Sawn construction timber ∫ 133 267, 290, 306 Ventilation heat losses ∫ 243, 323,
Patination ∫ 13, 162, 164 Screening from view ∫ 11, 18 Support structures ∫ 30, 339 330, 332
Perforated sheet ∫ 36, 165, 285 Sealing ∫ 32, 43, 54, 59, 94f., 114, Surface finishes ∫ 108 Ventilation technology ∫ 60, 324ff.
Photovoltaic ∫ 14, 18, 20, 28, 53, 59, 167, 196 Surface tensions ∫ 138, 192 Vertical forces ∫ 30, 36, 113
194, 300ff. Adhesive seals ∫ 196 Surface treatments ∫ 72, 109, Views and lines of sight ∫ 39, 40
PV glazing ∫ 194 Contact seals ∫ 196 111ff., 192 Volume change ∫ 162
PV modules ∫ 295, 298ff., 302f. Joint sealing ∫ 32f., 43, 112 Swelling and shrinking rates ∫ 132
Pig iron ∫ 159 Lipped profile ∫ 33 W
Pigments ∫ 69, 110, 113f., 136f., 192 Permanently elastic ∫ 112, 196f. T Water absorption ∫ 218
Pitting ∫ 162 Rubber-sealed ∫ 60 Tensile force ∫ 29f., 36f., 126, 132, Water vapour ∫ 23, 27, 32, 34f.,
Planning grid ∫ 49 Sedimentites ∫ 65 Tensile strength ∫ 65, 87, 110, 218, 138, 193
Plants ∫ 29, 337ff. Semi-finished products ∫ 162, 218ff. Tensile stresses ∫ 30, 217f. Waterproofing ∫ 114
Plastics ∫ 217ff. Semi-transparent ∫ 27f., 129, 300ff. Tension, stress Waxes ∫ 137
Fibre-reinforced plastic ∫ 217 Separating ∫ 50 Compressive stress ∫ 191 Weather conditions ∫ 14, 53ff.,
Plastic foil ∫ 193 Acoustic decoupling ∫ 190 Permissible stresses ∫ 30 115, 196
Plastic prism ∫ 56, 194, 306 Shade ∫ 14, 40, 42, 295f., 301f., 338f. Tent structures ∫ 218 Weather resistance ∫ 218
Synthetic fabrics ∫ 217f. Shading system ∫ 194 Thermal bridge ∫ 36f., 51, 54, 58, 91, Weathering ∫ 87, 115, 142, 166
Plastics reinforced with glass fibre (GFRP) Shaft facade ∫ 240, 244f. 103, 113, 191, 274, 331, 348 Weatherproof envelope / shell ∫ 32,
∫ 219 Shaped bricks and stones ∫ 109 Thermal buffer ∫ 123, 241, 331f. 34, 36
GFRP panel ∫ 219 Sheet metal embossed with lozenges Thermal changes in mass ∫ 91 Wind forces ∫ 9, 40f.
Plinth ∫ 54, 66f., 84, 109, 338 ∫ 168 Thermal conductivity ∫ 23f., 31, 65, 87, Wind loads ∫ 29f., 39, 53, 60, 68,
Pneumatic structure ∫ 30f., 35f., Sheets ∫ 32ff., 56ff., 220, 240ff. 163, 190, 218 88, 113
217f., 221 Shell structures ∫ 34, 217 Thermal expansion ∫ 72, 162 Wind pressure ∫ 23f., 30, 32ff., 40,
Polyester fabrics ∫ 221ff. Shingles ∫ 91, 110, 133, 135, 138 Thermal insulation ∫ 28, 34ff., 53ff., 59f. 59, 324
Post and beam facades ∫ 30, 45, 56 Shiplap ∫ 91 Temporary thermal insulation ∫ 296 Wind protection ∫ 35, 170, 183
Precast concrete components ∫ 112ff. Shutter ∫ 267f., 270 Thermal insulating glazing ∫ 28 Wind speeds ∫ 23, 32, 242f., 323
Prefabricated system construction Bi-fold shutter ∫ 126 Thermal radiation ∫ 22ff., 34, 296 Wind suction anchor ∫ 224, 226
∫ 109 Folding shutter ∫ 116, 270, 283f. Long-wave ∫ 24, 54, 190, 241 Window ∫ 39ff., 54, 56, 59f., 240, 267f.,
Prefabrication ∫ 27ff., 45f., 65f., 70, 108, Folding shutter (moved by pivoting) Thermal storage mass ∫ 296f. 270, 330
160f., 166, 302, 325, 340 ∫ 267, 270 Thermal transmission resistance ∫ 53 Coupled window ∫ 239ff.
Pressure rod ∫ 230, 321 Hinged shutter ∫ 267, 270 Thermal transmittance coefficient Double casement windows
Prestressing ∫ 29f., 33, 170, 191f., 221 Side-hung shutter ∫ 270 ∫ 22, 219 ∫ 121, 239ff., 241
Chemical prestressing ∫ 192 Sliding shutter ∫ 267 Timber ∫ 131ff. Double windows ∫ 239ff.
Mechanic prestressing ∫ 221f. Sliding shutter (sliding horizontally) Cement fibreboard ∫ 135 Exhaust air windows ∫ 239ff.
Prism systems ∫ 56 ∫ 267, 270, 286 Chipboard ∫ 133, 135 Folding, sliding window ∫ 43
Production technologies ∫ 162f. Sick building syndrome ∫ 23, 25, 240 OSB board ∫ 133, 135 Folding window ∫ 42, 270, 283
Profiled webs ∫ 68 Side-hung or sliding fittings ∫ 43 Solid wood ∫ 131, 133, 135 French windows ∫ 283
Protection against break-ins ∫ 19 Side-hung sashes ∫ 42, 267 SVL (structural veneer lumber) Hopper window ∫ 42ff.
Protection against overheating ∫ 297 Single glazing ∫ 192, 239, 264, 314, 332 ∫ 134f. Horizontal pivot window ∫ 42ff.
Protection from glare ∫ 18, 22, 53, 90, Single-shell ∫ 27, 31, 35 Wood fibreboard ∫ 133, 135 Pivot-hung window ∫ 43
98, 191, 194f., 269 Skeleton structure ∫ 107 WPCs (Wood Plastic Composites) Pivoting /sliding window ∫ 43
Protection from insects ∫ 36, 135 Slats ∫ 28, 133, 267, 333 ∫ 135 Pivoting window ∫ 43
Protection from weather ∫ 9f., 44, 51, Glass slats ∫ 260 Timber frame structure ∫ 59, 140 Push-out window ∫ 42ff., 270
87, 194 Light-refracting louvres ∫ 279, 290 Timber preservatives ∫ 135f. Side-hung hopper (turn and tilt) ∫ 43
PTFE ∫ 219ff. Sandstone louvres ∫ 84f. Timber siding ∫ 138f. Sliding window ∫ 42ff., 270
Punctuated facade ∫ 39, 45, 54, 71, 107 Venetian blinds ∫ 270 Tolerances ∫ 20, 29, 32, 37, 45, 48, Storm window ∫ 239f.
Purposes of load bearing ∫ 28ff., 36 Smoke extraction ∫ 58 50f., 59f. Top-hung window ∫ 44
Putty ∫ 196 Snow loads ∫ 29, 60, 221, 340 Tongue-and-groove ∫ 34, 133, 135 Windows with pivoting panes ∫ 42
PVC ∫ 217f., 220ff. Solar cells ∫ 194, 301f. Translucency ∫ 31, 43, 69, 170, 194, Window frames ∫ 324
Monocrystalline solar cells ∫ 316 222, 287 Window reveal ∫ 29, 275
R Polycrystalline solar cells ∫ 313 Translucent thermal insulation ∫ 35, Windproofing ∫ 34, 35, 36
Radiation ∫ 20, 21ff., 27, ∫ 34, 41, Thin-film cells ∫ 300f. 194f., 296f., 303 Wood-based materials ∫ 133ff.
55f., 162, 190, 194, 295f., 298ff. Solar energy ∫ 239f., 243, 267, 295ff. Transmission heat loss ∫ 241ff., 330 Synthetic resin-bonded wood-based
Radiation transport ∫ 22f. Solar radiation ∫ 18, 20f., 24f., 45, 53f., Transparency ∫ 27ff., 66f., 189ff., materials ∫ 134
Rail system ∫ 68 162f., 190, 241, 267, 295ff., 299ff., 331 217ff., 267f.
Rainwater channelling ∫ 115 Solar technologies ∫ 248 Truss ∫ 30, 58
Rate of air exchange ∫ 241, 243 Solid structure ∫ 59, 65, 67, Three-dimensional truss ∫ 30
Rear ventilation ∫ 27f., 37f., 67, 135, Sound ∫ 24, 32, 34, 39, 51, 56ff., 61, Trussing ∫ 30
301, 312 119, 145, 190ff., 242f., 323 Types of concrete ∫ 110
Rear-ventilated curtain wall ∫ 35, 78 Sound-insulating glazing ∫ 193f. Types of surfaces ∫ 29
Rebate ∫ 196f., 221, 274 Sound reduction index ∫ 56, 193
Reflection ∫ 18, 24, 40, 42, 55f., Sound transmission ∫ 24ff., 190, U
192, 295f. 243f. U-values ∫ 329, 331ff.
Reinforcement ∫ 30, 110ff. Soundproofing ∫ 24, 56f., 113, Use of daylight ∫ 43, 56, 199, 206, 239
Relative humidity ∫ 23 241ff., 349 UV protection ∫ 136, 137

351
Facade Construction MANUAL
In recent years, facades have become more important in ar-
chitectural practice and in public perception. As well as func-
tioning as a protective shell and visible “face” and supplying
heat and electricity, a building’s exterior interacts directly with
the surrounding public space.
This revised and expanded new edition of the Facade
Construction Manual offers readers technical and design
planning fundamentals in a compact reference work.
A section describing a comprehensive selection of built
structures shows general and unique, tried and tested,
and innovative approaches to facade planning – down to
the last detail.

• Over 100 examples of built structures

• Material-specific approaches for use in planning facades
• More than 250 detailed drawings and sketches and around
400 illustrations
• Technical planning fundamentals
• Special issues involving modern facade concepts

Authors:

Thomas Herzog
Prof. Dr. (Univ. Rome) Dr. h.c. Dipl.-Ing. Architect BDA

Roland Krippner
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Architect BDA

Werner Lang
Prof. Dr.-Ing., M. Arch. II (UCLA) Architect

ISBN 978-3-95553-369-4

DETAIL Business Information GmbH, Munich

www.detail-online.com 9 783955 533694