THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY b.

Pharyngeal tonsils – located near

the internal opening of the nasal
Functions of the Lymphatic System cavity.
1. Fluid Balance – excess fluid enters the c. Lingual tonsils – located on the
lymphatic capillaries, where the fluid is posterior surface of the tongue.
called lymph, and it passes to the lymphatic
vessels to return to the blood. 2. Lymph nodes –filters the lymph that passes
through them before going to the blood. They
2. Fat Absorption – fats and other substance are distributed along various type of lymph
are absorbed in the digestive tract through vessels all through out the body but there are
the lacteals. three superficial aggregation of lymph nodes:
3. Defense – microorganisms and other inguinal nodes (groin area), cervical nodes
substances are filtered from lymph by (neck) and axillary nodes (armpit).
lymph nodes and from blood by the spleen. • Lymph nodules – dense aggregation
Lympocytes and other cells are capable of of tissues
destroying microorganisms and foreign
substances. • Lymphatic sinuses – spaces between
lymphatic tissues which contains
Lymphatic Capillaries and Vessels macrophages on a network of fibers.
1. Lymphatic Capillaries – tiny, closed- 3. Spleen – located in the left, superior corner
ended vessels consisting of simple of the abdominal cavity. The spleen filters blood
squamous epithelial tissues. More instead of lymph. It also serves as a reservoir for
permeable than blood capillaries that blood.
makes the flow of fluid easier.
• White pulp – lymphatic tissue
2. Lymphatic Vessels –collection of surrounding the arteries.
lymphatic capillaries that carries Lymph
away from the tissue. Valves in the end • Red pulp – associated with the veins;
ensure the one-way flow of lymph. consists of fibrous network filled with
macrophages and red blood cells.
Lymphatic Organs
4. Thymus – located in the upper
1. Tonsils – protect the opening of the mediastinum; site of the production and
nasal and oral cavities and the pharynx.
maturation of lymphocytes.
They provide protection against
pathogens and potentially harmful IMMUNITY
materials entering from the nose and
the mouth. -It is the ability to resist damage from foreign
substances, such as toxins released by
a. Palatine tonsils – located on each microorganisms.
side of the posterior opening of
the oral cavity.

ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A
»Classification of Immunity: Lysozyme – in tears and saliva kills certain
bacteria.
1. Innate Immunity Mucus – on mucous membranes prevents the
-a kind of immunity where in the body entry of microorganisms.
recognizes and destroys certain foreign » Other Chemical mediators:
substances, but the response to them is the
same each time the body is exposed to them. -This promotes inflammation by causing
vasodilatation, increasing vascular permeability,
2. Adaptive Immunity and stimulating phagocytosis. In addition,
-another kind of immunity that the body interferons protect cells against viral disease.
recognizes and destroys foreign substances, but
Complement
the response to them improves each time the
foreign substance is encountered. -is a group of approximately 20 proteins
found in plasma. The operation of complement
SPECIFICITY proteins is similar to that of clotting proteins.
-The ability of adaptive immunity to recognize a Normally, these proteins circulate in the blood
particular substance. in an inactive form.

MEMORY Interferons

-The ability of adaptive immunity to -are proteins that protect the body against
“remember” previous encounters with a viral infections. When a virus infects a cell, the
particular substance. infected cell produces viral nucleic acids and
proteins, which are assembled into new viruses.
Innate Immunity The new viruses are then released to infect
other cells.
Mechanical mechanisms
Cells
-prevent the entry of microorganisms and
chemicals into the body in two ways: White blood cells

a. The skin and mucous membranes -These are the most important cellular
from barriers that prevent their components of immunity. White blood cells are
entry; and produced in red bone marrow and lymphatic
a. Tears, saliva, and urine act to wash tissue and are released into the blood.
them from the surfaces of the body. Chemicals released from microorganisms or
damaged tissues attract the white blood cells,
Chemical mediators
and they leave the blood and enter affected
-are molecules responsible for many tissues.
aspects of innate immunity. Some of the
chemicals that are found on the surface of cells
kill microorganisms or prevent their entry into
the cells.

ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A
Chemotaxis Cells of Inflammation

-is the movement of white blood cells Basophils

toward these chemicals.
-which are derived from red bone marrow,
Phagocytosis are motile white blood cells that can leave the
-is the ingestion and destruction of blood and enter infected tissues.
particles by cells called phagocytes. The Mast cells
particles can be microorganisms or their parts,
foreign substances, or dead cells from the -which are also derived from red bone
individual’s body. marrow, are non-motile cells in connective
tissue , especially near capillaries. Like
Neutrophil macrophages, mast cells are locally near
- are small phagocytic cells that are usually capillaries.
the first cells to enter infected tissues from the
Eosinophils
blood in large numbers; however, neutrophils
often die after phagocytizing a single -are produced in red bone marrow, enter
microorganism. the blood, and within a few minutes enter
Pus tissues. Enzymes released by eosinophils break
- is an accumulation of fluid, dead down chemicals released by basophils and mast
neutrophils, and other cells at a site of cells. Thus at the same time that inflammation
infection. is initiated, mechanism are activated that
Macrophages contain and reduce the inflammatory response.
-are monocytes that leave the blood, Natural Killer Cells
enter tissues, and enlarge about fivefold.
Monocytes and macrophages form the - are a type of lymphocyte produced in
mononuclear phagocytic system because they red bone marrow, and they account for up to
are phagocytes with a single (mono), unlobed 15% of lymphocytes, NK cells recognize classes
nucleus. Macrophages can ingest more and of cells, such as tumor cells or virus – infected
larger items that can neutrophils. cells infected cells do not exhibit a memory
response , NK cells are classified as a part of
-Macrophages usually appear in infected innate immunity.
tissues after neutrophils and are responsible for
most of the phagocytic activity in the late stages -NK cells use a variety of methods to kill
of an infection, including the cleanup of dead their target cells, including the release of
neutrophils and the other cellular debris. chemicals that damage cell membranes, causing
the cells to lyse.

ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A
Inflammatory Response other cells, stimulates fever
production.
-The inflammatory response to injury involves
many of the chemicals and cells. Most c. In severe cases, vascular
inflammatory responses are very similar, permeability can increase so much
although some details can vary depending on that large amounts of fluid are lost
the intensity of the response and the type of from the blood into the tissues.
injury.
Adaptive Immunity
» The Chemicals produce several effects:
Antigens
1. Vasodilation, which increases blood flow
and brings phagocytes and other white -are substances that stimulate adaptive
blood cells to the area; immune responses.

2. Chemotactic attraction of phagocytes, which » Classifications of Antigens:

leave the blood and enter the tissue; and 1. Foreign antigens
3 Increased vascular permeability, allowing -are introduced from outside the body.
fibrinogen and complement to enter the tissue Microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses,
from the blood. cause diseases, and components of
microorganism and chemicals released by
» Types of Inflammation:
microorganisms are examples of foreign
1. Local Inflammation antigens.

-It is an inflammatory response confined Allergic reaction – are caused by pollen, animal
to a specific area of the body. Symptoms of hairs, foods, and drugs because these are
local inflammation include redness, heat, foreign antigens that produce an overreaction
swelling, pain, and loss of function. of the immune system.

2. Systemic Inflammation 2. Self-antigens

-It is an inflammatory response that is -are molecules produced by the person’s

generally distributed throughout the body. In body that stimulate an immune system
addition to the local symptoms at the sites of response. The response to self-antigens can be
inflammation, here are the additional features: beneficial.

a. Red bone marrow produces and Autoimmune disease – results when self-
releases large numbers of antigens stimulate unwanted destruction of
neutrophils, which promote normal tissue.
phagocytosis.
» Divisions of Adaptive Immunity Response:
b. Pyrogens, are chemicals released by
microorganisms, neutrophils, and 1. Humoral Immunity

2. Cell-mediated Immunity

ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A
» Types of Lymphocytes: Antigen receptors

1. B cells -are proteins found on the surfaces of the

lymphocytes.
-give rise to cells that produce proteins
called antibodies, which are found in the B-cell receptors
plasma. The antibodies are responsible for
humoral immunity, which is now called -are the antigen receptors on B cells.
antibody-mediated immunity. T-cell receptors
2. T cells -are the antigen receptors on T cells.
-are responsible for cell-mediated Major histocompatability complex (MHC)
immunity. molecules
Cytotoxic T cells – produce the effects of cell- -are glycoprotein, and they have binding
mediated immunity. sites for antigens. Different MHC molecules
Helper T cells – can promote or inhibit the have different binding sites, that is, they are
activities of both antibody-mediated immunity specific for certain antigens. They serves as
“serving trays” that hold and present a
and cell-mediated immunity.
processed antigens on the outer surface of the
Stem cells cell membrane.

-are cells that are found in the red bone Helper T-cells
marrow in which they are capable of giving rise
to all blood cells. Some stem cells give rise to -a special type of T cell can be stimulated in
pre-T cells, which migrate through the blood, to the combined MHC molecule and processed
the thymus gland, where they divide and are antigen can then bind to the antigen receptor
processed into T-cells. on a B or T cell and stimulate them.

Clones Antibody-Mediated Immunity

-are small groups of identical B or T cells Antibodies

which are formed during embryonic -are proteins produced in response to
development. an antigen. They are Y-shaped molecules
» Events that must occur having effective consisting of four polypeptide chains: two
adaptive immune response: identical heavy chains and two identical light
chains.
1. Antigen recognition by lymphocytes;
and Variable Region

2. Proliferation of the lymphocytes -are the ends of each “arm” of the

antibody which is the part of the antibody that
recognizing the antigen.
combines with the antigen.

ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A
Constant Region Primary Response-results from the first
exposure of a B cell to an antigen.
-is the rest part of the antibody which
has several functions. Plasma cells- produces antibodies.

Gamma globulins Memory B cells- responsible for the secondary

or memory response.
-one of the characteristics of antibodies
wherein they are found mostly in the gamma Secondary Response -occurs when the immune
globulin part of plasma. system is exposed to an antigen against which it
has already produced a primary response.
Immunoglobulins (Ig)
Cell- Mediated Immunity
-another characteristic of antibodies
such that the antibodies are globulin proteins -Cell-mediated immunity is a function of
involved in the immunity. cytotoxic T cells and is most effective against
microorganisms that live inside the cells of the
» General Classes of Immunoglobulin: body.
1. IgG
-activates complement and functions to » Main Effects of Cytotoxic T Cells:
increase phagocytosis.
2. IgM 1. They release cytokines that activate
-activates complement and acts as an additional components of the immune
antigen-binding receptor on the surface of B
system.
cells.
3. IgA 2. Cytotoxic T cells can come into contact
-secreted into saliva, tears, and onto
with other cells and kill them.
mucous membranes to provide protection on
body surfaces.
Immune Interactions
4. IgE
-binds to mast cells and basophils, and ⦿ Innate immunity, antibody-mediated
stimulates the inflammatory response.
immunity, and cell-mediated immunity
5. IgD
-functions as antigen-binding receptors can function together to eliminate an
on B cells. antigen.
» Effects of Immunoglobulin:
Acquired Immunity
1. Inactivates the antigen.
⦿ There are four ways to acquire adaptive
2. Binds antigen together. immunity: active natural, active
artificial, passive natural, and passive
3. Activates the compliment cascade. artificial.
4. Initiates the release of inflammatory Immunotherapy
chemicals.
⦿ Immunotherapy treats disease by
5. Facilitates phagocytosis. altering immune system function or by
directly attacking harmful cells.

ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A
 ⦿ Stimulates or inhibits the immune ⦿ Example of hypersensitivities:
system to treat disease.
o Hay fever
APPROCHES in Immunotherapy:
o Asthma
➢ By boosting immune system function in
o Urticaria or hives (a skin rash or
general
localized swelling that can be caused
Ex. administering cytokines in destructing tumor
by an ingested allergen
cells
➢ Inhibiting immune system o Anaphylaxis ( a systemic allergic
ex. in treating autoimmune diseases reaction, often resulting from insect
such as multiple scleroses stings or drugs such as penicillins)
➢ By taking a more specific approach
ex. Vaccination  AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome)- a life threatening disease
Effects of Aging on the Lymphatic System and caused by the human
Immunity immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

1. Aging has a little effect on the lymphatic

system to remove fluid from tissues,
absorb fats form the digestive tract, or
remove defective red blood cells from the
blood.
2. Decreased helper T cell proliferation
results in decreased antibody-mediated
immunity and cell-mediated immunity
responses to antigens.
3. The primary and secondary antibody
responses decrease with age.
4. The ability to resist intracellular pathogens
decreases with age.
Pathology of the Lymphatic System and
Immunity

⦿ Sjorgen Syndrome- a systemic,

autoimmune inflammatory disorder
affecting glands and mucous
membranes

⦿ Allergy- also called hypersensitivity; a

harmful response to an antigen that
does not stimulate an adaptive immune
response in most people.

ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A