Ocw (Ee503)

Control system 1
Module 1: Introduction to control system:
Concept of feedback and Automatic control
Type and examples of feedback control system
Definition of Transfer function
Pole and Zeroes of a transfer function.

Concept of feedback and Automatic control

Control system: A control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages
commands, directs or regulates the behavior of other device(s) or system(s) to achieve desire
results.

Example: Automobile Steering Control System

Type and examples of feedback control system

There are two common classes of control action: open loop and closed loop.

open-loop Control System : A system in which the output has no effect on the input action is
called open-loop Control System. In other words, the output is neither measured nor fed back
for comparison with the input.
System Representation:

Examples: Washing machine, light switches, walking in a straight line drawn on the ground with
closed eyes
we can accurately control the process is by monitoring its output and “feeding” some of it back
to compare the actual output with the desired output so as to reduce the error, bring the output of
the system back to the original or desired response.
Advantages Disadvantages

Simplicity and stability: they are simpler in their Accuracy and Reliability: since these systems do
layout and hence are economical and stable too not have a feedback mechanism, so they are very
due to their simplicity. inaccurate in terms of result output and hence they
are unreliable too.

Construction: Since these are having a simple Due to the absence of a feedback mechanism, they
layout so are easier to construct. are unable to remove the disturbances occurring
from external sources

Closed-loop Control System : A Closed-loop Control System, also known as a feedback

control system is a control system which uses the concept of an open loop system as its forward
path but has one or more feedback loops (hence its name) or paths between its output and its
input. The reference to “feedback”, simply means that some portion of the output is returned
“back” to the input to form part of the systems excitation.
System Representation

Reference input: The input to the system is the reference value, or set point, for the system
output.
Manipulated variable: an independent variable that is manipulated to achieve a particular effect
or tested to determine if it is the cause of the effect.

Actuating signal: The signal that is difference between the reference input and the feedback
signal if actuates the control unit in order to maintain the output of the desired value.

Automatic Controllers. An automatic controller compares the actual value of the plant output
with the reference input (desired value), determines the deviation, and produces a control signal
that will reduce the deviation to zero or to a small value.

The actuator is a power device that produces the input to the plant according to the control
signal so that the output signal will approach the reference input signal.

Plants: The device, process, or system that need to be controlled.

The sensor or measuring element is a device that converts the output variable into another
suitable variable, such as a displacement, pressure, voltage, etc.

The main characteristics of Closed-loop Control :

To reduce errors by automatically adjusting the systems input.
To improve stability of an unstable system.
To increase or reduce the systems sensitivity.
To enhance robustness against external disturbances to the process.
To produce a reliable and repeatable performance.
However, closed loop control systems are generally more complicated and thus more
expensive to make.
Examples:
Consider walking in a straight line drawn on the ground. If your eyes are open, you get
feedback on where you are stepping, and can correct any missteps as you walk. It is easy
to walk straight correctly. If your eyes are closed, the only thing to go on is your own
judgment of how straight you are walking, and you will probably quickly walk off the
line.
Another example is the temperature control for a house. When the temperature of the
house falls too low, the thermostat measures it and turns on a heater. When the
temperature of the house is OK, the thermostat measures it and turns off a heater. When
the temperature is too high, it turns on an AC.
Comparison of Closed Loop And Open Loop Control System

Sr.
Open loop control system Closed loop control system
No.

The feedback element is

1 The feedback element is always present.
absent.
An error detector is not
2 An error detector is always present.
present.

3 It is stable one. It may become unstable.

4 Easy to construct. Complicated construction.

5 It is an economical. It is costly.
6 Having small bandwidth. Having large bandwidth.
7 It is inaccurate. It is accurate.
8 Less maintenance. More maintenance.
9 It is unreliable. It is reliable.

Examples: Hand drier, tea Examples: Servo voltage stabilizer,

10
maker perspiration

Definition of Transfer function

Transfer function is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output to

the input assuming all initial conditions are zero.

A control system consists of an output as well as an input signal. The output is related to the
input through a function called transfer function.
This function is represented by a block and the complete diagram of control system using these
blocks which represent transfer function and arrows which represent various signals, is
collectively known as block diagram of a control system. For any control system there exists a
reference input termed as excitation or cause which operates through a transfer operation termed
as transfer function and produces an effect resulting in controlled output or response.
Thus the cause and effect relationship between the output and input is related to each other
through a transfer function.

If the input is represented by R(s) and output is represented by C(s) in Laplace domain, then the
transfer function will be
Procedure for determining the transfer functions of a control system:
 We form the mathematical models for the system.
 Now we take Laplace transform of the system equations, assuming initial conditions as
zero.
 Specify system output and input.
 Lastly we take the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output and the Laplace transform
of the input which is the required transfer function.
Example1: Let us consider a system consists of a series connected resistance (R) and inductance
(L) across a voltage source (V).

In this circuit, due to flow of the current 'i' is the drop across inductor is VL. Hence the applied
voltage and drop across the inductor can be considered as input and output of the system
respectively.
From the circuit, we get,

Now applying Laplace Transform, we get,

V(S)=RI(S) + LSI(S) Assuming zero initial conditions
VL(S) = LSI(S)

Hence the transfer function of the given system is

Pole and Zeroes of a transfer function:

Poles are defined as the roots of the denominator of a transfer function.

Zeros are defined as the roots of the polynomial of the numerator of a transfer function
For the generalized transfer function G(s)=

The zeros areZ1,Z2,Z3,….Zn and the poles arep1,p2,p3,….Pn

Identifying the poles and zeros of a transfer function aids in understanding the behavior of the
system.
A pole-zero plots shows the location in the complex plane of the poles and zeros of the transfer
function of a dynamic system; by convention, the poles of the system are indicated in the plot by
an X while the zeros are indicated by a circle or O.
Example2:
consider a simple transfer function H(s)= . Find out the poles and zeros of the
system
The zeros are: {0}
The poles are: {1/2, −3/4}

Pole - Zero map

Example3. Transfer function of the given system is H(s)= . Find out the poles and zeros
of the system.

system has a pair of complex conjugate poles p1, p2 = −1 j2, a single real zero

z1 = −4, and a gain factor K = 3.

 MODULE 2: MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS
Writing differential equations and determining transfer function of model of various
physical systems including - Translational & Rotational mechanical systems,
Basic Electrical systems &transfer function ,
Liquid level systems,
Electrical analogy of Spring–Mass-Dashpot system.
Block diagram representation of control systems.
Block diagram algebra.
Signal flow graph.
Mason’s gain formula.

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
The fundamental step in performing systems analysis and control design in energy systems is
mathematical modeling.
Energy systems convert and store energy from a variety of physical domains, such as mechanical
(e.g. flywheel), electrical (e.g. ultracapacitor), hydraulic (e.g. accumulator), chemical (e.g.
gasoline), thermal (e.g. ice storage), economic (e.g. bank account) and more. As such, engineers
and scientists require a common framework for describing and analyzing energy systems. This
common framework is mathematics, and we refer to our description of the dynamic energy
systems as a mathematical model.
The model of a dynamic system is a set of equations (differential equations) that represents the
dynamics of the system using physics laws.

Example1: Let us consider a system consists of a series connected resistance (R) and inductance
(L) across a voltage source (V). find out the mathematical model of the system

In this circuit, flow of the current is 'i', the drop across inductor is VL. From the circuit, we get,

Now applying Laplace Transform, we get,

V(S)=RI(S) + LSI(S) Assuming zero initial conditions
VL(S) = LSI(S)

Translational mechanical systems:

There are three fundamental physical elements that make up translating mechanical system:
 Mass

 springs

 dashpot elements.

Derive the mathematical model of the folowing systems.

Rotational system:

As with translating mechanical systems, there are three fundamental physical elements that
comprise rotating mechanical system: inertia elements, springs and friction elements.

Analogy of rotational system with translational system

Rotating Systems Translating Systems

Quantity Unit Quantity Unit
Moment of Inertia - J kg-m² Mass - m kg
Torque - τ N-m Force - f N
Angle - θ rad Length - l m
Angular velocity -
rad/sec Velocity - m/s

Angular acceleration
rad/sec² Acceleration - m/s²
-
Spring Constant - Kr N-m/rad Spring Constant - k N/m
Friction Coefficient -
N-m-s/rad Friction Coefficient - g N-s/m
Br
Example:
Equations of Motion for a Rotating System In the system shown one flywheel (J1) is attached by
a flexible shaft (Kr) to ground (the unmoving wall) and has an applied torque, τa. A second
flywheel (J2) is driven by friction between the two flywheels (Br1). The second flywheel also
has friction to the ground (Br2). Derive equations of motion for the system shown.

Solution: First we must define our variables of motion. In this case there are two - the angles of
the flywheel. It is generally a good idea to define the variables in the same direction, so we
arbitrarily define them as positive in the counterclockwise direction.
Mathematical Modeling of Electrical System
In electrical type of systems we have three variables -
1. Voltage which is represented by ‘V’.
2. Current which is represented by ‘I’.
3. Charge which is represented by ‘Q’.
And also we have three parameters which are active and passive elements -
1. Resistance which is represented by ‘R’.
2. Capacitance which is represented by ‘C’.
3. Inductance which is represented by ‘L’.
Now we are in condition to derive analogy between electrical and mechanical types of systems.
There are two types of analogies and they are written below:
Force Voltage Analogy : In order to understand this type of analogy, let us consider a circuit
which consists of series combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor.

A voltage V is connected in series with these elements as shown in the circuit diagram. Now
from the circuit diagram and with the help of KVL equation we write the expression for voltage
in terms of charge, resistance, capacitor and inductor as,

Now comparing the above with that we have derived for the mechanical system we find that-
1. Mass (M) is analogous to inductance (L).
2. Force is analogous to voltage V.
3. Displacement (x) is analogous to charge (Q).
4. Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance R and
5. Spring constant is analogous to inverse of the capacitor (C).
This analogy is known as force voltage analogy. Force Current Analogy: In order to understand
this type of analogy, let us consider a circuit which consists of parallel combination of resistor,
inductor and capacitor.

A voltage E is connected in parallel with these elements as shown in the circuit diagram. Now
from the circuit diagram and with the help of KCL equation we write the expression for current
in terms of flux, resistance, capacitor and inductor as,

Now comparing the above with that we have derived for the mechanical system we find that,
Mass (M) is analogous to Capacitor (C).
Force is analogous to current I.
Displacement (x) is analogous to flux (ψ).
Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance 1/ R and
Spring constant K is analogous to inverse of the inductor (L).
This analogy is known as force current analogy.

Conversion from Electrical to Mechanical 1 -- Mathematical Method

Start with an electrical circuit. Label all node

voltages.
Write a node equations for each node voltage

Re-write the equations using analogs (make

making substitutions from the table of
analogous quantities), with each electrical
node being replaced by a position.

Draw the mechanical system that corresponds

with the equations.

Torque Voltage Analogy

In this analogy, the mathematical equations of rotational mechanical system are compared
with mesh equations of the electrical system.

Rotational mechanical system is shown in the following figure.

The torque balanced equation is

T=Tj+Tb+TkT=Tj+Tb+Tk
⇒T=Jd θdt +Bdθdt+kθ
2 2

⇒T=Jd2θdt2+Bdθdt+kθ

By comparing above equations, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational mechanical
system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque(T) Voltage(V)

Moment of Inertia(J) Inductance(L)

Rotational friction coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

Torsional spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1c)(1c)

Angular Displacement(θ) Charge(q)

Angular Velocity(ω) Current(i)

Torque Current Analogy

In this analogy, the mathematical equations of the rotational mechanical system are compared
with the nodal mesh equations of the electrical system.

By comparing

T=Jd2θdt2+Bdθdt+kθ

we will get the analogous quantities of rotational mechanical system and electrical system. The
following table shows these analogous quantities.
Rotational Mechanical Electrical System
System

Torque(T) Current(i)

Moment of inertia(J) Capacitance(C)

Rotational friction Reciprocal of

coefficient(B) Resistance(1R)(1R)

Torsional spring Reciprocal of

constant(K) Inductance(1L)(1L)

Angular displacement(θ) Magnetic flux(ψ)

Angular velocity(ω) Voltage(V)

Liquid level system:

Assuming the liquid id incompressible (density remains constant despite changes in pressure)

A= cross sectional area of the tank

h=level of the liquid in the tank
qi = in flow rate
qo= out flow rate
V= volume
R= resistance
The rate of change of fluid volume in the tank = in flow rate – out flow rate

= qi - qo
RA indicates the time constant of the system.

Block diagram

A system may consist of a number of components. To show the functions performed by each
component, we commonly use a diagram called the block diagram. Evaluation of complex
system requires simplification of block diagrams by block diagram rearrangement. Some of the
important rules are given in figure below.
7. Combining Blocks in Parallel

8. Moving summing point : 

Example: Simplify the block diagram shown in Figure below.
Example: Obtain the transfer function C/R of the block diagram shown in Figure below.

Example: Derive the transfer function of the system shown below.

Example: Derive the transfer function of the system shown below.
Example: Find the transfer function of the following system.

Example: Find the output of the system shown below.

For Input R1:

For input R2:

Signal Flow Graph

SFG is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations which describe
a system. Let us consider an equation, Y  aX . It may be represented graphically as,

X a Y

where ‘a’ is called transmittance or transmission function.

Definitions in SFG

Node – A system variable, the value of which equals the sum of all incoming signals at the node.
Branch – A directed line segment joining two nodes.

Input/ Output node – node having only one outgoing/ incoming branch.

Path – A traversal of connected branches in the direction of branch arrows.

Forward path – A path from input to output node.

Loop – A closed path that originates and terminates on the same node.

Self-loop – A loop containing one branch.

Non-touching loops – Loops which do not have a common node.

Gain – Transmittance of a branch.

Construction of SFGs

The SFG of a system can be constructed from the describing equations:

x2  a12 x1  a32 x3
x3  a13 x1  a23 x2  a33 x3
x4  a24 x4  a34 x3
SFG from Block Diagram

Each variable in the block diagram becomes a node, and each block becomes a branch.

Mason’s Gain Formulae

It is possible to write the overall transfer function of a system through inspection of SFG using
Mason’s gain formulae given by, T  ( Pi i ) /  .
i

where T = overall gain of the system, Pi = path gain of ith forward path,   determinant of SFG,
i  value of  for that part of the graph not touching the ith forward path.

  1   Pj1   Pj 2   Pj 3  = 1 – [sum of loop gain of all individual loops] + [sum of all

j j j

gain-products of two non-touching loops] – [sum of all gain-products of three non-touching

loops] + ;

Pjk  jth product of k non-touching loops .

Example
1. There are 6 forward paths with path gains

2. There are three individual loops with loop gains

3. There is only one combination of two non-touching loops

P12  H1H 2G4G5

4. There are no combinations of more than two non-touching loops.

5. Hence,

; ;

3   4   5   6  1

P11  P2  2  P33  P4  4  P5 5  P6 6
Thus, T  , where P1 , 1 ,  etc. are derived before.

Example

Draw the SFG and determine C/ R for the block diagram shown in Figure below.

Example

For the system represented by the following equations, find the transfer function X(s)/U(s) by
SFG technique.

x  x1   3u
We need to Laplace transform the given sets of
x1   1 x1  x2   2u equations in order to represent differentiated variables.
x2    2 x1  1u

X  X 1   3U
1 
X1  X2  2 u
s  1 s  1
2 1
X2   X1  u
s s

X ( s) 1   2 s   3  [ s 2  1s   2 ]

U ( s) s 2  1s   2
MODULE 3: CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Potentiometer, synchros, resolvers, position encoders.

D.C and A.C tacho-generators

Actuators

Potentiometer

A potentiometer, informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an
adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable
resistor or rheostat.

A potentiometer measuring instrument is essentially a voltage divider used for measuring electric
potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the same principle, hence its name.

Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio
equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example,
in a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt),
since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled
load

Figure 3.4 Potentiometer

Potentiometer Construction

Potentiometers comprise a resistive element, a sliding contact (wiper) that moves along the element,
making good electrical contact with one part of it, electrical terminals at each end of the element, a
mechanism that moves the wiper from one end to the other, and a housing containing the element and
wiper.

Another type is the linear slider potentiometer, which has a wiper which slides along a linear element
instead of rotating. Contamination can potentially enter anywhere along the slot the slider moves in,
making effective sealing more difficult and compromising long-term reliability. An advantage of the
slider potentiometer is that the slider position gives a visual indication of its setting. While the setting of
a rotary potentiometer can be seen by the position of a marking on the knob, an array of sliders can give
a visual impression of the effect of a multi-channel equalizer

Fig. 3.5. Rotary Potentiometer

Potentiometer as an Error Detector

Fig. 3.6. Potentiometer connection as Error Detector

DC Motor control systems potentiometers can be used as position feedback as shown in the previous
slide. The reference position of shaft is compared by a pair of two pots and reference input is fed to DC
Amplifier, which is further amplifying the armature current of the DC Motor.

SYNCHORS

A modern schematic diagram of a synchro is shown in Figure 3.1. The synchros employ single winding
rotor that revolves inside a fixed stator. The stator in a simple synchro has three windings positioned
1200 apart and are electrically connected in a Y-connection.
Figure 3.1 Modern schematic diagram of a synchro

The operation of synchros is same as the operation of rotating transformers. An AC reference voltage, at
frequencies up to a few kHz, is used to excite the rotor winding of the synchro. The magnitude of the
induced voltage in any stator winding is proportional to the SIN of the angle , where is the angle
between the rotor coil axis and the stator coil axis. The induced voltage across any pair of stator
terminals of a synchro is the vector sum of the voltages across the two connected coils.

If an AC reference voltage, V Sin(ωt), is used to excite the rotor of a synchro across its terminals R1 and
R2, then the stator's terminal voltages are :

S1 to S3 = V Sinωt Sinθ (3.1)

S3 to S2 = V Sinωt Sin(θ + 1200) (3.2)

S2 to S1 = V Sinωt Sin(θ + 2400) (3.3)

where θ is the shaft angle.

The three stator coils of any synchros are oriented by 1200 and are too difficult to manufacture and are
costly. Due to this manufacturing limitation, synchros find decreasing use except in certain military and
avionic retrofit applications.

Resolver
A resolver is defined as an angular position sensor or transducer used to measure the instantaneous
angle of the rotor shaft to which it is attached. These sensors are absolute over a single turn and are
originally developed for military and avionic applications. The resolver has benefited from more than
fifty years of continuous use and development. The benefits of this rotary position sensor were not
recognized by numerous industrial segments. In general applications, the resolver gives rotary angular
position information to a decoder, which is stationed in a Programmable

Logic Controller (PLC). PLC interprets this angular position information and runs the commands based on
the position of machines.

The basic working principle of the resolver is based on converting their mechanical rotor shaft angle into
its orthogonal or Cartesian components [5]. From a geometric perspective, the relationship between the
rotor angle (θ) and the Cartesian components is that of a right angled triangle, as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Resolving an angle into its components

A resolver is one in which the magnitude of the energy varies sinusoidally through the resolver windings
as the shaft rotates. The resolver is basically a rotary transformer and it has one primary winding and
two secondary windings. The primary winding is called as the reference winding and the two secondary
windings are called as SIN and COS Windings. The primary or the reference winding is placed in the rotor
of the resolver whereas the two secondary windings i.e. the SIN and COS windings are located in the
stator. The two secondary windings, SIN and COS are mechanically separated by 900 from each other.

In a control transmitter, the rotor winding is excited by an AC voltage called the reference voltage (Vr).
As the rotor winding is excited, two voltages are induced in the two stator windings; SIN and COS. The
induced voltages in the stator windings are equal to the value of product of the reference voltage and
the SIN or COS of the angle of the input shaft from a fixed zero point. Thus, the resolver provides two
voltages whose ratio represents the absolute position of the input rotor shaft. where θ is the rotor shaft
angle. Any changes in the resolver’s characteristics caused by aging or temperature can be neglected
because of the ratio of SIN and COS voltages. An additional advantage of SIN and COS ratio is that the
shaft angle is absolute. Even if the power removed to a rotor shaft when it is rotating, the resolver will
report its new angular position value when power is restored.

1.3.2 Resolver Control Transformer

The schematic diagram of brushless resolver control transformer is shown in Figure 3.3. A resolver
control transformer has two input stator windings, the SIN and COS windings and one rotor output
winding. The rotor output is proportional to the SIN of the angular difference between the electrical
input angle of the inputs and the mechanical angular position of its shaft i.e. the voltage induced into
the rotor is proportional to Sin(Φ– θ), where θ is measured from some reference shaft position called
zero. The 3-wire synchro output can be easily converted into the resolver equivalent format using a
Scott-T transformer.

Figure 3.3 Schematic of brushless resolver control transformer

D.C. tachogenerator

Construction

The basic constructions of DC tachogenerator are shown in fig. The dc tachogenerator is a small dc
generator. The armature is driven by motor shaft whose speed is feedback. The rotor iron cored and
field is a permanent magnet. The armature of a dc tachogenerator is of similar to design to that of
conventional dc motor. These generators are normally provided with more than two poles for a smooth
output.

Fig. 3.7. DC Tacho generator

Working

As we see in above figure, coil is attach with shaft and this coil can rotate in between two permanent
magnets. So, when tachometer is attach with rotating shaft it rotate in between magnets and cut the
magnetic field. Thus, according to Faraday’s law, voltage should be produced in coil. This produced
voltage is proportional to coils speed alternatively proportional to shaft speed. Voltage generated inside
is calibrated in terms of RPM and hence tachometer shows RPM of shaft. In this, DC voltage is produced.

Advantages:
The advantages of d.c tachogenerator are as follows:

1.The output voltage is small enough to measure it with conventional d.c voltmeters.

2.The polarity of output voltage directly indicates the direction of rotation.

Disadvantages:
The Disadvantages of d.c tacho generator are as follows:

1.Because of variations in contact resistance, considerable error is introduced in the output voltage.
Hence periodic maintenance of the commutator and brushes is required.

2.Non-linearity in the output of the d.c tachogenerator occurs because of distortions in the permanent
magnetic field due to large armature currents. Hence input resistance of meter should be very high as
compared to the output resistance of the generator.

A.C. tacho generator

The AC tacho generator is used to measure the speed only in one direction. In AC tachogenerator the
armature is provided with an AC winding, either single phase or three phase windings.

Working:
Fig. 3.9 AC Tacho generator

When the rotor is stationary and primary winding excited by an AC input voltage, the induced voltage in
secondary is zero. Due to relative position of two winding being placed at 900 to each other. As the
rotor rotates, a voltage is induced in the secondary winding whose magnitude is propertional to the
rotor speed.

The emf induced in quadrature coil is directly proportional to the rotor speed and is in phase with
applied voltage to the refrence coil.

Vt = Ktɸ (t)

Where,

Kt = tachogenerator constant

Disadvantages:
Tachometers have brushes, which wear, and need to be maintained.

Tachometers have magnets, which can weaken over time, or if overheated, and cause erroneous
measurements.

Tachometers output an analog voltage, which is proportional only to speed, so rotor angle cannot
be determined like with an encoder.

Due to the analog voltage, they are also susceptible to loading effect, depending on the input
impedance of the measurement device or other factors in the circuit, especially at low speed.
Module 3: Time domain analysis:
Time domain analysis of a standard second order closed loop system.
Determination of time-domain specifications of systems.
Step and impulse response of first and second order systems.
Stability by pole location.
Routh-Hurwitz criteria and applications.
Control Actions: Basic concepts of PI, PD and PID control,
Steady-state error and error constants

When the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called
the time response of the control system. The time response consists of two parts.

 Transient response
 Steady state response
The response of control system in time domain is shown in the following figure.

Here, both the transient and the steady states are indicated in the figure. The responses
corresponding to these states are known as transient and steady state responses.

Mathematically, we can write the time response c(t) as

c(t)=ctr(t)+css(t)

Where,

ctr(t) is the transient response

css(t) is the steady state response

Transient Response
After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady state. So,
the output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state. Therefore, the response of the
control system during the transient state is known as transient response.

The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this value of ‘t’ is infinity and
practically, it is five times constant.

Mathematically, we can write it as

=0

Steady state Response

The part of the time response that remains even after the transient response has zero value for
large values of ‘t’ is known as steady state response. This means, the transient response will be
zero even during the steady state.

Example

Let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time response of the control
system c(t)=10+5e−t. Here, the second term 5e−t will be zero as t denotes infinity. So, this is
the transient term. And the first term 10 remains even as t approaches infinity. So, this is
the steady state term.

Standard Test Signals

The standard test signals are impulse, step, ramp and parabolic. These signals are used to know
the performance of the control systems using time response of the output.

Unit Impulse Signal

A unit impulse signal, δ(t) is defined as

δ(t)=0for t≠0
The following figure shows unit impulse signal.
So, the unit impulse signal exists only at ‘t’ is equal to zero. The area of this signal under small
interval of time around ‘t’ is equal to zero is one. The value of unit impulse signal is zero for all
other values of ‘t’.

Unit Step Signal

A unit step signal, u(t) is defined as

u(t)=1;t≥0

=0;t<0

Following figure shows unit step signal.

So, the unit step signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value is one
during this interval. The value of the unit step signal is zero for all negative values of ‘t’.

Unit Ramp Signal

A unit ramp signal, r(t) is defined as

r(t)=t;t≥0

r(t)=0;t<0

We can write unit ramp signal, r(t) in terms of unit step signal, u(t) as

r(t)=tu(t)

Following figure shows unit ramp signal.

So, the unit ramp signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of unit ramp signal is zero
for all negative values of ‘t’.
Unit Parabolic Signal
A unit parabolic signal, p(t) is defined as,

p(t)=t2;t≥0

=0;t<0

We can write unit parabolic signal, p(t) in terms of the unit step signal, u(t) as,

p(t)=t2u(t)

The following figure shows the unit parabolic signal.

So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases non-linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of the unit parabolic
signal is zero for all the negative values of ‘t’.

The order of a control system is determined by the power of s in the denominator of its transfer
function. If the power of s in the denominator of transfer function of a control system is 2, then
the system is said to be second-order control system.

Time Response Of The First Order System

Consider the following block diagram of the closed loop control system. Here, an open loop
transfer function, 1sT1sT is connected with a unity negative feedback.

We know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system has unity negative feedback
as,
=
Substitute, G(s)= in the above equation.
=
The power of s is one in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function is of the first
order and the system is said to be the first order system.
We can re-write the above equation as
C(s)= R(s)
Where,
C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal c(t),
R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t), and
T is the time constant.

Impulse Response of First Order System

Consider the unit impulse signal as an input to the first order system.
So, r(t)=δ(t)
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides. R(s)=1
Consider the equation, C(s)= R(s)

Substitute, R(s)=1in the above equation.

C(s)=
Rearrange the above equation in one of the standard forms of Laplace transforms.
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides.
c(t)= e(-t/T)
The unit impulse response is shown in the following figure.

The unit impulse response, c(t) is an exponential decaying signal for positive values of ‘t’ and it
is zero for negative values of ‘t’

Step Response of First Order System

Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system.
So, r(t)=u(t)
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.
R(s) =
Consider the equation, C(s)= R(s)
Substitute, R(s) = in the above equation.
By using partial fraction

C(s) = −
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.
c(t)=1−e−(t/T)
The unit step response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state terms.
The value of the unit step response, c(t) is zero at t = 0 and for all negative values of t. It is
gradually increasing from zero value and finally reaches to one in steady state. So, the steady
state value depends on the magnitude of the input.

Time Response Of The Second Order System

The general expression of transfer function of a second order control system is given as

Here, ζ and ωn are damping ratio and natural frequency of the system respectively. Therefore,
the output of the system is given as

If we consider a unit step function as the input of the system, then the output equation of the
system can be rewritten as
Taking inverse Laplace transform of above equation, we get,

The above expression of output c(t) can be rewritten as

Time Domain Specifications

The time domain specifications of the second order system. The step response of the second
order system for the under-damped case is shown in the following figure.

Delay Time
It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero instant. It is
denoted by td.
Consider the step response of the second order system for t ≥ 0, when ‘δ’ lies between zero and
one.

delay time td is expressed as

td=1+0.7δωn
Rise Time

It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value. This is
applicable for the under-damped systems. For the over-damped systems, consider the duration
from 10% to 90% of the final value. Rise time is denoted by tr.

t r=

Peak Time

It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first time. It is denoted
by tp. At t=tp the first derivate of the response is zero.
tp=

Peak Overshoot

Peak overshoot Mp is defined as the deviation of the response at peak time from the final value
of response. It is also called the maximum overshoot.

Mp=e−πξ/√(1-ξ^2)×100%
From the above equation, we can conclude that the percentage of peak overshoot %Mp will
decrease if the damping ratio increases.

Settling time

It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay within the specified
tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance bands are 2% and 5%. The
settling time is denoted by tsts.

The settling time for 5% tolerance band is -

ts=3δωn

The settling time for 2% tolerance band is -

ts=4δωn
Stability by pole location:

system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.
A stable system produces a bounded output for a given bounded input.

The following figure shows the response of a stable system.

This is the response of first order control system for unit step input. This response has the
values between 0 and 1. So, it is bounded output. We know that the unit step signal has the
value of one for all positive values of including zero. So, it is bounded input. Therefore, the first
order control system is stable since both the input and the output are bounded.

Types of Systems based on Stability

We can classify the systems based on stability as follows.

 Absolutely stable system

 Conditionally stable system

 Marginally stable system

Absolutely Stable System
If the system is stable for all the range of system component values, then it is known as
the absolutely stable system. The open loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles
of the open loop transfer function present in left half of ‘s’ plane. Similarly, the closed loop
control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer function present in
the left half of the ‘s’ plane.

Conditionally Stable System

If the system is stable for a certain range of system component values, then it is known
as conditionally stable system.

Marginally Stable System

If the system is stable by producing an output signal with constant amplitude and constant
frequency of oscillations for bounded input, then it is known as marginally stable system. The
open loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the open loop transfer function
is present on the imaginary axis. Similarly, the closed loop control system is marginally stable if
any two poles of the closed loop transfer function is present on the imaginary axis.

Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is having one necessary condition and one sufficient condition
for stability. If any control system doesn’t satisfy the necessary condition, then we can say that
the control system is unstable. But, if the control system satisfies the necessary condition, then
it may or may not be stable. So, the sufficient condition is helpful for knowing whether the
control system is stable or not.

Necessary Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability

The necessary condition is that the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial should be
positive. This implies that all the roots of the characteristic equation should have negative real
parts.

Consider the characteristic equation of the order ‘n’ is -

a0sn+a1sn−1+a2sn−2+...+an−1s1+ans0=0a0sn+a1sn−1+a2sn−2+...+an−1s1+ans0=0

Note that, there should not be any term missing in the nth order characteristic equation. This
means that the nth order characteristic equation should not have any coefficient that is of zero
value.

Sufficient Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability

The sufficient condition is that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array should
have the same sign. This means that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array
should be either positive or negative.

Routh Array Method

If all the roots of the characteristic equation exist to the left half of the ‘s’ plane, then the control
system is stable. If at least one root of the characteristic equation exists to the right half of the
‘s’ plane, then the control system is unstable. So, we have to find the roots of the characteristic
equation to know whether the control system is stable or unstable. But, it is difficult to find the
roots of the characteristic equation as order increases.

So, to overcome this problem there we have the Routh array method. In this method, there is
no need to calculate the roots of the characteristic equation. First formulate the Routh table and
find the number of the sign changes in the first column of the Routh table. The number of sign
changes in the first column of the Routh table gives the number of roots of characteristic
equation that exist in the right half of the ‘s’ plane and the control system is unstable.

Follow this procedure for forming the Routh table.

 Fill the first two rows of the Routh array with the coefficients of the characteristic
polynomial as mentioned in the table below. Start with the coefficient of snsn and
continue up to the coefficient of s0s0.
 Fill the remaining rows of the Routh array with the elements as mentioned in the table
below. Continue this process till you get the first column element of row s0s0 is anan.
Here, anan is the coefficient of s0s0in the characteristic polynomial.
Note − If any row elements of the Routh table have some common factor, then you can divide
the row elements with that factor for the simplification will be easy.

The following table shows the Routh array of the nth order characteristic polynomial.

a0sn+a1sn−1+a2sn−2+...+an−1s1+ans0a0sn+a1sn−1+a2sn−2+...+an−1s1+ans0

sn a0 a2 a4 a . .
6 . .
. .

sn−1 a1 a3 a5 a . .
7 . .
. .

sn−2 b1= b2=(a1a4−a5a0)/a1= b3=(a1a6−a7a0)/a1 . . .

(a1a2−a3a0)/a1 . . .
. . .

⋮⋮ ⋮⋮ ⋮⋮ ⋮⋮

s1 ⋮⋮ ⋮⋮

s0s0 an

Example

Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,
s4+3s3+3s2+2s+1=0s4+3s3+3s2+2s+1=0

Step 1 − Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial, s4+3s3+3s2+2s+1s4+3s3+3s2+2s+1are

positive. So, the control system satisfies the necessary condition.
Step 2 − Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.

s4 1 3 1

s3 3 2

s2 (9-2)/3 1

s1 5/7

s0 1

Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the elements of the first column of the Routh array are positive. There is no sign change in
the first column of the Routh array. So, the control system is stable.

Special Cases of Routh Array

We may come across two types of situations, while forming the Routh table. It is difficult to
complete the Routh table from these two situations.

The two special cases are −

 The first element of any row of the Routh array is zero.

 All the elements of any row of the Routh array are zero.
Let us now discuss how to overcome the difficulty in these two cases, one by one.

First Element of any row of the Routh array is zero

If any row of the Routh array contains only the first element as zero and at least one of the
remaining elements have non-zero value, then replace the first element with a small positive
integer, ϵϵ. And then continue the process of completing the Routh table. Now, find the number
of sign changes in the first column of the Routh table by substituting ϵϵ tends to zero.
Example

Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,
s4+2s3+s2+2s+1=0s4+2s3+s2+2s+1=0

Step 1 − Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial, s4+2s3+s2+2s+1s4+2s3+s2+2s+1are

positive. So, the control system satisfied the necessary condition.
Step 2 − Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.

s4 1 1 1

s3 2 2

s2 (1×1)−(1×1)1=0(1×1)−(1×1)1=0 (1×1)−(0×1)1=1(1×1)−(0×1)1=1

s1

s0

The row s3s3 elements have 2 as the common factor. So, all these elements are divided by 2.
Special case (i) − Only the first element of row s2s2 is zero. So, replace it by ϵϵand continue the
process of completing the Routh table.

s4 1 1 1

s3 1 1

s2 ϵ 1

s1 (ϵ−1)/ϵ

s0 1

Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

As ϵϵ tends to zero, the Routh table becomes like this.

s4 1 1 1

s3 1 1
s2 0 1

s1 -∞

s0 1

There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the control system is
unstable.

All the Elements of any row of the Routh array are zero
In this case, follow these two steps −

 Write the auxilary equation, A(s) of the row, which is just above the row of zeros.

 Differentiate the auxiliary equation, A(s) with respect to s. Fill the row of zeros with
these coefficients.

Example

Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,

s5+3s4+s3+3s2+s+3=0s5+3s4+s3+3s2+s+3=0

Step 1 − Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the coefficients of the given characteristic polynomial are positive. So, the control system
satisfied the necessary condition.

Step 2 − Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.

s5 1 1 1

s4 3 3 3

s3 (1×1)−(1×1)1=0 (1×1)−(1×1)1=0

s2

s1

s0
The row s4s4 elements have the common factor of 3. So, all these elements are divided by 3.
Special case (ii) − All the elements of row s3s3 are zero. So, write the auxiliary equation, A(s)
of the row s4s4.

A(s)=s4+s2+1A(s)=s4+s2+1

Differentiate the above equation with respect to s.

dA(s)ds=4s3+2sdA(s)ds=4s3+2s

Place these coefficients in row s3s3.

s5 1 1 1

s4 1 1 1

s3 4 2

s2 (2×1)−(1×1)2=0.5 (2×1)−(0×1)2=1

s1 (0.5×1)−(1×2)0.5=−1.50.5=−3

s0 1

Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the control system is
unstable.

In the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, we can know whether the closed loop poles are in on
left half of the ‘s’ plane or on the right half of the ‘s’ plane or on an imaginary axis. So, we can’t
find the nature of the control system.
P,PI,PID CONTROLLER:

The basic control loop can be simplified for a single-input-single-output (SISO) system. Here we are
neglecting any disturbance present in the system.
The controller may have different structures. Different design methodologies are there for designing
the controller in order to achieve desired performance level. But the most popular among them is
Proportional-Integral-derivative (PID) type controller. In fact more than 95% of the industrial
controllers are of PID type. As is evident from its name, the output of the PID controller u(t) can be
expressed in terms of the input e(t), as:

The transfer function of the system is given by:

Let us consider the transfer function of the plant as a simple first order system without time delay as:

Proportional control
With the proportional control action only, the closed loop system looks like:
Now the closed loop transfer function can be expressed as:
Integral control:

Steady state error due to step input reduces to zero. Simultaneously the system response is
generally slow, oscillatory, even unstable.

Proportional plus integral control:

PID controller
HOW TO CHOOSE A SUITABLE CONTROLLER:
 Module 5: STABILITY ANALYSIS USING ROOT LOCUS METHOD

Root locus techniques

Construction of root loci for simple systems
Effects of gain and movement of pole and zeros

The stability of a closed loop system is determined from the location of roots of the characteristic
equation 1+G(s)H(s) = 0. For a system to be stable the roots of characteristic equation/ poles of closed
loop system must be located in the left hand side of s – plane. Root locus is a graphical presentation of the
closed loop poles as a system parameter is varied. The root locus also gives a graphic presentation of a
system’s stability.

Definition: The root locus is the plot of the roots of system characteristic equation (or the poles of closed-
loop transfer function) as a system parameter (K) is varied.

Consider the following closed loop system:

Fig. 5.1 : Block diagram representation of a closed loop system

Let, G(s) = ; H(s) = 1

The closed loop transfer function is obtained as:

The poles can be found as,

s = -1+K, -1-K

It can be seen from the above equation that the poles change as the value of K is varied. The change in K
therefore affects the stability and the performance of the system.

For the above second order system, one has ωn =

ζ = 1/
In second order systems, the effect of K on the natural frequency and damping ratio can be readily
determined. For higher order systems, this analysis is not as obvious. This is where the root locus design
method is used.

In the above example, the change of poles with increase in K can be obtained and plotted as:

Fig. 5.2 : Effect of gain on pole movement

Properties of Root Locus

Consider the following closed-loop system

Fig. 5.3 : Block diagram representation of a closed loop system

The characteristic equation of the above system is given by,

1+KG(s)H(s)=0

Any root of the characteristic equation must satisfy the following two conditions:

|KG(s)H(s)| =1 …………………………………………………. (5.1)

∠ KG(s)H(s) = (2k+1)180º …………………………………… (5.2)

Where k = 0,1,2,3….
Equation (5.1) represents magnitude property and equation (5.2) represents angle property.

Procedure of sketching root locus

The steps given below are followed to sketch root locus plot:

Considering the following system

Fig. 5.4 : Block diagram representation of a closed loop system

Step I: Starting and ending points:

The root locus starts at the open loop poles and terminates at the open loop zeros or infinity.

Illustration I: Consider the following unity feedback system

The poles are located at s = 0, -3. Hence root loci must start from s = 0, -3.

As there is no zero of the system, Both root locus branches will terminate at infinity.

Step II: Number of root locus Branches: The number of branches of root locus equal to the number of
closed loop poles or zeros whichever is greater.

N = P, for P>Z.

N = Z, for P<Z.

Usually, P>Z, Hence, N = P.

Where, N = Number of branches, P = No of open loop poles

For the above system shown in illustration I,

No. of poles = 2, No of zeros = 0

Hence, No of root locus branches, N = 2

Step III: Symmetry: The root locus is symmetrical with respect to the real axis.
Step IV: Existence of root locus branches on Real Axis: On the real-axis the root locus exists only in
the segment where the number of finite open-loop poles and zeros that are located on the right hand side
of the segment is odd.

Fig. 5.5 Root loci movement on real axis

Step V: Asymptotes: The root locus approaches straight lines as asymptotes as the locus approaches
infinity.

The angle of asymptotes is calculated by:

………………………..(5.3)

Where, k = 0,1,2,3…….

The number of asymptotes = No of root locus branches = N

The centroid, x= ……………………….(5.4)

Illustration 2: Let,

Hence, using equation (5.3), we get,

Then, angle of asymptotes are given by,

= 60º ; = 180º; = 300º.

using equation (5.4), we get,

The centroid, x = = -1.

Step VI: Real Axis Breakaway and Break-in Points: On real axis when root locus moves between two
adjacent poles towards each other as the gain is increased till they coincide. The point at which two root
loci coincides, is known as break away/ break in point. This can be calculated by rewriting the
characteristic equation and therefore solving for values of s from the equation given below

=0
For example of Illustration 2, characteristic equation is given by,

1+ = 0;

This leads to, s = -0.422, -1.5.

Here, the valid breakaway point is -0.422.

Step VII: Intersection of root locus on imaginary axis: The value of k and the point at which the root
locus branch crosses imaginary axis can be determined by applying R–H criterion to the characteristic
equation.

Step VIII: Angle of Departure: The angle of departure of root locus branches from complex poles is
given by,

Φd = 180 – (ΦP - Φz)

ΦP = sum of all angles subtended by remaining poles

Φz = sum of all angles subtended by zeros.

Step IX: Angle of Arrival: The angle of arrival of root locus branches from complex zeros is given by,

Φa = 180 – ( Φz - ΦP)

ΦP = sum of all angles subtended by poles

Φz = sum of all angles subtended by remaining zeros.

Solution of Problems

# Problem 1. Sketch the root locus plot for the unity feedback control system having forward path
transfer function

Solution:
1. For the given open loop transfer function G(s)H(s), the open loop poles are at

S1 = 0, S2 = －2,

S3 and S4 are obtained the solving, s2 +6s+ 25 = 0

S3,4 =－ (6  √(36 － 100) )/ 2 = - 3  j4

Therefore, S3 = － 3+ j4
 S4 = － 3－j4

Number of open loop poles, n= 4

There are no open loop zeros

Therefore, m= 0

Number of branches of root locus n= 4

Number of asymptotes = (n－m) = (4－0) = 4

(2) Since the open loop poles are symmetrical about the ral axis, the root locus will be symmetrical about the real
axis .
(3) The four branches of the root locus start at the open loop poles S1 = 0, S2 = －2, S3 = －3+ j4, S4 = －3－j4
Where K = 0. These branches terminate at the open loop zeros at infinity where K=  .
(4) The four branches of the root locus goes to zero at infinity along asymptotes. The angle of asymptotes are

ФA= (2q+1)/(m－n)×1800, q=0,1,2,3

Therefore,

For q=0, ФA1=(2×0+1)/4 ×1800 = 450

For q=1, ФA2=(2×1+1)/4×1800 = 1350

For q=2, ФA1=(2×2+1)/4×1800 = 2250

For q=3, ФA1=(2×3+1)/4×1800 = 3150

(5) Centroid: The point of intersection of asymptotes on the real axis is given by

θ =[(sum of real parts of poles)-(sum of real parts of zeros)] / [(number of poles)-(number of zeros]

= [(0－2－3－3)－(0)] / 4

=-2
(6) Break points. The break point are found to from the solution of dk / ds  0 .

G(s) H(s) =| K / s(s+2) ( s2 +6s+ 25) | = 1

Therefore,

K = s(s+2)( s2 +6s+ 25)

 = s4+ 8s3 + 37s2 +50s

dk / ds  d ( s4+ 8s3 + 37s2 +50s ) / ds

4s3 + 24s2 +74s+50 = 0

Or, 2s3 + 12s2 +37s+25 = 0

Since the root locus exists on the real axis, from s = 0 to s = - 2, the break away point is searched between s = 0 to s
= - 2.

By trial and error method, we find that the breakaway point is at s = - 0.9.

The remaining two roots can be found by dividing .

(2s3 + 12s2 +37s+25) by (s+0.9)

(2s3 + 12s2 +37s+25) / (s+0.9)

= 2s3 + 10.2s+27.82

The roots of

2s3 + 10.2s+27.82 = 0

Are given by,

S2 =－10.2+√ [ (10.2)2－ 4×2×27.82] / (2*2)

= －2.55 + j2.72

S3 = －10.2－ √ [(10.2)2 - 4×2×27.82] / (2*2)

= －2.55 － j2.72

Therefore,

S2 =－2.55 + j 2.72

S3 =－2.55 － j 2.72

These two points do not lie on root locus, hence ignored.

The only breakaway point is at s = －0.9.

The angle of departure from the complex pole at s = － 3 + j4 is given by

Фd3 = 1800 + Ф
 Fig. 5.6. Angle of departure from complex poles

Where ,

Ф = - (θ1 + θ2 +θ2)

The angles θ1 , θ2 and θ3 from the poles at s = 0, s = －3－j4 are

DC 4
Θ1 = 1800－ tan - 1 = 1800－tan - 1 = 1800－ 530 = 1270
CA 3

DC 4
Θ2 = 1800－ tan - 1 = 800－ tan - 1
CB 1

= 1800－ 75.960 = 1040

Θ3 = 900 (by inspection)

Therefore ,

Ф = - (θ1 + θ2 +θ2)

= - (1270 + 1040 +900)

Фd3 = 1800 + Ф =1800 + (－3210) = 1410

The angle of departure from the complex pole at S = －3－j4 is

Фd4 =－ Фd3 = － (－ 1410) = 1410

(7) The point of intersection of the root locus with imaginary axis and the critical value of k can be found by using
Routh criterion.

The characteristic equation is

1 + G(s) H(s) = 1 + K / s(s+2)( s2 +6s+ 25) = 0

Or

s4+ 6s3 + 10s2 +8s + k = 0

The routh array is

S4 1 10 k

S3 6 8

60  8
S2
6 = 8.66 k

8.66  8  6k
S1 6

S0 k

For the system to be stable, all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive.

8.66  8  6k
Therefore k > 0 and 6 >0

That is 6k < 8.66×8

8.66  8
K< or k < 11.55
6

Therefore , the range of values of k for stability is 0 < k <11.55.

The marginal value of k for the stability is km = 11.55.

(a) The value of k at which the system becomes unstable is k = 11.55.
(b) The frequency of oscillation at the point of instability is given by the solution of auxiliary equation.

The auxiliary equation is given by,

52 2
s +k=0
6
52 2
s + km = 0
6

52 2
s + 11.55 = 0
6

 611.55
S2 = = －1.3
52

S = √(－ 1.3) = + j√1.3 or - √1.3 = + j1.16 or － j1.16

S = j

jω = j1.16

 = 1.16 rad / s

Therefore the frequency of sustained oscillation is  =1.16 rad / s.

The complete root locus path is shown in fig 9.9.

Fig. 5.7. Root Locus Plot

 Module 6: Frequency domain Analysis of linear Systems
Basic Concept of Phase Margin (another measure of relative stability):
Definition: the phase margin is the change in open-loop phase shift required at unity gain
to make a closed-loop system unstable. Let's look at the following graphical definition of this
concept to get a better idea of what we
are talking about.

Now, we know that this particular system will be unstable in closed loop if the
Nyquist diagram encircles the -1 point. However, we must also realize that if the
diagram is shifted by theta degrees, it will then touch the -1 point at the negative
real axis, making the system marginally stable in closed loop.

Hence, the angle required to make this system marginally stable in closed loop is
called the phase margin (measured in degrees). In order to find the point we
measure this angle from, we draw a circle with radius of 1, find the point in the
Nyquist diagram with a magnitude of 1 (gain of zero dB), and measure the phase
shift needed for this point to be at an angle of 180 deg.

Frequency domain analysis with Bode plot:

Bode plot is drawn from a given open loop transfer function of a system(sinusoidal transfer
function, i.e. by putting s=jw).

The plot consists of the two following parts:

1. Magnitude plot
2. Angle plot

In semi-log graph paper to accommodate wider range of frequencies

 Of

the complex function G(jw)H(jw) by splitting into real and imaginary parts and taking
modulus and argument separately

For most of the practical problems, the detailed Bode plots can be approximated with straight-
line segments that are asymptotes of the precise curvilinear response. The effect of each of the
terms of a multiple element(factors-both linear and quadratic) ) transfer function can be
approximated by a set of straight lines on a Bode plot.

This method allows a graphical solution of the overall frequency response function. Before
widespread availability of digital computers, graphical methods were extensively used to reduce
the need for tedious calculation; a graphical solution could be used to identify feasible ranges of
parameters for a new design.

This idea is used explicitly in the method for drawing phase diagrams. The method for drawing
amplitude plots implicitly uses this idea, but since the log of the amplitude of each pole or zero
always starts at zero and only has one asymptote change (the straight lines), the method can be
simplified.

Straight-line amplitude plot

Amplitude decibels is usually done using dB=20logX, (natural logarithm) to define decibels.

Firstly, Convert a transfer function into the time-constant form i.e. (1+sT)

 at every value of s where (s-z) (a zero), increase the slope of the

line by 20dB per decade.

 at every value of s where (s-p) (a pole), decrease the slope

of the line by 20dB per decade.
 The initial value and slope of the graph depends on the
boundaries. The initial point is found by putting the initial

angular frequency into the function (K/jw)N in its dB value,

where N=type of the system
 The initial slope of the function at the initial value depends on
the number and order of zeros and poles that are at values below
the initial value, and are found using the first two rules.
 Most important steps for drawing the Bode Plot:

Separate the transfer function into its constituent parts.

The next step is to split up the function into its constituent parts. There are seven
types of parts:

1. A constant
2. Poles at the origin
3. Zeros at the origin
4. Real Poles
5. Real Zeros
6. Complex conjugate poles
7. Complex conjugate zeros

Bode Plot: Example with linear factors in both numerator and denominator
Draw the Bode Diagram for the transfer function:

Step 1: Rewrite the transfer function in proper form.

Make both the lowest order term in the numerator and denominator unity. The
numerator is an order 1 polynomial, the denominator is order 2.

Step 2: Separate the transfer function into its constituent parts.

The transfer function has 4 components:

 A constant of 0.1
 A pole at s=-10
 A pole at s=-100
 A zero at s=-1

Step 3: Draw the Bode diagram for each part.

This is done in the diagram below.

 The constant is the cyan line (A quantity of 0.1 is equal to -20 dB). The phase is constant
at 0 degrees.
  The pole at 10 rad/sec is the green line. It is 0 dB up to the break frequency, then drops
off with a slope of -20 dB/dec. The phase is 0 degrees up to 1/10 the break frequency (1
rad/sec) then drops linearly down to -90 degrees at 10 times the break frequency (100
rad/sec).
 The pole at 100 rad/sec is the blue line. It is 0 dB up to the break frequency, then drops
off with a slope of -20 dB/dec. The phase is 0 degrees up to 1/10 the break frequency (10
rad/sec) then drops linearly down to -90 degrees at 10 times the break frequency (1000
rad/sec).
 The zero at 1 rad/sec is the red line. It is 0 dB up to the break frequency, then rises at 20
dB/dec. The phase is 0 degrees up to 1/10 the break frequency (0.1 rad/sec) then rises
linearly to 90 degrees at 10 times the break frequency (10 rad/sec).

Step 4: Draw the overall Bode diagram by adding up the results from step 3.
The overall asymptotic plot is the translucent pink line, the exact response is the
black line.
Bode Plot: Example with quadratic term

Draw the Bode Diagram for the transfer function:

Step 1: Rewrite the transfer function in proper form.

Make both the lowest order term in the numerator and denominator
unity. The numerator is an order 1 polynomial, the denominator is order
2.

Step 2: Separate the transfer function into its constituent parts.

The transfer function has 4 components:

 A constant of 6
 A zero at s = -10
 Complex conjugate poles at the roots of s2+3s+50 = s2+2ζω0s+ω02,

so

Step 3: Draw the Bode diagram for each part .

This is done in the diagram below.

 The constant is the cyan line (A quantity of 6 is equal to 15.5 dB). The phase is
constant at 0 degrees.
 The zero at 10 rad/sec is the green line. It is 0 dB up to the break frequency, then
rises with a slope of +20 dB/dec. The phase is 0 degrees up to 1/10 the break
frequency then rises linearly to +90 degrees at 10 times the break frequency.
 The plots for the complex conjugate poles are shown in blue. They cause a peak of:

at a frequency of

This is shown by the blue circle. The phase goes from the low
frequency asymptote (0 degrees) at
 to the high frequency asymptote at

Step 4: Draw the overall Bode diagram by adding up the results from step 3.

The exact response is the black line.

Bode Plot for finding phase margin and gain margin:

Bode plot is the representation of the magnitude and phase of G(j*w) (where the frequency
vector w contains only positive frequencies). To see the Bode plot of a transfer function, you
can use the Matlab bode command. For example,

bode(50,[1 9 30 40])

displays the Bode plots for the transfer function:

50 / (s^3 + 9 s^2 + 30 s + 40)

Gain and Phase Margin

Let's say that we have the following system:

where K is a variable (constant) gain and G(s) is the plant under consideration.

Definition1: The gain margin is defined as the change in open loop gain required to make the
system unstable. Systems with greater gain margins can withstand greater changes in system
parameters before becoming unstable in closed loop. Keep in mind that unity gain in magnitude
is equal to a gain of zero in dB.

Definition2: The phase margin is defined as the change in open loop phase shift required to
make a closed loop system unstable.

The phase margin is the difference in phase between the phase curve and -180 deg at the point
corresponding to the frequency that gives us a gain of 0dB (the gain cross over frequency, Wgc).

Likewise, the gain margin is the difference between the magnitude curve and 0dB at the point
corresponding to the frequency that gives us a phase of -180 deg (the phase cross over
frequency, Wpc).
We can find the gain and phase margins for a system directly, by using Matlab. We have to
enter the margin command for a given open loop transfer function. This command returns
the gain and phase margins, the gain and phase cross over frequencies, and a graphical
representation of these on the Bode plot. Let's check it out:

margin(50,[1 9 30 40])
 MCQ’s On Bode Plot

1) If the constant 'k' is positive, then what would be its contribution on the phase plot?

a. 0°
b. 45°
c. 90°
d. 180°

2) If the unity feedback system is given by the open loop transfer function G(s) = ks2 / [(1 +
0.3s) (1+ 0.05s)], what would be the initial slope of magnitude plot?

a. 20 dB/decade
b. 40 dB/decade
c. 60 dB/decade
d. Unpredictable

3) The system is said to be marginally stable, if gain margin is ______

a. 0
b. 1
c. +∞
d. None of the above

4) If the phase angle at gain crossover frequency is estimated to be -105°, what will be the
value of phase margin of the system?

a. 23°
b. 45°
c. 60°
d. 75°

5) At which frequency does the magnitude of the system becomes zero dB?

a. Resonant frequency
b. Cut-off frequency
c. Gain crossover frequency
d. Phase crossover frequency

6) The frequency at which the phase of the system acquires ____ is known as 'Phase
crossover frequency'.

a. 90°
b. -90°
c. 180°
d. -180°

7) If a pole is located at origin, how does it get represented on the magnitude plot?

a. -10 log (ω) dB

b. -20 log (ω) dB
c. -40 log (ω) dB
d. -60 log (ω) dB

8) According to the principle of log-scales, if the ratio between two points is same, then the
two points get ________equally.

a. United
b. Separated
c. Multiplexed
d. Mixed

9) In an octave frequency band, the ratio of f2 / f1 is equivalent to ________

a. 2
b. 4
c. 8
d. 10

10) Which unit is adopted for magnitude measurement in Bode plots?

a. Degree
b. Decimal
c. Decibel
d. Deviation
 Review of System Stability and Some Concepts Related to Poles and Zeros

System stability

Consider the following closed-loop system:

The closed-loop transfer function, T(s), is

where G(s)H(s) is the open-loop transfer function, i.e., the equivalent transfer function relating the error,
E(s), to the feedback signal, B(s).
The closed-loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation, i.e., 1+ G(s)H(s) = 0.
In order that the closed-loop system is stable, all of the closed-loop poles must be in the left half plane
(LHP).

Some Concepts Related to Poles and Zeros

For a function F(s) with a variable of s, the poles of F(s) are the values of s such that F(s) = ∞ ; and the
zeros of F(s) are the values of s such that F(s) = 0 . Please note the above definition is consistent with the
definition that we had for the closed-loop poles/zeros and the open-loop poles/zeros. The closed-loop
poles/zeros are the poles/zeros of the closed-loop transfer function; and the open loop poles/zeros are the
poles/zeros of the open-loop transfer function, i.e., G(s)H(s). Particularly, we have following
relationships:
the closed-loop poles = the roots of characteristic equation:
1+ G(s) H(s) = 0 = the zeros of 1+ G(s)H(s)
the open-loop poles = the poles of 1+ G(s) H(s).

Cauchy’s Principle of Argument

Mapping from s-plane to F-plane through a function of F(s)

 For a point : Taking a complex number in the s-plane and substituting it into a function of F(s), the result
is also a complex number, which is represented in a new complex-plane (called F-plane). This process is
called mapping, specifically mapping a point from s plane to F-plane through F(s).

 For a contour: Consider the collection of points in the s-plane (called a contour), shown in the following
figure as contour A. Using the above point mapping process through F(s), we can also get a contour in the
F-plane, shown in the following figure contour B.
Cauchy’s Principle of Argument
The Cauchy’s Principle of Argument states that, if taking a clockwise contour in the s plane and mapping
it to the F-plane through F(s), The number of clockwise rotations about the origin of the contour in the F-
plane,

N = The number of zeros of F(s) inside the contour in the s-plane,

= Z - The number of poles of F(s) inside the contour in the s-plane, P or simply
=Z–P

Nyquist Criterion

Nyquist Contour: is the contour in the s-plane that includes the entire right half plane, as shown in the
proceeding page.
Now, let’s consider, F(s) =1+ G(s)H(s) and the contour in the s-plane is the Nyquist contour (i.e., the
entire right half plane). Applying the Cauchy’s Principle of Argument, we should have
The number of rotations about the origin of the mapping through 1+ G(s)H(s) ,
N = The number of zeros of 1+ G(s)H(s) in the right half plane,
= Z - The number of poles of 1+ G(s)H(s) in the right half plane
=Z-P

Note That,
The mapping through G(s)H(s) is virtually the same as the one through 1+ G(s)H(s), except that the
contour is shifted one unit to the left. Thus, we can count rotations about -1 instead of rotations about the
origin in the above statement.
The zeros of 1+ G(s)H(s) = the closed-loop poles.
The poles of 1+ G(s)H(s) = the open-loop poles or the poles of G(s)H(s).
Therefore
The number of rotations about -1+j0 of the mapping through G(s)H(s) ,
N = The number of closed-loop poles in the right half plane,
= Z - The number of open-loop poles in the right half plane, P
Or,
The number of closed-loop poles in the right half plane,
Z = The number of rotations about -1+j0 of the mapping through G(s)H(s) ,
= N + The number of open-loop poles in the right half plane, P
The above relationship is called the Nyquist Criterion; and the mapping through G(s)H(s) is called the
Nyquist Diagram of G(s)H(s).
For a system to be stable, Z must be zero.
 Sketching the Nyquist Diagram
Suppose the open-loop transfer function sketch its Nyquist diagram.

Key Points of the polar plot:

Sketching the Nyquist diagram includes two steps:

(1) Sketch the mapping of Point A to Point B, which is the same as the polar plot of frequency response for
G(s)H(s) .
Note that the semicircle with a infinite radius, i.e., B-C-D, is mapped to the origin if the order the
denominator of G(s)H(s) is greater than the order the numerator of G(s)H(s) .
(2) Sketch the mapping of Point A to Point D, which is the mirror image about the real axis of the mapping of
Point A to Point B.

Gain Margin

The gain margin is the factor by which the gain can be raised such that the contour encompassed the unity
point resulting in instability of the system. Following the figure below, gain margin is the inverse of the
distance shown in the figure.
 Phase Margin

The Phase Margin is the amount of phase that needs to be added to a system such that the magnitude will
be just unity while the phase is 180 degree . The figure below is showing ‘theta’ to be the phase margin.

Example 1

Sketch the Nyquist diagram for the system shown in the following figure, and then
determine the system stability using the Nyquist criterion.

Solution:
(1) Sketch the Nyquist diagram.

The open-loop transfer function:

Put, s = jω,

ω ω
ω ω ω

Hence,

Magnitude Response:

ω ω = =

ω ω =

Equate Imaginary part to 0; to obtain the frequency at which the plot intersects –ve real axis.

Solving this, we get,

ω = 0 & ω = 6.56 rad/sec,

Equate real part to 0; to obtain the frequency at which the plot intersects imaginary axis.

Solving this, we get,

ω = 1.46 rad/sec
As seen, G(s)H(s) has no poles having positive real part, i.e; P = 0.

The critical point -1+j0 lies outside the nyquist plot,

Hence, N = 0

or, Z = 0.

Thus the system is stable.

Example: 2

Determine the value of K for a unity feedback control system having open loop transfer function:

And determine stability condition.

Put, s = jω,

ω ω
ω ω
Hence,

Cross Re: Im = 0;

Solving this, we get,

At this frequency intersection on –ve real axis occurs.

The magnitude of intersection is obtained by putting in the real part of G(jω).

So,

Magnitude of G(j ) at ,

=
As seen, G(s)H(s) has no poles having positive real part, i.e; P = 0.

The encirclement of critical point -1+j0 is determined below,

Case I: If (K< )

The critical point -1+j0 lies outside the nyquist plot, Hence, N = 0

So, Z = 0.

Thus the system is stable.

Case II: If (K > )

The critical point -1+j0 is encircled twice in clockwise direction, Hence, N = -2.

Thus, Z = 2.

The system is unstable.

Module7: CONTROL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

 To improve the performance of a given plant or system G f(s) it may be necessary to use a
compensator or controller Gc(s).

The requirements of a plant may be expressed in terms of

(a) settling time (b) damping ratio (c) peak overshoot --- in time domain

(d) phase margin or (e) gain margin ---- in frequency domain.

If the given plant does not satisfy 2 or 3 conditions specified from the above, a compensator
circuit may be necessary to modify the overall plant characteristics (i.e of Gc(s) Gf(s)) to
satisfy the given specifications.

Lead compensator – (to improve transient behaviour of system)

Lag compensator – (to improve error constant or steady-state behavior – while retaining
transient response)

Lead – Lag compensator – (A combination of the above two i.e. to improve steady
state as well as transient).

Compensators may be introduced in forward path or in feedback path.

Lead Compensator

A system which has one pole and one dominating zero (the zero which is closer to the origin than all over
zeros is known as dominating zero.) is known as lead network. If we want to add a dominating zero for
compensation in control system then we have to select lead compensation network. The basic
requirement of the phase lead network is that all poles and zeros of the transfer function of the network
must lie on (-)ve real axis interlacing each other with a zero located at the origin of nearest origin. Given
below is the circuit diagram for the phase lead compensation network.
 Fig. 7.1 Phase Lead Compensation Network

From above circuit we get,

Equating above expression of I we get,

Now let us determine the transfer function for the given network and the transfer function can be
determined by finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage. So taking Laplace transform of
both side of above equations,
On substituting the α = (R1 +R2)/ R2 & T = {(R1R2) /(R1 +R2)} in the above equation. Where T and α are
respectively the time constant and attenuation constant, we have

The above network can be visualized as an amplifier with a gain of 1/α. Let us draw the pole zero plot for
the above transfer function.

Fig. 7.2. Pole Zero Plot of Lead Compensating Network

Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function) is closer to origin than the -1/(αT) (which
is the pole of the transfer function).Thus we can say in the lead compensator zero is more dominating than
the pole and because of this lead network introduces positive phase angle to the system when connected
in series.

Let us substitute s = jω in the above transfer function and also we have α < 1. On finding the phase angle
function for the transfer function we have

Now in order to find put the maximum phase lead occurs at a frequency let us differentiate this phase
function and equate it to zero. On solving the above equation we get
Where, θm is the maximum phase lead angle. And the corresponding magnitude of the transfer function at
maximum θm is 1/a.

Fig. 7.3. Phase lead compensator frequency response

Effect of Phase Lead Compensation

The velocity constant Kv increases.

The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover frequency so that relative stability improves
& error decrease due to error is directly proportional to the slope.

Phase margin increases.

Response become faster.

Advantages of Phase Lead Compensation

Let us discuss some of the advantages of the phase lead compensation-

Due to the presence of phase lead network the speed of the system increases because it shifts gain
crossover frequency to a higher value.

Due to the presence of phase lead compensation maximum overshoot of the system decreases.

Disadvantages of Phase Lead Compensation

Some of the disadvantages of the phase lead compensation -

Steady state error is not improved.

Lag Compensator:

A system which has one zero and one dominating pole ( the pole which is closer to origin that all other
poles is known as dominating pole) is known as lag network. If we want to add a dominating pole for
compensation in control system then, we have to select a lag compensation network.

The basic requirement of the phase lag network is that all poles & zeros of the transfer function of the
network must lie in (-)ve real axis interlacing each other with a pole located or on the nearest to the
origin. Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase lag compensation network.

Fig. 7.4 Phase Lag Compensating Network

We will have the output at the series combination of the resistor R2 and the capacitor C. From the above
circuit diagram, we get

Now let us determine the transfer function for the given network and the transfer function can be
determined by finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.

Taking Laplace transform of above two equations we get,

On substituting the T = R2C and β = {(R2 + R1 ) / R1} in the above equation (where T and β are
respectively the time constant and dc gain), we have
The above network provides a high frequency gain of 1 / β. Let us draw the pole zero plot for the above
transfer function.

Fig. 7.5. Pole Zero Plot of Lag Network

Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function) is far to origin than the -1 / (βT)(which is
the pole of the transfer function). Thus we can say in the lag compensator pole is more dominating than
the zero and because of this lag network introduces negative phase angle to the system when connected in
series.

Let us substitute s = jω in the above transfer function and also we have a < 1. On finding the phase angle
function for the transfer function we have

Now in order to find put the maximum phase lag occurs at a frequency let us differentiate this phase
function and equate it to zero. On solving the above equation we get

Where, θm is the maximum phase lead angle.

 Fig 7.6. Phase lag compensator frequency response

Lead Lag Compensator:

Lead lag compensators are used to improve both transient and steady state response of a system. The lead
lag compensator is designed by combining lead and lag compensators suitably. The circuit diagram of a
lead lag compensator is shown in figure below:

Fig. 7.7 Phase Lead Lag Compensating Network

The transfer function of the above circuit can be written as,

Fig. 7.8 Frequency response of lead lag network
 Module 8: CASE STUDIES

DC Position Control System

Angular position control using a DC motor forms a fine example of feedback controlled system. A DC
motor whose speed can be varied by application of various voltages is used through an appropriate gear
drive to rotate a shaft. The angular position of the shaft is sensed using an appropriate sensor and
depending on the set value and the measured value of the angular position, an error voltage is obtained
which is amplified and feedback to control the motor. At equilibrium, the shaft position will correspond
to the angular position indicated by the set value.

Fig. 8.1 DC position control system

It is required to keep the position of the load constant. Such a system where the output is kept constant is
called position control system. Such a system where output position is kept constant is called as position
control system. The output position is sensed and feedback to the potentiometer used as an error detector.
For any change in the output position θ L , the potentiometer generates an error signal proportional to the
difference θr and θL. The θr is the reference position corresponding to the ideal output position. The error
signal is given to the amplifier and the output of the amplifier is applied to the armature of the dc Motor.
The D.C motor maintains the output shaft position constant. The entire scheme is called DC Position
Control System Application of DC Servomotors are Aircraft Control Systems, Electromechanical
actuators, Process controllers, Robotics.

Voltage Control of an Alternator

Figure 8.2 gives the schematic diagram of an automatic voltage regulator of a generator. It basically
consists of a main exciter which excites the alternator field to control the output voltage. The exciter field
is automatically controlled through error e= Vref-VT suitably amplified through voltage and power
amplifiers. It is a type-0 system which requires a constant error e for a specified voltage at generator
terminals. The block diagram of the system is given in fig below
Potential Transformer:-It gives a sample of terminal voltage VT

Differencing device: It gives the actuating error

The error initiates the corrective action of adjusting the alternator excitation. Error wave form is
suppressed carrier modulated, the carrier frequency being the system frequency of 50 Hz.

Error amplifier: It demodulates and amplifies the error signal. Its gain is Ka. SCR power amplifier and
exciter field: It provides the necessary power amplification to the signal for controlling the exciter field.
Assuming the amplifier time constant to be small enough to be neglected, the overall transfer function of
these two is
Where Tef is the exciter field time constant.
Alternator: Its field is excited by the main exciter voltage vE. Under no load it produces a voltage
proportional to field current. The no load transfer function is

where
Tgf = generator field time constant.
The load causes a voltage drop which is a complex function of direct and quadrature axis currents. The
effect is only schematically represented by block GL. The exact load model of the alternator is beyond the
scope of this book.

Stabilizing transformer: Tef and Tgf are large enough time constants to impair the system’s dynamic
response. It is well known that the dynamic response of a control system can be improved by the internal
derivative feedback loop. The derivative feedback in this system is provided by means of a stabilizing
transformer excited by the exciter output voltage vE. The output of the stabilizing transformer is fed
negatively at the input terminals of the SCR power amplifier. The transfer function of the stabilizing
transformer is derived below. Since the secondary is connected at the input terminals of an amplifier, it
can be assumed to draw zero current. Now

Taking the Laplace transform, we get

Accurate state variable models of loaded alternator around an operating point are available in literature
using which optimal voltage regulation schemes can be devised.
Liquid Level Controller

The liquid level must be controlled by the proper controller. The objective of the controller in the level
control is to maintain a level set point at a given value and be able to accept new set point. The
conventional proportional- integral- derivative (PID) is commonly utilized in controlling the level. On the
other hand, the fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is also popularly implemented in many practical industries
application.

The control of liquid level in tanks and flow between tanks is a basic problem in the process industries.
The process industries require liquids to be pumped, stored in tanks, then pump to another tank. Many
times the liquids will be processed by chemical or mixing treatment in the tanks, but always the level of
liquid in the tanks must be controlled, and the flow of the tank must be regulated. Level and flow control
in tanks are at the heart of all chemical engineering systems. But chemical engineering system are also at
the heart of our economies. Vital industries where liquid and flow control are essential include petro
chemical industries, paper making industries and water treatment industries. Our lives are governed by
level and flow control system. The water closet (WC) toilet in our house is also a liquid level control
system. The swinging arm attached to the input valve of the WC water tank allows water to flow into tank
until the float rises to a point that closes the valve. There are many alternative controller design theories
that can be used to control the level of liquid on tanks. Proportional integral derivative control is one of a
kind of control strategies that uses to control the level and flow of liquid. Proportional control, PI control,
PD control and PID control will be investigate to determine which controller is the best for liquid level
control.

Fig. 8.4 Liquid Level Control System

Temperature control System

An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature control device. It is often used in electric heating
(Fig. 8.5). The output from the device is either on or off, with no middle state. An on-off controller
switches the output only when the temperature crosses the set point. For heating control, the output is on
when the temperature is below the set point, and off – above set point. Since the temperature crosses the
set point to change the output state, the process temperature will be cycling continually, going from below
set point to above, and back below. In steady state conditions the turn-on time and the cycle duration time
are practically the same in each cycle.
Block diagram of an on-off temperature control system is shown in Fig. 8.6. The control object S (electric
furnace or heater) is usually approximated by a 1st order inertial element with delay time. Block T reflects
the time constant of the temperature sensor, which is usually assumed to be a 1st order inertial element.
However, to assure good performance of the control system, the temperature sensor T time constant
should be much lower than the control object S time constant. It should be added, that this is often not
difficult to obtain, because heating devices are usually characterized by big time constants. ϑ is the
measured temperature of object S, ϑ * is a signal from the temperature sensor converted into temperature
magnitude and ϑ w * - preset temperature. The difference ε between the preset temperature ϑ w * and the
measured temperature ϑ * is applied to the controller Reg input. The controller Reg is a non-linear
element containing an aforementioned hysteresis. The controller turns on an off, via contactor W, the
heating element, determining its temperature waveform. The controller output signal u is called “duty
cycle” and is a ratio of turn-on time tz to the duration of the switching cycle.

Fig 8.6 Block diagram of Temperature control system