FYS3240

PC-based instrumentation and microcontrollers

Computer buses and interfaces

Spring 2016– Lecture #7

Bekkeng 18.01.2016
Abbreviations
• B = byte
• b = bit
• M = mega
• G = giga = 109
• k = kilo = 1000
• K = 1024 (= 210)
The most common data acquisition
buses available today

• PCI Some important bus

Internal PC bus
• PCI Express parameters:
• Bandwidth (MB/s)
• PXI
• Serial / Parallel
• PXI Express • Shared / dedicated resource
• USB • Maximum bus length
• Latency (delay)
• Ethernet

No bus is perfect for all needs and applications!

8b/10b encoding
• In telecommunications, 8b/10b is a line code that maps 8-bit
symbols to 10-bit symbols to achieve DC-balance and provide
enough state changes to allow reasonable clock recovery.

• 8b/10b used in USB 3.0, SATA, PCI express, some Ethernet

standards etc.

Figure from Lecroy

 PCI
• PCI = (Peripheral Component Interconnect)
• Supports 32 and 64 bits
• Shared parallel bus!
• Maximum bandwidth (peak) of 132 MB/s (32-bits at 33 MHz)
• 33 MHz and 66 MHz versions
• Theoretical maximum of 532 MB/s (64 bits at 66 MHz)
• However, anything above 32 bits and 33 MHz is only seen in
high-end systems)
 PCI Express (PCIe)
• A point-to-point serial bus, rather than a shared parallel bus
architecture
• PCIe slots may contain from one to thirty-two lanes, in powers
of two (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32)
• Dedicated bandwith for each device/slot
– v1: 250 MB/s (duplex) per lane
– v2: 500 MB/s (duplex) per lane
– v3: 985 MB/s (duplex) per lane V4: 2014 - 2015
– v4: 1969 MB/s (duplex) per lane

x4

x16
x1

x16 (x8)

PCI
 CompactPCI
• It is electrically a superset of PCI with a different (smaller) physical
form factor
• CompactPCI supports twice as many PCI slots
• Compact PCI cards are designed for front loading and removal from a
card cage. The cards are firmly held in position by card guides on both
sides, and a face plate which solidly screws into the card cage.
• Cards are mounted vertically allowing for natural or forced air
convection for cooling
• Better shock and vibration characteristics than the card edge
connector of the standard PCI cards
• Allows hot swapping, a feature that is very important for fault tolerant
systems and which is not possible with standard PCI.
PXI and PXI-Express
• PXI = PCI eXtensions for Instrumentation (PXI)
• National Instruments developed and announced the
PXI specification in 1997
• Based on and compatible with CompactPCI
• PXI defines a rugged PC-based platform for
measurement and automation systems
• Gives the ability to expand your system far beyond
the capacity of a desktop computer with a PCI/PCIe
bus.
• One of the most important benefits PXI offers is its
integrated timing and triggering features. Without
any external connections, multiple devices can be
synchronized by using the internal buses resident on
the backplane of a PXI chassis
• By taking advantage of PCI Express technology in the
backplane, PXI Express increases the available PXI
bandwidth from 132 MB/s to 8 GB/s
ExpressCard
• Successor technology to PCMCIA and PC Card standards.
• Form factor of a peripheral interface designed for laptop
computers
• Commonly used for DAQ cards, network cards and modems for
laptops
• Serial bus
• 480 Mb/s (USB 2.0 mode) or 2.6 Gb/s (PCIe mode)
 Towards serial buses
- PCI Express, USB, SATA ...

• High speed data transfer on long cables: the bits on

different wires may not reach the receiver circuit exactly
at the same time. Not the case on serial lines  may
increase speed without problems
• Crosstalk between lines at high frequency is avoided by
using one or two data lines only
• Hence, parallel cables are more expensive in
production
• Serial internal buses give less motherboard routing,
simpler layout and smaller dimensions
• PCIe is just one example of a general trend away from
parallel buses to serial interconnects.
• Other examples include Serial ATA (SATA, eSATA) and
USB
External computer ports and buses
• RS-232
Not directly available on the
• RS-422 computer, but a converter attached to
• RS-485 USB or RS-232 can be used. Or get a
PCI/PXI card
• USB
• FireWire (IEEE 1394)
• Thunderbolt
 Transmission line equivalent circuit

Voltage
source Load

The source (sensor) resistance Rs and the total cable capacitance

C (n*C0) creates a low pass filter with cut off frequency f = 1/(2πRSC)
 Serial port: RS-232
• Point-to-point interface Data

• Single-ended data transmission Startbit BIT 0 BIT 1

• Common bit frequencies are from 8 16 16 16

16X
9.6 kHz up to 115.2 kHz (or higher) klokke

• Maximum cable length (rule of thumb)

is about 15 -20 meters at full speed Data: +(3-25 V) (0)
-(3-25 V) (1)
– depends on cable capacitance Control: -(3-25 V) (0)
• Maximum data rate about 20 KBit/s +(3-25 V) (1)

• Minimal 3-wire connection is:

– Rx, Tx and GND (two way data flow)

• Common ground (between transmitter

and receiver)
– Can create noise problems
LabVIEW Serial: RS-232

Basic Serial Write and Read.vi

RS-422

• Multi-drop interface with a single transmitter but multiple

receivers
• Differential data transmission (balanced transmission)
– Cancel out the effects of ground shifts and induced noise signals
that can appear as common mode voltages on a network
• Maximum cable length (rule of thumb) is about 1200 meters
• Maximum data rate is 10 Mbit/s
– Depends on cable length
RS-485
• Upgraded version of RS-422
• Multi-point network consists of multiple drivers and multiple
receivers
USB (Universal Serial Bus )
• Theoretical maximum data rates:
 USB 1.0 – Jan 96 : 12 Mb/s
 USB 1.1 – Sep 98 : 12 Mb/s
 USB 2.0 – Apr 2000 : 480 Mb/s
 USB 3.0 – Aug 2008 : 5.0 Gb/s (SuperSpeed)
commercially available in 2010

• Maximum cable length of 5 meters

• 26 ns * 3*108 m/s * 0.65 = 5.07 m (USB 2.0)

•Differential signaling (twisted pairs)

 +5V 0V D+ D-

•Power: 500 mA or 2.5 W (USB 2.0), 900 mA or 4.5 W (USB 3.0)

•Increase the cable length up to 30 m by using:
• USB repeaters (up to five repeaters)
• Active Cables (bus-powered)
New USB standards in 2015

• USB 3.1 Gen2: 10 Gb/s

• USB Type C
– a new small reversible-plug connector for USB devices
– up to 100 W power supported
Thunderbolt
• Developed by Intel.
• Commercially introduced by Apple
– Introduced on Apple MacBook Pro in 2011
• The connector is Mini DisplayPort (electrically identical
to DisplayPort)
• Bi-directional 20 Gb/s
– Thunderbolt v1: 10 Gb/s on two channels in each direction
– Thunderbolt v2: 20 Gb/s on one channels in each direction
– Power: 550 mA, 18 V (9.9 W) for v1 and v2
• Combines PCI Express and Display Port
• Maximum cable length of 3 meters (100 m with optical)
• Can daisy chain up to 6 devices
• Thunderbolt v3: 40 Gb/s, support USB-C, 100 W
charging

Serial data + Power

 Ethernet network RJ45

• LAN (local area network)

– a computer network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area
• 1000BASE-T (IEEE 802.3ab) is a standard for gigabit Ethernet
over copper wiring
– Theoretical maximum data rate of 125 MB/s
– Each network segment can have a maximum length of 100 meters
– If longer cables are required, the use of active hardware such as
repeaters, or switches, is necessary
• Can also use converters and fiber optic cables to extend to many
kilometers
– Must use Category 5 cable or better (4 twisted, usually unshielded)
pairs)
• Must configure an IP-address and a subnet
Ethernet network II
• Category 6 cable (Cat 6)
– today standard for Gigabit Ethernet
– backward compatible with the Category 5/5e
– suitable for 10-Gigabit Ethernet (10GBASE-T)
• PC connection to an Ethernet network
– NIC (Network Interface Controller/Card) for PCI or PCIe
– Every NIC has a unique 48-bit serial number (MAC
address) stored in a ROM

PCIe x4
dual port NIC
Unicast, multicast and broadcast
• Unicast
– Sending of messages (packages) to a single
network destination identified by unique address.

• Multicast
– A transmission to a group on the network
– To receive data a client must join the multicast
group
– Multicasting uses the IGMP (Internet Group
Management Protocol) and requires an IGMP-
compliant switch

• Broadcast
– Transmitting the same data to all possible
destinations (every device on the network)
 LAN
• A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that
connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area
– usually high data-transfer rates

• Ethernet is the most commonly used LAN technology

IP and TCP

• TCP and IP are two of the most important communication

protocols used for the Internet
• TCP = Transmission Control Protocol, IP = Internet Protocol
• TCP complements the Internet Protocol (IP), which is unreliable
• TCP/IP: IP handles addressing and routing of message, while TCP
provides a reliable and in sequence data delivery without errors,
loss (no packets are lost) or duplication
• TCP:
– Flow control (does not send data faster than the receiver can
read)
– Saturation control (slower transmission when network
problems)
– Retransmission of data when needed (data lost or not
acknowledged in time)
• Example of use of TCP/IP: File transfer (FTP), HTTP
TCP
• TCP is a connection-based protocol, which means that a
connection must be established before transferring data
– Data transmission occurs between a client and a server
– TCP permits multiple, simultaneous connections

• In order to establish a TCP connection you have to specify an

address and a port at that address
– The port numbers allow different applications on the same
computer to share network resources simultaneously
– In TCP (and UDP) port numbers start at 0 and go up to 65535.
Numbers in the lower ranges are dedicated to common Internet
protocols (like 21 for FTP and 80 for HTTP).
LabVIEW Data Communication
LabVIEW TCP Example
Demonstrates how to set up a TCP connection, and send data to a
specified port once a connection (from a client) has been established

Simple Data Server.vi

 UDP
• Used for broadcast and multicast of data
• Not reliable (packets can be lost)
• UDP:
– No flow control
– No saturation control
– No retransmission of data
• UDP share the same delivery problems as IP
• However,
– UDP does not wait to confirm a connection before data
transmission, and therefore no delay is introduced UDP is
– Small overhead (compared to TCP) fast
– UDP send rate only limited by the rate of data generation, CPU,
clock rate and access to Internet bandwidth
• Example of use of UDP:
– Video-conference (video distribution)
– Sensor data distribution
– NTP (network time protocol)
LabVIEW Example:
UDP Send localhost = this machine; IP = 127.0.0.1
(used for testing)

UDP Sender.vi

UDP broadcast
address:
255.255.255.255
 • By using jumbo packets, you can
transmit the same amount of data
Jumbo frames with fewer packets.
• Though you save a small amount of
• In the early days of networking the bandwidth (by using fewer headers),
maximum packet (frame) size was you dramatically reduce CPU usage
1518 bytes. because your PC spends less time
analyzing packets.
• With today’s high transmission
rates, the task of analyzing each
packet can overwhelm the CPU.

A common jumbo frame size is 9 kB (8192

bytes is often used), though IPv4 supports
jumbo packets up to 64 kB. Make sure that
your NIC supports jumbo frames LAC - Configure
Bus bandwidth and latency
Wireless networks
• Pros
– With Wi-Fi and Ethernet DAQ devices you can perform
remote measurements at distances as far reaching as the
wireless network allows
– Can be used where wiring is difficult or cost-prohibitive
– Flexibility
• Cons
– “Low” bandwidth
– Less reliable than a cabled connection
– Possible security restrictions
 Differential signaling & twisted pairs
• Two wires carry equal and opposite signals and the receiver detects the
difference between the two.
• Noise sources introduce signals into the wires by coupling of electric or
magnetic fields and tend to couple to both wires equally. The noise thus
produces a common-mode signal which is cancelled at the receiver .
• This method starts to fail when the noise source is close to the signal wires; the
closer wire will couple with the noise more strongly and the common-mode
rejection of the receiver will fail to eliminate it. This problem is especially
apparent in long cables as one pair can induce crosstalk in another, and it is
additive along the length of the cable.
• Twisting the pairs counters this effect as on each half twist the wire nearest to
the noise-source is exchanged. Providing the interfering source remains
uniform, the induced noise will remain common-mode.
• The twist rate (twists per meter) makes up part of the specification for a given
type of cable. Where nearby pairs have equal twist rates, the same conductors
of the different pairs may repeatedly lie next to each other, partially undoing the
benefits of differential mode. For this reason it is commonly specified that, at
least for cables containing small numbers of pairs, the twist rates must differ.
• Twisted pairs also minimize loop area – minimize inductance coupling
(remember Faraday’s law)