LANGUAGE

FUNDAMENTALS

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
1  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Introduction
 Python is a general purpose high level programming language.

 Python was developed by Guido Van Rossam in 1989 while working at National
Research Institute at Netherlands.

 But officially Python was made available to public in 1991. The official Date of Birth for
Python is : Feb 20th 1991.

 Python is recommended as first programming language for beginners.

Eg1: To print Helloworld

Java:

1) public class HelloWorld

2) {
3) p s v main(String[] args)
4) {
5) SOP("Hello world");
6) }
7) }

C:

1) #include<stdio.h>
2) void main()
3) {
4) print("Hello world");
5) }

Python:
print("Hello World")

Eg2: To print the sum of 2 numbers

Java:

1) public class Add

2) {
3) public static void main(String[] args)
4) {
5) int a,b;
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
2  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 6) a =10;
7) b=20;
8) System.out.println("The Sum:"+(a+b));
9) }
10) }

C:

1) #include <stdio.h>
2)
3) void main()
4) {
5) int a,b;
6) a =10;
7) b=20;
8) printf("The Sum:%d",(a+b));
9) }

Python:

1) a=10
2) b=20
3) print("The Sum:",(a+b))

The name Python was selected from the TV Show

"The Complete Monty Python's Circus", which was broadcasted in BBC from 1969 to 1974.

Guido developed Python language by taking almost all programming features from
different languages

1. Functional Programming Features from C

2. Object Oriented Programming Features from C++
3. Scripting Language Features from Perl and Shell Script
4. Modular Programming Features from Modula-3

Most of syntax in Python Derived from C and ABC languages.

Where we can use Python:

We can use everywhere. The most common important application areas are

1) For developing Desktop Applications

2) For developing web Applications
3) For developing database Applications
4) For Network Programming
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
3  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
5) For developing games
6) For Data Analysis Applications
7) For Machine Learning
8) For developing Artificial Intelligence Applications
9) For IoT
...
Note:
 Internally Google and Youtube use Python coding.
 NASA and Nework Stock Exchange Applications developed by Python.
 Top Software companies like Google, Microsoft, IBM, Yahoo using Python.

Features of Python:

1) Simple and easy to learn:

 Python is a simple programming language. When we read Python program,we can feel
like reading english statements.
 The syntaxes are very simple and only 30+ kerywords are available.
 When compared with other languages, we can write programs with very less number
of lines. Hence more readability and simplicity.
 We can reduce development and cost of the project.

2) Freeware and Open Source:

 We can use Python software without any licence and it is freeware.
 Its source code is open,so that we can we can customize based on our requirement.
 Eg: Jython is customized version of Python to work with Java Applications.

3) High Level Programming language:

 Python is high level programming language and hence it is programmer friendly
language.
 Being a programmer we are not required to concentrate low level activities like
memory management and security etc.

4) Platform Independent:
 Once we write a Python program,it can run on any platform without rewriting once
again.
 Internally PVM is responsible to convert into machine understandable form.

5) Portability:
Python programs are portable. ie we can migrate from one platform to another
platform very easily. Python programs will provide same results on any paltform.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
4  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
6) Dynamically Typed:
 In Python we are not required to declare type for variables. Whenever we are
assigning the value, based on value, type will be allocated automatically.Hence Python
is considered as dynamically typed language.
 But Java, C etc are Statically Typed Languages b'z we have to provide type at the
beginning only.
 This dynamic typing nature will provide more flexibility to the programmer.

7) Both Procedure Oriented and Object Oriented:

Python language supports both Procedure oriented (like C, pascal etc) and object
oriented (like C++, Java) features. Hence we can get benefits of both like security and
reusability etc

8) Interpreted:
 We are not required to compile Python programs explcitly. Internally Python
interpreter will take care that compilation.
 If compilation fails interpreter raised syntax errors. Once compilation success then
PVM (Python Virtual Machine) is responsible to execute.

9) Extensible:
 We can use other language programs in Python.
 The main advantages of this approach are:
 We can use already existing legacy non-Python code
 We can improve performance of the application

10) Embedded:
We can use Python programs in any other language programs.
i.e we can embedd Python programs anywhere.

11) Extensive Library:

 Python has a rich inbuilt library.
 Being a programmer we can use this library directly and we are not responsible to
implement the functionality. Etc.

Limitations of Python:
1) Performance wise not up to the mark because it is interpreted language.
2) Not using for mobile Applications.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
5  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Flavors of Python:

1) CPython:
It is the standard flavor of Python. It can be used to work with C lanugage Applications.

2) Jython OR JPython:
It is for Java Applications. It can run on JVM

3) IronPython:
It is for C#.Net platform

4) PyPy:
The main advantage of PyPy is performance will be improved because JIT compiler is
available inside PVM.

5) RubyPython
For Ruby Platforms

6) AnacondaPython
It is specially designed for handling large volume of data processing.

Python Versions:
 Python 1.0V introduced in Jan 1994
 Python 2.0V introduced in October 2000
 Python 3.0V introduced in December 2008

Note: Python 3 won't provide backward compatibility to Python2 i.e there is no

guarantee that Python2 programs will run in Python3.

Current versions
Python 3.6.1 Python 2.7.13

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
6  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 IDENTIFIERS
 A Name in Python Program is called Identifier.
 It can be Class Name OR Function Name OR Module Name OR Variable Name.

 a = 10

Rules to define Identifiers in Python:

1. The only allowed characters in Python are

 alphabet symbols(either lower case or upper case)

 digits(0 to 9)
 underscore symbol(_)

By mistake if we are using any other symbol like $ then we will get syntax error.

 cash = 10 √
 ca$h =20 

2. Identifier should not starts with digit

 123total 
 total123 √

3. Identifiers are case sensitive. Of course Python language is case sensitive language.

 total=10
 TOTAL=999
 print(total) #10
 print(TOTAL) #999

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
7  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Identifier:
1) Alphabet Symbols (Either Upper case OR Lower case)

2) If Identifier is start with Underscore (_) then it indicates it is private.

3) Identifier should not start with Digits.

4) Identifiers are case sensitive.

5) We cannot use reserved words as identifiers

Eg: def = 10 

6) There is no length limit for Python identifiers. But not recommended to use too
lengthy identifiers.

7) Dollor ($) Symbol is not allowed in Python.

Q) Which of the following are valid Python identifiers?

1) 123total 
2) total123 √
3) java2share √
4) ca$h 
5) _abc_abc_ √
6) def 
7) if 

Note:

1) If identifier starts with _ symbol then it indicates that it is private

2) If identifier starts with __(Two Under Score Symbols) indicating that strongly private
identifier.
3) If the identifier starts and ends with two underscore symbols then the identifier is
language defined special name, which is also known as magic methods.

4) Eg: __add__

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
8  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 RESERVED WORDS
In Python some words are reserved to represent some meaning or functionality.
Such types of words are called reserved words.

There are 33 reserved words available in Python.

 True, False, None

 and, or ,not,is
 if, elif, else
 while, for, break, continue, return, in, yield
 try, except, finally, raise, assert
 import, from, as, class, def, pass, global, nonlocal, lambda, del, with

Note:

1. All Reserved words in Python contain only alphabet symbols.

2. Except the following 3 reserved words, all contain only lower case alphabet symbols.

 True
 False
 None

Eg: a= true 
a=True √

>>> import keyword

>>> keyword.kwlist
['False', 'None', 'True', 'and', 'as', 'assert', 'break', 'class', 'continue', 'def', 'del', 'elif', 'else',
'except', 'finally', 'for', 'from', 'global', 'if', 'import', 'in', 'is', 'lambda', 'nonlocal', 'not', 'or',
'pass', 'raise', 'return', 'try', 'while', 'with', 'yield']

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
9  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 DATA TYPES
 Data Type represents the type of data present inside a variable.
 In Python we are not required to specify the type explicitly. Based on value provided,
the type will be assigned automatically.Hence Python is dynamically Typed Language.

Python contains the following inbuilt data types

1) Int
2) Float
3) Complex
4) Bool
5) Str
6) Bytes
7) Bytearray
8) Range
9) List
10) Tuple
11) Set
12) Frozenset
13) Dict
14) None

10
a = 10 a
a = 20
20

a
a = 10
b = 10 10
b

Note: Python contains several inbuilt functions

1) type()
to check the type of variable

2) id()
to get address of object

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
10  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
3) print()
to print the value

In Python everything is an Object.

1) int Data Type:

We can use int data type to represent whole numbers (integral values)
Eg: a = 10
type(a) #int

Note:
 In Python2 we have long data type to represent very large integral values.
 But in Python3 there is no long type explicitly and we can represent long values also by
using int type only.

We can represent int values in the following ways

1) Decimal form
2) Binary form
3) Octal form
4) Hexa decimal form

I) Decimal Form (Base-10):

 It is the default number system in Python
 The allowed digits are: 0 to 9
 Eg: a =10

II) Binary Form (Base-2):

 The allowed digits are : 0 & 1
 Literal value should be prefixed with 0b or 0B

 Eg: a = 0B1111
a = 0B123
a = b111

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
11  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
III) Octal Form (Base-8):
 The allowed digits are : 0 to 7
 Literal value should be prefixed with 0o or 0O.

 Eg: a = 0o123
a = 0o786

IV) Hexa Decimal Form (Base-16):

 The allowed digits are: 0 to 9, a-f (both lower and upper cases are allowed)
 Literal value should be prefixed with 0x or 0X

 Eg: a = 0XFACE
a = 0XBeef
a = 0XBeer

Note: Being a programmer we can specify literal values in decimal, binary, octal and hexa
decimal forms. But PVM will always provide values only in decimal form.

 a=10
 b=0o10
 c=0X10
 d=0B10
 print(a)10
 print(b)8
 print(c)16
 print(d)2

Base Conversions
Python provide the following in-built functions for base conversions

1) bin():
We can use bin() to convert from any base to binary

1) >>> bin(15)
2) '0b1111'
3) >>> bin(0o11)
4) '0b1001'
5) >>> bin(0X10)
6) '0b10000'

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
12  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
2) oct():
We can use oct() to convert from any base to octal

1) >>> oct(10)
2) '0o12'
3) >>> oct(0B1111)
4) '0o17'
5) >>> oct(0X123)
6) '0o443'

3) hex():
We can use hex() to convert from any base to hexa decimal

1) >>> hex(100)
2) '0x64'
3) >>> hex(0B111111)
4) '0x3f'
5) >>> hex(0o12345)
6) '0x14e5'

2) Float Data Type:

 We can use float data type to represent floating point values (decimal values)
Eg: f = 1.234
type(f) float

 We can also represent floating point values by using exponential form

(Scientific Notation)
Eg: f = 1.2e3  instead of 'e' we can use 'E'
print(f) 1200.0

 The main advantage of exponential form is we can represent big values in less
memory.

***Note:
We can represent int values in decimal, binary, octal and hexa decimal forms. But we
can represent float values only by using decimal form.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
13  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 1) >>> f=0B11.01
2) File "<stdin>", line 1
3) f=0B11.01
4) ^
5) SyntaxError: invalid syntax
6)
7) >>> f=0o123.456
8) SyntaxError: invalid syntax
9)
10) >>> f=0X123.456
11) SyntaxError: invalid syntax

3) Complex Data Type:

 A complex number is of the form

j2 = -1
a + bj
j=
Real Part Imaginary Part

 ‘a’ and ‘b’ contain Intergers OR Floating Point Values.

Eg: 3 + 5j
10 + 5.5j
0.5 + 0.1j

 In the real part if we use int value then we can specify that either by decimal, octal,
binary or hexa decimal form.
 But imaginary part should be specified only by using decimal form.

1) >>> a=0B11+5j
2) >>> a
3) (3+5j)
4) >>> a=3+0B11j
5) SyntaxError: invalid syntax

 Even we can perform operations on complex type values.

1) >>> a=10+1.5j
2) >>> b=20+2.5j
3) >>> c=a+b
4) >>> print(c)
5) (30+4j)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
14  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 6) >>> type(c)
7) <class 'complex'>

Note: Complex data type has some inbuilt attributes to retrieve the real part and
imaginary part

c = 10.5+3.6j

c.real  10.5
c.imag  3.6

We can use complex type generally in scientific Applications and electrical engineering
Applications.

4) bool Data Type:

 We can use this data type to represent boolean values.
 The only allowed values for this data type are:
 True and False

 Internally Python represents True as 1 and False as 0

b = True
type(b) bool

Eg:
a = 10
b = 20
c = a<b
print(c)  True

True+True  2
True-False  1

5) str Data Type:

 str represents String data type.
 A String is a sequence of characters enclosed within single quotes or double
quotes.

 s1='durga'
 s1="durga"
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
15  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
  By using single quotes or double quotes we cannot represent multi line string
literals.

 s1="durga
soft"

 For this requirement we should go for triple single quotes(''') or triple double
quotes(""")

 s1='''durga
soft'''

 s1="""durga
soft"""

 We can also use triple quotes to use single quote or double quote in our String.
 ''' This is " character'''
' This i " Character '

 We can embed one string in another string

 '''This "Python class very helpful" for java students'''

Slicing of Strings:
1) slice means a piece
2) [ ] operator is called slice operator, which can be used to retrieve parts of String.
3) In Python Strings follows zero based index.
4) The index can be either +ve or -ve.
5) +ve index means forward direction from Left to Right
6) -ve index means backward direction from Right to Left
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
d u r g a
0 1 2 3 4
1) >>> s="durga"
2) >>> s[0]
3) 'd'
4) >>> s[1]
5) 'u'
6) >>> s[-1]
7) 'a'
8) >>> s[40]

IndexError: string index out of range

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
16  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 1) >>> s[1:40]
2) 'urga'
3) >>> s[1:]
4) 'urga'
5) >>> s[:4]
6) 'durg'
7) >>> s[:]
8) 'durga'
9) >>>
10)
11) >>> s*3
12) 'durgadurgadurga'
13)
14) >>> len(s)
15) 5

Note:

1) In Python the following data types are considered as Fundamental Data types

 int
 float
 complex
 bool
 str

2) In Python, we can represent char values also by using str type and explicitly char type
is not available.

1) >>> c='a'
2) >>> type(c)
3) <class 'str'>

3) long Data Type is available in Python2 but not in Python3. In Python3 long values also
we can represent by using int type only.

4) In Python we can present char Value also by using str Type and explicitly char Type is
not available.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
17  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 TYPE CASTING
֍ We can convert one type value to another type. This conversion is called Typecasting
or Type coersion.
֍ The following are various inbuilt functions for type casting.

1) int()
2) float()
3) complex()
4) bool()
5) str()

֍ int():
We can use this function to convert values from other types to int

1) >>> int(123.987)
2) 123
3) >>> int(10+5j)
4) TypeError: can't convert complex to int
5) >>> int(True)
6) 1
7) >>> int(False)
8) 0
9) >>> int("10")
10) 10
11) >>> int("10.5")
12) ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: '10.5'
13) >>> int("ten")
14) ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'ten'
15) >>> int("0B1111")
16) ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: '0B1111'

Note:

1) We can convert from any type to int except complex type.

2) If we want to convert str type to int type, compulsary str should contain only integral
value and should be specified in base-10.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
18  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
֍ float():
We can use float() function to convert other type values to float type.

1) >>> float(10)
2) 10.0
3) >>> float(10+5j)
4) TypeError: can't convert complex to float
5) >>> float(True)
6) 1.0
7) >>> float(False)
8) 0.0
9) >>> float("10")
10) 10.0
11) >>> float("10.5")
12) 10.5
13) >>> float("ten")
14) ValueError: could not convert string to float: 'ten'
15) >>> float("0B1111")
16) ValueError: could not convert string to float: '0B1111'

Note:
1) We can convert any type value to float type except complex type.
2) Whenever we are trying to convert str type to float type compulsary str should be
either integral or floating point literal and should be specified only in base-10.

֍ complex():
We can use complex() function to convert other types to complex type.

Form-1: complex(x)
We can use this function to convert x into complex number with real part x and imaginary
part 0.

Eg:

1) complex(10)==>10+0j
2) complex(10.5)===>10.5+0j
3) complex(True)==>1+0j
4) complex(False)==>0j
5) complex("10")==>10+0j
6) complex("10.5")==>10.5+0j
7) complex("ten")
8) ValueError: complex() arg is a malformed string

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
19  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Form-2: complex(x,y)

We can use this method to convert x and y into complex number such that x will be real
part and y will be imaginary part.

Eg: complex(10, -2)  10-2j

complex(True, False)  1+0j

֍ bool():
We can use this function to convert other type values to bool type.

1) bool(0)  False
2) bool(1)  True
3) bool(10)  True
4) bool(10.5)  True
5) bool(0.178)  True
6) bool(0.0)  False
7) bool(10-2j)  True
8) bool(0+1.5j)  True
9) bool(0+0j)  False
10) bool("True")  True
11) bool("False")  True
12) bool("")  False

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
20  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
֍ str():
We can use this method to convert other type values to str type.

1) >>> str(10)
2) '10'
3) >>> str(10.5)
4) '10.5'
5) >>> str(10+5j)
6) '(10+5j)'
7) >>> str(True)
8) 'True'

Fundamental Data Types vs Immutability:

֍ All Fundamental Data types are immutable. i.e once we creates an object,we cannot
perform any changes in that object. If we are trying to change then with those changes
a new object will be created. This non-chageable behaviour is called immutability.

֍ In Python if a new object is required, then PVM won’t create object immediately. First
it will check is any object available with the required content or not. If available then
existing object will be reused. If it is not available then only a new object will be
created. The advantage of this approach is memory utilization and performance will be
improved.

֍ But the problem in this approach is, several references pointing to the same object, by
using one reference if we are allowed to change the content in the existing object then
the remaining references will be effected. To prevent this immutability concept is
required. According to this once creates an object we are not allowed to change
content. If we are trying to change with those changes a new object will be created.

1) >>> a=10
2) >>> b=10
3) >>> a is b
4) True
5) >>> id(a)
6) 1572353952
7) >>> id(b)
8) 1572353952
9) >>>

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
21  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 >>> a=10 >>> a=10+5j >>> a=True >>> a='durga'

>>> b=10 >>> b=10+5j >>> b=True >>> b='durga'

>>> id(a) >>> a is b >>> a is b >>> a is b

1572353952 False True True

>>> id(b) >>> id(a) >>> id(a) >>> id(a)

1572353952 15980256 1572172624 16378848

>>> a is b >>> id(b) >>> id(b) >>> id(b)

True 15979944 1572172624 16378848

6) bytes Data Type:

bytes data type represens a group of byte numbers just like an array.

1) x = [10,20,30,40]
2) b = bytes(x)
3) type(b)  bytes
4) print(b[0])  10
5) print(b[-1])  40
6) >>> for i in b : print(i)
7)
8) 10
9) 20
10) 30
11) 40

Conclusion 1:
The only allowed values for byte data type are 0 to 256. By mistake if we are trying to
provide any other values then we will get value error.

Conclusion 2:
Once we creates bytes data type value, we cannot change its values,otherwise we will get
TypeError.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
22  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg:

1) >>> x=[10,20,30,40]
2) >>> b=bytes(x)
3) >>> b[0]=100
4) TypeError: 'bytes' object does not support item assignment

7) bytearray Data Type:

bytearray is exactly same as bytes data type except that its elements can be
modified.

Eg 1:

1) x=[10,20,30,40]
2) b = bytearray(x)
3) for i in b : print(i)
4) 10
5) 20
6) 30
7) 40
8) b[0]=100
9) for i in b: print(i)
10) 100
11) 20
12) 30
13) 40

Eg 2:

1) >>> x =[10,256]
2) >>> b = bytearray(x)
3) ValueError: byte must be in range(0, 256)

8) List Data Type:

If we want to represent a group of values as a single entity where insertion order
required to preserve and duplicates are allowed then we should go for list data
type.

1) Insertion Order is preserved

2) Heterogeneous Objects are allowed
3) Duplicates are allowed
4) Growable in nature
5) Values should be enclosed within square brackets.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
23  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg:

1) list=[10,10.5,'durga',True,10]
2) print(list) # [10,10.5,'durga',True,10]

Eg:

1) list=[10,20,30,40]
2) >>> list[0]
3) 10
4) >>> list[-1]
5) 40
6) >>> list[1:3]
7) [20, 30]
8) >>> list[0]=100
9) >>> for i in list:print(i)
10) ...
11) 100
12) 20
13) 30
14) 40

list is growable in nature. i.e based on our requirement we can increase or decrease the
size.

1) >>> list=[10,20,30]
2) >>> list.append("durga")
3) >>> list
4) [10, 20, 30, 'durga']
5) >>> list.remove(20)
6) >>> list
7) [10, 30, 'durga']
8) >>> list2=list*2
9) >>> list2
10) [10, 30, 'durga', 10, 30, 'durga']

Note: An ordered, mutable, heterogenous collection of eleemnts is nothing but list,

where duplicates also allowed.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
24  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
9) Tuple Data Type:
 tuple data type is exactly same as list data type except that it is immutable.i.e we
cannot chage values.
 Tuple elements can be represented within parenthesis.

Eg:

1) t=(10,20,30,40)
2) type(t)
3) <class 'tuple'>
4) t[0]=100
5) TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
6) >>> t.append("durga")
7) AttributeError: 'tuple' object has no attribute 'append'
8) >>> t.remove(10)
9) AttributeError: 'tuple' object has no attribute 'remove'

Note: tuple is the read only version of list

10) Range Data Type:

 range Data Type represents a sequence of numbers.
 The elements present in range Data type are not modifiable. i.e range Data type is
immutable.

Form-1: range(10)
generate numbers from 0 to 9

Eg:
r = range(10)
for i in r : print(i)  0 to 9

Form-2: range(10, 20)

generate numbers from 10 to 19

Eg:
r = range(10,20)
for i in r : print(i) 10 to 19

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
25  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Form-3: range(10, 20, 2)
2 means increment value

Eg:
r = range(10,20,2)
for i in r : print(i)  10,12,14,16,18

We can access elements present in the range Data Type by using index.

Eg:
r = range(10,20)
r[0]  10
r[15]  IndexError: range object index out of range

We cannot modify the values of range data type

Eg:
r[0] = 100
TypeError: 'range' object does not support item assignment

We can create a list of values with range data type

Eg:

1) >>> l = list(range(10))
2) >>> l
3) [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

11) set Data Type:

֍ If we want to represent a group of values without duplicates where order is not
important then we should go for set Data Type.

1) Insertion order is not preserved

2) Duplicates are not allowed
3) Heterogeneous objects are allowed
4) Index concept is not applicable
5) It is mutable collection
6) Growable in nature

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
26  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg:

1) s={100,0,10,200,10,'durga'}
2) s # {0, 100, 'durga', 200, 10}
3) s[0]  TypeError: 'set' object does not support indexing

֍ set is growable in nature, based on our requirement we can increase or decrease the
size.

1) >>> s.add(60)
2) >>> s
3) {0, 100, 'durga', 200, 10, 60}
4) >>> s.remove(100)
5) >>> s
6) {0, 'durga', 200, 10, 60}

12) frozenset Data Type:

֍ It is exactly same as set except that it is immutable.
֍ Hence we cannot use add or remove functions.

1) >>> s={10,20,30,40}
2) >>> fs=frozenset(s)
3) >>> type(fs)
4) <class 'frozenset'>
5) >>> fs
6) frozenset({40, 10, 20, 30})
7) >>> for i in fs:print(i)
8) ...
9) 40
10) 10
11) 20
12) 30
13)
14) >>> fs.add(70)
15) AttributeError: 'frozenset' object has no attribute 'add'
16) >>> fs.remove(10)
17) AttributeError: 'frozenset' object has no attribute 'remove'

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
27  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
13) dict Data Type:
֍ If we want to represent a group of values as key-value pairs then we should go for
dict data type.

֍ Eg: d = {101:'durga',102:'ravi',103:'shiva'}

֍ Duplicate keys are not allowed but values can be duplicated. If we are trying to
insert an entry with duplicate key then old value will be replaced with new value.

Eg:

1) >>> d={101:'durga',102:'ravi',103:'shiva'}
2) >>> d[101]='sunny'
3) >>> d
4) {101: 'sunny', 102: 'ravi', 103: 'shiva'}
5)
6) We can create empty dictionary as follows
7) d={ }
8) We can add key-value pairs as follows
9) d['a']='apple'
10) d['b']='banana'
11) print(d)

Note: dict is mutable and the order won’t be preserved.

Note:

1) In general we can use bytes and bytearray data types to represent binary information
like images, video files etc
2) In Python2 long data type is available. But in Python3 it is not available and we can
represent long values also by using int type only.
3) In Python there is no char data type. Hence we can represent char values also by using
str type.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
28  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 Summary of Datatypes in Python 3
Datatype Description Is Immutable? Example
Int We can use to Immutable >>> a=10
represent the >>> type(a)
whole/integral <class 'int'>
numbers
Float We can use to Immutable >>> b=10.5
represent the >>> type(b)
decimal/floating <class 'float'>
point numbers
Complex We can use to Immutable >>> c=10+5j
represent the >>> type(c)
complex numbers <class 'complex'>
>>> c.real
10.0
>>> c.imag
5.0
Bool We can use to Immutable >>> flag=True
represent the logical >>> flag=False
values (Only allowed >>> type(flag)
values are True and <class 'bool'>
False)
Str To represent Immutable >>> s='durga'
sequence of >>> type(s)
Characters <class 'str'>
>>> s="durga"
>>> s='''Durga Software
Solutions... Ameerpet'''
>>> type(s)
<class 'str'>
bytes To represent a Immutable >>> list=[1,2,3,4]
sequence of byte >>> b=bytes(list)
values from 0-255 >>> type(b)
<class 'bytes'>
bytearray To represent a Mutable >>> list=[10,20,30]
sequence of byte >>> ba=bytearray(list)
values from 0-255 >>> type(ba)
<class 'bytearray'>
range To represent a range Immutable >>> r=range(10)
of values >>> r1=range(0,10)
>>> r2=range(0,10,2)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
29  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
list To represent an Mutable >>> l=[10,11,12,13,14,15]
ordered collection of >>> type(l)
objects <class 'list'>
tuple To represent an Immutable >>> t=(1,2,3,4,5)
ordered collections of >>> type(t)
objects <class 'tuple'>
set To represent an Mutable >>> s={1,2,3,4,5,6}
unordered collection >>> type(s)
of unique objects <class 'set'>
frozenset To represent an Immutable >>> s={11,2,3,'Durga',100,'Ramu'}
unordered collection >>> fs=frozenset(s)
of unique objects >>> type(fs)
<class 'frozenset'>
dict To represent a group Mutable >>>
of key value pairs d = {101:'durga', 102:'ramu',
103:'hari'}
>>> type(d)
<class 'dict'>

14) None Data Type:

 None means nothing or No value associated.
 If the value is not available, then to handle such type of cases None introduced.
 It is something like null value in Java.

Eg:
def m1():
a=10

print(m1())
None

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
30  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Escape Characters:
In String literals we can use esacpe characters to associate a special meaning.

1) >>> s="durga\nsoftware"
2) >>> print(s)
3) durga
4) software
5) >>> s="durga\tsoftware"
6) >>> print(s)
7) durga software
8) >>> s="This is " symbol"
9) File "<stdin>", line 1
10) s="This is " symbol"
11) ^
12) SyntaxError: invalid syntax
13) >>> s="This is \" symbol"
14) >>> print(s)
15) This is " symbol

The following are various important escape characters in Python

1) \n  New Line
2) \t  Horizontal Tab
3) \r  Carriage Return
4) \b  Back Space
5) \f  Form Feed
6) \v  Vertical Tab
7) \'  Single Quote
8) \"  Double Quote
9) \\  Back Slash Symbol
....

Constants:
 Constants concept is not applicable in Python.
 But it is convention to use only uppercase characters if we don’t want to change value.

 MAX_VALUE = 10

 It is just convention but we can change the value.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
31  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
OPERATORS

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
32  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 Operator is a symbol that performs certain operations.
 Python provides the following set of operators

1) Arithmetic Operators
2) Relational Operators OR Comparison Operators
3) Logical operators
4) Bitwise oeprators
5) Assignment operators
6) Special operators

1) Arithmetic Operators:
1) +  Addition

2) –  Subtraction

3) *  Multiplication

4) /  Division Operator

5) %  Modulo Operator

6) //  Floor Division Operator

7) **  Exponent Operator OR Power Operator

Eg: test.py

1) a=10
2) b=2
3) print('a+b=',a+b)
4) print('a-b=',a-b)
5) print('a*b=',a*b)
6) print('a/b=',a/b)
7) print('a//b=',a//b)
8) print('a%b=',a%b)
9) print('a**b=',a**b)

Output:
Python test.py OR py test.py
a+b = 12
a-b= 8
a*b= 20
a/b= 5.0

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
33  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
a//b= 5
a%b= 0
a**b= 100

Eg:

1) a = 10.5
2) b=2
3)
4) a+b= 12.5
5) a-b= 8.5
6) a*b= 21.0
7) a/b= 5.25
8) a//b= 5.0
9) a%b= 0.5
10) a**b= 110.25

Eg:
10/2  5.0
10//2  5
10.0/2  5.0
10.0//2  5.0

Note:
֍ / operator always performs floating point arithmetic. Hence it will always returns float
value.

֍ But Floor division (//) can perform both floating point and integral arithmetic. If
arguments are int type then result is int type. If atleast one argument is float type then
result is float type.

Note:
֍ We can use +,* operators for str type also.
֍ If we want to use + operator for str type then compulsory both arguments should be
str type only otherwise we will get error.

1) >>> "durga"+10
2) TypeError: must be str, not int
3) >>> "durga"+"10"
4) 'durga10'

֍ If we use * operator for str type then compulsory one argument should be int and
other argument should be str type.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
34  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
֍ 2*"durga"
"durga"*2
2.5*"durga"  TypeError: can't multiply sequence by non-int of type 'float'
"durga"*"durga"  TypeError: can't multiply sequence by non-int of type 'str'

֍ +  String Concatenation Operator

֍ *  String Multiplication Operator

Note: For any number x,

x/0 and x%0 always raises "ZeroDivisionError"

10/0
10.0/0
.....

2) Relational Operators: >, >=, <, <=

1) a=10
2) b=20
3) print("a > b is ",a>b)
4) print("a >= b is ",a>=b)
5) print("a < b is ",a<b)
6) print("a <= b is ",a<=b)
7)
8) a > b is False
9) a >= b is False
10) a < b is True
11) a <= b is True

We can apply relational operators for str types also.

Eg 2:

1) a="durga"
2) b="durga"
3) print("a > b is ",a>b)
4) print("a >= b is ",a>=b)
5) print("a < b is ",a<b)
6) print("a <= b is ",a<=b)
7)
8) a > b is False
9) a >= b is True
10) a < b is False
11) a <= b is True

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
35  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg:

1) print(True>True) False
2) print(True>=True) True
3) print(10 >True) True
4) print(False > True) False
5)
6) print(10>'durga')
7) TypeError: '>' not supported between instances of 'int' and 'str'

Eg:

1) a=10
2) b=20
3) if(a>b):
4) print("a is greater than b")
5) else:
6) print("a is not greater than b")

Output: a is not greater than b

Note: Chaining of relational operators is possible. In the chaining, if all comparisons

returns True then only result is True. If atleast one comparison returns False then the
result is False

1) 10<20  True
2) 10<20<30  True
3) 10<20<30<40  True
4) 10<20<30<40>50  False

3) Equality Operators: ==, !=

We can apply these operators for any type even for incompatible types also.

1) >>> 10==20
2) False
3) >>> 10!= 20
4) True
5) >>> 10==True
6) False
7) >>> False==False
8) True
9) >>> "durga"=="durga"
10) True
11) >>> 10=="durga"

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
36  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 12) False

Note: Chaining concept is applicable for equality operators. If atleast one comparison
returns False then the result is False. Otherwise the result is True.

1) >>> 10==20==30==40
2) False
3) >>> 10==10==10==10
4) True

4) Logical Operators: and, or, not

We can apply for all types.

 For boolean Types Behaviour:

and  If both arguments are True then only result is True
or  If atleast one arugemnt is True then result is True
not  Complement

True and False  False

True or False  True
not False  True

 For non-boolean Types Behaviour:

0 means False
non-zero means True
empty string is always treated as False

x and y:
If x is evaluates to false return x otherwise return y
Eg:
10 and 20
0 and 20

If first argument is zero then result is zero otherwise result is y

x or y:
If x evaluates to True then result is x otherwise result is y

10 or 20  10
0 or 20  20

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
37  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
not x:
If x is evalutates to False then result is True otherwise False

not 10  False
not 0  True

Eg:

1) "durga" and "durgasoft" ==>durgasoft

2) "" and "durga" ==>""
3) "durga" and "" ==>""
4) "" or "durga" ==>"durga"
5) "durga" or ""==>"durga"
6) not ""==>True
7) not "durga" ==>False

5) Bitwise Operators:
֍ We can apply these operators bitwise.
֍ These operators are applicable only for int and boolean types.
֍ By mistake if we are trying to apply for any other type then we will get Error.

֍ &, |, ^, ~, <<, >>

֍ print(4&5)  Valid
֍ print(10.5 & 5.6)
 TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for &: 'float' and 'float'

֍ print(True & True)  Valid

֍ &  If both bits are 1 then only result is 1 otherwise result is 0

֍ | If atleast one bit is 1 then result is 1 otherwise result is 0
֍ ^  If bits are different then only result is 1 otherwise result is 0
֍ ~  bitwise complement operator
֍ 10 & 01
֍ <<  Bitwise Left Shift
֍ >>  Bitwise Right Shift

֍ print(4&5)  4
֍ print(4|5)  5
֍ print(4^5)  1

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
38  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 Operator Description
& If both bits are 1 then only result is 1 otherwise result is 0
| If atleast one bit is 1 then result is 1 otherwise result is 0
^ If bits are different then only result is 1 otherwise result is 0
~ bitwise complement operator i.e 1 means 0 and 0 means 1
>> Bitwise Left shift Operator
<< Bitwise Right shift Operator

Bitwise Complement Operator (~):

We have to apply complement for total bits.

Eg: print(~5) -6

Note:
֍ The most significant bit acts as sign bit. 0 value represents +ve number where as 1
represents -ve value.
֍ Positive numbers will be repesented directly in the memory where as -ve numbers will
be represented indirectly in 2's complement form.

6) Shift Operators:
<< Left Shift Operator
After shifting the empty cells we have to fill with zero

print(10<<2)  40

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

>> Right Shift Operator

After shifting the empty cells we have to fill with sign bit.( 0 for +ve and 1 for -ve)

print(10>>2)  2

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
39  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
We can apply bitwise operators for boolean types also

֍ print(True & False)  False

֍ print(True | False)  True
֍ print(True ^ False)  True
֍ print(~True)  -2
֍ print(True<<2)  4
֍ print(True>>2)  0

7) Assignment Operators:
֍ We can use assignment operator to assign value to the variable.
Eg: x = 10

֍ We can combine asignment operator with some other operator to form compound
assignment operator.
Eg: x += 10  x = x+10

The following is the list of all possible compound assignment operators in Python.

 +=
 -=
 *=
 /=
 %=
 //=
 **=
 &=
 |=
 ^=
 >>=
 <<=

Eg:

1) x=10
2) x+=20
3) print(x)  30

Eg:

1) x=10
2) x&=5
3) print(x)  0
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
40  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
8) Ternary Operator OR Conditional Operator
Syntax: x = firstValue if condition else secondValue

If condition is True then firstValue will be considered else secondValue will be considered.

Eg 1:

1) a,b=10,20
2) x=30 if a<b else 40
3) print(x) #30

Eg 2: Read two numbers from the keyboard and print minimum value

1) a=int(input("Enter First Number:"))

2) b=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) min=a if a<b else b
4) print("Minimum Value:",min)

Output:
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:30
Minimum Value: 10

Note: Nesting of Ternary Operator is Possible.

Q) Program for Minimum of 3 Numbers

1) a=int(input("Enter First Number:"))
2) b=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) c=int(input("Enter Third Number:"))
4) min=a if a<b and a<c else b if b<c else c
5) print("Minimum Value:",min)

Q) Program for Maximum of 3 Numbers

1) a=int(input("Enter First Number:"))
2) b=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) c=int(input("Enter Third Number:"))
4) max=a if a>b and a>c else b if b>c else c
5) print("Maximum Value:",max)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
41  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg:

1) a=int(input("Enter First Number:"))

2) b=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) print("Both numbers are equal" if a==b else "First Number is Less than Second Nu
mber" if a<b else "First Number Greater than Second Number")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:10
Both numbers are equal

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:20
First Number is Less than Second Number

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number:20
Enter Second Number:10
First Number Greater than Second Number

9) Special Operators:
Python defines the following 2 special operators
1) Identity Operators
2) Membership operators

1) Identity Operators
 We can use identity operators for address comparison.
 There are 2 identity operators are available
1) is
2) is not

 r1 is r2 returns True if both r1 and r2 are pointing to the same object.

 r1 is not r2 returns True if both r1 and r2 are not pointing to the same object.

Eg:

1) a=10
2) b=10
3) print(a is b) True
4) x=True

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
42  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 5) y=True
6) print( x is y) True

Eg:

1) a="durga"
2) b="durga"
3) print(id(a))
4) print(id(b))
5) print(a is b)

Eg:

1) list1=["one","two","three"]
2) list2=["one","two","three"]
3) print(id(list1))
4) print(id(list2))
5) print(list1 is list2) False
6) print(list1 is not list2) True
7) print(list1 == list2) True

Note: We can use is operator for address comparison where as == operator for content
comparison.

2) Membership Operators:
 We can use Membership operators to check whether the given object present in the
given collection. (It may be String, List, Set, Tuple OR Dict)
 In  Returns True if the given object present in the specified Collection
 not in  Retruns True if the given object not present in the specified Collection

Eg:

1) x="hello learning Python is very easy!!!"

2) print('h' in x) True
3) print('d' in x) False
4) print('d' not in x) True
5) print('Python' in x) True

Eg:

1) list1=["sunny","bunny","chinny","pinny"]
2) print("sunny" in list1) True
3) print("tunny" in list1) False
4) print("tunny" not in list1) True

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
43  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Operator Precedence:
If multiple operators present then which operator will be evaluated first is decided by
operator precedence.

Eg:
print(3+10*2)  23
print((3+10)*2)  26

The following list describes operator precedence in Python

1) ()  Parenthesis
2) **  Exponential Operator
3) ~, -  Bitwise Complement Operator, Unary Minus Operator
4) *, /, %, //  Multiplication, Division, Modulo, Floor Division
5) +, -  Addition, Subtraction
6) <<, >>  Left and Right Shift
7) &  Bitwise And
8) ^  Bitwise X-OR
9) |  Bitwise OR
10) >, >=, <, <=, ==, !=  Relational OR Comparison Operators
11) =, +=, -=, *=...  Assignment Operators
12) is , is not  Identity Operators
13) in , not in  Membership operators
14) not  Logical not
15) and  Logical and
16) or  Logical or

1) a=30
2) b=20
3) c=10
4) d=5
5) print((a+b)*c/d)  100.0
6) print((a+b)*(c/d))  100.0
7) print(a+(b*c)/d)  70.0
8)
9) 3/2*4+3+(10/5)**3-2
10) 3/2*4+3+2.0**3-2
11) 3/2*4+3+8.0-2
12) 1.5*4+3+8.0-2
13) 6.0+3+8.0-2
14) 15.0

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
44  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 Mathematical Functions (math Module)
֍ A Module is collection of functions, variables and classes etc.
֍ math is a module that contains several functions to perform mathematical operations.
֍ If we want to use any module in Python, first we have to import that module.
import math
֍ Once we import a module then we can call any function of that module.

1) import math
2) print(math.sqrt(16))
3) print(math.pi)

Output
4.0
3.141592653589793

֍ We can create alias name by using as keyword. import math as m

֍ Once we create alias name, by using that we can access functions and variables of that
module.

1) import math as m
2) print(m.sqrt(16))
3) print(m.pi)

֍ We can import a particular member of a module explicitly as follows

from math import sqrt
from math import sqrt,pi

֍ If we import a member explicitly then it is not required to use module name while
accessing.

1) from math import sqrt,pi

2) print(sqrt(16))
3) print(pi)
4) print NameError: name (math.pi) 'math' is not defined

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
45  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Important Functions of math Module:
1) ceil(x)
2) floor(x)
3) pow(x,y)
4) factorial(x)
5) trunc(x)
6) gcd(x,y)
7) sin(x)
8) cos(x)
9) tan(x)
10) ....

Important Variables of math Module:

pi3.14
e  2.71
inf  infinity
nan  not a number

Q) Write a Python Program to find Area of Circle pi*r**2

1) from math import pi
2) r = 16
3) print("Area of Circle is :",pi*r**2)

Output: Area of Circle is: 804.247719318987

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
46  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 INPUT AND OUTPUT STATEMENTS
Reading Dynamic Input from the Keyboard:
In Python 2 the following 2 functions are available to read dynamic input from the
keyboard.

1) raw_input()
2) input()

1) raw_input():
This function always reads the data from the keyboard in the form of String Format.
We have to convert that string type to our required type by using the corresponding
type casting methods.

Eg: x = raw_input("Enter First Number:")

print(type(x))  It will always print str type only for any input type

2) input():
input() function can be used to read data directly in our required format.We are not
required to perform type casting.

x = input("Enter Value)
type(x)

10  int
"durga" str
10.5  float
True  bool

***Note:
 But in Python 3 we have only input() method and raw_input() method is not available.
 Python3 input() function behaviour exactly same as raw_input() method of Python2.
i.e every input value is treated as str type only.
 raw_input() function of Python 2 is renamed as input() function in Python 3.

1) >>> type(input("Enter value:"))

2) Enter value:10
3) <class 'str'>
4)
5) Enter value:10.5
6) <class 'str'>
7)
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
47  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 8) Enter value:True
9) <class 'str'>

Q) Write a program to read 2 numbers from the keyboard and print sum

1) x=input("Enter First Number:")

2) y=input("Enter Second Number:")
3) i = int(x)
4) j = int(y)
5) print("The Sum:",i+j)

Enter First Number: 100

Enter Second Number: 200
The Sum: 300
-----------------------------------------------------

1) x=int(input("Enter First Number:"))

2) y=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) print("The Sum:",x+y)

-----------------------------------------------------------

print("The Sum:",int(input("Enter First Number:"))+int(input("Enter Second Number:")))

Q) Write a Program to read Employee Data from the Keyboard and

print that Data
1) eno=int(input("Enter Employee No:"))
2) ename=input("Enter Employee Name:")
3) esal=float(input("Enter Employee Salary:"))
4) eaddr=input("Enter Employee Address:")
5) married=bool(input("Employee Married ?[True|False]:"))
6) print("Please Confirm Information")
7) print("Employee No :",eno)
8) print("Employee Name :",ename)
9) print("Employee Salary :",esal)
10) print("Employee Address :",eaddr)
11) print("Employee Married ? :",married)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Employee No:100
Enter Employee Name:Sunny
Enter Employee Salary:1000
Enter Employee Address:Mumbai

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
48  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Employee Married ?[True|False]:True
Please Confirm Information

Employee No : 100
Employee Name : Sunny
Employee Salary : 1000.0
Employee Address : Mumbai
Employee Married ? : True

How to read multiple values from the keyboard in a

single line:
1) a,b= [int(x) for x in input("Enter 2 numbers :").split()]
2) print("Product is :", a*b)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter 2 numbers :10 20
Product is : 200

Note: split() function can take space as seperator by default .But we can pass
anything as seperator.

Q) Write a program to read 3 float numbers from the keyboard

with, seperator and print their sum
1) a,b,c= [float(x) for x in input("Enter 3 float numbers :").split(',')]
2) print("The Sum is :", a+b+c)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter 3 float numbers :10.5,20.6,20.1
The Sum is : 51.2

eval():
eval Function take a String and evaluate the Result.

Eg: x = eval(“10+20+30”)
print(x)
Output: 60

Eg: x = eval(input(“Enter Expression”))

Enter Expression: 10+2*3/4
Output: 11.5

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
49  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
eval() can evaluate the Input to list, tuple, set, etc based the provided Input.

Eg: Write a Program to accept list from the keynboard on the display

1) l = eval(input(“Enter List”))
2) print (type(l))
3) print(l)

COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS

 argv is not Array it is a List. It is available sys Module.
 The Argument which are passing at the time of execution are called Command Line
Arguments.

Eg: D:\Python_classes py test.py 10 20 30

Command Line Arguments

Within the Python Program this Command Line Arguments are available in argv. Which is
present in SYS Module.

test.py 10 20 30

Note: argv[0] represents Name of Program. But not first Command Line Argument.
argv[1] represent First Command Line Argument.

Program: To check type of argv from sys

import argv
print(type(argv))

D:\Python_classes\py test.py

Write a Program to display Command Line Arguments

1) from sys import argv
2) print(“The Number of Command Line Arguments:”, len(argv))
3) print(“The List of Command Line Arguments:”, argv)
4) print(“Command Line Arguments one by one:”)
5) for x in argv:
6) print(x)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
50  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
D:\Python_classes>py test.py 10 20 30
The Number of Command Line Arguments: 4
The List of Command Line Arguments: [‘test.py’, ‘10’,’20’,’30’]
Command Line Arguments one by one:
test.py
10
20
30
---------------------------
1) from sys import argv
2) sum=0
3) args=argv[1:]
4) for x in args :
5) n=int(x)
6) sum=sum+n
7) print("The Sum:",sum)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py 10 20 30 40
The Sum: 100

Note 1: Usually space is seperator between command line arguments. If our command
line argument itself contains space then we should enclose within double quotes(but not
single quotes)

1) from sys import argv

2) print(argv[1])

D:\Python_classes>py test.py Sunny Leone

Sunny

D:\Python_classes>py test.py 'Sunny Leone'

'Sunny

D:\Python_classes>py test.py "Sunny Leone"

Sunny Leone

Note 2: Within the Python program command line arguments are available in the String
form. Based on our requirement, we can convert into corresponding type by using type
casting methods.

1) from sys import argv

2) print(argv[1]+argv[2])
3) print(int(argv[1])+int(argv[2]))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
51  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
D:\Python_classes>py test.py 10 20
1020
30

Note 3: If we are trying to access command line arguments with out of range index then
we will get Error.

1) from sys import argv

2) print(argv[100])

D:\Python_classes>py test.py 10 20
IndexError: list index out of range

Note: In Python there is argparse module to parse command line arguments and display
some help messages whenever end user enters wrong input.

input()
raw_input()

Command Line Arguments

Output Statements:
We can use print() function to display output.

Form-1: print() without any argument

Just it prints new line character

Form-2:

1) print(String):
2) print("Hello World")
3) We can use escape characters also
4) print("Hello \n World")
5) print("Hello\tWorld")
6) We can use repetetion operator (*) in the string
7) print(10*"Hello")
8) print("Hello"*10)
9) We can use + operator also
10) print("Hello"+"World")

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
52  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Note:
֍ If both arguments are String type then + operator acts as concatenation operator.
֍ If one argument is string type and second is any other type like int then we will get
Error.
֍ If both arguments are number type then + operator acts as arithmetic addition
operator.

Note:

1) print("Hello"+"World")
2) print("Hello","World")

HelloWorld
Hello World

Form-3: print() with variable number of arguments

1) a,b,c=10,20,30
2) print("The Values are :",a,b,c)

Output: The Values are : 10 20 30

By default output values are seperated by space.If we want we can specify seperator by
using "sep" attribute

1) a,b,c=10,20,30
2) print(a,b,c,sep=',')
3) print(a,b,c,sep=':')

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
10,20,30
10:20:30

Form-4:print() with end attribute

1) print("Hello")
2) print("Durga")
3) print("Soft")

Output:
Hello
Durga
Soft

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
53  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
If we want output in the same line with space

1) print("Hello",end=' ')
2) print("Durga",end=' ')
3) print("Soft")

Output: Hello Durga Soft

Note: The default value for end attribute is \n, which is nothing but new line character.

Form-5: print(object) statement

We can pass any object (like list, tuple, set etc) as argument to the print() statement.

1) l=[10,20,30,40]
2) t=(10,20,30,40)
3) print(l)
4) print(t)

Form-6: print(String, variable list)

We can use print() statement with String and any number of arguments.

1) s = "Durga"
2) a = 48
3) s1 ="Java"
4) s2 ="Python"
5) print("Hello",s,"Your Age is",a)
6) print("You are teaching",s1,"and",s2)

Output:
Hello Durga Your Age is 48
You are teaching java and Python

Form-7: print (formatted string)

1) %i  int
2) %d  int
3) %f  float
4) %s  String type

Syntax: print("formatted string" %(variable list))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
54  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg 1:

1) a=10
2) b=20
3) c=30
4) print("a value is %i" %a)
5) print("b value is %d and c value is %d" %(b,c))

Output
a value is 10
b value is 20 and c value is 30

Eg 2:

1) s="Durga"
2) list=[10,20,30,40]
3) print("Hello %s ...The List of Items are %s" %(s,list))

Output: Hello Durga ...The List of Items are [10, 20, 30, 40]

Form-8: print() with replacement operator {}

Eg:

1) name = "Durga"
2) salary = 10000
3) gf = "Sunny"
4) print("Hello {0} your salary is {1} and Your Friend {2} is waiting".
format(name,salary,gf))
5) print("Hello {x} your salary is {y} and Your Friend {z} is waiting".
format(x=name,y=salary,z=gf))

Output
Hello Durga your salary is 10000 and Your Friend Sunny is waiting
Hello Durga your salary is 10000 and Your Friend Sunny is waiting

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
55  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
FLOW
CONTROL

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
56  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 Flow control describes the order in which statements will be executed at runtime.

Control Flow

Conditional Transfer Iterative

Statements Statements Statements

1) if 1) break 1) for
2) if-elif 2) continue 2) while
3) if-elif-else 3) pass

I. Conditional Statements
1) if
if condition : statement
OR

if condition :
statement-1
statement-2
statement-3

If condition is true then statements will be executed.

Eg:

1) name=input("Enter Name:")
2) if name=="durga" :
3) print("Hello Durga Good Morning")
4) print("How are you!!!")

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Name:durga
Hello Durga Good Morning
How are you!!!

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
57  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Name: Ravi
How are you!!!

2) if-else:
if condition:
Action-1
else:
Action-2

if condition is true then Action-1 will be executed otherwise Action-2 will be executed.

1) name=input("Enter Name:")
2) if name=="durga" :
3) print("Hello Durga Good Morning")
4) else:
5) print("Hello Guest Good Moring")
6) print("How are you!!!")

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Name:durga
Hello Durga Good Morning
How are you!!!

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Name:Ravi
Hello Guest Good Moring
How are you!!!

3) if-elif-else:
if condition1:
Action-1
elif condition2:
Action-2
elif condition3:
Action-3
elif condition4:
Action-4
...
else:
Default Action

Based condition the corresponding action will be executed.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
58  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 1) brand=input("Enter Your Favourite Brand:")
2) if brand=="RC" :
3) print("It is childrens brand")
4) elif brand=="KF":
5) print("It is not that much kick")
6) elif brand=="FO":
7) print("Buy one get Free One")
8) else :
9) print("Other Brands are not recommended")

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Your Favourite Brand:RC
It is childrens brand

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Your Favourite Brand:KF
It is not that much kick

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Your Favourite Brand: KALYANI
Other Brands are not recommended

Note:
1) else part is always optional. Hence the following are various possible syntaxes.
1) If
2) if – else
3) if-elif-else
4) if-elif
2) There is no switch statement in Python

Q) Write a Program to find Biggest of given 2 Numbers from the

Commad Prompt?
1) n1=int(input("Enter First Number:"))
2) n2=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) if n1>n2:
4) print("Biggest Number is:",n1)
5) else :
6) print("Biggest Number is:",n2)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:20
Biggest Number is: 20

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
59  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Q) Write a Program to find Biggest of given 3 Numbers from the
Commad Prompt?
1) n1=int(input("Enter First Number:"))
2) n2=int(input("Enter Second Number:"))
3) n3=int(input("Enter Third Number:"))
4) if n1>n2 and n1>n3:
5) print("Biggest Number is:",n1)
6) elif n2>n3:
7) print("Biggest Number is:",n2)
8) else :
9) print("Biggest Number is:",n3)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:20
Enter Third Number:30
Biggest Number is: 30

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter First Number:10
Enter Second Number:30
Enter Third Number:20
Biggest Number is: 30

Q) Write a program to find smallest of given 2 numbers?

Q) Write a program to find smallest of given 3 numbers?
Q) Write a program to check whether the given number is even or odd?

Q) Write a Program to Check whether the given Number is in

between 1 and 100?
1) n=int(input("Enter Number:"))
2) if n>=1 and n<=10 :
3) print("The number",n,"is in between 1 to 10")
4) else:
5) print("The number",n,"is not in between 1 to 10")

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
60  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Q) Write a Program to take a Single Digit Number from the Key
Board and Print is Value in English Word?
1) 0  ZERO
2) 1  ONE
3)
4) n=int(input("Enter a digit from o to 9:"))
5) if n==0 :
6) print("ZERO")
7) elif n==1:
8) print("ONE")
9) elif n==2:
10) print("TWO")
11) elif n==3:
12) print("THREE")
13) elif n==4:
14) print("FOUR")
15) elif n==5:
16) print("FIVE")
17) elif n==6:
18) print("SIX")
19) elif n==7:
20) print("SEVEN")
21) elif n==8:
22) print("EIGHT")
23) elif n==9:
24) print("NINE")
25) else:
26) print("PLEASE ENTER A DIGIT FROM 0 TO 9")

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
61  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
II. Iterative Statements
֍ If we want to execute a group of statements multiple times then we should go for
Iterative statements.
֍ Python supports 2 types of iterative statements.
1) for loop
2) while loop

1) for loop:
If we want to execute some action for every element present in some sequence
(it may be string or collection) then we should go for for loop.

Syntax: for x in sequence:

Body

Where sequence can be string or any collection.

Body will be executed for every element present in the sequence.

Eg 1: To print characters present in the given string

1) s="Sunny Leone"
2) for x in s :
3) print(x)

Output
S
u
n
n
y

L
e
o
n
e

Eg 2: To print characters present in string index wise:

1) s=input("Enter some String: ")

2) i=0
3) for x in s :
4) print("The character present at ",i,"index is :",x)
5) i=i+1

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
62  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter some String: Sunny Leone
The character present at 0 index is : S
The character present at 1 index is : u
The character present at 2 index is : n
The character present at 3 index is : n
The character present at 4 index is : y
The character present at 5 index is :
The character present at 6 index is : L
The character present at 7 index is : e
The character present at 8 index is : o
The character present at 9 index is : n
The character present at 10 index is : e

Eg 3: To print Hello 10 times

1) for x in range(10) :
2) print("Hello")

Eg 4: To display numbers from 0 to 10

1) for x in range(11) :
2) print(x)

Eg 5: To display odd numbers from 0 to 20

1) for x in range(21) :
2) if (x%2!=0):
3) print(x)

Eg 6: To display numbers from 10 to 1 in descending order

1) for x in range(10,0,-1) :
2) print(x)

Eg 7: To print sum of numbers presenst inside list

1) list = eval(input("Enter List:"))

2) sum=0;
3) for x in list:
4) sum=sum+x;
5) print("The Sum=",sum)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
63  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter List:[10,20,30,40]
The Sum= 100

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter List:[45,67]
The Sum= 112

2) while loop:
If we want to execute a group of statements iteratively until some condition false,then
we should go for while loop.

Syntax: while condition :

body

Eg: To print numbers from 1 to 10 by using while loop

1) x = 1
2) while x <= 10:
3) print(x)
4) x = x+1

Eg: To display the sum of first n numbers

1) n=int(input("Enter number:"))
2) sum=0
3) i=1
4) while i<=n:
5) sum=sum+i
6) i=i+1
7) print("The sum of first",n,"numbers is :",sum)

Eg: Write a program to prompt user to enter some name until entering Durga

1) name=""
2) while name!="durga":
3) name=input("Enter Name:")
4) print("Thanks for confirmation")

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
64  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Infinite Loops:
1) i=0;
2) while True :
3) i=i+1;
4) print("Hello",i)

Nested Loops:
Sometimes we can take a loop inside another loop,which are also known as nested loops.

1) for i in range(4):
2) for j in range(4):
3) print("i=",i," j=",j)

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
i= 0 j= 0
i= 0 j= 1
i= 0 j= 2
i= 0 j= 3
i= 1 j= 0
i= 1 j= 1
i= 1 j= 2
i= 1 j= 3
i= 2 j= 0
i= 2 j= 1
i= 2 j= 2
i= 2 j= 3
i= 3 j= 0
i= 3 j= 1
i= 3 j= 2
i= 3 j= 3

Q) Write a Program to dispaly *'s in Right Angled Triangled Form

* 1) n = int(input("Enter number of rows:"))
** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
*** 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
**** 4) print("*",end=" ")
***** 5) print() Alternative Way
****** 1) n = int(input("Enter number of rows:"))
******* 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
3) print("* " * i)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
65  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 Q) Write a Program to display *'s in Pyramid Style
(Also known as Equivalent Triangle)

*
** 1) n = int(input("Enter number of rows:"))
*** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
**** 3) print(" " * (n-i),end="")
***** 4) print("* "*i)
******
*******

III. Transfer Statements

1) break:
We can use break statement inside loops to break loop execution based on some
condition.

1) for i in range(10):
2) if i==7:
3) print("processing is enough..plz break")
4) break
5) print(i)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
processing is enough..plz break

Eg:

1) cart=[10,20,600,60,70]
2) for item in cart:
3) if item>500:
4) print("To place this order insurence must be required")
5) break
6) print(item)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
66  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
10
20
To place this order insurence must be required

2) continue:
We can use continue statement to skip current iteration and continue next iteration.

Eg 1: To print odd numbers in the range 0 to 9

1) for i in range(10):
2) if i%2==0:
3) continue
4) print(i)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
1
3
5
7
9

Eg 2:

1) cart=[10,20,500,700,50,60]
2) for item in cart:
3) if item>=500:
4) print("We cannot process this item :",item)
5) continue
6) print(item)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
10
20
We cannot process this item : 500
We cannot process this item : 700
50
60

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
67  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg 3:

1) numbers=[10,20,0,5,0,30]
2) for n in numbers:
3) if n==0:
4) print("Hey how we can divide with zero..just skipping")
5) continue
6) print("100/{} = {}".format(n,100/n))

Output
100/10 = 10.0
100/20 = 5.0
Hey how we can divide with zero..just skipping
100/5 = 20.0
Hey how we can divide with zero..just skipping
100/30 = 3.3333333333333335

Loops with else Block:

 Inside loop execution, if break statement not executed, then only else part will be
executed.
 else means loop without break.

1) cart=[10,20,30,40,50]
2) for item in cart:
3) if item>=500:
4) print("We cannot process this order")
5) break
6) print(item)
7) else:
8) print("Congrats ...all items processed successfully")

Output
10
20
30
40
50
Congrats ...all items processed successfully

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
68  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg:

1) cart=[10,20,600,30,40,50]
2) for item in cart:
3) if item>=500:
4) print("We cannot process this order")
5) break
6) print(item)
7) else:
8) print("Congrats ...all items processed successfully")

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
10
20
We cannot process this order

Q) What is the difference between for loop and while loop

in Python?
֍ We can use loops to repeat code execution
֍ Repeat code for every item in sequence  for loop
֍ Repeat code as long as condition is true  while loop

Q) How to exit from the loop? By using break statement

Q)How to skip some iterations inside loop? By using continue statement.

Q)When else part will be executed wrt loops? If loop executed without break

3) pass statement:
 pass is a keyword in Python.
 In our programming syntactically if block is required which won't do anything then we
can define that empty block with pass keyword.

pass
|- It is an empty statement
|- It is null statement
|- It won't do anything

Eg: if True:
SyntaxError: unexpected EOF while parsing
if True: pass  valid

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
69  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
def m1():
SyntaxError: unexpected EOF while parsing

def m1(): pass

Use Case of pass:

Sometimes in the parent class we have to declare a function with empty body and child
class responsible to provide proper implementation. Such type of empty body we can
define by using pass keyword. (It is something like abstract method in Java)
Eg: def m1(): pass

1) for i in range(100):
2) if i%9==0:
3) print(i)
4) else:pass

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
0
9
18
27
36
45
54
63
72
81
90
99

del Statement:
 del is a keyword in Python.
 After using a variable, it is highly recommended to delete that variable if it is no longer
required,so that the corresponding object is eligible for Garbage Collection.
 We can delete variable by using del keyword.

1) x = 10
2) print(x)
3) del x

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
70  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
After deleting a variable we cannot access that variable otherwise we will get NameError.

1) x = 10
2) del x
3) print(x)

NameError: name 'x' is not defined.

Note: We can delete variables which are pointing to immutable objects.But we cannot
delete the elements present inside immutable object.

1) s = "durga"
2) print(s)
3) del s  valid
4) del s[0]  TypeError: 'str' object doesn't support item deletion

Difference between del and None:

In the case del, the variable will be removed and we cannot access that variable(unbind
operation)

1) s = "durga"
2) del s
3) print(s)  NameError: name 's' is not defined.

But in the case of None assignment the variable won't be removed but the corresponding
object is eligible for Garbage Collection (re bind operation). Hence after assigning with
None value, we can access that variable.

1) s = "durga"
2) s = None
3) print(s)  None

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
71  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
STRING
DATA TYPE

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
72  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
The most commonly used object in any project and in any programming language is String
only. Hence we should aware complete information about String data type.

What is String?
Any sequence of characters within either single quotes or double quotes is considered as a
String.

Syntax:
s = 'durga'
s = "durga"

Note: In most of other languges like C, C++, Java, a single character with in single quotes
is treated as char data type value. But in Python we are not having char data type.Hence it
is treated as String only.

Eg:
>>> ch = 'a'
>>> type(ch)
<class 'str'>

How to define multi-line String Literals?

We can define multi-line String literals by using triple single or double quotes.

Eg:
>>> s = '''durga
software
solutions'''

We can also use triple quotes to use single quotes or double quotes as symbol inside
String literal.

1) s = 'This is ' single quote symbol'  Invalid

2) s = 'This is \' single quote symbol'  Valid
3) s = "This is ' single quote symbol"  Valid
4) s = 'This is " double quotes symbol'  Valid
5) s = 'The "Python Notes" by 'durga' is very helpful'  Invalid
6) s = "The "Python Notes" by 'durga' is very helpful"  Invalid
7) s = 'The \"Python Notes\" by \'durga\' is very helpful'  Valid
8) s = '''The "Python Notes" by 'durga' is very helpful'''  Valid

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
73  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
How to Access Characters of a String?
We can access characters of a string by using the following ways.
1) By using index
2) By using slice operator

1) Accessing Characters By using Index:

 Python supports both +ve and -ve Index.
 +ve Index means Left to Right (Forward Direction)
 -ve Index means Right to Left (Backward Direction)
Eg: s = 'durga'

1) >>> s='durga'
2) >>> s[0]
3) 'd'
4) >>> s[4]
5) 'a'
6) >>> s[-1]
7) 'a'
8) >>> s[10]
9) IndexError: string index out of range

Note: If we are trying to access characters of a string with out of range index then we will
get error saying: IndexError

Q) Write a Program to Accept some String from the Keyboard and display its
Characters by Index wise (both Positive and Negative Index)

test.py:

1) s=input("Enter Some String:")

2) i=0
3) for x in s:
4) print("The character present at positive index {} and at nEgative index {} is {}".fo
rmat(i,i-len(s),x))
5) i=i+1

Output: D:\python_classes>py test.py

Enter Some String:durga
The character present at positive index 0 and at nEgative index -5 is d
The character present at positive index 1 and at nEgative index -4 is u
The character present at positive index 2 and at nEgative index -3 is r
The character present at positive index 3 and at nEgative index -2 is g
The character present at positive index 4 and at nEgative index -1 is a

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
74  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
2) Accessing Characters by using Slice Operator:
 Syntax: s[bEginindex:endindex:step]

 Begin Index: From where we have to consider slice (substring)

 End Index: We have to terminate the slice (substring) at endindex-1
 Step: Incremented Value.

Note:
 If we are not specifying bEgin index then it will consider from bEginning of the string.
 If we are not specifying end index then it will consider up to end of the string.
 The default value for step is 1.

1) >>> s="Learning Python is very very easy!!!"

2) >>> s[1:7:1]
3) 'earnin'
4) >>> s[1:7]
5) 'earnin'
6) >>> s[1:7:2]
7) 'eri'
8) >>> s[:7]
9) 'Learnin'
10) >>> s[7:]
11) 'g Python is very very easy!!!'
12) >>> s[::]
13) 'Learning Python is very very easy!!!'
14) >>> s[:]
15) 'Learning Python is very very easy!!!'
16) >>> s[::-1]
17) '!!!ysae yrev yrev si nohtyP gninraeL'

Behaviour of Slice Operator:

1) s[bEgin:end:step]
2) Step value can be either +ve or –ve
3) If +ve then it should be forward direction(left to right) and we have to consider bEgin
to end-1
4) If -ve then it should be backward direction (right to left) and we have to consider bEgin
to end+1.

***Note:
 In the backward direction if end value is -1 then result is always empty.
 In the forward direction if end value is 0 then result is always empty.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
75  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
In Forward Direction:
default value for bEgin: 0
default value for end: length of string
default value for step: +1

In Backward Direction:
default value for bEgin: -1
default value for end: -(length of string+1)

Note: Either forward or backward direction, we can take both +ve and -ve values for
bEgin and end index.

Slice Operator Case Study:

1) S = 'abcdefghij'
2) s[1:6:2]  'bdf'
3) s[::1]  'abcdefghij'
4) s[::-1]  'jihgfedcba'
5) s[3:7:-1]  ''
6) s[7:4:-1]  'hgf'
7) s[0:10000:1]  'abcdefghij'
8) s[-4:1:-1]  'gfedc'
9) s[-4:1:-2]  'gec'
10) s[5:0:1]  ''
11) s[9:0:0]  ValueError: slice step cannot be zero
12) s[0:-10:-1]  ''
13) s[0:-11:-1]  'a'
14) s[0:0:1]  ''
15) s[0:-9:-2]  ''
16) s[-5:-9:-2]  'fd'
17) s[10:-1:-1]  ''
18) s[10000:2:-1]  'jihgfed'

Note: Slice operator never raises IndexError

Mathematical Operators for String:

We can apply the following mathematical operators for Strings.
1) + operator for concatenation
2) * operator for repetition

 print("durga"+"soft")  durgasoft
 print("durga"*2)  durgadurga

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
76  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Note:
1) To use + operator for Strings, compulsory both arguments should be str type.
2) To use * operator for Strings, compulsory one argument should be str and other
argument should be int.

len() in-built Function:

We can use len() function to find the number of characters present in the string.
Eg:
s = 'durga'
print(len(s))  5

Q) Write a Program to access each Character of String in

Forward and Backward Direction by using while Loop?
1) s = "Learning Python is very easy !!!"
2) n = len(s)
3) i = 0
4) print("Forward direction")
5) while i<n:
6) print(s[i],end=' ')
7) i +=1
8) print("Backward direction")
9) i = -1
10) while i >= -n:
11) print(s[i],end=' ')
12) i = i-1

Alternative ways:
1) s = "Learning Python is very easy !!!"
2) print("Forward direction")
3) for i in s:
4) print(i,end=' ')
5) print("Forward direction")
6) for i in s[::]:
7) print(i,end=' ')
8)
9) print("Backward direction")
10) for i in s[::-1]:
11) print(i,end=' ')

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
77  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Checking Membership:
We can check whether the character or string is the member of another string or not by
using in and not in operators

s = 'durga'
print('d' in s)  True
print('z' in s)  False

1) s = input("Enter main string:")

2) subs = input("Enter sub string:")
3) if subs in s:
4) print(subs,"is found in main string")
5) else:
6) print(subs,"is not found in main string")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter main string:durgasoftwaresolutions
Enter sub string:durga
durga is found in main string

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter main string:durgasoftwaresolutions
Enter sub string:python
python is not found in main string

Comparison of Strings:
 We can use comparison operators (<, <=, >, >=) and equality operators (==, !=) for
strings.
 Comparison will be performed based on alphabetical order.

1) s1=input("Enter first string:")

2) s2=input("Enter Second string:")
3) if s1==s2:
4) print("Both strings are equal")
5) elif s1<s2:
6) print("First String is less than Second String")
7) else:
8) print("First String is greater than Second String")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter first string:durga

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
78  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Enter Second string:durga
Both strings are equal

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter first string:durga
Enter Second string:ravi
First String is less than Second String

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter first string:durga
Enter Second string:anil
First String is greater than Second String

Removing Spaces from the String:

We can use the following 3 methods

1) rstrip()  To remove spaces at right hand side

2) lstrip() To remove spaces at left hand side
3) strip()  To remove spaces both sides

1) city=input("Enter your city Name:")

2) scity=city.strip()
3) if scity=='Hyderabad':
4) print("Hello Hyderbadi..Adab")
5) elif scity=='Chennai':
6) print("Hello Madrasi...Vanakkam")
7) elif scity=="Bangalore":
8) print("Hello Kannadiga...Shubhodaya")
9) else:
10) print("your entered city is invalid")

Finding Substrings:
We can use the following 4 methods

For forward direction:

1) find()
2) index()

For backward direction:

1) rfind()
2) rindex()
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
79  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
find():
s.find(substring)
Returns index of first occurrence of the given substring. If it is not available then we will
get -1.

1) s="Learning Python is very easy"

2) print(s.find("Python")) #9
3) print(s.find("Java")) # -1
4) print(s.find("r"))#3
5) print(s.rfind("r"))#21

Note: By default find() method can search total string. We can also specify the
boundaries to search.

s.find(substring,bEgin,end)
It will always search from bEgin index to end-1 index.

1) s="durgaravipavanshiva"
2) print(s.find('a'))#4
3) print(s.find('a',7,15))#10
4) print(s.find('z',7,15))#-1

index():
index() method is exactly same as find() method except that if the specified substring is
not available then we will get ValueError.

1) s=input("Enter main string:")

2) subs=input("Enter sub string:")
3) try:
4) n=s.index(subs)
5) except ValueError:
6) print("substring not found")
7) else:
8) print("substring found")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter main string:learning python is very easy
Enter sub string:python
substring found

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
80  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter main string:learning python is very easy
Enter sub string:java
substring not found

Q) Program to display all Positions of Substring in a given

Main String
1) s=input("Enter main string:")
2) subs=input("Enter sub string:")
3) flag=False
4) pos=-1
5) n=len(s)
6) while True:
7) pos=s.find(subs,pos+1,n)
8) if pos==-1:
9) break
10) print("Found at position",pos)
11) flag=True
12) if flag==False:
13) print("Not Found")

Output:
D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter main string:abbababababacdefg
Enter sub string:a
Found at position 0
Found at position 3
Found at position 5
Found at position 7
Found at position 9
Found at position 11

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter main string:abbababababacdefg
Enter sub string:bb
Found at position 1

Counting substring in the given String:

We can find the number of occurrences of substring present in the given string by using
count() method.
1) s.count(substring)  It will search through out the string.
2) s.count(substring, bEgin, end)  It will search from bEgin index to end-1 index.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
81  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 1) s="abcabcabcabcadda"
2) print(s.count('a'))
3) print(s.count('ab'))
4) print(s.count('a',3,7))

Output:
6
4
2

Replacing a String with another String:

s.replace(oldstring, newstring)
inside s, every occurrence of old String will be replaced with new String.

Eg 1:
s = "Learning Python is very difficult"
s1 = s.replace("difficult","easy")
print(s1)

Output: Learning Python is very easy

Eg 2: All occurrences will be replaced

s = "ababababababab"
s1 = s.replace("a","b")
print(s1)

Output: bbbbbbbbbbbbbb

Q) String Objects are Immutable then how we can change the

Content by using replace() Method
 Once we creates string object, we cannot change the content.This non changeable
behaviour is nothing but immutability. If we are trying to change the content by using
any method, then with those changes a new object will be created and changes won't
be happend in existing object.
 Hence with replace() method also a new object got created but existing object won't
be changed.

Eg:
s = "abab"
s1 = s.replace("a","b")
print(s,"is available at :",id(s))
print(s1,"is available at :",id(s1))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
82  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Output:
abab is available at : 4568672
bbbb is available at : 4568704

In the above example, original object is available and we can see new object which was
created because of replace() method.

Splitting of Strings:
 We can split the given string according to specified seperator by using split() method.
 l = s.split(seperator)
 The default seperator is space. The return type of split() method is List.

1) s="durga software solutions"

2) l=s.split()
3) for x in l:
4) print(x)

Output:
durga
software
solutions

1) s="22-02-2018"
2) l=s.split('-')
3) for x in l:
4) print(x)

Output:
22
02
2018

Joining of Strings:
We can join a Group of Strings (List OR Tuple) wrt the given Seperator.
s = seperator.join(group of strings)

Eg 1:
t = ('sunny', 'bunny', 'chinny')
s = '-'.join(t)
print(s)

Output: sunny-bunny-chinny

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
83  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg 2:
l = ['hyderabad', 'singapore', 'london', 'dubai']
s = ':'.join(l)
print(s)

Output: hyderabad:singapore:london:dubai

Changing Case of a String:

We can change case of a string by using the following 4 methods.

1) upper()  To convert all characters to upper case

2) lower()  To convert all characters to lower case
3) swapcase()  Converts all lower case characters to upper case and all upper case
characters to lower case
4) title()  To convert all character to title case. i.e first character in every word should
be upper case and all remaining characters should be in lower case.
5) capitalize()  Only first character will be converted to upper case and all remaining
characters can be converted to lower case

1) s = 'learning Python is very Easy'

2) print(s.upper())
3) print(s.lower())
4) print(s.swapcase())
5) print(s.title())
6) print(s.capitalize())

Output:
LEARNING PYTHON IS VERY EASY
learning python is very easy
LEARNING pYTHON IS VERY eASY
Learning Python Is Very Easy
Learning python is very easy

Checking Starting and Ending Part of the String:

Python contains the following methods for this purpose
1) s.startswith(substring)
2) s.endswith(substring)

1) s = 'learning Python is very easy'

2) print(s.startswith('learning'))
3) print(s.endswith('learning'))
4) print(s.endswith('easy'))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
84  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Output:
True
False
True

To Check Type of Characters Present in a String:

Python contains the following methods for this purpose.

1) isalnum(): Returns True if all characters are alphanumeric( a to z , A to Z ,0 to9 )

2) isalpha(): Returns True if all characters are only alphabet symbols(a to z,A to Z)
3) isdigit(): Returns True if all characters are digits only( 0 to 9)
4) islower(): Returns True if all characters are lower case alphabet symbols
5) isupper(): Returns True if all characters are upper case aplhabet symbols
6) istitle(): Returns True if string is in title case
7) isspace(): Returns True if string contains only spaces

Eg:
1) print('Durga786'.isalnum())  True
2) print('durga786'.isalpha())  False
3) print('durga'.isalpha())  True
4) print('durga'.isdigit())  False
5) print('786786'.isdigit())  True
6) print('abc'.islower())  True
7) print('Abc'.islower())  False
8) print('abc123'.islower())  True
9) print('ABC'.isupper())  True
10) print('Learning python is Easy'.istitle())  False
11) print('Learning Python Is Easy'.istitle())  True
12) print(' '.isspace())  True

Demo Program:

1) s=input("Enter any character:")

2) if s.isalnum():
3) print("Alpha Numeric Character")
4) if s.isalpha():
5) print("Alphabet character")
6) if s.islower():
7) print("Lower case alphabet character")
8) else:
9) print("Upper case alphabet character")
10) else:
11) print("it is a digit")
12) elif s.isspace():

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
85  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 13) print("It is space character")
14) else:
15) print("Non Space Special Character")

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter any character:7
Alpha Numeric Character
it is a digit

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter any character:a
Alpha Numeric Character
Alphabet character
Lower case alphabet character

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter any character:$
Non Space Special Character

D:\python_classes>py test.py
Enter any character:A
Alpha Numeric Character
Alphabet character
Upper case alphabet character

Formatting the Strings:

We can format the strings with variable values by using replacement operator {} and
format() method.

1) name = 'durga'
2) salary = 10000
3) age = 48
4) print("{} 's salary is {} and his age is {}".format(name,salary,age))
5) print("{0} 's salary is {1} and his age is {2}".format(name,salary,age))
6) print("{x} 's salary is {y} and his age is {z}".format(z=age,y=salary,x=name))

Output:
durga 's salary is 10000 and his age is 48
durga 's salary is 10000 and his age is 48
durga 's salary is 10000 and his age is 48

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
86  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Important Programs regarding String Concept

Q1) Write a Program to Reverse the given String

Input: durga
Output: agrud

1st Way:
1) s = input("Enter Some String:")
2) print(s[::-1])

2nd Way:
1) s = input("Enter Some String:")
2) print(''.join(reversed(s)))

3rd Way:
1) s = input("Enter Some String:")
2) i=len(s)-1
3) target=''
4) while i>=0:
5) target=target+s[i]
6) i=i-1
7) print(target)

Q2) Program to Reverse Order of Words

Input: Learning Python is very Easy
Output: Easy Very is Python Learning

1) s=input("Enter Some String:")

2) l=s.split()
3) l1=[]
4) i=len(l)-1
5) while i>=0:
6) l1.append(l[i])
7) i=i-1
8) output=' '.join(l1)
9) print(output)

Output: Enter Some String:Learning Python is very easy!!

easy!!! very is Python Learning
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
87  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Q3) Program to Reverse Internal Content of each Word
Input: Durga Software Solutions
Output: agruD erawtfoS snoituloS

1) s=input("Enter Some String:")

2) l=s.split()
3) l1=[]
4) i=0
5) while i<len(l):
6) l1.append(l[i][::-1])
7) i=i+1
8) output=' '.join(l1)
9) print(output)

Q4) Write a Program to Print Characters at Odd Position and

Even Position for the given String?
1st Way:
s = input("Enter Some String:")
print("Characters at Even Position:",s[0::2])
print("Characters at Odd Position:",s[1::2])

2nd Way:
1) s=input("Enter Some String:")
2) i=0
3) print("Characters at Even Position:")
4) while i< len(s):
5) print(s[i],end=',')
6) i=i+2
7) print()
8) print("Characters at Odd Position:")
9) i=1
10) while i< len(s):
11) print(s[i],end=',')
12) i=i+2

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
88  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Q5) Program to Merge Characters of 2 Strings into a Single
String by taking Characters alternatively
Input: s1 = "ravi"
s2 = "reja"
Output: rtaevjia

1) s1=input("Enter First String:")

2) s2=input("Enter Second String:")
3) output=''
4) i,j=0,0
5) while i<len(s1) or j<len(s2):
6) if i<len(s1):
7) output=output+s1[i]
8) i+=1
9) if j<len(s2):
10) output=output+s2[j]
11) j+=1
12) print(output)

Output:
Enter First String:durga
Enter Second String:ravisoft
druarvgiasoft

Q6) Write a Program to Sort the Characters of the String and

First Alphabet Symbols followed by Numeric Values
Input: B4A1D3
Output: ABD134

1) s=input("Enter Some String:")

2) s1=s2=output=''
3) for x in s:
4) if x.isalpha():
5) s1=s1+x
6) else:
7) s2=s2+x
8) for x in sorted(s1):
9) output=output+x
10) for x in sorted(s2):
11) output=output+x
12) print(output)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
89  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Q7) Write a Program for the following Requirement
Input: a4b3c2
Output: aaaabbbcc

1) s=input("Enter Some String:")

2) output=''
3) for x in s:
4) if x.isalpha():
5) output=output+x
6) previous=x
7) else:
8) output=output+previous*(int(x)-1)
9) print(output)

Note: chr(unicode)  The corresponding character

ord(character)  The corresponding unicode value

Q8) Write a Program to perform the following Activity

Input: a4k3b2
Outpt: aeknbd

1) s=input("Enter Some String:")

2) output=''
3) for x in s:
4) if x.isalpha():
5) output=output+x
6) previous=x
7) else:
8) output=output+chr(ord(previous)+int(x))
9) print(output)

Q9) Write a Program to Remove Duplicate Characters from

the given Input String?
Input: ABCDABBCDABBBCCCDDEEEF
Output: ABCDEF

1) s = input("Enter Some String:")

2) l=[]
3) for x in s:
4) if x not in l:
5) l.append(x)
6) output=''.join(l)
7) print(output)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
90  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Q10) Write a Program to find the Number of Occurrences of
each Character present in the given String?
Input: ABCABCABBCDE
Output: A-3,B-4,C-3,D-1,E-1

1) s=input("Enter the Some String:")

2) d={}
3) for x in s:
4) if x in d.keys():
5) d[x]=d[x]+1
6) else:
7) d[x]=1
8) for k,v in d.items():
9) print("{} = {} Times".format(k,v))

Q11) Write a Program to perform the following Task?

Input: 'one two three four five six seven'
Output: 'one owt three ruof five xis seven'

1) s = input('Enter Some String:')

2) l = s.split()
3) l1 = []
4) i = 0
5) while i<len(l):
6) if i%2==0:
7) l1.append(l[i])
8) else:
9) l1.append(l[i][::-1])
10) i=i+1
11) output=' '.join(l1)
12) print('Original String:',s)
13) print('output String:',output)

Output:
D:\durgaclasses>py test.py
Enter Some String:one two three four five six seven
Original String: one two three four five six seven
output String: one owt three ruof five xis seven

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
91  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Formatting the Strings:
֍ We can format the strings with variable values by using replacement operator {} and
format() method.
֍ The main objective of format() method to format string into meaningful output form.

Case- 1: Basic formatting for default, positional and keyword arguments

1) name = 'durga'
2) salary = 10000
3) age = 48
4) print("{} 's salary is {} and his age is {}".format(name,salary,age))
5) print("{0} 's salary is {1} and his age is {2}".format(name,salary,age))
6) print("{x} 's salary is {y} and his age is {z}".format(z=age,y=salary,x=name))

Output:
durga 's salary is 10000 and his age is 48
durga 's salary is 10000 and his age is 48
durga 's salary is 10000 and his age is 48

Case-2: Formatting Numbers

d  Decimal IntEger
f  Fixed point number(float).The default precision is 6
b  Binary format
o  Octal Format
x  Hexa Decimal Format (Lower case)
X  Hexa Decimal Format (Upper case)

Eg-1:

1) print("The intEger number is: {}".format(123))

2) print("The intEger number is: {:d}".format(123))
3) print("The intEger number is: {:5d}".format(123))
4) print("The intEger number is: {:05d}".format(123))

Output:
The intEger number is: 123
The intEger number is: 123
The intEger number is: 123
The intEger number is: 00123

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
92  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg-2:

1) print("The float number is: {}".format(123.4567))

2) print("The float number is: {:f}".format(123.4567))
3) print("The float number is: {:8.3f}".format(123.4567))
4) print("The float number is: {:08.3f}".format(123.4567))
5) print("The float number is: {:08.3f}".format(123.45))
6) print("The float number is: {:08.3f}".format(786786123.45))

Output:
The float number is: 123.4567
The float number is: 123.456700
The float number is: 123.457
The float number is: 0123.457
The float number is: 0123.450
The float number is: 786786123.450

Note:
֍ {:08.3f}
֍ Total positions should be minimum 8.
֍ After decimal point exactly 3 digits are allowed.If it is less then 0s will be placed in the
last positions
֍ If total number is < 8 positions then 0 will be placed in MSBs
֍ If total number is >8 positions then all intEgral digits will be considered.
֍ The extra digits we can take only 0

Note: For numbers default alignment is Right Alignment (>)

Eg-3: Print Decimal value in binary, octal and hexadecimal form

1) print("Binary Form:{0:b}".format(153))
2) print("Octal Form:{0:o}".format(153))
3) print("Hexa decimal Form:{0:x}".format(154))
4) print("Hexa decimal Form:{0:X}".format(154))

Output:
Binary Form:10011001
Octal Form:231
Hexa decimal Form:9a
Hexa decimal Form:9A

Note: We can represent only int values in binary, octal and hexadecimal and it is not
possible for float values.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
93  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Note:
1) {:5d} It takes an intEger argument and assigns a minimum width of 5.
2) {:8.3f} It takes a float argument and assigns a minimum width of 8 including "." and
after decimal point excatly 3 digits are allowed with round operation if required
3) {:05d} The blank places can be filled with 0. In this place only 0 allowed.

Case-3: Number formatting for signed numbers

֍ While displaying positive numbers,if we want to include + then we have to write
{:+d} and {:+f}
֍ Using plus for -ve numbers there is no use and for -ve numbers - sign will come
automatically.

1) print("int value with sign:{:+d}".format(123))

2) print("int value with sign:{:+d}".format(-123))
3) print("float value with sign:{:+f}".format(123.456))
4) print("float value with sign:{:+f}".format(-123.456))

Output:
int value with sign:+123
int value with sign:-123
float value with sign:+123.456000
float value with sign:-123.456000

Case-4: Number formatting with alignment

֍ <, >, ^ and = are used for alignment

֍ <  Left Alignment to the remaining space
֍ ^  Center alignment to the remaining space
֍ >  Right alignment to the remaining space
֍ =  Forces the signed(+) (-) to the left most position

Note: Default Alignment for numbers is Right Alignment.

Ex:

1) print("{:5d}".format(12))
2) print("{:<5d}".format(12))
3) print("{:<05d}".format(12))
4) print("{:>5d}".format(12))
5) print("{:>05d}".format(12))
6) print("{:^5d}".format(12))
7) print("{:=5d}".format(-12))
8) print("{:^10.3f}".format(12.23456))
9) print("{:=8.3f}".format(-12.23456))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
94  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Output:
12
12
12000
12
00012
12
-12
12.235
- 12.235

Case-5: String formatting with format()

Similar to numbers, we can format String values also with format() method.
s.format(string)

1) print("{:5d}".format(12))
2) print("{:5}".format("rat"))
3) print("{:>5}".format("rat"))
4) print("{:<5}".format("rat"))
5) print("{:^5}".format("rat"))
6) print("{:*^5}".format("rat")) #Instead of * we can use any character(like +,$,a etc)

Output:
12
rat
rat
rat
rat
*rat*

Note: For numbers default alignment is right where as for strings default alignment is left

Case-6: Truncating Strings with format() method

1) print("{:.3}".format("durgasoftware"))
2) print("{:5.3}".format("durgasoftware"))
3) print("{:>5.3}".format("durgasoftware"))
4) print("{:^5.3}".format("durgasoftware"))
5) print("{:*^5.3}".format("durgasoftware"))

Output:
dur
dur
dur

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
95  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
dur
*dur*

Case-7: Formatting dictionary members using format()

1) person={'age':48,'name':'durga'}
2) print("{p[name]}'s age is: {p[age]}".format(p=person))

Output:
durga's age is: 48
Note: p is alias name of dictionary
person dictionary we are passing as keyword argument

More convinient way is to use **person

1) person={'age':48,'name':'durga'}
2) print("{name}'s age is: {age}".format(**person))

Output: durga's age is: 48

Case-8: Formatting class members using format()

1) class Person:
2) age=48
3) name="durga"
4) print("{p.name}'s age is :{p.age}".format(p=Person()))

Output: durga's age is :48

1) class Person:
2) def __init__(self,name,age):
3) self.name=name
4) self.age=age
5) print("{p.name}'s age is :{p.age}".format(p=Person('durga',48)))
6) print("{p.name}'s age is :{p.age}".format(p=Person('Ravi',50)))

Note: Here Person object is passed as keyword argument. We can access by using its
reference variable in the template string

Case-9: Dynamic Formatting using format()

1) string="{:{fill}{align}{width}}"
2) print(string.format('cat',fill='*',align='^',width=5))
3) print(string.format('cat',fill='*',align='^',width=6))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
96  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 4) print(string.format('cat',fill='*',align='<',width=6))
5) print(string.format('cat',fill='*',align='>',width=6))

Output:
*cat*
*cat**
cat***
***cat

Case-10: Dynamic Float format template

1) num="{:{align}{width}.{precision}f}"
2) print(num.format(123.236,align='<',width=8,precision=2))
3) print(num.format(123.236,align='>',width=8,precision=2))

Output:
123.24
123.24

Case-11: Formatting Date values

1) import datetime
2) #datetime formatting
3) date=datetime.datetime.now()
4) print("It's now:{:%d/%m/%Y %H:%M:%S}".format(date))

Output: It's now:09/03/2018 12:36:26

Case-12: Formatting complex numbers

1) complexNumber=1+2j
2) print("Real Part:{0.real} and Imaginary Part:{0.imag}".format(complexNumber))

Output: Real Part: 1.0 and Imaginary Part: 2.0

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
97  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
LIST
DATA STRUCTURE

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
98  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
֍ If we want to represent a group of individual objects as a single entity where insertion
order preserved and duplicates are allowed, then we should go for List.
֍ insertion order preserved.
֍ duplicate objects are allowed.
֍ heterogeneous objects are allowed.
֍ List is dynamic because based on our requirement we can increase the size and
decrease the size.
֍ In List the elements will be placed within square brackets and with comma seperator.
֍ We can differentiate duplicate elements by using index and we can preserve insertion
order by using index. Hence index will play very important role.
֍ Python supports both positive and negative indexes. +ve index means from left to
right where as negative index means right to left.
[10,"A","B",20, 30, 10]

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
10 A B 20 30 10
0 1 2 3 4 5
֍ List objects are mutable.i.e we can change the content.

Creation of List Objects:

1) We can create empty list object as follows...

1) list=[]
2) print(list)
3) print(type(list))
4)
5) []
6) <class 'list'>

2) If we know elements already then we can create list as follows list = [10, 20, 30, 40]

3) With Dynamic Input:

1) list=eval(input("Enter List:"))
2) print(list)
3) print(type(list))

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter List:[10,20,30,40]
[10, 20, 30, 40]
<class 'list'>

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
99  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
4) With list() Function:

1) l=list(range(0,10,2))
2) print(l)
3) print(type(l))

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
<class 'list'>

Eg:

1) s="durga"
2) l=list(s)
3) print(l)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
['d', 'u', 'r', 'g', 'a']

5) With split() Function:

1) s="Learning Python is very very easy !!!"

2) l=s.split()
3) print(l)
4) print(type(l))

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
['Learning', 'Python', 'is', 'very', 'very', 'easy', '!!!']
<class 'list'>

Note: Sometimes we can take list inside another list, such type of lists are called nested
lists.
[10, 20, [30, 40]]

Accessing Elements of List:

We can access elements of the list either by using index or by using slice operator(:)

1) By using Index:
֍ List follows zero based index. ie index of first element is zero.
֍ List supports both +ve and -ve indexes.
֍ +ve index meant for Left to Right
֍ -ve index meant for Right to Left
֍ list = [10, 20, 30, 40]

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
100  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 -4 -3 -2 -1
list 10 20 30 40
0 1 2 3

֍ print(list[0])  10
֍ print(list[-1])  40
֍ print(list[10])  IndexError: list index out of range

2) By using Slice Operator:

Syntax: list2 = list1[start:stop:step]

Start  It indicates the Index where slice has to Start

Default Value is 0

Stop  It indicates the Index where slice has to End

Default Value is max allowed Index of List ie Length of the List

Step  increment value

Default Value is 1

1) n=[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
2) print(n[2:7:2])
3) print(n[4::2])
4) print(n[3:7])
5) print(n[8:2:-2])
6) print(n[4:100])

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[3, 5, 7]
[5, 7, 9]
[4, 5, 6, 7]
[9, 7, 5]
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
101  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
List vs Mutability:
Once we creates a List object, we can modify its content. Hence List objects are mutable.

1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) print(n)
3) n[1]=777
4) print(n)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[10, 20, 30, 40]
[10, 777, 30, 40]

Traversing the Elements of List:

The sequential access of each element in the list is called traversal.

1) By using while Loop:

1) n = [0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
2) i = 0
3) while I < len(n):
4) print(n[i])
5) i=i+1

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

2) By using for Loop:

1) n=[0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
2) for n1 in n:
3) print(n1)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
102  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

3) To display only Even Numbers:

1) n=[0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
2) for n1 in n:
3) if n1%2==0:
4) print(n1)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
0
2
4
6
8
10

4) To display Elements by Index wise:

1) l = ["A","B","C"]
2) x = len(l)
3) for i in range(x):
4) print(l[i],"is available at positive index: ",i,"and at negative index: ",i-x)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
A is available at positive index: 0 and at negative index: -3
B is available at positive index: 1 and at negative index: -2
C is available at positive index: 2 and at negative index: -1

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
103  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Important Functions of List:
I. To get Information about List:
1) len():
Returns the number of elements present in the list
Eg: n = [10, 20, 30, 40]
print(len(n)  4

2) count():
It returns the number of occurrences of specified item in the list

1) n=[1,2,2,2,2,3,3]
2) print(n.count(1))
3) print(n.count(2))
4) print(n.count(3))
5) print(n.count(4))

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
1
4
2
0

3) index():
Returns the index of first occurrence of the specified item.

1) n = [1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3]
2) print(n.index(1))  0
3) print(n.index(2))  1
4) print(n.index(3))  5
5) print(n.index(4))  ValueError: 4 is not in list

Note: If the specified element not present in the list then we will get ValueError.Hence
before index() method we have to check whether item present in the list or not by using in
operator.
print( 4 in n)  False

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
104  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
II. Manipulating Elements of List:
1) append() Function:
We can use append() function to add item at the end of the list.

1) list=[]
2) list.append("A")
3) list.append("B")
4) list.append("C")
5) print(list)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
['A', 'B', 'C']

Eg: To add all elements to list upto 100 which are divisible by 10

1) list=[]
2) for i in range(101):
3) if i%10==0:
4) list.append(i)
5) print(list)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100]

2) insert() Function:
To insert item at specified index position

1) n=[1,2,3,4,5]
2) n.insert(1,888)
3) print(n)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[1, 888, 2, 3, 4, 5]

1) n=[1,2,3,4,5]
2) n.insert(10,777)
3) n.insert(-10,999)
4) print(n)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[999, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 777]

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
105  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Note: If the specified index is greater than max index then element will be inserted at last
position. If the specified index is smaller than min index then element will be inserted at
first position.

Differences between append() and insert()

append() insert()
In List when we add any element it will In List we can insert any element in
come in last i.e. it will be last element. particular index number

3) extend() Function:
To add all items of one list to another list
l1.extend(l2)
all items present in l2 will be added to l1

1) order1=["Chicken","Mutton","Fish"]
2) order2=["RC","KF","FO"]
3) order1.extend(order2)
4) print(order1)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
['Chicken', 'Mutton', 'Fish', 'RC', 'KF', 'FO']

1) order = ["Chicken","Mutton","Fish"]
2) order.extend("Mushroom")
3) print(order)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
['Chicken', 'Mutton', 'Fish', 'M', 'u', 's', 'h', 'r', 'o', 'o', 'm']

4) remove() Function:
We can use this function to remove specified item from the list.If the item present
multiple times then only first occurrence will be removed.

1) n=[10,20,10,30]
2) n.remove(10)
3) print(n)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[20, 10, 30]

If the specified item not present in list then we will get ValueError

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
106  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 1) n=[10,20,10,30]
2) n.remove(40)
3) print(n)

ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list

Note: Hence before using remove() method first we have to check specified element
present in the list or not by using in operator.

5) pop() Function:
 It removes and returns the last element of the list.
 This is only function which manipulates list and returns some element.

1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) print(n.pop())
3) print(n.pop())
4) print(n)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
40
30
[10, 20]

If the list is empty then pop() function raises IndexError

1) n = []
2) print(n.pop())  IndexError: pop from empty list

Note:
1) pop() is the only function which manipulates the list and returns some value
2) In general we can use append() and pop() functions to implement stack datastructure
by using list,which follows LIFO(Last In First Out) order.

In general we can use pop() function to remove last element of the list. But we can use to
remove elements based on index.

n.pop(index)  To remove and return element present at specified index.

n.pop()  To remove and return last element of the list

1) n = [10,20,30,40,50,60]
2) print(n.pop())  60
3) print(n.pop(1))  20
4) print(n.pop(10))  IndexError: pop index out of range

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
107  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 Differences between remove() and pop()
remove() pop()
1) We can use to remove special element 1) We can use to remove last element
from the List. from the List.
2) It can’t return any value. 2) It returned removed element.
3) If special element not available then we 3) If List is empty then we get Error.
get VALUE ERROR.

Note: List Objects are dynamic. i.e based on our requirement we can increase and
decrease the size.

append(), insert(), extend()  for increasing the size/growable nature

remove(), pop()  for decreasing the size /shrinking nature

III) Ordering Elements of List:

1) reverse():
We can use to reverse() order of elements of list.

1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) n.reverse()
3) print(n)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[40, 30, 20, 10]

2) sort():
In list by default insertion order is preserved. If want to sort the elements of list
according to default natural sorting order then we should go for sort() method.

 For numbers  Default Natural sorting Order is Ascending Order

 For Strings  Default Natural sorting order is Alphabetical Order

1) n = [20,5,15,10,0]
2) n.sort()
3) print(n)  [0,5,10,15,20]
4)
5) s = ["Dog","Banana","Cat","Apple"]
6) s.sort()
7) print(s)  ['Apple','Banana','Cat','Dog']

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
108  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Note: To use sort() function, compulsory list should contain only homogeneous elements.
Otherwise we will get TypeError

1) n=[20,10,"A","B"]
2) n.sort()
3) print(n)

TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'

Note: In Python 2 if List contains both numbers and Strings then sort() function first sort
numbers followed by strings

1) n=[20,"B",10,"A"]
2) n.sort()
3) print(n)# [10,20,'A','B']

But in Python 3 it is invalid.

To Sort in Reverse of Default Natural Sorting Order:

We can sort according to reverse of default natural sorting order by using reverse=True
argument.

1) n = [40,10,30,20]
2) n.sort()
3) print(n)  [10,20,30,40]
4) n.sort(reverse = True)
5) print(n)  [40,30,20,10]
6) n.sort(reverse = False)
7) print(n)  [10,20,30,40]

Aliasing and Cloning of List Objects:

The process of giving another reference variable to the existing list is called aliasing.

1) x=[10,20,30,40]
2) y=x 10 20 30 40
x
3) print(id(x)) y
4) print(id(y))

The problem in this approach is by using one reference variable if we are changing
content, then those changes will be reflected to the other reference variable.

1) x = [10,20,30,40]
10 20 30 40
2) y = x
x 777
3) y[1] = 777
y
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
109  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 4) print(x)  [10,777,30,40]

To overcome this problem we should go for cloning.

The process of creating exactly duplicate independent object is called cloning.

We can implement cloning by using slice operator or by using copy() function.

1) By using Slice Operator:

1) x = [10,20,30,40]
2) y = x[:]
3) y[1] = 777
4) print(x)  [10, 20, 30, 40]
5) print(y)  [10, 777, 30, 40]

10 20 30 40
x
10 20 30 40
777
y
2) By using copy() Function:
1) x = [10,20,30,40]
2) y = x.copy()
3) y[1] = 777
4) print(x)  [10, 20, 30, 40]
5) print(y)  [10, 777, 30, 40]

10 20 30 40
x

10 20 30 40
777
y

Q) Difference between = Operator and copy() Function

֍ = Operator meant for aliasing
֍ copy() Function meant for cloning

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
110  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Using Mathematical Operators for List Objects:
We can use + and * operators for List objects.

1) Concatenation Operator (+):

We can use + to concatenate 2 lists into a single list

1) a = [10, 20, 30]

2) b = [40, 50, 60]
3) c = a+b
4) print(c)  [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60]

Note: To use + operator compulsory both arguments should be list objects, otherwise we
will get TypeError.

Eg:
c = a+40  TypeError: can only concatenate list (not "int") to list.
c = a+[40]  Valid

2) Repetition Operator (*):

We can use repetition operator * to repeat elements of list specified number of times.

1) x = [10, 20, 30]

2) y = x*3
3) print(y)  [10, 20, 30, 10, 20, 30, 10, 20, 30]

Comparing List Objects

We can use comparison operators for List objects.

1) x = ["Dog", "Cat", "Rat"]

2) y = ["Dog", "Cat", "Rat"]
3) z = ["DOG", "CAT", "RAT"]
4) print(x == y)  True
5) print(x == z)  False
6) print(x != z)  True

Note: Whenever we are using comparison operators (==, !=) for List objects then the
following should be considered
1) The Number of Elements
2) The Order of Elements
3) The Content of Elements (Case Sensitive)
Note: When ever we are using relatational Operators (<, <=, >, >=) between List Objects,
only 1ST Element comparison will be performed.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
111  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 1) x = [50, 20, 30]
2) y = [40, 50, 60, 100, 200]
3) print(x>y)  True
4) print(x>=y)  True
5) print(x<y)  False
6) print(x<=y)  False

Eg:

1) x = ["Dog", "Cat", "Rat"]

2) y=["Rat", "Cat", "Dog"]
3) print(x>y)  False
4) print(x>=y)  False
5) print(x<y)  True
6) print(x<=y)  True

Membership Operators:
We can check whether element is a member of the list or not by using memebership
operators.

1) in Operator
2) not in Operator

1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) print (10 in n)
3) print (10 not in n)
4) print (50 in n)
5) print (50 not in n)

Output
True
False
False
True

clear() Function:
We can use clear() function to remove all elements of List.

1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) print(n)
3) n.clear()
4) print(n)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
112  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[10, 20, 30, 40]
[]

Nested Lists:
Sometimes we can take one list inside another list. Such type of lists are called nested
lists.

1) n=[10,20,[30,40]]
2) print(n)
3) print(n[0])
4) print(n[2])
5) print(n[2][0])
6) print(n[2][1])

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[10, 20, [30, 40]]
10
[30, 40]
30
40

Note: We can access nested list elements by using index just like accessing multi
dimensional array elements.

Nested List as Matrix:

In Python we can represent matrix by using nested lists.

1) n=[[10,20,30],[40,50,60],[70,80,90]]
2) print(n)
3) print("Elements by Row wise:")
4) for r in n:
5) print(r)
6) print("Elements by Matrix style:")
7) for i in range(len(n)):
8) for j in range(len(n[i])):
9) print(n[i][j],end=' ')
10) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
113  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[[10, 20, 30], [40, 50, 60], [70, 80, 90]]

Elements by Row wise:

[10, 20, 30]
[40, 50, 60]
[70, 80, 90]

Elements by Matrix style:

10 20 30
40 50 60
70 80 90

List Comprehensions:
It is very easy and compact way of creating list objects from any iterable objects
(Like List, Tuple, Dictionary, Range etc) based on some condition.

Syntax: list = [expression for item in list if condition]

1) s = [ x*x for x in range(1,11)]

2) print(s)
3) v = [2**x for x in range(1,6)]
4) print(v)
5) m = [x for x in s if x%2==0]
6) print(m)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
[2, 4, 8, 16, 32]
[4, 16, 36, 64, 100]

1) words=["Balaiah","Nag","Venkatesh","Chiranjeevi"]
2) l=[w[0] for w in words]
3) print(l)

Output: ['B', 'N', 'V', 'C']

1) num1=[10,20,30,40]
2) num2=[30,40,50,60]
3) num3=[ i for i in num1 if i not in num2]
4) print(num3) [10,20]
5)
6) common elements present in num1 and num2

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
114  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 7) num4=[i for i in num1 if i in num2]
8) print(num4) [30, 40]

Eg:

1) words="the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog".split()

2) print(words)
3) l=[[w.upper(),len(w)] for w in words]
4) print(l)

Output
['the', 'quick', 'brown', 'fox', 'jumps', 'over', 'the', 'lazy', 'dog']
[['THE', 3], ['QUICK', 5], ['BROWN', 5], ['FOX', 3], ['JUMPS', 5], ['OVER', 4],
['THE', 3], ['LAZY', 4], ['DOG', 3]]

Q) Write a Program to display Unique Vowels present in the

given Word?
1) vowels=['a','e','i','o','u']
2) word=input("Enter the word to search for vowels: ")
3) found=[]
4) for letter in word:
5) if letter in vowels:
6) if letter not in found:
7) found.append(letter)
8) print(found)
9) print("The number of different vowels present in",word,"is",len(found))

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter the word to search for vowels: durgasoftwaresolutions
['u', 'a', 'o', 'e', 'i']
The number of different vowels present in durgasoftwaresolutions is 5

List out all Functions of List and write a Program to use these Functions

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
115  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
TUPLE
DATA STRUCTURE

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
116  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
1) Tuple is exactly same as List except that it is immutable. i.e once we creates Tuple
object, we cannot perform any changes in that object.
2) Hence Tuple is Read only version of List.
3) If our data is fixed and never changes then we should go for Tuple.
4) Insertion Order is preserved
5) Duplicates are allowed
6) Heterogeneous objects are allowed.
7) We can preserve insertion order and we can differentiate duplicate objects by using
index. Hence index will play very important role in Tuple also.
8) Tuple support both +ve and -ve index. +ve index means forward direction (from left to
right) and -ve index means backward direction (from right to left)
9) We can represent Tuple elements within Parenthesis and with comma seperator.
10) Parenethesis are optional but recommended to use.

1) t=10,20,30,40
2) print(t)
3) print(type(t))
4)
5) Output
6) (10, 20, 30, 40)
7)
8) <class 'tuple'>
9) t=()
10) print(type(t)  tuple

Note: We have to take special care about single valued tuple.compulsary the value
should ends with comma, otherwise it is not treated as tuple.

1) t=(10)
2) print(t)
3) print(type(t))
4)
5) Output
6) 10
7) <class 'int'>

Eg:

1) t=(10,)
2) print(t)
3) print(type(t))
4)
5) Output
6) (10,)
7) <class 'tuple'>

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
117  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Q) Which of the following are valid Tuples?
1) t = ()
2) t = 10, 20, 30, 40
3) t = 10
4) t = 10,
5) t = (10)
6) t = (10,)
7) t = (10, 20, 30, 40)

Tuple Creation:
1) t = ()
Creation of Empty Tuple

2) t = (10,)
t = 10,
Creation of Single valued Tuple, Parenthesis are Optional, should ends with Comma

3) t = 10, 20, 30
t = (10, 20, 30)
Creation of multi values Tuples & Parenthesis are Optional.

4) By using tuple() Function:

1) list=[10,20,30]
2) t=tuple(list)
3) print(t)
4)
5) t=tuple(range(10,20,2))
6) print(t)

Accessing Elements of Tuple:

We can access either by index or by slice operator

1) By using Index:
1) t = (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60)
2) print(t[0])  10
3) print(t[-1])  60
4) print(t[100])  IndexError: tuple index out of range

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
118  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
2) By using Slice Operator:
1) t=(10,20,30,40,50,60)
2) print(t[2:5])
3) print(t[2:100])
4) print(t[::2])

Output
(30, 40, 50)
(30, 40, 50, 60)
(10, 30, 50)

Tuple vs Immutability:
 Once we creates tuple, we cannot change its content.
 Hence tuple objects are immutable.

Eg:
t = (10, 20, 30, 40)
t[1] = 70  TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

Mathematical Operators for Tuple:

We can apply + and * operators for tuple

1) Concatenation Operator (+):

1) t1=(10,20,30)
2) t2=(40,50,60)
3) t3=t1+t2
4) print(t3)  (10,20,30,40,50,60)

2) Multiplication Operator OR Repetition Operator (*)

1) t1=(10,20,30)
2) t2=t1*3
3) print(t2)  (10,20,30,10,20,30,10,20,30)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
119  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Important Functions of Tuple:
1) len()
To return number of elements present in the tuple.

Eg: t = (10,20,30,40)
print(len(t))  4

2) count()
To return number of occurrences of given element in the tuple

Eg: t = (10, 20, 10, 10, 20)

print(t.count(10))  3

3) index()
 Returns index of first occurrence of the given element.
 If the specified element is not available then we will get ValueError.

Eg: t = (10, 20, 10, 10, 20)

print(t.index(10))  0
print(t.index(30))  ValueError: tuple.index(x): x not in tuple

4) sorted()
To sort elements based on default natural sorting order

1) t=(40,10,30,20)
2) t1=sorted(t)
3) print(t1)
4) print(t)

Output
[10, 20, 30, 40]
(40, 10, 30, 20)

We can sort according to reverse of default natural sorting order as follows

t1 = sorted(t, reverse = True)
print(t1)  [40, 30, 20, 10]

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
120  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
5) min() And max() Functions:
These functions return min and max values according to default natural sorting order.

1) t = (40,10,30,20)
2) print(min(t))  10
3) print(max(t))  40

6) cmp():
֍ It compares the elements of both tuples.
֍ If both tuples are equal then returns 0
֍ If the first tuple is less than second tuple then it returns -1
֍ If the first tuple is greater than second tuple then it returns +1

1) t1=(10,20,30)
2) t2=(40,50,60)
3) t3=(10,20,30)
4) print(cmp(t1,t2))  -1
5) print(cmp(t1,t3))  0
6) print(cmp(t2,t3))  +1

Note: cmp() function is available only in Python2 but not in Python 3

Tuple Packing and Unpacking:

We can create a tuple by packing a group of variables.

Eg:
a = 10
b = 20
c = 30
d = 40
t = a, b, c, d
print(t)  (10, 20, 30, 40)

 Here a, b, c, d are packed into a Tuple t. This is nothing but Tuple packing.
 Tuple unpacking is the reverse process of Tuple packing.
 We can unpack a Tuple and assign its values to different variables.

1) t=(10,20,30,40)
2) a,b,c,d=t
3) print("a=",a,"b=",b,"c=",c,"d=",d)

Output: a= 10 b= 20 c= 30 d= 40

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
121  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Note: At the time of tuple unpacking the number of variables and number of values
should be same, otherwise we will get ValueError.

Eg:
t = (10,20,30,40)
a, b, c = t  ValueError: too many values to unpack (expected 3)

Tuple Comprehension:
 Tuple Comprehension is not supported by Python.
 t = ( x**2 for x in range(1,6))
 Here we are not getting tuple object and we are getting generator object.

1) t= ( x**2 for x in range(1,6))

2) print(type(t))
3) for x in t:
4) print(x)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
<class 'generator'>
1
4
9
16
25

Q) Write a Program to take a Tuple of Numbers from the Keyboard

and Print its Sum and Average?
1) t=eval(input("Enter Tuple of Numbers:"))
2) l=len(t)
3) sum=0
4) for x in t:
5) sum=sum+x
6) print("The Sum=",sum)
7) print("The Average=",sum/l)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Tuple of Numbers:(10,20,30,40)
The Sum= 100
The Average= 25.0

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter Tuple of Numbers: (100,200,300)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
122  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
The Sum= 600
The Average= 200.0

Differences between List and Tuple:

 List and Tuple are exactly same except small difference: List objects are mutable where
as Tuple objects are immutable.
 In both cases insertion order is preserved, duplicate objects are allowed, heterogenous
objects are allowed, index and slicing are supported.

List Tuple
1) List is a Group of Comma separeated 1) Tuple is a Group of Comma separeated
Values within Square Brackets and Values within Parenthesis and
Square Brackets are mandatory. Parenthesis are optional.
Eg: i = [10, 20, 30, 40] Eg: t = (10, 20, 30, 40)
t = 10, 20, 30, 40
2) List Objects are Mutable i.e. once we 2) Tuple Objeccts are Immutable i.e. once
creates List Object we can perform any we creates Tuple Object we cannot
changes in that Object. change its content.
Eg: i[1] = 70 t[1] = 70  ValueError: tuple object
does not support item assignment.
3) If the Content is not fixed and keep on 3) If the content is fixed and never changes
changing then we should go for List. then we should go for Tuple.
4) List Objects can not used as Keys for 4) Tuple Objects can be used as Keys for
Dictionries because Keys should be Dictionries because Keys should be
Hashable and Immutable. Hashable and Immutable.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
123  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
SET
DATA STRUCTURE

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
124  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 If we want to represent a group of unique values as a single entity then we should go
for set.
 Duplicates are not allowed.
 Insertion order is not preserved.But we can sort the elements.
 Indexing and slicing not allowed for the set.
 Heterogeneous elements are allowed.
 Set objects are mutable i.e once we creates set object we can perform any changes in
that object based on our requirement.
 We can represent set elements within curly braces and with comma seperation
 We can apply mathematical operations like union, intersection, difference etc on set
objects.

Creation of Set Objects:

1) s={10,20,30,40}
2) print(s)
3) print(type(s))

Output
{40, 10, 20, 30}
<class 'set'>

We can create set objects by using set() Function s = set(any sequence)

Eg 1:

1) l = [10,20,30,40,10,20,10]
2) s=set(l)
3) print(s) # {40, 10, 20, 30}

Eg 2:

1) s=set(range(5))
2) print(s) #{0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

Note:
֍ While creating empty set we have to take special care.
֍ Compulsory we should use set() function.
֍ s = {}  It is treated as dictionary but not empty set.

1) s={}
2) print(s)
3) print(type(s))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
125  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Output
{}
<class 'dict'>

Eg:

1) s=set()
2) print(s)
3) print(type(s))

Output
set()
<class 'set'>

Important Functions of Set:

1) add(x):
Adds item x to the set.

1) s={10,20,30}
2) s.add(40);
3) print(s) #{40, 10, 20, 30}

2) update(x,y,z):
 To add multiple items to the set.
 Arguments are not individual elements and these are Iterable objects like List, Range
etc.
 All elements present in the given Iterable objects will be added to the set.

1) s={10,20,30}
2) l=[40,50,60,10]
3) s.update(l,range(5))
4) print(s)

Output: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 40, 10, 50, 20, 60, 30}

Q) What is the difference between add() and update()

Functions in Set?
 We can use add() to add individual item to the Set,where as we can use update()
function to add multiple items to Set.
 add() function can take only one argument where as update() function can take any
number of arguments but all arguments should be iterable objects.
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
126  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Q) Which of the following are valid for set s?
1) s.add(10)
2) s.add(10,20,30)  TypeError: add() takes exactly one argument (3 given)
3) s.update(10)  TypeError: 'int' object is not iterable
4) s.update(range(1,10,2),range(0,10,2))

3) copy():
 Returns copy of the set.
 It is cloned object.

1) s = {10,20,30}
2) s1 = s.copy()
3) print(s1)

4) pop():
It removes and returns some random element from the set.

1) s={40,10,30,20}
2) print(s)
3) print(s.pop())
4) print(s)

Output
{40, 10, 20, 30}
40
{10, 20, 30}

5) remove(x):
 It removes specified element from the set.
 If the specified element not present in the Set then we will get KeyError.

1) s = {40, 10, 30, 20}

2) s.remove(30)
3) print {(s) 40, 10, 20}
4) s.remove(50 KeyError: ) 50

6) discard(x):
1) It removes the specified element from the set.
2) If the specified element not present in the set then we won't get any error.

1) s = {10, 20, 30}

2) s.discard(10)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
127  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 3) print {(s) 20, 30}
4) s.discard(50)
5) print {(s) 20, 30}

Q) What is the difference between remove() and discard() functions in Set?

Q) Explain differences between pop(),remove() and discard() functionsin Set?

7) clear():
To remove all elements from the Set.

1) s={10,20,30}
2) print(s)
3) s.clear()
4) print(s)

Output
{10, 20, 30}
set()

Mathematical Operations on the Set:

1) union():
 x.union(y)  We can use this function to return all elements present in both sets
 x.union(y) OR x|y.

1) x = {10, 20, 30, 40}

2) y = {30, 40, 50, 60}
3) print (x.union(y))  {10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60}
4) print (x|y)  {10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60}

2) intersection():
 x.intersection(y) OR x&y.
 Returns common elements present in both x and y.

1) x = {10, 20, 30, 40}

2) y = {30, 40, 50, 60}
3) print (x.intersection(y))  {40, 30}
4) print(x&y)  {40, 30}

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
128  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
3) difference():
 x.difference(y) OR x-y.
 Returns the elements present in x but not in y.

1) x = {10, 20, 30, 40}

2) y = {30, 40, 50, 60}
3) print (x.difference(y))  10, 20
4) print (x-y)  {10, 20}
5) print (y-x)  {50, 60}

4) symmetric_difference():
 x.symmetric_difference(y) OR x^y.
 Returns elements present in either x OR y but not in both.

1) x = {10, 20, 30, 40}

2) y = {30, 40, 50, 60}
3) print (x.symmetric_difference(y))  {10, 50, 20, 60}
4) print(x^y)  {10, 50, 20, 60}

Membership Operators: (in, not in)

1) s=set("durga")
2) print(s)
3) print('d' in s)
4) print('z' in s)

Output
{'u', 'g', 'r', 'd', 'a'}
True
False

Set Comprehension:
Set comprehension is possible.

1) s = {x*x for x in range(5)}

2) print (s)  {0, 1, 4, 9, 16}
3)
4) s = {2**x for x in range(2,10,2)}
5) print (s)  {16, 256, 64, 4}

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
129  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Set Objects won't support indexing and slicing:
1) s = {10,20,30,40}
2) print(s[0])  TypeError: 'set' object does not support indexing
3) print(s[1:3])  TypeError: 'set' object is not subscriptable

Q) Write a Program to eliminate Duplicates Present in the

List?
Approach - 1 Approach - 2

1) l=eval(input("Enter List of values: ")) 1) l=eval(input("Enter List of values: "))

2) s=set(l) 2) l1=[]
3) print(s) 3) for x in l:
4) if x not in l1:
D:\Python_classes>py test.py 5) l1.append(x)
Enter List of values: [10,20,30,10,20,40] 6) print(l1)
{40, 10, 20, 30}
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter List of values: [10,20,30,10,20,40]
[10, 20, 30, 40]

Q) Write a Program to Print different Vowels Present in the

given Word?
1) w=input("Enter word to search for vowels: ")
2) s=set(w)
3) v={'a','e','i','o','u'}
4) d=s.intersection(v)
5) print("The different vowel present in",w,"are",d)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter word to search for vowels: durga
The different vowel present in durga are {'u', 'a'}

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
130  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
DICTIONARY
DATA STRUCTURE

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
131  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
֍ We can use List, Tuple and Set to represent a group of individual objects as a single
entity.
֍ If we want to represent a group of objects as key-value pairs then we should go for
Dictionary.

Eg:
 rollno ---- name
 phone number -- address
 ipaddress --- domain name

֍ Duplicate keys are not allowed but values can be duplicated.

֍ Hetrogeneous objects are allowed for both key and values.
֍ Insertion order is not preserved
֍ Dictionaries are mutable
֍ Dictionaries are dynamic
֍ indexing and slicing concepts are not applicable

Note: In C++ and Java Dictionaries are known as "Map" where as in Perl and Ruby it is
known as "Hash"

How to Create Dictionary?

 d = {} OR d = dict()
 We are creating empty dictionary. We can add entries as follows

1) d[100]="durga"
2) d[200]="ravi"
3) d[300]="shiva"
4) print(d)  {100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}

 If we know data in advance then we can create dictionary as follows

 d = {100:'durga' ,200:'ravi', 300:'shiva'}

 d = {key:value, key:value}

How to Access Data from the Dictionary?

We can access data by using keys.

1) d = {100:'durga',200:'ravi', 300:'shiva'}
2) print(d[100]) #durga
3) print(d[300]) #shiva

If the specified key is not available then we will get KeyError

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
132  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
print(d[400])  KeyError: 400

We can prevent this by checking whether key is already available or not by using
has_key() function or by using in operator.

d.has_key(400)  Returns 1 if key is available otherwise returns 0

But has_key() function is available only in Python 2 but not in Python 3. Hence
compulsory we have to use in operator.

if 400 in d:
print(d[400])

Q) Write a Program to Enter Name and Percentage Marks

in a Dictionary and Display Information on the Screen
1) rec={}
2) n=int(input("Enter number of students: "))
3) i=1
4) while i <=n:
5) name=input("Enter Student Name: ")
6) marks=input("Enter % of Marks of Student: ")
7) rec[name]=marks
8) i=i+1
9) print("Name of Student","\t","% of marks")
10) for x in rec:
11) print("\t",x,"\t\t",rec[x])

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter number of students: 3
Enter Student Name: durga
Enter % of Marks of Student: 60%
Enter Student Name: ravi
Enter % of Marks of Student: 70%
Enter Student Name: shiva
Enter % of Marks of Student: 80%

Name of Student % of marks

--------------- ------------
durga 60%
ravi 70 %
shiva 80%

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
133  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
How to Update Dictionaries?
֍ d[key] = value
֍ If the key is not available then a new entry will be added to the dictionary with the
specified key-value pair
֍ If the key is already available then old value will be replaced with new value.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d)
3) d[400]="pavan"
4) print(d)
5) d[100]="sunny"
6) print(d)

Output
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva', 400: 'pavan'}
{100: 'sunny', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva', 400: 'pavan'}

How to Delete Elements from Dictionary?

1) del d[key]
 It deletes entry associated with the specified key.
 If the key is not available then we will get KeyError.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d)
3) del d[100]
4) print(d)
5) del d[400]

Output
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
{200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
KeyError: 400

2) d.clear()
To remove all entries from the dictionary.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d)
3) d.clear()
4) print(d)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
134  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Output
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
{}

3) del d
To delete total dictionary.Now we cannot access d.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d)
3) del d
4) print(d)

Output
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
NameError: name 'd' is not defined

Important Functions of Dictionary:

1) dict():
To create a dictionary

 d = dict()  It creates empty dictionary

 d = dict({100:"durga",200:"ravi"})  It creates dictionary with specified elements
 d = dict([(100,"durga"),(200,"shiva"),(300,"ravi")])
 It creates dictionary with the given list of tuple elements

2) len()
Returns the number of items in the dictionary.

3) clear():
To remove all elements from the dictionary.

4) get():
To get the value associated with the key

d.get(key)
If the key is available then returns the corresponding value otherwise returns None.It
wont raise any error.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
135  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
d.get(key,defaultvalue)
If the key is available then returns the corresponding value otherwise returns default
value.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d[100])  durga
3) print(d[400])  KeyError:400
4) print(d.get(100))  durga
5) print(d.get(400))  None
6) print(d.get(100,"Guest"))  durga
7) print(d.get(400,"Guest"))  Guest

5) pop():
d.pop(key)
 It removes the entry associated with the specified key and returns the
corresponding value.
 If the specified key is not available then we will get KeyError.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d.pop(100))
3) print(d)
4) print(d.pop(400))

Output
durga
{200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
KeyError: 400

6) popitem():
It removes an arbitrary item(key-value) from the dictionaty and returns it.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d)
3) print(d.popitem())
4) print(d)

Output
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva'}
(300, 'shiva')
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi'}
If the dictionary is empty then we will get KeyError
d={}
print(d.popitem()) ==>KeyError: 'popitem(): dictionary is empty'

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
136  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
7) keys():
It returns all keys associated eith dictionary.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d.keys())
3) for k in d.keys():
4) print(k)

Output
dict_keys([100, 200, 300])
100
200
300

8) values():
It returns all values associated with the dictionary.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d.values())
3) for v in d.values():
4) print(v)

Output
dict_values(['durga', 'ravi', 'shiva'])
durga
ravi
shiva

9) items():
It returns list of tuples representing key-value pairs.
[(k,v),(k,v),(k,v)]

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) for k,v in d.items():
3) print(k,"--",v)

Output
100 -- durga
200 -- ravi
300 -- shiva

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
137  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
10) copy():
To create exactly duplicate dictionary (cloned copy)
d1 = d.copy();

11) setdefault():
d.setdefault(k,v)
 If the key is already available then this function returns the corresponding value.
 If the key is not available then the specified key-value will be added as new item to
the dictionary.

1) d={100:"durga",200:"ravi",300:"shiva"}
2) print(d.setdefault(400,"pavan"))
3) print(d)
4) print(d.setdefault(100,"sachin"))
5) print(d)

Output
pavan
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva', 400: 'pavan'}
durga
{100: 'durga', 200: 'ravi', 300: 'shiva', 400: 'pavan'}

12) update():
d.update(x)
All items present in the dictionary x will be added to dictionary d

Q) Write a Program to take Dictionary from the Keyboard

and print the Sum of Values?
1) d=eval(input("Enter dictionary:"))
2) s=sum(d.values())
3) print("Sum= ",s)

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter dictionary:{'A':100,'B':200,'C':300}
Sum= 600

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
138  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Q) Write a Program to find Number of Occurrences of each Letter
present in the given String?
1) word=input("Enter any word: ")
2) d={}
3) for x in word:
4) d[x]=d.get(x,0)+1
5) for k,v in d.items():
6) print(k,"occurred ",v," times")

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter any word: mississippi
m occurred 1 times
i occurred 4 times
s occurred 4 times
p occurred 2 times

Q) Write a Program to find Number of Occurrences of each Vowel

present in the given String?
1) word=input("Enter any word: ")
2) vowels={'a','e','i','o','u'}
3) d={}
4) for x in word:
5) if x in vowels:
6) d[x]=d.get(x,0)+1
7) for k,v in sorted(d.items()):
8) print(k,"occurred ",v," times")

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter any word: doganimaldoganimal
a occurred 4 times
i occurred 2 times
o occurred 2 times

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
139  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Q) Write a Program to accept Student Name and Marks from the
Keyboard and creates a Dictionary. Also display Student Marks
by taking Student Name as Input?
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of students: "))
2) d={}
3) for i in range(n):
4) name=input("Enter Student Name: ")
5) marks=input("Enter Student Marks: ")
6) d[name]=marks
7) while True:
8) name=input("Enter Student Name to get Marks: ")
9) marks=d.get(name,-1)
10) if marks== -1:
11) print("Student Not Found")
12) else:
13) print("The Marks of",name,"are",marks)
14) option=input("Do you want to find another student marks[Yes|No]")
15) if option=="No":
16) break
17) print("Thanks for using our application")

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Enter the number of students: 5

Enter Student Name: sunny

Enter Student Marks: 90

Enter Student Name: banny

Enter Student Marks: 80

Enter Student Name: chinny

Enter Student Marks: 70

Enter Student Name: pinny

Enter Student Marks: 60

Enter Student Name: vinny

Enter Student Marks: 50

Enter Student Name to get Marks: sunny

The Marks of sunny are 90

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
140  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Do you want to find another student marks[Yes|No]Yes

Enter Student Name to get Marks: durga

Student Not Found

Do you want to find another student marks[Yes|No]No

Thanks for using our application

Dictionary Comprehension:
Comprehension concept applicable for dictionaries also.

1) squares={x:x*x for x in range(1,6)}

2) print(squares)
3) doubles={x:2*x for x in range(1,6)}
4) print(doubles)

Output
{1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}
{1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 6, 4: 8, 5: 10}

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
141  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
FUNCTIONS

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
142  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
֍ If a group of statements is repeatedly required then it is not recommended to write
these statements everytime seperately.We have to define these statements as a single
unit and we can call that unit any number of times based on our requirement without
rewriting. This unit is nothing but function.

֍ The main advantage of functions is code Reusability.

֍ Note: In other languages functions are known as methods,procedures,subroutines etc

֍ Python supports 2 types of functions

1) Built in Functions
2) User Defined Functions

1) Built in Functions:
The functions which are coming along with Python software automatically, are called
built in functions or pre defined functions.
Eg: id()
type()
input()
eval()
etc..

2) User Defined Functions:

The functions which are developed by programmer explicitly according to business
requirements, are called user defined functions.

Syntax to Create User defined Functions:

def function_name(parameters) :
""" doc string"""
----
-----
return value

Note: While creating functions we can use 2 keywords

1) def (mandatory)
2) return (optional)

Eg 1: Write a function to print Hello

test.py
1) def wish():
2) print("Hello Good Morning")
3) wish()
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
143  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 4) wish()
5) wish()

Parameters
Parameters are inputs to the function. If a function contains parameters, then at the time
of calling,compulsory we should provide values otherwise,otherwise we will get error.
Eg: Write a function to take name of the student as input and print wish message by
name.

1) def wish(name):
2) print("Hello",name," Good Morning")
3) wish("Durga")
4) wish("Ravi")

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Hello Durga Good Morning
Hello Ravi Good Morning

Eg: Write a function to take number as input and print its square value

1) def squareIt(number):
2) print("The Square of",number,"is", number*number)
3) squareIt(4)
4) squareIt(5)

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
The Square of 4 is 16
The Square of 5 is 25

Return Statement:
Function can take input values as parameters and executes business logic, and returns
output to the caller with return statement.

Q) Write a Function to accept 2 Numbers as Input and

return Sum
1) def add(x,y):
2) return x+y
3) result=add(10,20)
4) print("The sum is",result)
5) print("The sum is",add(100,200))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
144  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
The sum is 30
The sum is 300

If we are not writing return statement then default return value is None.

1) def f1():
2) print("Hello")
3) f1()
4) print(f1())

Output
Hello
Hello
None

Q) Write a Function to check whether the given Number is

Even OR Odd?
1) def even_odd(num):
2) if num%2==0:
3) print(num,"is Even Number")
4) else:
5) print(num,"is Odd Number")
6) even_odd(10)
7) even_odd(15)

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
10 is Even Number
15 is Odd Number

Q) Write a Function to find Factorial of given Number?

1) def fact(num):
2) result=1
3) while num>=1:
4) result=result*num
5) num=num-1
6) return result
7) for i in range(1,5):
8) print("The Factorial of",i,"is :",fact(i))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
145  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
The Factorial of 1 is : 1
The Factorial of 2 is : 2
The Factorial of 3 is : 6
The Factorial of 4 is : 24

Returning Multiple Values from a Function:

In other languages like C,C++ and Java, function can return atmost one value. But in
Python, a function can return any number of values.

Eg 1:

1) def sum_sub(a,b):
2) sum=a+b
3) sub=a-b
4) return sum,sub
5) x,y=sum_sub(100,50)
6) print("The Sum is :",x)
7) print("The Subtraction is :",y)

Output
The Sum is : 150
The Subtraction is : 50

Eg 2:

1) def calc(a,b):
2) sum=a+b
3) sub=a-b
4) mul=a*b
5) div=a/b
6) return sum,sub,mul,div
7) t=calc(100,50)
8) print("The Results are")
9) for i in t:
10) print(i)

Output
The Results are
150
50
5000
2.0
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
146  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Types of Arguments
def f1(a,b):
------
------
------
f1(10,20)

a, b are formal arguments where as 10,20 are actual arguments.

There are 4 types are actual arguments are allowed in Python.

1) Positional Arguments
2) Keyword Arguments
3) Default Arguments
4) Variable Length Arguments

1) Positional Arguments:
 These are the arguments passed to function in correct positional order.
def sub(a, b):
print(a-b)

sub(100, 200)
sub(200, 100)

 The number of arguments and position of arguments must be matched. If we change

the order then result may be changed.
 If we change the number of arguments then we will get error.

2) Keyword Arguments:
We can pass argument values by keyword i.e by parameter name.

1) def wish(name,msg):
2) print("Hello",name,msg)
3) wish(name="Durga",msg="Good Morning")
4) wish(msg="Good Morning",name="Durga")

Output
Hello Durga Good Morning
Hello Durga Good Morning
Here the order of arguments is not important but number of arguments must be matched.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
147  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Note: We can use both positional and keyword arguments simultaneously. But first we
have to take positional arguments and then keyword arguments,otherwise we will get
syntaxerror.

1) def wish(name,msg):
2) print("Hello",name,msg)
3) wish("Durga","GoodMorning")  Valid
4) wish("Durga",msg="GoodMorning")  Valid
5) wish(name="Durga","GoodMorning")  Invalid
6) SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument

3) Default Arguments:
Sometimes we can provide default values for our positional arguments.

1) def wish(name="Guest"):
2) print("Hello",name,"Good Morning")
3) wish("Durga")
4) wish()

Output
Hello Durga Good Morning
Hello Guest Good Morning
If we are not passing any name then only default value will be considered.

***Note:
After default arguments we should not take non default arguments.

1) def wish(name="Guest",msg="Good Morning"):  Valid

2) def wish(name,msg="Good Morning"):  Valid
3) def wish(name="Guest",msg):  Invalid

SyntaxError: non-default argument follows default argument

4) Variable Length Arguments:

 Sometimes we can pass variable number of arguments to our function, such type of
arguments are called variable length arguments.
 We can declare a variable length argument with * symbol as follows
 def f1(*n):
 We can call this function by passing any number of arguments including zero number.
 Internally all these values represented in the form of tuple.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
148  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 1) def sum(*n):
2) total=0
3) for n1 in n:
4) total=total+n1
5) print("The Sum=",total)
6)
7) sum()
8) sum(10)
9) sum(10,20)
10) sum(10,20,30,40)

Output
The Sum= 0
The Sum= 10
The Sum= 30
The Sum= 100

Note: We can mix variable length arguments with positional arguments.

1) def f1(n1,*s):
2) print(n1)
3) for s1 in s:
4) print(s1)
5)
6) f1(10)
7) f1(10,20,30,40)
8) f1(10,"A",30,"B")

Output
10
10
20
30
40
10
A
30
B

Note: After variable length argument,if we are taking any other arguments then we
should provide values as keyword arguments.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
149  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 1) def f1(*s,n1):
2) for s1 in s:
3) print(s1)
4) print(n1)
5)
6) f1("A","B",n1=10)

Output
A
B
10
f1("A","B",10)  Invalid
TypeError: f1() missing 1 required keyword-only argument: 'n1'

Note: We can declare key word variable length arguments also.

 For this we have to use **.

 def f1(**n):
 We can call this function by passing any number of keyword arguments. Internally
these keyword arguments will be stored inside a dictionary.

1) def display(**kwargs):
2) for k,v in kwargs.items():
3) print(k,"=",v)
4) display(n1=10,n2=20,n3=30)
5) display(rno=100,name="Durga",marks=70,subject="Java")

Output
n1 = 10
n2 = 20
n3 = 30
rno = 100
name = Durga
marks = 70
subject = Java

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
150  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Case Study:
def f(arg1,arg2,arg3=4,arg4=8):
print(arg1,arg2,arg3,arg4)

1) f(3,2)  3 2 4 8

2) f(10,20,30,40)  10 20 30 40

3) f(25,50,arg4=100)  25 50 4 100

4) f(arg4=2,arg1=3,arg2=4)  3 4 4 2

5) f()  Invalid
TypeError: f() missing 2 required positional arguments: 'arg1' and 'arg2'

6) f(arg3=10, arg4=20, 30, 40)  Invalid

SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument
[After keyword arguments we should not take positional arguments]

7) f(4, 5, arg2 = 6)  Invalid

TypeError: f() got multiple values for argument 'arg2'

8) f(4, 5, arg3 = 5, arg5 = 6)  Invalid

TypeError: f() got an unexpected keyword argument 'arg5'

Note: Function vs Module vs Library

1) A group of lines with some name is called a function
2) A group of functions saved to a file, is called Module
3) A group of Modules is nothing but Library

Library Function

Module 1 Module 2 -----------------

-----------------
Function 1 Function 1 -----------------
-----------------
-----------------
Function 2 Function 2 -----------------
-----------------
Function 3 Function 3 -----------------
-----------------
-

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
151  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Types of Variables
Python supports 2 types of variables.

1) Global Variables
2) Local Variables

1) Global Variables
 The variables which are declared outside of function are called global variables.
 These variables can be accessed in all functions of that module.

1) a=10 # global variable

2) def f1():
3) print(a)
4)
5) def f2():
6) print(a)
7)
8) f1()
9) f2()

Output
10
10

2) Local Variables:
 The variables which are declared inside a function are called local variables.
 Local variables are available only for the function in which we declared it.i.e from
outside of function we cannot access.

1) def f1():
2) a=10
3) print(a) # valid
4)
5) def f2():
6) print(a) #invalid
7)
8) f1()
9) f2()

NameError: name 'a' is not defined

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
152  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
global Keyword:
We can use global keyword for the following 2 purposes:
1) To declare global variable inside function
2) To make global variable available to the function so that we can perform required
modifications

1) a=10
2) def f1():
3) a=777
4) print(a)
5)
6) def f2():
7) print(a)
8)
9) f1()
10) f2()
11)

Output
777
10

1) a=10
2) def f1():
3) global a
4) a=777
5) print(a)
6) def f2():
7) print(a)
8)
9) f1()
10) f2()

Output
777
777

1) def f1():
2) a=10
3) print(a)
4)
5) def f2():
6) print(a)
7)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
153  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 8) f1()
9) f2()

Output: NameError: name 'a' is not defined

1) def f1():
2) global a
3) a=10
4) print(a)
5)
6) def f2():
7) print(a)
8)
9) f1()
10) f2()

Output
10
10

Note: If global variable and local variable having the same name then we can access
global variable inside a function as follows

1) a = 10  Global Variable
2) def f1():
3) a=777  Local Variable
4) print(a)
5) print(globals()['a'])
6) f1()

Output
777
10

Recursive Functions
A function that calls itself is known as Recursive Function.

Eg:
factorial(3) = 3 * factorial(2)
= 3 * 2 * factorial(1)
= 3 * 2 * 1 * factorial(0)
=3*2*1*1
=6
factorial(n) = n * factorial(n-1)
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
154  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
The main advantages of recursive functions are:
1) We can reduce length of the code and improves readability.
2) We can solve complex problems very easily.

Q) Write a Python Function to find Factorial of given

Number with Recursion
1) def factorial(n):
2) if n==0:
3) result=1
4) else:
5) result=n*factorial(n-1)
6) return result
7) print("Factorial of 4 is :",factorial(4))
8) print("Factorial of 5 is :",factorial(5))

Output
Factorial of 4 is : 24
Factorial of 5 is : 120

Anonymous Functions:
 Sometimes we can declare a function without any name,such type of nameless
functions are called anonymous functions or lambda functions.
 The main purpose of anonymous function is just for instant use(i.e for one time usage)

Normal Function:
We can define by using def keyword.
def squareIt(n):
return n*n

Lambda Function:
We can define by using lambda keyword lambda n:n*n

Syntax of lambda Function: lambda argument_list : expression

Note: By using Lambda Functions we can write very concise code so that readability of
the program will be improved.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
155  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Q) Write a Program to create a Lambda Function to find Square of
given Number?
1) s=lambda n:n*n
2) print("The Square of 4 is :",s(4))
3) print("The Square of 5 is :",s(5))

Output
The Square of 4 is : 16
The Square of 5 is : 25

Q) Lambda Function to find Sum of 2 given Numbers

1) s=lambda a,b:a+b
2) print("The Sum of 10,20 is:",s(10,20))
3) print("The Sum of 100,200 is:",s(100,200))

Output
The Sum of 10,20 is: 30
The Sum of 100,200 is: 300

Q) Lambda Function to find biggest of given Values

1) s=lambda a,b:a if a>b else b
2) print("The Biggest of 10,20 is:",s(10,20))
3) print("The Biggest of 100,200 is:",s(100,200))

Output
The Biggest of 10,20 is: 20
The Biggest of 100,200 is: 200

Note: Lambda Function internally returns expression value and we are not required to
write return statement explicitly.

Note: Sometimes we can pass function as argument to another function. In such cases
lambda functions are best choice.

We can use lambda functions very commonly with filter(), map() and reduce() functions,
because these functions expect function as argument.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
156  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
filter() Function:
We can use filter() function to filter values from the given sequence based on some
condition.

filter(function,sequence)
Where Function Argument is responsible to perform conditional check Sequence can be
List OR Tuple OR String.

Q) Program to filter only Even Numbers from the List by using

filter() Function?

Without Lambda Function:

1) def isEven(x):
2) if x%2==0:
3) return True
4) else:
5) return False
6) l=[0,5,10,15,20,25,30]
7) l1=list(filter(isEven,l))
8) print(l1) #[0,10,20,30]

With Lambda Function:

1) l=[0,5,10,15,20,25,30]
2) l1=list(filter(lambda x:x%2==0,l))
3) print(l1) #[0,10,20,30]
4) l2=list(filter(lambda x:x%2!=0,l))
5) print(l2) #[5,15,25]

map() Function:
 For every element present in the given sequence,apply some functionality and
generate new element with the required modification. For this requirement we
should go for map() function.

 Eg: For every element present in the list perform double and generate new list of
doubles.

 Syntax: map(function, sequence)

 The function can be applied on each element of sequence and generates new
sequence.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
157  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Without Lambda
1) l=[1,2,3,4,5]
2) def doubleIt(x):
3) return 2*x
4) l1=list(map(doubleIt,l))
5) print(l1) #[2, 4, 6, 8, 10]

With Lambda
1) l=[1,2,3,4,5]
2) l1=list(map(lambda x:2*x,l))
3) print(l1) #[2, 4, 6, 8, 10]

-------------------------------------------------------------
Eg 2: To find square of given numbers

1) l=[1,2,3,4,5]
2) l1=list(map(lambda x:x*x,l))
3) print(l1) #[1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

We can apply map() function on multiple lists also.But make sure all list should have same
length.

Syntax: map(lambda x,y:x*y,l1,l2))

x is from l1 and y is from l2

1) l1=[1,2,3,4]
2) l2=[2,3,4,5]
3) l3=list(map(lambda x,y:x*y,l1,l2))
4) print(l3) #[2, 6, 12, 20]

reduce() Function:
 reduce() function reduces sequence of elements into a single element by applying the
specified function.
 reduce(function,sequence)
 reduce() function present in functools module and hence we should write import
statement.

1) from functools import *

2) l=[10,20,30,40,50]
3) result=reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,l)
4) print(result) # 150

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
158  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg:

1) result=reduce(lambda x,y:x*y,l)
2) print(result) #12000000

Eg:

1) from functools import *

2) result=reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,range(1,101))
3) print(result) #5050

Everything is an Object:
 In Python every thing is treated as object.
 Even functions also internally treated as objects only.

1) def f1():
2) print("Hello")
3) print(f1)
4) print(id(f1))

Output:
<function f1 at 0x00419618>
4298264

Function Aliasing:
For the existing function we can give another name, which is nothing but function aliasing.

1) def wish(name):
2) print("Good Morning:",name)
3)
4) greeting=wish
5) print(id(wish))
6) print(id(greeting))
7)
8) greeting('Durga')
9) wish('Durga')

Output:
4429336
4429336
Good Morning: Durga
Good Morning: Durga

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
159  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Note:
 In the above example only one function is available but we can call that function by
using either wish name or greeting name.
 If we delete one name still we can access that function by using alias name.

1) def wish(name):
2) print("Good Morning:",name)
3)
4) greeting=wish
5)
6) greeting('Durga')
7) wish('Durga')
8)
9) del wish
10) #wish('Durga')  NameError: name 'wish' is not defined
11) greeting('Pavan')

Output:
Good Morning: Durga
Good Morning: Durga
Good Morning: Pavan

Nested Functions:
We can declare a function inside another function,such type of functions are called Nested
functions.

1) def outer():
2) print("outer function started")
3) def inner():
4) print("inner function execution")
5) print("outer function calling inner function")
6) inner()
7) outer()
8) #inner()  NameError: name 'inner' is not defined

Output:
outer function started
outer function calling inner function
inner function execution

In the above example inner() function is local to outer() function and hence it is not
possible to call directly from outside of outer() function.

Note: A function can return another function.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
160  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 1) def outer():
2) print("outer function started")
3) def inner():
4) print("inner function execution")
5) print("outer function returning inner function")
6) return inner
7) f1=outer()
8) f1()
9) f1()
10) f1()

Output:
outer function started
outer function returning inner function
inner function execution
inner function execution
inner function execution

Q) What is the differenece between the following lines?

f1 = outer
f1 = outer()

 In the first case for the outer() function we are providing another name f1
(function aliasing).
 But in the second case we calling outer() function,which returns inner function.For
that inner function() we are providing another name f1

Note: We can pass function as argument to another function

Eg: filter(function,sequence)
map(function,sequence)
reduce(function,sequence)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
161  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
MODULES

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
162  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 A group of functions, variables and classes saved to a file, which is nothing but
module.
 Every Python file (.py) acts as a module.

durgamath.py

1) x = 888
2)
3) def add(a,b):
4) print("The Sum:",a+b)
5)
6) def product(a,b):
7) print("The Product:",a*b)

 durgamath module contains one variable and 2 functions.

 If we want to use members of module in our program then we should import that
module.
import modulename

 We can access members by using module name.

modulename.variable
modulename.function()

test.py:

1) import durgamath
2) print(durgamath.x)
3) durgamath.add(10,20)
4) durgamath.product(10,20)

Output
888
The Sum: 30
The Product: 200

Note: Whenever we are using a module in our program, for that module compiled file
will be generated and stored in the hard disk permanently.

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
163  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Renaming a Module at the time of import
(Module Aliasing):
 Eg: import durgamath as m
 Here durgamath is original module name and m is alias name.
 We can access members by using alias name m

test.py:

1) import durgamath as m
2) print(m.x)
3) m.add(10,20)
4) m.product(10,20)

from ... import:

We can import particular members of module by using from ... import .
The main advantage of this is we can access members directly without using module
name.

1) from durgamath import x,add

2) print(x)
3) add(10,20)
4) product(10,20)  NameError: name 'product' is not defined

We can import all members of a module as follows from durgamath import *

test.py:

1) from durgamath import *

2) print(x)
3) add(10,20)
4) product(10,20)

Various Possibilties of import:

1) import modulename
2) import module1,module2,module3
3) import module1 as m
4) import module1 as m1,module2 as m2,module3
5) from module import member
6) from module import member1,member2,memebr3
7) from module import memeber1 as x
8) from module import *

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
164  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Member Aliasing:
1) from durgamath import x as y,add as sum
2) print(y)
3) sum(10,20)

Once we defined as alias name,we should use alias name only and we should not use
original name

1) from durgamath import x as y

2) print(x)  NameError: name 'x' is not defined

Reloading a Module:
By default module will be loaded only once eventhough we are importing multiple
multiple times.

module1.py:
print("This is from module1")

test.py

1) import module1
2) import module1
3) import module1
4) import module1
5) print("This is test module")

Output
This is from module1
This is test module

 In the above program test module will be loaded only once eventhough we are
importing multiple times.

 The problem in this approach is after loading a module if it is updated outside then
updated version of module1 is not available to our program.

 We can solve this problem by reloading module explicitly based on our requirement.
 We can reload by using reload() function of imp module.

1) import imp
2) imp.reload(module1)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
165  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
test.py:

1) import module1
2) import module1
3) from imp import reload
4) reload(module1)
5) reload(module1)
6) reload(module1)
7) print("This is test module")

In the above program module1 will be loaded 4 times in that 1 time by default and 3 times
explicitly. In this case output is

1) This is from module1

2) This is from module1
3) This is from module1
4) This is from module1
5) This is test module

The main advantage of explicit module reloading is we can ensure that updated version is
always available to our program.

Finding Members of Module by using dir() Function:

Python provides inbuilt function dir() to list out all members of current module or a
specified module.

dir()  To list out all members of current module

dir(moduleName)  To list out all members of specified module

Eg 1: test.py

1) x=10
2) y=20
3) def f1():
4) print("Hello")
5) print(dir()) # To print all members of current module

Output
['__annotations__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__', '__nam
e__', '__package__', '__spec__', 'f1', 'x', 'y']

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
166  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg 2: To display members of particular module

durgamath.py:

1) x=888
2)
3) def add(a,b):
4) print("The Sum:",a+b)
5)
6) def product(a,b):
7) print("The Product:",a*b)

test.py:

1) import durgamath
2) print(dir(durgamath))

Output
['__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__', '__name__',
'__package__', '__spec__', 'add', 'product', 'x']

Note: For every module at the time of execution Python interpreter will add some special
properties automatically for internal use.

Eg: __builtins__,__cached__,'__doc__,__file__, __loader__, __name__,__package__,

__spec__

Based on our requirement we can access these properties also in our program.

Eg: test.py

1) print(__builtins__ )
2) print(__cached__ )
3) print(__doc__)
4) print(__file__)
5) print(__loader__)
6) print(__name__)
7) print(__package__)
8) print(__spec__)

Output
<module 'builtins' (built-in)>
None
None

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
167  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
test.py

1) <_frozen_importlib_external.SourceFileLoader object at 0x00572170>

2) __main__
3) None
4) None

The Special Variable __name__:

 For every Python program, a special variable __name__ will be added internally.
 This variable stores information regarding whether the program is executed as an
individual program or as a module.

 If the program executed as an individual program then the value of this variable is
__main__

 If the program executed as a module from some other program then the value of this
variable is the name of module where it is defined.

 Hence by using this __name__ variable we can identify whether the program executed
directly or as a module.

Demo program:

module1.py:

1) def f1():
2) if __name__=='__main__':
3) print("The code executed as a program")
4) else:
5) print("The code executed as a module from some other program")
6) f1()

test.py:

1) import module1
2) module1.f1()

D:\Python_classes>py module1.py
The code executed as a program

D:\Python_classes>py test.py
The code executed as a module from some other program
The code executed as a module from some other program
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
168  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Working with math Module:
 Python provides inbuilt module math.
 This module defines several functions which can be used for mathematical operations.
 The main important functions are
1) sqrt(x)
2) ceil(x)
3) floor(x)
4) fabs(x)
5) log(x)
6) sin(x)
7) tan(x)
8) ....

1) from math import *

2) print(sqrt(4))
3) print(ceil(10.1))
4) print(floor(10.1))
5) print(fabs(-10.6))
6) print(fabs(10.6))

Output
2.0
11
10
10.6
10.6

Note: We can find help for any module by using help() function

Eg:
import math
help(math)

Working with random Module:

 This module defines several functions to generate random numbers.
 We can use these functions while developing games,in cryptography and to generate
random numbers on fly for authentication.

1) random() Function:
This function always generate some float value between 0 and 1 ( not inclusive)
0<x<1

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
169  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 1) from random import *
2) for i in range(10):
3) print(random())

Output
0.4572685609302056
0.6584325233197768
0.15444034016553587
0.18351427005232201
0.1330257265904884
0.9291139798071045
0.6586741197891783
0.8901649834019002
0.25540891083913053
0.7290504335962871

2) randint() Function:
To generate random integer beween two given numbers(inclusive)

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(randint(1,100)) # generate random int value between 1 and 100(inclusive)

Output
51
44
39
70
49
74
52
10
40
8

3) uniform() Function:
It returns random float values between 2 given numbers (not inclusive)

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(uniform(1,10))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
170  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Output
9.787695398230332
6.81102218793548
8.068672144377329
8.567976357239834
6.363511674803802
2.176137584071641
4.822867939432386
6.0801725149678445
7.508457735544763
1.9982221862917555

random()  in between 0 and 1 (not inclusive)

randint(x,y)  in between x and y ( inclusive)
uniform(x,y)  in between x and y ( not inclusive)

4) randrange ([start], stop, [step])

 Returns a random number from range
 start <= x < stop
 start argument is optional and default value is 0
 step argument is optional and default value is 1

 randrange(10)  generates a number from 0 to 9

 randrange(1,11)  generates a number from 1 to 10
 randrange(1,11,2)  generates a number from 1,3,5,7,9

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(randrange(10))

Output: 9
4
0
2
9
4
8
9
5
9

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(randrange(1,11))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
171  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Output: 2
2
8
10
3
5
9
1
6
3

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(randrange(1,11,2))

Output: 1
3
9
5
7
1
1
1
7
3

5) choice() Function:
 It won’t return random number.
 It will return a random object from the given list or tuple.

1) from random import *

2) list=["Sunny","Bunny","Chinny","Vinny","pinny"]
3) for i in range(10):
4) print(choice(list))
Output
Bunny
pinny
Bunny
Sunny
Bunny
pinny
pinny
Vinny
Bunny
Sunny
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
172  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
PACKAGES

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
173  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
֍ It is an encapsulation mechanism to group related modules into a single unit.
֍ package is nothing but folder or directory which represents collection of Python
modules.
֍ Any folder or directory contains __init__.py file,is considered as a Python package.This
file can be empty.
֍ A package can contains sub packages also.

__init__.py

File 1

File 1 File 1
__init__.py __init__.py

x.py y.py m.py n.py

Home Loan Vehicle Loan

Loan

__init__.py

File 1

File 1 File 1

__init__.py __init__.py

Module 1 Module 1 Module 1 Module 1

Home Loan Vehicle Loan

Loan

The main advantages of package statement are

1) We can resolve naming conflicts
2) We can identify our components uniquely
3) It improves modularity of the application

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
174  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Eg 1:
D:\Python_classes>
|-test.py
|-pack1
|-module1.py
|-__init__.py

__init__.py:
empty file

module1.py:
def f1():
print("Hello this is from module1 present in pack1")

test.py (version-1):
import pack1.module1
pack1.module1.f1()

test.py (version-2):
from pack1.module1 import f1
f1()

Eg 2:
D:\Python_classes>
|-test.py
|-com
|-module1.py
|-__init__.py
|-durgasoft
|-module2.py
|-__init__.py

__init__.py:
empty file

module1.py:
def f1():
print("Hello this is from module1 present in com")

module2.py:
def f2():
print("Hello this is from module2 present in com.durgasoft")

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
175  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
test.py

1) from com.module1 import f1

2) from com.durgasoft.module2 import f2
3) f1()
4) f2()

Output
D:\Python_classes>py test.py
Hello this is from module1 present in com
Hello this is from module2 present in com.durgasoft

Note: Summary diagram of library, packages, modules which contains functions, classes
and variables.

Library

pack 1 pack 2 --------------- pack n

module 1 module 2 module n module 1 module 2 module n

function 1 function 2 function n variables classes

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
176  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
100
PATTERN
PROGRAMS
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
177  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-1:
**********
********** 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
********** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
********** 3) print("* "*n)
**********
**********
**********
**********
**********
**********

Pattern-2:
1111111111
2222222222 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
3333333333 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
4444444444 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
5555555555 4) print(i,end=" ")
6666666666 5) print()
7777777777
8888888888
9999999999
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Pattern-3:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4) print(j,end=" ")
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 5) print()
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
178  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-4:
AAAAAAAAAA
BBBBBBBBBB
CCCCCCCCCC 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
DDDDDDDDDD 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
EEEEEEEEEE 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
FFFFFFFFFF 4) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
GGGGGGGGGG 5) print()
HHHHHHHHHH
IIIIIIIIII
JJJJJJJJJJ

Pattern-5:
ABCDEFGHIJ
ABCDEFGHIJ
ABCDEFGHIJ
ABCDEFGHIJ 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
ABCDEFGHIJ 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
ABCDEFGHIJ 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
ABCDEFGHIJ 4) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABCDEFGHIJ 5) print()
ABCDEFGHIJ
ABCDEFGHIJ

Pattern-6:
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
9999999999
8888888888 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
7777777777 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
6666666666 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
5555555555 4) print(n+1-i,end=" ")
4444444444 5) print()
3333333333
2222222222
1111111111

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
179  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-7:
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 4) print(n+1-j,end=" ")
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 5) print()
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Pattern-8:
JJJJJJJJJJ
IIIIIIIIII
HHHHHHHHHH 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
GGGGGGGGGG 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
FFFFFFFFFF 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
EEEEEEEEEE 4) print(chr(65+n-i),end=" ")
DDDDDDDDDD 5) print()
CCCCCCCCCC
BBBBBBBBBB
AAAAAAAAAA

Pattern-9:
JIHGFEDCBA
JIHGFEDCBA
JIHGFEDCBA 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
JIHGFEDCBA 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
JIHGFEDCBA 3) for j in range(1,n+1):
JIHGFEDCBA 4) print(chr(65+n-j),end=" ")
JIHGFEDCBA 5) print()
JIHGFEDCBA
JIHGFEDCBA
JIHGFEDCBA

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
180  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-10: Code - 1
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows:"))
* 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
** 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
*** 4) print("*",end=" ")
**** 5) print()
*****
****** Code - 2
******* 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows:"))
******** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
********* 3) print("* "*i)
**********

Pattern-11:
1
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
22
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
333
3) for j in range(1,i+1):
4444
4) print(i,end=" ")
55555
5) print()
666666
7777777
88888888
999999999
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Pattern-12:
1
12
123
1234 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
12345 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
123456 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
1234567 4) print(j,end=" ")
12345678 5) print()
123456789
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
181  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-13:
A
BB
CCC 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
DDDD 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
EEEEE 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
FFFFFF 4) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
GGGGGGG 5) print()
HHHHHHHH
IIIIIIIII
JJJJJJJJJJ

Pattern-14:
A
AB
ABC
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
ABCD
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
ABCDE
3) for j in range(1,i+1):
ABCDEF
4) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABCDEFG
5) print()
ABCDEFGH
ABCDEFGHI
ABCDEFGHIJ

1) Squares
2) Right Angled Triangle
3) Reverse of Right Angled Triangle

Pattern-15:
**********
*********
********
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
*******
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
******
3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
*****
4) print("*",end=" ")
****
5) print()
***
**
*
nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
182  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-16:
1111111111
222222222
33333333 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
4444444 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
555555 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
66666 4) print(i,end=" ")
7777 5) print()
888
99
10

Pattern-17:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
123456789
12345678 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
1234567 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
123456 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
12345 4) print(j,end=" ")
1234 5) print()
123
12
1

Pattern-18:
AAAAAAAAAA
BBBBBBBBB
CCCCCCCC
DDDDDDD 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
EEEEEE 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
FFFFF 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
GGGG 4) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
HHH 5) print()
II
J

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
183  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-19:
ABCDEFGHIJ
ABCDEFGHI
ABCDEFGH 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
ABCDEFG 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
ABCDEF 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
ABCDE 4) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABCD 5) print()
ABC
AB
A

Pattern-20:
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
999999999
88888888
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
7777777
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
666666
3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
55555
4) print(n+1-i,end=" ")
4444
5) print()
333
22
1

Pattern-21:
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
10 9 8 7 6 5 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
10 9 8 7 6 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
10 9 8 7 4) print(n+1-j,end=" ")
10 9 8 5) print()
10 9
10

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
184  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-22:
JJJJJJJJJJ
IIIIIIIII
HHHHHHHH 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
GGGGGGG 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
FFFFFF 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
EEEEE 4) print(chr(65+n-i),end=" ")
DDDD 5) print()
CCC
BB
A

Pattern-23:
JIHGFEDCBA
JIHGFEDCB
JIHGFEDC
JIHGFED 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
JIHGFE 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
JIHGF 3) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
JIHG 4) print(chr(65+n-j),end=" ")
JIH 5) print()
JI
J

Pattern-24:
*
**
***
****
***** 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
****** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
******* 3) print(" "*(n-i),"*"*i,end=" ")
******** 4) print()
*********
**********

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
185  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-25:
*
**
*** 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
**** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
***** 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
****** 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
******* 5) print("*",end=" ")
6) print()
********
*********
**********

Pattern-26:
1

22

333

4444 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))

2) for i in range(1,n+1):
55555 3) print(" "*(n-i),(str(i)+" ")*i)
4) print()
666666

7777777

88888888

999999999

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
186  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-27:
1
12 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
123 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
1234 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
12345 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
123456 5) print(j,end=" ")
1234567 6) print()
12345678
123456789
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Pattern-28:
A

BB

CCC
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
DDDD 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
3) print(" "*(n-i),(chr(64+i)+" ")*i)
EEEEE 4) print()

FFFFFF

GGGGGGG

HHHHHHHH

Pattern-29:
A
AB
ABC
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
ABCD
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
ABCDE
3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
ABCDEF
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
ABCDEFG
5) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABCDEFGH
6) print()
ABCDEFGHI
ABCDEFGHIJ

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
187  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-30:
*****
**** 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
*** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
** 3) print(" "*(i-1),"* "*(n+1-i))
*

Pattern-31:
55555
4444 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
333 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
22 3) print(" "*(i-1),(str(n+1-i)+" ")*(n+1-i))
1

Pattern-32:
12345 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
1234 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
123 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
12 4) for j in range(1,n+2-i):
1 5) print(j,end=" ")
6) print()

Pattern-33:
EEEEE
DDDD 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
CCC 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
BB 3) print(" "*(i-1),(str(chr(65+n-i))+" ")*(n+1-i))
A

Pattern-34:
ABCDE 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
ABCD 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
ABC 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
AB 4) for j in range(65,66+n-i):
A 5) print(chr(j),end=" ")
6) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
188  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-35:
* 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
*** 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
***** 3) print(" "*(n-i),"* "*(2*i-1))
*******
*********

Pattern-36:
1
222 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
33333 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
4444444 3) print(" "*(n-i),(str(i)+" ")*(2*i-1))
555555555

Pattern-37:
A
BBB 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
CCCCC 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
DDDDDDD 3) print(" "*(n-i),(str(chr(64+i)+" "))*(2*i-1))
EEEEEEEEE

Pattern-38:
A 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
CCC 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
EEEEE 3) print(" "*(n-i),(str(chr(64+2*i-1)+" "))*(2*i-1))
GGGGGGG
IIIIIIIII

Pattern-39:
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
1
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
123
3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
12345
4) for j in range(1,2*i):
1234567
5) print(j,end=" ")
123456789
6) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
189  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-40:
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
1 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
321 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
54321 4) for j in range(2*i-1,0,-1):
7654321 5) print(j,end=" ")
987654321 6) print()

Pattern-41:
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
A 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
ABC 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
ABCDE 4) for j in range(65,65+2*i-1):
ABCDEFG 5) print(chr(j),end=" ")
ABCDEFGHI 6) print()

Pattern-42:
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
A 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
CBA 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
EDCBA 4) for j in range(65+2*i-2,64,-1):
GFEDCBA 5) print(chr(j),end=" ")
IHGFEDCBA 6) print()

Pattern-43:
1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
0 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
101 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
21012 4) for j in range(1,i):
3210123 5) print(i-j,end=" ")
432101234 6) for k in range(0,i):
7) print(k,end=" ")
8) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
190  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-44: 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
A
3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
BAB
4) for j in range(1,i):
CBABC
5) print(chr(i-j+65),end=" ")
DCBABCD
6) for k in range(0,i):
EDCBABCDE
7) print(chr(k+65),end=" ")
8) print()

Pattern-45: 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))

2) for i in range(1,n+1):
3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
1
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
121
5) print(j,end=" ")
12321
6) for k in range(i-1,0,-1):
1234321
7) print(k,end=" ")
123454321
8) print()

Pattern-46: 1) n=int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))

2) for i in range(1,n+1):
A 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
ABA 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
ABCAB 5) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABCDABC 6) for k in range(1,i):
ABCDEABCD 7) print(chr(64+k),end=" ")
8) print()
Pattern-47:
1) n=int(input("Enter a number:"))
5 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
54 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
543 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
5432 5) print(n+1-j,end=" ")
54321 6) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
191  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-48: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
********* 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
******* 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
***** 5) print("*",end=" ")
*** 6) for k in range(1,num+1-i):
* 7) print("*",end=" ")
8) print()

Pattern-49: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
555555555 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
4444444 4) for j in range(0,num+1-i):
33333 5) print(num+1-i,end=" ")
222 6) for k in range(1,num+1-i):
1 7) print(num+1-i,end=" ")
8) print()

Pattern-50: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
999999999 4) for j in range(0,num+1-i):
7777777 5) print(2*num+1-2*i,end=" ")
55555 6) for k in range(1,num+1-i):
333 7) print(2*num+1-2*i,end=" ")
1 8) print()

Pattern-51:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
1234567 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
12345 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
123 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
1 5) print(j,end=" ")
6) for k in range(2,num+2-i):
7) print(num+k-i,end=" ")
8) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
192  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-52: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
EEEEEEEEE 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
DDDDDDD 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
CCCCC 5) print(chr(65+num-i),end=" ")
BBB 6) for k in range(2,num+2-i):
A 7) print(chr(65+num-i),end=" ")
8) print()

Pattern-53: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
I I I I I I I I I 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
G G G G G G G 5) print(chr(65+2*num-2*i),end=" ")
E E E E E 6) for k in range(2,num+2-i):
C C C 7) print(chr(65+2*num-2*i),end=" ")
A 8) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-54: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
ABCDEFG 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
ABCDE 5) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABC 6) for k in range(2,num+2-i):
A 7) print(chr(68+k-i),end=" ")
8) print()

Pattern-55: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
1 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
12 5) print(j,end=" ")
123 6) print()
1234 7) for k in range(1,num):
12345 8) print(" "*k,end="")
1234 9) for l in range(1,num+1-k):
123 10) print(l,end=" ")
12 11) print()
1

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
193  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-56:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
* 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
** 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
*** 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
**** 5) print("*",end=" ")
***** 6) print()
**** 7) for k in range(1,num):
*** 8) print(" "*k,end="")
** 9) for l in range(1,num+1-k):
* 10) print("*",end=" ")
11) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-57: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
43 5) print(num-j,end=" ")
432 6) print()
4321 7) for k in range(1,num):
43210 8) print(" "*k,end="")
4321 9) for l in range(1,num+1-k):
432 10) print(num-l,end=" ")
43 11) print()
4

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-58: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(0,i):
3
5) print(num+j-i,end=" ")
23
6) print()
123
7) for k in range(1,num):
0123
8) print(" "*k,end="")
123
9) for l in range(1,num+1-k):
23
10) print(l+k-1,end=" ")
3
11) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
194  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-59: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
E 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
DE 4) for j in range(0,i):
CDE 5) print(chr(65+num+j-i),end=" ")
BCDE 6) print()
ABCDE 7) for k in range(1,num):
BCDE 8) print(" "*k,end="")
CDE 9) for l in range(0,num-k):
DE 10) print(chr(65+k+l),end=" ")
E 11) print()

Pattern-60:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
*
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
**
3) for j in range(1,i+1):
***
4) print("*",end=" ")
****
5) print()
*****
6) for a in range(1,num+1):
****
7) for k in range(1,num+1-a):
***
8) print("*",end=" ")
**
9) print()
*

Pattern-61:
4 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
43 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
432 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
4321 4) print(num-j,end=" ")
43210 5) print()
4321 6) for a in range(1,num+1):
432 7) for k in range(1,num+1-a):
43 8) print(num-k,end=" ")
4 9) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
195  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-62:
4 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
34 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
234 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
1234 4) print(num-i+j-1,end=" ")
01234 5) print()
1234 6) for a in range(1,num+1):
234 7) for k in range(0,num-a):
34 8) print(k+a,end=" ")
4 9) print()

Pattern-63:
E 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
DD 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
CCC 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
BBBB 4) print(chr(65+num-i),end=" ")
AAAAA 5) print()
BBBB 6) for a in range(1,num+1):
CCC 7) for k in range(0,num-a):
DD 8) print(chr(65+a),end=" ")
E 9) print()

Pattern-64:
E 1) for i in range(1,num+1):
ED 2) for j in range(1,i+1):
EDC 3) print(chr(65+num-j),end=" ")
EDCB 4) print()
EDCBA 5) for a in range(1,num+1):
EDCB 6) for k in range(num-a,0,-1):
EDC 7) print(chr(64+k+a),end=" ")
ED 8) print()
E 9) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
196  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-65:
E 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
DE 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
CDE 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
BCDE 4) print(chr(64+num-i+j),end=" ")
ABCDE 5) print()
BCDE 6) for a in range(1,num+1):
CDE 7) for k in range(1,num-a+1):
DE 8) print(chr(64+k+a),end=" ")
E 9) print()

Pattern-66:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
*
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
**
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
***
5) print("*",end=" ")
****
6) print()
*****

Pattern-67:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
1 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
22 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
333 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
4444 5) print(i,end=" ")
55555 6) print()

Pattern-68:
1 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
12 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
123 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
1234 4) for j in range(1,1+i):
12345 5) print(j,end=" ")
6) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
197  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-69:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
A 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
BB 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
CCC 4) for j in range(1,1+i):
DDDD 5) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
EEEEE 6) print()

Pattern-70: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
A 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
AB 4) for j in range(1,1+i):
ABC 5) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABCD 6) print()
ABCDE

Pattern-71:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
*****
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
****
4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
***
5) print("*",end=" ")
**
6) print()
*

Pattern-72:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
55555
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
4444
4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
333
5) print(num-i+1,end=" ")
22
6) print()
1

Pattern-73:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
54321 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
4321 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
321 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
21 5) print(num+2-i-j,end=" ")
1 6) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
198  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-74: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
EEEEE 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
DDDD 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
CCC 5) print(chr(65+num-i),end=" ")
BB 6) print()
A

Pattern-75:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
EDCBA 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
DCBA 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
CBA 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
BA 5) print(chr(65+num+1-i-j),end=" ")
A 6) print()

Pattern-76: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
ABCDE 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
ABCD 4) for j in range(1,num+2-i):
ABC 5) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
AB 6) print()
A

Pattern-77: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
* 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
* * 5) print("*",end=" ")
* * * 6) print()
* * * * 7) for p in range(1,num):
* * * * * 8) print(" "*p,end="")
* * * * 9) for q in range(1,num+1-p):
* * * 10) print("*",end=" ")
* * 11) print()
*

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
199  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-78: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
1
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
22
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
333
5) print(i,end=" ")
4444
6) print()
55555
7) for p in range(1,num):
4444
8) print(" "*p,end="")
333
9) for q in range(1,num+1-p):
22
10) print(num-p,end=" ")
1
11) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-79: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
1
5) print(j,end=" ")
12
6) print()
123
7) for p in range(1,num):
1234
8) print(" "*p,end="")
12345
9) for q in range(1,num+1-p):
2345
10) print(q+p,end=" ")
345
11) print()
45
5

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-80: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
1 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
12 5) print(j,end=" ")
123 6) print()
1234 7) for p in range(1,num):
12345 8) print(" "*p,end="")
1234 9) for q in range(1,num+1-p):
123 10) print(q,end=" ")
12 11) print()
1

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
200  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-81: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
A 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
BB 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
CCC 5) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
DDDD 6) print()
EEEEE 7) for p in range(1,num):
DDDD 8) print(" "*p,end="")
CCC 9) for q in range(1,num+1-p):
BB 10) print(chr(64+num-p),end=" ")
A 11) print()

Pattern-82: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
A 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
AB 5) print(chr(64+j),end=" ")
ABC 6) print()
ABCD 7) for p in range(1,num):
ABCDE 8) print(" "*p,end="")
BCDE 9) for q in range(1,num+1-p):
CDE 10) print(chr(64+q+p),end=" ")
DE 11) print()
E

1) n=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,n+1):
Pattern-83: 3) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
5) print(n-i+j,end=" ")
5
6) for k in range(2,i+1):
454
7) print(n+1-k,end=" ")
34543
8) print()
2345432
9) for i in range(1,n+1):
123454321
10) print(" "*i,end="")
2345432
11) for j in range(1+i,n+1):
34543
12) print(j,end=" ")
454
13) for k in range(2,n+1-i):
5
14) print(n+1-k,end=" ")
15) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
201  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-84: 1) while True:
2) n=int(input("Enter a number:"))
5 3) for i in range(1,n+1):
545 4) print(" "*(n-i),end="")
54345 5) for j in range(1,i+1):
5432345 6) print(n+1-j,end=" ")
543212345 7) for k in range(2,i+1):
5432345 8) print(n-i+k,end=" ")
54345 9) print()
545 10) for i in range(1,n+1):
5 11) print(" "*i,end="")
12) for j in range(1,n+1-i):
13) print(n+1-j,end=" ")
14) for k in range(2,n+1-i):
15) print(i+k,end=" ")
16) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-85: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
* 5) print("*",end=" ")
** 6) if i>=2:
* * 7) print(" "*(2*i-4),end="")
* * 8) for k in range(i,i+1):
* * 9) print("*",end=" ")
10) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
Pattern-86: 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
5) print(i,end=" ")
1
6) if i>=2:
22
7) print(" "*(2*i-4),end="")
3 3
8) for k in range(i,i+1):
4 4
9) print(i,end=" ")
5 5
10) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
202  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-87: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
5 3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
44 4) for j in range(i,i+1):
3 3 5) print(num+1-i,end=" ")
2 2 6) if i>=2:
1 1 7) print(" "*(2*i-4),end="")
8) for k in range(i,i+1):
9) print(num+1-i,end=" ")
10) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-88: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
E
5) print(chr(64+num+1-i),end=" ")
DD
6) if i>=2:
C C
7) print(" "*(2*i-4),end="")
B B
8) for k in range(i,i+1):
A A
9) print(chr(64+num+1-i),end=" ")
10) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):

Pattern-89:
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
5) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
A 6) if i>=2:
BB 7) print(" "*(2*i-4),end="")
C C 8) for k in range(i,i+1):
D D 9) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
E E 10) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
203  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-90: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
* *
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
* *
5) print("*",end=" ")
* *
6) if i<=4:
**
7) print(" "*(2*num-2*i-2),end="")
*
8) for k in range(i,i+1):
9) print("*",end=" ")
10) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

Pattern-91:
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
1 1 5) print(i,end=" ")
2 2 6) if i<num:
3 3 7) print(" "*(2*num-2*i-2),end="")
44 8) for k in range(i,i+1):
5 9) print(i,end=" ")
10) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
Pattern-92: 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
5 5 5) print(num-i+1,end=" ")
4 4 6) if i<=4:
3 3 7) print(" "*(2*num-2*i-2),end="")
22 8) for k in range(i,i+1):
1 9) print(num-i+1,end=" ")
10) print()

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
Pattern-93: 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
4) for j in range(i,i+1):
5) print(chr(64+num-i+1),end=" ")
E E
6) if i<=4:
D D
7) print(" "*(2*num-2*i-2),end="")
C C 8) for k in range(i,i+1):
BB 9) print(chr(64+num-i+1),end=" ")
A 10) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
204  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-94: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
A A 3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
B B 4) for j in range(i,i+1):
C C 5) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
DD 6) if i<=4:
E 7) print(" "*(2*num-2*i-2),end="")
8) for k in range(i,i+1):
9) print(chr(64+i),end=" ")
10) print()

Pattern-95:
1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
*****
3) print(" "*(i-1),end="")
*****
4) for j in range(1,num+1):
*****
5) print("*",end=" ")
*****
6) print()
*****

1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))

Pattern-96:
2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
* * 5) print("*",end=" ")
** ** 6) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
*** *** 7) for k in range(1,i+1):
**** **** 8) print("*",end=" ")
********** 9) print()

Pattern-97:
1) n=int(input("Enter a number:"))
1 2) for i in range(1,n+1):
01 3) for j in range(1,i+1):
101 4) if (i%2!=0 and j%2!=0 )or(i%2==0 and j%2==0):
0101 5) print("1",end=" ")
10101 6) else:
010101 7) print("0",end=" ")
1010101 8) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
205  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-98:
*
** 1) num=int(input("Enter a number:"))
*** 2) for i in range(1,num+1):
**** 3) print(" "*(2*num-i+3),end="")
*** 4) for j in range(1,i+1):
**** 5) print("*",end=" ")
***** 6) print()
****** 7) for i in range(1,num+3):
******* 8) print(" "*(2*num-i+1),end="")
******** 9) for j in range(-1,i+1):
**** 10) print("*",end=" ")
***** 11) print()
****** 12) for i in range(1,num+5):
******* 13) print(" "*(2*num-i),end="")
******** 14) for j in range(-2,i+1):
********* 15) print("*",end=" ")
********** 16) print()
*********** 17) for i in range(1,num+3):
*** 18) print(" "*((2*num)),end="")
*** 19) print("* "*3)
***
***
***
***

Pattern-99: 1) num=int(input("Enter a number"))

2) for i in range(1,num+1):
3) print(" "*(2*num-i),end="")
*
4) for j in range(1,i+1):
**
5) print("*",end=" ")
***
6) print()
****
7) for i in range(1,num+1):
*****
8) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
* *
9) for j in range(1,i+1):
** **
10) print("*",end=" ")
*** ***
11) print(" "*(num-i),end="")
**** ****
12) for k in range(1,i+1):
**********
13) print("*",end=" ")
14) print()

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
206  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
Pattern-100:
**
** 1) n=int(input("Enter a number"))
**** 2) for i in range(1,2*n+1):
**** 3) if i%2==0:
****** 4) print("*"*i,end=" ")
****** 5) else:
******** 6) print("*"*(i+1),end=" ")
******** 7) print()
**********
**********

Pattern-101:
1) n=int(input("Enter a number:"))
2) for a in range(1,n+1,2):
3) for i in range(1,n+1):
4) print(" "*(2*n-i-a),end="")
5) for j in range(1,i+a):
6) print("*",end=" ")
7) print()
8) for b in range(1,n+1):
9) print(" "*(n-2),end="")
10) print("* "*3)

nd
DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038,
207  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
 *
**
***
****
*****
******
*******
********
***
****
*****
******
*******
********
*********
**********
*****
******
*******
********
*********
**********
***********
************
*******
********
*********
**********
***********
************
*************
**************
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***

D D
U U
R R
nd
G DURGASOFT, # 202, 2 Floor, HUDA Maitrivanam, Ameerpet, Hyderabad - 500038, G
208  040 – 64 51 27 86, 80 96 96 96 96, 92 46 21 21 43 | www.durgasoft.com
A A
DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA DURGA