Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers

1.1 Introduction

A computer is a programmable machine that receives data, stores and manipulates data, and
provides output in a useful format.

In regards to today’s computers, the “machine” part of the computer is called the hardware, while
the “programmable” part is called the software.”

BINARY is the data format that the computer understands: not a high-level or low-level
programming language or a human language. All other data should be reduced and converted to
this BINARY format so that a computer system can understand and work on it.

Evolution of Computers:

Computing in the mechanical era:

1. Abacus was the first mechanical calculating apparatus.

2. In 1642, Blaise Pascal designed a calculator that employed gears and wheels

3. Analytical Engine: Designed by Charles Babbage. Input was applied through punched cards.
This engine could store 1000 20-digit numbers and a modifiable program. This machine employed
more than 50,000 mechanical parts and could not operate reliably

Computing in the Electrical era:

1. Computers were based on electric motors.

2. A mechanical machine driven by a single electric motor was developed in 1889 by Herman
Hollerith to count, sort and collate data stored in punch cards.

3. Z3 was the first electronic computer used by Germans during the World War II.

4. ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator was the first general purpose digital
computer. It used 17,000 vacuum tubes, over 500 miles of wires and weighed 30 tons. It could
perform around 10,000 operations per second.

5. Other general purpose computers were

a) UNIVAC I, UNIVAC II and UNIVAC 1103 by Sperry Rand Corporation

b) MARK I and MARK 701 series by IBM

6. Invention of transistors in Bell Labs in 1948 resulted in computers that were faster, smaller in
size, weighed less, needed less power and were more reliable.
 7. Invention of Integrated Circuits (ICs) in 1958 resulted in computers such as IBM 360 which
were more compact and reliable. These computers incorporated MSI (Medium Scale Intgeration)

8. Intel introduced a single chip microprocessor 4004 which employed a Large Scale Integrated
circuit (LSI)

9. Desktop computers such as IBM PC were available from 1975.

Generation of computers

First Generation:These computers were very large, required cooling, had low memory capacities,
slower operations and had huge power requirements. The input to such system was applied using
punched cards. These computers did not comprise of any operating systems.
Example: MARK I
Second Generation: Smaller size, faster operations, less power consumption and large memory
capacities when compared to the first generation. Transistor technology was used to develop
computers. These computers did not have any operating systems. Example: IBM 1401, MINSK-
2, B5000.
Third Generation: Enhanced speed and reliable computers when compared to first and second
generation. Used SSI (Small Scale Integration) and MSI (Medium Scale Integration) circuits and
the computers came with an operating system for user interface.
Examples: IBM 360/370, UNIVAC 1100.
Fourth Generation: The fourth generation computers were much more advanced with LSI and
VLSI (Large Scale and Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits) comprising of thousands to a
millions of transistors. These computers comprised of hardware and software and came with CPU
and memory modules. They had an operating systems and input/output interfacing circuits.
Example: ICL 2900, ALTAIR 8800, IBM-PC
Fifth Generation:The present generation of computers employing Ultra Large Scale Integrated
Circuits with nano-meter technology making the computers more compact, faster, large memory
capacities, low power consumption and affordable.

Organization of a computer

Figure 1: Elements of a computer

The main elements associated with a computer system are as follows:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)/Microprocessor – CPU performs the computation of data and
controlling the hardware and Input/output devices.

A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the
instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and
input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is digital circuitry for arithmetic, logical and comparison operations
(addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, AND, OR etc.).

The Control Unit (CU) is digital circuitry contained within the processor that coordinates the
sequence of data movements into, out of, and between a processor's many sub-units. It fetches
instructions from memory, decodes the instruction and executes the instruction.
2. Main Memory (primary storage) – Holds the data that is fetched from secondary storage
which would be needed for computation. It is a volatile memory; the data will be wiped off when
the computer the power supply is disconnected. Example of primary storage is a RAM (Random
Access Memory)

3. Secondary Storage – Stores the data permanently. Its non-volatile memory and stores the data
even when powered off. Example for secondary storage devices would be ROM, Magnetic tapes,
Hard Drives etc.

4. Input and Output (I/O) devices – The devices that help in obtaining input from different
devices such as keyboard or tapes and display the output to a Monitor or a printer.

The two components at the heart of the hardware structure are the central processing unit (CPU)
and the main Memory. The CPU monitors and controls the operation of the other devices and the
flow of information to and from these devices, and it performs all the necessary manipulations of
the data. The Main Memory is used to store information for immediate access by the CPU. Main
Memory is also referred to as Primary Storage or Main Store. Secondary storage devices provide
permanent storage of large amounts of data. Secondary storage is also called: secondary memory,
external memory, backing store or auxiliary storage. This storage may consist of magnetic tapes,
magnetic disk, optical memory device, or similar device.

Input/output devices provide an interface between the computer and the user. There is at least one
input device (e.g. keyboard, mouse, measuring device such as a temperature sensor) and at least
one output device (e.g. printer, screen, control device such as an actuator). Input and output devices
like keyboards and printers, together with the external storage devices, are referred to as
peripherals

The computer system requires interconnections between the various components. When these data
paths carry more than one bit simultaneously from a number of different components, it is referred
to as a data bus or simply bus.

1.2 Storage Devices

Storage devices are one of the core components of any computing device. They store all the
data and applications on a computer. They are available in different form factors depending on
the type of underlying device. For example, a standard computer has multiple storage devices
including RAM, cache, a hard disk, an optical disk drive and externally connected USB drives

Storage device can be classified as Primary and Secondary memory devices which are
explained in the upcoming sections.

1.2.1 Primary storage devices

 Primary memory is also known as main memory or internal memory. Primary memory is
the memory that is directly accessed by the CPU to store and retrieve information. RAM
(Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) serve as primary memory
units.
 Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently
working.
 It is a volatile memory when we speak about RAM (Data is lost in case power is switched
off); However, ROM is non-volatile primary memory and retains the data even when the
power supply is disconnected.
 Primary memory devices are generally made up of semiconductors.
 Primary memory devices are faster than secondary memory devices in terms of read and
write speeds.

1.2.2 Secondary Storage Devices

 Secondary memory is also known as external memory.

 Secondary memories are used for storing data/Information permanently.
 Secondary memory units are non-volatile. They retain information even when the power
supply is disconnected
 For CPU to access the contents present in secondary memory devices, the contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then accessed by CPU.
 Examples of secondary storage devices can be hard disk drives, CD and DVD ROMs, Flash
drives etc.
 1.2.3 Differences between Primary and Secondary Memory

Serial Primary Memory Secondary Memory

No.
1 It can be volatile or non-volatile It is usually non-volatile memory.
memory.
2 Access time is faster than secondary Access time is slower than
memories primary memories
3 Primary memories are usually Secondary memories are connected via ports or
connected via slots cables.
4 Price of the primary memories is Price of the secondary memory devices are high
higher as they are faster and as they are bulky and slow when compared to
compact. primary memory devices.

5 At present the capacities of primary The capacities of hard disk drive currently can
memory ranges from 512 MB to be up to 60 Tera Bytes.
16GB for desktop computers and
can be of higher capacities for
Servers.
6 The contents of the primary memory The contents of the secondary memory are not
are directly accessible to the CPU.directly accessible by the CPU. The contents
have to be first copied to the primary memory
and then be accessed by the CPU.
7 This is a temporary memory when Secondary memory devices can be used to store
we speak in terms of RAM. data permanently
8 These are made up of semiconductor These are made up of magnetic
memories. and optical memories.
9 Example: RAM and ROM. Example: DVD ROM, CD-ROM and
Hard disk.

1.2.4 Random Access Memory (RAM)

 RAM is an internal memory which stores frequently used program instructions and data to
increase the general speed of a system. A RAM allows data items to be read or written in
almost the same amount of time irrespective of the physical location of data inside the
memory.
 RAM holds the data as long as there is power supply. If the power supply is disconnected
or the system is shut down, the data which was stored in the RAM is lost. Hence RAM is
a volatile memory device. An uninterrupted power supply would be required to ensure the
data is not lost.
  RAM memory units are available as Integrated Circuits and are expensive.
 RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

Types of RAM:

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM

 The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied.
 The data is lost when the power supply is disconnected due to volatile nature.
 SRAM cell is constructed with a matrix of 6-transistors and but no capacitors are used to
form a SRAM cell.
 There is no leakage of current/charge in SRAM cell, so SRAM cell does not require a
refresh circuit to retain charge.
 Due to the presence of 6 transistors for making up on SRAM cell, SRAM uses more space
than DRAM for the same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs
higher. It takes more transistors to store a bit of data using SRAM.
 SRAM is used as cache memory and can be accessed in a very short of time.

Characteristics of SRAM

• Reliability
• Simplicity: There is no need of a refresh circuit.
• Faster
• Used as cache memory
• Large size
• Expensive
• Lower power consumption

Dynamic RAM
  DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are composed of one transistor and one
capacitor.
 The capacitor keeps discharging with time and hence a DRAM cell must be continually
refreshed in order to maintain the data.
 Refreshing of DRAM cell is done with the help of refresh circuit that rewrites the data
present on the RAM periodically.
 DRAM is used for most of the applications as system RAM memory as it is comparatively
cheaper and smaller when compared to SRAM.

Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM:

 It has short data lifetime.

 Need to be refreshed continuously.
 Slower access speeds when compared to SRAM.
 Used as RAM in computer systems.
 Smaller in size.
 Less expensive.
 Higher power consumption when compared to SRAM.

Differences between SRAM and DRAM

Serial Static RAM (SRAM) Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

No.
1 It is faster than DRAM. It is slower than SRAM.

2 It is more expensive as compared to It is less expensive.

DRAM.
3 An SRAM cell is made up of 6 transistors A DRAM cell is made up of 1 transistor and
a capacitor
4 It does not need to be refreshed. It has to be refreshed after each read
operation.
5 It consumes less power as there is no It consumes more power.
refresh circuitry.
6 It holds data indefinitely as long as the It holds data dynamically not indefinitely.
computer is turned on.
7 SRAM is used as cache memory because DRAM is used for most system memory
it has very fast access. because it is cheap and small.
8 SRAM uses more transistors per bit of DRAM uses 1 transistor per bit of memory
memory

1.2.5 Read Only Memory (ROM)

 ROM stands for Read Only Memory. (It is also called as firmware memory).
 As the name says “read only” we can only read the content of it and not write any
information to it. Different types of ROMs are available to which information can be
written to and these will be discussed in the further sections.
 ROM is a non-volatile type of memory. The data written to it remains unaltered even if the
power is disconnected.
 The information is stored permanently in ROM during manufacturing time in case of One
Time Programmable ROMs.
 ROMs are used to store instructions that are required to start a computer (boot sequence).
For such applications, the ROM is used as bootstrap memory.
 ROMs are not only used in the computer but also in our day to day lives in electronic
appliances such as washing machines and microwave oven.

Types of ROMs

 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

 EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

 Fig 1.8: Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

 PROM is programmable read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. It is
also called as One Time Programmable ROM (OTP ROM).
 The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
 A PROM memory array consists of an array of fuses which are burnt open (to write a logic
0) during programming. Initially an unprogrammed PROM contains all 1’s (all the fuses
form a closed circuit) as shown in fig 1.8.
 A PROM can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
 The process of writing data to the PROM involves a special piece of equipment called a
device programmer.
 The device programmer writes data to the device one word at a time by applying an
electrical charge to the input pins of the PROM chip.
 Once a PROM has been programmed, its contents can never be changed.

Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)

Fig 1.9: Erasable Programmable ROM with a window to pass UV light to erase the contents

• An EPROM (erasable-and-programmable ROM) is programmed in exactly the same

manner as a PROM. However, EPROMs can be erased and reprogrammed repeatedly.
• To erase an EPROM, we simply expose the device to a strong source of ultraviolet light.
(A window in the top of the device allows the light to reach the silicon.) as shown in the
figure 1.9.
• By doing this, the chip is essentially reset to its initial-unprogrammed-state.
• Though more expensive than PROMs, their ability to be reprogrammed makes EPROMs
an essential part of the software development and testing process.
 • EPROMs were used in memory sticks, smart memories which were later replaced by
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM).

Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)

• EEPROM is an electrically-erasable-and-programmable ROM.

• Internally, they are similar to EPROMs, but the erase operation is accomplished
electrically, rather than by exposure to ultraviolet light.
• Any byte within an EEPROM may be erased and rewritten.
• Once written, the new data will remain in the device forever-or at least until it is electrically
erased.
• The primary tradeoff for this improved functionality is higher cost.
• It is used in RTCs (Real Time Clock), digital potentiometers, digital temperature sensors,
video games cartridges, computer BIOS that were built after 1984.

1.3 Classification of Computers

There are four classifications of digital computer systems: super-computer, mainframecomputer,

minicomputer, and microcomputer.

Super-computers are very fast and powerful machines. Their internal architecture enables themto
run at the speed of tens of MIPS (Million Instructions per Second). Super-computers are
veryexpensive and for this reason are generally not used for CAD applications. Examples of
supercomputersare: Cray and CDC Cyber 205.

Mainframe computers are built for general computing, directly serving the needs of business and
engineering. Although these computing systems are a step below super-computers, they are still
very fast and will process information at about 10 MIPS. Mainframe computing systems are
located in a centralized computing center with 20-100+ workstations. This type of computer is still
very expensive and is not readily found in architectural/interior design offices.

Minicomputers were developed in the 1960's resulting from advances in microchip technology.
Smaller and less expensive than mainframe computers, minicomputers run at several MIPS and
can support 5-20 users. CAD usage throughout the 1960's used minicomputers due to their low
cost and high performance. Examples of minicomputers are: DEC PDP, VAX 11.

Microcomputers were invented in the 1970's and were generally used for home computing and
dedicated data processing workstations. Advances in technology have improved microcomputer
capabilities, resulting in the explosive growth of personal computers in industry. In the 1980's
many medium and small design firms were finally introduced to CAD as a direct result of the low
cost and availability of microcomputers. Examples are: IBM, Compaq, Dell, Gateway, and Apple
Macintosh.

The average computer user today uses a microcomputer. These types of computers include PC's,
laptops, notebooks, and hand-held computers such as Palm Pilots.

1.4 Number Systems

A number system (or numeral system) is the one which is used for expressing (or) writing numbers.
It uses digits or other symbols to represent the numbers of a given set in appropriate manner.
Commonly used number systems are Decimal, Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal systems. Each system
has its own way of representing the numbers. For ex: 101 can be seen as “one hundred one” in decimal
notation, “five” in binary system and “sixty five” in octal system.

Table: description of number systems

S.No Description of Number System

1 Decimal Number System Base 10. Digits used : 0 to 9

2 Binary Number System Base 2. and Bits used : 0, 1

3 Octal Number System Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

4 Hexadecimal Number System Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal number
system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the successive positions
to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.

Characteristics of the Decimal number system are as follows

  It uses ten digits which are from 0 to 9.
 This is also called as base 10 number system.
 Each position in a decimal number represents a (x) power of the base (10). Example
10x
 Last position in a decimal number represents a (y) power of the base (10). Example
10y where y represents the last position-1.

Example 1: The decimal Number (4215)10 is represented as

Step Number Decimal Number

Step 1 (4215)10 ((4 x 103) + (2 x102) + (1 x 101) + (5 x 100))10

Step 2 (4000 +200 + 10 + 5)10

Ans = (4215)10

Example 2: The decimal number (536.159)10 is can be written as

Integer part Fractional Part

102(MSB) 101 100 . 10-1 10-2 10-3(LSB)

5 3 6 Binary point 1 5 9
5x102 3x101 6x100 1x10-1 5x10-2 9x10-3
Ans= 500+30+6+0.1+0.05+0.009 = (536.159)10

Binary Number System

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −
 Uses two bits, 0 and 1
 Also called as base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a (x) power of the base (2). Example 2x
 Last position in a binary number represents a (y) power of the base (2). Example
2y where y represents the last position-1.
 Example 3: Represent / Convert binary Number (10101)2 in decimal system

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 (10101)2 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Ans = (21)10

Example 4: Represent / Convert binary Number (1011.011)2 in decimal system

Integer part Fractional Part

23(MSB) 22 21 20 . 2-1 2-2 2-3(LSB)

1 0 1 1 0 1 1
Binary point
1x23 0x22 1x21 1x20 0x2-1 1x2-2 1x2-3
Ans = 8+0+2+1+0+0.25+0.125 = (11.375)10

Octal Number System

Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows

 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

 Also called as base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a (x) power of the base (8). Example 8x
 Last position in an octal number represents a (y) power of the base (8). Example
8y where (y) represents the last position-1

Example 5: Represent octal Number (12570)8 in decimal form

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 (12570)8 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

Step 2 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

 Ans = (5496)10

Example 6: Represent octal Number (231.25)8 in decimal form as

Integer part Fractional Part

82 81 80 . 8-1 8-2

2 3 1 Decimal 2 5
point
2x82 3x81 1x80 2x8-1 5x8-2
Ans = 128+24+1+0.25+0.078125 = (153.328125)10

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows

 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

 Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E
= 14, F = 15
 Also called as base 16 number system
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a (x) power of the base (16).
Example, 16x
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a (y) power of the base (16).
Example 16y where (y) represents the last position-1.
 Example 7: Represent Hexadecimal Number (A124)16 in decimal form

Step Hexadecimal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 (A124)16 ( (1 x 163) + (1 x 162) + (2 x 161) + (4 x 160))10

Step 2 ( 4096 + 256 + 32 + 4)10

Ans = (4388)10

Example 8: Represent Hexadecimal Number (A02.B7)16 in decimal form

Integer part Fractional Part

162 161 160 . 16-1 16-2

A 0 2 Decimal point B 7
10x162 0x161 2x160 11x16-1 7x16-2

Ans = 2560+0+2+0.6875+0.02734375 = (2562.71484)10

Applications of number system:

 Decimal system is widely used in mathematical notation.

 Binary system is used in DIGITAL signal coding of binary, as it uses only two digits one and zero to
form different digits. It is also used in Nim like games and modern technology of electronic digital
computers.
 Octal became widely used in computing systems such as the PDP-8, ICL 1900 and IBM
mainframes employed 12-bit, 24-bit or 36-bit words. It also cuts cost by allowing Nixie tubes, seven-
segment displays, and calculators to be used for the operator consoles, where binary displays were
too complex to use. They are also used in some programming languages (C, Perl, PostScript…) for
textual/graphical representations of byte strings.
 The hexadecimal system is commonly used by programmers to describe locations in memory
because it can represent every byte (i.e., eight bits) as two consecutive hexadecimal digits instead of
the eight digits that would be required by binary (i.e., base 2) numbers and the three digits that would
be required with decimal. It is also used to describe colors on web pages.

The below table below shows the Binary counting sequence and the representation to different
numbers systems.

Table: The representation of numbers in different number systems

Binary Decimal Octal Hexadecimal

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 2 2 2
0 0 1 1 3 3 3
0 1 0 0 4 4 4
0 1 0 1 5 5 5
0 1 1 0 6 6 6
0 1 1 1 7 7 7
1 0 0 0 8 8
1 0 0 1 9 9
1 0 1 0 10 A
1 0 1 1 11 B
1 1 0 0 12 C
1 1 0 1 13 D
1 1 1 0 14 E
1 1 1 1 15 F

Number System Conversion

Types of Number system conversion:

1. Binary to Octal and Hexadecimal Conversion

• Binary to octal
• Binary to hexadecimal
2. Octal and Hexadecimal Conversion to Binary
• Octal to binary
 • Octal to Hexadecimal
• Hexadecimal to Binary
• Hexadecimal to Octal
3. Decimal to Any Radix
• Decimal to binary
• Decimal to octal
• Decimal to hexadecimal

4. Any radix to Decimal

• Binary to decimal
• Octal to decimal
• Hexadecimal to decimal

Binary to Octal and Hexadecimal Conversion

Example 9: Convert the binary number (001001111.110101010)2 to octal

Solution:
1. Starting from the radix point partition the given binary number into groups of
three, as per the given directions (left and right).
(001, 001, 111 . 110, 101, 010)2

2. Each group of three corresponds to a single octal digit. Using table 2.2 find the
octal number for each group.

(001, 001, 111 . 110, 101, 010)2 = (117.652)8

Example 10: Convert the binary number (1011001100.00110)2 to octal

Solution:

1. Partition the given binary number into groups of three, starting at the radix point and
going left and right.
(1,011, 001, 100 . 001, 10)2

2. Each group of three corresponds to a single octal digit. But the last group on both left
hand and right hand side doesn’t have three digits. So add sufficient zero’s in the same
direction to make a group of three digits.

(001, 011, 001, 100 . 001, 100)2 = (1314.14)8

Example 11: Convert the binary number (111111001010.01111111)2 to hexadecimal

Solution:
1. Partition the given binary number into groups of four, starting at the radix point
and going left and right and right.
1111, 1100, 1010 . 0111, 11112
2. Each group of four corresponds to a single octal digit. Using table 4.3 find the
octal number for each group.

1111, 1100, 1010 . 0111, 11112 = (FCA.7F)16

Example 12: Convert the binary number 1111101010.01111102 to hexadecimal

1. Partition the given binary number into groups of four, starting at the radix point and
going left and right.
(11, 1110, 1010 . 0111, 110)2

2. Each group of four corresponds to a single hexadecimal digit. But the last group on
both left hand and right hand side doesn’t have four digits. So add sufficient zero’s in
the same direction to make a group of four digits.

(0011, 1110, 1010 . 0111, 1100)2 = (3EA.7C)16

Octal and Hexadecimal Conversion to Binary

Example 13: Convert the octal number 735.58 to binary

Solution: Each octal digit represents three binary bits. Use table 2.2 to find the three bits that
correspond to each octal digit and replace it with the binary digits.

7 3 5 . 5

111 011 101 . 101

Ans = 735.58 = (111011101.101)2

Example 14: Convert the Hexadecimal number 2DE5.6A16 to binary

Solution: Each hexadecimal digit represents four binary digits. Use table 2.2 to find the four bits
that correspond to each hexadecimal digit and replace it with the binary digits.
 2 D=13 E=14 5 . 6 A=10

0010 1101 1110 0101 . 0110 1010

Ans = 2DE5.6A16 = (00101101 1110 0101.0110 1010)2

Example 15: Convert the octal number (572.15)8 to hexadecimal

Step 1: In order to convert octal number to hexadecimal number, first the octal number is to be
converted into binary.

Step 2:Partition the above binary number into a group of four bits and write equivalent
hexadecimal number.

5 7 2 . 1 5

101 111 010 . 001 101

Step 1 = (572.15)8 = (101111010.001101)2

101111010.001101

Step 2: 0001,0111,1010 . 0011,0100

Final Ans: (17A.34)16

Example 16: Convert the Hexadecimal number 1BE5.3A16 to octal

Step 1: In order to convert hexadecimal number to octal number first the hexadecimal number is
to be converted into binary.

Step 2:Partition the above binary number into a group of three bits and write equivalent octal
number.

1 B E 5 . 3 A

0001 1011 1110 0101 . 0011 1010

Step 1: (1BE5.3A)16 = (0001101111100101.00111010)2

0001101111100101.00111010
 Step 2: 000,001,101,111,100,101 . 001,110,010
Final Ans: (15745.162)8

Any base/radix to Decimal conversion

Binary to Decimal Conversion

Refer to Example 2.3. & 2.4

Octal to Decimal conversion

Refer to Example 2.5 & 2.6

Hexadecimal to Decimal conversion

Refer to Example 2.7 & 2.8

Decimal to Any radix/base conversion

Decimal to binary conversion

Example 17: Convert 2510 to binary

Solution:
Division Remainder Binary
25/2 = 12+ remainder of 1 1 (Least Significant Bit)
12/2 = 6 + remainder of 0 0
6/2 = 3 + remainder of 0 0
3/2 = 1 + remainder of 1 1
1/2 = 0 + remainder of 1 1 (Most Significant Bit)
Ans: (25)10= (11001)2

Fractions Conversion

In order to convert binary fraction into its equivalent decimal number each bit in the fractional
part is multiplied by its positional weight after the decimal point and representing the values from
the MSB to the LSB.

Example 18:Convert 0.7510 to binary

Solution: Fraction
 Multiply .75 by 2 = 1.5 1 (MSB)
Multiply .5 by 2 = 1.0 1
Multiply 0 by 2 = 0.0 0 (LSB)
Ans: (.75)10 = (.110)2

Example 19: Convert 95.062510 to binary

Solution: The conversion is accomplished in two parts. First, convert the integer part of the
decimal number by successive division.
Division Remainder Binary
95/2 = 47+ remainder of 1 1 (Least Significant Bit)
47/2 = 23 + remainder of 1 1
23/2 = 11 + remainder of 1 1
11/2 = 5 + remainder of 1 1
5/2 = 2 + remainder of 1 1
2/2 = 1 + remainder of 0 0
1/2 = 0 + remainder of 1 1 (Most Significant Bit)
Ans: (95)10 = (1011111)2

Second, convert the fraction.

Multiply .0625 by 2 = 0.125 0 (MSB)
Multiply .125 by 2 = 0.25 0
Multiply .25 by 2 = 0.5 0
Multiply .5 by 2 = 1.0 1
Multiply 0 by 2 = 0.0 0 (LSB)

Ans: (.0625)10 = (.0001)2

Therefore the final Ans: (95.0625)10 = (1011111.0001)2

Example 20: Convert 177.62510 to Octal

Solution:
1. Convert the integer portion by successive division

Division Result Octal

177/8 = 22+ remainder of 1 1 (Least Significant Digit)
22/ 8 = 2 + remainder of 6 6
2/8 = 0 + remainder of 2 2 (Most Significant Digit)
Ans: (177)10 = (261)8
 Convert the fractional portion by successive multiplication

8 x .625 = 5.00 5 (MSD)

Therefore the final Ans: (177.625)10 = (261.5)8

Example 21: Convert (378)10 to hexadecimal

Solution:

Division Result Hexadecimal

378/16 = 23+ remainder of 10 A (LSD)
23/16 = 1 + remainder of 7 7
1/16 = 0 + remainder of 1 1 (MSD)
Ans: 37810 = 17A16
 Example 22: Convert (253.785)10 to hexadecimal.

Division Result Hexadecimal

253/16 = 15+ remainder of 13 D (LSD)
15/16 = 0 + remainder of 15 F
Ans: (253)10 = FD16

Convert the fractional portion by successive multiplication

16 x 0.785 = 12.56 (12) C (MSB)

16 x 0.56 = 8.96 8
16 x 0.96 = 15.36 (15) F (LSB)
Therefore the final Ans: (253.785)10 = (FD.C8F)16

Exercise Problems:

1) Convert (2026)8 to decimal 2) Convert (1ABCD)16 to decimal

=2x83 + 0x82 + 2x81 + 6x80 =1x164 + Ax163 + Bx162 + Cx161 + Dx160
= 1024 + 0 +16 + 6 = (1046)10 = (109517)10
3) Convert Binary to Decimal 4)Convert Binary to Decimal
(1110.111)2=( )10 (0.110)2= ( )10
=1x23 +1x22+ 1x21+ 0x20 +1x2-1+1x2-2+1x2-3 -1 -2
= 1x2 + 1x2 + 0x2
-3

=8+4+2+0+0.5+0.25+0.125 =0.5+0.25+0
=(14.875)10 =0.75=( 0.75 )10
5) Decimal to Binary 6) Decimal to Binary
(105.202)10 =(1101001.0011)2 (0.825)10 = (0.1101)2
2 105 0.202x2 0.404 0.825x2 = 1.650 Carry 1
2 52 1 .404x2 0.808 0.650x2 = 1.300 1
2 26 0 0.808x2 1.616 0.300x2 = 0.600 0
2 13 0 0.616x2 1.232 0.600x2 = 1.200 1
2 6 1
2 3 0
1 1

7) Binary to Octal 8)Octal to Binary

(0.101011)2 = (0.53)8 (3565)8 =(11101110101)2

0.101 011 3 5 6 5
5 3 011 101 110 101
9)Binary to Hex 10) Hex to Binary
(10110101001.101011)2=(5A9.AC)16 (90AB.1C)16=(1001000010101011.00011100)2
 0101 1010 1001 . 1010 1100 9 0 A B . 1 C
5 A 9 A C 1001 0000 1010 1011 0001 1100
11) Decimal to Octal 12) Octal to Decimal
(985.85)10=(1731.66314)8 (1234.56)8=
8 985 0.85x8= 6.80 C 6 3 2 1 0 . -1 -2
8 123 1 0.80x8= 6.40 6 1 2 3 4 . 5 6
8 15 3 0.40x8= 3.20 3 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
=1x8 + 2x8 + 3x8 + 4x8 + 5x8 + 6x8
1 7 0.20x8= 1.60 1 = 512+ 128 + 24 +4+ 0.625 +.09375
0.60x8= 4.80 4 =(668.71875)10
13) Decimal to Hexadecimal 14) Hexadecimal to Decimal
(988.86)10 =(?)16 (ABC.CD)16=(?)10
16 988 0.86x16 =13.76 (D)16 = Ax162+ Bx161+ Cx160. Cx16-1+ Dx16-2
16 61 C 0.76x16 =12.16 (C)16 =(2748.80)10
3 D 0.16X16 =2.56 (2)16
0.56X16 =8.96 (8)16
= (3DC.DC28)16

15) Octal to Hexadecimal 16) Hexadecimal to Octal

(21056.375)8 = (?)16 = (222E.7E8)16 (222E.7E8)16= (?)8 = (21056.375)8
2 1 0 5 6 . 3 7 5 2 2 2 E . 7 E 8
010 001 000 101 110 011 111 101 0010 0010 0010 1110 0111 1110 10000
Append 0
0010 0010 0010 1110 . 0111 1110 1000
010 001 000 101 110 . 011 111
2 2 2 E . 7 E 8
2 1 0 5 6 . 3 7
17) Convert
(284.65)10 = ( )8 = ( )16
8 284 0.65x8 = 5.20 = 5 Convert the following
8 35- 4 0.20x8 = 1.60 = 1 1) (F9AC.5D8B)16 =( ?)10
4 3 0.60x8 = 4.80 = 4 2) (457.245)8 = (?)10
0.80x8 = 6.40 = 6 3) (526.44)8 = (?)2 = (?)10
0.40x8 = 3.20 = 3 4) (48350)10 = (?)16 = (?)8
(284)10=(434)8 (0.65)10=(0.51463)8
(284.65)10= (434.51463)8

(284.65)10 = (11C.A666)16
16 284 0.65x16 = 10.40 = A
16 17 12 0.40x16 = 6.40 = 6
1 1 0.40x16 = 6.40 = 6
0.40x16 = 6.40 = 6
1.5 Algorithms and Flowcharts

1.5.1 Algorithms

An algorithm can be defined as a sequence of steps or instructions to solve a problem.

To make a computer do anything, you have to write a computer program. To write a computer
program, you have to tell the computer, step by step, exactly what you want it to do. The
computer then "executes" the program, following each step, to accomplish the end goal.
When you are telling the computer what to do, you also get to choose how it's going to do it.
That's where computer algorithms come into picture. The algorithm is the basic technique
used to get the job done. Let's follow an example to help get an understanding of the algorithm
concept.
Let's say that you have a friend arriving at the airport, and your friend needs to get from the
airport to your house. Here are four different algorithms that you might give your friend for
getting to your home:
The taxi algorithm:
1. Go to the taxi stand.
2. Get in a taxi.
3. Give the driver my address.
The call-me algorithm:
1. When your plane arrives, call my cell phone.
2. Meet me outside baggage claim.
The rent-a-car algorithm:
1. Take the shuttle to the rental car place.
2. Rent a car.
3. Follow the directions to get to my house.
The bus algorithm:
1. Outside baggage claim, catch bus number 70.
2. Transfer to bus 14 on Main Street.
3. Get off on Elm street.
4. Walk two blocks north to my house.
All four of these algorithms accomplish exactly the same goal, but each algorithm does it in
completely different way. Each algorithm also has a different cost and a different travel time.
Taking a taxi, for example, is probably the fastest way, but also the most expensive. Taking
the bus is definitely less expensive, but a whole lot slower. You choose the algorithm based on
the circumstances.
1.5.2 Flow chart
A flowchart is a pictorial representation of an algorithm, workflow or a process, showing the
steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting them with arrows. This
diagrammatic representation illustrates a solution model to a given problem.
Or pictorial representation of solution to a given problem. Figure 1.4 shows the different
components of a flowchart.

Fig 1.4 Components of flow chart

Problem 2: find an area of circle (Area= 3.14*r*r) of radius r

Spet1: Start
Step2: Read /input r
Step3: Area=3.14*r*r
Step4: Print/Output Area
Step5: Stop
 Fig 1.6 flow chart to find the area of a circle
Problem1: write algorithm to find the greater number between two numbers
Step1: Start
Step2: Read/input A and B
Step3: If A greater than B then
Step4: Print A is big
Step5: else print B is big
Step6: End
 Fig 1.7 Flow chart to find the largest of two numbers

Flowchart to find largest of 3 no’s

Fig 1.8 Flowchart to find largest of 3 no’s developed using RAPTOR tool

Flow chart for SWITCH-CASE:

Above figure demonstrates the flowchart for switch-case for an example where an employee is
awarded bonus based on the number of years of employment in an organization. An employee
with one year of experience gets a bonus of 100, two years gets 200 and so on. A default case of
“Others” is considered where an employee gets a bonus of 800.

Flowchart in case of looping:

Above figure demonstrates a flowchart in case of looping constructs such as “while” and “for”
loops. A variable such as “i” is initialized with a value. This variable is tested for a condition, the
statements in the loop (i=i+1) keeps executing until the condition i=5 is satisfied. It should also be
noted that the instructions in the loop gets executed until the condition is satisfied (in this case
PUT i, to print the value of gets printed until the condition is satisfied).
 Chapter 2: C Programming Basics
2.1 Structure of a C Program

Figure 2.1: Structure of a C Program

Declaration is the program statement that serves tocommunicate to the language translator
information aboutthe name and type of the data objects needed during programexecution.
The preprocessor directives tellthe preprocessor to look for special code libraries,
makesubstitutions in the code, and in other ways prepare the codefor translation into machine
language.

Global declarations involves declaration of the variables that are visible to all the parts of the
program.

All functions including main() can be divided into twosections—local definition and statements.
Local definitionswould be at the beginning of the functions which is followed
by statement section. It describes the data that will be usedin the function. Data objects in local
definitions as opposedto global declarations are visible only to the function thatcontains them.
Statement section consists of the instructionsthat cause the computer to do something.

The difference between a declaration and a definition is important. A declaration announces the
properties of a data object or a function. The main reason for declaringdata objects and functions
is type checking. If a variable or function is declared and later reference is made to it with data
objects that do not match the types in the declaration, the compiler will complain.
A definition, on the other hand, actually sets aside storage space (in the case of a data object) or
indicates the sequence of statements to be carried out (in the case of a function).
2.2. Basic Execution of a C Program
The steps involved in execution of a basic program are as listed as depicted in figure 2.3

We shall consider execution of simple program written as shown and explain with reference
this program.

The program is written using a text editor such as notepad and the file is saved as simple.c

The “.c” extension is used to indicate that the file is a C program

File: simple.c

#include <stdio.h>

void main()

printf(“Hello C Language”);

Let’s try to understand the flow of above program

Step 1: Create/Edit

1. This is First Step is Creating and Editing Program.

2. Firstly, we have to write a C program using an editor.

3. Save the Program by using [.C] Extension.

4. File Saved with [.C] extension is called “Source Program “.

Step 2: Compiling

1. Compiling C Program: C Source code with [.C] Extension is given as input to compiler
such as Turbo C and compiler converts it into Equivalent Machine Instruction.

2. Compiler Checks for errors. If source code is error-free then Code is converted into Object
File [.obj ].
Step 3: Checking Errors

1. During Compilation Compiler will check for error, if compiler finds any error then it will
report it.

2. User has to go back to the source program and edit the program to correct the errors.

3. After editing and saving the program, It is compiled again to check for any errors.

4. If program is error-free then program is linked with appropriate libraries.

Step 4: Linking Libraries

1. The program is linked with included header files.

2. The program is linked with other libraries.

3. The process of linking the source program with libraries and header files is achieved using
a software called Linker.

Step 5: Error Checking

1. Once the program is compiled and linked, an executable “.exe” file is generated. The
program is executed using this “.exe” file. The user has to thoroughly test the program for
different input combinations to identify and 33nalyse if there are any runtime errors (such as
divide by 0).

2. If there have been any run time errors then the programmer has to check the code and find
a solution to overcome the run time error. The program has to be tested again until it is error
free.
 Figure 2.2 Basic execution flow of a C program

2.3Variables
A variable is a name given to a storage area that our programs can manipulate. Each
variable in C has a specific type, which determines the size and layout of the variable’s memory;
the range of values that can be stored within that memory; and the set of operations that can be
applied to the variable.The name of a variable can be composed of letters, digits, and the
underscore character. It must begin with either a letter or an underscore. Upper and lowercase
letters are distinct because C is case-sensitive.
Syntax
 Data_type variable_list;

Here, type must be a valid C data type including char, int, float, double, bool, or any user-
defined object; and variable_list may consist of one or more identifier names separated by
commas.
Example:
int I;
float weight;
char section;
here the data types in the above three declarations are int for type integer, float for the type
real and char for character data type are declared using the keywords. The variable names are “i”,
“weight” and “section”.

Rules for naming a variable in C

1. A variable name can have letters (both uppercase and lowercase letters), digits and
underscore only.
2. The first letter of a variable should be either a letter or an underscore. However, it is
discouraged to start variable name with an underscore. It is because variable name that
starts with an underscore can conflict with system name and may cause error.
3. There is no rule on how long a variable can be. However, only the first 31 characters of a
variable are checked by the compiler. So, the first 31 letters of two variables in a program
should be different.

2.4 Constants/Literals
A constant is a value or an identifier whose value cannot be altered in a program. An
identifier also can be defined as a constant.
example
const double PI = 3.14

2.5 Operators

Arithmetic Operators
An arithmetic operator performs mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction and
multiplication on numerical values (constants and variables).

Operator Meaning of Operator

 + addition or unary plus

- subtraction or unary minus

* multiplication

/ division

% remainder after division( modulo division)

Examples of using arithmetic operators:

Assume two integer variables a and b with values 5 and 14 respectively.
An expression a + b results in 5+14 = 19
An expression b/a results in a quotient 14/5 = 2 (result is 2 and not 2.8 because we are dividing
two integers and the result is also an integer)
An expression b % a results in a remainder 14 % 5 = 4
An expression a*b results in 5*14 = 70
An expression a-b results in 5-14 = -9
Sample program:
void main()
{
int a, b, result;
printf(“Enter the values of a and b \n”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
result=a+b;
printf(“The sum of two numbers is %d”,c);
result=a+b;
printf(“The sum of two numbers is %d”,c);
result=a+b;
printf(“The sum of two numbers is %d”,c);
result=a+b;
printf(“The sum of two numbers is %d”,c);
result=a+b;
printf(“The sum of two numbers is %d”,c);
}
Increment and decrement operators
C programming has two operators increment ++ and decrement -- to change the value of
an operand (constant or variable) by 1. Increment ++ increases the value by 1 whereas decrement
-- decreases the value by 1. These two operators are unary operators, meaning they only operate
on a single operand.
Example

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 10, b = 100;
float c = 10.5, d = 100.5;
printf("++a = %d \n", ++a);
printf("--b = %d \n", --b);
printf("++c = %f \n", ++c);
printf("--d = %f \n", --d);
return 0;
}
Output
++a = 11
--b = 99
++c = 11.500000
++d = 99.500000

++a refers to pre increment operator. The value of “a” is incremented by 1 before the statement is
executed. Similarly C programming also has post increment operators such as a++ and a--.
The value of a gets incremented by 1 after the execution of the statement.
Example:

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
// program to demonstrate pre and post increment operators
int a=5;
printf("value of a before increment is %d \n",a++);
// increment within printf() does not get reflected in that printf() statement and output a=5
a++;
printf("Value of a after incrementing is %d \n",a);
}
/* output
value of a before increment is 5
Value of a after incrementing is 7
*/

Assignment Operators
An assignment operator is used for assigning a value to a variable. The assignment operator is =
Operator Example Same as
= a=b a=b
+= a += b a = a+b
-= a -= b a = a-b
*= a *= b a = a*b
/= a /= b a = a/b
%= a %= b a = a%b

Example Program:
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;// program to demonstrate pre and post increment operators
a=5;
b=3;
//sum
a+=b;
printf("Sum a+=b is %d \n",a);

a=5;
a*=b;
printf("Sum a*=b is %d \n",a);

a=5;
a/=b;
printf("Sum a/=b is %d \n",a);

a=5;
a%=b;
printf("Sum a mod b is %d \n",a);

a=5;
a-=b;
printf("Sum a-=b is %d \n",a);
}
/* Output
Sum a+=b is 8
Sum a*=b is 15
Sum a/=b is 1
Sum a mod b is 2
Sum a-=b is 2

*/

Relational Operators
A relational operator checks the relationship between two operands. If the relation is true,
it returns 1; if the relation is false, it returns value 0.Relational operators are used in decision
making and loops.

Operator Meaning of Operator Example

== Equal to 5 == 3 returns 0
> Greater than 5 > 3 returns 1
< Less than 5 < 3 returns 0
!= Not equal to 5 != 3 returns 1
>= Greater than or equal to 5 >= 3 returns 1
<= Less than or equal to 5 <= 3 return 0
Logical Operators
An expression containing logical operator returns either 0 or 1 depending upon whether
expression results true or false. Logical operators are commonly used in decision making in C
programming.
Operator Meaning of Operator Example
&& Logial AND. True only if all If c = 5 and d = 2 then, expression ((c = 5)
operands are true && (d > 5)) equals to 0.
|| Logical OR. True only if either one If c = 5 and d = 2 then, expression ((c == 5)
operand is true || (d > 5)) equals to 1.
! Logical NOT. True only if the If c = 5 then, expression! (c == 5) equals to
operand is 0 0.

Bitwise Operators
During computation, mathematical operations like: addition, subtraction, addition and
division are converted to bit-level which makes processing faster and saves power. Bitwise
operators are used in C programming to perform bit-level operations.
Operators Meaning of operators
& Bitwise AND
 | Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
~ Bitwise complement
<< Shift left
>> Shift right

The sizeof operator

The sizeof is an unary operator which returns the size of data (constant, variables, array,
structure etc).
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a, e[10];
float b;
double c;
char d;
printf("Size of int=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(a));
printf("Size of float=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(b));
printf("Size of double=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(c));
printf("Size of char=%lu byte\n",sizeof(d));
printf("Size of integer type array having 10 elements = %lu bytes\n", sizeof(e));
return 0;
}
Output
Size of int = 4 bytes
Size of float = 4 bytes
Size of double = 8 bytes
Size of char = 1 byte
Size of integer type array having 10 elements = 40 bytes

Ternary Operator (?:)

A conditional operator is a ternary operator, that is, it works on 3 operands.
Syntax
conditionalExpression ?expression1 : expression2

Explanation
 The first expression conditionalExpression is evaluated first. This expression evaluates to
1 if it's true and evaluates to 0 if it's false.
  If conditionalExpression is true, expression1 is evaluated.
 If conditionalExpression is false, expression2 is evaluated.

2.6 Input / Output statements

scanf() – Input statement

 This function is usually used as an input statement.
 The format string must be a text enclosed in double quotes. It contains the information for
interpreting the entire data for connecting it into internal representation in memory.
o Example: integer (%d), float (%f), character (%c) or string (%s)
 The argument list contains a list of variables each proceeded by the address list and
separated by comma.
 The number of argument is not fixed; however corresponding to each argument there
should be a format specifier. Inside the format string the number of argument
should tally with the number of format specifier.
Syntax

scanf(“format string”, argument list);

printf () – Output statement

This function is used as an output statement.
Syntax
printf(“format string”, argument list);

Format specifiers in C

type Qualifying Input Type of

argument

c Single character: Reads the next character. If a width different from 1 char *
is specified, the function reads width characters and stores them in the
successive locations of the array passed as argument. No null character
is appended at the end.

d Decimal integer: Number optionally preceded with a + or - sign int *

 e, E, Floating point: Decimal number containing a decimal point, optionally float *
f, g, G proceeded by a + or - sign and optionally followed by the e or E
character and a decimal number. Two examples of valid entries are -
732.103 and 7.12e4

o Octal Integer: int *

s String of characters. This will read subsequent characters until a char *

whitespace is found (whitespace characters are considered to be blank,
newline and tab).

u Unsigned decimal integer. unsigned int

*

x, X Hexadecimal Integer int *

Escape sequences in C
Escape sequence Meaning
\n New line
\t Tab
\b Back space
\a Bell
\o Null character
\? To print question mark
\\ To print slash
\’ To print single quote
\” To print double quote

2.7 Selection statements

C has two types of selection statements

o if statement
o switch statement.
ifstatement
Syntax:
 if (<expression)>
<statement 1>

Explanation
The if statement evaluates the test expression inside the parenthesis.If the test expression
is evaluated to true (nonzero), statements inside the body of if is executed.If the test expression is
evaluated to false (0), a statement inside the body of if is skipped from execution. The flow of
work for if statement is as follows:

if-else statement
It is the basic form where the if statement evaluate a test condition and direct program
execution depending on the result of that evaluation.
Syntax:

if (<expression)>
<statement 1>
else
<statement 2>

Explanation
In if statement, if the <expression> in parentheses is nonzero (true), control passes
to <statement1>. If the else clause is present and the <expression> is zero (false), control will pass
to <statement2>. The else <statement2> part is optional and, if absent, a false <expression> will
simply result in skipping over the <statement1>. The flow of work for if statement is as follows:
 Nested if...else statement
if (testExpression1)
Syntax
{
// statements to be executed if testExpression1 is true
}
else if (testExpression2)
{
// statements to be executed if testExpression1 is false and testExpression2 is true
}
else if (testExpression 3)
{
// statements to be executed if testExpression1 and testExpression2 is false and testExpression3 is true
}
.
.
else
{
// statements to be executed if all test expressions are false
}
 The if...else statement executes two different codes depending upon whether the test
expression is true or false. Sometimes, a choice has to be made from more than 2 possibilities.The
nested if...else statement allows you to check for multiple test expressions and execute different
codes for more than two conditions.

switch statement
This is another form of the multi way decision. It is well structured, but can only be used in
certain cases where;
 Only one variable is tested, all branches must depend on the value of that variable and the
variable must be an integral type. (int, long, short or char).
 Each possible value of the variable can control a single branch. A final, catch all, default
branch may optionally be used to trap all unspecified cases.
Syntax:

switch (n)

case constant1:

// code to be executed if n is equal to constant1;

break;

case constant2:

// code to be executed if n is equal to constant2;

break;

default:

// code to be executed if n doesn't match any constant

Explanation
 The switch statement causes control to be transferred to one of several statements
depending on the value of an expression, which must have integral type. The substatement
controlled by a switch is typically compound. Any statement within the substatement may be
labeled with one or more case labels, which consist of the keyword case followed by a constant
expression and then a colon (:). The work flow of switch case statement is as follows:

2.7 Loops
Looping is a way by which we can execute any some set of statements more than one times
continuously .In c there are mainly three types of loops are use :
 while Loop
 do while Loop
 for Loop
while Loop
Syntax

Initialization
while ( <expression> )
{
<Statement1>
<Statement2>
<Statement3>
}
The most basic loop in C is the while loop. A while loop has one control expression, and executes
as long as that expression is true. The while loops works in the following way:

FALSE
test condition

TRUE
continue
w ith next
iteration
statement body

end of statement

Loops generally consist of two parts: one or more control expressions which control the
execution of the loop, and the body, which is the statement or set of statements which is executed
over and over.

do while Loop
Syntax

Initialization
do
{
<Statement1>
<Statement2>
<Statement3>
}while( <expression> )

Explanation
This is very similar to the while loop except that the test occurs at the end of the loop body.
This guarantees that the loop is executed at least once before continuing. Such a setup is frequently
used where data is to be read. The test then verifies the data, and loops back to read again if it was
unacceptable.
 statement body

continue
w ith next
iteration
TRUE
test condition

FALSE

end of statement

for loop
Syntax

for ( <initialization> ; <condition> ; <increment / decrement> )

<statement>

Explanation
initialisation :- this is usually an assignment to set a loop counter variable for example.
condition :- determines when loop will terminate.
increment :- defines how the loop control variable will change each time the loop is executed.
statement body :- can be a single statement, no statement or a block of statements.
The for statement executes as follows :-

initialisation

FALSE
test condition

TRUE
continue
w ith next
iteration
statement body

increment

end of statement

Conditional Operator :- ?:
Syntax

condition ? expr_1 : expr_2 ;

This is a special shorthand operator in C and replaces the following segment

if ( condition )
expr_1 ;
else
expr_2 ;
Explanation

The ?: operator is a ternary operator in that it requires three arguments. One of the
advantages of the ?: operator is that it reduces simple conditions to one simple line of code which
can be thrown unobtrusively into a larger section of code.

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;// program to demonstrate pre and post increment operators
a=5;
b=3;
printf("%d",a>b?a:b);
}
The output of the above program is 5. The conditional operator ?: is used within the printf(). If a>b
is true then the value of “a” is printed, else the value of “b” is printed. Since a>b is true the output
value 5 gets printed on executing this program.
break statement
It is sometimes desirable to skip some statements inside the loop or terminate the loop
immediately without checking the test expression.The break statement terminates the loop
(for, while and do..while) immediately when it is encountered. The break statement can be used
with decision making statement such as if..else
Syntax
break;

workflow of break statement

How break statement works?

continue statement
The continue statement skips some statements inside the loop. The continue statement is
used with decision making statement such as if...else.
syntax
continue;

How continue statement works?