Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers

 Explain the third law of thermodynamics.

The third law states that 'As a system approaches absolute zero, the entropy of the system
approaches a minimum value'.
 What is entropy?
Entropy is a measure of disorderliness. It explains the system's closeness to equilibrium.
 What is Gibbs free energy?
It is the available energy or the greatest amount of mechanical work done by a system at
constant temperature and pressure.
 At what temperature does water have maximum density?
At 4 deg C the density of water is 1000 kg/cu.m.
 What is an isochoric process?
It is a thermodynamic process at constant volume. Also called isovolumetric process
 What is a CSTR and what are its basic assumptions?
Continuous Stirred tank Reactor. Assumptions are steady state, constant density, constant
temperature, one irreversible first-order reaction.
 List the advantages and disadvantages of a PFR.
Advantages: Continuous operation, high conversion rate, less cost for operation.
Disadvantages: temperature gradients, high maintenance cost.
 Explain the functioning of a three-way catalytic converter.
Carbon monoxide oxidation, Nitrogen oxide reduction, uncombusted hydrocarbon oxidation.
 Explain global warming from a common man's and an engineer's perspective.
In a common man's perspective, the increase in world temperatures is global warming. In an
engineer's perspective, it is the average temperature increase in the surface temperature of the
earth, mainly due to increased concentration of greenhouse gases. The greenhouse gases
capture the heat radiated by the earth, inside the atmosphere, enabling the increase in
temperature.
 What is carbon sequestration?
A technique for capturing carbon dioxide for a long term in order to reduce its effects on global
warming.
 What are the greenhouse gases in earth's atmosphere?
Water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide and CFC.
 Define octane number.
It is the resistance to detonation of a fuel in a spark ignition engine compared to the isooctane-
n-heptane mixture.
 Explain the working of a spray condenser
A spray condenser is used for the condensation of humid water vapor by direct contact with
water. The inlet water is at a temperature less than the dew point of air in the chamber.
 How does a cyclone separator work?
It works as gas-solid separation equipment using vortex formation.
 Define viscosity.
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to shear stress.
 What is critical radius of insulation?
The critical radius of insulation is the thickness of an insulation that does not affect the
convection resistance. It is the ratio of the thermal conductivity of the insulator to the
convection heat transfer coefficient.
 What is a black body?
An ideal object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiations.
Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

1 :: Is there any way to remove residual product left in pipes after a batch
operation?
OEG Company in Osaka, Japan commercialized a device called Pushkun that runs through
pipes and "pushes" out left over product. The system is particularly valuable in batch
operations where product recovery is chief concern. The manufacturer claims that at one
installation, the system paid for itself in four months through product recovery. System costs
depend on the scale of the system, but are typically around $10,000 US (1998).
2 :: What particle sizes are electrostatic precipitators used to remove?
A. Duprey conducted testing on an electrostatic precipitator in a pulp mill. The results were
published in a National Air Pollution Control Administration report called "Compilation of air
Pollutant Emission Factors�.
3 :: What are flameless oxidizers?
Flameless oxidizers are used to treat volatile organic compounds (VOC) and liquid organic
streams. Traditionally, these types of streams were combusted to break down the molecules.
The disadvantage of this treatment method was the formation of NOx. Flameless oxidizers
use electrically heated ceramic packing and a high velocity introduction system to initiate the
destruction of the organic compounds into carbon dioxide and water. Once this oxidation
reaction begins, it continues via self-perpetuation. Capital cost for such systems are usually
about 25% less than traditional combustion systems and capacities can range from 250 to
40,000 SCFM (standard cubic feet per minute). Thermatrix Inc. is the pioneer for this
technology. Visit their website below.
4 :: Are there any special considerations to be taken into account for combusting
ammonia?
The heat of combustion of ammonia is 8,000 Btu per pound. There is no reason why it
cannot be combusted with or without auxiliary fuel. However, ammonia combustion does
result in a flue gas having a high concentration of NOx and the design of a combustion
chamber for ammonia requires special conditions to mitigate or reduce the level of NOx
emissions.
5 :: What are some common causes of control valve noise?
If you have excessive pressure drop across the control valve and the downstream pressure
is low enough to cause the liquid to flash, a great deal of noise in the control valve can
result. Excessive damage can be done as well. This is a common problem at low flows.
Review the design information on the valve and the process to see if low flow may be the
problem. If the valve is incorrectly sized the noise will be apparent from the day of
installation. If flows have recently been changed, the valve may have been designed
correctly at the time, but is too large for current operation.

6 :: How much water is lost through a commercial cooling tower system with a
throughput of about 600 GPM?
This question depends on many factors. It sounds like the tower is small. A rule of thumb
suggests that the tower will see an evaporation loss of about 0.1% of the circulation flowrate
for each Fahrenheit degree of cooling. Other losses include drift losses (probably very small
for your tower) and blow down. Blow down is simply a purge of tower water to prohibit the
buildup of solids.
7 :: What is the difference between CFM (cubic feet per minute) and SCFM
(standard cubic feet per minute)?
CFM and SCFM are both measures of flow rate. CFM might refer to either the flow rate of a
gas or a liquid, whereas SCFM refers only to the flow rate of a gas. The same mass flow rate
of a gas (i.e., lbs/minute) is equivalent to various volumetric flow rates (i.e., CFM) depending
upon the gas pressure and temperature. Thus, when gas flow rates are specified, it is very
important to specify at what pressure and temperature the gas was measured. When the gas
flow rate is specified as SCFM, it means that the flow rate was measured at a set of standard
pressure and temperature conditions.
In the USA, the most common set of standard conditions used in industry is 60 degrees
Fahrenheit and one atmosphere of pressure. Note that we have stressed most common,
because there are other standard conditions that may be used. It is always best to spell out
what standard conditions are being used (i.e., 1200 SCFM at 60 degrees F and 1
atmosphere pressure). When gas flows are expressed simply as CFM, the reader is can only
speculate as to what gas temperature and pressure apply to that flow rate ... and, because of
that, the CFM flow rate cannot be converted to a mass flow rate
8 :: What is the maximum recommended velocity for steam in a plant pipe
network?
High-pressure steam should be limited to about 150 ft/s and low-pressure steam should be
limited to about 100 ft/s.
9 :: What is the maximum recommend pipe velocity for dry and wet gases?
For dry gases, you should design for a velocity of about 100 ft/s while wet gases should be
limited to about 60 ft/s.
10 :: How instrument air is continually supplied in process plant?
The instrument air supply is guaranteed by dedicated air supply with -40 oC dew point. Apart
from this there is about 20 to 30 minutes of back up provided for emergencies like power
failure, instrument air-generation failure, etc.

11 :: How can you keep our seawater used for heat rejection clean before entering
our heat exchangers?
Seawater is used as a cooling agent in condensers and coolers. Intermittent injection of
chlorine gas is used to eliminate marine growth. The system is a once through type. The
band screens before the suction of the pumps are supposed to eliminate scales and other
suspended materials. The band screens are not properly functioning. Cooling water flow is
about 2.6 million gallons per hour.
The prescreening and mobile screens are not a sufficient protection for the recirculating
water. This is a very common problem. In clean salt water the biological grow in the cooling
water pipes is the main problem (mussels, barnacle, algae, etc.). After the life cycle is
finished they die and blocking the condenser tubes. To solve this debris problems use self-
cleaning Debris Filters (DF) directly installed in front of the waterbox of the heat exchangers.
12 :: What are some guidelines for designing for liquid and gas velocities in
process plant piping?
For normal process plant design liquid pump discharges, look for velocities in the range 5-7
ft/sec. probably not a bad idea to keep design vapor velocities below 125 ft/sec. These
guidelines might be applied by an engineering company for design. If you are looking at plant
operation, it is common to find velocities in the 9-12 ft/sec range. Erosion problems can also
complicate the answer to this question. Erosion is highly dependent on the nature of the
fluid. For example, 98% H2SO4 is not corrosive to carbon steel pipe, however it very erosive
at "normal design" velocities. Design criteria for 98% H2SO4 might be 0.70 ft/sec
MAXIMUM. However, it is also well known that if the same 98% H2SO4 has a little
emulsified hydrocarbon, it is substantially less erosive.
13 :: Is it advisable to cool a fin fan by spraying demineralized water on it?
Fin fan has carbon steel tubes with aluminum fins RESPONSE In a similar service, the fin
fan suffered external corrosion when spraying it with demin water. The salt and oxygen in the
air corrodes the air-cooler.
The gas is piped normally from an outside cylinder storage facility to a process control panel
at approximately 60 psig. The panel-output chlorine pressure is 15 psig and a flow rate of
approximately 0.03 scfm. Occasionally the flow control devices in the process panel are
contaminated by what appears to be liquid chlorine. It seems that temperature variations in
the iron transport pipe may have some influence on the liquid formation.
The condensation temperature of gaseous chlorine at 65 psig is 54 deg F. Thus, if your

transport line is long, it is quite likely that ambient temperatures lower than 54 deg F could
result in cooling the line enough to cause condensation of the chlorine gas. If you lower the
transport pressure to 25 psig, the condensation temperature would be 24 deg F ..., which
should significantly lower the likelihood of cold ambient temperature causing the gas to
condense.
14 :: What is a good method of steam tracing large vessels?
One common approach to heat tracing projects is a "platecoil" concept. If you are unfamiliar
with this type of equipment, you should visit one of the links below. Depending on your
tank(s) or application, the platecoil can easily steam trace (or heat-up) your process. The
method of application is simple and routinely done by sub-contractors. New heat-tracing
cements have made this method even more efficient and less costly than what we had in the
past. The platecoils can be pre-formed to fit your tank's cylindrical shell or elliptical heads.
Flat surfaces are very easy.
Platecoils are a quick, low-cost, and safe installation. Most platecoils are found in stock, off-
the-shelf in stainless construction. I have used them to winterize tanks as well as to reduce
viscosities in heavy polyols and other high molecular weight compounds while processing or
during storage. One of the best features of this type of tracing is that it is not invasive --
depending on the application, you may be able to install the platecoils while the tank is
operating. Still another interesting feature is that you can use them as an assembly inside of
tanks --- as internal heaters. You can use steam, Dowtherm, hot oil or process streams
inside the coils. You can easily insulate over them to conserve heat or to protect personnel.
Another resource would be a publication by Spirax Sarco (link below). This book contains a
lot of information on steam tracing, best practices, traps, regulating valves.
15 :: How can you control the pH level in our cooling water with respect to
ammonia contamination?
A cooling tower in a urea manufacturing facility is experiencing very high ammonia levels
(200 to 300 ppm) in the cooling water. The ammonia level fluctuates with wind direction.
RESPONSE if your cooling water has 200-300 ppm of ammonia, you have a problem, which
must be solved. You may have a water-cooled process heat exchanger, which has a tube
leak that is leaking ammonia into your cooling water. Or the ambient air in your urea plant
has a significant ammonia content (from various fugitive leak sources such as piping flanges,
control valve packing glands, pump and compressor seals, etc.) and when the wind blows
that ambient air into the cooling tower, the ammonia is absorbed in the cooling water.
In either event, you have an unhealthy situation, which must be corrected. Contacting a
company that is specialized in these types of water treatment problems may be a wise
decision (Ex/ Nalco).

16 :: We have some pieces of metals that have been "powder coated", how does
that work?
Powder coatings are similar to paint, but they are usually much more durable. Rather than
adding a solvent to the pigments and resins in paint, as is typically the case, powder
coatings are applied to the surface in a fine granular form. They are typically sprayed on so
that they stick to the surface. Once the surface has been sufficiently spray coated, the piece
is baked at high temperatures, and the pigment and resins pieces melt and form a durable,
color layer.
17 :: What industries require filtered compressed air?
Almost every chemical process, power plant food processing etc. plant has some type of air-
operated device... from control valves to air operated pumps... and all have an air
compressor delivering filtered air.
18 :: What are some good tank mixing rules of thumb?
For fluid with viscosities under 10,000 Cp, baffles are highly recommended. There should be
four baffles, 90 degrees apart. The baffles should be 1/12th the tank diameter in width and
should be spaced off the wall by 1/5th the baffle width. The off- wall spacing helps to
eliminate dead zones. If baffles are used, the mixer should be mounted in the vertical
position in the center of the tank. If baffles are not used, the mixer should be mounted on an
angle, ~15 degrees to the right and positioned off center. This breaks up the symmetry of the
tank and simulates baffles although not nearly as good as baffles.
The purpose of baffles is to prevent solid body rotation all points in the tank are moving at
the same angular velocity and no top to bottom turnover. The formation of a large central
vortex is a characteristic of solid body rotation. However, small vortices that travel around
the fluid surface, collapse, and reform are more a function of the level of agitation.
19 :: What is a good source of equations for calculating discharge flowrates from
accidental releases?
If you are interested in the calculation of discharge flow rates from accidental releases, read
the online technical article "Source Terms for Accidental Discharge Flow" at the website
below. It provides the equations used for a variety of common types of accidental gas or
liquid releases and explains how to use them.
20 :: What is the definition of "good" cooling tower water?
Generally speaking, cooling tower water should have a pH between 6 and 8, a chloride
content no more than 750 ppm, a sulfate content (SO4) below 1200 ppm, and a sodium
bicarbonate (NaHCO3) content below 200 ppm. Additionally, cooling tower water should not
be heated past 120 �F to avoid plating out of treatment chemicals in process coolers.
In addition, if free chlorine is used for biological growth control, it should be added
intermittently with a free residual not to exceed 1 ppm and this should be maintained for
short periods.

21 :: When specifying a cooling tower, should I look up historic wet bulb
temperatures for my area or should I take measurements?
If this is a new installation, look up historical wet bulb temperatures for area and be sure to
report them to the cooling tower manufacturer as "ambient wet bulb temperatures". The
manufacturer will adjust this temperature accordingly to estimate an "entering wet bulb
temperature".
If you have an existing tower that is to be replaced, take several wet bulb temperature
measurements near the air inlet during the hottest months. Report this as the "entering wet
bulb temperature" to the tower manufacturer.
The difference between the ambient and the entering wet bulb temperatures is to account for
wet recirculation from the tower exit back to the tower entrance. The entering wet bulb
temperature always higher than the ambient wet bulb temperature.
22 :: IS there a rule of thumb to estimate the footprint of a cooling tower during
design phase?
Over the years, this one has seemed to stand the test of time:
Every million Btu/h of tower capacity will require approximately 1000 ft2 of cooling tower
basin area.
23 :: What could be a possible cause for sudden foaming in a cooling tower?
Assuming that no other changes have been made, especially to the water treatment
chemicals, the most common outcome to this mystery is a leaking heat exchanger.
Begin a systematic check of all of the heat exchangers that use the cooling tower water and
inspect them thoroughly for leaks. Even small amounts of some chemicals can cause big
foaming problems in the tower. In addition, not all of these components will set off a
conductivity alarm.
24 :: What factors should be compared when evaluating cooling tower bids?
Examining the following factors should allow for a reasonable evaluation of cooling towers:
1) Purchased cost
2) Installed cost
3) Fan energy consumption
4) Pump energy consumption
5) Water use
6) Water treatment costs
7) Expected maintenance costs
8) Worker safety requirements
9) Environmental safety
10) Expected service life

25 :: For a heat exchanger, will the overall heat transfer coefficient increase along
with an increase in LMTD (log mean temperature difference) around the unit?
The overall heat transfer coefficient is generally weakly dependent on temperature. As the
temperatures of the fluids change, the degree to which the overall heat transfer coefficient
will be affected depends on the sensitivity of the fluid's viscosity to temperature. If both fluids
are water, for example, the overall heat transfer coefficient will not vary much with
temperature because water's viscosity does not change dramatically with temperature. If,
however, one of the fluids is oil which may have a viscosity of 1000 cP at 50 �F and 5 cP at
400 �F, then indeed the overall heat transfer coefficient would be much better at higher
temperatures since the oil side would be limiting. Realize that the overall heat transfer
coefficient is dictated by the local heat transfer coefficients and the wall resistances of the
heat exchanger. The local heat transfer coefficients are dictated by the fluid's physical
properties and the velocity of the fluid through the exchanger. So, for a given heat
exchanger, fluid flow rates, and characteristics of each fluid....the area of the exchanger and
the overall heat transfer coefficients are fixed (theoretically anyway....as the overall heat
transfer coefficient does vary slightly along the length of the exchanger with temperature as
I've noted and the U-value will decrease over time with fouling).

26 :: What is condensate lift?
This is a term that is usually used to indicate how much pressure is required to 'lift'
condensate from a steam trap or other device to it's destination at a condensate return line
or condensate vessel. The first image below shows a situation where a properly sized control
valve is used on a steam heater. During nominal operation, the utility steam undergoes a
nominal 10-25 psi pressure loss through the valve. For typical utility steam (150 psi or
higher), this can leave a pressure at the steam trap exit that is often adequate to lift the
condensate to its destination. For example, if the steam losses 20 psi through the valve and
another 15 psi through the heater and piping, that can leave up to 265 ft of head to push the
condensate to the header. In this case, there is little need for a condensate pump. On the
other hand, if the control is too large, it will only be a few percent open during normal
operation and the steam can undergo a pressure loss of 50-75 psi or even higher! In addition
to supplying terrible control for the heater, it also reduces the available head for condensate
lift. In this case, or if the steam supply pressure is relatively low, it may be necessary follow
the steam trap with a separation vessel and a condensate pump to push the condensate to
the return line.
27 :: What type of heat exchangers are most commonly used for a large-scale
plant-cooling loop using seawater as the utility?
Commonly known as a "secondary cooling loop" or SECOOL, a closed loop water system is
circulated through a processing plant near a sea. Process heat is transferred into the closed
loop water and then this water is circulated through heat exchangers to transfer (reject) the
heat to seawater. This is a hallmark plate and frame heat exchanger application. The higher
heat transfer coefficients that are available in plate and frames exchangers (PHEs) will
minimize the installed cost because the material of construction of choice it Grade 1 Titanium
(higher U-value means lower area). To combat pluggage the narrow passages in the
exchangers, the seawater is typically run through large automatic backflush strainers
designed especially for seawater. Periodically, these strainers will reverse flow and
"blowdown" debris to clear the strainer. This method has been used for many years with
great success.
28 :: Can condensate control in a reboiler cause water hammer problems?
This topic was recently discussed in our online forum. The short answer to this specific
question is..."not very often". It is very common to control reboilers on distillation columns via
this method. This is not to say that this control method is the best for any heat exchanger
using steam for heating. For example, if there is an appreciable degree of subcooling of the
condensate, the incoming steam can experience "collapse" (or thermal water hammer) when
it is exposed to the cool condensate. In reboilers, the process fluid is simply being vaporized
so little or no subcooling of the condensate takes place. This makes for a good opportunity
for condensate level control in a vertically oriented shell and tube reboiler. The level
controller is typically placed on a vessel that is installed in conjunction with the shell side of
the reboiler. This will allow for full condensate drainage (if necessary) and there is no need
to weld on the shell of the exchanger. (See graphic below) Reference: Cheresources
Message Board
29 :: Why is a vacuum breaker used on shell and tube heat exchangers that are
utilizing steam as the heating utility?
Vacuum breakers are often installed on the shell side (steam side) of shell and tube
exchangers to allow air to enter the shell in case of vacuum conditions developing inside the
shell. For an exchanger such as this, the shell side should already be rated for full vacuum
so the vacuum breaker is not a pressure (vacuum) relief device. Development of vacuum in
the shell could allow condensate to build in the unit and water hammer may result.
30 :: What is a barometric condenser?
Single-stage or multi-stage steam-jet-ejectors are often used to create a vacuum in a
process vessel. The exhaust from such ejector systems will contain steam (and perhaps
other condensable vapors) as well as non-condensable vapors. Such exhaust streams can
be routed into a "barometric condenser" which is a vertical vessel where the exhaust
streams are cooled and condensed by direct contact with downward flowing cold water
injected into the top of the vessel. The vessel is installed so that its bottom is at least 34 feet
(10.4 meters) above the ground, and the effluent cooling water and condensed vapors flow
through a 34-foot length of vertical pipe called a "barometric leg" into small tank called a
"hotwell". The "barometric leg" allows the effluent coolant and condensed vapors to exit no
matter what the vacuum is in the process vessel. Such a system is called a "barometric
condenser". The non-condensable vapors are withdrawn from the top of the condenser by
using a vacuum pump or perhaps a small steam ejector. The effluent coolant and condensed
vapors are removed from the hotwell with a pump

31 :: What is the best way to control an oversized, horizontally oriented shell and
tube steam heater?
A used shell and tube heat exchanger is to be used in steam heating duty. The heat
exchanger is larger than necessary and the control scheme to be employed is being
investigated. The steam to be used will be 65 psia-saturated steams. The process fluid is a
liquid brine fluid. ANSWERS Two opinions were offered on this topic: A. The actual pressure
in the heater, while the steam is condensing is dependent on the condensing rate and the
overall dirty U. Tubes can be plugged to reduce the amount of heat transfer area, as long as
the process side (tube) velocity does not get too high. Calculate the needed area and then
the required steam flow rate. An orifice can be sized to control the steam flow rate; however,
at reduced loads the condenser may experience partial vacuum conditions so be sure that
the shell is rated for full vacuum. When this partial vacuum condition does occur, choked
flow will be experienced through the steam control valve. The Cv trim value would need to be
sized such that the choked flow does not exceed what is needed. This is tricky and requires
several trim size change outs.
32 :: Is it ever advantageous to use shells in series even though it may not be
necessary?
Usually you design for the least number of shells for an item. However, there are times when
it is more economical to add a shell in series to the minimum configuration. This will be when
there is a relatively low flow in the shell side and the shell stream has the lowest heat
transfer coefficient. This happens when the baffle spacing is close to the minimum. The
minimum for TEMA is (Shell I.D. /5). Then adding a shell in series gives a higher velocity and
heat transfer because of the smaller flow area in the smaller exchangers that are required.
33 :: What is some good advice for specifying allowable pressure drops in shell
and tube exchangers for heavy hydrocarbons?
Frequently process engineers specify 5 or 10 PSI for allowable pressure drop inside heat
exchanger tubing. For heavy liquids that have fouling characteristics, this is usually not
enough. There are cases where the fouling excludes using tabulators and using more than
the customary tube pressure drop is cost effective. This is especially true if there is a
relatively higher heat transfer coefficient on the outside of the tubing. The following example
illustrates how Allowable pressure drop can have a big effect on the surface calculation. A
propane chiller was cooling a gas treating liquid that had an average viscosity Of 7.5 cP. The
effect on the calculated surface was as follows: Allowable tube pressure drop Exchanger
surface 5 PSI 4012 Sq. Ft. 25 PSI 2104 Sq. Ft. 50 PSI 1419 Sq. Ft. You can see that using
25-PSI pressure drop reduced the surface by nearly one-half. This would result in a price
reduction for the heat exchanger of approximately 40%. This savings offset the cost of the
pumping power
34 :: What is a good approximation for the heat transfer coefficient of
hydrocarbons inside 3/4" tubes?
Use the following equation to estimate the heat transfer coefficient when liquid is flowing
inside 3/4 inch tubing: Hio = 150./sqrt(avg. viscosity) Where: Hio (BTU/ft2-hr-0F Viscosity
(cP) this is limited to a maximum viscosity of 3 cP
35 :: What is a good relation to use for calculating tube bundle diameters?
The following are equations for one tube pass bundle diameter when the tube count is
known or desired: 30 Deg. DS = 1.052 x pitch x SQRT(count) + tube O.D. 90 Deg. DS = 1.13
x pitch x SQRT(count) + tube O.D. Where: Count = Number of tubes DS = Bundle diameter
in inches Pitch = Tube spacing in inches

36 :: What effect does choking a vertical thermosiphon have on the heat transfer
rate?
Choking down on the channel outlet nozzle and piping reduces the circulation rate through a
heat exchanger. Since the tubeside heat-transfer rate depends on velocity, the heat transfer
is lower at reduced recirculation rates. A rule of thumb says that the inside flow area of the
channel outlet nozzle and piping should be the same as the flow area inside the tubing. Shell
Oil in an experimental study showed that a ratio of 0.7 in nozzle flow area/tube flow area
reduced the heat flux by 10%. A ratio of 0.4 cut the heat flux almost in half.
37 :: How can one quickly estimate the additional pressure drop to be introduced
with more tube passes?
When the calculated pressure drop inside the tubes is underutilized, the estimated pressure
drop with increased number of tube passes is new tube DP = DP x (NPASS/OPASS)3
Where NPASS = New number of tube passes. OPASS = Old number of tube passes this
would be a good estimate if advantage is not taken of the increase in heat transfer. Since the
increased number of tube passes gives a higher velocity and increases the calculated heat
transfer coefficient, the number of tubes to be used will decrease. Fewer tubes increase the
new pressure drop. For a better estimate of the new pressure drop, add 25% if the heat
transfer is all sensible heat. Source: Gulley Computer Associates
38 :: Can large temperature differences in vaporizers cause operational
problems?
Large temperature differences in heat exchangers where liquid is vaporized are a warning
flag. When the temperature differences reach a certain value, the cooler liquid can no longer
reach the heating surface because of a vapor film. This is called film boiling. In this condition,
the heat transfer deteriorates because of the lower thermal conductivity of the vapor. If a
design analysis shows that the temperature difference is close to causing film boiling, the
vaporizer should be started with the boiling side full of relatively cooler liquid. This way, you
do not start flashing the liquid. The liquid is slowly heated up to a more stable condition. If
the vaporizer is steam heated, the steam pressure should be reduced which will reduce the
temperature difference. With steam heating, take a close look at the design if the MTD is
over 90 0F this is close to the critical temperature difference where film boiling will start.
39 :: When should one be concerned with the tube wall temperature on the
cooling waterside of a shell and tube exchanger?
When designing heat exchangers where hot process streams are cooled with cooling water,
check the tube wall temperature. Hewitt says that where calcium carbonate may deposit
heat, transfer surface temperatures above 140 0F should be avoided. Corrosion effects
should also be considered at hot tube wall temperatures. As a rough rule of thumb, make
this check if the inlet process temperature is above 200 0F for light hydrocarbon liquids and
300-400 0F for heavy hydrocarbons. Consider using Aircoolers to bring the process fluid
temperature down before it enters the water-cooled exchanger.
40 :: When an expansion is joint needed on the shell side of a shell and tube heat
exchanger?
A fixed tube sheet exchanger does not have provision for expansion of the tubing when there
is a difference in metal temperature between the shell and tubing. When this temperature
difference reaches a certain point, an expansion joint in the shell is required to relieve the
stress. It takes a much lower metal temperature difference when the tube metal temperature
is hotter than the shell metal temperature to require an expansion joint. Typically, an all steel
exchanger can take a maximum of approximately 40-0F metal temperature difference when
the tube side is the hottest. When the shell side is the hottest, the maximum is typically 150
0F. Usually if an expansion joint is required, it is because the maximum allowable tube
Compressive stress has been exceeded. According to the TEMA procedure for evaluating
this stress, the compressive stress is a strong function of the unsupported tube span. This is
normally twice the baffle spacing. Source: Gulley Computer Associates

41 :: What kind of concerns is associated with temperature pinch points in
condensers?
Be extra careful when condensers are designed with a small pinch point. A pinch point is the
smallest temperature difference on a temperature vs heat content plot that shows both
streams. If the actual pressure is less than the process design operating pressure, there can
be a significant loss of heat transfer. This is especially true of fluids that have a relative flat
vapor pressure plot like ammonia or propane. For example: If an ammonia condenser is
designed for 247 PSIA operating pressure and the actual pressure is 5 PSI less and the
pinch point is 8 0F, there can be a 16% drop in heat transfer. Source: Gulley Computer
Associates
42 :: What factors go into designing the vapor space of kettle type reboiler?
The size of the kettle is determined by several factors. One factor is to provide enough space
to slow the vapor velocity down enough for nearly all the liquid droplets to fall back down by
gravity to the boiling surface. The amount of entrainment separation to design for depends
on the nature of the vapor destination. A distillation tower with a large disengaging space,
low tower efficiency, and high reflux rate does not require as much kettle vapor space as
normal. Normally the vapor outlet is centered over the bundle. Then the vapor comes from
two different directions as it approaches the outlet nozzle. Only in rare cases are these two
vapor streams equal in quantity. A simplification that has been extensively used is to assume
the highest vapor flow is 60% of the total. In one case, where this would cause an
undersized vapor space is when there is a much larger temperature difference at one end of
the kettle then the other. The minimum height of the vapor space is typically 8 inches. It is
higher for high heat flux kettles. Source: Gulley Computer Associates
43 :: Is there a quick rule-of-thumb to estimate a gas side heat-transfer rate inside
the tubes of a shell and tube heat exchanger?
If you need to estimate a gas heat transfer rate or see if a program is getting a reasonable
gas rate, use the following: h = 75 X Sq. Root(Op. pressure/100) The operating pressure is
expressed as absolute. This is for inside the tubes. The rate will be lower for the shell side or
if there is more than one exchanger. Source: Gulley Computer Associates
44 :: What are some good strategies for curing tube vibration in shell and tube
exchangers?
Most flow-induced vibration occurs with the tubes that pass through the baffle window of the
inlet zone. The unsupported lengths in the end zones are normally longer than, those in the
rest of the bundle. For 3/4 inch tubes, the unsupported length can be 4 to 5 feet. The cure for
removable bundles, where the vibration is not severe, is to stiffen the bundle. This can be
done by inserting metal slats or rods between the tubes. Normally this only needs to be done
with the first few tube rows. Another solution is to add a shell nozzle opposite the inlet to cut
the inlet fluid velocity in half. For non-removable bundles, this is the best solution. Adding a
distributor belt on the shell would be a very good solution if it were not so expensive. Source:
Gulley Computer Associates
45 :: What are some of the consequences of an undersized kettle type reboiler?
The effect will be a decrease in the boiling coefficient. A boiling coefficient depends on a
nucleate boiling component and a two-phase component that depends on the recirculation
rate. An undersized kettle will not have enough space at the sides of the bundle for good
recirculation. Another effect is high entrainment or even a two-phase mixture going back to
the tower. Source: Gulley Computer Associates

46 :: Are some heat transfer services more prone to tube vibration that others for
a shell and tube exchanger?
Bundle vibration can cause leaks due to tubes being cut at the baffle holes or tubes being
loosened at the tubesheet joint. There are services that are more likely to cause bundle
vibration than others are. The most likely service to cause vibration is a single-phase gas
operating at a pressure of 100 to 300 PSI. This is especially true if the baffle spacing is
greater than 18 inches and single segmental. Source: Gulley Computer Associates
47 :: Are there any alternatives to scraping a shell and tube if a capacity increase
will make the pressure drop across the exchanger too large?
When an increase in capacity will cause excessive pressure drop, you may not have to junk
the heat exchangers. A relatively inexpensive alteration is to reduce the number of tube
passes. Other possibilities are arranging the exchangers in parallel or using lowfins or other
special tubing. Source: Gulley Computer Associates
48 :: What is a good method of minimizing shell side pressure drop in a shell and
tube exchanger?
When shell pressure drop is critical and impingement protection is required, use rods or tube
protectors in top rows instead of a plate. These create less pressure drop and better
distribution than an impingement plate. An impengement plate causes an abrupt 90-degree
turn of the shell stream, which causes extra pressure drop. Source: Gulley Computer
Associates
49 :: Is there a difference in MTD (Mean Temperature Difference) between "E" and
"J" (Divided Flow) type shell and tube heat exchangers?
Divided flow (shell type J) does not have the same correction as the usual flow pattern (shell
type E). Thermal design program make this correction factor mistake. True, there is very little
difference at correction factors above 0.90. However, there is a difference at lower values.
For example, Equal outlet temperatures Shell type "E" correction Fn = 0.805 Shell type "J"
correction Fn = 0.775 Cold outlet 5F higher than hot outlet Shell type "E" correction Fn =
0.765 Shell type "J" correction Fn = 0.65 Contact us if you do not have MTD correction factor
charts for divided flow. TEMA has one chart for a single shell but it gives high values for the
above examples and it is hard to read in this range. Source: Gulley Computer Associates
50 :: How is plate heat exchangers used in an ammonia refrigeration system?
Plate heat exchangers are widely used in ammonia refrigeration systems, and they can be
much smaller than the equivalent tubular exchanger can. They work best flooded. A flooded
exchanger system needs a way to separate the liquid from the vapor. A typical system has a
vessel, which acts as knockout drum, accumulator, and header tank in one, along with the
heat exchanger. Liquid ammonia flows from the vessel to the exchanger, and liquid/vapor is
returned to the middle of the drum. Vapor is removed from the top of the drum. The
liquid/vapor mixture from the exchanger has a lower density than the liquid entering the
exchanger, so gravity provides the driving force to circulate the refrigerant

51 :: Is there a handy way to determine if a horizontal pipe is running full if the
flow rate is known?
If Q/d2.5 is greater than or equal to about 10.2, then the pipe is said to full. In this case, Q is
in GPM (U.S. Imperial gallons per minute) and d is in inches. Reference: Pocket Guide to
Chemical Engineering, ISBN: 0884153118
52 :: What are some factors to consider when trying choosing between a dry
screw compressor and an oil-flooded screw compressor?
Screw compressors utilize a pair of "meshing" helical screws to compress gases. These
types of compressors a generally appropriate for a flow range of 85-170 m3/h (3000-6000
acfm) and discharge pressures in the range of 2070-2760 kPa (300-400 psig). As the name
implies, dry screw compressor run dry while oil-flooded compressors use oil for bearing
lubrication as well as to seal the compression chamber. The oil also carries the heat from the
compression away from the compressor. This heat is typically rejected to an external heat
exchanger. Some factors to consider when choosing between the two types of screw
compressors include
Is the process gas compatible with the oil? If the answer is no, use dry type Does the
process gas have to be oil free? If the answer is yes, use dry type is efficiency the top
priority. If the answer is yes, use oil-flooded type Are you looking to minimize shaft-seal
leakage. If the answer is yes, use oil-flooded type Are there any liquids in the incoming gas.
If the answer is yes, use oil-flooded type Does the gas contain small particulate matter? If
the answer is yes, use dry type these and other guidelines can help in choosing between the
two types of screw compressors.
53 :: Under what circumstances are vortex flowmeters the most accurate?
The accuracy of vortex flowmeters can be within 1% so long as they're being operating
within their recommended flow range, have a steady stream, and you have 10 pipe
diameters of straight pipe behind the in front of the flowmeters. Outside of these parameters,
these flowmeters are not accurate.
54 :: What are the advantages and disadvantages of using gear pumps?
Gear pumps are a type of positive displacement pump that are appropriate for pumping
relatively high pressures and low capacities. Advantages include the ability to handle a wide
range of viscosities, less sensitivity to cavitation (than centrifugal style pumps), relatively
simple to maintain and rebuild. Disadvantages can include a limited array of materials of
construction due to tight tolerances required, high shear placed on the liquid, and the fluid
must be free of abrasives. Also, note that gear pumps must be controlled via the motor
speed. Throttling the discharge is not an acceptable means of control.
55 :: How can one estimate how the friction factor changes in heat exchanger
tubes with a change in temperature?
Seider and Tate recommended the following for determine friction factors inside heat
exchanger tubes with varying temperatures: First, determine the average, bulk mean
temperature in the processing line. For example if the fluid enters the line at 300 �C and
leaves at 280 �C, use 290 �C to determine the physical properties and friction factors. As
for corrections: Laminar Flow If the liquid is cooling, the friction factor obtained from the
mean temperature and bulk properties is divided by (bulk viscosity/wall viscosity)0.23 and for
heating, it's divided by (bulk viscosity/wall viscosity)0.38. Here, the bulk and wall viscosity
are determined at the mean temperature over the length of the line. Turbulent Flow If the
liquid is cooling, the friction factor obtained from the mean temperature and bulk properties is
divided by (bulk viscosity/wall viscosity)0.11 and for heating, it's divided by (bulk
viscosity/wall viscosity)0.17.

56 :: What type of pump may be appropriate for a liquid near saturation, a low flow
rate, and very limited NPSHa (net positive suction head available)?
This application is nearly perfect for a turbine regenerative type of pump. Factors that
immediately identify your application and pump type are the small flowrate, low NPSHa, and
high temperature. The regenerative turbine was specifically developed for these conditions
and one more: high discharge pressures. The high discharge pressure may not be
necessary, but the regenerative turbine can give you an NPSHr of 0.5 feet with ease. They
are particularly suited to saturated boiler feed water and your application is similar, albeit not
in pressure. You can visit the site below to learn more about these types of pumps.
57 :: What type of flow measurement devices is best for slurries?
Any device that restricts the flow to perform measurements is not recommended for slurries.
These devices include orifices and dampeners. These devices can lead to liquid/solid
separation and they can lead to excessive erosion. Instead, measuring devices that do not
restrict the flow should be used. One example of such a device is the magnetic flow meter.
58 :: Should slurry pipes be sloped during horizontal runs?
If possible, slurry lines should indeed be sloped. Generally, to slope the pipes 1/2 inches for
every 10 feet of pipe is recommended.
59 :: What is the best way to configure a bypass line in slurry services?
Bypass lines should be placed ABOVE the control valve so that the slurry cannot settle out
and build up in the line during bypass.
60 :: What types of valves are recommended for slurry services?
Typically straight-through diaphragm, clamp or pinch, and full-port ball valves with cavity
fillers are the preferred type of slurry valves. In general, gate, needle, and globe valves are
NOT recommended for slurry services.

61 :: What is a good estimate for the absolute roughness for epoxy lined carbon
steel pipe?
The specific roughness for welded, seamless steel is .0002 ft. PVC has a specific roughness
of 0.000005 ft. You may also want to consider using the Hazen-Williams formula, which lists
a coefficient of 130-140 for cement-lined cast iron piping. You need to decide which is more
conservative for your application.
62 :: How can you determine the largest impeller that a pump can handle?
The motor amperage should be measured in the field with the pump discharge valve wide
open. Subtract about 10% from the pumps maximum rated amperage. Then the maximum
impeller size can be determined from A2 = A1 (d2/d1)3 A2 = Maximum amperage minus
10% A1 = Current operating amperage d2 = Maximum impeller diameter d1 = Current
impeller diameter
63 :: What is the significance of the minimum flow required by a pump?
The minimum flow that a pump requires describes the flow below which the pump will
experience what is called "shutoff". At shutoff, most of the pump's horsepower or work is
converted to heat that can vaporize the fluid and cause cavitations that will severely damage
the pump. The minimum flow of a pump is particularly important in the design of boiler feed
pumps where the fluid is near its boiling point.
64 :: How can you estimate the efficiency of a pump?
The following method, developed by M.W. Kellogg, gives results within 3.5% of most
manufacturers� curves. Eff % = 80-0.2855H+3.78x10-4HF-2.23x10-7HF2+5.39x10-4H2-
6.39x10-7H2F+4.0x10-10H2F2 H = Developed head, ft F = Flow in GPM (gallons per
minute) Applicable for heads from 50 to 300 ft and flows from 100 to 1000 GPM
65 :: How can you quickly estimate the horsepower of a pump?
Try this handy little equation: Horsepower = (GPM)(Delivered Pressure) / 1715 (Efficiency)
GPM = Gallon per minute of flow Delivered pressure = Discharge minus suction pressure,
psi Efficiency = Fractional pump efficiency

66 :: What are the affinity laws associated with dynamics pumps?
1. Capacity varies directly with impeller diameter and speed. 2. Head varies directly with the
square of impeller diameter and speed. 3. Horsepower varies directly with the cube of
impeller diameter and speed.
67 :: How can you estimate a gas flow based on two pressure measurements?
You can use the Weymouth equation to estimate the gas flow. Below is the equation. The
compressibility should be evaluated at Pavg shown below. Nomenclature is as follows: Q =
flow rate, Million Cubic Feet per Day (MCFD) Tb = base Temperature, degrees Rankin Pb =
base pressure, psia G = gas specific gravity (reference air=1) L = line length, miles T = gas
temperature, degrees Rankin Z = gas compressibility factor D = pipe inside diameter, in. E =
Efficiency factor E=1 for new pipes with no bends E=0.95 for pipe less than a year old
E=0.92 for average operating conditions E=0.85 for unfavorable operating conditions
68 :: What is a quick way to calculate frictional pressure drops in carbon steel
pipe?
The relationship shown below is valid for Reynolds numbers in the range of 2100 to 106. For
smooth tubes, a constant of 23,000 should be used rather than 20,000.
69 :: What is screen analysis and what are its applications in the chemical
industry?
A screen analysis is the one passes solids through various sizes of screen mesh. This is
done to get a particle size distribution. A group of solids is first passes through fine mesh
and the amount that passes is noted, then a little larger mesh and the amount recorded and
so on.
70 :: What is a good device to use for obtaining viscosity data for a non-
Newtonian fluid?
Consider a rotational viscometer. It will measure the shear rate applied and the subsequent
viscosity at the same time. You can also vary the temperature and time the stresses are
applied for the truly "fun" non-Newtonian fluids. According to Cole-Parmer, "The rotational
viscometer measures viscosity by determining the viscous resistance of the fluid. This
measurement is obtained by immersing a spindle into the test fluid. The viscometer
measures the additional torque required for the spindle to overcome viscous resistance and
regain constant speed. This value is then converted to centipoises and displayed on the
instrument's LCD readout." When testing a tomato sauce sample, the following results were
observed: "A sample of tomato sauce was analyzed to determine the product's viscosity
profile. The test was conducted at a temperature of 25�C. An up/down speed ramp was
performed from 10 to 100 RPM, giving a viscosity range of from 3,800 to 632.5 cP, over
shear rates from 3.4 to 34.0 reciprocal seconds. The test data obtained for tomato sauce
shows that this product exhibits a marked shear thinning viscosity profile over the test
conditions.

71 :: What are some common methods for helium leak testing a vacuum system?
It is common to have a location in the suction line of the pump to detect the helium. Then,
the helium source is passed over the flanges and other possible sources of leakage. This is
done while monitoring the detector at the pump suction for detectable amount of helium.
Alternatively, if your system can take pressure as well as vacuum you can try pressuring it
up and looking for the leaks that way. As yet another alternative, you can install an IR unit to
the suction of the pump and spray isopropyl alcohol on the flanges.
72 :: What is a common source of error in determining the percent spent caustic
in refinery applications?
In titrations, a common error made is that the technicians stop at the phenolphthalein
endpoint (which is incorrect) rather than the methyl orange endpoint (which is correct).
Stopping the titration too soon can cause the results to be grossly under-reported. Equation
(1): 2NaOH + H2S -> Na2S + 2H20 Equation (2): Na2S + H2S -> 2NaSH Overall Equation:
NaOH + H2S -> NaSH + H2O
73 :: What is a good method of analyzing powders for composition?
A method known as Fourier transform-infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy is often used for this
purpose. FT-IR sends light beams of varying wavelength through the sample and the
reflected light is analyzed by spectroscopy to find the absorption of each wavelength. The
measured wavelengths are compared with a reference laser and the sample composition
can be calculated. Analect Instruments Inc. specializes in FT-IR measurement.
74 :: What are some common problems associated with bellow expansion joints?
Bellow expansion joints have gained a reputation for being "weak" points in piping. Usually
they are used to remove piping stresses from equipment or to allow for minor piping
moments. If they are used properly, expansion joints can save equipment and/or equipment
welds from stresses generated from piping forces. The two most common complaints about
bellows are 1. They tend to build up dirt 2. They are "weak" point in piping (as noted earlier).
To overcome these issues, manufacturers can began installing drains in the bellows to allow
for the period purging of material. Additionally, bellow manufacturers have placed much
emphasis on installation advice and showing their customers how to protect the bellow from
unnecessary damage. One such method is the use of tie rods between the end flanges to
avoid pressure thrust movements (beyond the bellow's design conditions) which are often
the cause of bellow failures
75 :: Are there any methods of preventing cracking of carbon steel welds in
refining environments?
Where carbon steel is an appropriate material of construction, NACE (National Association
of Corrosion Engineers) has issued the following standard: NACE RP0472, "Methods and
controls to prevent in-service environmental cracking of carbon-steel weldments in corrosive
petroleum refining environments�. For welds where hardness testing is required, RP0472
give the following guidelines: A. Testing shall be taken with a portable Brinell hardness
tester. Test technique guidelines are given in an appendix in the standard. B. Testing shall
be done on the process side whenever possible. C. For vessel or tank butt welds, one test
per 10 feet of seam with a minimum of one location per seam is required. One test shall be
done on each nozzle flange-to-neck and nozzle neck-to-shell (or neck-to-head) weld. D. A
percentage of helping welds shall be tested (5 percent minimum is suggested). E. Testing of
fillet welds should be done when feasible (with the testing frequency similar to the butt
welds). F. Each welding procedure used shall be tested. G. Welds that exceed 200 Brinell
shall be heat treated or removed.

76 :: What is a common failure mechanism for above ground atmospheric storage
tanks?
Tanks constructed prior to the 1950's are notorious for failing along the shell-to-bottom seam
or on the side seam. The principle reason for this is that these tanks were constructed before
there were established procedures and codes for such a tank (Ex/ API-650 "Welded Steel
Tanks for Oil Storage"). One of the key features of these codes and procedures was to make
sure that tanks were designed to fail along the shell-to-seam such that the liquid remained
largely contained.
77 :: How does a tank-blanketing valve operate?
Tank Blanketing Valves provide an effective means of preventing and controlling fires in
flammable liquid storage tanks. Vapors cannot be ignited in the absence of an adequate
supply of oxygen. In most instances, this oxygen is provided by air drawn into the tank from
the atmosphere during tank emptying operations. Tank Blanketing Valves are installed with
their inlet connected to a supply of pressurized inert gas (usually Nitrogen), and their outlet
piped into the tank's vapor space. When the tank pressure drops below a predetermined
level, the blanketing valve opens and allows a flow of inert gas into the vapor space. The
blanketing valve reseals when pressure in the tank has returned to an acceptable level.
78 :: How can one determine if a particular solid can be fluidized as in a fluidized
bed?
Mr. Alex C. Hoffmann of the Stratingh Institute for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
states: "Whether a material can be fluidized at all is the question: if it is fine or sticky, the bed
will be cohesive. It will then tend to form channels through which the aeration gas will escape
rather than being dispersed through the interstices supporting the particles. In the other
extreme: if the particles are too large and heavy the bed will not fluidize well either, but tend
to be very turbulent and form a spout." He goes on to present classification of fluidization by
Geldart by use of the chart shown below. On this chart, the x-axis is the average particle
diameter and the y-axis is the bulk density of the bed.
79 :: What are some guidelines for sizing a PSV for a fire scenario on a vessel in a
refinery service?
Sizing a PSV on your vessel is a matter of calculating how much heat is inputted from the
fire. API-520 uses Q = FA0.82 where Q is BTU/hr, F is the insulation factor (commonly taken
as 1.0 but can be less than 1.0 if your insulation will remain effective during the fire and not
be dislodged by fire hoses) and finally, A is the external area in ft2. The vapor load is then
the total heat input from the fire divided by the liquid's latent heat (BTU/lb).
As a fluid approaches its critical pressure, the latent heat as it boils decreases so the
relieving flow rate increases. At the critical point, the latent heat goes to 0. Some companies
simply use a minimum 50 BTU/lb latent heat others look at de-pressuring equipment, etc.
One point is the protection, or potential lack of it, provided by a PSV during a fire. The boiling
liquid in the vessel from the fire helps keep the metal 'cool' so it retains its strength. Once the
liquid is gone or the flame impinges on the wall not in contact with liquid, the metal can
quickly reach a temperature where it has insufficient strength to withstand the internal
pressure and you have a BLEVE. Not something, you want to be around. As an added point
to the information above, if 50 Btu/lb is not your company�s minimum standard for latent
heat, here is an alternative to calculate the latent heat:
80 :: Are there flow velocity restrictions to avoid static charge build up in
pipelines?
There is an Australian standard "AS1020 (1984) - Control of undesirable Static Electricity" In
it, there is a table for flammable hydrocarbons as follows:
Pipe Size (mm) Max Velocity (m/s)
10 8
25 4.9
50 3.5
100 2.5
200 1.8
400 1.3
600+ 1.0
This is based on pure hydrocarbons, and there is a correction, which can be applied for
fluids of different conductivity. Methanol has a higher polarity than hydrocarbons and hence
is more conductive. The resistivity of diesel is 1013 ohm-m vs 108 for methanol. In addition
to this, normal piping design guidelines should however be followed, such as appropriate
earthing, and ensuring exit velocities into tanks of 1 m/s.

81 :: How can I evaluate the thermal relief requirements for double block-in of 98%
sulfuric acid?
API RP520 gives equations to calculate relief requirements. For thermal relief, a very simple
formula requires the heat input and the coefficient of thermal expansion of the liquid. The
heat input could be a problem. If you are concerned about sulfuric in a line that is part of a
heat exchanger system, then the heat is simply the design capacity of the heat exchanger. If
it were a pipeline in the sun, then you would have to calculate the amount of heat that the
sun can put into the pipe. You can get the coefficient of thermal expansion from your supplier
or any book on sulfuric. You can also calculate it by taking the specific gravity at two different
temperatures and divide the SG difference by the temperature difference. Coefficient of
expansion has the units of 1/0F. Now for the easy part, if you are at all concerned, just put in
a 3/4" x 1" thermal relief valve and do not worry about doing any calculations. However, I do
not believe sulfuric has any problems in pipelines unless it is a very long one and directly in
the sun. In addition, I would make it a standard procedure to drain the line if it will sit dead
headed for any significant period. Just a small bleed will be enough.
82 :: What is a good source of information for the design of pressure vessels?
Pressure Vessel Handbook Author = Eugene F. Megyesy Publisher = Pressure Vessel
Handbook Publ., Inc. P.O. Box 35365 Tulsa, OK 74153 Page 18 tells you how to calculate a
pressure vessel's wall thickness; page 176 tells how to calculate an API Std. 650 Storage
tank wall thickness. The rest of the book is a goldmine for young engineers - especially
CHE's involved in vessel design. It also gives all the information you require for supports,
nozzles, head design, piping, ladders, platforms, etc.
83 :: What is the method of determining maximum differential pressure during
hydro testing of shell and tube heat exchangers?
Mr. Richard Lee of Plumlee International Consulting usually heat exchangers have two sets
of test pressures per side, one for strength tests, and the other for "operating" or "leak" tests.
The strength tests are set by the design code and if you have the original design data sheets
for your equipment then the information should be shown on these. If you do not then you
will have to do the calculations yourself, the exact method will depend upon which design
code you use, the most common one being TEMA (which uses the ANSI/ASME pressure
vessel code for reference in this area).
Most shell and tube exchangers are designed such that each side of the unit will withstand
the full design pressure, with only atmospheric pressure on the other side. In order to save
money, some larger units will have the tube-sheets especially designed to withstand only a
much lower differential pressure (requiring both sides to be tested simultaneously). This
important information should be shall quite clearly on the design sheets and on the vessel
nameplate (assuming that either are available). If the only need is to check that a gasket has
been properly installed then it can be permissible to perform a lower pressure test based on
the operating pressure. The acceptability of this lower pressure test will often depend upon
the consequences of a leak.
84 :: Are there any general rules that should be considered when designing a
slurry piping system?
The following are items to consider when designing a piping system that will transport
slurries:
1) Whenever possible, piping should be designed to be self-draining
2) Manual draining should be installed to drain sections of the piping when self-draining is
not possible
3) Blow-out or rod-out connections should be provided to clear lines in places where

plugging is likely or could occur
4) Access flanges should be provided at T-connections
5) Manifolds should have flanged rather than capped connections to allow for easy access
6) Clean-out connections should be provided on BOTH sides of main line valves so that
flushing can take place in either direction
7) Break flanges should be provided every 20 feet of horizontal pipe or after every two
changes in direction
85 :: How are vessel lined with glass or how are they coated?
First, the glass mixture is smelted for form the proper recipe based on temperature and
pressure requirements of the vessel. Then the glass is ground into tiny particles and
suspended in a liquid medium called a slip. This mixture is then spayed onto the surface to
be coated. The vessel is then heated to about 800 0C to bond the glass to the steel (usually
carbon steel). The vessel is then slowly cooled

86 :: At what temperature is glass fused to steel in the making of glass-lined
equipment?
The borosilicate glass is typically fused to carbon steel at a temperature of about 800 0C.
87 :: What are some typical applications for glass-lined reactors?
Glass-lined equipment gives superior protection to all mineral acids at all concentration and
temperatures. One exception is hydrofluoric acid. They are also used is high-purity
processes where cleanliness is very important. Using glass-lined equipment help eliminate
the possibility of metal contamination. A third application is in polymerization. Metallic
vessels sometimes tend to allow the polymer to stick to the walls of the vessels while glass-
lined vessels have good anti-stick properties.
88 :: Is there any way to slow coke formation in ethylene furnaces?
Westaim Corporation has a commercial process for applying a special coating to the tubes
used in ethylene furnaces. Westaim claims that coke buildup is reduced to one-forth to one-
tenth of the normal rate. The coating consists of a combination of metal, ceramic powder,
and a polymer. Once the coating is applied, the tubes are then heat-treated and reacted with
an unspecified gas. Welds cannot be coated with this process.
89 :: What information is needed to specify a mixer?
1. Specific Gravity
2. Fluid Viscosity
3. Phase to be dispersed
4. Solid-liquid systems
The settling velocities of the 10, 50, and 90 percent weight fractions of the particle size
distribution should be available. 5. For gas systems, the standard and actual flow rates will
be needed.
90 :: How can viscosity affect the design of a mixer?
For Newtonian fluids, which will have a constant viscosity at all impeller speeds, most design
correlations will perform satisfactorily for viscosities up to 5,000 cP. Above 5,000 cP,
estimating errors from 20% to 50% can result in the sizing of the agitator

91 :: How do you design a vapor-liquid separator or a flash drum?
The size of a vapor-liquid separator should be dictated by the anticipated flow rate of vapor
and liquid from the vessel. The following sizing methodology is based on the assumption that
those flow rates are known. Use a vertical pressure vessel with a length-to-diameter ratio of
about 3 to 4, and size the vessel to provide about 5 minutes of liquid inventory between the
normal liquid level and the bottom of the vessel (with the normal liquid level being at about
the vessel's half-full level).
At the vapor outlet, provide a de-entraining mesh section within the vessel such that the
vapor must pass through that mesh before it can leave the vessel. Depending upon how
much liquid flow you expect, the liquid outlet line should probably have a level control valve.
92 :: How is waste heat boilers categorized?
Chemical plants -(hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfuric acid, sulfur recovery) Incineration plants-
(fumes, chemicals, municipal solid waste) Refineries-(cat cracker, CO off gases)
Cogeneration, combined cycle plants-(gas turbine, diesel engine exhaust) Furnaces, kilns-
(exhaust gases) See a complete table at the link below.
93 :: What is the angle of repose and what are its applications in the chemical
industry?
The dictionary defines "angle of repose" as "the inclination of a plane at which a body placed
on the plane would remain at rest, or if in motion would roll or slide down with uniform
velocity; the angle at which the various kinds of earth will stand when abandoned to them�.
Applications to the chemical industry...think about the design of the conical section of a
storage bin. The material would not fall out the bottom, as we may want. This concept is also
important in the design of system designed to move bulk solids...for the same reasons.
94 :: I would like to know how to size a partial combustion reactor processing
methane and oxygen, as a function of the flowrate and of the pressure.
In your case, you essentially have two reactions: CH4 + 3/2 O2 ---> CO + 2 H2O (incomplete
combustion) CH4 + 2 O2 ---> CO2 + 2 H2O (complete combustion) each of these reactions
has a specific rate at which it occurs. If you wanted to design a reactor properly, you would
need to determine the conversion of methane in each of the above reactions. The upper limit
of your flow rate is bound by the rate of reaction. If the flow rate is too high, the reaction
simply will not take place (i.e. the flame will burn out). I am not sure that there is a simple
relationship between pressure and flow rate in this case. The gases need to spend a certain
amount of time in the reactor in order for the combustion to take place (residence time).
Once you know the residence time, you could design a reactor for your specific flow rate.
95 :: Why is post-weld heat treatment (stress relieving) sometimes necessary for
welded vessels?
During the welding process, the two metal pieces being joined are subject to extreme
temperatures and can cause the crystalline structure of the metal to pass through various
metallurgical phases. As a result, hardening (and embrittlement) of the metal can occur to
varying degrees (usually dependent on carbon content). Heat treatment is designed to
reduce the hardness in the heat-affected zone of the metals and increase ductility in these
sections. Various pressure vessel codes contain the specifics regarding the procedures for
post-weld heat treatment. Heat is usually held for one hour per inch of thickness of the
metal. The temperature used is based on the "P-number" of the metals. P-numbers are
assigned based on the chemical composition of the metals. Holding temperatures can range
from 1100-1350 �F (593-732 �C

96 :: Is it possible to compare the resistance to chloride attack of several
materials of construction?
The Pitting Resistance Equivalent Index (PRE) can be used for such a comparison if the
chemical make-up of each material is known. The formula for the PRE is PRE = % Cr + (3.3
x % Mo) + (30 x % N).
97 :: How can wet carbon dioxide be responsible for a corrosion problem in iron-
containing metals?
Carbon dioxide reacts with water according to the following equation: CO2 + H2O --> HCO3-
+ H+ As the concentration of CO2 increases, so does the concentration of the H+ ion. This
ion can then react with Fe in metals as follows: Fe + 2H+ --> 2H (atom) + Fe2+ As corrosion
proceeds, the ferrous ions produced can react with the bicarbonate ions to form ferrous
carbonate, which precipitates as a scale.
98 :: What steps can be taken to avoid stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in steel
vessels used for storing anhydrous ammonia?
The U.S. National Board of Pressure Vessel Inspectors recommends the following in one of
their classic articles:
1. Pressure vessels should be fully stress relieved or fabricated with heads that are hot-
formed or stress relieved.
2. Extreme care should be used to eliminate air from the ammonia systems; new vessels
must be thoroughly purged to eliminate air contamination.
3. Ammonia should contain at least 0.2 percent water to inhibit SCC. Source: National Board
of Pressure Vessel Inspectors
99 :: What chemical is used to expand air bags in such a short amount of time?
That chemical is sodium azide (NaN3) which is a solid propellant that can be electrically
ignited to form nitrogen gas almost instantly.
100 :: What is an additive?
An additive is anything that is added to a process that is not a basic raw material. It is usually
present in such small quantities that it does not interfere with final product quality. It is
usually added to act as an enhancer or to prevent some unwanted reaction. For instance,
anti-foam additives are added to columns, evaporators, reactors, etc. to prevent foaming.
Inhibitors are added to Styrene systems to prevent polymerization. A well-known additive is a
detergent added to motor oils and gasoline to keep your engine clean

101 :: How many grams per liter would there be in a 0.35 N (Normality) Citric acid
solution?
The normality of a solution is the number of gram-equivalent weights of the dissolved
substance per liter of solution. The gram-equivalent weight of the dissolved substance is the
molecular weight of the dissolved substance divided by the hydrogen equivalent of the
dissolved substance. Citric acid has a molecular weight of 192.12 and it contains three
hydrogen equivalents (i.e., three COOH groups). Thus, the gram equivalent weight of the
citric acid dissolved in water is 192.12/3 = 64.04 grams. Therefore 0.35 Normal citric acid
would have (0.35)(64.4) = 22.41 grams of citric acid per liter of solution.
102 :: How can I treat a waste stream containing both hexavalent chromium and
arsenic?
Waste streams that contain these types of mixtures are often treated in two or more reducing
tanks. Strong reducing agents such as sodium metabisulfite, sulfur dioxide, and sodium
bisulfite are often used.
103 :: How can arsenic be removed from aqueous waste streams?
Often times, ferric chloride is added to such a stream. The ferric chloride aids in the
formation of floc to agglomerate fine arsenic particles that can then be removed by
mechanical means.
104 :: How can hexavalent chromium be removed from aqueous waste streams?
One option is to use ferrous sulfate to reduce the hexavalent chromium to a less toxic,
trivalent chromium form that wills precipitate out of the solution. Trivalent chromium can then
be reduced by sodium hydroxide.
105 :: What types of metals are typically removed via chemical precipitation?
Some of the more common metals or other substances removed via precipitation include:
1) Aluminum
2) Arsenic
3) Barium
4) Cadmium
5) Calcium
6) Trivalent chromium
7) Hexavelent chromium
8) Copper
9) Iron
10) Lead
11) Magnesium
12) Manganese
13) Mercury
14) Nickel
15) Selenium
16) Zinc

106 :: What are some common precipitating agents used to remove metals from
aqueous waste streams?
Perhaps the most common agents used are:
1) Metal hydroxides
2) Lime or caustic soda
3) Metal sulfides
4) Alum or ferric salts
5) Phosphate or carbonate ions

107 :: How can metals be removed from aqueous waste streams?
Precipitation is widely used to remove metals from waste streams. The soluble heavy-metal
salts can be converted to insoluble salts that will precipitate and can then be removed by
clarification, filtration, or settling.
108 :: What is the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT)?
The sultriness of the ambient environment is more than a comfort factor. For workers,
soldiers and athletes, high levels of sultriness may result in heat stress that could very well
be life threaten. To determine the actual degree of sultriness in a quantifiable manner, the
Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) index is used. It includes the effects of humidity, air
speed, air temperature and the radiant heating factor (from the sun). This index was
developed by the U.S. Military in the 1950's and has become widely accepted for industrial
temperature measurements to protect employees. It combines three temperature readings:
the wet bulb temperature; the ordinary dry bulb temperature and a black bulb globe
temperature. There are also instruments available, which measure WBGT index directly,
combining the three factors and their appropriate weighting values.
109 :: What is a good source of surfactant information on the internet?
Check out the Surfactant Virtual Library at the link below.
110 :: What is a surfactant?
A surfactant is a chemical that reduces the surface tension of pure liquid or a mixture of
liquids

111 :: What is the easiest way to extract hydrogen from water and the safest way
to store it?
Electrolysis (which means splitting using electricity) of water is the method for producing
hydrogen from water. The safest way to commercially store it would be to use a palladium
"sponge", because palladium adsorbs several hundred times it's own volume in hydrogen.
One would need to produce a compound with a very high surface area, which has a thin
coating of palladium. This type of material is commonly used as a catalyst in chemical
processes.
112 :: Can asphalt be recycled to form a useful product?
Asphalt can be ground into small pieces and emulsified to form a 70% oil/30% water mixture.
This fuel can be used to power boilers. It has a heating value of 6,600 kcal/kg and is said to
be stable for about 6 months.
113 :: How can separation of chiral chemicals affect the chemical and/or
pharmaceutical industries?
This enantiomers (left [S] or right [R] oriented) versions of the same compound can have
very different properties; this development has been significant particularly in the
pharmaceutical industry. For example, the drug Seldane is a racemic mixture of both S and
R versions of the drug's molecules. Through chiral separation technology, Hoechst was able
to bring the drug Allegra to market in only 3 years (far less time than is usually necessary).
Hoechst was able to bypass toxicity testing because Allegra is a single chiral form of its
molecule. By chiral separation, the most of the side effects of Seldane were avoided in
Allegra.
114 :: What are PCBs?
PCB is a commonly used acronym for "PolyChlorinated Biphenyls". These compounds are
famous for the disposal problems that they pose to the chemical industry.
115 :: What is quicklime and what are the uses?
Quicklime (Calcium Oxide) is an efficient scavenger of moisture in its dehydrated state. It is
also cheap, compared to orthe scavengers such as silica gel, drierite, oxazolidines, etc. It is
commonly found in water sensitive paint formulations (such as polyurethanes and polyureas)

116 :: What is happening when paint dries?
During the manufacture of paint, solvents are added to make the paint thinner so that it can
be applied to various surfaces. Once the paint is applied, the solvents evaporate and the
resins and pigments that make up the paint for a thin, solid layer on the surface.
117 :: What are the three classes of organic solvents?
Typically, organic solvents can be split up in the following classes: Oxygenated,
Hydrocarbon, and Halogenated. Oxygenated solvents include alcohols, glycol ethers,
ketones, esters, and glycol ether esters. Hydrocarbon solvents include aliphatics and
aromatics. Halogenated solvents include those that are chlorinated primarily.
118 :: What is a solvent?
According to the US Solvent Council, "A solvent is a liquid which has the ability to dissolve,
suspend, or extract other materials without chemical change to the material or solvent.
Solvents make it possible to process, apply, clean, or separate materials.
119 :: What is the easiest way to extract hydrogen from water and the safest way
to store it?
Electrolysis (which means splitting using electricity) of water is the method for producing
hydrogen from water. The safest way to commercially store it would be to use a palladium
"sponge", because palladium adsorbs several hundred times it's own volume in hydrogen.
One would need to produce a compound with a very high surface area, which has a thin
coating of palladium. This type of material is commonly used as a catalyst in chemical
processes.
120 :: How can you separate hydrogen peroxide into hydrogen and oxygen?
This is easily done. Just expose hydrogen peroxide to air. The oxygen in the air will oxidize
the hydrogen peroxide into its component gases. It happens far too slowly for industrial or
most other purposes (an enzyme catalyst can be used to speed up the process). However,
neither hydrogen nor oxygen is produced in this manner in industry. The enzyme catalyst is
called "catalase

121 :: What is the largest application for surfactants?
About 60% of total surfactant market is composed of the detergent and cleaning products
marketplace. These types of compounds are sold in large volumes at low prices.
122 :: Who built the first production scale PLA (polylactic acid) facility?
The first production scale PLA (polylactic acid) facility was built by Cargill Dow in The Blair,
Nebraska, and USA. The facility is designed to consume 40,000 bushels of corn per day and
produce 300 million lb/year of PLA.
123 :: What is the average salary for chemical engineers?
AIChE just came out with the results of a ChE salary survey (See Chemical Engineering
Progress, September 2000). To answer your question depends on years of service, the type
of degree, the size of the company and the type of industry, i.e. Engineering, Design &
Construction (E&C), Plant work, Self Employed as examples. To summarize briefly, median
starting salary is about $50,000 per year. Median salary among all Chemical Engineers is
about $77,200 and annual raises are averaging 4.4%. As far as job prospects that again
depends in which area you are interested. In general, jobs are still looking good. However,
be forewarned, Chemical Engineers no longer command the job security that we once had.
In economic downturns, it can get nasty.
124 :: What compounds are responsible for the odors that come from wastewater
treatment plants?
Compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl
disulfide can all contribute to this foul odor.
125 :: What does the catalystic converter on an automobile really do?
A catalytic converter is a device that uses a catalyst to convert three harmful compounds in
automobile exhaust gas into harmless compounds. The three harmful compounds are:
► Hydrocarbons (in the form of unburned gasoline)
► Carbon monoxide (formed by the combustion of gasoline)
► Nitrogen oxides (created when the heat in the engine forces nitrogen in the air to combine
with oxygen).
Carbon monoxide is a poison for any air-breathing animal. Nitrogen oxides lead to smog and
acid rain, and hydrocarbons produce smog. In a catalytic converter, the catalyst (in the form
of platinum and palladium) is coated onto a ceramic honeycomb or ceramic beads that are
housed in a muffler-like package attached to the exhaust pipe. The catalyst helps to convert
carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. It converts the hydrocarbons into carbon dioxide and
water. It also converts the nitrogen oxides back into nitrogen and oxygen.

126 :: What is an effective means of removing silicon from aluminum?
Silicon is well known for its chemical inertness, (i.e. it tends not to react with many other
chemicals). Depending on what type of silicon you are dealing with, this may or may not be
easy to solve. If the silicon is from a lubricant, it is probably the graphitic form, which is
soluble in a strong combination of nitric, and hydrofluoric acids, neither of which I would
recommend for you to use...nor hydrofluoric acid is not easy to come by. If it is silicon from
an acidic form (probably any other form other than a lubricant), you should try ammonia. In
either case, leave your acetone at home...it will NEVER work! UPDATE: An ammonia
solution worked very well in this case
127 :: We wanted to know how to impart various colors to copper wire by simply
dipping them into various chemicals, formulations, etc. This copper wire is to be
used by us for our hobby of making various art objects from copper wire.
Changing the color of copper by means of chemical reactions is a dangerous Endeavour that
I really do not recommend. However, there is something you can do to get a green color, if
fact if you are familiar with the Statue of Liberty here in America, this would explain why it is
green. You see, the outside of the statue is coated with copper and being in New York City, it
is subjected to acid rain. This causes the formation of another chemical that coats the copper
and gives the statue its green color. The two acids that you can use are nitric acid (which
works best) or sulfuric acid (which will probably require some gentle heating along with the
acid). I am not sure if there were a good way to get nitric acid out of something you may
have around the house, you would probably have to buy it.
Sulfuric acid can be obtained from car batteries (the liquid inside). You will want to boil the
mixture (to concentrate it by evaporating the water), until you see white fumes (which are
very dangerous). Then put your copper is while the acid is hot and leave it there until you get
the color you would like. If you are going to do this, please do it outside or in a well ventilated
area and make sure you have some baking soda handy is case you get some of the acid on
your skin. If you are looking for a different color or more colors...
128 :: After conducting an internet search for ways to reduce energy costs, I
found a recipe for whitewashing that is said to reflect sunlight. The recipe calls for
20 pounds hydrated lime to 5 gallons water to 1-quart polyvinyl acetate. What is a
good source of polyvinyl acetate that I can buy at a local store?
Well your recipe sounds exciting. Finding your polyvinyl acetate should be easy. Go to your
nearest department store and pick up a large container of plain white glue! The chief active
ingredient in this glue is polyvinyl acetate. Good luck with your project!
129 :: What are some characteristics of bulk solids that can affect their ability to
flow properly?
Four (4) main factors to consider include moisture content, temperature, particle size (and
shape), and time at rest.
1) An increase in moisture content will generally make solids more "sticky". Some solids will
absorb moisture from the air, which is why nitrogen is often used as a carrier gas (among
other reasons).
2) For some solids, their ability to flow can be adversely impacted by temperature or even
the length of time that the particles are exposed to a specific temperature. For example,
soybean meal flows nicely at 90 �F but start to form large bridges at 100 �F.
3) Generally, the finer a bulk solid becomes, the more cohesive the particles. Round
particles are generally easier to handle than "stringy" or oddly shaped particles.
As particles rest in a bin, they can compact together from their own weight. This can create
strong bonds between the particles.
4) Often times, re-initiating flow can break these bonds and the solids will flow as normal, but
this can depend on the load at given locations in the bin.
130 :: What is a "saltation velocity" and how is it used in designing pneumatic
conveying systems?
The saltation velocity is defined as the actual gas velocity (in a horizontal pipe run) at which
the particles of a homogeneous solid flow will start to fall out of the gas stream.
In designing, the saltation velocity is used as a basis for choosing the design gas velocity in
a pneumatic conveying system. Usually, the saltation gas velocity is multiplied by a factor,
which is dependent on the nature of the solids, to arrive at a design gas velocity.
For example, the saltation velocity factor for fine particles may be about 2.5 while the factor
could be as high as five for course particles such as soybeans could.

131 :: How can one determine the particle size distribution for a given bulk solid?
While there are high-tech methods of performing such an analysis (laser-diffraction and
video imaging system are available), the simplest way is to use a sieve stack. For example,
to analyze a particular solid, one would stack several different mesh sizes into a cylinder with
the largest mesh opening on the top and progress down through the cylinder to finer mesh.
The cylinder would contain a pan on the bottom. Before beginning, weight the test sample,
each piece of mesh, and the pan. Then, the sample is loaded into the top of the test cylinder
and the cylinder is exposed to a combination of movements (shaken) to allow the solids to
pass through the appropriate mesh sizes.
132 :: What is the most common cause of solid size segregation in bulk solid
systems?
Many engineers usually point directly to the pneumatic conveying system as a source of
such a problem. The truth is that in most cases, segregation occurs because of the
differences in sizes of the articles. As a rule-of-thumb, if the size ratio extends outside of
around 1:1.3, then there will most likely be segregation. This being said, one should inspect
the equipment responsible for determining the particle size rather than the pneumatic
conveying system if this problem is occurring. Reference: Richard Farnish, the Wolfson
Centre for Bulk Solids Handling Technology
133 :: What can cause bulk solids to stop flowing from a bin?
Causes of such problems can fall into one of two categories: Material strength or Bin
Geometry: Factors that can affect material strength include. Moisture is especially with
particles, which fuse together with moisture.
134 :: What is the practical particle size limit for pneumatic conveying?
As a rule, pneumatic conveying will work for particles up to 2 inches in diameter with a
typical density. By "typical density�, we mean that a 2 inch particle of a polymer resin can
be moved via pneumatic conveying, but a 2 inch lead ball would not.
135 :: What is pneumatic conveying?
Pneumatic conveying is a method of moving bulk solids from one place to another with the
help of a carrier gas. A differential pressure is applied inside a conveying line. The flow
always moves from a region of higher to lower pressure.

136 :: What types of pneumatic conveying systems are typically used?
Essentially, there are two types of pneumatic conveying systems. In dilute phase systems,
the solids are suspended in the carrier gas and transported to their destination. In dense
phase systems, the solids-to-gas ratio is much higher. The gas in these systems acts more
like a piston to push the product to its final destination. Dilute phase systems are more
typical than dense phase systems because they can employ positive pressure displacement
or a vaccum system. Dense phase conveying is useful if the product degrades easily (works
at lower velocities) or is particularly abrasive.
137 :: What is the most common carrier gas used in pneumatic conveying?
While many applications utilize air as a carrier gas, others are not suited for using air. For
example, if the substance being conveyed reactions with moisture in the air or if there is a
threat of dust explosions, nitrogen is likely choice.
138 :: What are some common problems associated with dense phase pneumatic
conveying?
Dense phase pneumatic conveying, typically experiences one common problem from system
to system: plugging in the line due to a malfunctioning booster valve. Dense phase systems
require these booster systems to introduce new, pressurized air. These boosters are nearly
always accompanied by a check valve. If the check valve becomes stuck, the product is
allowed to plug the line.
139 :: What are some common problems associated with dilute phase pneumatic
conveying?
Probably the most common problem encountered in dilute phase pneumatic conveying is the
wearing of the rotary valve that serves as an air lock where the product is introduced into the
system. If excess air is allowed to pass by the rotary valve, this can cause bridging of the
material the flow can be slowed or stopped.
140 :: What is some common piping materials used to transport slurries?
When selecting a piping material to transport slurries, corrosion and erosion considerations
must be accounted for. Some of the most popular piping materials include:
► Carbon Steel
► Stainless Steel
► High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
► Acrylonitrile butadiene stryene (ABS)
► Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC)

► Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP)
► Elastomer-lined carbon steel

141 :: How can you prevent bridging in a dilute phase pneumatic conveying
system?
Manufacturers of these systems recommend bin agitation or blowing air into the top of the
feeding bin. These methods can prevent fine particle from bridging near the rotators valve.
Two types of particles that are especially prone to bridging include titanium dioxide and
calcined- kaolin clay.
142 :: What is the best way to handle bend or turns in slurry piping systems?
Even long radius elbows should be avoided in slurry pipes and lines. They are often the site
of severe erosion or solid/liquid separation. Only gentle pipe bends or sweeps should be
used to turn a slurry line. Industrial experience has shown that a bend-radius-to-pipe-
diameter ratio of 3-5 is recommended.
143 :: How can you determine the proper pipe thickness for a slurry line?
Design of slurry piping systems should follow ANSI/ASME B31.1 and B31.11 Codes. A
simple equation for this calculation is as follows: t = (PD) / (2S) + C where: t = pipe wall
thickness, in. P = maximum design pressure of the pipe, psig S = maximum allowable design
stress, psig C = corrosion or erosion allowance, in.
144 :: Are there any general rules for flushing slurry lines?
Slurry lines should be flushed with a minimum fluid velocity of 10 ft/s and the total flushing
liquid volume should equal 3-6 times the total piping volume.
145 :: What is a good way to get started in doing a plant-wide steam consumption
analysis?
It is unclear as to whether or not you know the total steam consumption. If you do not, one
way to get it is to take the nominal capacity of the boiler in terms of heat, i.e. the total rated
Btu/hr. This is usually available either through the documentation you have for the boiler or
even on the nameplate. You also must know the steam pressure you are producing. Using
the steam tables, get the enthalpy of the steam and divide it into the nominal boiler capacity
to get the total rate. I hope that you also know how much of the capacity you are using, 50%,
75% etc. Multiply this by the total lb/hr to get your rate. Another way to get the capacity is by
using the amount of boiler feed water you are sending to the boiler and the known level of
steam you are producing. Do not forget to include the blow down in your heat & mass
balance. Getting the rate to each plant is more difficult if you are lacking in instrumentation.
Use as much plant instrumentation as possible; flow meters, pressure and temperature
indicators. If you do not have a meter in each header to each plant, then see if you have
them in sections or to pieces of equipment using the steam. Another way is to measure the
amount of condensate you are returning to the boiler. If you are dumping the condensate,
you may be able to collect and measure the amount in a pail from each source. Another way
is to use the process instrumentation and do some mass and energy balances around the
steam users

146 :: What are some good uses of low-grade steam at 12 atm and 1920C?
There are various traditional methods to employ waste steam in an operating plant:
1. You can generate electricity through a steam turbine-generator set. The electricity is
usually put back in the line; this is the idea behind the "Co-Gen" concept used today in many
USA plants. Steam turbines can effectively use saturated steam supply down to 75 - 100
psig. In special conditions, they have used down to 50 psig as a turbine steam supply. I have
used steam as low as 100 psig.
2. You can pre-heat process streams that require pre-heating; this is done by applying heat
exchangers.
3. You can employ the waste steam as a refrigeration source by employing it in vacuum jet
ejectors and producing 50 of cooling water.
You have to consider these as viable options if you can identify the heating, cooling and
energy conservation requirements. An economic analysis is required to identify the most
attractive option. You usually utilize a Discounted Cash Flow analysis to base your decision
and that means you must study each case as to savings generated. A fourth method might
be that you can use the steam for environmental heating (if you live in a cold climate).
147 :: When using a pumping loop to mix two miscible fluids in a tank, when can
the content are considered well mixed?
A rule of thumb is to turn the tank over three (3) times and then sample the tank for mixture
properties. By "turn the tank over�, we mean to force the entire volume of the tank through
the pump at least three times. More turnovers may be necessary, but three times is a good
starting point.
148 :: Is there any way to repair a valve that is passing leaking internally without
taking our process offline?
A 600 psig, 3" steam line is experiencing "passing" or internal leakage. If you order to
replace the valve, the process would have to be taken offline. A temporary solution to the
problem is sought to get the plant to their next scheduled shut down ANSWER Research on-
stream leak sealing services. This problem is quite common. What they would do in this case
is drill a hole into the bypass valve on the upstream side but not completely into the line.
They would then tap the hole and install one of your injection fittings, which is like a small
plug valve. They would then take a long 1/8" drill bit and drill through the open injection fitting
and into the pressurized line. The drill bit is then removed and our injection equipment is
then attached. Sealant (heavy fibers and grease) is pumped into the line and caught in the
flow, which will bind up against the leaking seat on the bypass valve. If done properly, this
technique can be both effective and safe.
149 :: While there, are many tests available to detect leaks on vessels, is there a
technology available to quantify the leak, or measure the flow through a leak?
The RheoVac air in-leak monitor by Intek, Inc. in Westerville, OH is a viable meter that gives
the actual air in-leakage flow rate. It also gives you exhauster capacity and a vacuum quality
reading. If you want to find more information, you can view their web site below.
150 :: What are some common causes of gas pipeline vibration 20 Carbon Steel
line?
Check / consider the following:
► The upper pressure range and /or the smaller pipe diameters prompts me to investigate
the possibility that the gas is reaching critical flow somewhere downstream within the pipe.
When a gas gets to critical flow, sonic booms (producing vibration) are expected. In fact, one
of the main means by which the additional pressure in the pipe is lost.
► If the source is a compressor, look for surging.
► If the source is a tower, look for pressure cycling in the tower
► Look at critical flow through any control valve that may be in the line.
► Are there any vapors in the line, which can condense and produce two-phase flow? Two-
phase flow can cause vibration.
In chemical plant design, if we suspect two-phase flow, we instruct the piping designers to
provide special anchoring.

Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers

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Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers

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 Explain the third law of thermodynamics.

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Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

The condensation temperature of gaseous chlorine at 65 psig is 54 deg F. Thus, if your

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Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

3) Fan energy consumption

4) Pump energy consumption

6) Water treatment costs

7) Expected maintenance costs

8) Worker safety requirements

10) Expected service life

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Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

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Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

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Pipe Size (mm) Max Velocity (m/s)

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1) Whenever possible, piping should be designed to be self-draining

3) Blow-out or rod-out connections should be provided to clear lines in places where

4) Access flanges should be provided at T-connections

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Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

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4) Alum or ferric salts

5) Phosphate or carbonate ions

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Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

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► Hydrocarbons (in the form of unburned gasoline)

► Carbon monoxide (formed by the combustion of gasoline)

Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

► High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

► Acrylonitrile butadiene stryene (ABS)

► Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC)

► Elastomer-lined carbon steel

Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

Chemical Engineering Questions and Answers:

► If the source is a compressor, look for surging.

► If the source is a tower, look for pressure cycling in the tower

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