COCONUT FIBRE AS AN ALTERNATIVE GROWTH

COMPOUND FOR LIVING GREEN WALLS

Ghofran M.J.A. Salah Dr Anna Romanova
Research Student Senior Lecturer
University of Greenwich University of Greenwich
Central Avenue Central Avenue
Chatham Chatham
ME4 4TB ME4 4TB
0044 1634 88 3248 0044 1634 88 3306
G.M.Salah@greenwich.ac.uk A.Romanova@gre.ac.uk

ABSTRACT manors, or picket fences being fashionable in 17th century. In

Living Green Wall (LGW) is also known as the Vertical Garden 1988’s, those plants were incited to grow further and higher on
that in a way is a selection of plants, enclosed in a substance or a vertical surfaces by constructing systematic panels comprising
growing medium, distributed along the wall by the use of dedicated wooden mesh or steel cables on which they were creeping. In
enclosure methods and irrigation systems. It is believed that the 1990’s, the world famous French botanist Patric Blanc created the
concept originates from the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, which Vertical Gardening System and for the first time in recorded
has been both a remarkable masterpiece of Engineering and pride history, the plants had been growing on the vertical surface of a
to the people of Babylon that dates back to 600 B.C., as described hydroponic culture with an integrated irrigation and fertilizing
in historic writings. Our days the Living Green Wall is perceived system. Thereafter, the concept of vertical gardening has
as a nice-to-have luxurious feature that is generally attributed to constituted both a starting point and a source of inspiration for
commercial places and those with daily large numbers of passers- innovative plant companies (Saklidir, 2015).
by. So far, there is a scattered knowledge of the benefits the Living As any plant, the plants used on Living Green Walls require an
Green Wall offers in terms of mitigating the air pollution and noise accurate selection of soil/compost and fertilisers with adequate
control as well as providing scope for bio-diversity and thermal water supply to maintain healthy growth. In the majority of cases,
insulation, etc. Equally, public sees the Living Green Walls as an such choice falls on the compost with man-made fertilisers, which
aesthetic feature, however is overall demotivated by the installation was ‘manufactured’ for the purpose. These growth compounds are
and maintenance costs of such as it does not come cheap. The hazardous for the environment both during the production, use and
concept of LGW is quite a simple structure, however it can use a by-product utilization.
number of innovative ideas to address further the issues of
The purpose of this study is to assess the feasibility of use of
sustainability and environment. This paper reports on the current sustainable organic substrates as coconut fiber in LGW as full or
use, benefits and costs that are associated with traditional soils and
partial substitution to soil and fertilisers that are currently utilized
fertilizers used in LGW compared to that of coconut fiber and coir.
by the green wall and plant companies.
In addition, this paper will lead the way into sustainable coconut
by-product utilization and review of the Supply Chain Management 2. SOIL & FERTILISERS
LGW. All soils, natural or manufactured, require mineral components to
provide structure and organic components to provide essential
Keywords nutrients and water‐holding capacity. Components of manufactured
Living Green Wall, Coconut Fiber and Coir, Vertical Garden, Soil soils range widely. Typical components include: Compost, sub‐
& Fertilizers soil, dredge, sand, shredded bark, and other organic materials (AFS,
2017).
1. INTRODUCTION The soil is classified into three main types: (A) deep, fertile soils,
People first began to settle and farm the flat, swampy lands in
occupying 40% of global surface (B) vulnerable to soil erosion,
southern Mesopotamia before 4500 B.C. Later on, every July, rains
occupying 34% of global surface (C) represents soils that do not
and melting snow from the mountains of east Africa caused the Nile
fall into either class, either because that soil type has a marginal
River to rise and spill over its banks. When the river receded in
agricultural suitability or because it cannot easily be classified into
October, it left behind a rich deposit of fertile black mud called silt.
A or B (Vanwghem, et al., 2017).
The peasants would develop a network of irrigation ditches to water
their crops on rich silt or black soil (Beck, et al., 2009). Nowadays There are two main types of fertilisers: (1) organic that are derived
the soil is classified in many ways to represent its quality and from plant or animal and (2) inorganic, which are man-made.
chemical properties and also is referred to as compost and may be Organic fertilisers: These are derived from plant or animal sources
mixed with fertilisers to support and improve plant growth. and contain plant nutrients in organic form. Organic products tend
to be slower acting, as large organic molecules have to be broken
The concept of creating floral beds on the walls & roofs goes back
down by soil organisms before the nutrients within them are
to the hanging gardens of Babylon that is one of the Seven Wonders
released for plant use. Examples of organic fertilisers include:
of the World dating back to 600 B.C. We observe the creeping
seaweed, hoof & horn, dried blood, fish blood & bone, bone meal,
plants, Hedera Helix, roses, and grapes on the walls of castles,
poultry manure pellets and liquid comfrey or nettle feeds (RHS, The benefits of using soil/compost and fertilisers are well known,
2017). Inorganic fertilisers: These are synthetic, artificial forms of they support quick growth due to effectively balanced nutrition, are
plant nutrients or naturally occurring mined minerals. Inorganic easy to obtain and apply, can be selected based on chemical
fertilisers are usually more concentrated and faster acting than composition, can be used to control moisture retention, UV
organic fertilisers. Examples of trade names for inorganic fertilisers penetration and pesticide. Chemical fertilizers are rich equally in
include: Growmore, Miracle-Gro, Phostrogen, Sulphate of three essential nutrients: phosphorous, nitrogen, potassium that are
Ammonia, Sulphate of Potash, etc. equally distributed and needed for crops and plants if situation
There are many ways to apply fertilisers, and the chosen method when and as demanded. ‘Addition of natural nutrients to soil,
will greatly depend on the products used. Here are some of the most increases soil organic matter, improves soil structure and tilth,
common methods of application along with typical examples, see improves water holding capacity, reduces soil crusting problems,
Table 1. reduces erosion from wind and water, slowly and consistently
releases nutrients’ (Diffen, 2017).
Table. 1. Fertilizer application methods (RHS, 2017). There are a number of problems associated with the use of
Application Example manufactured soils and fertilisers. Several chemical fertilisers have
high acid content, they have the ability to burn the skin, plants and
Top Quick-acting fertilisers applied to the soil surface
dressing around plants to stimulate growth. Can cause scorching roots and can change soil fertility. Chemical, man-made ferlisers
if gets in contact with leafs or roots, also causes foster underground water contamination and promote significant
pollution of ground water. reduction of beneficial microorganisms. Organic fertilisers have
slow release capability and the distribution of nutrients is usually
Base dressing Incorporation of fertilizer into the soil or potting unequal (Diffen, 2017).
compost before sowing or planting.
Watering Liquid fertilisers or soluble powders and granules 3. COCONUT & FIBRES
on diluted in watered and applied on plant roots. The Coconuts are produced in 92 countries worldwide on more than 10
nutrients in liquid fertilisers are instantly available. million hectares (Applewhite, 1994), however predominantly,
Contact with leaf can cause scorching. coconut palm trees grow in Caribbean Islands, Philippines,
Foliar This is the application of a dilute solution of fertilizer Malaysia, Indonesia, south of India, Sri Lanka, Maldives and the
feeding to the leaves of plants, useful as an emergency Laccadives (Lutz, 2011). Indonesia is the world’s largest coconut
treatment for correcting nutrient deficiencies or for producer, followed by Philippines and India, all together they
providing quick supplementary feeding. Should not be account for 75% of world coconut production (Zafar, 2015). The
applied in bright sunlight because the foliage may be coconut palm, Cocos Nucifera, is the only type of palm tree that
scorched. produces coconuts. Within this species, however, there are dozens
of different varieties of coconuts, which are usually divided into
The demand for manufactured soils, and thus for sand or sand‐like two main types: tall and dwarf (Huang, et al., 2013).
materials, is huge. ‘The U.S. Department of Agriculture estimates The coconut palm starts fruiting 6 - 10 years after the seed
that more than 13.5 million tonnes of sand are used annually in the germinates and reaches full production at 15 - 20 years of age. The
horticulture market, which consists of a combination of plants tree continues to fruit until it is about 80 years old, with an annual
grown in nursery beds and plants grown directly in pots. Many production of 50 - 200 fruits per tree, depending on cultivar and
nursery operators blend their own soils and customize them to meet climate. The fruits require about 12 months to develop and are
the needs of the plants. Others purchase manufactured soils from generally harvested regularly throughout the year. The fruit should
commercial soil blenders. Manufactured soils are also widely sold be harvested fully ripe for copra and dehydrated coconut. Drinking
through landscaping companies, nurseries and retail nuts should be picked earlier, at about seven months. The nuts may
establishments. Landscape contractors account for a large be harvested by skilled climbers or may be cut from the ground,
percentage of soils sales volume, due to the demand for topsoil and using a knife attached to a long pole. Use of climbing spikes is not
landscaping soils on residential and commercial properties. All recommended since the wounds caused by the spikes are permanent
bagged topsoil’s and gardening soils sold in commercial and may provide entry sites for diseases, such as Thielaviopsis of
establishments are manufactured soils’ (AFS, 2017). trunk and root (Broschat & Crane, 2014).
When designing soil blends, soil scientists consider other Coconut fibre and coir are extracted from the inner husk of the
characteristics such as bulk density, organic carbon, caption coconuts (see Figure 1). Coconut natural fibre is thick, coarse and
exchange capacity and available water. A typical good native soil durable (Bakiya, et al., 2016). The coconut fruit yields 40% coconut
will have a bulk density of 1.2 - 1.4 g/cm3 (AFS, 2017). husks containing 30% fiber, with coir making up the rest (Zafar,
The costs of organic compost and fertilisers bought from the 2015), see Figure 2. Coir (also known as coir pith, coir meal, coir
manufacturer in Taiwan for example vary in range of £76-£240 per dust and coco peat) is a waste product of the coconut industry
tonne. The production of such is ecumenically not profitable, as it (Arenas et al., 2002), consisting of the dust and short fibres derived
ranges from £74 - £596 per tonne, and relies on government from the mesocarp or husk of the fruit. In most areas coir is a by-
subsidies, however is believed to benefit the environment as it product of copra production, and the husks are left on the fields as
reduces the amount of organic waste that ends-up in landfills. (Yi- a mulch or used as fertilizer because of high potash content. India
Tui Chen, 2016). and Sri Lanka are the main countries where coir is extracted by
traditional methods for the commercial production of a variety of
Of the shelve cost of compost available in the UK market for products. The outer husk that is removed before export is comprised
domestic consumer ranges between: £3.5 - £7 for 50L bag. The of long, rough fibres held together by a dust like pith as seen in
retail price ranges from £2 - £5. Where the producer/manufacturer Figure 2. The average fibre yield is dependent on geographical area
will charge between 10 - 20% cheaper if bought directly. and the variety of the coconut tree. In the south of India and Sri
Lanka, for example, where the best quality fibres are produced the
average yield is 80-90g fibre per husk. Caribbean husks, by Table 2. Raw coir material availability estimation (Dam, 2002).
contrast, are relatively thick and may yield up to 150g of fibre. Data is given in K tonnes Indonesia Philippines India Sri Lanka
Coconut Production 1000 700 600 260

Husk (fibre & coir) Outer coat / husk coat Coconut fibre extraction - - 300 100
Domestic use * 100 70 60 26
Coconut shell Non-extraction 900 630 240 134
* Estimated 10 per cent of total production
Estimated annual coconut production capacity × fibre yield (80-90 g/nut)
White flesh
According to prices quoted on the Alleppey market in India, coir
husks costs on average £6 for 1000 husks which, after retting, may
yield 90kg fibres at a price of £0.1 - £0.12/kg. Green decorticated
Coconut milk fibre may cost up to £0.09/kg. There is little fibre wastage in
spinning, so around 98kg of yarn is produced from 100kg of fibre.
High quality Anjengo yarns may yield around £0.3/kg, while
Vycome is quoted at £0.21/kg. Traditional hand spinning of fibre
Figure 1. Coconut component schematics (Apse, 2017).
to yarn using a spinning wheel requires three people, who may
produce 12 - 15kg of yarn per day. Export prices for finished coir
products such as handloom mats and matting, rugs and carpets
range between £ 0.85-0.97/kg (Dam, 2002).

Properties and benefits

The coconut shell has a density of about 1.2 g/cm3 and is five times
harder than the hardest hardwood, Hickory, mainly found in the
North America. The extremely high density and hardness make
coconut shell an excellent feed stock for charcoal and activated
carbon filters. While the shell is widely used for these applications,
the price of charcoal is low and demand for activated carbon filters
utilize only a small fraction of the coconut shell that is available
(Greer, 2008).
Coconut fibre has a density of 0.67 - 10.0 g/cm3, which blends in
well with excellent combination of tensile strength of 120 -
Figure 2. Coconut husk, fibre and coir (Greer, 2008). 500Mpa, tensile strain of 20% and water absorption of 80 - 180%
(Ali, 2011, Bujang, et al., 2007) that make it an excellent candidate
General physical, chemical and biological properties of coir have to replace oil based synthetic fibers in polymeric composites. In
been widely reviewed (Bragg, 1998, Prasad, 1997, Schmilewski, addition, fibre has a tremendous property of good temperature
2008a and Nichols, 2013) and, similar to peat, it provides a management and hence exhibits good insulation properties.
favorable balance of air and water to plant roots. In contrast to peat, The coir is extracted from the husk along with the fiber. It has two
which once dried out can be difficult to re-wet (Michel, 2010), coir interesting properties that make it commercially attractive. Coir is
has a high re-wetting capacity (Blok and Weaver, 2008). As such, both highly hydrophilic and chemically reactive. A micrograph of
it has been used as a peat replacement across many sectors of the coconut coir internal structure can be seen in Figure 3. The coir
horticultural industry, from soft fruit production to floriculture structure comprises of thin hollow shells or tubes. These hollow
(Schmilewski, 2008a). As a waste product, not produced tubes allow for the coir to absorb ten times its own weight in water
specifically for horticultural applications, it may not always be and make it an excellent additive for gardening soil. There are some
processed and handled in ways that makes it most suitable for use synthetic materials that can absorb more water, but they are
in growing media. As a result its physical, chemical and biological expensive and are not bio-degradable (Greer, 2008).
properties can vary widely (Smith, 1995, Evans and Stamps, 1996,
Abad et al., 2005 and Nichols, 2013). A number of research works carried out on acoustical properties of
porous materials have concluded that the coconut based soil can
Husks are composed of 70% coir and 30% fibre on a dry weight improve sound absorption by 20% if incorporated in a Living Green
basis. The ratio of yield of long, medium and short fibre, Wall (Berardi & Innace 2015, Romanova & Horoshenkov 2016).
respectively, is on average 60:30:10. Based on these data and The best results were achieved where the coconut soil contained at
combined with the production data in Table 1, the maximum total least 50% of coconut fibre and coir mixture. For the sound
world production of coir fibre, included short fibres, can be absorbtion of the incident sound in the vicinity of the LGW to be
estimated to range between 5M - 6M tonnes per year. Only a small more effective, the coconut soil moisture content is best to range
part, <10%, of this potential enters commercial trade. Continuous between 5 - 10% (Romanova & Horoshenkov 2016).
expanding production of brown fibre reached 216K tonnes, 70% in
India and 27% in Sri Lanka, in 1996, while white fibre production,
mainly in India, has remained stable at 125K tonnes (Dam, 2002).
Table 2 demonstrates the current average values for coir
availability.
 directed worldwide towards coconut management issues i.e. of
utilization, storage and disposal.

4. COCONUT SOIL BENEFITS

Also, coir that is derived from coconuts grown in coastal areas or
washed in saline water (during primary processing) can release
phytotoxic levels of sodium and potassium during use
(Schmilewski, 2008a and Nichols, 2013). Consequently, in
addition to a period of aging to stabilise the material (Carlile et al.,
2015), coir requires several washings in fresh water and a
‘buffering’ treatment (in which calcium nitrate is added to the
material to displace harmful concentrations of sodium and
potassium) before it is suitable for use as a growing medium.
(Nichols, 2013 and Poulter, 2014). This secondary processing adds
significantly to the economic cost of coir (Schmilewski, 2008a and
Figure 3. Micrograph of coconut coir structure (Greer, 2008). Poulter, 2014). Another relatively minor cost relates to
transportation; commercial coconut production is geographically
limited to tropical Africa, America and Asia. While dehydration
Industrial products and compression of the material can help to reduce long distance
Coconuts are the most widely grown nut in the world and contribute transport costs (Maher et al., 2008), these may still be of
significantly to the economy of many tropical areas (Broschat & significance to the farthest markets in Europe (Schmilewski,
Crane, 2015). The short, tough fibers can be woven or pressed 2008a). In its favor economically, coir is at present in plentiful
together for a number of uses and unlike man-made fibers, coconut supply for soilless growing media, where 50M tonnes of coconuts
is a renewable resource. are produced annually in the world and 25% of production ends up
The coconut fibers are used for a number of applications: land and as waste coir (Nichols, 2013). As environmental drivers have
sea ropes, nets, matting, brushes and brooms, mattress stuffing, become increasingly important considerations within the
bags, garden beds, pressed pots and baskets, soil additive to retain horticultural industry, the relative expense of coir compared to peat
water, peat for hydroponic gardening, roofing, concrete are become less of a constraint and more of a common sense
reinforcement (Myers, 2015, Ali et al., 2012), insulation in resource (Barrett, et al., 2016).
construction industry, geothechnical netting used for erosion Generations of gardeners have recognized the benefits of adding
prevention (Greer, 2008), safety netting (Wang & Chouw, 2017), peat moss to garden and potting soil. Although it has little nutrient
upholsters padding for automobile sector, shock absorbent in value, it is a good soil amendment. It lightens the soil, allows air to
transport industry, funrniture and furniture accessories. enter, holds moisture without being soggy and generally improves
Woven coconut leaves known locally as cadjan are used as thatch, soil structure. It seems that most gardeners don't realize that peat
while coconut timber is used widely as rafters and in the furniture takes hundreds of years to form and hence is not considered as
industry. Coconut leaves and roots are used as fuel for the hearth. sustainable resource due to recovery time (McMahan, 2015).
Mats and basketware are also woven from the treated leaves and Hence, wetland ecologists say that peat is being harvested at non-
their spiny ekels (mid-ribs). The residue after the oil extractions is sustainable rates. While the peat industry argues that peatlands can
a ready - made poonac or high protein & fat containing animal feed. be managed at sustainable levels, it recognizes that alternatives to
There are also handicrafts made out of coconut shells and various peat must be developed in order to meet environmental concerns of
other products (Nature's Bounty, 2013). consumers and contend with increased regulation of peatland
exploitation. As useful as peat is for horticulture, there are good
A coconut plantation is analogous to energy crop plantations,
alternatives, one substitute is coir, or coconut dust (McMahan,
however coconut plantations are a source of wide variety of
2015).
products, in addition to energy. The current world production of
coconuts has the potential to produce electricity, heat, fiberboards, In the past, this fine material was considered waste and left to
organic fertilizer, animal feeds, fuel additives for cleaner accumulate in enormous piles. In Southeast Asian countries where
emissions, health drinks, etc. (Zafar, 2015). coconuts are harvested commercially, some of these piles are
thought to be as much as a century old. Not only is coir a renewable
Waste resource, its horticultural use helps solve a waste disposal problem
Despite the benefits, remarkably, 80 - 90% of the coconut husks in these parts of the world (McMahan, 2015).
currently create pollution when they are treated as waste (Cimons, Researchers at Auburn University and University of Arkansas
2014). Coconut tree parts as empty fruit bunches, fibers, fronds, compared peat and coir as soil amendments for horticulture. They
shells and trunks are discarded as waste and either burned in the found that coir performed on par with peat. Coir has proven to hold
open air or left to settle in waste ponds. This way the coconut moisture well, wet more easily than peat, drain well, decompose
processing industries contributed significantly to CO2 and methane more slowly and withstand compression better than peat. Plus coir
emissions (Datar & Shinde, 2015). Although, normally coconut dust does not have the small sticks and possible seeds that peat has.
fiber takes 20 years to decompose, without causing any harm for Peat bogs are a special kind of wetland, many of which are
our environment, utilization of such products to good use should be thousands of years of accumulated plant material. They receive
encouraged for sustainable reasons (Uses of Coconut, 2017). most of their water as rain or snowmelt rather than from runoff or
Different avenues of coconut shell utilization are more or less streams. Peat mosses (genus Sphagnum) thrive, and acidify the
known but none of them have so far proved to be economically soggy environment, making it difficult for many kinds of plants to
viable or commercially feasible (Madakson, et al., 2012). Based on grow. Only those that can cope under acid conditions survive. The
economic as well as environmental related issues, efforts should be
acidity, low temperatures and lack of oxygen discourage bacterial gaining an overall score of 11. Mostly as the heat control, noise
decomposition, so over centuries and millennia, layers of peat moss control, water retention, resistance to fungi and sustainability
and other bog plants become compressed, forming peat. factors of such compost blends are high. The presence of other
The wet, acidic and low-nutrient environment in peat bogs foster parameters are close to that of A&B OF, and although in this
plant and animal communities highly adapted to these conditions, compound the plant grown rate will be slower, the minimal addition
including insectivorous plants such as sundews, Venus fly-trap, of the nutrients can help to stimulate and achieve the required
pitcher plants and Oregon's cobra plants, also known as growth rate.
Darlingtonia. These fascinating plants trap insects, "digesting"
them for nitrogen, which is a limiting factor for plants in their wet, Table 3. Soil, fertilisers and coconut fiber benefit comparison.
Black Soil Soil A&B Soil A&B Soil A&B
acidic environment. A&B type with with man- with 50%
or compost organic made coconut
Built up layers of peat can preserve organic material that usually
fertilisers fertilisers fibre &
deteriorates quickly – wool, hair, skin, bone, wood, plant parts and coir
pollen – providing an invaluable historic record. Peat bogs in
Factors A&B A&B OF A&B MF A&B CFP
Europe have turned up human artifacts as old as 12,000 years and
preserved human remains from about 2,000 years ago. Acidity 0.5 0.5 -0.5 0.5

Coir can be used as good and uncompromisingly effective Weight 0.6 0.9 0.8 1
alternative to peat which also has lower levels of acidity
Fertility 0.5 0.8 1 0.7
(McMahan, 2015). Available in bales at garden centers ready for
use, coir, is also sold in compressed "bricks," that expand into Growth rate 0.5 0.6 1 0.7
several times their volume when moistened. The price of coir is Heat control 0.5 0.7 0.7 1
usually comparable to peat (Richards, 2006). Coir is a material
Microorganisms 0.5 1 0.4 0.8
which is widely used to overcome the problem of erosion. When
woven into geotextiles and placed on areas in need of erosion Noise control 0.7 0.8 0.8 1
control it promotes new vegetation by absorbing water and
Nutrient value 0.5 0.8 1 0.8
preventing top soil from drying out. Coir geotextiles have a natural
ability to retain moisture and protect from the suns radiation just Preparation 0.9 0.8 0.9 1
like natural soil, and unlike geo-synthetic materials, it provides Water pollution 0.5 0.5 -0.5 0.5
good soil support for up to three years, allowing natural vegetation
to become established (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2017). Water retention 0.4 0.6 0.7 1

Resists fungi 0.5 0.5 1 1

5. RESULTS
Sustainable 0.6 0.8 0.2 1
Based on the above review, the coconut fiber and coir based soil
(A&B CFP) properties were compared to those of common black Total 7.2 9.3 7.5 11
soil types A&B or also known as compost (A&B), soil A&B types
mixed with organic fertilisers (A&B OF) and soil A&B types
mixed with man-made or chemical fertilisers (A&B MF). Table 3 The cost analysis for 5 types of growth compounds have been
shows the variable-weight analysis for a number of parameters performed and are presented in Figure 4. The production and retail
identified for all of the growth compound types that could be cost averaged data was obtained from UK, EU, USA, India,
considered important for the application in a Living Green Wall. Indonesia and Taiwan manufacturers.
For each factor, the maximal value of 1 was assigned to the top
value across all growth compounds, where the others are
represented as relative fraction. In places where the factor can have
a negative effect on the plant growth or the environment a minus
sign is assigned. In the event of neutral effect a value of 0.5 is
assigned. The factor analysis has been carried out considering a
number of sources and averaged for obtained values, hence should
be used as a reference comparison indication only.
Considering the factorial analysis in Table 3, a total score for the
A&B of 7.2 is achieved, followed by 9.3, 7.5 and 11 for A&B OF,
A&B MF and A&B CFP, respectively. This shows that in ideal
scenario when each of the presented factors carried equal weight
and perceived of the same importance, the most preferred growth
compound (A&B MF) that is currently utilised by plant nurseries Figure 4. The average costs for different types of growth
and landscaping companies has very low ‘benefit’ score. The man- compounds (UK, EU, USA, India, Indonesia and Taiwan).
made soil compost and fertilisers (A&B MF) have one major
benefit, they can be manufactures to fulfill any plant requirements In countries as UK, EU and USA, the amount of private
and can also stimulate quick and effective growth, which is very soil/compost companies dominate the market and they introduce a
important for horticultural community. For A&B MF the factors as healthy margin on their products, especially on the ‘chemically
microorganism ‘support’ is low, ground water pollution is height, manufactured’ compost, A&B MF. In countries as India, Indonesia
which yields negative value, and the general sustainability factor of and Taiwan, composts as A&B, A&B OF, A&B CFP dominate the
manufacturing such compost blend is low in comparison to others. market as they employ traditional methods, do not require
However, on the contrary the A&B CFP has performed well, sophisticated machinery and labs to produce and are promoted by
the government due to their sustainability aspects. In the majority the UK to promote additional sustainable aspects in their daily
of cases the mentioned countries are unable to sponsor the business operations.
manufacturing equipment and rely on cheap manual labor, which is
available in excess. As the study shows, in the majority of cases the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
producers of A&B, A&B OF, A&B CFP are unable to make a profit The authors would like to thank HoD of the Applied Engineering
and fully rely on government subsidies to survive (Yi-Tui Chen, and Management department Dr Alec D Coutroubis and the
2016). On the contrary, a number of private manufacturers that University of Greenwich VC Scholarship Grant under which the
have purchased dedicated machinery and have been able to secure current work was commenced.
contracts with horticultural companies outside their production
country, have been able to make 30 - 70% profit per tonne of REFERENCES
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