1. What does static variable mean?

2. What is a pointer?
3. What is a structure?
4. What are the differences between structures and arrays?
5. In header files whether functions are declared or defined?
6. What are the differences between malloc() and calloc()?
7. What are macros? What are the advantages and disadvantages?
8. Difference between pass by reference and pass by value?
9. What is static identifier?
10. Where are the auto variables stored?
11. Where does global, static, local, register variables, free memory and C Program
instructions get stored?
12. Difference between arrays and linked list?
13. What are enumerations?
14. Describe about storage allocation and scope of global, extern, static, local and
register variables?
15. What are register variables? What are the advantage of using register variables?
16. What is the use of typedef?
17. Can we specify variable field width in a scanf() format string? If possible how?
18. Out of fgets() and gets() which function is safe to use and why?
19. Difference between strdup and strcpy?
20. What is recursion?
21. Differentiate between a for loop and a while loop? What are it uses?
22. What are the different storage classes in C?
23. Write down the equivalent pointer expression for referring the same element a[i]
[j][k][l]?
24. What is difference between Structure and Unions?
25. What the advantages of using Unions?
26. What are the advantages of using pointers in a program?
27. What is the difference between Strings and Arrays?
28. In a header file whether functions are declared or defined?
29. What is a far pointer? where we use it?
30. How will you declare an array of three function pointers where each function
receives two ints and returns a float?
31. What is a NULL Pointer? Whether it is same as an uninitialized pointer?
32. What is a NULL Macro? What is the difference between a NULL Pointer and a
NULL Macro?
33. What does the error ‘Null Pointer Assignment’ mean and what causes this error?
34. What is near, far and huge pointers? How many bytes are occupied by them?
35. How would you obtain segment and offset addresses from a far address of a
memory location?
36. Are the expressions arr and *arr same for an array of integers?
37. Does mentioning the array name gives the base address in all the contexts?
38. Explain one method to process an entire string as one unit?
39. What is the similarity between a Structure, Union and enumeration?
40. Can a Structure contain a Pointer to itself?
41. How can we check whether the contents of two structure variables are same or
not?
42. How are Structure passing and returning implemented by the complier?
43. How can we read/write Structures from/to data files?
44. What is the difference between an enumeration and a set of pre-processor #
defines?
45. What do the ‘c’ and ‘v’ in argc and argv stand for?
46. Are the variables argc and argv are local to main?
47. What is the maximum combined length of command line arguments including the
space between adjacent arguments?
48. If we want that any wildcard characters in the command line arguments should be
appropriately expanded, are we required to make any special provision? If yes,
which?
49. Does there exist any way to make the command line arguments available to other
functions without passing them as arguments to the function?
50. What are bit fields? What is the use of bit fields in a Structure declaration?
51. To which numbering system can the binary number 1101100100111100 be easily
converted to?
52. Which bit wise operator is suitable for checking whether a particular bit is on or
off?
53. Which bit wise operator is suitable for turning off a particular bit in a number?
54. Which bit wise operator is suitable for putting on a particular bit in a number?
55. Which bit wise operator is suitable for checking whether a particular bit is on or
off?
56. Which one is equivalent to multiplying by 2?
o Left shifting a number by 1
o Left shifting an unsigned int or char by 1?
57. Write a program to compare two strings without using the strcmp() function.
58. Write a program to concatenate two strings.
59. Write a program to interchange 2 variables without using the third one.
60. Write programs for String Reversal. The same for Palindrome check.
61. Write a program to find the Factorial of a number.
62. Write a program to generate the Fibonacci Series?
63. Write a program which employs Recursion?
64. Write a program which uses command line arguments.
65. Write a program which uses functions like strcmp(), strcpy(), etc.
66. What are the advantages of using typedef in a program?
67. How would you dynamically allocate a one-dimensional and two-dimensional
array of integers?
68. How can you increase the size of a dynamically allocated array?
69. How can you increase the size of a statically allocated array?
70. When reallocating memory if any other pointers point into the same piece of
memory do you have to readjust these other pointers or do they get readjusted
automatically?
71. Which function should be used to free the memory allocated by calloc()?
72. How much maximum can you allocate in a single call to malloc()?
73. Can you dynamically allocate arrays in expanded memory?
74. What is object file? How can you access object file?
75. Which header file should you include if you are to develop a function which can
accept variable number of arguments?
76. Can you write a function similar to printf()?
77. How can a called function determine the number of arguments that have been
passed to it?
78. Can there be at least some solution to determine the number of arguments passed
to a variable argument list function?
79. How do you declare the following:
o An array of three pointers to chars
o An array of three char pointers
o A pointer to array of three chars
o A pointer to function which receives an int pointer and returns a float
pointer
o A pointer to a function which receives nothing and returns nothing
80. What do the functions atoi(), itoa() and gcvt() do?
81. Does there exist any other function which can be used to convert an integer or a
float to a string?
82. How would you use qsort() function to sort an array of structures?
83. How would you use qsort() function to sort the name stored in an array of pointers
to string?
84. How would you use bsearch() function to search a name stored in array of
pointers to string?
85. How would you use the functions sin(), pow(), sqrt()?
86. How would you use the functions memcpy(), memset(), memmove()?
87. How would you use the functions fseek(), freed(), fwrite() and ftell()?
88. How would you obtain the current time and difference between two times?
89. How would you use the functions randomize() and random()?
90. How would you implement a substr() function that extracts a sub string from a
given string?
91. What is the difference between the functions rand(), random(), srand() and
randomize()?
92. What is the difference between the functions memmove() and memcpy()?
93. How do you print a string on the printer?
94. Can you use the function fprintf() to display the output on the screen?
95. Gautam Pagedar adds this question: What is a linklist and why do we use it
when we have arrays? - I feel the correct answer should be linklist is used in cases
where you don’t know the memory required to store a data structure and need to
allocate is dynamically on demand.
96. How do you detect a loop in linked list?
97. Sunil asks: What is the difference between main() in C and main() in C++?
98. ajz at his interviews asks what will be printed out when the following code is
executed:

1. What is the difference between an ARRAY and a LIST?

Array is collection of homogeneous elements.

List is collection of heterogeneous elements.

For Array memory allocated is static and continuous.

For List memory allocated is dynamic and Random.

Array: User need not have to keep in track of next memory allocation.
List: User has to keep in Track of next location where memory is allocated.

2. bhaskar Krishna Said:

April 10th, 2006 6:16 am

What is faster : access the element in an ARRAY or in a LIST?

It’s array the reason is it continuous.

3. bhaskar Krishna Said:

April 10th, 2006 6:23 am

Define a constructor - what it is and how it might be called (2 methods).

constructor is a member function of the class, with the name of the function being
the same as the class name. It also specifies how the object should be initialized.

Ways of calling constructor:

1) Implicitly: automatically by complier when an object is created.

2) Calling the constructors explicitly is possible, but it makes the code

unverifiable.

4. vaibhav chauhan Said:

May 5th, 2006 1:42 am
 You have two pairs: new() and delete() and another pair : alloc() and free().
Explain differences between eg. new() and malloc()

1.) “new and delete” are preprocessors while “malloc() and free()” are functions.
[we dont use brackets will calling new or delete].

2.) no need of allocate the memory while using “new” but in “malloc()” we have
to use “sizeof()”.

3.) “new” will initlize the new memory to 0 but “malloc()” gives random value in
the new alloted memory location [better to use calloc()].

vaibhav chauhan

5. A question Said:
June 2nd, 2006 7:53 pm

I have a problem !.T don’t know How many bytes does “++” advance the pointer
LPWORD lpWord?. Can you help me please ! Thanks .

6. Bumba Said:
July 6th, 2006 1:20 am

Explain term POLIMORPHISM and give an example using eg. SHAPE object: If
I have a base class SHAPE, how would I define DRAW methods for two objects
CIRCLE and SQUARE

POLYMORPHISM : A phenomenon which enables an object to react differently

to the same function call.
in C++ it is attained by using a keyword virtual
example
public class SHAPE
{
public virtual void SHAPE::DRAW()=0;
}
Note here the function DRAW() is pure virtual which means the sub classes must
implement the DRAW() method and SHAPE cannot be instatiated
public class CIRCLE::public SHAPE
{
public void CIRCLE::DRAW()
{
// TODO drawing circle
}
}
public class SQUARE::public SHAPE
{
 public void SQUARE::DRAW()
{
// TODO drawing square
}
}
now from the user class the calls would be like

globally
SHAPE *newShape;

when user action is to draw

public void MENU::OnClickDrawCircle(){
newShape = new CIRCLE();
}

public void MENU::OnClickDrawCircle(){

newShape = new SQUARE();
}

the when user actually draws

public void CANVAS::OnMouseOperations(){
newShape->DRAW();
}

What is the word you will use when defining a function in base class to allow this
function to be a polimorphic function?
virtual

7. Michael Mountrakis Said:

July 28th, 2006 6:26 pm

Q1.What is the difference between an ARRAY and a LIST?

A1. Array uses direct access of stored members, list uses sequencial access for
members.

//With Array you have direct access to memory position 5

Object x = a[5]; // x takes directly a reference to 5th element of array

//With the list you have to cross all previous nodes in order to get the 5th node:
list mylist;
list::iterator it;

for( it = list.begin() ; it != list.end() ; it++ )

{
if( i==5)
{
x = *it;
break;
}
i++;
}

Q2. What is faster : access the element in an ARRAY or in a LIST?

A2. See previous example. With the list implementation of our data structure we
need n-1 iteration steps before we reach n-nth item.
With the array implementation we need a single ste to do so.

Q3. Define a constructor - what it is and how it might be called (2 methods).

A3.

class Point2D{
int x; int y;
public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor
};

main(){

Point2D MyPoint; // Implicit Constructor call. In order to allocate memory on

stack, the default constructor is implicitly called.

Point2D * pPoint = new Point2D(); // Explicit Constructor call. In order to

allocate memory on HEAP we call the default constructor.

Q4. Describe PRIVATE, PROTECTED and PUBLIC – the differences and give
examples.
A4.

class Point2D{
int x; int y;

public int color;

protected bool pinned;
public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor
};

Point2D MyPoint;

You cannot directly access private data members when they are declared
(implicitly) private:
MyPoint.x = 5; // Compiler will issue a compile ERROR
//Nor yoy can see them:
int x_dim = MyPoint.x; // Compiler will issue a compile ERROR

On the other hand, you can assign and read the public data members:

MyPoint.color = 255; // no problem

int col = MyPoint.color; // no problem

With protected data members you can read them but not write them:
MyPoint.pinned = true; // Compiler will issue a compile ERROR

bool isPinned = MyPoint.pinned; // no problem

Q5.What is a COPY CONSTRUCTOR and when is it called (this is a frequent

question !)?
A5 A copy constructor is a method that accepts an object of the same class and
copies it’s data members to the object on the left part of assignement:

class Point2D{
int x; int y;

public int color;

protected bool pinned;
public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor
public Point2D( const Point2D & ) ;
};

Point2D::Point2D( const Point2D & p )

{
this->x = p.x;
this->y = p.y;
this->color = p.color;
this->pinned = p.pinned;
}

main(){

Point2D MyPoint;

MyPoint.color = 345;

Point2D AnotherPoint = Point2D( MyPoint ); // now AnotherPoint has color =

345
 Q6 Explain term POLIMORPHISM and give an example using eg. SHAPE
object: If I have a base class SHAPE, how would I define DRAW methods for
two objects CIRCLE and SQUARE.
A6
class SHAPE{
public virtual Draw() = 0; //abstract class with a pure virtual method
};

class CIRCLE{
public int r;
public virtual Draw() { this->drawCircle(0,0,r); }
};

class SQURE
public int a;
public virtual Draw() { this->drawRectangular(0,0,a,a); }
};

Each object is driven down from SHAPE implementing Draw() function in its
own way.

Q7 What is the word you will use when defining a function in base class to allow
this function to be a polimorphic function?
A7
virtual

Q8 What are 2 ways of exporting a function from a DLL?

A7
1.Taking a reference to the function from the DLL instance.
2. Using the DLL ’s Type Library

Q9 You have two pairs: new() and delete() and another pair : alloc() and free().
Explain differences between eg. new() and malloc()
new() allocates continous space for the object instace
malloc() allocates distributed space.
new() is castless, meaning that allocates memory for this specific type,
malloc(), calloc() allocate space for void * that is cated to the specific class type
pointer.

Mike Mountrakis
Illumine Consulting

8. MP Said:
August 18th, 2006 10:31 am
 There are many errors in above comments, so I feel a need to post some
references.

3. public methods/attributes are accessible to all classes.

protected are accessible to class and derived classes.
private are only for class (not for derived classes)
http://www.cppreference.com/keywords/protected.html

8. Windows only! For *nix it is a bit different ..

write a .def file or mark functions as extern “C” __declspec(dllexport) fn…

9. new is a C++ operator, and a) allocates memory on heap b) calls class

constructor. On the other hand, malloc() is a C function that only allocates
memory on heap (does not call constructor). You must then call constructor
yourself (or use placement new operator - new(ptr) ). Note that memory is NOT
zeroed either with new or malloc (but might be depending on compiler).

9. Pravin Wagh Said:

November 4th, 2006 8:32 am

MP - regarding memory being zeroed or not, it’s not necessarily the compiler but
the build settings. When you build in a DEBUG configuration, the runtime uses
memory manager code that will often take care of zeroing out memory for you.

In Visual C++, there is also the convention of initializing the memory to

predefined values such as 0xcccc or 0xcdcd (which ends up being a great way to
discover whether somebody has erroneously set a member variable or failed to set
it in the first place - because nobody would intentionally choose a number like
0xcccc or 0xcdcd would they?)

10. ajay kant singh Said:

January 20th, 2007 8:54 am

The diffrence between array and the list is that:

array shows the contigus memory location and list represents the dynamic
memory allocation.

array size should be specified but the list size can be determied at run time also.

list refers to use of pointers.

11. ajay kant singh Said:

January 20th, 2007 9:02 am

The Difference Between The private Public And Protected member are:
 public: The data of the class can be inherited into another class.

private: The data of the class type private cannot be inherited into another class.

protected : These data of the class can be inherited but they are same as private .

Tell how to check whether a linked list is circular.

A: Create two pointers, each set to the start of the list. Update each as follows:

while (pointer1) {
pointer1 = pointer1->next;
pointer2 = pointer2->next; if (pointer2) pointer2=pointer2->next;
if (pointer1 == pointer2) {
print ("circularn");
}
}

Q2: OK, why does this work?

If a list is circular, at some point pointer2 will wrap around and be either at the item just
before pointer1, or the item before that. Either way, it’s either 1 or 2 jumps until they
meet.

How can you quickly find the number of elements stored in a a) static array b)
dynamic array ?

Why is it difficult to store linked list in an array?

How can you find the nodes with repetetive data in a linked list?

Write a prog to accept a given string in any order and flash error if any of the
character is different. For example : If abc is the input then abc, bca, cba, cab bac are
acceptable but aac or bcd are unacceptable.

This is a C question that I had for an intern position at Microsoft: Write out a
function that prints out all the permutations of a string. For example, abc would give you
abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba. You can assume that all the characters will be unique. After I
wrote out my function, he asked me to figure out from the code how many times the
printf statement is run, and also questions on optimizing my algorithm.

What’s the output of the following program? Why?

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
typedef union
{
int a;
char b[10];
float c;
}
Union;

Union x,y = {100};

x.a = 50;
strcpy(x.b,"hello");
x.c = 21.50;

printf("Union x : %d %s %f n",x.a,x.b,x.c );
printf("Union y :%d %s%f n",y.a,y.b,y.c);
}

Given inputs X, Y, Z and operations | and & (meaning bitwise OR and AND,
respectively)

What is output equal to in

output = (X & Y) | (X & Z) | (Y & Z)

***********************-----------------------------------------------------------------------

What is encapsulation??

Containing and hiding information about an object, such as internal data structures and
code. Encapsulation isolates the internal complexity of an object's operation from the rest
of the application. For example, a client component asking for net revenue from a
business object need not know the data's origin.

What is inheritance?

Inheritance allows one class to reuse the state and behavior of another class. The derived
class inherits the properties and method implementations of the base class and extends it
by overriding methods and adding additional properties and methods.

What is Polymorphism??
Polymorphism allows a client to treat different objects in the same way even if they were
created from different classes and exhibit different behaviors.

You can use implementation inheritance to achieve polymorphism in languages such as

C++ and Java.

Base class object's pointer can invoke methods in derived class objects.

You can also achieve polymorphism in C++ by function overloading and operator
overloading.

What is constructor or ctor?

Constructor creates an object and initializes it. It also creates vtable for virtual functions.
It is different from other methods in a class.

What is destructor?

Destructor usually deletes any extra resources allocated by the object.

What is default constructor?

Constructor with no arguments or all the arguments has default values.

What is copy constructor?

Constructor which initializes the it's object member variables ( by shallow copying) with
another object of the same class. If you don't implement one in your class then compiler
implements one for you.

for example:
Boo Obj1(10); // calling Boo constructor

Boo Obj2(Obj1); // calling boo copy constructor

Boo Obj2 = Obj1;// calling boo copy constructor

When are copy constructors called?

Copy constructors are called in following cases:

a) when a function returns an object of that class by value
b) when the object of that class is passed by value as an argument to a function
c) when you construct an object based on another object of the same class
d) When compiler generates a temporary object

What is assignment operator?

Default assignment operator handles assigning one object to another of the same class.
Member to member copy (shallow copy)

What are all the implicit member functions of the class? Or what are all the
functions which compiler implements for us if we don't define one.??

default ctor
copy ctor
assignment operator
default destructor
address operator

What is conversion constructor?

constructor with a single argument makes that constructor as conversion ctor and it can
be used for type conversion.

for example:

class Boo
{
public:
Boo( int i );
};

Boo BooObject = 10 ; // assigning int 10 Boo object

What is conversion operator??

class can have a public method for specific data type conversions.

for example:
class Boo
{
double value;
public:
Boo(int i )
operator double()
{
return value;
}
};

Boo BooObject;
double i = BooObject; // assigning object to variable i of type double. now conversion
operator gets called to assign the value.

What is diff between malloc()/free() and new/delete?

malloc allocates memory for object in heap but doesn't invoke object's constructor to
initiallize the object.

new allocates memory and also invokes constructor to initialize the object.

malloc() and free() do not support object semantics

Does not construct and destruct objects
string * ptr = (string *)(malloc (sizeof(string)))
Are not safe
Does not calculate the size of the objects that it construct
Returns a pointer to void
int *p = (int *) (malloc(sizeof(int)));
int *p = new int;
Are not extensible
new and delete can be overloaded in a class

"delete" first calls the object's termination routine (i.e. its destructor) and then releases the
space the object occupied on the heap memory. If an array of objects was created using
new, then delete must be told that it is dealing with an array by preceding the name with
an empty []:-

Int_t *my_ints = new Int_t[10];

...

delete []my_ints;

what is the diff between "new" and "operator new" ?

"operator new" works like malloc.

What is difference between template and macro??

There is no way for the compiler to verify that the macro parameters are of compatible
types. The macro is expanded without any special type checking.

If macro parameter has a postincremented variable ( like c++ ), the increment is

performed two times.
Because macros are expanded by the preprocessor, compiler error messages will refer to
the expanded macro, rather than the macro definition itself. Also, the macro will show up
in expanded form during debugging.

for example:

Macro:

#define min(i, j) (i < j ? i : j)

template:
template<class T>
T min (T i, T j)
{
return i < j ? i : j;
}

What are C++ storage classes?

auto
register
static
extern

auto: the default. Variables are automatically created and initialized when they are
defined and are destroyed at the end of the block containing their definition. They are not
visible outside that block

register: a type of auto variable. a suggestion to the compiler to use a CPU register for
performance

static: a variable that is known only in the function that contains its definition but is
never destroyed and retains its value between calls to that function. It exists from the time
the program begins execution

extern: a static variable whose definition and placement is determined when all object
and library modules are combined (linked) to form the executable code file. It can be
visible outside the file where it is defined.

What are storage qualifiers in C++ ?

They are..
const
volatile
mutable

Const keyword indicates that memory once initialized, should not be altered by a
program.

volatile keyword indicates that the value in the memory location can be altered even
though nothing in the program
code modifies the contents. for example if you have a pointer to hardware location that
contains the time, where hardware changes the value of this pointer variable and not the
program. The intent of this keyword to improve the optimization ability of the
compiler.

mutable keyword indicates that particular member of a structure or class can be altered
even if a particular structure variable, class, or class member function is constant.

struct data
{
char name[80];
mutable double salary;
}

const data MyStruct = { "Satish Shetty", 1000 }; //initlized by complier

strcpy ( MyStruct.name, "Shilpa Shetty"); // compiler error

MyStruct.salaray = 2000 ; // complier is happy allowed

What is reference ??

reference is a name that acts as an alias, or alternative name, for a previously defined
variable or an object.

prepending variable with "&" symbol makes it as reference.

for example:

int a;
int &b = a;

What is passing by reference?

Method of passing arguments to a function which takes parameter of type reference.

for example:
void swap( int & x, int & y )
{
int temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
}

int a=2, b=3;

swap( a, b );

Basically, inside the function there won't be any copy of the arguments "x" and "y"
instead they refer to original variables a and b. so no extra memory needed to pass
arguments and it is more efficient.

When do use "const" reference arguments in function?

a) Using const protects you against programming errors that inadvertently alter data.
b) Using const allows function to process both const and non-const actual arguments,
while a function without const in the prototype can only accept non constant arguments.
c) Using a const reference allows the function to generate and use a temporary variable
appropriately.

When are temporary variables created by C++ compiler?

Provided that function parameter is a "const reference", compiler generates temporary

variable in following 2 ways.

a) The actual argument is the correct type, but it isn't Lvalue

double Cube(const double & num)

{
num = num * num * num;
return num;

double temp = 2.0;

double value = cube(3.0 + temp); // argument is a expression and not a Lvalue;

b) The actual argument is of the wrong type, but of a type that can be converted to the
correct type
long temp = 3L;
double value = cuberoot ( temp); // long to double conversion

What is virtual function?

When derived class overrides the base class method by redefining the same function, then
if client wants to access redefined the method from derived class through a pointer from
base class object, then you must define this function in base class as virtual function.

class parent
{
void Show()
{
cout << "i'm parent" << endl;
}
};

class child: public parent

{
void Show()
{
cout << "i'm child" << endl;
}

};

parent * parent_object_ptr = new child;

parent_object_ptr->show() // calls parent->show() i

now we goto virtual world...

class parent
{
virtual void Show()
{
cout << "i'm parent" << endl;
}
};

class child: public parent

{
void Show()
{
cout << "i'm child" << endl;
}

};

parent * parent_object_ptr = new child;

parent_object_ptr->show() // calls child->show()

What is pure virtual function? or what is abstract class?

When you define only function prototype in a base class without implementation and do
the complete implementation in derived class. This base class is called abstract class and
client won't able to instantiate an object using this base class.

You can make a pure virtual function or abstract class this way..

class Boo
{
void foo() = 0;
}

Boo MyBoo; // compilation error

What is Memory alignment??

The term alignment primarily means the tendency of an address pointer value to be a
multiple of some power of two. So a pointer with two byte alignment has a zero in the
least significant bit. And a pointer with four byte alignment has a zero in both the two
least significant bits. And so on. More alignment means a longer sequence of zero bits in
the lowest bits of a pointer.

What problem does the namespace feature solve?

Multiple providers of libraries might use common global identifiers causing a name
collision when an application tries to link with two or more such libraries. The
namespace feature surrounds a library's external declarations with a unique namespace
that eliminates the potential for those collisions.

namespace [identifier] { namespace-body }

A namespace declaration identifies and assigns a name to a declarative region.

The identifier in a namespace declaration must be unique in the declarative region in
which it is used. The identifier is the name of the namespace and is used to reference its
members.

What is the use of 'using' declaration?

A using declaration makes it possible to use a name from a namespace without the scope
operator.

What is an Iterator class?

A class that is used to traverse through the objects maintained by a container class. There
are five categories of iterators: input iterators, output iterators, forward iterators,
bidirectional iterators, random access. An iterator is an entity that gives access to the
contents of a container object without violating encapsulation constraints. Access to the
contents is granted on a one-at-a-time basis in order. The order can be storage order (as in
lists and queues) or some arbitrary order (as in array indices) or according to some
ordering relation (as in an ordered binary tree). The iterator is a construct, which provides
an interface that, when called, yields either the next element in the container, or some
value denoting the fact that there are no more elements to examine. Iterators hide the
details of access to and update of the elements of a container class. Something like a
pointer.

What is a dangling pointer?

A dangling pointer arises when you use the address of an object after its lifetime is over.
This may occur in situations like returning addresses of the automatic variables from a
function or using the address of the memory block after it is freed.

What do you mean by Stack unwinding?

It is a process during exception handling when the destructor is called for all local objects
in the stack between the place where the exception was thrown and where it is caught.

Name the operators that cannot be overloaded??

sizeof, ., .*, .->, ::, ?:

What is a container class? What are the types of container classes?

A container class is a class that is used to hold objects in memory or external storage. A
container class acts as a generic holder. A container class has a predefined behavior and a
well-known interface. A container class is a supporting class whose purpose is to hide the
topology used for maintaining the list of objects in memory. When a container class
contains a group of mixed objects, the container is called a heterogeneous container;
when the container is holding a group of objects that are all the same, the container is
called a homogeneous container.
What is inline function??

The __inline keyword tells the compiler to substitute the code within the function
definition for every instance of a function call. However, substitution occurs only at the
compiler's discretion. For example, the compiler does not inline a function if its address
is taken or if it is too large to inline.

What is overloading??

With the C++ language, you can overload functions and operators. Overloading is the
practice of supplying more than one definition for a given function name in the same
scope.

- Any two functions in a set of overloaded functions must have different argument lists.
- Overloading functions with argument lists of the same types, based on return type alone,
is an error.

What is Overriding?

To override a method, a subclass of the class that originally declared the method must
declare a method with the same name, return type (or a subclass of that return type), and
same parameter list.
The definition of the method overriding is:
· Must have same method name.
· Must have same data type.
· Must have same argument list.
Overriding a method means that replacing a method functionality in child class. To imply
overriding functionality we need parent and child classes. In the child class you define
the same method signature as one defined in the parent class.

What is "this" pointer?

The this pointer is a pointer accessible only within the member functions of a class,
struct, or union type. It points to the object for which the member function is called.
Static member functions do not have a this pointer.

When a nonstatic member function is called for an object, the address of the object is
passed as a hidden argument to the function. For example, the following function call

myDate.setMonth( 3 );

can be interpreted this way:

setMonth( &myDate, 3 );
The object's address is available from within the member function as the this pointer. It is
legal, though unnecessary, to use the this pointer when referring to members of the class.

What happens when you make call "delete this;" ??

The code has two built-in pitfalls. First, if it executes in a member function for an extern,
static, or automatic object, the program will probably crash as soon as the delete
statement executes. There is no portable way for an object to tell that it was instantiated
on the heap, so the class cannot assert that its object is properly instantiated. Second,
when an object commits suicide this way, the using program might not know about its
demise. As far as the instantiating program is concerned, the object remains in scope and
continues to exist even though the object did itself in. Subsequent dereferencing of the
pointer can and usually does lead to disaster.

You should never do this. Since compiler does not know whether the object was allocated
on the stack or on the heap, "delete this" could cause a disaster.

How virtual functions are implemented C++?

Virtual functions are implemented using a table of function pointers, called the vtable.
There is one entry in the table per virtual function in the class. This table is created by
the constructor of the class. When a derived class is constructed, its base class is
constructed first which creates the vtable. If the derived class overrides any of the base
classes virtual functions, those entries in the vtable are overwritten by the derived class
constructor. This is why you should never call virtual functions from a constructor:
because the vtable entries for the object may not have been set up by the derived class
constructor yet, so you might end up calling base class implementations of those virtual
functions

What is name mangling in C++??

The process of encoding the parameter types with the function/method name into a
unique name is called name mangling. The inverse process is called demangling.

For example Foo::bar(int, long) const is mangled as `bar__C3Fooil'.

For a constructor, the method name is left out. That is Foo::Foo(int, long) const is
mangled as `__C3Fooil'.

What is the difference between a pointer and a reference?

A reference must always refer to some object and, therefore, must always be initialized;
pointers do not have such restrictions. A pointer can be reassigned to point to different
objects while a reference always refers to an object with which it was initialized.

How are prefix and postfix versions of operator++() differentiated?

The postfix version of operator++() has a dummy parameter of type int. The prefix
version does not have dummy parameter.

What is the difference between const char *myPointer and char *const myPointer?

Const char *myPointer is a non constant pointer to constant data; while char *const
myPointer is a constant pointer to non constant data.

How can I handle a constructor that fails?

throw an exception. Constructors don't have a return type, so it's not possible to use return
codes. The best way to signal constructor failure is therefore to throw an exception.

How can I handle a destructor that fails?

Write a message to a log-file. But do not throw an exception.

The C++ rule is that you must never throw an exception from a destructor that is being
called during the "stack unwinding" process of another exception. For example, if
someone says throw Foo(), the stack will be unwound so all the stack frames between the
throw Foo() and the } catch (Foo e) { will get popped. This is called stack unwinding.
During stack unwinding, all the local objects in all those stack frames are destructed. If
one of those destructors throws an exception (say it throws a Bar object), the C++
runtime system is in a no-win situation: should it ignore the Bar and end up in the } catch
(Foo e) { where it was originally headed? Should it ignore the Foo and look for a } catch
(Bar e) { handler? There is no good answer -- either choice loses information.
So the C++ language guarantees that it will call terminate() at this point, and terminate()
kills the process. Bang you're dead.

What is Virtual Destructor?

Using virtual destructors, you can destroy objects without knowing their type - the correct
destructor for the object is invoked using the virtual function mechanism. Note that
destructors can also be declared as pure virtual functions for abstract classes.

if someone will derive from your class, and if someone will say "new Derived", where
"Derived" is derived from your class, and if someone will say delete p, where the actual
object's type is "Derived" but the pointer p's type is your class.

Can you think of a situation where your program would crash without reaching the
breakpoint which you set at the beginning of main()?

C++ allows for dynamic initialization of global variables before main() is invoked. It is
possible that initialization of global will invoke some function. If this function crashes the
crash will occur before main() is entered.
Name two cases where you MUST use initialization list as opposed to assignment in
constructors.

Both non-static const data members and reference data members cannot be assigned
values; instead, you should use initialization list to initialize them.

Can you overload a function based only on whether a parameter is a value or a

reference?

No. Passing by value and by reference looks identical to the caller.

What are the differences between a C++ struct and C++ class?

The default member and base class access specifiers are different.

The C++ struct has all the features of the class. The only differences are that a struct
defaults to public member access and public base class inheritance, and a class defaults to
the private access specifier and private base class inheritance.

What does extern "C" int func(int *, Foo) accomplish?

It will turn off "name mangling" for func so that one can link to code compiled by a C
compiler.

How do you access the static member of a class?

<ClassName>::<StaticMemberName>

What is multiple inheritance(virtual inheritance)? What are its advantages and

disadvantages?

Multiple Inheritance is the process whereby a child can be derived from more than one
parent class. The advantage of multiple inheritance is that it allows a class to inherit the
functionality of more than one base class thus allowing for modeling of complex
relationships. The disadvantage of multiple inheritance is that it can lead to a lot of
confusion(ambiguity) when two base classes implement a method with the same name.

What are the access privileges in C++? What is the default access level?

The access privileges in C++ are private, public and protected. The default access level
assigned to members of a class is private. Private members of a class are accessible only
within the class and by friends of the class. Protected members are accessible by the class
itself and it's sub-classes. Public members of a class can be accessed by anyone.

What is a nested class? Why can it be useful?

A nested class is a class enclosed within the scope of another class. For example:

// Example 1: Nested class

//
class OuterClass
{
class NestedClass
{
// ...
};
// ...
};
Nested classes are useful for organizing code and controlling access and dependencies.
Nested classes obey access rules just like other parts of a class do; so, in Example 1, if
NestedClass is public then any code can name it as OuterClass::NestedClass. Often
nested classes contain private implementation details, and are therefore made private; in
Example 1, if NestedClass is private, then only OuterClass's members and friends can use
NestedClass.

When you instantiate as outer class, it won't instantiate inside class.

What is a local class? Why can it be useful?

local class is a class defined within the scope of a function -- any function, whether a
member function or a free function. For example:

// Example 2: Local class

//
int f()
{
class LocalClass
{
// ...
};
// ...
};
Like nested classes, local classes can be a useful tool for managing code dependencies.

Can a copy constructor accept an object of the same class as parameter, instead of
reference of the object?

No. It is specified in the definition of the copy constructor itself. It should generate an
error if a programmer specifies a copy constructor with a first argument that is an object
and not a reference.
1. What will print out?

main()
{
char *p1=“name”;
char *p2;
p2=(char*)malloc(20);
memset (p2, 0, 20);
while(*p2++ = *p1++);
printf(“%s\n”,p2);

Answer:empty string.

2. What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

main()
{
int x=20,y=35;
x=y++ + x++;
y= ++y + ++x;
printf(“%d%d\n”,x,y);

Answer : 5794

3. What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

main()
{
int x=5;
printf(“%d,%d,%d\n”,x,x< <2,x>>2);

Answer: 5,20,1

4. What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

#define swap(a,b) a=a+b;b=a-b;a=a-b;

void main()
{
int x=5, y=10;
 swap (x,y);
printf(“%d %d\n”,x,y);
swap2(x,y);
printf(“%d %d\n”,x,y);
}

int swap2(int a, int b)

{
int temp;
temp=a;
b=a;
a=temp;
return 0;

Answer: 10, 5
10, 5

5. What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

main()
{
char *ptr = ” Cisco Systems”;
*ptr++; printf(“%s\n”,ptr);
ptr++;
printf(“%s\n”,ptr);

Answer:Cisco Systems
isco systems

6. What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

main()
{
char s1[]=“Cisco”;
char s2[]= “systems”;
printf(“%s”,s1);
}

Answer: Cisco

7. What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

 main()
{
char *p1;
char *p2;

p1=(char *)malloc(25);
p2=(char *)malloc(25);

strcpy(p1,”Cisco”);
strcpy(p2,“systems”);
strcat(p1,p2);

printf(“%s”,p1);

Answer: Ciscosystems

8. The following variable is available in file1.c, who can access it?:

9. static int average;

Answer: all the functions in the file1.c can access the variable.

10. WHat will be the result of the following code?

#define TRUE 0 // some code

while(TRUE)
{

// some code

Answer: This will not go into the loop as TRUE is defined as 0.

11. What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

int x;
int modifyvalue()
{
return(x+=10);
}

int changevalue(int x)
{
 return(x+=1);
}

void main()
{
int x=10;
x++;
changevalue(x);
x++;
modifyvalue();
printf("First output:%d\n",x);

x++;
changevalue(x);
printf("Second output:%d\n",x);
modifyvalue();
printf("Third output:%d\n",x);

Answer: 12 , 13 , 13

12. What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

main()
{
int x=10, y=15;
x = x++;
y = ++y;
printf(“%d %d\n”,x,y);

Answer: 11, 16

13. What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

main()
{
int a=0;
if(a==0)
printf(“Cisco Systems\n”);
printf(“Cisco Systems\n”);

}
Answer: Two lines with “Cisco Systems” will be printed.