Color

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Contents
Articles
Color 1

Color Theory 12
Color space 12
Color theory 16
Additive color 23
Subtractive color 25

Mixing Color 28
Color mixing 28
Primary color 29
Colorfulness 35
Dichromatism 39
Hue 41
Tints and shades 44
Lightness 46

Perception of Color 50
Opponent process 50
Impossible colors 53
Color vision 54
Visual perception 64

Visual Color 70
List of colors 70
Web colors 89

References
Article Sources and Contributors 100
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 103

Article Licenses
License 105
Color 1

Color
Color or colour (see spelling differences) is
the visual perceptual property corresponding
in humans to the categories called red, blue,
yellow, green and others. Color derives from
the spectrum of light (distribution of light
power versus wavelength) interacting in the
eye with the spectral sensitivities of the light
receptors. Color categories and physical
specifications of color are also associated
with objects, materials, light sources, etc.,
based on their physical properties such as
light absorption, reflection, or emission
spectra. By defining a color space, colors
Colored pencils
can be identified numerically by their
coordinates.

Because perception of color stems from the varying spectral sensitivity of different types of cone cells in the retina to
different parts of the spectrum, colors may be defined and quantified by the degree to which they stimulate these
cells. These physical or physiological quantifications of color, however, do not fully explain the psychophysical
perception of color appearance.
The science of color is sometimes called chromatics, chromatography, colorimetry, or simply color science. It
includes the perception of color by the human eye and brain, the origin of color in materials, color theory in art, and
the physics of electromagnetic radiation in the visible range (that is, what we commonly refer to simply as light).

Physics

Continuous optical spectrum rendered into the sRGB color space.

The colors of the visible light spectrum[1]

color wavelength interval frequency interval

red ~ 700–635 nm ~ 430–480 THz

orange ~ 635–590 nm ~ 480–510 THz

yellow ~ 590–560 nm ~ 510–540 THz

green ~ 560–490 nm ~ 540–610 THz

blue ~ 490–450 nm ~ 610–670 THz

violet ~ 450–400 nm ~ 670–750 THz

Color 2

Color, wavelength, frequency and energy of light

Color (nm) (THz) (eV)
(μm−1) (kJ mol−1)

Infrared >1000 <300 <1.00 <1.24 <120

Red 700 428 1.43 1.77 171

Orange 620 484 1.61 2.00 193

Yellow 580 517 1.72 2.14 206

Green 530 566 1.89 2.34 226

Blue 470 638 2.13 2.64 254

Violet 420 714 2.38 2.95 285

Near ultraviolet 300 1000 3.33 4.15 400

Far ultraviolet <200 >1500 >5.00 >6.20 >598

Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its wavelength (or frequency) and its intensity. When the wavelength is
within the visible spectrum (the range of wavelengths humans can perceive, approximately from 390 nm to 700 nm),
it is known as "visible light".
Most light sources emit light at many different wavelengths; a source's spectrum is a distribution giving its intensity
at each wavelength. Although the spectrum of light arriving at the eye from a given direction determines the color
sensation in that direction, there are many more possible spectral combinations than color sensations. In fact, one
may formally define a color as a class of spectra that give rise to the same color sensation, although such classes
would vary widely among different species, and to a lesser extent among individuals within the same species. In
each such class the members are called metamers of the color in question.

Spectral colors
The familiar colors of the rainbow in the spectrum – named using the Latin word for appearance or apparition by
Isaac Newton in 1671 – include all those colors that can be produced by visible light of a single wavelength only, the
pure spectral or monochromatic colors. The table at right shows approximate frequencies (in terahertz) and
wavelengths (in nanometers) for various pure spectral colors. The wavelengths are measured in air or vacuum (see
refraction).
The color table should not be interpreted as a definitive list – the pure spectral colors form a continuous spectrum,
and how it is divided into distinct colors linguistically is a matter of culture and historical contingency (although
people everywhere have been shown to perceive colors in the same way[2]). A common list identifies six main
bands: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Newton's conception included a seventh color, indigo, between
blue and violet. Optical scientists Hardy and Perrin list indigo as between 446 and 464 nm wavelength.[3]
The intensity of a spectral color, relative to the context in which it is viewed, may alter its perception considerably;
for example, a low-intensity orange-yellow is brown, and a low-intensity yellow-green is olive-green.
For discussion of non-spectral colors, see below.

Color of objects
The color of an object depends on both the physics of the object in its environment and the characteristics of the
perceiving eye and brain. Physically, objects can be said to have the color of the light leaving their surfaces, which
normally depends on the spectrum of the incident illumination and the reflectance properties of the surface, as well
as potentially on the angles of illumination and viewing. Some objects not only reflect light, but also transmit light or
emit light themselves (see below), which contribute to the color also. And a viewer's perception of the object's color
Color 3

depends not only on the spectrum of the light leaving its surface, but also on a host of contextual cues, so that the
color tends to be perceived as relatively constant: that is, relatively independent of the lighting spectrum, viewing
angle, etc. This effect is known as color constancy.
Some generalizations of the physics can be drawn,
neglecting perceptual effects for now:
• Light arriving at an opaque surface is either
reflected "specularly" (that is, in the manner of a
mirror), scattered (that is, reflected with diffuse
scattering), or absorbed – or some combination of
these.
• Opaque objects that do not reflect specularly (which
tend to have rough surfaces) have their color
determined by which wavelengths of light they
scatter more and which they scatter less (with the
light that is not scattered being absorbed). If objects
scatter all wavelengths, they appear white. If they The upper disk and the lower disk have exactly the same objective
color, and are in identical gray surroundings; based on context
absorb all wavelengths, they appear black.
differences, humans perceive the squares as having different
• Opaque objects that specularly reflect light of reflectances, and may interpret the colors as different color
different wavelengths with different efficiencies categories; see checker shadow illusion.
look like mirrors tinted with colors determined by
those differences. An object that reflects some fraction of impinging light and absorbs the rest may look black but
also be faintly reflective; examples are black objects coated with layers of enamel or lacquer.
• Objects that transmit light are either translucent (scattering the transmitted light) or transparent (not scattering the
transmitted light). If they also absorb (or reflect) light of various wavelengths differentially, they appear tinted
with a color determined by the nature of that absorption (or that reflectance).
• Objects may emit light that they generate themselves, rather than merely reflecting or transmitting light. They
may do so because of their elevated temperature (they are then said to be incandescent), as a result of certain
chemical reactions (a phenomenon called chemoluminescence), or for other reasons (see the articles
Phosphorescence and List of light sources).
• Objects may absorb light and then as a consequence emit light that has different properties. They are then called
fluorescent (if light is emitted only while light is absorbed) or phosphorescent (if light is emitted even after light
ceases to be absorbed; this term is also sometimes loosely applied to light emitted because of chemical reactions).
For further treatment of the color of objects, see structural color, below.
To summarize, the color of an object is a complex result of its surface properties, its transmission properties, and its
emission properties, all of which factors contribute to the mix of wavelengths in the light leaving the surface of the
object. The perceived color is then further conditioned by the nature of the ambient illumination, and by the color
properties of other objects nearby, via the effect known as color constancy and via other characteristics of the
perceiving eye and brain.
Color 4

Perception

Development of theories of color

vision
Although Aristotle and other ancient
scientists had already written on the nature
of light and color vision, it was not until
Newton that light was identified as the
source of the color sensation. In 1810,
Goethe published his comprehensive Theory
of Colors in which he described the
physiological effects of color.

In 1801 Thomas Young proposed his

trichromatic theory, based on the
observation that any color could be matched
with a combination of three lights. This Normalized typical human cone cell responses (S, M, and L types) to
theory was later refined by James Clerk monochromatic spectral stimuli
Maxwell and Hermann von Helmholtz. As
Helmholtz puts it, "the principles of Newton's law of mixture were experimentally confirmed by Maxwell in 1856.
Young's theory of color sensations, like so much else that this marvellous investigator achieved in advance of his
time, remained unnoticed until Maxwell directed attention to it."[4]

At the same time as Helmholtz, Ewald Hering developed the opponent process theory of color, noting that color
blindness and afterimages typically come in opponent pairs (red-green, blue-orange, yellow-purple, and
black-white). Ultimately these two theories were synthesized in 1957 by Hurvich and Jameson, who showed that
retinal processing corresponds to the trichromatic theory, while processing at the level of the lateral geniculate
nucleus corresponds to the opponent theory.[5]
In 1931, an international group of experts known as the Commission internationale de l'éclairage (CIE) developed a
mathematical color model, which mapped out the space of observable colors and assigned a set of three numbers to
each.
Color 5

Color in the eye

The ability of the human eye to distinguish colors is based upon the
varying sensitivity of different cells in the retina to light of different
wavelengths. Humans being trichromatic, the retina contains three
types of color receptor cells, or cones. One type, relatively distinct
from the other two, is most responsive to light that we perceive as
violet, with wavelengths around 420 nm; cones of this type are
sometimes called short-wavelength cones, S cones, or blue cones. The
other two types are closely related genetically and chemically. One of
them, sometimes called long-wavelength cones, L cones, or red cones,
is most sensitive to light we perceive as greenish yellow, with
wavelengths around 564 nm; the other type, known as
middle-wavelength cones, M cones, or green cones is most sensitive to This image (when viewed in full size, 1000 pixels
light perceived as green, with wavelengths around 534 nm. wide) contains 1 million pixels, each of a
different color. The human eye can distinguish
Light, no matter how complex its composition of wavelengths, is [6]
about 10 million different colors.
reduced to three color components by the eye. For each location in the
visual field, the three types of cones yield three signals based on the extent to which each is stimulated. These
amounts of stimulation are sometimes called tristimulus values.
The response curve as a function of wavelength for each type of cone is illustrated above. Because the curves
overlap, some tristimulus values do not occur for any incoming light combination. For example, it is not possible to
stimulate only the mid-wavelength (so-called "green") cones; the other cones will inevitably be stimulated to some
degree at the same time. The set of all possible tristimulus values determines the human color space. It has been
estimated that humans can distinguish roughly 10 million different colors.[6]
The other type of light-sensitive cell in the eye, the rod, has a different response curve. In normal situations, when
light is bright enough to strongly stimulate the cones, rods play virtually no role in vision at all.[7] On the other hand,
in dim light, the cones are understimulated leaving only the signal from the rods, resulting in a colorless response.
(Furthermore, the rods are barely sensitive to light in the "red" range.) In certain conditions of intermediate
illumination, the rod response and a weak cone response can together result in color discriminations not accounted
for by cone responses alone. These effects, combined, are summarized also in the Kruithof curve, that describes the
change of color perception and pleasingness of light as function of temperature and intensity.
Color 6

Color in the brain

While the mechanisms of color vision at the
level of the retina are well-described in
terms of tristimulus values (see above),
color processing after that point is organized
differently. A dominant theory of color
vision proposes that color information is
transmitted out of the eye by three opponent
processes, or opponent channels, each
constructed from the raw output of the
cones: a red–green channel, a blue–yellow
channel, and a black–white "luminance"
channel. This theory has been supported by
neurobiology, and accounts for the structure
of our subjective color experience.
The visual dorsal stream (green) and ventral stream (purple) are shown. The ventral
Specifically, it explains why we cannot stream is responsible for color perception.
perceive a "reddish green" or "yellowish
blue", and it predicts the color wheel: it is the collection of colors for which at least one of the two color channels
measures a value at one of its extremes.

The exact nature of color perception beyond the processing already described, and indeed the status of color as a
feature of the perceived world or rather as a feature of our perception of the world, is a matter of complex and
continuing philosophical dispute (see qualia).

Nonstandard color perception

Color deficiency
If one or more types of a person's color-sensing cones are missing or less responsive than normal to incoming light,
that person can distinguish fewer colors and is said to be color deficient or color blind (though this latter term can be
misleading; almost all color deficient individuals can distinguish at least some colors). Some kinds of color
deficiency are caused by anomalies in the number or nature of cones in the retina. Others (like central or cortical
achromatopsia) are caused by neural anomalies in those parts of the brain where visual processing takes place.

Tetrachromacy
While most humans are trichromatic (having three types of color receptors), many animals, known as tetrachromats,
have four types. These include some species of spiders, most marsupials, birds, reptiles, and many species of fish.
Other species are sensitive to only two axes of color or do not perceive color at all; these are called dichromats and
monochromats respectively. A distinction is made between retinal tetrachromacy (having four pigments in cone
cells in the retina, compared to three in trichromats) and functional tetrachromacy (having the ability to make
enhanced color discriminations based on that retinal difference). As many as half of all women are retinal
tetrachromats.[8]:p.256 The phenomenon arises when an individual receives two slightly different copies of the gene
for either the medium- or long-wavelength cones, which are carried on the x-chromosome. To have two different
genes, a person must have two x-chromosomes, which is why the phenomenon only occurs in women.[8] For some of
these retinal tetrachromats, color discriminations are enhanced, making them functional tetrachromats.[8]
Color 7

Synesthesia
In certain forms of synesthesia, perceiving letters and numbers (grapheme–color synesthesia) or hearing musical
sounds (music–color synesthesia) will lead to the unusual additional experiences of seeing colors. Behavioral and
functional neuroimaging experiments have demonstrated that these color experiences lead to changes in behavioral
tasks and lead to increased activation of brain regions involved in color perception, thus demonstrating their reality,
and similarity to real color percepts, albeit evoked through a non-standard route.

Afterimages
After exposure to strong light in their sensitivity range,
photoreceptors of a given type become desensitized. For a few
seconds after the light ceases, they will continue to signal less
strongly than they otherwise would. Colors observed during
that period will appear to lack the color component detected
by the desensitized photoreceptors. This effect is responsible
for the phenomenon of afterimages, in which the eye may
continue to see a bright figure after looking away from it, but
in a complementary color.

Afterimage effects have also been utilized by artists, including

Vincent van Gogh.

Color constancy An example of an Afterimage

There is an interesting phenomenon which occurs when an

artist uses a limited color palette: the eye tends to compensate by seeing any gray or neutral color as the color which
is missing from the color wheel. For example, in a limited palette consisting of red, yellow, black, and white, a
mixture of yellow and black will appear as a variety of green, a mixture of red and black will appear as a variety of
purple, and pure gray will appear bluish.[9]
The trichromatic theory discussed above is strictly true when the visual system is in a fixed state of adaptation. In
reality, the visual system is constantly adapting to changes in the environment and compares the various colors in a
scene to reduce the effects of the illumination. If a scene is illuminated with one light, and then with another, as long
as the difference between the light sources stays within a reasonable range, the colors in the scene appear relatively
constant to us. This was studied by Edwin Land in the 1970s and led to his retinex theory of color constancy.
It should be noted, that both phenomena described above are readily explained and mathematical modeled with
modern theories of chromatic adaptation and color appearance (e.g. CIECAM02, iCAM).[10] There is no need to
dismiss the trichromatic theory of vision, but rather it must be enhanced with an understanding of how the visual
system adapts (adjusts) to changes in the viewing environment.

Color naming
Colors vary in several different ways, including hue (shades of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet),
saturation, brightness, and gloss. Some color words are derived from the name of an object of that color, such as
"orange" or "salmon", while others are abstract, like "red".
In the 1969 study Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution, Brent Berlin and Paul Kay describe a
pattern in naming "basic" colors (like "red" but not "red-orange" or "dark red" or "blood red", which are "shades" of
red). All languages that have two "basic" color names distinguish dark/cool colors from bright/warm colors. The next
colors to be distinguished are usually red and then yellow or green. All languages with six "basic" colors include
black, white, red, green, blue, and yellow. The pattern holds up to a set of twelve: black, gray, white, pink, red,
Color 8

orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, and azure (distinct from blue in Russian and Italian, but not English).

Associations
Individual colors have a variety of cultural associations such as national colors (in general described in individual
color articles and color symbolism). The field of color psychology attempts to identify the effects of color on human
emotion and activity. Chromotherapy is a form of alternative medicine attributed to various Eastern traditions.
Colors have different associations in different countries and cultures.[11]
Different colors have been demonstrated to have effects on cognition. For example, researchers at the University of
Linz in Austria demonstrated that the color red significantly decreases cognitive functioning in men.[12]

Spectral colors and color reproduction

Most light sources are mixtures of various wavelengths of light. Many such
sources can still effectively produce a spectral color, as the eye cannot
distinguish them from single-wavelength sources. For example, most computer
displays reproduce the spectral color orange as a combination of red and green
light; it appears orange because the red and green are mixed in the right
proportions to allow the eye's cones to respond the way they do to the spectral
color orange.
A useful concept in understanding the perceived color of a non-monochromatic
light source is the dominant wavelength, which identifies the single wavelength
of light that produces a sensation most similar to the light source. Dominant
The CIE 1931 color space
wavelength is roughly akin to hue. chromaticity diagram. The outer
There are many color perceptions that by definition cannot be pure spectral curved boundary is the spectral (or
monochromatic) locus, with
colors due to desaturation or because they are purples (mixtures of red and violet
wavelengths shown in nanometers.
light, from opposite ends of the spectrum). Some examples of necessarily The colors depicted depend on the
non-spectral colors are the achromatic colors (black, gray, and white) and colors color space of the device on which
such as pink, tan, and magenta. you are viewing the image, and
therefore may not be a strictly
Two different light spectra that have the same effect on the three color receptors accurate representation of the color
in the human eye will be perceived as the same color. They are metamers of that at a particular position, and
especially not for monochromatic
color. This is exemplified by the white light emitted by fluorescent lamps, which
colors.
typically has a spectrum of a few narrow bands, while daylight has a continuous
spectrum. The human eye cannot tell the difference between such light spectra
just by looking into the light source, although reflected colors from objects can look different. (This is often
exploited; for example, to make fruit or tomatoes look more intensely red.)

Similarly, most human color perceptions can be generated by a mixture of three colors called primaries. This is used
to reproduce color scenes in photography, printing, television, and other media. There are a number of methods or
color spaces for specifying a color in terms of three particular primary colors. Each method has its advantages and
disadvantages depending on the particular application.
No mixture of colors, however, can produce a fully pure color perceived as completely identical to a spectral color,
although one can get very close for the longer wavelengths, where the chromaticity diagram above has a nearly
straight edge. For example, mixing green light (530 nm) and blue light (460 nm) produces cyan light that is slightly
desaturated, because response of the red color receptor would be greater to the green and blue light in the mixture
than it would be to a pure cyan light at 485 nm that has the same intensity as the mixture of blue and green.
Color 9

Because of this, and because the primaries in color printing systems generally are not pure themselves, the colors
reproduced are never perfectly saturated colors, and so spectral colors cannot be matched exactly. However, natural
scenes rarely contain fully saturated colors, thus such scenes can usually be approximated well by these systems. The
range of colors that can be reproduced with a given color reproduction system is called the gamut. The CIE
chromaticity diagram can be used to describe the gamut.
Another problem with color reproduction systems is connected with the acquisition devices, like cameras or
scanners. The characteristics of the color sensors in the devices are often very far from the characteristics of the
receptors in the human eye. In effect, acquisition of colors that have some special, often very "jagged", spectra
caused for example by unusual lighting of the photographed scene can be relatively poor.
Species that have color receptors different from humans – such as bird species, which may have four receptors – can
make color discriminations that humans cannot. A color reproduction system "tuned" to a human with normal color
vision may give very inaccurate results for the other observers, human or non-human.
The different color response of different devices can be problematic if not properly managed. For color information
stored and transferred in digital form, color management techniques, such as those based on ICC profiles, can help to
avoid distortions of the reproduced colors. Color management does not circumvent the gamut limitations of
particular output devices, but can assist in finding good mapping of input colors into the gamut that can be
reproduced.

Pigments and reflective media

Pigments are chemicals that selectively absorb and reflect different spectra of light. When a surface is painted with a
pigment, light hitting the surface is reflected, minus some wavelengths. This subtraction of wavelengths produces the
appearance of different colors. Most paints are a blend of several chemical pigments, intended to produce a reflection
of a given color.
Pigment manufacturers assume the source light will be white, or of roughly equal intensity across the spectrum. If
the light is not a pure white source (as in the case of nearly all forms of artificial lighting), the resulting spectrum will
appear a slightly different color. Red paint, viewed under blue light, may appear black. Red paint is red because it
reflects only the red components of the spectrum. Blue light, containing none of these, will create no reflection from
red paint, creating the appearance of black.

Structural color
Structural colors are colors caused by interference effects rather than by pigments. Color effects are produced when a
material is scored with fine parallel lines, formed of one or more parallel thin layers, or otherwise composed of
microstructures on the scale of the color's wavelength. If the microstructures are spaced randomly, light of shorter
wavelengths will be scattered preferentially to produce Tyndall effect colors: the blue of the sky (Rayleigh
scattering, caused by structures much smaller than the wavelength of light, in this case air molecules), the luster of
opals, and the blue of human irises. If the microstructures are aligned in arrays, for example the array of pits in a CD,
they behave as a diffraction grating: the grating reflects different wavelengths in different directions due to
interference phenomena, separating mixed "white" light into light of different wavelengths. If the structure is one or
more thin layers then it will reflect some wavelengths and transmit others, depending on the layers' thickness.
Structural color is studied in the field of thin-film optics. A layman's term that describes particularly the most
ordered or the most changeable structural colors is iridescence. Structural color is responsible for the blues and
greens of the feathers of many birds (the blue jay, for example), as well as certain butterfly wings and beetle shells.
Variations in the pattern's spacing often give rise to an iridescent effect, as seen in peacock feathers, soap bubbles,
films of oil, and mother of pearl, because the reflected color depends upon the viewing angle. Numerous scientists
have carried out research in butterfly wings and beetle shells, including Isaac Newton and Robert Hooke. Since
Color 10

1942, electron micrography has been used, advancing the development of products that exploit structural color, such
as "photonic" cosmetics.[13]

Additional terms
• Colorfulness, chroma, purity, or saturation: how "intense" or "concentrated" a color is. Technical definitions
distinguish between colorfulness, chroma, and saturation as distinct perceptual attributes and include purity as a
physical quantity. These terms, and others related to light and color are internationally agreed upon and published
in the CIE Lighting Vocabulary.[14] More readily available texts on colorimetry also define and explain these
terms.[10][15]
• Dichromatism: a phenomenon where the hue is dependent on concentration and/or thickness of the absorbing
substance.
• Hue: the color's direction from white, for example in a color wheel or chromaticity diagram.
• Shade: a color made darker by adding black.
• Tint: a color made lighter by adding white.
• Value, brightness, lightness, or luminosity: how light or dark a color is.

References
[1] Craig F. Bohren (2006). Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation: An Introduction with 400 Problems (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=1oDOWr_yueIC& pg=PA214& lpg=PA214& dq=indigo+ spectra+ blue+ violet+ date:1990-2007). Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3-527-40503-8. .
[2] Berlin, B. and Kay, P., Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969.
[3] Arthur C. Hardy and Fred H. Perrin. The Principles of Optics. (http:/ / apps. isiknowledge. com/ full_record. do?product=UA&
search_mode=GeneralSearch& qid=22& SID=2EdCK2KejLbni4FJpgB& page=1& doc=1& colname=BIOSIS) McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
New York. 1932.
[4] Hermann von Helmholtz, Physiological Optics – The Sensations of Vision, 1866, as translated in Sources of Color Science, David L.
MacAdam, ed., Cambridge: MIT Press, 1970.
[5] Palmer, S.E. (1999). Vision Science: Photons to Phenomenology, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-16183-4.
[6] Judd, Deane B.; Wyszecki, Günter (1975). Color in Business, Science and Industry. Wiley Series in Pure and Applied Optics (third ed.). New
York: Wiley-Interscience. p. 388. ISBN 0-471-45212-2.
[7] "Under well-lit viewing conditions (photopic vision), cones  ...are highly active and rods are inactive." Hirakawa, K.; Parks, T.W. (2005).
"Chromatic Adaptation and White-Balance Problem" (http:/ / www. accidentalmark. com/ research/ papers/ Hirakawa05WBICIP. pdf). IEEE
ICIP. doi:10.1109/ICIP.2005.1530559. .
[8] Jameson, K. A., Highnote, S. M., & Wasserman, L. M. (2001). "Richer color experience in observers with multiple photopigment opsin
genes." (http:/ / www. klab. caltech. edu/ cns186/ papers/ Jameson01. pdf) (PDF). Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 8 (2): 244–261.
doi:10.3758/BF03196159. PMID 11495112. .
[9] Depauw, Robert C.. "United States Patent" (http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?hl=en& lr=& vid=USPAT3815265& id=tSEzAAAAEBAJ&
oi=fnd& dq=mixing+ paint+ colors& printsec=abstract#v=onepage& q=mixing paint colors& f=false). . Retrieved 20 March 2011.
[10] M.D. Fairchild, Color Appearance Models (http:/ / www. wiley. com/ WileyCDA/ WileyTitle/ productCd-0470012161. html), 2nd Ed.,
Wiley, Chichester (2005).
[11] "Chart: Color Meanings by Culture" (http:/ / www. globalization-group. com/ edge/ resources/ color-meanings-by-culture/ ). . Retrieved
2010-06-29.
[12] Gnambs, Timo; Appel, Markus; Batinic, Bernad. (2010). Color red in web-based knowledge testing. Computers in Human Behavior, 26,
p1625-1631.
[13] "Economic and Social Research Council - Science in the Dock, Art in the Stocks" (http:/ / www. esrc. ac. uk/ ESRCInfoCentre/ about/ CI/
events/ FSS/ 2006/ science. aspx?ComponentId=14867& SourcePageId=14865). . Retrieved 2007-10-07.
[14] CIE Pub. 17-4, International Lighting Vocabulary (http:/ / www. cie. co. at/ publ/ abst/ 17-4-89. html), 1987.
[15] R.S. Berns, Principles of Color Technology (http:/ / www. wiley. com/ WileyCDA/ WileyTitle/ productCd-047119459X. html), 3rd Ed.,
Wiley, New York (2001).
Color 11

External links and sources

• Bibliography Database on Color Theory (http://www.fadu.uba.ar/sitios/sicyt/color/bib.htm), Buenos Aires
University
• Color (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/color) entry by Barry Maund in the Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
• Why Should Engineers and Scientists Be Worried About Color? (http://www.research.ibm.com/people/l/
lloydt/color/color.HTM)
• Robert Ridgway's A Nomenclature of Colors (1886) (http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm4/document.
php?CISOROOT=/nat_hist&CISOPTR=1733&REC=1) and Color Standards and Color Nomenclature (1912)
(http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/nat_hist&CISOPTR=1559&REC=1) -
text-searchable digital facsimiles at Linda Hall Library
• Albert Henry Munsell's A Color Notation (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/26054/26054-h/26054-h.htm),
(1907) at Project Gutenberg
• AIC (http://www.aic-color.org/), International Colour Association
• The Effect of Color | OFF BOOK (http://video.pbs.org/video/2293574270) Documentary produced by Off
Book (Web series)
 12

Color Theory

Color space
A color model is an abstract mathematical model describing the way
colors can be represented as tuples of numbers, typically as three or
four values or color components (e.g. RGB and CMYK are color
models). However, a color model with no associated mapping function
to an absolute color space is a more or less arbitrary color system with
no connection to any globally understood system of color
interpretation.

Adding a certain mapping function between the color model and a

certain reference color space results in a definite "footprint" within the
reference color space. This "footprint" is known as a gamut, and, in
combination with the color model, defines a new color space. For
example, Adobe RGB and sRGB are two different absolute color A comparison of the chromaticities enclosed by
spaces, both based on the RGB model. some color spaces.

In the most generic sense of the definition above, color spaces can be
defined without the use of a color model. These spaces, such as Pantone, are in effect a given set of names or
numbers which are defined by the existence of a corresponding set of physical color swatches. This article focuses
on the mathematical model concept.

Understanding the concept

A wide range of colors can be created by the primary colors of pigment
(cyan (C), magenta (M), yellow (Y), and black (K)). Those colors then
define a specific color space. To create a three-dimensional
representation of a color space, we can assign the amount of magenta
color to the representation's X axis, the amount of cyan to its Y axis,
and the amount of yellow to its Z axis. The resulting 3-D space
provides a unique position for every possible color that can be created
by combining those three pigments.

However, this is not the only possible color space. For instance, when
colors are displayed on a computer monitor, they are usually defined in
the RGB (red, green and blue) color space. This is another way of
making nearly the same colors (limited by the reproduction medium, A comparison of RGB and CMYK color models.
This image demonstrates the difference between
such as the phosphor (CRT) or filters and backlight (LCD)), and red,
how colors will look on a computer monitor
green and blue can be considered as the X, Y and Z axes. Another way (RGB) compared to how they will reproduce in a
of making the same colors is to use their Hue (X axis), their Saturation CMYK print process.
(Y axis), and their brightness Value (Z axis). This is called the HSV
color space. Many color spaces can be represented as three-dimensional (X,Y,Z) values in this manner, but some
have more, or fewer dimensions, and some, such as Pantone, cannot be represented in this way at all.
Color space 13

Notes
When formally defining a color space, the usual reference standard is the CIELAB or CIEXYZ color spaces, which
were specifically designed to encompass all colors the average human can see.
Since "color space" is a more specific term for a certain combination of a color model plus a mapping function, the
term "color space" tends to be used to also identify color models, since identifying a color space automatically
identifies the associated color model. Informally, the two terms are often used interchangeably, though this is strictly
incorrect. For example, although several specific color spaces are based on the RGB model, there is no such thing as
the RGB color space.
Since any color space defines colors as a function of the absolute reference frame, color spaces, along with device
profiling, allow reproducible representations of color, in both analogue and digital representations.

Conversion
Color space conversion is the translation of the representation of a color from one basis to another. This typically
occurs in the context of converting an image that is represented in one color space to another color space, the goal
being to make the translated image look as similar as possible to the original.

Density
The RGB color model is implemented in different ways, depending on the capabilities of the system used. By far the
most common general-used incarnation as of 2006 is the 24-bit implementation, with 8 bits, or 256 discrete levels of
color per channel. Any color space based on such a 24-bit RGB model is thus limited to a range of 256×256×256 ≈
16.7 million colors. Some implementations use 16 bits per component for 48 bits total, resulting in the same gamut
with a larger number of distinct colors. This is especially important when working with wide-gamut color spaces
(where most of the more common colors are located relatively close together), or when a large number of digital
filtering algorithms are used consecutively. The same principle applies for any color space based on the same color
model, but implemented in different bit depths.
Color space 14

Partial list of color spaces

CIE 1931 XYZ color space was one of the first attempts to produce a color space based on measurements of human
color perception (earlier efforts were by James Clerk Maxwell, König & Dieterici, and Abney at Imperial College)[1]
and it is the basis for almost all other color spaces. Derivatives of the CIE XYZ space include CIELUV, CIEUVW,
and CIELAB.

Generic color models

RGB uses additive color mixing, because it describes what kind of
light needs to be emitted to produce a given color. Light is added
together to create form from out of the darkness. RGB stores
individual values for red, green and blue. RGBA is RGB with an
additional channel, alpha, to indicate transparency.
Common color spaces based on the RGB model include sRGB,
Adobe RGB and ProPhoto RGB.
CMYK uses subtractive color mixing used in the printing process,
because it describes what kind of inks need to be applied so the
light reflected from the substrate and through the inks produces a
given color. One starts with a white substrate (canvas, page, etc.),
and uses ink to subtract color from white to create an image.
CMYK stores ink values for cyan, magenta, yellow and black. Additive color mixing: Three overlapping lightbulbs in
a vacuum, adding together to create white.
There are many CMYK color spaces for different sets of inks,
substrates, and press characteristics (which change the dot gain or
transfer function for each ink and thus change the appearance).

YIQ was formerly used in NTSC (North America, Japan and

elsewhere) television broadcasts for historical reasons. This
system stores a luminance value with two chrominance values,
corresponding approximately to the amounts of blue and red in the
color. It is similar to the YUV scheme used in most video capture
systems[2] and in PAL (Australia, Europe, except France, which
uses SECAM) television, except that the YIQ color space is
rotated 33° with respect to the YUV color space. The YDbDr
scheme used by SECAM television is rotated in another way.

YPbPr is a scaled version of YUV. It is most commonly seen in its

digital form, YCbCr, used widely in video and image compression
schemes such as MPEG and JPEG. Subtractive color mixing: Three splotches of paint on
white paper, subtracting together to turn the paper
xvYCC is a new international digital video color space standard black.
published by the IEC (IEC 61966-2-4). It is based on the ITU
BT.601 and BT.709 standards but extends the gamut beyond the R/G/B primaries specified in those standards.
HSV (hue, saturation, value), also known as HSB (hue, saturation, brightness) is often used by artists because it is
often more natural to think about a color in terms of hue and saturation than in terms of additive or subtractive color
components. HSV is a transformation of an RGB colorspace, and its components and colorimetry are relative to the
RGB colorspace from which it was derived.
HSL (hue, saturation, lightness/luminance), also known as HLS or HSI (hue, saturation, intensity) is quite similar to
HSV, with "lightness" replacing "brightness". The difference is that the brightness of a pure color is equal to the
Color space 15

brightness of white, while the lightness of a pure color is equal to the lightness of a medium gray.

Commercial color spaces

• Munsell color system
• Natural Color System (NCS)

Special-purpose color spaces

• The RG Chromaticity space is used in Computer vision applications. It shows the color of light (red, yellow,
green etc.), but not its intensity (dark, bright).
• The TSL color space (Tint, Saturation and Luminance) is used in face detection.

Obsolete color spaces

Early color spaces had two components. They largely ignored blue light because the added complexity of a
3-component process provided only a marginal increase in fidelity when compared to the jump from monochrome to
2-component color.
• RG for early Technicolor film
• RGK for early color printing

References
[1] William David Wright, 50 years of the 1931 CIE Standard Observer. Die Farbe, 29:4/6 (1981).
[2] Dean Anderson. "Color Spaces in Frame Grabbers: RGB vs. YUV" (http:/ / www. sensoray. com/ support/ frame_grabber_capture_modes.
htm). . Retrieved 2008-04-08.

External links
• Color FAQ (http://www.poynton.com/ColorFAQ.html), Charles Poynton
• FAQ about color physics (http://www.colourware.co.uk/cpfaq.htm), Stephen Westland
• Color Science (http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/color.html), Dan Bruton
• Color Spaces (http://www4.ncsu.edu/~rgkuehni/PDFs/ColSp.pdf), Rolf G. Kuehni (October 2003)
• Colour spaces – perceptual, historical and applicational background (http://ldos.fe.uni-lj.si/docs/documents/
20030929092037_markot.pdf), Marko Tkalčič (2003)
• Color formats (http://www.equasys.de/colorformat.html) for image and video processing – Color conversion
(http://www.equasys.de/colorconversion.html) between RGB, YUV, YCbCr and YPbPr.
• C library (http://pixfc-sse.googlecode.com) of SSE-optimised color format conversions.
• Konica Minolta Sensing: Precise Color Communication (http://www2.konicaminolta.eu/eu/Measuring/pcc/
en/index.html)
Color theory 16

Color theory
In the visual arts, color theory is a body of practical guidance to color mixing and the visual effects of specific color
combination. There are also definitions (or categories) of colors based on the color wheel: primary color, secondary
color and tertiary color. Although color theory principles first appeared in the writings of Leone Battista Alberti
(c.1435) and the notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci (c.1490), a tradition of "colory theory" began in the 18th century,
initially within a partisan controversy around Isaac Newton's theory of color (Opticks, 1704) and the nature of
so-called primary colors. From there it developed as an independent artistic tradition with only superficial reference
to colorimetry and vision science.

Color abstractions

Additive color mixing Subtractive color mixing

The foundations of pre-20th-century color theory were built around "pure" or ideal colors, characterized by sensory
experiences rather than attributes of the physical world. This has led to a number of inaccuracies in traditional color
theory principles that are not always remedied in modern formulations.
The most important problem has been a confusion between the behavior of light mixtures, called additive color, and
the behavior of paint or ink or dye or pigment mixtures, called subtractive color. This problem arises because the
absorption of light by material substances follows different rules from the perception of light by the eye.
A second problem has been the failure to describe the very important effects of strong luminance (lightness)
contrasts in the appearance of colors reflected from a surface (such as paints or inks) as opposed to colors of light;
"colors" such as browns or ochres cannot appear in mixtures of light. Thus, a strong lightness contrast between a
mid-valued yellow paint and a surrounding bright white makes the yellow appear to be green or brown, while a
strong brightness contrast between a rainbow and the surrounding sky makes the yellow in a rainbow appear to be a
fainter yellow, or white.
A third problem has been the tendency to describe color effects holistically or categorically, for example as a
contrast between "yellow" and "blue" conceived as generic colors, when most color effects are due to contrasts on
three relative attributes that define all colors:
1. lightness (light vs. dark, or white vs. black),
2. saturation (intense vs. dull), and
3. hue (e.g., red, orange, yellow, green, blue or purple).
Thus, the visual impact of "yellow" vs. "blue" hues in visual design depends on the relative lightness and intensity of
the hues.
These confusions are partly historical, and arose in scientific uncertainty about color perception that was not resolved
until the late 19th century, when the artistic notions were already entrenched. However, they also arise from the
attempt to describe the highly contextual and flexible behavior of color perception in terms of abstract color
sensations that can be generated equivalently by any visual media.
Many historical "color theorists" have assumed that three "pure" primary colors can mix all possible colors, and that
any failure of specific paints or inks to match this ideal performance is due to the impurity or imperfection of the
Color theory 17

colorants. In reality, only imaginary "primary colors" used in colorimetry can "mix" or quantify all visible
(perceptually possible) colors; but to do this, these imaginary primaries are defined as lying outside the range of
visible colors; i.e., they cannot be seen. Any three real "primary" colors of light, paint or ink can mix only a limited
range of colors, called a gamut, which is always smaller (contains fewer colors) than the full range of colors humans
can perceive.

Historical background
Color theory was originally formulated in terms of three "primary" or "primitive" colors—red, yellow and blue
(RYB)—because these colors were believed capable of mixing all other colors. This color mixing behavior had long
been known to printers, dyers and painters, but these trades preferred pure pigments to primary color mixtures,
because the mixtures were too dull (unsaturated).
The RYB primary colors became the foundation of 18th century
theories of color vision, as the fundamental sensory qualities that are
blended in the perception of all physical colors and equally in the
physical mixture of pigments or dyes. These theories were enhanced by
18th-century investigations of a variety of purely psychological color
effects, in particular the contrast between "complementary" or
opposing hues that are produced by color afterimages and in the
contrasting shadows in colored light. These ideas and many personal
color observations were summarized in two founding documents in
color theory: the Theory of Colours (1810) by the German poet and
government minister Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and The Law of
Simultaneous Color Contrast (1839) by the French industrial chemist
Michel Eugène Chevreul. Goethe's color wheel from his 1810 Theory of
Colours
Subsequently, German and English scientists established in the late
19th century that color perception is best described in terms of a different set of primary colors—red, green and blue
violet (RGB)—modeled through the additive mixture of three monochromatic lights. Subsequent research anchored
these primary colors in the differing responses to light by three types of color receptors or cones in the retina
(trichromacy). On this basis the quantitative description of color mixture or colorimetry developed in the early 20th
century, along with a series of increasingly sophisticated models of color space and color perception, such as the
opponent process theory.

Across the same period, industrial chemistry radically expanded the color range of lightfast synthetic pigments,
allowing for substantially improved saturation in color mixtures of dyes, paints and inks. It also created the dyes and
chemical processes necessary for color photography. As a result three-color printing became aesthetically and
economically feasible in mass printed media, and the artists' color theory was adapted to primary colors most
effective in inks or photographic dyes: cyan, magenta, and yellow (CMY). (In printing, dark colors are supplemented
by a black ink, known as the CMYK system; in both printing and photography, white is provided by the color of the
paper.) These CMY primary colors were reconciled with the RGB primaries, and subtractive color mixing with
additive color mixing, by defining the CMY primaries as substances that absorbed only one of the retinal primary
colors: cyan absorbs only red (−R+G+B), magenta only green (+R−G+B), and yellow only blue violet (+R+G−B). It
is important to add that the CMYK, or process, color printing is meant as an economical way of producing a wide
range of colors for printing, but is deficient in reproducing certain colors, notably orange and slightly deficient in
reproducing purples. A wider range of color can be obtained with the addition of other colors to the printing process,
such as in Pantone's Hexachrome printing ink system (six colors), among others.
Color theory 18

For much of the 19th century artistic color theory either lagged behind
scientific understanding or was augmented by science books written
for the lay public, in particular Modern Chromatics (1879) by the
American physicist Ogden Rood, and early color atlases developed by
Albert Munsell (Munsell Book of Color, 1915, see Munsell color
system) and Wilhelm Ostwald (Color Atlas, 1919). Major advances
were made in the early 20th century by artists teaching or associated
with the German Bauhaus, in particular Wassily Kandinsky, Johannes
Itten, Faber Birren and Josef Albers, whose writings mix speculation
with an empirical or demonstration-based study of color design
principles.

Contemporary color theory must address the expanded range of media Munsell's color system represented as a
three-dimensional solid showing all three color
created by digital media and print management systems, which
making attributes: lightness, saturation and hue.
substantially expand the range of imaging systems and viewing
contexts in which color can be used. These applications are areas of
intensive research, much of it proprietary; artistic color theory has little to say about these complex new
opportunities.

Traditional color theory

Complementary colors
For the mixing of colored light, Newton's
color wheel is often used to describe
complementary colors, which are colors
which cancel each other's hue to produce an
achromatic (white, gray or black) light
mixture. Newton offered as a conjecture that
colors exactly opposite one another on the
hue circle cancel out each other's hue; this
concept was demonstrated more thoroughly
in the 19th century.

A key assumption in Newton's hue circle

was that the "fiery" or maximum saturated
hues are located on the outer circumference
of the circle, while achromatic white is at
the center. Then the saturation of the
mixture of two spectral hues was predicted
by the straight line between them; the
mixture of three colors was predicted by the
Chevreul's 1855 "chromatic diagram" based on the RYB color model, showing
"center of gravity" or centroid of three
complementary colors and other relationships
triangle points, and so on.
Color theory 19

According to traditional color theory based on subtractive primary

colors and the RYB color model, which is derived from paint mixtures,
yellow mixed with violet, orange mixed with blue, or red mixed with
green produces an equivalent gray and are the painter's complementary
colors. These contrasts form the basis of Chevreul's law of color
contrast: colors that appear together will be altered as if mixed with the
complementary color of the other color. Thus, a piece of yellow fabric
placed on a blue background will appear tinted orange, because orange
is the complementary color to blue.

Unfortunately, the today chosen complementary colors, defined by

light mixtures, are not the same of the artists' primary colors. This
discrepancy becomes important when color theory is applied across Primary, secondary, and tertiary colors of the
RYB color model
media. Digital color management uses a hue circle defined around the
additive primary colors (the RGB color model), as the colors in a
computer monitor are additive mixtures of light, not subtractive mixtures of paints.

One reason the artist's primary colors even work at all is that the imperfect pigments being used have sloped
absorption curves, and thus change color with concentration. A pigment that is pure red at high concentrations can
behave more like magenta at low concentrations. This allows it to make purples that would otherwise be impossible.
Likewise, a blue that is ultramarine at high concentrations appears cyan at low concentrations, allowing it to be used
to mix green. Chromium red pigments can appear orange, and then yellow, as the concentration is reduced. It is even
possible to mix very low concentrations of the blue mentioned and the chromium red to get a greenish color. This
works much better with oil colors than it does with water colors and dyes.
So the old primaries depend on sloped absorption curves and pigment leakages to work, while the new scientifically
derived ones depend solely on controlling the amount of absorption in certain parts of the spectrum.
Another reason the correct primary colors were not used by early artists is that they were not available as durable
pigments. Modern methods in chemistry were needed to produce them.

Warm vs. cool colors

The distinction between warm and cool colors has been important since at least the late 18th century.[1] It is
generally not remarked in modern color science or colorimetry in reference to painting, but is still used in design
practices today. The contrast, as traced by etymologies in the Oxford English Dictionary, seems related to the
observed contrast in landscape light, between the "warm" colors associated with daylight or sunset and the "cool"
colors associated with a gray or overcast day. Warm colors are often said to be hues from red through yellow,
browns and tans included; cool colors are often said to be the hues from blue green through blue violet, most grays
included. There is historical disagreement about the colors that anchor the polarity, but 19th century sources put the
peak contrast between red orange and greenish blue.
Color theory has described perceptual and psychological effects to this contrast. Warm colors are said to advance or
appear more active in a painting, while cool colors tend to recede; used in interior design or fashion, warm colors are
said to arouse or stimulate the viewer, while cool colors calm and relax. Most of these effects, to the extent they are
real, can be attributed to the higher saturation and lighter value of warm pigments in contrast to cool pigments. Thus,
brown is a dark, unsaturated warm color that few people think of as visually active or psychologically arousing.
Compare the traditional warm–cool association of color with the color temperature of a theoretical radiating black
body, where the association of color with temperature is reversed. For instance, the hottest stars radiate blue light
(i.e., with shorter wavelength and higher frequency) and the coolest radiate red.
Color theory 20

The hottest radiating bodies (e.g. stars) have a "cool" color while the less hot bodies radiate with a "warm" color. (Image in mired scale.)

Achromatic colors
Any color that lacks strong chromatic content is said to be unsaturated, achromatic, or near neutral. Pure achromatic
colors include black, white and all grays; near neutrals include browns, tans, pastels and darker colors. Near neutrals
can be of any hue or lightness.
Neutrals are obtained by mixing pure colors with white, black or grey, or by mixing two complementary colors. In
color theory, neutral colors are colors easily modified by adjacent more saturated colors and they appear to take on
the hue complementary to the saturated color. Next to a bright red couch, a gray wall will appear distinctly greenish.
Black and white have long been known to combine well with almost any other colors; black increases the apparent
saturation or brightness of colors paired with it, and white shows off all hues to equal effect.

Tints and shades

When mixing colored light (additive color models), the achromatic mixture of spectrally balanced red, green and
blue (RGB) is always white, not gray or black. When we mix colorants, such as the pigments in paint mixtures, a
color is produced which is always darker and lower in chroma, or saturation, than the parent colors. This moves the
mixed color toward a neutral color—a gray or near-black. Lights are made brighter or dimmer by adjusting their
brightness, or energy level; in painting, lightness is adjusted through mixture with white, black or a color's
complement.
It is common among some painters to darken a paint color by adding black paint—producing colors called
shades—or lighten a color by adding white—producing colors called tints. However it is not always the best way for
representational painting, as an unfortunate result is for colors to also shift in hue. For instance, darkening a color by
adding black can cause colors such as yellows, reds and oranges, to shift toward the greenish or bluish part of the
spectrum. Lightening a color by adding white can cause a shift towards blue when mixed with reds and oranges.
Another practice when darkening a color is to use its opposite, or complementary, color (e.g. purplish-red added to
yellowish-green) in order to neutralize it without a shift in hue, and darken it if the additive color is darker than the
parent color. When lightening a color this hue shift can be corrected with the addition of a small amount of an
adjacent color to bring the hue of the mixture back in line with the parent color (e.g. adding a small amount of
orange to a mixture of red and white will correct the tendency of this mixture to shift slightly towards the blue end of
the spectrum).
Color theory 21

Split primary colors

In painting and other visual arts, two-dimensional color wheels or three-dimensional color solids are used as tools to
teach beginners the essential relationships between colors. The organization of colors in a particular color model
depends on the purpose of that model: some models show relationships based on human color perception, whereas
others are based on the color mixing properties of a particular medium such as a computer display or set of paints.
This system is still popular among contemporary painters, as it is basically a simplified version of Newton's
geometrical rule that colors closer together on the hue circle will produce more vibrant mixtures. However, with the
range of contemporary paints available, many artists simply add more paints to their palette as desired for a variety
of practical reasons. For example, they may add a scarlet, purple and/or green paint to expand the mixable gamut;
and they include one or more dark colors (especially "earth" colors such as yellow ochre or burnt sienna) simply
because they are convenient to have premixed. Printers commonly augment a CYMK palette with spot (trademark
specific) ink colors.

Color harmony and color meaning

It has been suggested that "Colors seen together to produce a pleasing affective response are said to be in
harmony".[2] However, color harmony is a somewhat misleading notion in that responses to color can be influenced
by a range of different factors including individual differences (age, gender, etc.); cultural and social differences; as
well as contextual, temporal and perceptual factors. The following conceptual model illustrates this approach to color
harmony:

Wherein color harmony is a function (f) of the interaction between color/s (Col 1, 2, 3, …, n) and the factors that
influence positive aesthetic response to color: individual differences (ID) such as age, gender, personality and
affective state; cultural experiences (CE), the prevailing context (CX) which includes setting and ambient lighting;
intervening perceptual effects (P) and the effects of time (T) in terms of prevailing social trends.[3]
In addition, given that humans can perceive over 2.8 million different hues,[4] it has been suggested that the number
of possible color combinations is virtually infinite thereby implying that predictive color harmony formulae are
fundamentally unsound.[5] Despite this, many color theorists have devised formulae, principles or guidelines for
color combination with the aim being to predict or specify positive aesthetic response or "color harmony". Color
wheel models have often been used as a basis for color combination principles or guidelines and for defining
relationships between colors. Some theorists and artists believe juxtapositions of complementary color will produce
strong contrast, a sense of visual tension as well as "color harmony"; while others believe juxtapositions of
analogous colors will elicit positive aesthetic response. Color combination guidelines suggest that colors next to each
other on the color wheel model (analogous colors) tend to produce a single-hued or monochromatic color experience
and some theorists also refer to these as "simple harmonies". In addition, split complementary color schemes usually
depict a range of analogous hues plus a key complementary color. A triadic color scheme adopts any three colors
approximately equidistant around a color wheel model. Feisner and Mahnke are among a number of authors who
provide color combination guidelines in greater detail.[6][7]
Color combination formulae and principles may provide some guidance but have limited practical application. This
is because of the influence of contextual, perceptual and temporal factors which will influence how color/s are
perceived in any given situation, setting or context. Such formulae and principles may be useful in fashion, interior
and graphic design, but much depends on the tastes, lifestyle and cultural norms of the viewer or consumer.
As early as the ancient Greek philosophers, many theorists have devised color associations and linked particular
connotative meanings to specific colors. However, connotative color associations and color symbolism tends to be
culture-bound and may also vary across different contexts and circumstances. For example, red has many different
connotative and symbolic meanings from exciting, arousing, sensual, romantic and feminine; to a symbol of good
Color theory 22

luck; and also acts as a signal of danger. Such color associations tend to be learned and do not necessarily hold
irrespective of individual and cultural differences or contextual, temporal or perceptual factors.[8] It is important to
note that while color symbolism and color associations exist, their existence does not provide evidential support for
color psychology or claims that color has therapeutic properties.[9]

Current status
Color theory has not developed an explicit explanation of how specific media affect color appearance: colors have
always been defined in the abstract, and whether the colors were inks or paints, oils or watercolors, transparencies or
reflecting prints, computer displays or movie theaters, was not considered especially relevant. Josef Albers
investigated the effects of relative contrast and color saturation on the illusion of transparency, but this is an
exception to the rule.[10] Known for his color theory paintings of the 1970's, Frederick Spratt created diptychs
consisting of flat rectangular panels of two different monochrome colors. [11]

References
[1] "color temperature" (http:/ / www. handprint. com/ HP/ WCL/ color12. html). handprint. 2009-04-19. . Retrieved 2011-06-09.
[2] Burchett, K. E. (2002). Color harmony. Color Research and Application, 27 (1), pp28-31.
[3] O'Connor, Z. (2010). Color harmony revisited. Color Research and Application, 35 (4), pp267-273.
[4] Pointer, M. R. & Attridge, G.G. (1998). The number of discernible colors. Color Research and Application, 23 (1), pp52-54.
[5] Hard, A. & Sivik, L. (2001). A theory of colors in combination - A descriptive model related to the NCS color-order system. Color Research
and Application, 26 (1), pp4-28.
[6] Feisner, E. A. (2000). Colour: How to use colour in art and design. London: Laurence King.
[7] Mahnke, F. (1996). Color, environment and human response. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
[8] Bellantoni, Patti (2005). If it's Purple, Someone's Gonna Die. Elsevier, Focal Press. ISBN 0-240-80688-3.
[9] O'Connor, Z. (2010). Colour psychology and colour therapy: Caveat emptor. Color Research and Application, (Published online in
'EarlyView' in advance of print).
[10] Albers, Josef (2006). Interaction of Color. Revised and Expanded Edition. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-11595-4.
[11] http:/ / artshiftsanjose. com/ ?p=440

External links
• Color Theory Tutorial by Worqx (http://www.worqx.com/color/)
• Handprint.com : Color (http://handprint.com/HP/WCL/wcolor.html) - a comprehensive site about color
perception, color psychology, color theory, and color mixing
• Color Theory in Landscape Design (http://landscaping.about.com/od/flowersherbsgroundcover1/a/
flower_photos.htm)
• The Dimensions of Colour (http://www.huevaluechroma.com/) - color theory for artists using digital/
traditional media
• Color Thesaurus (http://www.hpl.hp.com/personal/Nathan_Moroney/color-thesaurus.html) World's Largest
Database of Color Names
• Stanford University CS 178 interactive Flash demo (http://graphics.stanford.edu/courses/cs178/applets/locus.
html) introducing trichromatic color theory.
• App that generates harmonious color palettes from photos based on color theory (http://realcolors.
makan-studios.com)
Additive color 23

Additive color
Additive color is color created by mixing together light of two or more
different colors. Red, green, and blue are the additive primary colors
normally used in additive color system. Additive color is in contrast to
subtractive color, in which colors are created by subtracting
(absorbing) parts of the spectrum of light present in ordinary white
light, by means of colored pigments or dyes, such as those in paints,
inks, and the three dye layers in typical color photographs on film.

The combination of two of the standard three additive primary colors

in equal proportions produces an additive secondary color—cyan,
magenta or yellow—which, in the form of dyes or pigments, are the
standard primary colors in subtractive color systems. The subtractive
system using primaries that are the secondaries of the additive system Additive color mixing: adding red to green yields
can be viewed as an alternative approach to reproducing a wide range yellow; adding all three primary colors together
yields white.
of colors by controlling the relative amounts of red, green, and blue
light that reach the eye.

Computer monitors and televisions are the most common examples of

additive color. Examination with a sufficiently powerful magnifying
lens will reveal that each pixel in CRT, LCD and most other types of
color video displays is composed of red, green and blue sub-pixels, the
light from which combines in various proportions to produce all the
other colors as well as white and shades of gray. The colored
sub-pixels do not overlap on the screen, but when viewed from a
normal distance they overlap and blend together on the eye's retina,
producing the same result as external superimposition.

Another example of additive color can be found in the overlapping

projected colored lights often used in theatrical lighting for plays,
concerts, circus shows and night clubs.[1]
The full gamut of color available in any additive color system is
defined by all the possible combinations of all the possible luminosities
James Clerk Maxwell, with his color top that he
of each primary color in that system. In chromaticity space, the gamut used for investigation of color vision and additive
is a plane convex polygon with corners at the primaries. For three color
primaries, it is a triangle.
Results obtained when mixing additive colors are often counterintuitive for people accustomed to the more everyday
subtractive color system of pigments, dyes, inks and other substances which present color to the eye by reflection
rather than emission. For example, in subtractive color systems green is a combination of yellow and blue; in
additive color, red + green = yellow and no simple combination will yield green. Additive color is a result of the way
the eye detects color, and is not a property of light. There is a vast difference between yellow light, with a
wavelength of approximately 580 nm, and a mixture of red and green light. However, both stimulate our eyes in a
similar manner, so we do not detect that difference. (see eye (cytology), color vision.)
Additive color 24

History
Systems of additive color are motivated by the Young–Helmholtz
theory of trichromatic color vision, which was articulated around 1850
by Hermann von Helmholtz, based on earlier work by Thomas Young.
For his experimental work on the subject, James Clerk Maxwell is
sometimes credited as being the father of additive color.[2] He had the
photographer Thomas Sutton photograph a tartan ribbon on
black-and-white film three times, first with a red, then green, then blue
color filter over the lens. The three black-and-white images were
developed and then projected onto a screen with three different
projectors, each equipped with the corresponding red, green, or blue
The first permanent color photograph, taken by
color filter used to take its image. When brought into alignment, the James Clerk Maxwell in 1861.
three images (a black-and-red image, a black-and-green image and a
black-and-blue image) formed a full color image, thus demonstrating the principles of additive color.[3]

Examples
The following flowchart demonstrates an example of the process, step
by step.

A rendered model, showing red, green and blue

lights combining.

Light source Medium wavelengths, or green, and long wavelengths, or red, radiate from two different projectors.

Projection screen Both the medium and long wavelengths reflect off of a spot on the screen.

Retina The medium and long wavelengths activate M and L cones on a spot on the retina.

Brain The brain interprets the equal amounts of medium and long signal as yellow.

To fully understand the process, it should be demonstrated how dull colors are obtained using cyan, magenta, and
yellow instead of red, green, and blue.
Additive color 25

Light source Cyan, or SM, and yellow, or ML, radiate from two different projectors.

Projection Both the SM and ML reflect off of a spot on the screen.

screen

Retina Some short, lots of medium, and some long wavelengths activate cones on a spot on the retina.

Brain The brain receives signals from the cones about some short, lots of medium, and some long wavelengths. It interprets the signal
as light green.
If the background is not black, it interprets the signal as dull green.

References
[1] David Briggs (2007). "The Dimensions of Color" (http:/ / www. huevaluechroma. com/ 044. php). . Retrieved 2011-11-23.
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell" (http:/ / www. cis. rit. edu/ node/ 280). Inventor's Hall of Fame, Rochester Institute of Technology Center for
Imaging Science. .
[3] Robert Hirsch (2004). Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4Gx2WItWGYoC&
pg=PA28& dq=maxwell+ additive+ color+ photograph+ register#PPA28,M1). Laurence King Publishing. ISBN 1-85669-420-8. .

External links
• http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/1_P/1_photographers_maxwell.htm (http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/1_P/
1_photographers_maxwell.htm) - Photos and stories from the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation.
• Stanford University CS 178 interactive Flash demo (http://graphics.stanford.edu/courses/cs178/applets/
colormixing.html) comparing additive and subtractive color mixing.

Subtractive color
A subtractive color model explains the mixing of a limited set of
dyes, inks, paint pigments or natural colorants to create a wider range
of colors, each the result of partially or completely subtracting (that is,
absorbing) some wavelengths of light and not others. The color that a
surface displays depends on which parts of the visible spectrum are not
absorbed and therefore remain visible.

Subtractive color systems start with light, presumably white light.

Colored inks, paints, or filters between the viewer and the light source
or reflective surface subtract wavelengths from the light, giving it
color. If the incident light is other than white, our visual mechanisms
are able to compensate well, but not perfectly, often giving a flawed
impression of the "true" color of the surface. Subtractive color mixing

Conversely, additive color systems start with darkness. Light sources

of various wavelengths are added in various proportions to produce a range of colors. The component lights may be
inherently colored or simply white light that has passed through suitable subtractive color filters; their combination is
an additive one in either case. Usually, three primary colors are combined to stimulate humans’ trichromatic color
vision, sensed by the three types of cone cells in the eye, giving an apparently full range.
Subtractive color 26

An 1877 color photo by Louis Ducos du Hauron, a

French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping
subtractive yellow, cyan and red (magenta) image
elements can clearly be seen.

RYB
RYB (Red, Yellow, Blue) is the formerly standard set of subtractive
primary colors used for mixing pigments. It is used in art and art
education, particularly in painting. It predated modern scientific color
theory.
Red, yellow, and blue are the primary colors of the standard color
"wheel". The secondary colors, violet (or purple), orange, and green
(VOG) make up another triad, formed by mixing equal amounts of red
and blue, red and yellow, and blue and yellow, respectively.
The RYB primary colors became the foundation of 18th century
theories of color vision as the fundamental sensory qualities blended in
the perception of all physical colors and equally in the physical mixture
Standard RYB Color Wheel
of pigments or dyes. These theories were enhanced by 18th-century
investigations of a variety of purely psychological color effects, in
particular the contrast between "complementary" or opposing hues produced by color afterimages and in the
contrasting shadows in colored light. These ideas and many personal color observations were summarized in two
founding documents in color theory: the Theory of Colors (1810) by the German poet and government minister
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and The Law of Simultaneous Color Contrast (1839) by the French industrial chemist
Michel-Eugène Chevreul.

In late 19th and early to mid-20th century commercial printing, use of the traditional RYB terminology persisted
even though the more versatile CMY (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow) triad had been adopted, with the cyan sometimes
referred to as "process blue" and the magenta as "process red".

CMY and CMYK printing processes

In color printing, the usual primary colors are cyan, magenta and yellow (CMY). Cyan is the complement of red,
meaning that the cyan serves as a filter that absorbs red. The amount of cyan applied to a white sheet of paper
controls how much of the red in white light will be reflected back from the paper. Ideally, the cyan is completely
transparent to green and blue light and has no effect on those parts of the spectrum. Magenta is the complement of
green, and yellow the complement of blue. Combinations of different amounts of the three can produce a wide range
of colors with good saturation.
Subtractive color 27

In inkjet color printing and typical mass production photomechanical printing processes, a black ink K (Key)
component is included, resulting in the CMYK color model. The black ink serves to cover unwanted tints in dark
areas of the printed image, which result from the imperfect transparency of commercially practical CMY inks; to
improve image sharpness, which tends to be degraded by imperfect registration of the three color elements; and to
reduce or eliminate consumption of the more expensive color inks where only black or gray is required.
Purely photographic color processes almost never include a K component, because in all common processes the
CMY dyes used are much more perfectly transparent, there are no registration errors to camouflage, and substituting
a black dye for a saturated CMY combination, a trivial prospective cost benefit at best, is technologically impractical
in non-electronic analog photography.

References
• Berns, Roy S. (2000). Billmeyer and Saltzman's Principles of Color Technology, 3rd edition. Wiley, New York.
ISBN 0-471-19459-X.
• Stroebel, Leslie, John Compton, Ira Current, and Richard Zakia (2000). Basic Photographic Materials and
Processes, 2nd edition. Focal Press, Boston. ISBN 0-240-80405-8.
• Wyszecki, Günther and W. S. Stiles (1982). Colour Science: Concept and Methods, Quantitative Data and
Formulae. Wiley, New York. ISBN 0-471-02106-7.

External links
• Stanford University CS 178 interactive Flash demo [1] comparing additive and subtractive color mixing.

References
[1] http:/ / graphics. stanford. edu/ courses/ cs178/ applets/ colormixing. html
 28

Mixing Color

Color mixing
There are two types of color mixing: Additive and Subtractive. In both
cases there are three primary colors, three secondary colors (colors
made from 2 of the three primary colors in equal amounts), and one
tertiary color made from all three primary colors.

White light split by a prism. The additive primary

colors are clearly visible.

Additive Mixing
Additive mixing of colors generally involves mixing colors of light. In
additive mixing of colors there are three primary colors: red, green, and
blue. In the absence of color or, when no colors are showing, the result
is black. If all three primary colors are showing, the result is white.
When red and green combine, the result is yellow. When red and blue
combine, the result is magenta. When blue and green combine, the
result is cyan. Additive mixing is used in television and computer
A simulated example of additive color mixing monitors to produce a wide range of colors using only three primary
colors.

Subtractive Mixing
Subtractive mixing is done by selectively removing certain colors, for
instance with optical filters. The three primary colors in subtractive
mixing are yellow, magenta, and cyan. In subtractive mixing of color,
the absence of color is white and the presence of all three primary
colors is black. In subtractive mixing of colors, the secondary colors
are the same as the primary colors from additive mixing, and vice
versa. Subtractive mixing is used to create a variety of colors when
printing on paper by combining a small number of ink colors, and also
when painting. The mixing of pigments does not produce perfect
subtractive color mixing because some light from the subtracted color
A simulated example of subtractive color mixing
is still being reflected. This results in a darker and desaturated color
compared to the color that would be achieved with ideal filters.
Color mixing 29

Importance to vision
Additive color mixing—red and green combining to make yellow, for example, or blue and yellow producing
white—runs counter to the commonsense observation that, for example, yellow paint plus cyan paint makes green
paint. In this case, one must understand that the wavelengths of light that reach the eye are often selected via these
more intuitive subtractive processes: for example, cyan paint appears to our eye as cyan because it absorbs red
wavelengths, and a yellow paint appears yellow because it absorbs blue wavelengths. When white light falls on a
combination of cyan and yellow, then, both red and blue are absorbed, and green is reflected to the eye.[1]

External links
• Interactive Java applet on the additive mixing of RGB colors [2] by Wolfgang Bauer
• Interactive Java applet on the subtractive mixing of CYM colors [3] by Wolfgang Bauer
• Online Color Mixing Tool for Designers/ Artists [4]

References
• Macaulay, David and Neil Ardley (1988). The New Way Things Work. London: Dorling Kindersley Ltd. ISBN
0-395-93847-3.
[1] "Sensory Reception: Human Vision: Structure and Function of the Eye" Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 27 1987
[2] http:/ / chair. pa. msu. edu/ applets/ RGBColor/ a. htm
[3] http:/ / chair. pa. msu. edu/ applets/ CYMColor/ a. htm
[4] http:/ / knowpapa. com/ cmt/

Primary color
Primary colours are sets of colours
that can be combined to make a useful
range of colours. For human
applications, three primary colours are
usually used, since human colour
vision is trichromatic.

For additive combination of colours, as

in overlapping projected lights or in
CRT displays, the primary colours
normally used are red, green, and blue.
For subtractive combination of colours,
as in mixing of pigments or dyes, such
as in printing, the primaries normally
used are cyan, magenta, and yellow,[1] The emission spectra of the three hi phosphors that define the additive primary colours
of a CRT colour video display. Unlike subtractive systems that use magenta, yellow, and
though the set of red, yellow, blue is
cyan inks, additive systems such as computer displays mix red, green, and blue light to
popular among artists.[2] See RGB make all colours.
colour model, CMYK colour model,
and RYB colour model for more on these popular sets of primary colours.

Any particular choice for a given set of primary colours is derived from the spectral sensitivity of each of the human
cone photoreceptors; three colours that fall within each of the sensitivity ranges of each of the human cone cells are
red, green, and blue.[3] Other sets of colours can be used, though not all will well approximate the full range of
Primary color 30

colour perception. For example, an early colour photographic process, autochrome, typically used orange, green, and
violet primaries.[4] However, unless negative amounts of a colour are allowed the gamut will be restricted by the
choice of primaries.
The combination of any two primary colours creates a secondary colour.
The most commonly used additive colour primaries are the secondary colours of the most commonly used
subtractive colour primaries, and vice versa.

Biological basis
Primary colours are not a fundamental property of light but are related
to the physiological response of the eye to light.Fundamentally, light is
a continuous spectrum of the wavelengths that can be detected by the
human eye, an infinite-dimensional stimulus space.[5] However, the
human eye normally contains only three types of colour receptors,
called cone cells. Each colour receptor responds to different ranges of
the colour spectrum. Humans and other species with three such types
of colour receptors are known as trichromats. These species respond to
the light stimulus via a three-dimensional sensation, which generally
RGB lasers
can be modeled as a mixture of three primary colours.[5]

Before the nature of colourimetry and visual physiology were well understood, scientists such as Thomas Young,
James Clark Maxwell, and Hermann von Helmholtz expressed various opinions about what should be the three
primary colours to describe the three primary colour sensations of the eye.[6] Young originally proposed red, green,
and violet, and Maxwell changed violet to blue; Helmholtz proposed "a slightly purplish red, a vegetation-green,
slightly yellowish (wave-length about 5600 tenth-metres), and an ultramarine-blue (about 4820)".[7] In modern
understanding, the human cone cells do not correspond to any real primary colours.

Species with different numbers of receptor cell types would have colour vision requiring a different number of
primaries. For example, for species known as tetrachromats, with four different colour receptors, one would use four
primary colours. Since humans can only see to 380 nanometers (violet), but tetrachromats can see into the ultraviolet
to about 300 nanometers, this fourth primary colour for tetrachromats is located in the shorter-wavelength range.[8]
Many birds and marsupials are tetrachromats, and it has been suggested that some human females are tetrachromats
as well,[9][10] having an extra variant version of the long-wave (L) cone type.[11] The peak response of human colour
receptors varies, even among individuals with "normal" colour vision;[12] in non-human species this polymorphic
variation is even greater, and it may well be adaptive.[13] Most placental mammals other than primates have only two
types of colour receptors and are therefore dichromats; to them, there are only two primary colours.
It would be incorrect to assume that the world "looks tinted" to an animal (or human) with anything other than the
human standard of three colour receptors. To an animal (or human) born that way, the world would look normal to it,
but the animal's ability to detect and discriminate colours would be different from that of a human with normal
colour vision. If a human and an animal both look at a natural colour, they see it as natural; however, if both look at a
colour reproduced via primary colours, such as on a colour television screen, the human may see it as matching the
natural colour, while the animal does not, since the primary colours have been chosen to suit human capabilities.
Primary color 31

Additive primaries
Media that combine emitted lights to create the sensation of a range of
colours are using the additive colour system. Typically, the primary
colours used are red, green, and blue.[14]
Television and other computer and video displays are a common
example of the use of additive primaries and the RGB colour model.
The exact colours chosen for the primaries are a technological
compromise between the available phosphors (including considerations
such as cost and power usage) and the need for large colour triangle to
allow a large gamut of colours. The ITU-R BT.709-5/sRGB primaries
are typical.

The sRGB colour triangle

Additive mixing of red and green light produces shades of yellow,

orange, or brown.[15] Mixing green and blue produces shades of cyan,
and mixing red and blue produces shades of purple, including magenta.
Mixing nominally equal proportions of the additive primaries results in
shades of grey or white; the colour space that is generated is called an
RGB colour space.

The CIE 1931 colour space defines monochromatic primary colours

with wavelengths of 435.8 nm (violet), 546.1 nm (green) and 700 nm
(red). The corners of the colour triangle are therefore on the spectral
locus, and the triangle is about as big as it can be. No real display
device uses such primaries, as the extreme wavelengths used for violet
and red result in a very low luminous efficiency.
CIE 1931 RGB colour triangle with
monochromatic primaries

Recent developments in primary colours

Colour practice technology is usefully contrasted with colour theory science because science assumes perfect
conditions, whereas commercially available products must deliver impressive results at affordable prices. Some
recent TV and computer displays are starting to add a fourth "primary" of yellow, often in a four point square pixel
area, to get brighter pure yellows and larger colour gamut.[16]
Even the four-primary technology does not yet reach the range of colours the human eye is theoretically capable of
perceiving (as defined by the sample-based estimate called the Pointer Gamut[17]), with 4-primary LED prototypes
providing typically about 87% and 5-primary prototypes about 95%. Several firms, including Samsung and
Mitsubishi, have demonstrated LED displays with five or six "primaries", or colour LED point light sources per
pixel.[18] A recent academic literature review claims a gamut of 99% can be achieved with 5-primary LED
technology.[19]
While technology for achieving a wider gamut appears to be within reach, other issues remain, for example
affordability, dynamic range, brilliance. An even bigger problem is that there exists hardly any source material
recorded in this wider gamut, nor is it possible to somehow recover this information in existing pictures, as it was
Primary color 32

never stored. Regardless, industry is still exploring a wide variety of "primary" active light sources (per pixel) with
the goal of matching the capability of human colour perception within a broadly affordable price. One example of a
potentially affordable, but yet unproven active light hybrid places a LED screen over a plasma light screen, each
with different "primaries". Because both LED and plasma technologies are many decades old (plasma pixels going
back to the 1960s) and because sales are verging on a billion, both have become so affordable that they could be
combined.

Subtractive primaries
Media that use reflected light and colourants to produce colours are using the subtractive colour method of colour
mixing.

CMYK colour model, or four-colour printing

In the printing industry, to produce the varying colours the subtractive primaries cyan, magenta, and yellow are
applied together in varying amounts. Before the colour names cyan and magenta were in common use, these
primaries were often known as blue-green and purple, or in some circles as blue and red, respectively, and their exact
colour has changed over time with access to new pigments and technologies.[20]
Mixing yellow and cyan produces green colours; mixing yellow with magenta produces reds, and mixing magenta
with cyan produces blues. In theory, mixing equal amounts of all three pigments should produce grey, resulting in
black when all three are applied in sufficient density, but in practice they tend to produce muddy brown colours. For
this reason, and to save ink and decrease drying times, a fourth pigment, black, is often used in addition to cyan,
magenta, and yellow.
The resulting model is the so-called CMYK colour model. The abbreviation stands for cyan, magenta, yellow, and
key—black is referred to as the key colour, a shorthand for the key printing plate that impressed the artistic detail of
an image, usually in black ink.[21]
In practice, colourant mixtures in actual materials such as paint tend to be more complex. Brighter or more saturated
colours can be created using natural pigments instead of mixing, and natural properties of pigments can interfere
with the mixing. For example, mixing magenta and green in acrylic creates a dark cyan—something which would
not happen if the mixing process were perfectly subtractive.
In the subtractive model, adding white to a colour, whether by using less colourant or by mixing in a reflective white
pigment such as zinc oxide, does not change the colour's hue but does reduce its saturation. Subtractive colour
printing works best when the surface or paper is white, or close to it.
A system of subtractive colour does not have a simple chromaticity gamut analogous to the RGB colour triangle, but
a gamut that must be described in three dimensions. There are many ways to visualize such models, using various 2D
chromaticity spaces or in 3D colour spaces.[22]

History

RYB colour model

RYB (red, yellow, and blue) is a historical set of subtractive primary colours. It is primarily used in art and art
education, particularly painting.[23] It predates modern scientific colour theory.
RYB make up the primary colours in a painter's colour wheel; the secondary colours VOG (violet, orange, and
green) make up another triad. Triads are formed by 3 equidistant colours on a particular colour wheel; neither RYB
nor VOG is equidistant on a perceptually uniform colour wheel, but rather have been defined to be equidistant in the
RYB wheel.[24]
Primary color 33

Painters have long used more than three "primary" colours in their palettes—and at one point considered red, yellow,
blue, and green to be the four primaries.[25] Red, yellow, blue, and green are still widely considered the four
psychological primary colours,[26] though red, yellow, and blue are sometimes listed as the three psychological
primaries,[27] with black and white occasionally added as a fourth and fifth.[28]
During the 18th century, as theorists became aware of Isaac Newton's scientific experiments with light and prisms,
red, yellow, and blue became the canonical primary colours—supposedly the fundamental sensory qualities that are
blended in the perception of all physical colours and equally in the physical mixture of pigments or dyes. This theory
became dogma, despite abundant evidence that red, yellow, and blue primaries cannot mix all other colours, and has
survived in colour theory to the present day.[29]
Using red, yellow, and blue as primaries yields a relatively small gamut, in which, among other problems, colourful
greens, cyans, and magentas are impossible to mix, because red, yellow, and blue are not well-spaced around a
perceptually uniform colour wheel. For this reason, modern three- or four-colour printing processes, as well as
colour photography, use cyan, yellow, and magenta as primaries instead.[30] Most painters include colours in their
palettes which cannot be mixed from yellow, red, and blue paints, and thus do not fit within the RYB colour model.
Some who do use a three-colour palette opt for the more evenly spaced cyan, yellow, and magenta used by printers,
and others paint with 6 or more colours to widen their gamuts.[31] The cyan, magenta, and yellow used in printing are
sometimes known as "process blue," "process red," and "process yellow."[32]

Psychological primaries
Main article: Opponent process. See also: Natural Colour System, Unique hues
The opponent process is a colour theory that states that the human visual system interprets information about colour
by processing signals from cones and rods in an antagonistic manner. The three types of cones have some overlap in
the wavelengths of light to which they respond, so it is more efficient for the visual system to record differences
between the responses of cones, rather than each type of cone's individual response. The opponent colour theory
suggests that there are three opponent channels: red versus green, blue versus yellow, and black versus white.[33]
Responses to one colour of an opponent channel are antagonistic to those of the other colour. The particular colours
considered by an observer to be uniquely representative of the concepts red, yellow, green, blue, white, and black
might be called "psychological primary colours", because any other colour can be described in terms of some
combination of these.

Notes and references

[1] Matthew Luckiesh (1915). Colour and Its Applications (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=0BgCAAAAYAAJ& pg=RA1-PA221&
dq=magenta+ cyan+ yellow+ date:0-1923+ printing). D. Van Nostrand company. pp. 58, 221. .
[2] Chris Grimley and Mimi Love (2007). Colour, space, and style: all the details interior designers need to know but can never find (http:/ /
books. google. com/ ?id=uVxa-_N4LQ4C& pg=PA137& dq=ryb+ colour+ model+ paint& q=ryb colour model paint). Rockport Publishers.
p. 137. ISBN 978-1-59253-227-8. .
[3] The Science of Colour - Steven K. Shevell, Optical Society of America - Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=-fNJZ0xmTFIC& pg=PA5)
[4] Walter Hines Page and Arthur Wilson Page (1908). The World's Work: Volume XV: A History of Our Time (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=hKPvxXgBN1oC& pg=PA9508& dq=autochrome+ orange+ violet+ green). Doubleday, Page & Company. .
[5] Michael I. Sobel (1989). Light (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=PDmAdQpmxl8C& pg=PA58& dq=spectrum+ colour+
infinite-dimensional+ cones). University of Chicago Press. pp. 52–62. ISBN 0-226-76751-5. .
[6] Edward Albert Sharpey-Schäfer (1900). Text-book of physiology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fz0uAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA1107&
dq=primary+ red-green-and-violet+ maxwell+ sensation). 2. Y. J. Pentland. p. 1107. .
[7] Alfred Daniell (1904). A text book of the principles of physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=oPQZAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA575&
dq=primary+ red-green-and-violet+ maxwell). Macmillan and Co. p. 575. .
[8] Goldsmith, Timothy H. "What Birds See" Scientific American July 2006—Article about the tetrachromatic vision of birds: "What Birds See"
in PDF format: (http:/ / www. csulb. edu/ web/ labs/ bcl/ elab/ avian vision_intro. pdf)
[9] Backhaus, Kliegl & Werner "Colour vision, perspectives from different disciplines" (De Gruyter, 1998), pp.115–116, section 5.5.
Primary color 34

[10] Pr. Mollon (Cambridge university), Pr. Jordan (Newcastle university) "Study of women heterozygote for colour difficiency" (Vision
Research, 1993)
[11] M. Neitz, T. W. Kraft, and J. Neitz (1998). "Expression of L cone pigment gene subtypes in females". Vision Research 38 (21): 3221–3225.
doi:10.1016/S0042-6989(98)00076-5. PMID 9893829.
[12] Neitz, Jay & Jacobs, Gerald H. (1986). "Polymorphism of the long-wavelength cone in normal human colour vision." (http:/ / www. nature.
com/ nature/ journal/ v323/ n6089/ abs/ 323623a0. html) Nature. 323, 623–625.
[13] Jacobs, Gerald H. (1996). "Primate photopigments and primate colour vision." (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender.
fcgi?artid=40094) PNAS. 93 (2), 577–581.
[14] Thomas D. Rossing and Christopher J. Chiaverina (1999). Light science: physics and the visual arts (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=jpH1_dCT_UcC& pg=PA178& dq=red+ green+ blue+ additive+ colour+ primaries+ violet). Birkhäuser. p. 178.
ISBN 978-0-387-98827-6. .
[15] "Some Experiments on Colour", Nature 111, 1871, in John William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) (1899). Scientific Papers (http:/ / books. google.
com/ ?id=KWMSAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA84& dq=date:0-1923+ light+ red+ green+ yellow-or-orange). University Press. .
[16] Garvey, Jude (2010-01-20). "Sharp four primary colour TVs enable over one trillion colours" (http:/ / www. gizmag. com/
sharp-4-primary-colour-tvs-enables-trillion-colours/ 13823/ ). www.gizmag.com. .
[17] M. R. Pointer (1980). "The Gamut of Real Surface Colours" (http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1002/ col. 5080050308/ abstract)
(PDF, pay per view). Colour Research and Application (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.) 5 (3): 145–155. doi:10.1002/col.5080050308. .
[18] Chih-Cheng Chan (1999) (PDF, Industrial research report). Development of Multi-Primary Colour LCD (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=jpH1_dCT_UcC& pg=PA178& dq=red+ green+ blue+ additive+ colour+ primaries+ violet). AU Optronics, Science-Based Industrial
Park, Hsin-Chu, Taiwan; Genoa Colour Technologies, Herzelia, Israel. .
[19] Abhinav Priya (2011-07) (PDF, academic literature review), Five-Primary Colour LCD (http:/ / www. scribd. com/ doc/ 61823459/
Five-Primary-Colour-LCD), Cochin University of Science and Technology, Department of Electronics Engineering, p. 2,
[20] Ervin Sidney Ferry (1921). General Physics and Its Application to Industry and Everyday Life (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=3rYXAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA621& dq=date:0-1923+ additive+ colour+ mixing+ primary). John Wiley & Sons. .
[21] Frank S. Henry (1917). Printing for School and Shop: A Textbook for Printers' Apprentices, Continuation Classes, and for General use in
Schools (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=UAAvAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA292& dq=black+ date:0-1923+ key-plate+ printing+ colour). John
Wiley & Sons. .
[22] See the google image results (http:/ / images. google. com/ images?q=cmyk gamut) for "cmyk gamut" for examples.
[23] Tom Fraser and Adam Banks (2004). Designer's Colour Manual: The Complete Guide to Colour Theory and Application (http:/ / books.
google. com/ ?id=WXZNPaX-LvcC& pg=PA27& dq=red-yellow-blue+ colour+ mixing). Chronicle Books. ISBN 0-8118-4210-X. .
[24] Stephen Quiller (2002). Colour Choices (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=jiUTZQj_v5QC& pg=PA12& dq=what-is-a-colour-wheel+
spaced+ red+ yellow+ blue). Watson–Guptill. ISBN 0-8230-0697-2. .
[25] For instance Leonardo da Vinci wrote of these four simple colours in his notebook circa 1500. See Rolf Kuenhi. "Development of the Idea
of Simple Colours in the 16th and Early 17th Centuries". Colour Research and Application. Volume 32, Number 2, April 2007.
[26] Resultby Leslie D. Stroebel, Ira B. Current (2000). Basic Photographic Materials and Processes (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=BRYa6Qpsw48C& pg=PP1& dq=Basic+ Photographic+ Materials+ and+ Processes). Focal Press. ISBN 0-240-80345-0. .
[27] MS Sharon Ross , Elise Kinkead (2004). Decorative Painting & Faux Finishes (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=DPJUWRydR9kC&
dq=red+ yellow+ blue+ paint-mixing+ + subtractive). Creative Homeowner. ISBN 1-58011-179-3. .
[28] Swirnoff, Lois (2003). Dimensional Colour (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=sG5MqtZuFF0C& dq="psychological+ primaries"+ blue+
-green). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-73102-2. .
[29] Bruce MacEvoy. "Do 'Primary' Colours Exist?" ( Material Trichromacy section (http:/ / www. handprint. com/ HP/ WCL/ colour6.
html#materialtrichromacy)). Handprint. Accessed 10 August 2007.
[30] "Development of the Idea of Simple Colours in the 16th and Early 17th Centuries". Colour Research and Application. Volume 32, Number
2, April 2007.
[31] Bruce MacEvoy. " Secondary Palette (http:/ / www. handprint. com/ HP/ WCL/ palette4e. html)." Handprint. Accessed 14 August 2007. For
general discussion see Bruce MacEvoy. "Mixing With a Colour Wheel" ( Saturation Costs section (http:/ / www. handprint. com/ HP/ WCL/
colour14. html#satcost)). Handprint. Accessed 14 August 2007.
[32] Cheap Brochure Printing – Process Blue / Process Red / Process Yellow / Process Black (http:/ / www. printoutlet. us/ glossary.
php?glossaryid=2526)
[33] Michael Foster (1891). A Text-book of physiology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Swn8ztLFTdkC& pg=RA1-PA921& dq=hering+
red-green+ yellow-blue+ young-helmholtz+ date:0-1923). Lea Bros. & Co. p. 921. .
Primary color 35

External links
• Bruce MacEvoy. "Do Primary Colours Exist?" (http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/colour6.html).
handprint.com. The history and science of primary colours, part of MacEvoy's sprawling comprehensive site
about colour.
• Ask A Scientist: Primary Colours (http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/phy00/phy00871.htm)
• The Colour-Sensitive Cones at HyperPhysics (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vision/colcon.
html#c1)
• Colour Tutorial (http://www.tomjewett.com/colours/index.html)

Colorfulness

Original image, with relatively muted colors

L*C*h (CIELAB) chroma increased 50%

HSL saturation increased 50%; notice that changing HSL saturation also affects the perceived lightness of a color

CIELAB lightness preserved, with a* and b* stripped, to make a grayscale image

In colorimetry and color theory, colorfulness, chroma, and saturation are related but distinct concepts referring to
the perceived intensity of a specific color. Colorfulness is the degree of difference between a color and gray. Chroma
is the colorfulness relative to the brightness of another color that appears white under similar viewing conditions.
Colorfulness 36

Saturation is the colorfulness of a color relative to its own brightness.[1] Though this general concept is intuitive,
terms such as chroma, saturation, purity, and intensity are often used without great precision, and even when
well-defined depend greatly on the specific color model in use.
A highly colorful stimulus is vivid and intense, while a less colorful stimulus appears more muted, closer to gray.
With no colorfulness at all, a color is a “neutral” gray (an image with no colorfulness in any of its colors is called
grayscale). With three attributes—colorfulness (or chroma or saturation), lightness (or brightness), and hue—any
color can be described.

Saturation
Saturation is one of three coordinates in the HSL and HSV color spaces. Note that virtually all
computer software implementing these spaces use a very rough approximation to calculate the
value they call "saturation", such as the formula described for HSV and this value has little, if
anything, to do with the description shown here.
The saturation of a color is determined by a combination of light intensity and how much it is
distributed across the spectrum of different wavelengths. The purest (most saturated) color is
Scale of
achieved by using just one wavelength at a high intensity, such as in laser light. If the intensity
saturation (0%
at bottom and it drops, then as a result the saturation drops. To desaturate a color of given intensity in a subtractive
is black and system (such as watercolor), one can add white, black, gray, or the hue's complement.
white).

Various correlates of saturation follow.

CIELUV
The chroma normalized by the lightness:

where (u′n, v′n) is the chromaticity of the white point, and chroma is defined below.[2]
By analogy, in CIELAB this would yield:

The CIE has not formally recommended this equation since CIELAB has no chromaticity diagram, and this
definition therefore lacks direct correlation with older concepts of saturation.[3] Nevertheless, this equation provides
a reasonable predictor of saturation, and demonstrates that adjusting the lightness in CIELAB while holding (a*, b*)
fixed does affect the saturation.
But the following formula is in agreement with the human perception of saturation: The formula proposed by Eva
Lübbe is in agreement with the verbal definition of Manfred Richter: Saturation is the proportion of pure chromatic
color in the total color sensation.[4]

where Sab is the saturation, L* the lightness and C*ab is the chroma of the color.
CIECAM02
The square root of the colorfulness divided by the brightness:
Colorfulness 37

This definition is inspired by experimental work done with the intention of remedying CIECAM97s's poor
performance.[5][6] M is proportional to the chroma C (M = CFL0.25), thus the CIECAM02 definition bears some
similarity to the CIELUV definition. An important difference is that the CIECAM02 model accounts for the viewing
conditions through the parameter FL.[5]

Excitation purity
The excitation purity (purity for short) of a
stimulus is its difference from the
illuminant's white point relative to the
furthest point on the chromaticity diagram
with the same hue (dominant wavelength for
monochromatic sources); using the CIE
1931 color space:[7]

where (xn, yn) is the chromaticity of the

white point and (xI, yI) is the point on the
perimeter whose line segment to the white
point contains the chromaticity of the
stimulus. Different color spaces, such as
CIELAB or CIELUV may be used, and will
yield different results.

Chroma in CIE 1976 L*a*b*

and L*u*v* color spaces
Excitation purity is the relative distance from the white point. Contours of
The naïve definition of saturation does not
constant purity can be found by shrinking the spectral locus about the white point.
specify its response function. In the CIE The points along the line segment have the same hue, with pe increasing from 0 to
XYZ and RGB color spaces, the saturation 1 between the white point and position on the spectral locus (position of the color
is defined in terms of additive color mixing, on the horseshoe shape in the diagram) or (as at the saturated end of the line shown
in the diagram) position on the line of purples.
and has the property of being proportional to
any scaling centered at white or the white
point illuminant. However, both color spaces are nonlinear in terms of psychovisually perceived color differences. It
is also possible—and sometimes desirable—to define a saturation-like quantity that is linearized in term of the
psychovisual perception.

In the CIE 1976 L*a*b* and L*u*v* color spaces, the unnormalized chroma is the radial component of the
cylindrical coordinate CIE L*C*h (lightness, chroma, hue) representation of the L*a*b* and L*u*v* color spaces,
also denoted as CIE L*C*h(a*b*) or CIE L*C*h for short, and CIE L*C*h(u*v*). The transformation of (a*, b*) to
(C*ab, hab) is given by:

and analogously for CIE L*C*h(u*v*).

Colorfulness 38

The chroma in the CIE L*C*h(a*b*) and CIE L*C*h(u*v*) coordinates has the advantage of being more
psychovisually linear, yet they are non-linear in terms of linear component color mixing. And therefore, chroma in
CIE 1976 L*a*b* and L*u*v* color spaces is very much different from the traditional sense of "saturation".

Chroma in color appearance models

Another, psychovisually even more accurate, but also more complex method to obtain or specify the saturation is to
use the color appearance model, like CIECAM. The chroma component of the LCh (lightness, chroma, hue)
coordinate, and becomes a function of parameters like the chrominance and physical brightness of the illumination,
or the characteristics of the emitting/reflecting surface, which is also psychovisually more sensible.

References
[1] Mark D. Fairchild. “ Color Appearance Models: CIECAM02 and Beyond (http:/ / www. cis. rit. edu/ fairchild/ PDFs/ AppearanceLec. pdf)”.
Slides from a tutorial at the IS&T/SID 12th Color Imaging Conference. 9 November 2004. Retrieved 19 September 2007.
[2] Schanda, János (2007). Colorimetry: Understanding the CIE System (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=g8VDAgAACAAJ&
dq=intitle:Colorimetry+ intitle:Understanding+ intitle:the+ intitle:CIE+ intitle:System). Wiley Interscience. ISBN 978-0-470-04904-4. , page
88.
[3] Hunt, Robert William Gainer (1993). Leslie D. Stroebel, Richard D. Zakia. ed. The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography (http:/ / books.
google. com/ ?id=CU7-2ZLGFpYC& pg=PA124& dq="correlate+ of+ saturation"+ cielab+ chroma+ lightness+ chromaticity). Focal Press.
p. 124. ISBN 0-240-51417-3. .
[4] Lübbe, Eva (2010). Colours in the Mind - Colour Systems in Reality- A formula for colour saturation. [Book on Demand].
ISBN 978-3-7881-4057-1.
[5] Moroney, Nathan; Fairchild, Mark D.; Hunt, Robert W.G.; Li, Changjun; Luo, M. Ronnier; Newman, Todd (November 12 2002). "The
CIECAM02 Color Appearance Model" (http:/ / www. polybytes. com/ misc/ Meet_CIECAM02. pdf) (PDF). IS&T/SID Tenth Color Imaging
Conference. Scottsdale, Arizona: The Society for Imaging Science and Technology. ISBN 0-89208-241-0. .
[6] Juan, Lu-Yin G.; Luo, Ming R. (June 2002). "Magnitude estimation for scaling saturation" (http:/ / spiedl. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/
GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=PSISDG004421000001000575000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes). In Robert Chung, Allan Rodrigues.
Proceedings of SPIE. 4421. 9th Congress of the International Colour Association. pp. 575–578. doi:10.1117/12.464511. .
[7] Stroebel, Leslie D.; Zakia, Richard D. (1993). The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=CU7-2ZLGFpYC&
pg=PA121& dq="excitation+ purity") (3E ed.). Focal Press. p. 121. ISBN 0-240-51417-3. .
Dichromatism 39

Dichromatism
Dichromatism (or polychromatism) is a phenomenon where a material or solution's hue is dependent on both the
concentration of the absorbing substance and the depth or thickness of the medium traversed.[1] In most substances
which are not dichromatic, only the brightness and saturation of the colour depend on their concentration and layer
thickness.
Examples of dichromatic substances are pumpkin seed oil, bromophenol blue and resazurin. When the layer of
pumpkin seed oil is less than 0.7 mm thick, the oil appears bright green, and in layer thicker than this, it appears
bright red.
The phenomenon is related to both the physical chemistry properties of the substance and the physiological response
of the human visual system to colour. This combined physicochemical–physiological basis was first explained in
2007.[2]

Physical explanation
Dichromatic properties can be explained by the Beer-Lambert law and by the excitation characteristics of the three
types of cone photoreceptors in the human retina. Dichromatism is potentially observable in any substance that has
an absorption spectrum with one wide but shallow local minimum and one narrow but deep local minimum. The
apparent width of the deep minimum may also be limited by the end of the visible range of human eye; in this case,
the true full width may not necessarily be narrow. As the thickness of the substance increases, the perceived hue
changes from that defined by the position of the wide-but-shallow minimum (in thin layers) to the hue of the
deep-but-narrow minimum (in thick layers).
The absorbance spectrum of pumpkin seed oil has the wide-but-shallow minimum in the green region of the
spectrum and deep local minimum in the red region. In thin layers, the absorption at any specific green wavelength is
not as low as it is for the red minimum, but a broader band of greenish wavelengths are transmitted, and hence the
overall appearance is green. The effect is enhanced by the greater sensitivity to green of the photoreceptors in the
human eye, and the narrowing of the red transmittance band by the long-wavelength limit of cone photoreceptor
sensitivity. According to the Beer-Lambert law, when viewing through the coloured substance (and thus ignoring
reflection), the proportion of light transmitted at a given wavelength, T, decreases exponentially with thickness t, T =
e-at, where a is the absorbance at that wavelength. Let Ge-aGt be the green transmittance and Re-aRt be the red
transmittance. The ratio of the two transmitted intensities is then (G/R)e(aR-aG)t. If the red absorbance is less than the
green, then as the thickness t increases, so does the ratio of red to green transmitted light, which causes the apparent
hue of the colour to switch from green to red.
Dichromatism 40

Quantification
The extent of dichromatism of material can be quantified by the Kreft's dichromaticity index (DI). It is defined as the
difference in hue angle (Δhab) between the colour of the sample at the dilution, where the chroma (colour saturation)
is maximal and the colour of four times more diluted (or thinner) and four times more concentrated (or thicker)
sample. The two hue angle differences are called dichromaticity index towards lighter (Kreft's DIL) and
dichromaticity index towards darker (Kreft's DID) respectively.[3] Kreft's dichromaticity index DIL and DID for
pumpkin oil, which is one of the most dichromatic substances, are −9 and −44, respectively. This means that
pumpkin oil changes its colour from green-yellow to orange-red (for 44 degrees in Lab colour space) when the
thickness of the observed layer is increased from cca 0.5 mm to 2 mm; and it changes slightly towards green (for 9
degrees) if its thickness is reduced for 4-fold.

History
A record by William Herschel (1738–1822), shows he observed dichromatism with a solution of ferrous sulphate in
1801 when working on an early solar telescope, but he did not recognise the effect.[4]

References
[1] Kennard IG, Howell DH (1941) Types of colouring in minerals. Am Mineral 26:405–421
[2] Kreft S and Kreft M (2007) Physicochemical and physiological basis of dichromatic colour, Naturwissenschaften 94, 935-939. On-line PDF
(http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ h5630lr536pj1333/ fulltext. pdf)
[3] Kreft S, Kreft M. (2009). "Quantification of dichromatism: a characteristic of color in transparent materials" (http:/ / www. opticsinfobase.
org/ josaa/ abstract. cfm?URI=josaa-26-7-1576). Journal of the Optical Society of America A 26 (7): 1576–1581.
Bibcode 2009JOSAA..26.1576K. doi:10.1364/JOSAA.26.001576. .
[4] The History of the Telescope - By Henry C. King - Page 141 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC& lpg=PA136&
dq=Lilienthal telescope& pg=PA141#v=onepage& q& f=false)
Hue 41

Hue
Hue is one of the main properties of a
color, defined technically (in the
CIECAM02 model), as "the degree to
which a stimulus can be described as
similar to or different from stimuli that
are described as red, green, blue, and Hue in the HSB/HSL encodings of RGB

yellow,"[1] (the unique hues). The

other main correlatives of color
appearance are colorfulness, chroma,
saturation, lightness, and brightness.

Usually, colors with the same hue are

distinguished with adjectives referring
to their lightness and/or chroma, such
as with "light blue", "pastel blue",
"vivid blue". Exceptions include
brown, which is a dark orange,[2] and
pink, a light red with reduced chroma.

In painting color theory, a hue refers to

a pure color—one without tint or shade
(added white or black pigment, An image with the hues cyclically shifted in HSL
respectively).[3] A hue is an element of space

the color wheel. Hues are first

processed in the brain in areas in the
extended V4 called globs.[4][5]

Computing hue
In opponent color spaces in which two
of the axes are perceptually orthogonal
to lightness, such as the CIE 1976 (L*,
a*, b*) (CIELAB) and 1976 (L*, u*,
The hues in the image of this Painted
v*) (CIELUV) color spaces, hue may
Bunting are cyclically rotated over
be computed together with chroma by time.
converting these coordinates from
rectangular form to polar form. Hue is the angular component of the polar representation, while chroma is the radial
component.

Specifically, in CIELAB:[6]

while, analogously, in CIELUV:[6]

Where, atan2 is a two-argument inverse tangent.

Hue 42

Computing hue from RGB

Preucil[7] describes a color hexagon, similar to a trilinear plot described by Evans, Hanson, and Brewer,[8] which
may be used to compute hue from RGB. To place red at 0°, green at 120°, and blue at 240°.

Equivalently, one may solve:

Preucil used a polar plot, which he termed a color circle.[7] Using R, G, and B, one may compute hue angle using the
following scheme: determine which of the six possible orderings of R, G, and B prevail, then apply the formula
given in the table below.

An illustration of the relationship between the

"hue" of colors with maximal saturation in HSV
and HSL with their corresponding RGB
HSV color space as a conical object coordinates.

Ordering Hue Region Formula

Red-Yellow

Yellow-Green

Green-Cyan

Cyan-Blue

Blue-Magenta

Magenta-Red

Note that in each case the formula contains the fraction , where H is the highest of R, G, and B; L is the

lowest, and M is the mid one between the other two. This is referred to as the Preucil Hue Error, and was used in the
computation of mask strength in photomechanical color reproduction.[9]
Hue angles computed for the Preucil circle agree with the hue angle computed for the Preucil Hexagon at integer
multiples of 30 degrees (red, yellow, green, cyan, blue, magenta, and the colors mid-way between contiguous pairs)
and differ by approximately 1.2 degrees at odd integer multiples of 15 degrees (based on the circle formula), the
maximum divergence between the two.
Hue 43

The process of converting an RGB color into an HSL color space or HSV color space is usually based on a 6-piece
piecewise mapping, treating the HSV cone as a hexacone, or the HSL double cone as a double hexacone.[10] The
formulae used are those in the table above.

Specialized hues
The hues exhibited by caramel colorings and beers are fairly limited in range. The Linner hue index is used to
quantify the hue of such products.

Usage in art
Manufacturers of pigments use the word hue e.g. 'Cadmium Yellow (hue)' to indicate that the original pigmentation
ingredient, often toxic, has been replaced by safer (or cheaper) alternatives whilst retaining the hue of the original.
Replacements are often used for chromium, cadmium and alizarin.

Hue vs. dominant wavelength

Dominant wavelength (or sometimes equivalent wavelength) is a physical analog to the perceptual attribute hue. On
a chromaticity diagram, a line is drawn from a white point through the coordinates of the color in question, until it
intersects the spectral locus. The wavelength at which the line intersects the spectrum locus is identified as the color's
dominant wavelength if the point is on the same side of the white point as the spectral locus, and as the color's
complementary wavelength if the point is on the opposite side.[11]

Hue difference: or ?
There are two main ways in which hue difference is quantified. The first is the simple difference between the two
hue angles. The symbol for this expression of hue difference is in CIELAB and in CIELUV. The
other is computed as the residual total color difference after Lightness and Chroma differences have been accounted
for; its symbol is in CIELAB and in CIELUV.

References
[1] Mark Fairchild, "Color Appearance Models: CIECAM02 and Beyond." Tutorial slides for IS&T/SID 12th Color Imaging Conference.
[2] C J Bartleson, "Brown". Color Research and Application, 1 : 4, p 181-191 (1976).
[3] "The Color Wheel and Color Theory" (http:/ / creativecurio. com/ 2008/ 05/ the-color-wheel-and-color-theory/ ). Creative Curio. 2008-05-16.
. Retrieved 2011-06-09.
[4] Conway, BR; Moeller, S; Tsao, DY. (2007). "Specialized color modules in macaque extrastriate cortex". Neuron 56 (3): 560–73.
doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.008. PMID 17988638.
[5] Conway, BR; Tsao, DY (2009). "Color-tuned neurons are spatially clustered according to color preference within alert macaque posterior
inferior temporal cortex". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 (42): 18034–9.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0810943106. PMC 2764907. PMID 19805195.
[6] Colorimetry, second edition: CIE Publication 15.2. Vienna: Bureau Central of the CIE, 1986.
[7] Frank Preucil, "Color Hue and Ink Transfer … Their Relation to Perfect Reproduction, TAGA Proceedings, p 102-110 (1953).
[8] Ralph Merrill Evans, W T Hanson, and W Lyle Brewer, Principles of Color Photography. New York: Wiley, 1953
[9] Miles Southworth, Color Separation Techniques, second edition. Livonia, New York: Graphic Arts Publishing, 1979
[10] Max K. Agoston (2004). Computer Graphics and Geometric Modelling v. 1: Implementation and Algorithms (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=fGX8yC-4vXUC& pg=PA301& lpg=PA301& dq=hsv+ + hue+ rgb#PPA304,M1). Springer. pp. 301–304. ISBN 1-85233-818-0. .
[11] Deane B Judd and Günter Wyszecki, Color in Business, Science, and Industry. New York: Wiley, 1976.
Hue 44

External links
• Editing of hue in photography (http://gimps.de/en/tutorials/gimp/picture-photo-image/improve-colors/)

Tints and shades

In color theory, a tint is the mixture of a color with white, which
increases lightness, and a shade is the mixture of a color with black,
which reduces lightness. A tone is produced either by mixing with
gray, or by both tinting and shading. Mixing a color with any neutral
color, including black and white, reduces the chroma, or colorfulness,
while the hue remains unchanged.

When mixing colored light (additive color models), the achromatic

mixture of spectrally balanced red, green and blue (RGB) is always
white, not gray or black. When we mix colorants, such as the pigments
in paint mixtures, a color is produced which is always darker and lower
in chroma, or saturation, than the parent colors. This moves the mixed
color toward a neutral color—a gray or near-black. Lights are made
brighter or dimmer by adjusting their brightness, or energy level; in
Some shades of blue
painting, lightness is adjusted through mixture with white, black or a
color's complement.

It is common among some artistic painters to darken a paint color by adding black paint—producing colors called
shades—or to lighten a color by adding white—producing colors called tints. However, this is not always the best
way for representational painting, since an unfortunate result is for colors to also shift in their hues. For instance,
darkening a color by adding black can cause colors such as yellows, reds and oranges, to shift toward the greenish or
bluish part of the spectrum. Lightening a color by adding white can cause a shift towards blue when mixed with reds
and oranges. Another practice when darkening a color is to use its opposite, or complementary, color (e.g.
violet-purple added to yellowish-green) in order to neutralize it without a shift in hue, and darken it if the additive
color is darker than the parent color. When lightening a color this hue shift can be corrected with the addition of a
small amount of an adjacent color to bring the hue of the mixture back in line with the parent color (e.g. adding a
small amount of orange to a mixture of red and white will correct the tendency of this mixture to shift slightly
towards the blue end of the spectrum).
Tints and shades 45

An extension of the color wheel: the color sphere. Colors nearest the center or the poles are most achromatic. Colors of the same lightness and
saturation are of the same nuance. Colors of the same hue and saturation, but of different lightness, are said to be tints and shades. Colors of the same
hue and lightness, but of varying saturation, are called tones.
Lightness 46

Lightness
Lightness (sometimes called value or tone) is a property of a color, or a
dimension of a color space, that is defined in a way to reflect the
subjective brightness perception of a color for humans along a
lightness–darkness axis.
Various color models have an explicit term for this property. The
Munsell color model uses the term value, while the HSL color model
and Lab color space use the term lightness. The HSV model uses the
term value a little differently: a color with a low value is nearly black,
but one with a high value is the pure, fully saturated color.
In subtractive color (i.e. paints) value changes can be achieved by
adding black or white to the color. However, this also reduces
saturation. Chiaroscuro and Tenebrism both take advantage of dramatic
contrasts of value to heighten drama in art. Artists may also employ
shading, subtle manipulation of value.

Relationship between lightness, value, and

luminance
The Munsell value has long been used as a perceptually uniform
lightness scale. A question of interest is the relationship between the
Munsell value scale and the relative luminance. Aware of the
Weber–Fechner law, Munsell remarked "Should we use a logarithmic
curve or curve of squares?"[1] Neither option turned out to be quite Three hues in the Munsell color model. Each
color differs in value from top to bottom in equal
correct; scientists eventually converged on a roughly cube-root curve,
perception steps. The right column undergoes a
consistent with the Stevens power law for brightness perception, dramatic change in perceived color.
reflecting the fact that lightness is proportional to the number of nerve
impulses per nerve fiber per unit time.[2] The remainder of this section is a chronology of lightness approximations,
leading to CIELAB.

Note: Munsell's V runs from 0 to 10, while Y typically runs from 0 to 100 (often interpreted as a percent). Typically,
the relative luminance is normalized so that the "reference white" (say, magnesium oxide) has a tristimulus value of
Y=100. Since the reflectance of magnesium oxide (MgO) relative to the perfect reflecting diffuser is 97.5%, V=10
corresponds to Y=100/97.5%≈102.6 if MgO is used as the reference.[3]
Lightness 47

1920
Priest et al. provide a basic
estimate of the Munsell value
(with Y running from 0 to 1 in
this case):[4]

1933
Munsell, Sloan, and Godlove
launch a study on the Munsell
neutral value scale, considering
several proposals relating the
relative luminance to the
Munsell value, and suggest:[5][6]

1943
Observe that the lightness is 50% for a luminance of around 18% relative to the reference
Newhall, Nickerson, and Judd white.
prepare a report for the Optical
Society of America. They suggest a quintic parabola (relating the reflectance in terms of the value):[7]

1943
Using Table II of the O.S.A. report, Moon and Spencer express the value in terms of the luminance:[8]

1944
Saunderson and Milner introduce a subtractive constant in the previous expression, for a better fit to the
Munsell value.[9] Later, Jameson and Hurvich claim that this corrects for simultaneous contrast effects.[10][11]

1955
Ladd and Pinney of Eastman Kodak are interested in the Munsell value as a perceptually uniform lightness
scale for use in television. After considering one logarithmic and five power-law functions (per Stevens' power
law), they relate value to reflectance by raising the reflectance to the power of 0.352:[12]

Realizing this is quite close to the cube root, they simplify it to:

1958
Glasser et al. define the lightness as ten times the Munsell value (so that the lightness ranges from 0 to
100):[13]

1964
Wyszecki simplifies this to:[14]
Lightness 48

This formula approximates the Munsell value function for (it is not applicable for Y<1%)
and is used for the CIE 1964 color space.
1976
CIELAB uses the following formula:

where is the Y tristimulus value of a "specified white object" and is subject to the restriction
. Pauli removes this restriction by computing a linear extrapolation which maps Y/Yn=0 to
*
L =0 and is tangent to the formula above at the point at which the linear extension takes effect. First, the
transition point is determined to be , then the slope of
is computed. This gives the two-part function:[15]

The lightness is then .

At first glance, you might approximate the lightness function by a cube root, an approximation that is found in much
of the technical literature. However, the linear segment near black is significant. The best-fit pure power function has
an exponent of about 0.42, far from 1/3.

An approximately 18% grey card, having an exact reflectance of , has a lightness value of 50. It is called
"mid grey" because its lightness is midway between black and white.

References
[1] Kuehni, Rolf G. (February 2002). "The early development of the Munsell system". Color Research & Application 27 (1): 20–27.
doi:10.1002/col.10002.
[2] Hunt, Robert W. G. (May 18 1957). "Light Energy and Brightness Sensation". Nature 179 (4568): 1026. doi:10.1038/1791026a0.
[3] Valberg, Arne (2006). Light Vision Color (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=hNDS1C6x0WYC& pg=PA200& dq=0. 975+ OR+ 97. 5+
"magnesium+ oxide"). John Wiley and Sons. p. 200. ISBN 0470849029. .
[4] Priest, Irwin G.; Gibson, K.S.; McNicholas, H.J. (September 1920). An examination of the Munsell color system. I: Spectral and total
reflection and the Munsell scale of Value. Technical paper 167. United States Bureau of Standards. p. 27
[5] Munsell, A.E.O.; Sloan, L.L.; Godlove, I.H. (November 1933). "Neutral value scales. I. Munsell neutral value scale" (http:/ / www.
opticsinfobase. org/ abstract. cfm?URI=josa-23-11-394). JOSA 23 (11): 394–411. doi:10.1364/JOSA.23.000394. . Note: This paper contains a
historical survey stretching to 1760.
[6] Munsell, A.E.O.; Sloan, L.L.; Godlove, I.H. (December 1933). "Neutral value scales. II. A comparison of results and equations describing
value scales" (http:/ / www. opticsinfobase. org/ abstract. cfm?URI=josa-23-12-419). JOSA 23 (12): 419–425. doi:10.1364/JOSA.23.000419. .
[7] Newhall, Sidney M.; Nickerson, Dorothy; Judd, Deane B (May 1943). "Final report of the O.S.A. subcommittee on the spacing of the
Munsell colors" (http:/ / www. opticsinfobase. org/ abstract. cfm?URI=josa-33-7-385). Journal of the Optical Society of America 33 (7):
385–418. doi:10.1364/JOSA.33.000385. .
[8] Moon, Parry; Spencer, Domina Eberle (May 1943). "Metric based on the composite color stimulus" (http:/ / www. opticsinfobase. org/
abstract. cfm?URI=josa-33-5-270). JOSA 33 (5): 270–277. doi:10.1364/JOSA.33.000270. .
[9] Saunderson, Jason L.; Milner, B.I. (March 1944). "Further study of ω space" (http:/ / www. opticsinfobase. org/ abstract.
cfm?URI=josa-34-3-167). JOSA 34 (3): 167–173. doi:10.1364/JOSA.34.000167. .
[10] Hurvich, Leo M.; Jameson, Dorothea (November 1957). "An Opponent-Process Theory of Color Vision" (http:/ / psycnet. apa. org/ index.
cfm?fa=buy. optionToBuy& id=1959-02846-001). Psychological Review 64 (6): 384–404. doi:10.1037/h0041403. PMID 13505974. .
[11] Jameson, Dorothea; Leo M., Hurvich (May 1964). "Theory of brightness and color contrast in human vision". Vision Research 4 (1-2):
135–154. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(64)90037-9. PMID 5888593.
[12] Ladd, J.H.; Pinney, J.E. (September 1955). "Empirical relationships with the Munsell Value scale" (http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpls/
abs_all. jsp?isnumber=4055542& arnumber=4055558). Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 43 (9): 1137.
doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1955.277892. .
[13] Glasser, L.G.; A.H. McKinney, C.D. Reilly, and P.D. Schnelle (October 1958). "Cube-root color coordinate system" (http:/ / www.
opticsinfobase. org/ abstract. cfm?URI=josa-48-10-736). JOSA 48 (10): 736–740. doi:10.1364/JOSA.48.000736. .
[14] Wyszecki, Günther (November 1963). "Proposal for a New Color-Difference Formula" (http:/ / www. opticsinfobase. org/ abstract.
cfm?URI=josa-53-11-1314). JOSA 53 (11): 1318–1319. doi:10.1364/JOSA.53.001318. . Note: The asterisks are not used in the paper.
Lightness 49

[15] Pauli, Hartmut K.A. (1976). "Proposed extension of the CIE recommendation on "Uniform color spaces, color spaces, and color-difference
equations, and metric color terms"" (http:/ / www. opticsinfobase. org/ abstract. cfm?URI=josa-66-8-866). JOSA 66 (8): 866–867.
doi:10.1364/JOSA.66.000866. .
 50

Perception of Color

Opponent process
The color opponent process is a color theory that states
that the human visual system interprets information about
color by processing signals from cones and rods in an
antagonistic manner. The three types of cones (L for long,
M for medium and S for short) have some overlap in the
wavelengths of light to which they respond, so it is more
efficient for the visual system to record differences
between the responses of cones, rather than each type of
cone's individual response. The opponent color theory
suggests that there are three opponent channels: red
versus green, blue versus yellow, and black versus white
Opponent colors based on experiment. Deuteranopes see little
(the last type is achromatic and detects light-dark
difference between the two colors in the central column.
variation, or luminance).[1] Responses to one color of an
opponent channel are antagonistic to those to the other
color. That is, opposite opponent colors are never perceived together – there is no "greenish red" or "yellowish blue".

While the trichromatic theory defines the way the retina of the eye allows the visual system to detect color with three
types of cones, the opponent process theory accounts for mechanisms that receive and process information from
cones. Though the trichromatic and opponent processes theories were initially thought to be at odds, it later came to
be understood that the mechanisms responsible for the opponent process receive signals from the three types of
cones and process them at a more complex level.[2]
Besides the cones, which detect light entering the eye, the biological basis of the opponent theory involves two other
types of cells: bipolar cells, and ganglion cells. Information from the cones is passed to the bipolar cells in the retina,
which may be the cells in the opponent process that transform the information from cones. The information is then
passed to ganglion cells, of which there are two major classes: magnocellular, or large-cell layers, and parvocellular,
or small-cell layers. Parvocellular cells, or P cells, handle the majority of information about color, and fall into two
groups: one that processes information about differences between firing of L and M cones, and one that processes
differences between S cones and a combined signal from both L and M cones. The first subtype of cells are
responsible for processing red–green differences, and the second process blue–yellow differences. P cells also
transmit information about intensity of light (how much of it there is) due to their receptive fields.
Opponent process 51

History
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe first studied the physiological effect of opposed colors in his Theory of Colours in
1810.[3] Goethe arranged his color wheel symmetrically, "for the colours diametrically opposed to each other in this
diagram are those which reciprocally evoke each other in the eye. Thus, yellow demands purple; orange, blue; red,
green; and vice versa: thus again all intermediate gradations reciprocally evoke each other."[4][5]
Ewald Hering proposed opponent color theory in 1892.[6] He thought that the colors red, yellow, green, and blue are
special in that any other color can be described as a mix of them, and that they exist in opposite pairs. That is, either
red or green is perceived and never greenish-red; although yellow is a mixture of red and green in the RGB color
theory, the eye does not perceive it as such.
In 1957, Hurvich and Dorothea Jameson provided quantitative data for Hering's color opponency theory. Their
method was called "hue cancellation". Hue cancellation experiments start with a color (e.g. yellow) and attempt to
determine how much of the opponent color (e.g. blue) of one of the starting color's components must be added to
eliminate any hint of that component from the starting color (Wolfe, Kluender, & Levi, 2009).[7]
Griggs expanded the concept to reflect a wide range of opponent processes for biological systems in this book
Biological Relativity (c) 1967.
In 1970, Richard Solomon expanded Hurvich's general neurological opponent process model to explain emotion,
drug addiction, and work motivation. (See Opponent-process theory.)[8][9]
The opponent color theory can be applied to computer vision and implemented as the "Gaussian color model."[10]

Complementary-color afterimages
If we stare at a red square for forty seconds, and immediately look at a
white sheet of paper we'll often perceive a green square on the blank
sheet. This complementary color afterimage is more easily explained
by the opponent theory than the trichromatic; in the opponent-process
theory, fatigue of pathways promoting red produce the illusion of a
green square.[11]

Subjective color and new colors

Reddish green and yellowish blue A snapshot of the "color dove illusion"

Under normal circumstances, there is no hue one could describe as a

mixture of opponent hues; that is, as a hue looking "redgreen" or "yellowblue". However, in 1983 Crane and
Piantanida[12] carried out an experiment under special viewing conditions in which red and green stripes (or blue and
yellow stripes) were placed adjacent to each other and the image held in the same position relative to the viewer's
eyes (using an eye tracker to compensate for minor muscle movements). Under such conditions, the borders between
the stripes seemed to disappear and the colors flowed into each other, making it apparently possible to override the
opponency mechanisms and, for a moment, get some people to perceive novel colors. :

"[s]ome observers indicated that although they were aware that what they were viewing was a color (that is,
the field was not achromatic), they were unable to name or describe the color. One of these observers was an
artist with a large color vocabulary. Other observers of the novel hues described the first stimulus as a
reddish-green."[13]
However, some subjects in the Crane and Piantanida study merely reported seeing hallucinatory textures, such as
blue specks on a yellow backdrop. A possible explanation is that the study did not control for variations in the
Opponent process 52

perceived luminance of the colors from subject to subject (two colors are equiluminant for an observer when rapidly
alternating between the colors produces the least impression of flickering). To investigate this, Vincent Billock,
Gerald Gleason and Brian Tsou set up a similar experiment which controlled for luminance.[14] They had the
following observation:
"We found that when colors were equiluminant, subjects saw reddish greens, bluish yellows, or a multistable
spatial color exchange (an entirely novel perceptual phenomena [sic]); when the colors were
nonequiluminant, subjects saw spurious pattern formation."
This led them to propose a 'soft-wired model of cortical color opponency', in which populations of neurons compete
to fire and in which the 'losing' neurons go completely silent. In this model, eliminating competition by, for instance,
inhibiting connections between neural populations can allow mutually exclusive neurons to fire together.[14]

References
[1] Michael Foster (1891). A Text-book of physiology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Swn8ztLFTdkC& pg=RA1-PA921& dq=hering+
red-green+ yellow-blue+ young-helmholtz+ date:0-1923). Lea Bros. & Co. p. 921. .
[2] Kandel ER, Schwartz JH and Jessell TM, 2000. Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed., McGraw–Hill, New York. pp. 577–80.
[3] "Goethe's Color Theory" (http:/ / webexhibits. org/ colorart/ ch. html). Vision science and the emergence of modern art. .
[4] Goethe, Johann (1810). Theory of Colours, paragraph #50.
[5] "Goethe on Colours" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=H7TlAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA1-PA121& dq="reciprocally+ evoke+ each+ other+ in+
the+ eye"#v=onepage& q="reciprocally evoke each other in the eye"& f=false). The Art-Union 2 (18): 107. July 15, 1840. .
[6] Hering E, 1964. Outlines of a Theory of the Light Sense. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
[7] Hurvich, Leo M.; Jameson, Dorothea (November 1957). "An opponent-process theory of color vision". Psychological Review 64 (6, Part I):
384–404. doi:10.1037/h0041403. PMID 13505974.
[8] Solomon, R.L. and Corbit, J.D. (1973). "An Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation: II. Cigarette Addiction". Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 81 (2), pp. 158–171.
[9] Solomon, R.L. and Corbit, J.D. (1974). "An Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation: I. Temporal Dynamics of Affect". Psychological
Review 81 (2), pp. 119–145.
[10] Geusebroek, J.-M.; van den Boomgaard, R.; Smeulders, A.W.M.; Geerts, H. (December 2001). "Color invariance". Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence, IEEE Transactions on 23 (12): 1338–1350. doi:10.1109/34.977559.
[11] Griggs, R. A. (2009). "SENSATION AND PERCEPTION". Psychology: A Concise Introduction (2 ed.). Worth Publishers. p. 92.
ISBN 978-1-4292-0082-0. OCLC 213815202. "color information is processed at the post-receptor cell level (by bipolar, ganglion, thalamic,
and cortical cells) according to the opponent-process theory."
[12] *Crane HD and Piantanida TP, 1983. On Seeing Reddish Green and Yellowish Blue. Science, 221:1078–80.
[13] Suarez J; Suarez, Juan (2009). "Reddish Green: A Challenge for Modal Claims About Phenomenal Structure". Philosophy and
Phenomenological Research 78 (2): 346. doi:10.1111/j.1933-1592.2009.00247.x.
[14] Billock, Vincent A.; Gerald A. Gleason, Brian H. Tsou (2001). "Perception of forbidden colors in retinally stabilized equiluminant images:
an indication of softwired cortical color opponency?" (http:/ / aris. ss. uci. edu/ ~kjameson/ BillockEtAlImpossibleColorsJOSA2001. pdf).
Journal of the Optical Society of America A (Optical Society of America) 18 (10): 2398–2403. doi:10.1364/JOSAA.18.002398. . Retrieved
2010-08-21.

Further reading
• Baccus SA, 2007. Timing and computation in inner retinal circuitry. Annu Rev Physiol, 69:271–90.
• Masland RH, 2001. Neuronal diversity in the retina. Curr Opin Neurobiol, 11(4):431–6.
• Masland RH, 2001. The fundamental plan of the retina. Nat Neurosci. 4(9):877–86.
• Sowden PT and Schyns PG, 2006. Channel surfing in the visual brain. Trends Cogn Sci. 10(12):538–45.
• Wässle H, 2004. Parallel processing in the mammalian retina. Nat Rev Neurosci, 5(10):747–57.
Impossible colors 53

Impossible colors
Reddish Green redirects here. Or see Reddish (an area of the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport, in Greater
Manchester, England).
Impossible colors or forbidden colors are hues that cannot be perceived in ordinary viewing conditions from light
that is a combination of various intensities of the various frequencies of visible light. Examples of impossible colors
are bluish-yellow and reddish-green.[1] This does not mean the muddy brown color created when mixing red and
green paints, or the green color from mixing yellow and blue paints, but rather colors that appear to be similar to, for
example, both red and green, or both yellow and blue. Other colors never experienced in ordinary viewing, but
perceivable under special artificial laboratory conditions, would also be termed impossible colors.

Opponent process
The color opponent process is a color theory
that states that the human visual system
interprets information about color by
processing signals from cones and rods in an
antagonistic manner. The three types of
cones have some overlap in the wavelengths
of light to which they respond, so it is more
efficient for the visual system to record
differences between the responses of cones,
rather than each type of cone's individual
response. The opponent color theory Where opposing colors cancel each other out, the remaining color on the vertical
suggests that there are three opponent axis is perceived. However, under special conditions, a mixture of opposing colors
can be seen without the remaining color interfering.
channels: red versus green, blue versus
yellow, and black versus white (the latter
type is achromatic and detects light-dark variation, or luminance). Responses to one color of an opponent channel are
antagonistic to those to the other color.

Claimed evidence for ability to see impossible colors

In 1983, Hewitt D. Crane and Thomas P. Piantanida carried out tests
using a device that had a field of a vertical red stripe adjacent to a
vertical green stripe (or in some cases, yellow–blue). In contrast to
apparatus used in simpler tests, the device had the ability to track
involuntary eye movement and to adjust mirrors so that the image
would appear to be completely stable. The boundary of the red–green
stripes was stabilised on the retina of one eye while the other eye was Some people may be able to see the color
patched and the field outside the stripes was blanked with occluders. "yellow–blue" in this image by allowing their
This allowed for a mixing of the two colors in the brain, producing eyes to cross so that both + symbols are on top of
each other.
neither green for a yellow–blue test, nor brown for a red–green test,
but new colors entirely. Some of the volunteers for the experiment
even reported that afterwards, they could still imagine the new colors for a period of time.[1]

Other researchers dispute the existence of colors forbidden by opponency theory and claim they are, in reality,
intermediate colors.[2] See also binocular rivalry.
Impossible colors 54

References
[1] Crane, Hewitt D.; Piantanida, Thomas P. (1983). "On Seeing Reddish Green and Yellowish Blue". Science 221 (4615): 1078–80.
doi:10.1126/science.221.4615.1078. JSTOR 1691544. PMID 17736657.
[2] Hsieh, P.-J.; Tse, P.U. (2006). "Illusory color mixing upon perceptual fading and filling-in does not result in 'forbidden colors'". Vision
Research 46 (14): 2251–8. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2005.11.030. PMID 16469353.

Further reading
• Billock, Vincent A.; Tsou, Brian H. (2010). "Seeing Forbidden Colors". Scientific American 302 (2): 72–7.
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0210-72. PMID 20128226.
• Takahashi, Shigeko; Ejima, Yoshimichi (1984). "Spatial properties of red-green and yellow-blue perceptual
opponent-color response". Vision Research 24 (9): 987–94. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(84)90075-0. PMID 6506487.
• Hibino, H (1992). "Red-green and yellow-blue opponent-color responses as a function of retinal eccentricity".
Vision research 32 (10): 1955–64. PMID 1287992.

Color vision
Color vision is the ability of an organism or machine to distinguish
objects based on the wavelengths (or frequencies) of the light they
reflect, emit, or transmit. Colors can be measured and quantified in
various ways; indeed, a human's perception of colors is a subjective
process whereby the brain responds to the stimuli that are produced
when incoming light reacts with the several types of cone
photoreceptors in the eye. In essence different people may see one
subject in different ways.

Colorless, green, and red photographic filters as

Wavelength and hue detection imaged ("perceived") by digital camera

Isaac Newton discovered that white light splits into its component
colors when passed through a dispersive prism, but that if those bands of colored light pass through another and
rejoin, they make a white beam. The characteristic colors are, from low to high frequency: red, orange, yellow,
green, cyan, blue, violet. Sufficient differences in frequency give rise to a difference in perceived hue; the just
noticeable difference in wavelength varies from about 1 nm in the blue-green and yellow wavelengths, to 10 nm and
more in the red and blue. Though the eye can distinguish up to a few hundred hues, when those pure spectral colors
are mixed together or diluted with white light, the number of distinguishable chromaticities can be quite high.

In very low light levels, vision is scotopic: light is detected by rod cells of the retina. Rods are maximally sensitive to
wavelengths near 500 nm, and play little, if any, role in color vision. In brighter light, such as daylight, vision is
photopic: light is detected by cone cells which are responsible for color vision. Cones are sensitive to a range of
wavelengths, but are most sensitive to wavelengths near 555 nm. Between these regions, mesopic vision comes into
play and both rods and cones provide signals to the retinal ganglion cells. The shift in color perception from dim
light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the Purkinje effect.
The perception of "white" is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colors of just a few
wavelengths, such as red, green, and blue, or by mixing just a pair of complementary colors such as blue and
yellow.[1]
Color vision 55

Physiology of color perception

Perception of color begins with specialized retinal cells containing
pigments with different spectral sensitivities, known as cone cells. In
humans, there are three types of cones sensitive to three different
spectra, resulting in trichromatic color vision.
Each individual cone contains pigments composed of opsin apoprotein,
which is covalently linked to either 11-cis-hydroretinal or more rarely The modern model of color perception as it
11-cis-dehydroretinal.[2] occurs in the retina, pertaining to both the
trichromatic and opponent process theories
The cones are conventionally labeled according to the ordering of the introduced in the 19th century.
wavelengths of the peaks of their spectral sensitivities: short (S),
medium (M), and long (L) cone types. These three types do not
correspond well to particular colors as we know them. Rather, the
perception of color is achieved by a complex process that starts with
the differential output of these cells in the retina and it will be finalized
in the visual cortex and associative areas of the brain.

For example, while the L cones have been referred to simply as red
receptors, microspectrophotometry has shown that their peak
sensitivity is in the greenish-yellow region of the spectrum. Similarly,
the S- and M-cones do not directly correspond to blue and green,
Normalized response spectra of human cones, S,
although they are often depicted as such. It is important to note that the M, and L types, to monochromatic spectral
RGB color model is merely a convenient means for representing color, stimuli, with wavelength given in nanometers.
and is not directly based on the types of cones in the human eye.

The peak response of human cone cells varies, even among individuals
with 'normal' color vision;[3] in some non-human species this
polymorphic variation is even greater, and it may well be adaptive.[4]

Theories of color vision

Two complementary theories of color vision are the trichromatic
theory and the opponent process theory. The trichromatic theory, or
Young–Helmholtz theory, proposed in the 19th century by Thomas
Young and Hermann von Helmholtz, as mentioned above, states that
the retina's three types of cones are preferentially sensitive to blue, The same figures as above represented here as a
green, and red. Ewald Hering proposed the opponent process theory in single curve in three (normalized cone response)
1872.[5] It states that the visual system interprets color in an dimensions

antagonistic way: red vs. green, blue vs. yellow, black vs. white. We
now know both theories to be correct, describing different stages in visual physiology, visualized in the diagram on
the right.[6] Green ←→ Magenta and Blue ←→ Yellow are scales with mutually exclusive boundaries. In the same
way that there cannot exist a "slightly negative" positive number, one cannot perceive a blueish-yellow or a
reddish-green.
Color vision 56

Relative brightness sensitivity of the human

visual system as a function of wavelength

Cone cells in the human eye

Cone type Name Range [7][8]

Peak wavelength

S β 400–500 nm 420–440 nm

M γ 450–630 nm 534–555 nm

L ρ 500–700 nm 564–580 nm

A range of wavelengths of light stimulates each of these receptor types to varying degrees. Yellowish-green light, for
example, stimulates both L and M cones equally strongly, but only stimulates S-cones weakly. Red light, on the
other hand, stimulates L cones much more than M cones, and S cones hardly at all; blue-green light stimulates M
cones more than L cones, and S cones a bit more strongly, and is also the peak stimulant for rod cells; and blue light
stimulates S cones more strongly than red or green light, but L and M cones more weakly. The brain combines the
information from each type of receptor to give rise to different perceptions of different wavelengths of light.
The opsins (photopigments) present in the L and M cones are encoded on the X chromosome; defective encoding of
these leads to the two most common forms of color blindness. The OPN1LW gene, which codes for the opsin present
in the L cones, is highly polymorphic (a recent study by Verrelli and Tishkoff found 85 variants in a sample of 236
men).[9] A very small percentage of women may have an extra type of color receptor because they have different
alleles for the gene for the L opsin on each X chromosome. X chromosome inactivation means that only one opsin is
expressed in each cone cell, and some women may therefore show a degree of tetrachromatic color vision.[10]
Variations in OPN1MW, which codes the opsin expressed in M cones, appear to be rare, and the observed variants
have no effect on spectral sensitivity.
Color vision 57

Color in the human brain

Color processing begins at a very early level in the visual system (even
within the retina) through initial color opponent mechanisms. Both
Helmholtz's trichromatic theory, and Hering's opponent process theory
are therefore correct, but trichromacy arises at the level of the
receptors, and opponent processes arise at the level of retinal ganglion
cells and beyond. In Hering's theory opponent mechanisms refer to the
opposing color effect of red–green, blue–yellow, and light–dark.
However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor
Visual pathways in the human brain. The ventral types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L
stream (purple) is important in color recognition. and M cone activity, which corresponds loosely to red–green
The dorsal stream (green) is also shown. They opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to
originate from a common source in the visual
magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the
cortex.
S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to
correspond to blue–yellow opponency, but actually runs along a color
axis from lime green to violet.

Visual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via the optic nerve to the optic chiasma: a
point where the two optic nerves meet and information from the temporal (contralateral) visual field crosses to the
other side of the brain. After the optic chiasma the visual tracts are referred to as the optic tracts, which enter the
thalamus to synapse at the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN).
The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) is divided into laminae (zones), of which there are three types: the M-laminae,
consisting primarily of M-cells, the P-laminae, consisting primarily of P-cells, and the koniocellular laminae. M- and
P-cells received relatively balanced input from both L- and M-cones throughout most of the retina, although this
seems to not be the case at the fovea, with midget cells synapsing in the P-laminae. The koniocellular laminae
receive axons from the small bistratified ganglion cells.[11][12]
After synapsing at the LGN, the visual tract continues on back to the primary visual cortex (V1) located at the back
of the brain within the occipital lobe. Within V1 there is a distinct band (striation). This is also referred to as "striate
cortex", with other cortical visual regions referred to collectively as "extrastriate cortex". It is at this stage that color
processing becomes much more complicated.
In V1 the simple three-color segregation begins to break down. Many cells in V1 respond to some parts of the
spectrum better than others, but this "color tuning" is often different depending on the adaptation state of the visual
system. A given cell that might respond best to long wavelength light if the light is relatively bright might then
become responsive to all wavelengths if the stimulus is relatively dim. Because the color tuning of these cells is not
stable, some believe that a different, relatively small, population of neurons in V1 is responsible for color vision.
These specialized "color cells" often have receptive fields that can compute local cone ratios. Such
"double-opponent" cells were initially described in the goldfish retina by Nigel Daw;[13][14] their existence in
primates was suggested by David H. Hubel and Torsten Wiesel and subsequently proven by Bevil Conway.[15] As
Margaret Livingstone and David Hubel showed, double opponent cells are clustered within localized regions of V1
called blobs, and are thought to come in two flavors, red–green and blue–yellow.[16] Red–green cells compare the
relative amounts of red–green in one part of a scene with the amount of red–green in an adjacent part of the scene,
responding best to local color contrast (red next to green). Modeling studies have shown that double-opponent cells
are ideal candidates for the neural machinery of color constancy explained by Edwin H. Land in his retinex
theory.[17]
Color vision 58

From the V1 blobs, color information is sent to cells in the second

visual area, V2. The cells in V2 that are most strongly color tuned are
clustered in the "thin stripes" that, like the blobs in V1, stain for the
enzyme cytochrome oxidase (separating the thin stripes are interstripes
and thick stripes, which seem to be concerned with other visual
information like motion and high-resolution form). Neurons in V2 then
synapse onto cells in the extended V4. This area includes not only V4,
but two other areas in the posterior inferior temporal cortex, anterior to
area V3, the dorsal posterior inferior temporal cortex, and posterior
TEO.[19][20] (Area V4 was identified by Semir Zeki to be exclusively
dedicated to color, but this has since been shown not to be the case.[21]
Color processing in the extended V4 occurs in millimeter-sized color This image (when viewed in full size, 1000 pixels
modules called globs.[19][20] This is the first part of the brain in which wide) contains 1 million pixels, each of a
color is processed in terms of the full range of hues found in color different color. The human eye can distinguish
[18]
space.[19][20] about 10 million different colors.

Anatomical studies have shown that neurons in extended V4 provide input to the inferior temporal lobe . "IT" cortex
is thought to integrate color information with shape and form, although it has been difficult to define the appropriate
criteria for this claim. Despite this murkiness, it has been useful to characterize this pathway (V1 > V2 > V4 > IT) as
the ventral stream or the "what pathway", distinguished from the dorsal stream ("where pathway") that is thought to
analyze motion, among many other features.

Subjectivity of color perception

The subjectivity of color occurs when there are no breaks or
boundaries between colors seen by the eye, such as in a rainbow. A
black-and-white photograph of a rainbow shows no band structure at
all, demonstrating that the number of bands, and the bands themselves,
are phenomena added to nature by the eye and the brain. However, it is
important to note that the subjectivity lies in the brain's perception of
the color, and not the light itself. The wavelengths of light are the same
for all observers.
The Himba people have been found to perceive colors differently from
Side by side comparison of the same rainbow
most Euro-Americans and are able to easily distinguish close shades of photo in color and monochrome. The stripes of
green, barely discernable for most people.[22] The Himba have created color, perceived vividly by most people, totally
a very different color scheme which divides the spectrum to dark disappear when the color saturation is set to zero.

shades (Zuzu in Himba), very light (Vapa), Vivid blue and green
(Buru) and dry colors as an adaptation to their specific way of life.

Perception of color depends heavily on the context in which the perceived object is presented. For example, a white
page under blue, pink, or purple light will reflect mostly blue, pink, or purple light to the eye, respectively; the brain,
however, compensates for the effect of lighting (based on the color shift of surrounding objects) and is more likely to
interpret the page as white under all three conditions, a phenomenon known as color constancy.
Color vision 59

In other animal species

The visible range and number of cone types differ between species. Mammals in general have color vision of a
limited type, and are usually red-green color-blind, with only two types of cones. Humans, some primates, and some
marsupials see an extended range of colors, but only by comparison with other mammals. Most non-mammalian
vertebrate species distinguish different colors at least as well as humans, and many species of birds, fish, reptiles and
amphibians, as well as some invertebrates, have more than three cone types and probably superior color vision to
humans.
In most Catarrhini (Old World monkeys and apes — primates closely related to humans) there are three types of
color receptors (known as cone cells), resulting in trichromatic color vision. These primates, like humans, are known
as trichromats. Many other primates and other mammals are dichromats, which is the general color vision state for
mammals that are active during the day (i.e., felines, canines, ungulates). Nocturnal mammals may have little or no
color vision. Trichromat non-primate mammals are rare.[6][23]
Many invertebrates have color vision. Honey- and bumblebees have trichromatic color vision, which is insensitive to
red but sensitive to ultraviolet. In view of the importance of color vision to bees one might expect these receptor
sensitivities to reflect their specific visual ecology; for example the types of flowers that they visit. However, the
main groups of hymenopteran insects excluding ants (i.e., bees, wasps and sawflies) mostly have three types of
photoreceptor, with spectral sensitivities similar to the honeybee's.[24] Papilio butterflies possess six types of
photoreceptors and may have pentachromatic vision.[25] The most complex color vision system in animal kingdom
has been found in stomatopods (such as the mantis shrimp) with up to 12 different spectral receptor types thought to
work as multiple dichromatic units.[26]
Vertebrate animals such as tropical fish and birds sometimes have more complex color vision systems than humans;
thus the many subtle colors they exhibit generally serve as direct signals for other fish or birds, and not to signal
mammals.[27] In bird vision, tetrachromacy is achieved through up to four cone types, depending on species. Each
single cone contains one of the four main types of vertebrate cone photopigment (LWS/ MWS, RH2, SWS2 and
SWS1) and has a colored oil droplet in its inner segment.[24] Brightly colored oil droplets inside the cones shift or
narrow the spectral sensitivity of the cell. It has been suggested that it is likely that pigeons are pentachromats.[28]
Reptiles and amphibians also have four cone types (occasionally five), and probably see at least the same number of
colors that humans do, or perhaps more. In addition, some nocturnal geckos have the capability of seeing color in
dim light.[29]
In the evolution of mammals, segments of color vision were lost, then for a few species of primates, regained by
gene duplication. Eutherian mammals other than primates (for example, dogs, mammalian farm animals) generally
have less-effective two-receptor (dichromatic) color perception systems, which distinguish blue, green, and
yellow—but cannot distinguish oranges and reds. There is some evidence that a few mammals, such as cats, have
redeveloped the ability to distinguish short wavelength colors, in at least a limited way, via one amino acid mutations
in opsin genes.[30][31] The adaptation to see reds is particularly important for primate mammals, since it leads to
identification of fruits, and also newly sprouting reddish leaves, which are particularly nutritious.
However, even among primates, full color vision differs between New World and Old World monkeys. Old World
primates, including monkeys and all apes, have vision similar to humans. New World monkeys may or may not have
color sensitivity at this level: in most species, males are dichromats, and about 60% of females are trichromats, but
the owl monkeys are cone monochromats, and both sexes of howler monkeys are trichromats.[32][33][34][35] Visual
sensitivity differences between males and females in a single species is due to the gene for yellow-green sensitive
opsin protein (which confers ability to differentiate red from green) residing on the X sex chromosome.
Several marsupials such as the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata) have been shown to have trichromatic
color vision.[36]
Marine mammals, adapted for low-light vision, have only a single cone type and are thus monochromats.
Color vision 60

Evolution
Color perception mechanisms are highly dependent on evolutionary factors, of which the most prominent is thought
to be satisfactory recognition of food sources. In herbivorous primates, color perception is essential for finding
proper (immature) leaves. In hummingbirds, particular flower types are often recognized by color as well. On the
other hand, nocturnal mammals have less-developed color vision, since adequate light is needed for cones to
function properly. There is evidence that ultraviolet light plays a part in color perception in many branches of the
animal kingdom, especially insects. In general, the optical spectrum encompasses the most common electronic
transitions in matter and is therefore the most useful for collecting information about the environment.
The evolution of trichromatic color vision in primates occurred as the ancestors of modern monkeys, apes, and
humans switched to diurnal (daytime) activity and began consuming fruits and leaves from flowering plants.[37]
Color vision, with UV discrimination, is also present in a number of arthropods – the only terrestrial animals besides
the vertebrates to possess this trait.[38]
Some animals can distinguish colors in the ultraviolet spectrum. The UV spectrum falls outside the human visible
range, except for some cataract surgery patients.[39] Birds, turtles, lizards, many fish and some rodents have UV
receptors in their retinas.[40] These animals can see the UV patterns found on flowers and other wildlife that are
otherwise invisible to the human eye.
UV and multi-dimensional vision is an especially important adaptation in birds. It allows birds to spot small prey
from a distance, navigate, avoid predators, and forage while flying at high speeds. Birds also utilize their broad
spectrum vision to recognize other birds, and in sexual selection.[41][42]

Mathematics of color perception

A "physical color" is a combination of pure spectral colors (in the visible range). Since there are, in principle,
infinitely many distinct spectral colors, the set of all physical colors may be thought of as an infinite-dimensional
vector space, in fact a Hilbert space. We call this space Hcolor. More technically, the space of physical colors may be
considered to be the (mathematical) cone over the simplex whose vertices are the spectral colors, with white at the
centroid of the simplex, black at the apex of the cone, and the monochromatic color associated with any given vertex
somewhere along the line from that vertex to the apex depending on its brightness.
An element C of Hcolor is a function from the range of visible wavelengths—considered as an interval of real
numbers [Wmin,Wmax]—to the real numbers, assigning to each wavelength w in [Wmin,Wmax] its intensity C(w).
A humanly perceived color may be modeled as three numbers: the extents to which each of the 3 types of cones is
stimulated. Thus a humanly perceived color may be thought of as a point in 3-dimensional Euclidean space. We call
this space R3color.
Since each wavelength w stimulates each of the 3 types of cone cells to a known extent, these extents may be
represented by 3 functions s(w), m(w), l(w) corresponding to the response of the S, M, and L cone cells, respectively.
Finally, since a beam of light can be composed of many different wavelengths, to determine the extent to which a
physical color C in Hcolor stimulates each cone cell, we must calculate the integral (with respect to w), over the
interval [Wmin,Wmax], of C(w)·s(w), of C(w)·m(w), and of C(w)·l(w). The triple of resulting numbers associates to
each physical color C (which is an element in Hcolor) to a particular perceived color (which is a single point in
R3color). This association is easily seen to be linear. It may also easily be seen that many different elements in the
"physical" space Hcolor can all result in the same single perceived color in R3color, so a perceived color is not unique
to one physical color.
Thus human color perception is determined by a specific, non-unique linear mapping from the infinite-dimensional
Hilbert space Hcolor to the 3-dimensional Euclidean space R3color.
Color vision 61

Technically, the image of the (mathematical) cone over the simplex whose vertices are the spectral colors, by this
linear mapping, is also a (mathematical) cone in R3color. Moving directly away from the vertex of this cone
represents maintaining the same chromaticity while increasing its intensity. Taking a cross-section of this cone yields
a 2D chromaticity space. Both the 3D cone and its projection or cross-section are convex sets; that is, any mixture of
spectral colors is also a color.
In practice, it would be quite difficult to physiologically measure an
individual's three cone responses to various physical color stimuli.
Instead, a psychophysical approach is taken. Three specific benchmark
test lights are typically used; let us call them S, M, and L. To calibrate
human perceptual space, scientists allowed human subjects to try to
match any physical color by turning dials to create specific
combinations of intensities (IS, IM, IL) for the S, M, and L lights, resp.,
until a match was found. This needed only to be done for physical
colors that are spectral (since a linear combination of spectral colors
will be matched by the same linear combination of their (IS, IM, IL)
matches. Note that in practice, often at least one of S, M, L would have
to be added with some intensity to the physical test color, and that
combination matched by a linear combination of the remaining 2
The CIE 1931 xy chromaticity diagram. The
lights. Across different individuals (without color blindness), the
Planckian locus is shown with color temperatures
matchings turned out to be nearly identical. labeled in degrees Kelvin. The outer curved
boundary is the spectral (or monochromatic)
By considering all the resulting combinations of intensities (IS, IM, IL) locus, with wavelengths shown in nanometers
as a subset of 3-space, a model for human perceptual color space is (blue). Note that the colors in this file are being
formed. (Note that when one of S, M, L had to be added to the test specified using sRGB. Areas outside the triangle
cannot be accurately rendered because they are
color, its intensity was counted as negative.) Again, this turns out to be
out of the gamut of sRGB, therefore they have
a (mathematical) cone, not a quadric, but rather all rays through the been interpreted. Note that the colors depicted
origin in 3-space passing through a certain convex set. Again, this cone depend on the color space of the device you use
has the property that moving directly away from the origin corresponds to view the image (number of colors on your
monitor, etc.), and may not be a strictly accurate
to increasing the intensity of the S, M, L lights proportionately. Again,
representation of the color at a particular position.
a cross-section of this cone is a planar shape that is (by definition) the
space of "chromaticities" (informally: distinct colors); one particular
such cross section, corresponding to constant X+Y+Z of the CIE 1931 color space, gives the CIE chromaticity
diagram.

It should be noted that this system implies that for any hue or non-spectral color not on the boundary of the
chromaticity diagram, there are infinitely many distinct physical spectra that are all perceived as that hue or color.
So, in general there is no such thing as the combination of spectral colors that we perceive as (say) a specific version
of tan; instead there are infinitely many possibilities that produce that exact color. The boundary colors that are pure
spectral colors can be perceived only in response to light that is purely at the associated wavelength, while the
boundary colors on the "line of purples" can each only be generated by a specific ratio of the pure violet and the pure
red at the ends of the visible spectral colors.

The CIE chromaticity diagram is horseshoe-shaped, with its curved edge corresponding to all spectral colors (the
spectral locus), and the remaining straight edge corresponding to the most saturated purples, mixtures of red and
violet.
Color vision 62

Chromatic adaptation
In color science, chromatic adaptation is the estimation of the representation of an object under a different light
source than the one in which it was recorded. A common application is to find a chromatic adaptation transform
(CAT) that will make the recording of a neutral object appear neutral (color balance), while keeping other colors also
looking realistic.[43] For example, chromatic adaptation transforms are used when converting images between ICC
profiles with different white points. Adobe Photoshop, for example, uses the Bradford CAT.[44]
In color vision, chromatic adaptation refers to color constancy; the ability of the visual system to preserve the
appearance of an object under a wide range of light sources.[45]

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of gecko eyes" (http:/ / www. journalofvision. org/ content/ 9/ 3/ 27). Journal of Vision 9 (3:27): 1–11. doi:10.1167/9.3.27. PMID 19757966. .
[30] "Vision in Animals: What Do Dogs and Cats See?" (http:/ / www. malamutehealth. org/ articles/ eye_vision. htm#color).
malamutehealth.org. .
[31] Genetics, Vol. 153, 919-932, October 1999, Copyright © 1999. The Molecular Genetics of Red and Green Color Vision in Mammals Shozo
Yokoyamaa and F. Bernhard Radlwimmera.
[32] Jacobs G. H., Deegan J. F. (2001). "Photopigments and color vision in New World monkeys from the family Atelidae". Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, Series B 268 (1468): 695–702. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1421.
[33] Jacobs G. H., Deegan J. F., Neitz , Neitz J., Crognale M. A. (1993). "Photopigments and color vision in the nocturnal monkey, Aotus".
Vision Research 33 (13): 1773–1783. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(93)90168-V. PMID 8266633.
[34] Mollon J. D., Bowmaker J. K., Jacobs G. H. (1984). "Variations of color vision in a New World primate can be explained by polymorphism
of retinal photopigments". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 222 (1228): 373–399. doi:10.1098/rspb.1984.0071.
[35] Sternberg, Robert J. (2006): Cognitive Psychology. 4th Ed. Thomson Wadsworth.
[36] Arrese CA, Beazley LD, Neumeyer C (March 2006). "Behavioural evidence for marsupial trichromacy". Curr. Biol. 16 (6): R193–4.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.02.036. PMID 16546067.
[37] Pinker, Steven (1997). How the Mind Works. New York: Norton. p. 191. ISBN 0-393-04535-8.
[38] Koyanagi, M.; Nagata, T.; Katoh, K.; Yamashita, S.; Tokunaga, F. (2008). "Molecular Evolution of Arthropod Color Vision Deduced from
Multiple Opsin Genes of Jumping Spiders". Journal of Molecular Evolution 66 (2): 130–137. doi:10.1007/s00239-008-9065-9.
PMID 18217181.
[39] David Hambling (May 30, 2002). "Let the light shine in: You don't have to come from another planet to see ultraviolet light" (http:/ / www.
guardian. co. uk/ science/ 2002/ may/ 30/ medicalscience. research). EducationGuardian.co.uk. .
[40] Jacobs GH, Neitz J, Deegan JF (1991). "Retinal receptors in rodents maximally sensitive to ultraviolet light" (http:/ / www. nature. com/
nature/ journal/ v353/ n6345/ abs/ 353655a0. html). Nature 353 (6345): 655–6. doi:10.1038/353655a0. PMID 1922382. .
[41] FJ Varela, AG Palacios, and TM Goldsmith (1993). Bischof, Hans-Joachim; Zeigler, H. Philip. ed. Vision, brain, and behavior in birds.
Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. pp. 77–94. ISBN 0-262-24036-X.
[42] IC Cuthill, JC Partridge, ATD Bennett, SC Church, NS Hart, and S Hunt (2000). "Ultraviolet Vision in Birds". Advances in the Study of
Behavior. 29. pp. 159–214.
[43] Süsstrunk, Sabine. Chromatic Adaptation (http:/ / ivrgwww. epfl. ch/ research/ past_topics/ chromatic_adaptation. html)
[44] Lindbloom, Bruce. Chromatic Adaptation (http:/ / www. brucelindbloom. com/ Eqn_ChromAdapt. html)
[45] Fairchild, Mark D. (2005). "8. Chromatic Adaptation" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=8_TxzK2B-5MC& pg=PA146& dq="chromatic+
adaptation"). Color Appearance Models. Wiley. p. 146. ISBN 0-470-01216-1. .
Color vision 64

External links
• Peter Gouras, "Color Vision" (http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-vii-color-vision/color-vision/),
Webvision, University of Utah School of Medicine, May 2009.
• Kenneth R. Koehler, "Spectral Sensitivity of the Eye" (http://www.rwc.uc.edu/koehler/biophys/6d.html),
College Physics for Students of Biology and Chemistry, University of Cincinnati Raymond Walters College,
1996.
• James T. Fulton, "The Human is a Blocked Tetrachromat" (http://www.neuronresearch.net/vision/files/
tetrachromat.htm), Neural Concepts, July 2009.
• Vurdlak, "Mega Color Blindness Test" (http://www.moillusions.com/2009/03/mega-color-blindness-test.
html), Mighty Optical Illusions, March 2009.
• Clive Maxfield and Alvin Brown, "Color Vision: One of Nature's Wonders" (http://www.diycalculator.com/
sp-cvision.shtml), DIYCalculator.com, 2006.
• Egopont, "Color Vision Test" (http://www.egopont.com/colorvision.php).
• Bruce McEvoy (2008). "Color vision" (http://www.handprint.com/LS/CVS/color.html). Retrieved
2012-03-30.

Visual perception
Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment by processing information that is contained
in visible light. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight, or vision (adjectival form: visual, optical,
or ocular). The various physiological components involved in vision are referred to collectively as the visual system,
and are the focus of much research in psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and molecular biology.

Visual system
The visual system in humans and animals allows individuals to assimilate information from the environment. The act
of seeing starts when the lens of the eye focuses an image of its surroundings onto a light-sensitive membrane in the
back of the eye, called the retina. The retina is actually part of the brain that is isolated to serve as a transducer for
the conversion of patterns of light into neuronal signals. The lens of the eye focuses light on the photoreceptive cells
of the retina, which detect the photons of light and respond by producing neural impulses. These signals are
processed in a hierarchical fashion by different parts of the brain, from the retina upstream to central ganglia in the
brain.
Note that up until now much of the above paragraph could apply to octopi, molluscs, worms, insects and things more
primitive; anything with a more concentrated nervous system and better eyes than say a jellyfish. However, the
following applies to mammals generally and birds (in modified form): The retina in these more complex animals
sends fibers (the optic nerve) to the lateral geniculate nucleus, to the primary and secondary visual cortex of the
brain. Signals from the retina can also travel directly from the retina to the superior colliculus.
Visual perception 65

Study of visual perception

The major problem in visual perception is that what people see is not simply a translation of retinal stimuli (i.e., the
image on the retina). Thus people interested in perception have long struggled to explain what visual processing does
to create what is actually seen.

Early studies
There were two major ancient Greek
schools, providing a primitive explanation
of how vision is carried out in the body.
The first was the "emission theory" which
maintained that vision occurs when rays
emanate from the eyes and are intercepted
by visual objects. If an object was seen
directly it was by 'means of rays' coming out
of the eyes and again falling on the object. A
refracted image was, however, seen by
'means of rays' as well, which came out of
the eyes, traversed through the air, and after
refraction, fell on the visible object which
was sighted as the result of the movement of The visual dorsal stream (green) and ventral stream (purple) are shown. Much of
the rays from the eye. This theory was the human cerebral cortex is involved in vision.

championed by scholars like Euclid and

Ptolemy and their followers.

The second school advocated the so-called 'intro-mission' approach which sees vision as coming from something
entering the eyes representative of the object. With its main propagators Aristotle, Galen and their followers, this
theory seems to have some contact with modern theories of what vision really is, but it remained only a speculation
lacking any experimental foundation.
Both schools of thought relied upon the principle that "like is only known by like", and thus upon the notion that the
eye was composed of some "internal fire" which interacted with the "external fire" of visible light and made vision
possible. Plato makes this assertion in his dialogue Timaeus, as does Aristotle, in his De Sensu.[1]
Alhazen (965 – c. 1040) carried out many investigations and
experiments on visual perception, extended the work of Ptolemy on
binocular vision, and commented on the anatomical works of
Galen.[2][3]
Leonardo DaVinci (1452–1519) was the first to recognize the special
optical qualities of the eye. He wrote "The function of the human eye
... was described by a large number of authors in a certain way. But I
found it to be completely different." His main experimental finding
Leonardo DaVinci: The eye has a central line and was that there is only a distinct and clear vision at the line of sight, the
everything that reaches the eye through this optical line that ends at the fovea. Although he did not use these words
central line can be seen distinctly.
literally he actually is the father of the modern distinction between
foveal and peripheral vision.
Visual perception 66

Unconscious inference
Hermann von Helmholtz is often credited with the first study of visual perception in modern times. Helmholtz
examined the human eye and concluded that it was, optically, rather poor. The poor-quality information gathered via
the eye seemed to him to make vision impossible. He therefore concluded that vision could only be the result of
some form of unconscious inferences: a matter of making assumptions and conclusions from incomplete data, based
on previous experiences.
Inference requires prior experience of the world.
Examples of well-known assumptions, based on visual experience, are:
• light comes from above
• objects are normally not viewed from below
• faces are seen (and recognized) upright.[4]
• closer objects can block the view of more distant objects, but not vice versa
The study of visual illusions (cases when the inference process goes wrong) has yielded much insight into what sort
of assumptions the visual system makes.
Another type of the unconscious inference hypothesis (based on probabilities) has recently been revived in so-called
Bayesian studies of visual perception.[5] Proponents of this approach consider that the visual system performs some
form of Bayesian inference to derive a perception from sensory data. Models based on this idea have been used to
describe various visual subsystems, such as the perception of motion or the perception of depth.[6][7] The "wholly
empirical theory of perception" is a related and newer approach that rationalizes visual perception without explicitly
invoking Bayesian formalisms.[8]

Gestalt theory
Gestalt psychologists working primarily in the 1930s and 1940s raised many of the research questions that are
studied by vision scientists today. The Gestalt Laws of Organization have guided the study of how people perceive
visual components as organized patterns or wholes, instead of many different parts. Gestalt is a German word that
partially translates to "configuration or pattern" along with "whole or emergent structure." According to this theory,
there are six main factors that determine how the visual system automatically groups elements into patterns:
Proximity, Similarity, Closure, Symmetry, Common Fate (i.e. common motion), and Continuity.

Analysis of eye movement

During the 1960s, technical development permitted the continuous
registration of eye movement during reading[9] in picture viewing[10]
and later in visual problem solving[11] and when headset-cameras
became available, also during driving.[12]
The picture to the left shows what may happen during the first two
seconds of visual inspection. While the background is out of focus,
representing the peripheral vision, the first eye movement goes to the
boots of the man (just because they are very near the starting fixation
Eye movement first 2 seconds (Yarbus, 1967)
and have a reasonable contrast).
The following fixations jump from face to face. They might even permit comparisons between faces.
It may be concluded that the icon face is a very attractive search icon within the peripheral field of vision. The foveal
vision adds detailed information to the peripheral first impression.
It can also be noted that there are three different types of eye movements: vergence movements, saccadic movements
and pursuit movements. Vergence movements involve the cooperation of both eyes to allow for an image to fall on
Visual perception 67

the same area of both retinas. This results in a single focused image. Saccadic movements is the type of eye
movement that is used to rapidly scan a particular scene/image. Lastly, pursuit movement is used to follow objects
in motion.[13]

Face and Object Recognition

There is some evidence (including disorders such as prosopagnosia) that face recognition is distinct from object
recognition in terms of visual processing. For example, newborns show a preference for following moving faces
within the first 30 minutes of life. However, some studies have shown that visual processing of complex non-face
shapes happens in the same area of the brain as facial recognition. This implies it may be complexity, rather than the
face per se, that influences visual processing in a distinct way.[14]

The cognitive and computational approaches

The major problem with the Gestalt laws (and the Gestalt school generally) is that they are descriptive not
explanatory. For example, one cannot explain how humans see continuous contours by simply stating that the brain
"prefers good continuity". Computational models of vision have had more success in explaining visual phenomena
and have largely superseded Gestalt theory. More recently, the computational models of visual perception have been
developed for Virtual Reality systems — these are closer to real life situation as they account for motion and
activities which are prevalent in the real world.[15] Regarding Gestalt influence on the study of visual perception,
Bruce, Green & Georgeson conclude:
"The physiological theory of the Gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive
principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their "laws" of perceptual
organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a "good" or "simple" shape, for example?"
[16]

In the 1970s David Marr developed a multi-level theory of vision, which analysed the process of vision at different
levels of abstraction. In order to focus on the understanding of specific problems in vision, he identified three levels
of analysis: the computational, algorithmic and implementational levels. Many vision scientists, including Tomaso
Poggio, have embraced these levels of analysis and employed them to further characterize vision from a
computational perspective.
The computational level addresses, at a high level of abstraction, the problems that the visual system must overcome.
The algorithmic level attempts to identify the strategy that may be used to solve these problems. Finally, the
implementational level attempts to explain how solutions to these problems are realized in neural circuitry.
Marr suggested that it is possible to investigate vision at any of these levels independently. Marr described vision as
proceeding from a two-dimensional visual array (on the retina) to a three-dimensional description of the world as
output. His stages of vision include:
• a 2D or primal sketch of the scene, based on feature extraction of fundamental components of the scene, including
edges, regions, etc. Note the similarity in concept to a pencil sketch drawn quickly by an artist as an impression.
• a 2½ D sketch of the scene, where textures are acknowledged, etc. Note the similarity in concept to the stage in
drawing where an artist highlights or shades areas of a scene, to provide depth.
• a 3 D model, where the scene is visualized in a continuous, 3-dimensional map.[17]
Visual perception 68

Transduction
Transduction is the process through which energy from environmental stimuli is converted to neural activity for the
brain to understand and process. The back of the eye contains three different cell layers; Photoreceptor layer, Bipolar
cell layer and Ganglion cell layer. The photoreceptor layer is at the very back and contains rod photoreceptors and
cone photoreceptors. Cones are responsible for colour perception. There are three different cones: red, green and
blue. Photoreceptors contain within them photopigments, composed of two molecules. There are 3 specific
photopigments (each with their own colour) that respond to specific wavelengths of light. When the appropriate
wavelength of light hits the photoreceptor, its photopigment splits into two, which sends a message to the bipolar cell
layer, which in turn sends a message to the ganglion cells, which then send the information through the optic nerve
to the brain. If the appropriate photopigment is not in the proper photoreceptor (for example, a green photopigment
inside a red cone), a condition called colour blindness will occur.[18]

Opponent Process
Transduction involves chemical messages sent from the photoreceptors to the bipolar cells to the ganglion cells.
Several photoreceptors may send their information to one ganglion cell. There are two types of ganglion cells: red /
green and yellow/blue. These neuron cells consistently fire – even when not stimulated. The brain interprets different
colours (and with a lot of information, an image) when the rate of firing of these neurons alters. Red light stimulates
the red cone, which in turn stimulates the red/green ganglion cell. Likewise, green light stimulates the green cone,
which stimulates the red/green ganglion cell and blue light stimulates the blue cone which stimulates the yellow/blue
ganglion cell. The rate of firing of the ganglion cells is increased when it is signalled by one cone and decreased
(inhibited) when it is signalled by the other cone. The first colour in the name if the ganglion cell is the colour that
excites it and the second is the colour that inhibits it. I.e.: A red cone would excite the red/green ganglion cell and the
green cone would inhibit the red/green ganglion cell. This is an opponent process. If the rate of firing of a red/green
ganglion cell is increased, the brain would know that the light was red, if the rate was decreased, the brain would
know that the colour of the light was green.[18]

Artificial visual perception

Theories and observations of visual perception have been the main source of inspiration for computer vision (also
called machine vision, or computational vision). Special hardware structures and software algorithms provide
machines with the capability to interpret the images coming from a camera or a sensor. Artificial Visual Perception
has long been used in the industry and is now entering the domains of automotive and robotics.

References
[1] Finger, Stanley (1994). Origins of neuroscience: a history of explorations into brain function. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-506503-4. OCLC 27151391.
[2] Howard, I (1996). "Alhazen's neglected discoveries of visual phenomena". Perception 25 (10): 1203–1217. doi:10.1068/p251203.
PMID 9027923.
[3] Omar Khaleefa (1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?" (http:/ / i-epistemology. net/ attachments/
637_V16N2 Summer 99 - Khaleefa - Who is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology. pdf). American Journal of Islamic
Social Sciences 16 (2). .
[4] Hans-Werner Hunziker, (2006) Im Auge des Lesers: foveale und periphere Wahrnehmung - vom Buchstabieren zur Lesefreude [In the eye of
the reader: foveal and peripheral perception - from letter recognition to the joy of reading] Transmedia Stäubli Verlag Zürich 2006 ISBN
978-3-7266-0068-6
[5] Stone JV, "Footprints Sticking Out of the Sand (Part II): Children’s Bayesian Priors For Lighting Direction and Convexity", Perception,
40(2), pp175-190, 2011.
[6] Mamassian, Landy & Maloney (2002)
[7] A Primer on Probabilistic Approaches to Visual Perception (http:/ / www. purveslab. net/ research/ primer. html)
[8] The Wholly Empirical Theory of Perception (http:/ / www. purveslab. net/ research. html)
Visual perception 69

[9] Taylor, Stanford E. (1965). "Eye Movements in Reading: Facts and Fallacies". American Educational Research Journal 2 (4): 187.
doi:10.2307/1161646. ISSN 00028312.
[10] Yarbus, A. L. (1967). Eye movements and vision, Plenum Press, New York
[11] Hunziker, H. W. (1970). Visuelle Informationsaufnahme und Intelligenz: Eine Untersuchung über die Augenfixationen beim Problemlösen.
Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psychologie und ihre Anwendungen, 1970, 29, Nr 1/2
[12] Cohen, A. S. (1983). Informationsaufnahme beim Befahren von Kurven, Psychologie für die Praxis 2/83, Bulletin der Schweizerischen
Stiftung für Angewandte Psychologie
[13] Carlson, Neil R. (2010). Psychology the Science of Behaviour. Toronto Ontario: Pearson Canada Inc.. pp. 140–141.
[14] Alex Huk. (1999) "Object and Face Recognition: Lecture Notes." pp. 5 (http:/ / www. saylor. org/ site/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2011/ 08/
Psych306-Reading-4. 6. pdf)
[15] A.K.Beeharee - http:/ / www. cs. ucl. ac. uk/ staff/ A. Beeharee/ research. htm
[16] Bruce, V., Green, P. & Georgeson, M. (1996). Visual perception: Physiology, psychology and ecology (3rd ed.). LEA. pp. 110.
[17] Marr, D (1982). Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information. MIT Press.
[18] Carlson, Neil R.; Heth, C. Donald (2010). "5". Psychology the science of behaviour (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA:
Pearson Education Inc.. pp. 138–145. ISBN 978-0-205-64524-4.

External links
• Visual Perception 3 - Cultural and Environmental Factors (http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Modules/MC10220/
visper03.html)
• Gestalt Laws (http://www.sapdesignguild.org/resources/optical_illusions/gestalt_laws.html)
• Summary of Kosslyn et al.'s theory of high-level vision (http://develintel.blogspot.com/2006/01/
kosslyns-cognitive-architecture.html)
• The Organization of the Retina and Visual System (http://webvision.med.utah.edu/)
• Reference info on aritificial visual perception (http://www.diaplous.com/id4.html)
• Dr Trippy's Sensorium (http://dr.trippy.googlepages.com) A website dedicated to the study of the human
sensorium and organisational behaviour
• Effect of Detail on Visual Perception (http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/EffectOfDetailOnVisualPerception/
) by Jon McLoone, the Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
• The Joy of Visual Perception (http://www.yorku.ca/eye/toc.htm) An excellent resource on the eye's
perception abilities.
• VisionScience. An Internet Resource for Research in Human and Animal Vision (http://www.visionscience.
com) A most comprehensive collection of resources in vision science and perception.
• Vision and Psychophysics. (http://www.cis.rit.edu/people/faculty/montag/vandplite/course.html) A quality
account of many aspects of vision. However, some parts are missing.
• Visibility in Social Theory and Social Research. (http://www.palgrave.com/products/title.aspx?pid=385931)
An inquiry into the cognitive and social meanings of visibility.
 70

Visual Color

List of colors
The following is a list of colors. A number of the color swatches
below are taken from domain-specific naming schemes such as X11 or
HTML4. RGB values are given for each swatch because such
standards are defined in terms of the sRGB color space. It is not
possible to accurately convert many of these swatches to CMYK
values because of the differing gamuts of the two spaces, but the color
management systems built into operating systems and image editing
software attempt such conversions as accurately as possible.
Color is an important part of the visual arts,
The HSV (hue, saturation, value) color space values, also known as fashion, interior design and many other fields and
HSB (hue, saturation, brightness), and the hex triplets (for HTML web disciplines.
colors) are also given in the following table. Colors that appear on the
web-safe color palette—which includes the sixteen named colors—are noted.[1] (Those four named colors
corresponding to the neutral grays have no hue value, which is effectively ignored—i.e., left blank.)

• A
• B
• C
• D
• E
• F
• G
• H
• I
• J
• K
• L
• M
• N
• O
• P
• Q
• R
• S
• T
• U
• V
• W
• X
• Y
• Z
• White
• Pink
List of colors 71

• Red
• Orange
• Brown
• Yellow
• Gray
• Green
• Cyan
• Blue
• Violet
• Web colors
• See also
• References

Colors in alphabetical order A-M

Color names
Color Name Hex Red Green Blue Hue Satur Light Satur Value W3C
(RGB) (RGB) (RGB) (RGB) (HSL/HSV) (HSL) (HSL) (HSV) (HSV) name

Aero #7CB9E8 49% 73% 91% 206° 70% 70% 47% 91%

Aero blue #C9FFE5 79% 100% 90% 151° 100% 89% 21% 100%

African violet #B284BE 70% 52% 75% 288° 31% 63% 31% 75%

Air Force blue (RAF) #5D8AA8 36% 54% 66% 204° 30% 51% 45% 66%

Air Force blue (USAF) #00308F 0% 19% 56% 220° 100% 28% 100% 56%

Air superiority blue #72A0C1 45% 63% 76% 205° 39% 60% 41% 76%

Alabama Crimson #A32638 64% 15% 22% 350° 62% 39% 80% 60%

Alice blue #F0F8FF 94% 97% 100% 208° 100% 97% 6% 100%

Alizarin crimson #E32636 89% 15% 21% 355° 77% 52% 83% 89%

Alloy orange #C46210 77% 38% 6% 27° 85% 42% 92% 77%

Almond #EFDECD 94% 87% 80% 30° 52% 87% 14% 94%

Amaranth #E52B50 90% 17% 31% 348° 78% 53% 81% 90%

Amazon #3B7A57 23% 48% 34% 147° 35% 36% 52% 48%

Amber #FFBF00 100% 75% 0% 45° 100% 50% 100% 100%

SAE/ECE Amber (color) #FF7E00 100% 49% 0% 30° 100% 50% 100% 100%

American rose #FF033E 100% 1% 24% 345° 100% 51% 99% 87%

Amethyst #9966CC 60% 40% 80% 270° 50% 60% 50% 80%

Android green #A4C639 64% 78% 22% 74° 55% 50% 71% 78%

Anti-flash white #F2F3F4 95% 95% 96% 210° 8% 95% 1% 96%

Antique brass #CD9575 80% 58% 46% 22° 47% 63% 43% 80%

Antique bronze #665D1E 40% 36% 12% 53° 55% 26% 71% 40%

Antique fuchsia #915C83 57% 36% 51% 316° 22% 47% 37% 57%

Antique ruby #841B2D 52% 11% 18% 350° 66% 31% 80% 52%

Antique white #FAEBD7 98% 92% 84% 34° 78% 91% 14% 98%
List of colors 72

Ao (English) #008000 0% 50% 0% 120° 100% 25% 100% 50%

Apple green #8DB600 55% 71% 0% 74° 100% 36% 100% 71%

Apricot #FBCEB1 98% 81% 69% 24° 90% 84% 29% 98%

Aqua #00FFFF 0% 100% 100% 160° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Aquamarine #7FFFD4 50% 100% 83% 160° 100% 75% 50% 100%

Army green #4B5320 29% 33% 13% 69° 44% 23% 61% 33%

Arsenic #3B444B 23% 27% 29% 206° 12% 26% 21% 29%

Arylide yellow #E9D66B 91% 84% 42% 51° 74% 67% 54% 91%

Ash grey #B2BEB5 70% 75% 71% 135° 9% 72% 6% 75%

Asparagus #87A96B 53% 66% 42% 93° 27% 54% 37% 66%

Atomic tangerine #FF9966 100% 60% 40% 20° 100% 70% 60% 100%

Auburn #A52A2A 65% 16% 16% 0° 59% 41% 74% 64%

Aureolin #FDEE00 99% 93% 0% 56° 100% 50% 100% 99%

AuroMetalSaurus #6E7F80 43% 50% 50% 183° 8% 47% 14% 50%

Avocado #568203 34% 51% 1% 81° 96% 26% 98% 51%

Azure #007FFF 0% 50% 100% 210° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Azure mist/web #F0FFFF 94% 100% 100% 180° 100% 97% 6% 100%

Baby blue #89CFF0 54% 81% 94% 199° 77% 74% 43% 94%

Baby blue eyes #A1CAF1 63% 79% 95% 209° 74% 79% 33% 95%

Baby pink #F4C2C2 96% 76% 76% 30° 69% 86% 21% 96%

Baby powder #FEFEFA 100% 100% 98% 60° 67% 99% 2% 100%

Baker-Miller pink #FF91AF 100% 57% 69% 344° 100% 78% 43% 100%

Ball blue #21ABCD 13% 67% 80% 192° 72% 47% 84% 80%

Banana Mania #FAE7B5 98% 91% 71% 43° 87% 85% 28% 98%

Banana yellow #FFE135 100% 88% 21% 51° 100% 60% 79% 100%

Barbie pink #E0218A 88% 13% 54% 327° 76% 50% 85% 88%

Barn red #7C0A02 49% 4% 1% 4° 97% 25% 98% 49%

Battleship grey #848482 52% 52% 51% 60° 1% 51% 2% 52%

Bazaar #98777B 60% 47% 48% 353° 14% 53% 22% 60%

Beau blue #BCD4E6 74% 83% 90% 206° 46% 82% 18% 90%

Beaver #9F8170 62% 51% 44% 22° 20% 53% 35% 63%

Beige #F5F5DC 96% 96% 86% 60° 56% 91% 10% 96%

B'dazzled Blue #2E5894 18% 35% 58% 215° 53% 38% 69% 58%

Big dip o’ruby #9C2542 61% 15% 26% 345° 62% 38% 76% 61%

Bisque #FFE4C4 100% 89% 77% 33° 100% 88% 23% 100%

Bistre #3D2B1F 24% 17% 12% 24° 33% 18% 49% 24%

Bistre brown #967117 59% 44% 9% 43° 73% 34% 85% 59%

Bitter lemon #CAE00D 79% 88% 5% 66° 89% 47% 94% 88%

Bitter lime #BFFF00 39% 55% 7% 79° 78% 31% 78% 84%
List of colors 73

Bittersweet #FE6F5E 100% 44% 37% 6° 99% 68% 63% 100%

Bittersweet shimmer #BF4F51 75% 31% 32% 359° 47% 53% 59% 75%

Black #000000 0% 0% 0% — 0% 0% 0% 0% Black

Black bean #3D0C02 24% 5% 1% 10° 94% 12% 97% 24%

Black leather jacket #253529 15% 21% 16% 135° 18% 18% 6% 18%

Black olive #3B3C36 23% 24% 21% 70° 5% 22% 10% 24%

Blanched almond #FFEBCD 100% 92% 80% 36° 100% 90% 20% 100%

Blast-off bronze #A57164 65% 44% 39% 12° 27% 52% 39% 65%

Bleu de France #318CE7 19% 55% 91% 210° 79% 55% 79% 91%

Blizzard Blue #ACE5EE 67% 90% 93% 188° 66% 80% 28% 93%

Blond #FAF0BE 98% 94% 75% 50° 86% 86% 24% 98%

Blue #0000FF 0% 0% 100% 240° 100% 50% 100% 100% Blue

Blue (Crayola) #1F75FE 12% 46% 100% 213° 99% 56% 99% 100%

Blue (Munsell) #0093AF 0% 58% 69% 190° 100% 34% 100% 68%

Blue (NCS) #0087BD 0% 53% 74% 197° 100% 37% 100% 74%

Blue (pigment) #333399 20% 20% 60% 240° 50% 40% 67% 60%

Blue (RYB) #0247FE 1% 28% 100% 224° 99% 50% 99% 99%

Blue Bell #A2A2D0 64% 64% 82% 240° 33% 73% 22% 81%

Blue-gray #6699CC 40% 60% 80% 210° 50% 60% 50% 80%

Blue-green #0D98BA 5% 60% 73% 192° 87% 39% 93% 73%

Blue sapphire #126180 7% 38% 50% 197° 75% 29% 86% 50%

Blue-violet #8A2BE2 54% 17% 89% 266° 76% 53% 81% 89%

Blueberry #4F86F7 31% 53% 97% 220° 91% 64% 68% 97%

Bluebonnet #1C1CF0 11% 11% 94% 240° 88% 53% 83% 94%

Blush #DE5D83 87% 36% 51% 342° 66% 62% 58% 87%

Bole #79443B 47% 27% 23% 30° 34% 35% 24% 34%

Bondi blue #0095B6 0% 58% 71% 191° 100% 36% 100% 71%

Bone #E3DAC9 89% 85% 79% 48° 32% 84% 30% 95%

Boston University Red #CC0000 80% 0% 0% 0° 100% 40% 100% 80%

Bottle green #006A4E 0% 42% 31% 164° 100% 21% 100% 41%

Boysenberry #873260 53% 20% 38% 328° 46% 36% 63% 53%

Brandeis blue #0070FF 0% 44% 100% 214° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Brass #B5A642 71% 65% 26% 52° 47% 48% 64% 71%

Brick red #CB4154 80% 25% 33% 352° 57% 53% 68% 80%

Bright cerulean #1DACD6 11% 67% 84% 194° 76% 48% 86% 84%

Bright green #66FF00 40% 100% 0% 96° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Bright lavender #BF94E4 75% 58% 89% 272° 60% 74% 35% 89%

Bright maroon #C32148 76% 13% 28% 345° 71% 45% 75% 38%

Bright pink #FF007F 100% 0% 50% 330° 100% 50% 100% 100%
List of colors 74

Bright turquoise #08E8DE 3% 91% 87% 177° 93% 47% 97% 91%

Bright ube #D19FE8 82% 62% 91% 281° 61% 77% 31% 91%

Brilliant lavender #F4BBFF 96% 73% 100% 290° 100% 87% 27% 100%

Brilliant rose #FF55A3 100% 33% 64% 332° 100% 67% 67% 100%

Brink pink #FB607F 98% 38% 50% 348° 95% 68% 62% 98%

British racing green #004225 0% 26% 15% 154° 100% 13% 100% 26%

Bronze #CD7F32 80% 50% 20% 30° 61% 50% 76% 80%

Bronze Yellow #737000 45% 44% 0% 58° 100% 23% 100% 45%

Brown (traditional) #964B00 59% 29% 0% 30° 100% 29% 100% 59%

Brown (web) #A52A2A 65% 16% 16% 0° 59% 41% 75% 65%

Brown-nose #6B4423 40% 27% 14% 28° 49% 27% 67% 42%

Brunswick green #1B4D3E 11% 30% 24% 162° 48% 20% 65% 30%

Bubble gum #FFC1CC 100% 76% 80% 349° 100% 88% 23% 99%

Bubbles #E7FEFF 91% 100% 100% 183° 100% 95% 9% 100%

Buff #F0DC82 94% 86% 51% 49° 79% 73% 46% 94%

Bulgarian rose #480607 28% 2% 3% 359° 85% 15% 92% 28%

Burgundy #800020 50% 0% 13% 345° 100% 25% 100% 50%

Burlywood #DEB887 87% 72% 53% 34° 57% 70% 39% 87%

Burnt orange #CC5500 80% 33% 0% 25° 100% 40% 100% 80%

Burnt sienna #E97451 91% 45% 32% 14° 78% 62% 65% 91%

Burnt umber #8A3324 54% 20% 14% 9° 59% 34% 74% 54%

Byzantine #BD33A4 74% 20% 64% 311° 57% 47% 73% 74%

Byzantium #702963 44% 16% 39% 311° 46% 30% 63% 44%

Cadet #536872 33% 41% 45% 206° 16% 39% 31% 47%

Cadet blue #5F9EA0 37% 62% 63% 182° 26% 50% 41% 63%

Cadet grey #91A3B0 57% 64% 69% 205° 16% 63% 18% 69%

Cadmium green #006B3C 0% 42% 24% 154° 100% 21% 100% 42%

Cadmium orange #ED872D 93% 53% 18% 28° 84% 55% 81% 93%

Cadmium red #E30022 89% 0% 13% 351° 100% 45% 100% 89%

Cadmium yellow #FFF600 100% 96% 0% 34° 100% 50% 93% 100%

Café au lait #A67B5B 65% 48% 36% 26° 30% 50% 45% 65%

Café noir #4B3621 29% 21% 13% 30° 39% 21% 56% 29%

Cal Poly green #1E4D2B 12% 30% 17% 137° 44% 21% 61% 30%

Cambridge Blue #A3C1AD 64% 76% 68% 140° 20% 70% 16% 76%

Camel #C19A6B 76% 60% 42% 33° 41% 59% 45% 76%

Cameo pink #EFBBCC 94% 73% 80% 340° 62% 84% 22% 94%

Camouflage green #78866B 47% 53% 42% 91° 11% 47% 20% 53%

Canary yellow #FFEF00 100% 94% 0% 56° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Candy apple red #FF0800 100% 3% 0% 2° 100% 50% 100% 100%

List of colors 75

Candy pink #E4717A 89% 44% 48% 355° 68% 67% 50% 89%

Capri #00BFFF 0% 75% 100% 195° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Caput mortuum #592720 35% 15% 13% 7° 47% 24% 64% 35%

Cardinal #C41E3A 77% 12% 23% 350° 74% 44% 85% 77%

Caribbean green #00CC99 0% 80% 60% 150° 100% 40% 100% 44%

Carmine #960018 59% 0% 9% 350° 100% 29% 100% 59%

Carmine (M&P) #D70040 84% 0% 25% 342° 100% 42% 100% 84%

Carmine pink #EB4C42 92% 30% 26% 4° 81% 59% 72% 92%

Carmine red #FF0038 100% 0% 22% 347° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Carnation pink #FFA6C9 100% 65% 79% 336° 100% 83% 35% 100%

Carnelian #B31B1B 70% 11% 11% 0° 74% 40% 85% 70%

Carolina blue #99BADD 60% 73% 87% 211° 50% 73% 31% 87%

Carrot orange #ED9121 93% 57% 13% 33° 85% 53% 86% 93%

Castleton green #00563F 0% 34% 25% 164° 100% 17% 100% 34%

Catalina blue #062A78 2% 16% 47% 221° 91% 25% 95% 47%

Catawba #703642 44% 21% 26% 348° 35% 33% 52% 44%

Cedar Chest #C95A49 79% 35% 29% 8° 54% 54% 64% 79%

Ceil #92A1CF 57% 63% 81% 225° 39% 69% 30% 81%

Celadon #ACE1AF 67% 88% 69% 174° 47% 78% 47% 73%

Celadon blue #007BA7 0% 48% 65% 196° 100% 33% 100% 65%

Celadon green #2F847C 18% 52% 49% 123° 48% 35% 24% 88%

Celeste (colour) #B2FFFF 70% 100% 100% 180° 100% 85% 30% 100%

Celestial blue #4997D0 29% 59% 82% 205° 59% 55% 65% 81%

Cerise #DE3163 87% 19% 39% 343° 72% 53% 78% 87%

Cerise pink #EC3B83 93% 23% 51% 336° 82% 58% 75% 93%

Cerulean #007BA7 0% 48% 65% 196° 100% 33% 100% 65%

Cerulean blue #2A52BE 16% 32% 75% 224° 64% 46% 78% 75%

Cerulean frost #6D9BC3 43% 61% 76% 208° 42% 60% 44% 77%

CG Blue #007AA5 0% 48% 65% 196° 100% 32% 100% 65%

CG Red #E03C31 88% 24% 19% 4° 74% 54% 78% 88%

Chamoisee #A0785A 63% 47% 35% 26° 28% 49% 44% 63%

Champagne #F7E7CE 97% 91% 81% 37° 72% 89% 17% 97%

Charcoal #36454F 21% 27% 31% 204° 19% 26% 31% 31%

Charleston green #232B2B 14% 17% 17% 180° 10% 15% 19% 17%

Charm pink #E68FAC 90% 56% 67% 333° 64% 73% 50% 87%

Chartreuse (traditional) #DFFF00 87% 100% 0% 68° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Chartreuse (web) #7FFF00 50% 100% 0% 90° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Cherry #DE3163 87% 19% 39% 343° 72% 53% 78% 87%

Cherry blossom pink #FFB7C5 100% 72% 77% 348° 100% 86% 28% 100%
List of colors 76

Chestnut #954535 56% 27% 21% 10° 46% 39% 54% 68%

China pink #DE6FA1 87% 44% 63% 333° 63% 65% 50% 87%

China rose #A8516E 66% 32% 43% 340° 35% 49% 52% 66%

Chinese red #AA381E 67% 22% 12% 11° 70% 39% 82% 67%

Chinese violet #856088 52% 38% 53% 296° 17% 46% 29% 53%

Chocolate (traditional) #7B3F00 48% 25% 0% 31° 100% 24% 100% 48%

Chocolate (web) #D2691E 82% 41% 12% 25° 75% 47% 86% 82%

Chrome yellow #FFA700 100% 65% 0% 40° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Cinereous #98817B 60% 51% 48% 12° 12% 54% 19% 60%

Cinnabar #E34234 89% 26% 20% 5° 76% 55% 77% 89%

Cinnamon #D2691E 82% 41% 12% 25° 75% 47% 86% 82%

Citrine #E4D00A 89% 82% 4% 54° 92% 47% 96% 89%

Citron #9FA91F 62% 66% 12% 64° 69% 39% 82% 66%

Claret #7F1734 50% 9% 20% 343° 69% 29% 82% 50%

Classic rose #FBCCE7 98% 80% 91% 333° 86% 89% 100% 20%

Cobalt #0047AB 0% 28% 67% 215° 100% 34% 100% 67%

Cocoa brown #D2691E 82% 41% 12% 25° 75% 47% 86% 82%

Coconut #965A3E 59% 35% 24% 19° 42% 42% 59% 59%

Coffee #6F4E37 44% 31% 22% 25° 34% 33% 51% 44%

Columbia blue #9BDDFF 61% 87% 100% 200° 100% 80% 39% 100%

Congo pink #F88379 97% 51% 47% 5° 90% 72% 51% 97%

Cool black #002E63 0% 18% 39% 212° 100% 19% 100% 39%

Cool grey #8C92AC 55% 57% 67% 229° 16% 61% 19% 68%

Copper #B87333 72% 45% 20% 29° 57% 46% 72% 72%

Copper (Crayola) #DA8A67 85% 54% 40% 18° 61% 63% 53% 85%

Copper penny #AD6F69 68% 44% 41% 5° 29% 55% 39% 68%

Copper red #CB6D51 80% 43% 32% 14° 54% 56% 60% 80%

Copper rose #996666 60% 40% 40% 0° 20% 50% 33% 60%

Coquelicot #FF3800 100% 22% 0% 13° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Coral #FF7F50 100% 50% 31% 16° 100% 66% 69% 100%

Coral pink #F88379 97% 51% 47% 5° 90% 72% 51% 97%

Coral red #FF4040 100% 25% 25% 0° 100% 63% 75% 100%

Cordovan #893F45 54% 25% 27% 337° 37% 39% 89% 94%

Corn #FBEC5D 98% 93% 36% 54° 95% 68% 63% 98%

Cornell Red #B31B1B 70% 11% 11% 0° 74% 40% 85% 70%

Cornflower blue #6495ED 39% 58% 93% 219° 79% 66% 58% 93%

Cornsilk #FFF8DC 100% 97% 86% 48° 100% 93% 14% 100%

Cosmic latte #FFF8E7 100% 97% 91% 42° 100% 95% 9% 100%

Cotton candy #FFBCD9 100% 74% 85% 334° 100% 87% 26% 100%
List of colors 77

Cream #FFFDD0 100% 99% 82% 57° 100% 91% 18% 100%

Crimson #DC143C 86% 8% 24% 348° 83% 47% 91% 86%

Crimson glory #BE0032 75% 0% 20% 356° 100% 37% 100% 75%

Cyan #00FFFF 0% 100% 100% 180° 100% 50% 100% 100% Cyan

Cyan (process) #00B7EB 0% 72% 92% 193° 100% 46% 100% 92%

Cyber grape #58427C 35% 26% 49% 263° 31% 37% 47% 49%

Daffodil #FFFF31 100% 100% 19% 60° 100% 60% 81% 100%

Dandelion #F0E130 94% 88% 19% 55° 87% 56% 80% 94%

Dark blue #00008B 0% 0% 55% 240° 100% 27% 100% 55%

Dark blue-gray #666699 40% 40% 60% 240° 20% 50% 33% 60%

Dark brown #654321 40% 26% 13% 30° 51% 26% 67% 40%

Dark byzantium #5D3954 36% 22% 33% 315° 24% 29% 39% 37%

Dark candy apple red #A40000 64% 0% 0% 0° 100% 32% 100% 64%

Dark cerulean #08457E 3% 27% 49% 209° 88% 26% 94% 49%

Dark chestnut #986960 60% 41% 38% 10° 23% 49% 37% 60%

Dark coral #CD5B45 80% 36% 27% 10° 58% 54% 66% 80%

Dark cyan #008B8B 0% 55% 55% 180° 100% 27% 24% 100%

Dark electric blue #536878 33% 41% 47% 180° 18% 40% 20% 25%

Dark goldenrod #B8860B 72% 53% 4% 43° 89% 38% 94% 72%

Dark gray #A9A9A9 66% 66% 66% — 0% 66% 0% 66%

Dark green #013220 0% 20% 13% 158° 96% 10% 98% 20%

Dark imperial blue #00416A 0% 25% 42% 203° 100% 21% 100% 42%

Dark jungle green #1A2421 10% 14% 13% 120° 16% 12% 10% 10%

Dark khaki #BDB76B 74% 72% 42% 56° 38% 58% 43% 74%

Dark lava #483C32 28% 24% 20% 27° 18% 24% 31% 28%

Dark lavender #734F96 45% 31% 59% 270° 31% 45% 47% 59%

Dark magenta #8B008B 55% 0% 55% 300° 100% 27% 100% 55%

Dark midnight blue #003366 0% 20% 40% 210° 100% 20% 100% 40%

Dark moss green #4A5D23 29% 36% 14% 80° 45% 25% 62% 37%

Dark olive green #556B2F 33% 42% 18% 82° 39% 30% 56% 42%

Dark orange #FF8C00 100% 55% 0% 34° 100% 50% 100% 94%

Dark orchid #9932CC 60% 20% 80% 280° 61% 50% 75% 80%

Dark pastel blue #779ECB 47% 62% 80% 212° 45% 63% 41% 80%

Dark pastel green #03C03C 1% 75% 24% 138° 97% 38% 98% 75%

Dark pastel purple #966FD6 59% 44% 84% 263° 56% 64% 48% 84%

Dark pastel red #C23B22 76% 23% 13% 9° 70% 45% 82% 76%

Dark pink #E75480 91% 33% 50% 342° 75% 62% 64% 91%

Dark powder blue #003399 0% 20% 60% 220° 100% 30% 70% 60%

Dark raspberry #872657 53% 15% 34% 330° 56% 34% 72% 53%
List of colors 78

Dark red #8B0000 55% 0% 0% 0° 100% 27% 100% 56%

Dark salmon #E9967A 91% 59% 48% 15° 72% 70% 48% 91%

Dark scarlet #560319 34% 1% 10% 344° 93% 18% 97% 34%

Dark sea green #8FBC8F 56% 74% 56% 120° 25% 65% 24% 74%

Dark sienna #3C1414 24% 8% 8% 0° 50% 16% 67% 24%

Dark sky blue #8CBED6 55% 75% 84% 199° 47% 69% 35% 84%

Dark slate blue #483D8B 28% 24% 55% 248° 39% 39% 56% 55%

Dark slate gray #2F4F4F 18% 31% 31% 180° 25% 25% 41% 31%

Dark spring green #177245 9% 45% 27% 150° 66% 27% 80% 45%

Dark tan #918151 57% 51% 32% 45° 28% 44% 44% 57%

Dark tangerine #FFA812 100% 66% 7% 38° 100% 54% 93% 100%

Dark taupe #483C32 28% 24% 20% 30° 18% 24% 17% 34%

Dark terra cotta #CC4E5C 80% 31% 36% 354° 55% 55% 55% 55%

Dark turquoise #00CED1 0% 81% 82% 181° 100% 41% 100% 82%

Dark vanilla #D1BEA8 82% 75% 66% 32° 31% 74% 20% 82%

Dark violet #9400D3 58% 0% 83% 282° 100% 41% 100% 83%

Dark yellow #9B870C 61% 53% 5% 295° 86% 33% 92% 61%

Dartmouth green #00703C 0% 44% 24% 121° 100% 22% 90% 50%

Davy's grey #555555 33% 33% 33% — 0% 33% 0% 33%

Debian red #D70A53 84% 4% 33% 339° 91% 44% 95% 84%

Deep carmine #A9203E 66% 13% 24% 357° 68% 39% 100% 66%

Deep carmine pink #EF3038 94% 19% 22% 357° 86% 56% 80% 94%

Deep carrot orange #E9692C 91% 41% 17% 34° 81% 54% 76% 84%

Deep cerise #DA3287 85% 20% 53% 330° 69% 53% 77% 85%

Deep champagne #FAD6A5 98% 84% 65% 35° 90% 81% 34% 98%

Deep chestnut #B94E48 73% 31% 28% 3° 45% 50% 61% 73%

Deep coffee #704241 44% 26% 25% 1° 27% 35% 42% 44%

Deep fuchsia #C154C1 76% 33% 76% 300° 47% 54% 56% 76%

Deep jungle green #004B49 0% 29% 29% 120° 100% 15% 40% 40%

Deep lemon #F5C71A 96% 78% 30% 47° 89% 63% 89% 96%

Deep lilac #9955BB 60% 33% 73% 280° 43% 53% 55% 73%

Deep magenta #CC00CC 80% 0% 80% 300° 100% 40% 100% 80%

Deep mauve #D473D4 83% 45% 83% 300° 53% 64% 46% 83%

Deep moss green #355E3B 21% 37% 23% 129° 28% 29% 44% 37%

Deep peach #FFCBA4 100% 80% 64% 26° 100% 82% 36% 100%

Deep pink #FF1493 100% 8% 58% 328° 100% 54% 92% 100%

Deep ruby #843F5B 52% 25% 36% 336° 35% 38% 52% 52%

Deep saffron #FF9933 100% 60% 20% 30° 100% 60% 80% 100%

Deep sky blue #00BFFF 0% 75% 100% 195° 100% 50% 100% 100%
List of colors 79

Deep Space Sparkle #4A646C 29% 39% 42% 194° 19% 36% 32% 43%

Deep Taupe #7E5E60 49% 37% 38% 356° 14% 43% 25% 49%

Deep Tuscan red #66424D 40% 26% 30% 342° 21% 33% 35% 40%

Deer #BA8759 73% 53% 35% 28° 41% 54% 52% 73%

Denim #1560BD 8% 38% 74% 213° 80% 41% 89% 74%

Desert #C19A6B 76% 60% 42% 33° 41% 59% 44% 76%

Desert sand #EDC9AF 93% 79% 69% 25° 63% 81% 26% 93%

Diamond #B9F2FF 73% 95% 100% 190° 100% 86% 100% 100%

Dim gray #696969 41% 41% 41% — 0% 41% 0% 41%

Dirt #9B7653 61% 46% 33% 29° 30% 47% 47% 61%

Dodger blue #1E90FF 12% 56% 100% 210° 100% 56% 88% 100%

Dogwood rose #D71868 84% 9% 41% 330° 80% 47% 84% 82%

Dollar bill #85BB65 52% 73% 40% 98° 39% 56% 46% 73%

Drab #967117 59% 44% 9% 43° 73% 34% 85% 59%

Duke blue #00009C 0% 0% 61% 240° 100% 31% 100% 61%

Dust storm #E5CCC9 90% 80% 79% 6° 35% 84% 12% 90%

Earth yellow #E1A95F 88% 66% 37% 34° 68% 63% 58% 88%

Ebony #555D50 33% 36% 31% 97° 8% 34% 14% 37%

Ecru #C2B280 76% 70% 50% 45° 35% 63% 34% 76%

Eggplant #614051 38% 25% 32% 329° 21% 32% 34% 38%

Eggshell #F0EAD6 94% 92% 84% 46° 46% 89% 11% 94%

Egyptian blue #1034A6 6% 20% 65% 226° 82% 36% 90% 65%

Electric blue #7DF9FF 49% 98% 100% 183° 100% 75% 51% 100%

Electric crimson #FF003F 100% 0% 25% 345° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Electric cyan #00FFFF 0% 100% 100% 180° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Electric green #00FF00 0% 100% 0% 120° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Electric indigo #6F00FF 44% 0% 100% 266° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Electric lavender #F4BBFF 96% 73% 100% 290° 100% 87% 27% 100%

Electric lime #CCFF00 80% 100% 0% 72° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Electric purple #BF00FF 75% 0% 100% 285° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Electric ultramarine #3F00FF 25% 0% 100% 255° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Electric violet #8F00FF 56% 0% 100% 274° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Electric yellow #FFFF33 100% 100% 20% 60° 100% 60% 80% 100%

Emerald #50C878 31% 78% 47% 140° 52% 55% 60% 78%

English green #1B4D3E 11% 30% 24% 162° 48% 20% 65% 30%

English lavender #B48395 71% 51% 58% 338° 25% 61% 27% 71%

English red #AB4B52 67% 31% 32% 357° 37% 49% 54% 67%

English violet #563C5C 34% 24% 36% 289° 21% 30% 35% 36%

Eton blue #96C8A2 59% 78% 64% 134° 31% 69% 25% 78%
List of colors 80

Eucalyptus #44D7A8 27% 84% 66% 161° 65% 56% 68% 84%

Fallow #C19A6B 76% 60% 42% 45° 41% 59% 17% 23%

Falu red #801818 50% 9% 9% 0° 68% 30% 81% 50%

Fandango #B53389 71% 20% 54% 320° 56% 46% 72% 71%

Fandango pink #DE5285 87% 32% 52% 342° 68% 60% 63% 87%

Fashion fuchsia #F400A1 96% 0% 63% 320° 100% 48% 100% 96%

Fawn #E5AA70 90% 67% 44% 30° 69% 67% 51% 90%

Feldgrau #4D5D53 30% 36% 33% 142° 9% 33% 17% 36%

Feldspar #FDD5B1 88% 71% 51% 33° 60% 69% 60% 56%

Fern green #4F7942 31% 47% 26% 106° 29% 37% 45% 47%

Ferrari Red #FF2800 100% 16% 0% 9° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Field drab #6C541E 42% 33% 12% 42° 56% 27% 72% 42%

Firebrick #B22222 70% 13% 13% 0° 68% 42% 81% 70%

Fire engine red #CE2029 81% 13% 16% 0° 73% 47% 92% 80%

Flame #E25822 89% 35% 13% 17° 77% 51% 85% 89%

Flamingo pink #FC8EAC 99% 56% 67% 344° 95% 77% 44% 99%

Flattery #6B4423 40% 27% 14% 28° 49% 27% 67% 42%

Flavescent #F7E98E 97% 91% 56% 52° 87% 76% 41% 76%

Flax #EEDC82 93% 86% 51% 50° 76% 72% 45% 93%

Floral white #FFFAF0 100% 98% 94% 40° 100% 97% 6% 100%

Fluorescent orange #FFBF00 100% 75% 0% 45° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Fluorescent pink #FF1493 100% 8% 58% 328° 100% 54% 92% 100%

Fluorescent yellow #CCFF00 80% 100% 0% 72° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Folly #FF004F 100% 0% 31% 341° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Forest green (traditional) #014421 0% 27% 13% 149° 97% 14% 99% 27%

Forest green (web) #228B22 13% 55% 13% 120° 61% 34% 76% 55%

French beige #A67B5B 65% 48% 36% 26° 30% 50% 45% 65%

French bistre #856D4D 52% 43% 30% 34° 27% 41% 42% 52%

French blue #0072BB 0% 45% 73% 203° 100% 37% 100% 73%

French lilac #86608E 53% 38% 56% 290° 19% 47% 32% 56%

French lime #9EFD38 62% 99% 22% 89° 98% 61% 78% 99%

French mauve #D473D4 83% 45% 83% 300° 53% 64% 46% 83%

French raspberry #C72C48 78% 17% 28% 351° 64% 48% 78% 78%

French rose #F64A8A 96% 29% 54% 338° 91% 63% 70% 96%

French sky blue #77B5FE 47% 71% 100% 213° 99% 73% 53% 100%

French wine #AC1E44 67% 12% 27% 344° 70% 40% 83% 68%

Fresh Air #A6E7FF 65% 91% 100% 196° 100% 83% 35% 100%

Fuchsia #FF00FF 100% 0% 100% 321° 100% 50% 100% 100% Fuchsia

Fuchsia (Crayola) #C154C1 76% 33% 76% 300° 47% 54% 56% 76%
List of colors 81

Fuchsia pink #FF77FF 100% 47% 100% 313° 100% 73% 53% 100%

Fuchsia rose #C74375 78% 26% 46% 337° 54% 52% 66% 78%

Fulvous #E48400 89% 52% 0% 35° 100% 45% 100% 89%

Fuzzy Wuzzy #CC6666 80% 40% 40% 0° 50% 60% 50% 80%

Gainsboro #DCDCDC 86% 86% 86% — 0% 86% 0% 86%

Gamboge #E49B0F 89% 61% 6% 38° 88% 48% 94% 94%

Ghost white #F8F8FF 97% 97% 100% 24° 100% 99% 3% 100%

Giants orange #FE5A1D 100% 35% 11% 16° 99% 56% 89% 100%

Ginger #B06500 69% 40% 0% 24° 100% 35% 100% 69%

Glaucous #6082B6 38% 51% 71% 216° 37% 55% 47% 71%

Glitter #E6E8FA 90% 91% 98% 234° 67% 94% 8% 98%

GO green #00AB66 0% 67% 40% 156° 100% 34% 100% 75%

Gold (metallic) #D4AF37 83% 69% 22% 46° 65% 52% 74% 83%

Gold (web) (Golden) #FFD700 100% 84% 0% 51° 100% 50% 100% 100% Gold

Gold Fusion #85754E 52% 46% 31% 43° 26% 41% 41% 52%

Golden brown #996515 60% 40% 8% 36° 76% 34% 83% 60%

Golden poppy #FCC200 99% 76% 0% 46° 100% 49% 100% 99%

Golden yellow #FFDF00 100% 87% 0% 52° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Goldenrod #DAA520 85% 65% 13% 43° 74% 49% 85% 85%

Granny Smith Apple #A8E4A0 66% 89% 63% 113° 56% 76% 30% 89%

Grape #6F2DA8 42% 18% 66% 270° 58% 42% 73% 66%

Gray #808080 50% 50% 50% — 0% 50% 0% 50% Grey

Gray (HTML/CSS gray) #808080 50% 50% 50% — 0% 50% 0% 50%

Gray (X11 gray) #BEBEBE 75% 75% 75% — 0% 75% 0% 75%

Gray-asparagus #465945 27% 35% 27% 117° 13% 31% 22% 35%

Gray-blue #8C92AC 55% 57% 67% 229° 16% 61% 19% 68%

Green (color wheel) (X11 green) #00FF00 0% 100% 0% 120° 100% 50% 100% 100% Lime

Green (Crayola) #1CAC78 11% 67% 47% 159° 72% 39% 72% 78%

Green (HTML/CSS color) #008000 0% 50% 0% 120° 100% 25% 100% 50% Green

Green (Munsell) #00A877 0% 66% 47% 163° 100% 33% 100% 66%

Green (NCS) #009F6B 0% 62% 42% 160° 100% 31% 100% 62%

Green (pigment) #00A550 0% 65% 31% 149° 100% 32% 100% 65%

Green (RYB) #66B032 40% 69% 20% 95° 56% 44% 72% 69%

Green-yellow #ADFF2F 68% 100% 18% 84° 100% 59% 82% 100%

Grullo #A99A86 66% 60% 53% 34° 17% 59% 21% 66%

Guppie green #00FF7F 0% 100% 50% 150° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Halayà úbe #663854 40% 22% 33% 278° 30% 31% 12% 37%

Han blue #446CCF 27% 42% 81% 223° 59% 54% 67% 81%

Han purple #5218FA 32% 9% 98% 255° 96% 54% 90% 98%
List of colors 82

Hansa yellow #E9D66B 91% 84% 42% 51° 74% 67% 54% 91%

Harlequin #3FFF00 25% 100% 0% 105° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Harvard crimson #C90016 79% 0% 9% 353° 100% 39% 100% 79%

Harvest gold #DA9100 85% 57% 0% 40° 100% 43% 100% 86%

Heart Gold #808000 50% 50% 0% 43° 100% 25% 100% 25%

Heliotrope #DF73FF 87% 45% 100% 286° 100% 73% 55% 100%

Hollywood cerise #F400A1 96% 0% 63% 320° 100% 48% 100% 96%

Honeydew #F0FFF0 94% 100% 94% 150° 100% 97% 97% 97%

Honolulu blue #006DB0 0% 43% 69% 203° 100% 35% 100% 69%

Hooker's green #49796B 29% 47% 42% 163° 25% 38% 40% 48%

Hot magenta #FF1DCE 100% 11% 81% 313° 100% 56% 89% 100%

Hot pink #FF69B4 100% 41% 71% 330° 100% 71% 59% 100%

Hunter green #355E3B 21% 37% 23% 129° 28% 29% 44% 37%

Iceberg #71A6D2 44% 65% 82% 207° 52% 63% 46% 82%

Icterine #FCF75E 99% 97% 37% 58° 96% 68% 63% 99%

Illuminating Emerald #319177 19% 57% 47% 164° 50% 38% 66% 57%

Imperial #602F6B 38% 18% 42% 289° 39% 30% 56% 42%

Imperial blue #002395 0% 14% 58% 226° 100% 29% 100% 58%

Imperial purple #66023C 40% 1% 24% 325° 96% 20% 98% 40%

Imperial red #ED2939 93% 16% 22% 355° 85% 55% 83% 93%

Inchworm #B2EC5D 70% 93% 36% 84° 79% 65% 61% 93%

India green #138808 7% 53% 3% 115° 89% 28% 94% 53%

Indian red #CD5C5C 80% 36% 36% 0° 53% 58% 52% 75%

Indian yellow #E3A857 89% 66% 34% 35° 71% 62% 62% 89%

Indigo #6F00FF 44% 0% 100% 266° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Indigo (dye) #00416A 0% 25% 42% 203° 100% 21% 100% 42%

Indigo (web) #4B0082 29% 0% 51% 275° 100% 26% 100% 50%

International Klein Blue #002FA7 0% 18% 65% 223° 100% 33% 100% 65%

International orange (aerospace) #FF4F00 100% 31% 0% 19° 100% 50% 100% 100%

International orange (engineering) #BA160C 73% 9% 5% 3° 88% 39% 94% 73%

International orange (Golden Gate #C0362C 75% 21% 17% 4° 63% 46% 77% 75%
Bridge)

Iris #5A4FCF 35% 31% 81% 245° 57% 56% 62% 81%

Irresistible #B3446C 70% 27% 42% 338° 45% 48% 62% 70%

Isabelline #F4F0EC 96% 94% 93% 30° 27% 94% 3% 96%

Islamic green #009000 0% 56% 0% 120° 100% 28% 100% 56%

Italian sky blue #B2FFFF 70% 100% 100% 180° 100% 85% 30% 100%

Ivory #FFFFF0 100% 100% 94% 60° 100% 97% 6% 100%

Jade #00A86B 0% 66% 42% 158° 100% 33% 100% 66%

Japanese indigo #264348 15% 26% 28% 189° 31% 22% 47% 28%
List of colors 83

Japanese violet #5B3256 36% 20% 34% 307° 29% 28% 45% 36%

Jasmine #F8DE7E 97% 87% 49% 47° 90% 73% 49% 97%

Jasper #D73B3E 84% 23% 24% 359° 66% 54% 73% 84%

Jazzberry jam #A50B5E 65% 4% 37% 322° 88% 35% 90% 47%

Jelly Bean #DA614E 85% 38% 31% 8° 65% 58% 64% 86%

Jet #343434 20% 20% 20% — 0% 20% 0% 20%

Jonquil #F4CA16 96% 79% 9% 49° 91% 52% 91% 96%

June bud #BDDA57 74% 85% 34% 80° 64% 60% 75% 85%

Jungle green #29AB87 16% 67% 53% 163° 61% 42% 76% 67%

Kelly green #4CBB17 30% 73% 9% 101° 78% 41% 88% 73%

Kenyan copper #7C1C05 49% 11% 2% 12° 92% 25% 96% 49%

Keppel #3AB09E 23% 69% 62% 171° 50% 46% 67% 69%

Khaki (HTML/CSS) (Khaki) #C3B091 76% 69% 57% 37° 29% 67% 26% 76%

Khaki (X11) (Light khaki) #F0E68C 94% 90% 55% 54° 77% 75% 42% 94%

Kobe #882D17 53% 18% 9% 12° 71% 31% 83% 53%

Kobi #E79FC4 91% 62% 77% 329° 60% 77% 31% 91%

KU Crimson #E8000D 91% 0% 5% 357° 100% 46% 100% 91%

La Salle Green #087830 3% 47% 19% 141° 88% 25% 93% 47%

Languid lavender #D6CADD 84% 79% 87% 270° 22% 83% 17% 82%

Lapis lazuli #26619C 15% 38% 61% 210° 61% 38% 76% 61%

Laser Lemon #FFFF66 100% 100% 40% 60° 100% 70% 60% 100%

Laurel green #A9BA9D 66% 73% 62% 95° 17% 67% 16% 73%

Lava #CF1020 81% 6% 13% 355° 86% 44% 92% 81%

Lavender (floral) #B57EDC 71% 49% 86% 275° 57% 68% 43% 86%

Lavender (web) #E6E6FA 90% 90% 98% 245° 67% 94% 8% 98%

Lavender blue #CCCCFF 80% 80% 100% 240° 100% 90% 20% 100%

Lavender blush #FFF0F5 100% 94% 96% 340° 100% 97% 6% 100%

Lavender gray #C4C3D0 77% 76% 82% 245° 12% 79% 6% 82%

Lavender indigo #9457EB 58% 34% 92% 265° 79% 63% 63% 92%

Lavender magenta #EE82EE 93% 51% 93% 300° 76% 72% 45% 93%

Lavender mist #E6E6FA 90% 90% 98% 240° 67% 94% 8% 98%

Lavender pink #FBAED2 98% 68% 82% 332° 91% 83% 31% 98%

Lavender purple #967BB6 59% 48% 71% 267° 29% 60% 32% 71%

Lavender rose #FBA0E3 98% 63% 89% 316° 92% 81% 36% 98%

Lawn green #7CFC00 49% 99% 0% 90° 100% 49% 98% 48%

Lemon #FFF700 100% 97% 0% 58° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Lemon chiffon #FFFACD 100% 98% 80% 54° 100% 90% 20% 100%

Lemon curry #CCA01D 80% 63% 11% 45° 75% 46% 86% 80%

Lemon glacier #FDFF00 99% 100% 0% 60° 100% 50% 100% 100%
List of colors 84

Lemon lime #E3FF00 89% 100% 0% 44° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Lemon meringue #F6EABE 96% 92% 75% 47° 76% 86% 23% 97%

Lemon yellow #FFF44F 100% 96% 31% 56° 100% 66% 69% 100%

Licorice #1A1110 10% 7% 6% 6° 24% 8% 39% 10%

Light apricot #FDD5B1 99% 84% 69% 30° 95% 84% 22% 89%

Light blue #ADD8E6 68% 85% 90% 194° 53% 79% 24% 90%

Light brown #B5651D 71% 40% 11% 28° 72% 41% 84% 71%

Light carmine pink #E66771 90% 40% 44% 350° 72% 65% 70% 80%

Light coral #F08080 94% 50% 50% 0° 79% 72% 50% 100%

Light cornflower blue #93CCEA 58% 80% 92% 201° 67% 75% 37% 92%

Light crimson #F56991 96% 41% 57% 343° 88% 69% 57% 96%

Light cyan #E0FFFF 88% 100% 100% 180° 100% 94% 12% 100%

Light fuchsia pink #F984EF 98% 52% 94% 300° 91% 75% 27% 94%

Light goldenrod yellow #FAFAD2 98% 98% 82% 60° 80% 90% 16% 98%

Light gray #D3D3D3 83% 83% 83% — 0% 83% 0% 83%

Light green #90EE90 56% 93% 56% 120° 73% 75% 39% 93%

Light khaki #F0E68C 94% 90% 55% 54° 77% 75% 42% 94%

Light medium orchid #D39BCB 83% 61% 80% 309° 39% 72% 27% 83%

Light moss green #ADDFAD 68% 78% 68% 135° 20% 73% 20% 87%

Light orchid #E6A8D7 90% 66% 84% 315° 55% 78% 27% 90%

Light pastel purple #B19CD9 69% 61% 85% 261° 45% 73% 28% 85%

Light pink #FFB6C1 100% 71% 76% 351° 100% 86% 100% 86%

Light red ochre #E97451 91% 45% 32% 14° 78% 62% 65% 91%

Light salmon #FFA07A 100% 63% 48% 14° 100% 74% 62% 100%

Light salmon pink #FF9999 100% 60% 60% 0° 100% 80% 40% 100%

Light sea green #20B2AA 13% 70% 67% 175° 70% 41% 40% 75%

Light sky blue #87CEFA 53% 81% 98% 203° 92% 76% 46% 98%

Light slate gray #778899 47% 53% 60% 210° 14% 53% 22% 60%

Light steel blue #B0C4DE 69% 77% 87% 214° 41% 78% 21% 87%

Light taupe #B38B6D 70% 55% 43% 26° 32% 56% 39% 70%

Light Thulian pink #E68FAC 90% 56% 67% 330° 64% 73% 72% 94%

Light yellow #FFFFE0 100% 100% 88% 60° 100% 94% 7% 100%

Lilac #C8A2C8 78% 64% 78% 300° 26% 71% 19% 78%

Lime (color wheel) #BFFF00 75% 100% 0% 75° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Lime (web) (X11 green) #00FF00 0% 100% 0% 120° 100% 50% 100% 100% Lime

Lime green #32CD32 20% 80% 20% 120° 61% 50% 67% 40%

Limerick #9DC209 62% 76% 4% 72° 91% 40% 95% 76%

Lincoln green #195905 10% 35% 2% 106° 89% 18% 94% 35%

Linen #FAF0E6 98% 94% 90% 30° 67% 94% 8% 98%

List of colors 85

Lion #C19A6B 76% 60% 42% 33° 41% 59% 45% 76%

Little boy blue #6CA0DC 42% 63% 86% 212° 62% 64% 51% 86%

Liver #534B4F 33% 29% 31% 330° 5% 31% 10% 33%

Lumber #FFE4CD 100% 89% 80% 8° 100% 90% 20% 100%

Lust #E62020 90% 13% 13% 0° 80% 51% 86% 90%

Magenta #FF00FF 100% 0% 100% 300° 100% 50% 100% 100% Fuchsia

Magenta (Crayola) #FF55A3 100% 33% 64% 332° 100% 67% 67% 100%

Magenta (dye) #CA1F7B 79% 12% 48% 326° 73% 46% 90% 79%

Magenta (Pantone) #D0417E 82% 25% 49% 334° 60% 54% 69% 82%

Magenta (process) #FF0090 100% 0% 56% 326° 100% 50% 100% 100%

Magic mint #AAF0D1 67% 94% 82% 150° 70% 80% 84% 80%

Magnolia #F8F4FF 97% 96% 100% 247° 100% 98% 94% 92%

Mahogany #C04000 75% 25% 0% 20° 100% 38% 100% 75%

Maize #FBEC5D 98% 93% 36% 54° 95% 68% 63% 98%

Majorelle Blue #6050DC 38% 31% 86% 247° 67% 59% 67% 59%

Malachite #0BDA51 4% 85% 32% 140° 90% 45% 95% 85%

Manatee #979AAA 59% 60% 67% 231° 10% 63% 11% 67%

Mango Tango #FF8243 100% 51% 26% 20° 100% 63% 74% 100%

Mantis #74C365 45% 76% 40% 110° 44% 58% 48% 77%

Mardi Gras #880085 53% 0% 54% 301° 100% 27% 100% 53%

Maroon (Crayola) #C32148 76% 13% 28% 345° 71% 45% 75% 38%

Maroon (HTML/CSS) #800000 50% 0% 0% 0° 100% 25% 100% 50% Maroon

Maroon (X11) #B03060 69% 19% 38% 333° 57% 44% 65% 42%

Mauve #E0B0FF 88% 69% 100% 276° 100% 85% 31% 100%

Mauve taupe #915F6D 57% 37% 43% 285° 21% 47% 37% 54%

Mauvelous #EF98AA 94% 60% 67% 348° 73% 77% 37% 94%

Maya blue #73C2FB 45% 76% 98% 210° 94% 72% 96% 87%

Meat brown #E5B73B 90% 72% 23% 44° 77% 56% 74% 90%

Medium aquamarine #66DDAA 40% 87% 67% 154° 64% 63% 54% 87%

Medium blue #0000CD 0% 0% 80% 240° 100% 40% 100% 80%

Medium candy apple red #E2062C 89% 2% 17% 350° 95% 46% 97% 89%

Medium carmine #AF4035 69% 25% 21% 5° 54% 45% 69% 68%

Medium champagne #F3E5AB 95% 90% 67% 48° 75% 81% 30% 95%

Medium electric blue #035096 1% 31% 59% 180° 96% 30% 30% 60%

Medium jungle green #1C352D 11% 21% 18% 120° 31% 16% 20% 20%

Medium lavender magenta #DDA0DD 87% 63% 87% 200° 47% 75% 28% 87%

Medium orchid #BA55D3 73% 33% 83% 288° 59% 58% 60% 83%

Medium Persian blue #0067A5 0% 40% 65% 248° 100% 32% 75% 48%

Medium purple #9370DB 58% 44% 86% 270° 60% 65% 68% 72%
List of colors 86

Medium red-violet #BB3385 73% 20% 52% 322° 57% 47% 79% 83%

Medium ruby #AA4069 67% 25% 41% 337° 45% 46% 62% 67%

Medium sea green #3CB371 24% 70% 44% 150° 50% 47% 42% 30%

Medium sky blue #80DAEB 50% 85% 92% 190° 73% 71% 46% 92%

Medium slate blue #7B68EE 48% 41% 93% 249° 80% 67% 56% 93%

Medium spring bud #C9DC87 79% 86% 53% 80° 55% 70% 70% 80%

Medium spring green #00FA9A 0% 98% 60% 150° 100% 49% 97% 97%

Medium taupe #674C47 40% 30% 28% 9° 18% 34% 31% 40%

Medium turquoise #48D1CC 28% 82% 80% 175° 60% 55% 55% 50%

Medium Tuscan red #79443B 47% 27% 23% 9° 34% 35% 51% 53%

Medium vermilion #D9603B 85% 38% 23% 14° 68% 54% 73% 85%

Medium violet-red #C71585 78% 8% 52% 322° 81% 43% 89% 78%

Mellow apricot #F8B878 97% 72% 47% 30° 90% 72% 52% 97%

Mellow yellow #F8DE7E 97% 87% 49% 47° 90% 73% 49% 97%

Melon #FDBCB4 99% 74% 71% 7° 95% 85% 29% 99%

Metallic Seaweed #0A7E8C 3% 49% 55% 186° 89% 29% 94% 55%

Metallic Sunburst #9C7C38 61% 49% 22% 41° 47% 42% 64% 61%

Mexican pink #E4007C 89% 0% 49% 327° 100% 45% 100% 89%

Midnight blue #191970 10% 10% 44% 240° 64% 27% 78% 44%

Midnight green (eagle green) #004953 0% 29% 33% 187° 100% 16% 100% 33%

Midori #E3F988 89% 98% 53% 72° 90% 76% 45% 98%

Mikado yellow #FFC40C 100% 77% 5% 45° 100% 52% 95% 100%

Mint #3EB489 24% 71% 54% 158° 49% 48% 66% 71%

Mint cream #F5FFFA 96% 100% 98% 150° 100% 98% 4% 100%

Mint green #98FF98 60% 100% 60% 140° 100% 80% 40% 100%

Misty rose #FFE4E1 100% 89% 88% 6° 100% 94% 12% 100%

Moccasin #FAEBD7 98% 92% 84% 34° 78% 91% 14% 98%

Mode beige #967117 59% 44% 9% 43° 73% 34% 85% 59%

Moonstone blue #73A9C2 45% 66% 76% 199° 39% 61% 41% 76%

Mordant red 19 #AE0C00 68% 5% 0% 4° 100% 34% 100% 68%

Moss green #8A9A5B 54% 60% 36% 75° 26% 48% 41% 60%

Mountain Meadow #30BA8F 19% 73% 56% 161° 59% 46% 74% 73%

Mountbatten pink #997A8D 60% 48% 55% 323° 13% 54% 20% 60%

MSU Green #18453B 9% 27% 23% 167° 48% 18% 65% 27%

Mughal green #306030 19% 38% 19% 120° 33% 28% 50% 38%

Mulberry #C54B8C 77% 29% 55% 285° 51% 53% 67% 70%

Mustard #FFDB58 100% 86% 35% 47° 100% 67% 65% 100%

Myrtle green #317873 19% 47% 45% 176° 42% 33% 59% 47%

For the continuation of the list of colors, please go to List of colors: N-Z#Colors in alphabetical order N-Z.
List of colors 87

Colors by shade

White
White is a balanced combination of all the colors of the visible light spectrum, or of a pair of complementary colors,
or of three or more colors, such as additive primary colors. It isn't a neutral or achromatic (without color) color, like
black and gray.

Pink
Pink is a tint of red, created by adding some white.

Red
Red is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light, consisting predominantly of the longest wavelengths
discernible by the human eye, in the wavelength range of roughly 625–750 nm. It is considered one of the additive
primary colors.

Orange
Orange is the color in the visible spectrum between red and yellow with a wavelength around 585 – 620 nm. In the
HSV color space, it has a hue of around 30°.

Brown
Brown colors are dark or muted shades of reds, oranges, and yellows on the RGB and CMYK color schemes. In
practice, browns are created by mixing two complementary colors from the RYB color scheme (combining all three
primary colors). In theory, such combinations should produce black, but produce brown because most commercially
available blue pigments tend to be comparatively weaker; the stronger red and yellow colors prevail, thus creating
the following tones.

Yellow
Yellow is the color of light with wavelengths predominately in the range of roughly 570–580 nm. In the HSV color
space, it has a hue of around 60°. It is considered one of the subtractive primary colors.

Gray
Achromatic grays are colors between black and white with no hue. Chromatic grays are achromatic grays mixed with
warm hues such as orange (warm grays) or cool hues such as azure (cool grays). This gray color template includes
both achromatic and chromatic grays.
List of colors 88

Green
Green is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a
wavelength of roughly 520–570 nm. It is considered one of the additive primary colors.

Cyan
Cyan is any of the colors in the blue-green range of the visible spectrum, i.e., between approximately 520 and
420 nm. It is considered one of the subtractive primary colors.

Blue
Blue is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a
wavelength of roughly 440–490 nm. It is considered one of the additive primary colors.

Violet
Violet is any of the colors the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a
wavelength of roughly 380–450 nm. Tones of violet tending towards the blue are called indigo. Purple colors are
colors that are various blends of violet and blue light with red light.

Web colors
These are the 16 colors which were once deemed "safe" for use in web pages, as they were displayed consistently
across many models of computer monitors. With modern technology, this particular set of colors has become less
relevant.

References
[1] Raggett, Dave (8 April 2002). "Dave Raggett's Introduction to CSS" (http:/ / www. w3. org/ MarkUp/ Guide/ Style). World Wide Web
Consortium. . Retrieved 9 December 2010.

• Frery, A. C.; Melo, C. A. S. & Fernandes, R. C. (13 October 2000). "Web-based Interactive Dynamics for Color
Models Learning" (http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/73504470/abstract). Color Research and
Application 25 (6): 435–441. doi:10.1002/1520-6378(200012)25:6<435::AID-COL8>3.0.CO;2-J. Retrieved
2009-03-15.

External links
• color-book.org (http://color-book.org) Color encyclopedia and tools
• CSS Colour Chart (http://colour.pro/CSS-Colour-Chart.htm)
• Name Of Color (http://name-of-color.com). Online tool to transform color codes between RGB and HSV and
find the closest solid color.
Web colors 89

Web colors
Web colors are colors used in designing web pages, and the methods for describing and specifying those colors.
Colors may be specified as an RGB triplet or in hexadecimal format (a hex triplet). They may also be specified
according to their common English names in some cases. Often a color tool or other graphics software is used to
generate color values. Hexadecimal color codes begin with a number sign (#).[1][2] A color is specified according to
the intensity of its red, green and blue components, each represented by eight bits. Thus, there are 24 bits used to
specify a web color, and 16,777,216 colors that may be so specified.
The first versions of Mosaic and Netscape Navigator used the X11 color names as the basis for their color lists, as
both started as X Window System applications.[3]
Web colors have an unambiguous colorimetric definition, sRGB, which relates the chromaticities of a particular
phosphor set, a given transfer curve, adaptive whitepoint, and viewing conditions.[4] These have been chosen to be
similar to many real-world monitors and viewing conditions, so that even without color management rendering is
fairly close to the specified values. However, user agents vary in the fidelity with which they represent the specified
colors. More advanced user agents use color management to provide better color fidelity; this is particularly
important for Web-to-print applications.

Hex triplet
A hex triplet is a six-digit, three-byte hexadecimal number used in HTML, CSS, SVG, and other computing
applications, to represent colors. The bytes represent the red, green and blue components of the color. One byte
represents a number in the range 00 to FF (in hexadecimal notation), or 0 to 255 in decimal notation. This represents
the least (0) to the most (255) intensity of each of the color components. Thus web colors specify colors in the
Truecolor (24-bit RGB) color scheme. The hex triplet is formed by concatenating three bytes in hexadecimal
notation, in the following order:
Byte 1: red value (color type red)
Byte 2: green value (color type green)
Byte 3: blue value (color type blue)
For example, consider the color where the red/green/blue values are decimal numbers: red=36, green=104, blue=160
(a greyish-blue color). The decimal numbers 36, 104 and 160 are equivalent to the hexadecimal numbers 24, 68 and
A0 respectively. The hex triplet is obtained by concatenating the 6 hexadecimal digits together, 2468A0 in this
example.
Note that if any one of the three color values is less than 16 (decimal) or 10 (hex), it must be represented with a
leading zero so that the triplet always has exactly six digits. For example, the decimal triplet 4, 8, 16 would be
represented by the hex digits 04, 08, 10, forming the hex triplet 040810.
The number of colors that can be represented by this system is 256 × 256 × 256 (2563, or 256 cubed) = 16,777,216.
Web colors 90

Shorthand hexadecimal form

An abbreviated, three (hexadecimal) digits form is sometimes used.[5] Expanding this form to the six-digit form is as
simple as doubling each digit: 09C becomes 0099CC as presented on the following CSS example:

.threedigit { color: #09C; }

.sixdigit { color: #0099CC; } /*same color as above*/

The three-digit form is described in the CSS specification, not in HTML. As a result, the three-digit form in an
attribute other than "style" is not interpreted as a valid color in some browsers.
This shorthand form reduces the palette to 4,096 colors, equivalent of 12-bit color as opposed to 24-bit color using
the whole six-digit form (16,777,216 colors). However, this limitation is often sufficient for text based documents.

Converting RGB to hexadecimal

RGB values are usually given in the 0–255 range; if they are in the 0–1 range, the values are multiplied by 255
before conversion. This number divided by 16 (integer division; ignoring any remainder) gives us the first
hexadecimal digit (between 0 and F, where the letters A to F represent the numbers 10 to 15. See hexadecimal for
more details). The remainder gives us the second hexadecimal digit. For instance the RGB value 201 divides into 12
groups of 16, thus the first digit is C. A remainder of 9 gives us the hexadecimal number C9. This process is repeated
for each of the three color values.
Conversion between number bases is a common feature of calculators, including both hand-held models and the
software calculators bundled with most modern operating systems. Web-based tools specifically for converting color
values are also available.[6][7] [8]

HTML color names

The HTML 4.01 specification[9] defines sixteen named colors, as follows (names are defined in this context to be
case-insensitive):

CSS 1–2.0 / HTML 3.2–4 / VGA color names

Color Name Hex (RGB) Red Green Blue Hue Satur Light Satur Value CGA number (name); alias
(RGB) (RGB) (RGB) (HSL/HSV) (HSL) (HSL) (HSV) (HSV)

White #FFFFFF 100% 100% 100% 0° 0% 100% 0% 100% 15 (white)

Silver #C0C0C0 75% 75% 75% 0° 0% 75% 0% 75% 7 (light gray)

Gray #808080 50% 50% 50% 0° 0% 50% 0% 50% 8 (dark gray)

Black #F0F0F0 0% 0% 0% 0° 0% 0% 0% 0% 0 (black)

Red #FFF0F0 100% 0% 0% 0° 100% 50% 100% 100% 12 (high red)

Maroon #80F0F0 50% 0% 0% 0° 100% 25% 100% 50% 4 (low red)

Yellow #FFFFF0 100% 100% 0% 60° 100% 50% 100% 100% 14 (yellow)

Olive #8080F0 50% 50% 0% 60° 100% 25% 100% 50% 6 (brown)

Lime #F0FFF0 0% 100% 0% 120° 100% 50% 100% 100% 10 (high green); green

Green #F080F0 0% 50% 0% 120° 100% 25% 100% 50% 2 (low green)

Aqua #F0FFFF 0% 100% 100% 180° 100% 50% 100% 100% 11 (high cyan); cyan

Teal #F08080 0% 50% 50% 180° 100% 25% 100% 50% 3 (low cyan)

Blue #F0F0FF 0% 0% 100% 240° 100% 50% 100% 100% 9 (high blue)

Navy #F0F080 0% 0% 50% 240° 100% 25% 100% 50% 1 (low blue)
Web colors 91

Fuchsia #FFF0FF 100% 0% 100% 300° 100% 50% 100% 100% 13 (high magenta); magenta

Purple #80F080 50% 0% 50% 300° 100% 25% 100% 50% 5 (low magenta)

These 16 were labelled as sRGB and included in the HTML 3.0 specification, which noted they were "the standard
16 colors supported with the Windows VGA palette."[10]

X11 color names

In addition, a number of colors are defined by web browsers. A particular browser may not recognize all of these
colors, but as of 2005 all modern general-use browsers support the full list of colors. Many of these colors are from
the list of X11 color names distributed with the X Window System. These colors were standardized by SVG 1.0, and
are accepted by SVG Full user agents. They are not part of SVG Tiny.
The list of colors actually shipped with the X11 product varies between implementations, and clashes with certain of
the HTML names such as green. Furthermore, X11 colors are defined as simple RGB (hence, no particular color
space), rather than sRGB. This means that the list of colors found in X11 (e.g. in /usr/lib/X11/rgb.txt) should not
directly be used to choose colors for the web.[11]
The list of web "X11 colors" from the CSS3 specification, along with their hexadecimal and decimal equivalents, is
shown below, compare the alphabetical lists in the W3C standards. Note that this includes the common synonyms:
aqua (HTML4/CSS 1.0 standard name) and cyan (common sRGB name), magenta (common sRGB name) and
fuchsia (HTML4/CSS 1.0 standard name), gray (HTML4/CSS 1.0 standard name) and grey. [12][13]

HTML name Hex code Decimal code

R G B R G B

Pink colors
Pink FF C0 CB 255 192 203

LightPink FF B6 C1 255 182 193

HotPink FF 69 B4 255 105 180

DeepPink FF 14 93 255  20 147

PaleVioletRed DB 70 93 219 112 147

MediumVioletRed C7 15 85 199  21 133

Red colors
LightSalmon FF A0 7A 255 160 122

Salmon FA 80 72 250 128 114

DarkSalmon E9 96 7A 233 150 122

LightCoral F0 80 80 240 128 128

IndianRed CD 5C 5C 205  92  92

Crimson DC 14 3C 220  20  60

FireBrick B2 22 22 178  34  34

DarkRed 8B 00 00 139   0   0

Red FF 00 00 255   0   0

Orange colors
OrangeRed FF 45 00 255  69   0

Tomato FF 63 47 255  99  71

Coral FF 7F 50 255 127  80

Web colors 92

DarkOrange FF 8C 00 255 140   0

Orange FF A5 00 255 165   0

Gold FF D7 00 255 215   0

Yellow colors
Yellow FF FF 00 255 255   0

LightYellow FF FF E0 255 255 224

LemonChiffon FF FA CD 255 250 205

LightGoldenrodYellow FA FA D2 250 250 210

PapayaWhip FF EF D5 255 239 213

Moccasin FF E4 B5 255 228 181

PeachPuff FF DA B9 255 218 185

PaleGoldenrod EE E8 AA 238 232 170

Khaki F0 E6 8C 240 230 140

DarkKhaki BD B7 6B 189 183 107

Brown colors
Cornsilk FF F8 DC 255 248 220

BlanchedAlmond FF EB CD 255 235 205

Bisque FF E4 C4 255 228 196

NavajoWhite FF DE AD 255 222 173

Wheat F5 DE B3 245 222 179

BurlyWood DE B8 87 222 184 135

Tan D2 B4 8C 210 180 140

RosyBrown BC 8F 8F 188 143 143

SandyBrown F4 A4 60 244 164  96

Goldenrod DA A5 20 218 165  32

DarkGoldenrod B8 86 0B 184 134  11

Peru CD 85 3F 205 133  63

Chocolate D2 69 1E 210 105  30

SaddleBrown 8B 45 13 139  69  19

Sienna A0 52 2D 160  82  45

Brown A5 2A 2A 165  42  42

Maroon 80 00 00 128   0   0

Web colors 93

HTML name Hex code Decimal code

R G B R G B

Green colors
DarkOliveGreen 55 6B 2F  85 107  47

Olive 80 80 00 128 128   0

OliveDrab 6B 8E 23 107 142  35

YellowGreen 9A CD 32 154 205  50

LimeGreen 32 CD 32  50 205  50

Lime 00 FF 00   0 255   0

LawnGreen 7C FC 00 124 252   0

Chartreuse 7F FF 00 127 255   0

GreenYellow AD FF 2F 173 255  47

SpringGreen 00 FF 7F   0 255 127

MediumSpringGreen 00 FA 9A   0 250 154

LightGreen 90 EE 90 144 238 144

PaleGreen 98 FB 98 152 251 152

DarkSeaGreen 8F BC 8F 143 188 143

MediumSeaGreen 3C B3 71  60 179 113

SeaGreen 2E 8B 57  46 139  87

ForestGreen 22 8B 22  34 139  34

Green 00 80 00   0 128   0

DarkGreen 00 64 00   0 100   0

Cyan colors
MediumAquamarine 66 CD AA 102 205 170

Aqua 00 FF FF   0 255 255

Cyan 00 FF FF   0 255 255

LightCyan E0 FF FF 224 255 255

PaleTurquoise AF EE EE 175 238 238

Aquamarine 7F FF D4 127 255 212

Turquoise 40 E0 D0  64 224 208

MediumTurquoise 48 D1 CC  72 209 204

DarkTurquoise 00 CE D1   0 206 209

LightSeaGreen 20 B2 AA  32 178 170

CadetBlue 5F 9E A0  95 158 160

DarkCyan 00 8B 8B   0 139 139

Teal 00 80 80   0 128 128

Blue colors
LightSteelBlue B0 C4 DE 176 196 222

PowderBlue B0 E0 E6 176 224 230

Web colors 94

LightBlue AD D8 E6 173 216 230

SkyBlue 87 CE EB 135 206 235

LightSkyBlue 87 CE FA 135 206 250

DeepSkyBlue 00 BF FF   0 191 255

DodgerBlue 1E 90 FF  30 144 255

CornflowerBlue 64 95 ED 100 149 237

SteelBlue 46 82 B4  70 130 180

RoyalBlue 41 69 E1  65 105 225

Blue 00 00 FF   0   0 255

MediumBlue 00 00 CD   0   0 205

DarkBlue 00 00 8B   0   0 139

Navy 00 00 80   0   0 128

MidnightBlue 19 19 70  25  25 112

HTML name Hex code Decimal code

R G B R G B

Purple colors
Lavender E6 E6 FA 230 230 250

Thistle D8 BF D8 216 191 216

Plum DD A0 DD 221 160 221

Violet EE 82 EE 238 130 238

Orchid DA 70 D6 218 112 214

Fuchsia FF 00 FF 255   0 255

Magenta FF 00 FF 255   0 255

MediumOrchid BA 55 D3 186  85 211

MediumPurple 93 70 DB 147 112 219

BlueViolet 8A 2B E2 138  43 226

DarkViolet 94 00 D3 148   0 211

DarkOrchid 99 32 CC 153  50 204

DarkMagenta 8B 00 8B 139   0 139

Purple 80 00 80 128   0 128

Indigo 4B 00 82  75   0 130

DarkSlateBlue 48 3D 8B  72  61 139

SlateBlue 6A 5A CD 106  90 205

MediumSlateBlue 7B 68 EE 123 104 238

White/Gray/Black colors
White FF FF FF 255 255 255

Snow FF FA FA 255 250 250

Honeydew F0 FF F0 240 255 240

MintCream F5 FF FA 245 255 250

Web colors 95

Azure F0 FF FF 240 255 255

AliceBlue F0 F8 FF 240 248 255

GhostWhite F8 F8 FF 248 248 255

WhiteSmoke F5 F5 F5 245 245 245

Seashell FF F5 EE 255 245 238

Beige F5 F5 DC 245 245 220

OldLace FD F5 E6 253 245 230

FloralWhite FF FA F0 255 250 240

Ivory FF FF F0 255 255 240

AntiqueWhite FA EB D7 250 235 215

Linen FA F0 E6 250 240 230

LavenderBlush FF F0 F5 255 240 245

MistyRose FF E4 E1 255 228 225

Gainsboro DC DC DC 220 220 220

LightGray D3 D3 D3 211 211 211

Silver C0 C0 C0 192 192 192

DarkGray A9 A9 A9 169 169 169

Gray 80 80 80 128 128 128

DimGray 69 69 69 105 105 105

LightSlateGray 77 88 99 119 136 153

SlateGray 70 80 90 112 128 144

DarkSlateGray 2F 4F 4F  47  79  79

Black 00 00 00   0   0   0

Web-safe colors
At one time many computer displays were only capable of displaying 256 colors. These may be dictated by the
hardware or changeable by a "color table". When a color is found (e.g., in an image) that is not one available, a
different one has to be used. This can done by either using the closest color, which greatly speeds up the load time,
or by using dithering, which results in more accurate results, but takes a longer to load due to the complex
calculations.
There were various attempts to make a "standard" color palette. A set of colors was needed that could be shown
without dithering on 256-color displays; the number 216 was chosen partly because computer operating systems
customarily reserved sixteen to twenty colors for their own use; it was also selected because it allows exactly six
equally-spaced shades of red, green, and blue (6 × 6 × 6 = 216), each from 00 to FF (including both limits).
The list of colors is often presented as if it has special properties that render them immune to dithering. In fact, on
256-color displays applications can set a palette of any selection of colors that they choose, dithering the rest. These
colors were chosen specifically because they matched the palettes selected by the then leading browser applications.
Fortunately, there were not radically different palettes in use in different popular browsers.
"Web-safe" colors had a flaw in that, on systems such as X11 where the palette is shared between applications,
smaller color cubes (5×5×5 or 4×4×4) were often allocated by browsers—thus, the "web safe" colors would actually
dither on such systems. Better results were obtained by providing an image with a larger range of colors and
Web colors 96

allowing the browser to quantize the color space if needed, rather than suffer the quality loss of a double
quantization.
As of 2011, personal computers typically[14] have 24-bit (TrueColor) and the use of "web-safe" colors has fallen into
practical disuse. Even mobile devices have at least 16-bit color, driven by the inclusion of cameras on cellphones.
The "web-safe" colors do not all have standard names, but each can be specified by an RGB triplet: each component
(red, green, and blue) takes one of the six values from the following table (out of the 256 possible values available
for each component in full 24-bit color).

6 shades of each color

Key Hex Decimal Fraction

0 00 0 0

3 33 51 0.2

6 66 102 0.4

9 99 153 0.6

C or (12) CC 204 0.8

F or (15) FF 255 1

The following table shows all of the "web-safe" colors, underlining the really-safe colors. (One shortcoming of the
web-safe palette is its poor selection of light background colors.) The intensities at the low end of the range,
especially the two darkest, are often hard to distinguish.

Color table
In the table below, each color code listed is a shorthand for the RGB value; for example, code 609 is equivalent to
RGB code 102-0-153 or HEX code #660099.[15]

Web-Safe Colors
*000* 300 600 900 C00 *F00*

*003* 303 603 903 C03 *F03*

006 306 606 906 C06 F06

009 309 609 909 C09 F09

00C 30C 60C 90C C0C F0C

*00F* 30F 60F 90F C0F *F0F*

030 330 630 930 C30 F30

033 333 633 933 C33 F33

036 336 636 936 C36 F36

039 339 639 939 C39 F39

03C 33C 63C 93C C3C F3C

03F 33F 63F 93F C3F F3F

060 360 660 960 C60 F60

063 363 663 963 C63 F63

066 366 666 966 C66 F66

069 369 669 969 C69 F69

Web colors 97

06C 36C 66C 96C C6C F6C

06F 36F 66F 96F C6F F6F

090 390 690 990 C90 F90

093 393 693 993 C93 F93

096 396 696 996 C96 F96

099 399 699 999 C99 F99

09C 39C 69C 99C C9C F9C

09F 39F 69F 99F C9F F9F

0C0 3C0 6C0 9C0 CC0 FC0

0C3 3C3 6C3 9C3 CC3 FC3

0C6 3C6 6C6 9C6 CC6 FC6

0C9 3C9 6C9 9C9 CC9 FC9

0CC 3CC 6CC 9CC CCC FCC

0CF 3CF 6CF 9CF CCF FCF

*0F0* 3F0 *6F0* 9F0 CF0 *FF0*

0F3 *3F3* *6F3* 9F3 CF3 *FF3*

*0F6* *3F6* 6F6 9F6 *CF6* *FF6*

0F9 3F9 6F9 9F9 CF9 FF9

*0FC* *3FC* 6FC 9FC CFC FFC

*0FF* *3FF* *6FF* 9FF CFF *FFF*

Safest web colors

Designers were often encouraged to stick to these 216 "web-safe" colors in their websites; however, 8-bit color
displays were much more common when the 216-color palette was developed than they are now. David Lehn and
Hadley Stern have since discovered that only 22 of the 216 colors in the web-safe palette are reliably displayed
without inconsistent remapping on 16-bit computer displays. They called these 22 colors the "really safe" palette; it
consists mainly of shades of green and yellow, as can be seen in the table above, where the "really safe" colors are
underlined.[16]

CSS colors
The Cascading Style Sheets language defines the same number of named colors as the HTML 4 spec, namely the 16
listed previously. Additionally, CSS 2.1 adds the 'orange' color name to the list[17]:
Web colors 98

Colors added in CSS 2.1

Color Name Hex (RGB) Red Green Blue Hue Satur Light Satur Value Alias
(RGB) (RGB) (RGB) (HSL/HSV) (HSL) (HSL) (HSV) (HSV)

orange #FFA5F0 100% 65% 0% 39° 100% 50% 100% 100%

CSS 2, SVG and CSS 2.1 also allow web authors to use so-called system colors, which are color names whose values
are taken from the operating system, for example, picking the operating system's highlighted text color, or the
background color for tooltip controls. This enables web authors to style their content in line with the operating
system of the user agent.[18] The CSS3 color module has deprecated the use of system colors in favor of CSS3 UI
System Appearance property,[19][20] which itself was subsequently dropped from CSS3.[21]
The developing CSS3 specification will also introduce HSL color space values to style sheets:

/* RGB model */
p { color: #F00 } /* #rgb */
p { color: #FF0000 } /* #rrggbb */
p { color: rgb(255, 0, 0) } /* integer range 0 - 255 */
p { color: rgb(100%, 0%, 0%) } /* float range 0.0% - 100.0% */

/* RGB with alpha channel, added to CSS3 */

p { color: rgba(255, 0, 0, 0.5) } /* 0.5 opacity, semi-transparent */

/* HSL model, added to CSS3 */

p { color: hsl(0, 100%, 50%) } /* red */
p { color: hsl(120, 100%, 50%) } /* green */
p { color: hsl(120, 100%, 25%) } /* dark green */
p { color: hsl(120, 100%, 75%) } /* light green */
p { color: hsl(120, 50%, 50%) } /* pastel green */

/* HSL model with alpha channel */

p { color: hsla(120, 100%, 50%, 1) } /* green */
p { color: hsla(120, 100%, 50%, 0.5) } /* semi-transparent green */
p { color: hsla(120, 100%, 50%, 0.1) } /* very transparent green */

Accessibility
Some browsers and devices do not support colors. For these blind and colorblind users, Web content depending on
colors can be unusable or difficult to use.
Either no colors should be specified (to invoke the browser's default colors), or both the background and all
foreground colors (primarily the colors of plain text, unvisited links, hovered links, active links, and visited links)
should be specified to avoid black on black or white on white effects.[22]
Web colors 99

References
[1] Niederst Robbins, Jennifer. Web Design in a Nutshell, p. 103.
[2] York, Richard. Beginning CSS, pp. 71–72.
[3] Guide to Graphics (http:/ / www. splus. com/ support/ splus80win/ graphics. pdf). SP LUS, splus.com. Page 13.
[4] Digital Color Imaging Handbook By Gaurav Sharma. ISBN 0-8493-0900-X
[5] CSS3 color module (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ css3-color/ #rgb-color)
[6] RGB to Hexadecimal Color Converter (http:/ / www. telacommunications. com/ nutshell/ rgbform. htm)
[7] Color Converter Tool (http:/ / www. colorhexa. com/ )
[8] List of Web Safe Colors with conversions (http:/ / hex-code. com/ web-safe-colors)
[9] HTML 4.01 Specification section 6.5 "Colors" (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ REC-html40/ types. html#h-6. 5)
[10] HTML 3.2 Specification "The BODY element" (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ REC-html32#body)
[11] Public discussion on SVG mailing list Re: color names in SVG-1.0 conflict with /usr/lib/X11/rgb.txt (http:/ / lists. w3. org/ Archives/ Public/
www-svg/ 2002Apr/ 0052. html)
[12] W3C TR CSS3 Color Module, SVG color keywords (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ css3-color/ #svg-color)
[13] W3C TR SVG 1.0, recognized color keyword names (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ SVG/ types. html#ColorKeywords)
[14] Browser Display Statistics (http:/ / www. w3schools. com/ browsers/ browsers_display. asp)
[15] #660099 Color Information (http:/ / www. colorhexa. com/ 660099)
[16] Death of the Websafe Color Palette? (http:/ / www. physics. ohio-state. edu/ ~wilkins/ color/ websafecolors. html)
[17] "CSS 2.1 Specification: Syntax and basic data types: Colors" (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ CSS21/ syndata. html#color-units). 2009-09-08. .
Retrieved 2009-12-21.
[18] User interface - System colors (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ CSS21/ ui. html#system-colors)
[19] CSS3 Color Module - CSS2 System Colors (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ css3-color/ #css-system)
[20] CSS3 Basic User Interface Module, W3C Candidate Recommendation 11 May 2004: System Appearance (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ 2004/
CR-css3-ui-20040511/ #system)
[21] CSS Basic User Interface Module Level 3 (CSS3 UI), W3C Working Draft 17 January 2012: List of substantial changes (http:/ / www. w3.
org/ TR/ css3-ui/ #changes-list), "System Appearance has been dropped, including appearance values & property, and system fonts / extension
of the ‘font’ property shorthand."
[22] If You Pick One Color, Pick Them All (http:/ / www. w3. org/ QA/ Tips/ color)

External links
• CSS2.1 Color Specification (http://www.w3.org/TR/CSS21/syndata.html#color-units)
• Web colors (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Graphics/Web/Colors/) at the Open Directory Project
Article Sources and Contributors 100

Article Sources and Contributors

Color  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=534562719  Contributors: $5forMe, 05fcrane, 1210Poppy, 165.123.179.xxx, 200.11.86.xxx, 200.191.188.xxx, 2015magroan, 334a,
66sankan, 90 Auto, A. Parrot, A.K.A.47, ABCDER, ABF, ADyuaa, AED, Abce2, Abtract, Acather96, Acroterion, Adam2288, Adam249, Adam78, AdamWooten, Adoniscik, AeonicOmega,
Aesopos, AgentPeppermint, Ahoerstemeier, Aiken drum, Ak5791, Alai, Alansohn, AlbertCahalan, Aldux, Ale jrb, Alexander.ranson, AlexiusHoratius, AllyUnion, Amacachi, Amatulic,
Amenophis, Andres, Andrewpmk, Andrewrp, Andromedabluesphere440, Andros 1337, Andy Dingley, Animum, Anlace, AnmaFinotera, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous101, AnshumanF,
Antandrus, Arakunem, Arcadian, Arch dude, Arnonel, Artist in France, Artjt, Aruton, Asdflollyland, Ashwinvr96, AustinNault, Autocracy, Avsa, AxSkov, AxelBoldt, Aymatth2, Ayrton Prost,
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Article Sources and Contributors 101

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Additive color  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=533721835  Contributors: 2D, AVarchaeologist, Aboalbiss, Bb3cxv, Bryan Derksen, Captain Virtue, Carnildo, CindySteve,
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Subtractive color  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=529807784  Contributors: 21655, AVarchaeologist, Alansohn, AppuruPan, Beetstra, Bennetto, Bongwarrior,
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Color mixing  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=533031635  Contributors: Akrabbim, Bha100710, ChrisGualtieri, Doozer, Erimaxbau, Excirial, Lithoderm, MSGJ, Moe
Epsilon, Nuvitauy07, RomaC, SF007, Shinjin, Spinningspark, Tad Lincoln, TheBFG, VMS Mosaic, Wyatt915, 25 anonymous edits

Primary color  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=533815928  Contributors: 1exec1, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 48states, AEMoreira042281, Acroterion, Addesso, Adoniscik,
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Colorfulness  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=528151532  Contributors: 2001:4898:0:FFF:0:5EFE:AC13:901C, Aboalbiss, Adelpine, Adoniscik, Anbu121, Arcadian, Aude,
Casey56, Conscious, CoyneT, DA3N, Dicklyon, Duoduoduo, Ettrig, Frietjes, Fryed-peach, Green Heart 1985, HappyLogolover2011, Interiot, Jacobolus, Keraunos, Kevdave, Lefty, MeekSaffron,
Michael Hardy, MisterSheik, Morecambe1, Natebw, Neilbeach, Night Gyr, Nikai, Ohnoitsjamie, PBS, Paul August, Peter G Werner, Pinethicket, Radagast83, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Roke,
Semolina Pilchard 67, Sims2uni, SmileToday, Sonjaaa, Specious, Spitzak, Srleffler, Svick, Tagishsimon, TallNapoleon, Trevj, Tsiaojian lee, VMS Mosaic, VivaEmilyDavies, Waldir, Wapcaplet,
Welsh, Wiki Raja, Wmhawth, Ylai, 56 anonymous edits

Dichromatism  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=469821596  Contributors: Dmmaus, Eidako, Finog, Fotaun, FrankFE, Jfdwolff, Krefts, Mild Bill Hiccup, Natevw, Pengo,
Rjwilmsi, Scentoni, Srleffler, Woohookitty, 11 anonymous edits

Hue  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=532283716  Contributors: (3ucky(3all, 2DD2, AED, Abdull, Aboalbiss, AugPi, Auntof6, Austinbilleci110, BazookaJoe, Bogey97, CL,
Catinbunny, ChazYork, Chinasaur, Chipcoi1089, Creidieki, Crohnie, Cytex, DHN, Darth Panda, Dbfirs, Deb, DemonThing, Denelson83, Dicklyon, Discospinster, Dyaka, ENeville, Eshmo,
Fanghong, Forelisevn, Fraggle81, FrozenMan, Fryed-peach, GandalfDaGraay, Gogo Dodo, Graham87, Guðsþegn, Hanoipeacetour, Hans Dunkelberg, Hart37, I AM POOTIS, JHunterJ,
Jacobolus, JayJay, Jd4v15, Jheiv, Jimp, Joelr31, JohnManuel, Jppellet, Keraunos, Kingoftheswag, Krystaleen, Lateshift555, Lefty, LittleHow, Loren.wilton, Lovibond, Lulu noodle93,
Lumpbucket, MJ94, Magioladitis, Magnus Manske, Maksim-e, Materialscientist, Mav, Mbubel, Mmh, Mormegil, NOrbeck, Nbarth, NekoDaemon, Neutrality, Nono64, Northumbrian, Olivier,
Ost316, Oxygene123, P. B. Mann, PJV, Pak21, Passengerpigeon, Paweł Ziemian, Picaroon, Pietaster, Prohlep, Rabidtommy, RandomXYZb, Reaper Eternal, RedAndr, Regenspaziergang, RitKill,
Rjwilmsi, Rocket71048576, Rogper, Roke, Runefrost, Ryanmcdaniel, S h i v a (Visnu), SMC, Sander123, Semperveritas, Sgkay, Srleffler, SteinbDJ, Stevertigo, Suran.c, The Thing That Should
Not Be, TheGiantHogweed, ThingXYZ, Thorseth, Tkgd2007, Tumblingsky, VMS Mosaic, Vanished User 8a9b4725f8376, Vardion, VernoWhitney, Wapcaplet, Webclient101, Wernervb, Widr,
Zecora98, Érico Júnior Wouters, ༆, 146 anonymous edits

Tints and shades  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=526002515  Contributors: 23funnel23, Aboalbiss, Adelpine, Alansohn, Avoided, Bertrand Bellet, ContinueWithCaution,
Denispir, Dhynbaa, Download, Grey Maiden, Impy4ever, Incnis Mrsi, Jacobolus, James.Denholm, Jeff G., Jk2q3jrklse, Keraunos, Madijazz2, Malkinann, Martinship, Meco, Mr. Vernon,
Rjeng2000, Robofish, Tgeairn, VMS Mosaic, Xanzzibar, පසිඳු කාවින්ද, 60 anonymous edits

Lightness  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=488695931  Contributors: Aboalbiss, Adelpine, Adoniscik, Chris the speller, Cpoynton, Dicklyon, Drbreznjev, Fatheroftebride,
Fryed-peach, Jacobolus, Jauhienij, Just plain Bill, Keraunos, Kevdave, KlappCK, McSush, Mzajac, Neparis, Ost316, P.B. Pilhet, Pegship, Rich Farmbrough, Ru dagon, SharkD, Srleffler,
Staticshakedown, Svick, The Random Editor, 20 anonymous edits

Opponent process  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=533413851  Contributors: Adoniscik, Ancheta Wis, Anglo-Araneophilus, Benandorsqueaks, Bluemoose, Chinze, Delldot,
Dicklyon, Duoduoduo, Everyking, False vacuum, Forbsey, Geoemyda, Georgia guy, Ghinessk, Incnis Mrsi, Jacobolus, Jesserjames, Johnrpenner, KSmrq, Kcordina, Ketiltrout, Loren.wilton,
MWAK, Magiciandude, Magioladitis, Michael Hardy, Mijelliott, NekoDaemon, Nono64, Poodle slyr, Quibik, Rjwilmsi, Sean.hoyland, Spooky, Staticshakedown, Uaxuctum, Ugncreative
Usergname, Uncle G, VMS Mosaic, Waiting4beckett, Wragge, Wyatt915, 55 anonymous edits

Impossible colors  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513614931  Contributors: AaRH, Aaron Kauppi, Acebulf, Anthony Appleyard, Auric, Cate, Chipmunkdavis, Chris
Capoccia, Crazymonkey1123 public, Da5nsy, Dasanjos, Davidhorman, Duoduoduo, Extoad, Gioto, Goustien, Itchesavvy, JMatthews, Jonkerz, Jpgordon, Koavf, Lova Falk, Metallaxis, Michael
Hardy, Mikechen, Mmoople, MrBurns, NisseSthlm, OrangeDog, Rhubbarb, Spinningspark, Svick, Tom Piantanida, Tony Mach, VMS Mosaic, Vroo, Wanderer32, Welshie, WryVendor,
Wyatt915, XP1, Ysangkok, Zuchinni one, 34 anonymous edits

Color vision  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=533532095  Contributors: 1993kid, 90 Auto, A314268, AED, Abeg92, Aboalbiss, Acalamari, Adoniscik, AdvCentral,
AgentPeppermint, AlanUS, Angela, Anihl, Aoleson, Aranae, Arcadian, Archer7, Arthena, Atarr, Atlant, Azcolvin429, B jonas, BIGELLOW, Batintherain, Beland, Belovedfreak, BenFrantzDale,
BenRG, Bmju, Bobo192, Bookandcoffee, Britonamission, C A Morris, C.Fred, Calmer Waters, Caribant, CasualVisitor, Cgingold, Chris the speller, Codeye, Crystallina, Cyrius, D, D3z,
Daltonsgirl, Daqu, Delldot, Dicklyon, Dkroll2, Donarreiskoffer, Dpv, Drag-5, Drj11, Duoduoduo, DynamoDegsy, Dysmorodrepanis, Ec5618, Edgeuction, Edison, Efodix, Ego White Tray,
Emperorbma, Enisbayramoglu, Ericmelse, Feitosa-santana, Fred Hsu, Gadfium, Gene Nygaard, Georgia guy, Giftlite, Graft, Guidod, Guillep2k, Guyburns, HallucigeniaUK, Hankwang,
Harryboyles, Hatster301, Headbomb, Hgold, Hunt9, IceKarma, Imagine1989, Iridescent, Jackhynes, Jacobolus, Janke, Jerry, Jhenderson777, Jim.henderson, Joe Decker, Johnkarp, Johnor, Jonas
August, Jonverve, Joriki, JukeJohn, JunCTionS, K kisses, Kazvorpal, Keegan, Keraunos, Kinema, KoenB, Krystaleen, LAX, Last Avenue, Lcguang, Lepidoptera, LilHelpa, Little Mountain 5,
LittleHow, Logical Fuzz, Lotje, LtPowers, Lucasilver, Magioladitis, Magister Mathematicae, MartinPoulter, Marxercise, McGeddon, Medtopic, Mfwitten, MichaelMcGuffin, Micromaster,
Minesweeper, Moonksy29, Munawar6, Nakon, Natrij, Nbarth, NekoDaemon, Nicholashunter, NifCurator1, Njaard, Noetica, NotAnonymous0, Notinasnaid, Nuvitauy07, O.Koslowski, Olivier
Hammam, Orderud, Oscabat, Ost316, Owen, OwenX, PAR, PatrickFisher, Persian Poet Gal, Picus viridis, Pinethicket, Pmineault, Pmronchi, Preeti.sambi, Psheno, Psychron1, QuentinUK, Quota,
RDBrown, ReallyNiceGuy, Rebornsoldier, Rechlin, Renatops, Rich Farmbrough, Richard001, Richerman, Rjwilmsi, Robertg9, SF007, Sanya3, Sayeth, Sbharris, Scwlong, Seabhcan,
Sean.hoyland, Seglea, Selket, Shadowjams, SharkD, Shepaado, SiriusB, Sjöðar, Skatebiker, Smack, Smith609, Sonalprasad, Spigget, Srleffler, StevenBjerke, Suffusion of Yellow, SvenAERTS,
Tabletop, Tagal, TaintedMustard, Talon Artaine, Tckma, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheMindsEye, Thorseth, Threetwoone, Titodutta, Titoxd, Tom Lougheed, Tom harrison, Tyler, Usien6,
VMS Mosaic, Vanessaezekowitz, Vaughan Pratt, Voidxor, Vsmith, Wandell, Washington00, Wernervb, Willhsmit, Wotnow, X-Fi6, YSSYguy, Zarnivop, Zink Dawg, 265 anonymous edits

Visual perception  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=530970814  Contributors: (, A314268, A4, AED, Abqwildcat, Accuruss, Adrian.benko, Alexander Maier, Alexandrov,
Alexis.rodet, Anatoly IVANOV, Ancheta Wis, Andre Engels, Andreamubi, Andreas Kaufmann, Andross52, Angela, Anir1uph, Antony-22, Applesnnbananas, Arcadian, Arfgab, ArglebargleIV,
Argumentum ornithologicum, Ashwin73, Audiovideo, AwamerT, BD2412, Bad Romance, Beland, BenFrantzDale, Bencherlite, Bensaccount, Bentogoa, BirgitteSB, Blue520, Bmju, Boing! said
Article Sources and Contributors 102

Zebedee, Boulaur, Brandon, Bstephens393, CP\M, CanadianLinuxUser, Cgingold, Cleancleaner, Cogpsych, Colin, Cooper24, Cralize, CzarNick, Danger, Darrenhusted, David Latapie,
David-Sarah Hopwood, Dbfirs, DerHexer, Diberri, Dilcoe, Dolfrog, Dontaskme, Dpv, Duja, Duncan, Dycedarg, Ec5618, EdH, Eekerz, Eijiaj80, EinderiheN, Eliyak, Emariatos, Everyking,
Factfinderz, Famousdog, Fastfactchecker, Fenton1234, FlyHigh, Fratrep, FreplySpang, Furrykef, Gary King, Geeoharee, Geraldfird, Giftlite, Gilsatron, Gioto, Glenn, Gludwiczak, Graft,
GreenLocust, Greg.collver, Grutness, Gunza, Gurch, H2g2bob, Halmstad, Hans-Werner34, Hazel77, Hibernian, HieronymusGuinevere, Historychecker, Hordaland, I dream of horses, IRP,
Immunize, Infinitejpower, Insanity Incarnate, Intangir, Intromission, Ixfd64, J04n, Jacobolus, Jagged 85, Janviermichelle, Jarble, Jescamilla4048, Jess523s, Jj1236, Joe yeeha, Johnkarp, Jtkiefer,
JudahH, Jvstone, KYN, Kathy usui, Kfsung, LEMEN, Landroving Linguist, Lars Washington, Leranedo, Lizaahle, LjL, Lochaber, Looie496, Lova Falk, Lussmu, Mac, MajorVariola, Mario1337,
MarkSutton, MarnetteD, Martin Kozák, MartinPoulter, MarylandArtLover, MassimoAr, Mattisse, Matusz, McSly, Mdd, Medtopic, Meegs, Mentifisto, Merovingian, Michael Hardy,
Midnightcomm, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mindmatrix, Mjr Armstrong, Mlessard, Modulatum, Mogism, MortimerCat, MrOllie, MuZemike, Mukadderat, Mwarren us, Naddy, NawlinWiki, Neostinker,
Nerrolken, Neuropsychology, Never give in, Nick, Nk, Nneonneo, Noetica, Novem Linguae, Nuvitauy07, ObfuscatePenguin, PLA y Grande Covián, Parkjunwung, Patrick, Pedant, Perfect
Proposal, Peter T.S., Peterlin, Petter Trillkott, PhilHibbs, Pizza Puzzle, Pleasantville, Poetaris, Pollinosisss, Poshzombie, Privong, Psychron1, Purielku, RSaunders, RadioElectric, Ragesoss,
Rarara1111, Raudys, Richard001, Rimtect, Roadnottaken, Robertg9, Rokers, RoyBoy, Rryswny, RyanCross, Sacre, Sadi Carnot, Sae Harshberger, Sango123, Sanya3, Sardanaphalus, Sbarthelme,
Sbluen, Scathane, Seabhcan, Seeyou, Selket, Sephiroth BCR, Sfan00 IMG, Snoyes, SoCal, Solipsist, Soundray, Sparkleyone, Speed8ump, SpeedyGonsales, Spencerk, Srenee91, StealthB, Steve
Pucci, Strasburger, Svick, Swanav, Tango, Tangotango, Template namespace initialisation script, Tevildo, Tharshikatee, The Anome, The Magnificent Clean-keeper, Thebigone45,
Themfromspace, Thesoxlost, Thetoothpick, Thingg, Thongsftw, Tierlieb, Tobby72, Tony1, Twinsday, Tó campos, Utcursch, Vaughan, Verne Equinox, Vsion, Vssun, Wakebrdkid, Waterfall117,
Werdan7, West.andrew.g, Where next Columbus?, White Trillium, Wildkoala, William M. Connolley, Wolfdog, Woohookitty, Worldbookman, X96lee15, Xevi, Xyoureyes, Yidisheryid, Ylem,
Zephy2034, Περίεργος, 337 anonymous edits

List of colors  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=525745536  Contributors: 041744, 15thWardWestBank, 220 of Borg, 2602:306:CD88:5940:64DB:EA79:CDFD:D2B6,
4twenty42o, AArthur150, AGK, Abb615, Abcdefg987654, Abce2, Ace ETP, Addshore, Adreantruth, Adrey, Aeron Valderrama, Aesopos, Agesilaus II, AgnosticPreachersKid, Ahoerstemeier,
Ahonc, Airplaneman, Aitias, Aksi great, AlanBarrett, Alansohn, Alexkin, Alexzabbey, Allens, Alpha Ralpha Boulevard, Alsandro, Altenmann, Altermike, AmericaIsNumberOne, Anbu121,
Andrea105, Andros 1337, Andux, AngelOfSadness, Angelofdeath275, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Antique Rose, Apparition11, Arch dude, Ardric47, ArglebargleIV, Arlo Barnes,
Arthena, Arxiloxos, Asciic, Asdfjklqazse, Ashishbhatnagar72, Atomicharcoal, Avengingbandit, Avoided, B58PMCSA, BD2412, Backpackadam, Bagatelle, Barrelbabe3737, BarretB, Bart133,
Baseball Bugs, Blue520, Bluedenim, Bluenectarine, Bobo192, Bobrayner, Bongwarrior, Brainsurge33, Bucketsofg, Bumm13, Burndownthedisco, Burntpiecrust, Bus stop, Butros, CUSENZA
Mario, CWii, Cacums, Cait1208, Calmer Waters, Camw, Canterbury Tail, Canthusus, Capedia, Capricorn42, Captain Virtue, Captain panda, Catgut, Cathyahn, Ccson, Centrx, Cerebralpayne,
Cgmusselman, Charles Matthews, Charlottelai, Chaser, Chasingsol, Chienlit, Chris the speller, Christian75, Chuunen Baka, Circeus, Closedmouth, Cnilep, Cntras, ColinBoylett, Collingwood,
Comedy Dan, Cooliesare, Coopdawg7533, Coopkev2, Corington, Corvus cornix, Coryknick, Courcelles, CoyneT, Crazy Boris with a red beard, Creidieki, Crissov, Crocodealer, Crohnie,
CrowzRSA, Cspenc36, Ctachme, Cubs Fan, CyberSkull, Cyberkid ua, D2513850, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DJ Clayworth, DMacks, DRTllbrg, DVdm, DaDoc540, Daniele Pugliesi, Darrien, Darth
Newdar, David0811, Davidbod, Davish Krail, Gold Five, Dbenbenn, Dbfirs, Dbritnell, Dcljr, DeC, DeWayne, Dekisugi, Denelson83, Denisarona, Deor, Diamond941, Dicklyon, Digfarenough,
DiplomBastler, Dirjarmocksorz, Discospinster, Divide, Djaychela, Docu, Dodo's Conundrum, Donarreiskoffer, Donfbreed, Draco, Drilnoth, Dude1818, Dureo, Dyolf, E2eamon, ESkog,
Eaglemach, Ebyabe, Eeekster, Eequor, Ehrenkater, Elevenzeroone, Emnat, Emrrans, Epbr123, Evaders99, Excirial, Extra999, Fabrizio.sporchia, Falcon8765, FastLizard4, Feinoha, Festyzizzle,
Ffffloyd, Finalius, Fish and karate, FisherQueen, Flewis, Fluffernutter, Fluiday, Foobaz, For An Angel, Fran McCrory, FreplySpang, Frietjes, Friginator, Frigotoni, From Selma to Stonewall,
Funandtrvl, Funnyfarmofdoom, Fëaluinix, GabrielF, Gail, Garnerguy123, Geahanse, Gene Nygaard, Geodog242, George Hernandez, Georgia guy, Glacialfox, Glenn L, Gogo Dodo, Gojistomp,
Gracenotes, GrayFullbuster, Groat, Grunt, Gtrmp, Guoguo12, Gus Polly, Gwernol, HJ Mitchell, Halfway to never, Hammersoft, HappyInGeneral, Happysugarrush, Harkenbane, Hasek is the best,
Hayabusa future, Heatseeker0, Heegoop, Henning Makholm, Hermitage17, Heron, Hghyux, Hmrox, Hongking, Hqb, Hushguppy, Husond, IAmTheCoinMan, IW.HG,
Ididntrecognizethatlastepisode, Igoldste, Ihateakiva, Ijstmariedashton, IlyaHaykinson, Immunize, Imroy, IncognitoErgoSum, Indon, Ionistii, IronGargoyle, ItsZippy, Itsyourmom, IwantNapalm,
Ixfd64, J. Naven, J.delanoy, JForget, JV Smithy, Ja 62, JaGa, Jaberwocky6669, Jack Merridew, Jackol, Jacobolus, Jadesfans, Jagginess, Jak123, Jakew, JamieS93, Jebus0, Jeepday, Jeff G.,
JeremyA, Jeromesyroyal, JesusAddict3791, Jhenderson777, Jimp, Jj.pitrelli, Jklin, Jmlk17, Jncraton, John Anderson, John254, Jojit fb, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josephycc, Jurema Oliveira,
Jusjih, Jusses2, JustAGal, KJBracey, Kafka Liz, Kballigator4, KelleyCook, Kenkku, Keraunos, Kesac, Kevinkor2, Kilo-Lima, Kingpin13, Kingturtle, Kintetsubuffalo, Klausness, Klingac,
Knotwrite, KoG Iceman, Koavf, Kobayashis, Korax1214, Krishvanth, Kruusamägi, Krystaleen, Kudret abi, Kuru, Kwamikagami, Kyle1278, Kylet, Kyorosuke, L Kensington, LAPS, La Pianista,
Lacrymocéphale, Latina Ashburg, Latitude0116, Launchballer, Laura S, Lax4mike, Lchiarav, Leafyplant, Lee J Haywood, Lee15482, Lefty, LemonTwinkle, Lesnail, Liastnir, Libcub, Lights,
Lironos, Locke Cole, Logdick, Lollipopluver415, Loopla, Luffyzors, Luk, LunchBox5181, M0rphzone, MCTales, MPF, Mabdul, MacMan2626, Macy, Maethordaer, Mahewa, Majorly,
Mandarax, Mani1, Marasama, Marauder40, Marek69, MarnetteD, Martarius, Mastershake phd, Mathel, Mathratio, Matt Deres, Mcmillin24, Mdebets, Mean as custard, MelSkunk,
MementoVivere, Meningitis888, Mephistophelian, Merovingian, Michel BUZE, Mike Rosoft, Mike902, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mindmatrix, Minesweeper.007, MiracleMat, Mit-aizama, Mitchazenia,
Mjquinn id, Mlpearc, Modernist, Monsieurdl, Monster boy1, Montana's Defender, Moonriddengirl, Moony103, Morwen, MrDolomite, Mtking, Mxn, My76Strat, Mário, N5iln, NHJG,
NHRHS2010, Naep1, Naggers, Nahum Reduta, Nakon, Nameneko, Naryathegreat, Nascar1996, NawlinWiki, NellieBly, Nemen32, Nepfabcd, Nesnad, Netalarm, Nevin.williams, Nezzadar,
Nguyenthephuc, Nightscream, Nikkikm, Nkocharh, Noah22, Noleander, Norbu, Notinasnaid, Nuberfuzzy, OlEnglish, Oliver202, Oms1005, Onorem, Orangemike, Orphan Wiki, Oxymoron83,
PPWen, PacMan1980, Paepaok, PaleAqua, Pan Camel, ParisianBlade, Patkwok, Pax85, Peterxdeng, Phil Boswell, Phil Bridger, Philip Trueman, Picaroon, Pinethicket, Pip2andahalf, Pjhofmann,
Plastikspork, Poeloq, Polyguy05, Ppanzini, Praefectorian, ProtoFire, Psychonaut, Pufferfish101, Puffin, Puppy132, Pyfan, Qajar, Quantumobserver, QuartierLatin1968, Quiddity, Qxz,
RAZOR1911xSKiDROWotp, RL0919, Radioactive afikomen, Ramaksoud2000, Rambam rashi, Rbanzai, Rdococ, Reaper Eternal, Recognizance, Redfarmer, Redvers, Renzut, Retiono Virginian,
RexNL, Rholton, Rich Farmbrough, Richard-of-Earth, RichardF, Rigadoun, Riggr Mortis, Rikkus, Rjwilmsi, Rlendog, Rlevse, Roberta F., Rochelimit, Roland Richter, RoseCherry, Rowman,
RoyLeban, Rrburke, Rreagan007, Rror, Rsduhamel, Ruby Emo, Ryan Taylor, Ryanmcdaniel, Ryulong, SJP, SRFFGT, Saccerzd, Saimhe, Saturday, Scarce, Scmaruthi, ScottAlanHill, Scribble
Monkey, Secondarywaltz, Secret Saturdays, Shanes, Shazzam32, Shd, Shell Kinney, Shervinemami, Shosetsuka, Shyamthirumalai, Siddhant, Sigma 7, Silivrenion, SilverPhoenix99,
Simtropolitan, Sionus, Skweltch, SkyWalker, Slightsmile, Slon02, Slposey, Smurrayinchester, Socal gal at heart, Some jerk on the Internet, Someoneinmyheadbutit'snotme, Spanglej, Sphilbrick,
Splash, SportsMaster, Squirepants101, Srleffler, Ssbbplayer, Starfarmer, Steven Zhang, Storm Rider, Strand, Strdst grl, SuperHamster, Sven Manguard, Swmnjen3, Synchronism, TAnthony,
THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TRLIJC19, TUF-KAT, Tajik24, Tassedethe, Tbhotch, TeaDrinker, Tempodivalse, TenPoundHammer, The Banner, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Midna, The
Missing Piece, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Tom, The editor1, Thecheesykid, Theme97, Thingg, This, that and the other, Thisisborin9, Thisisbossi, Thomas Kelly, Thue, Thumperward,
TiagoTiago, Tide rolls, Tnxman307, ToastyMallows, Tobias Bergemann, Toddst1, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tommy2010, Tonkun, Tonywalton, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Trialsanderrors, Trivialist,
Troyheidenberg, True Pagan Warrior, Trusilver, TutterMouse, Tyrol5, UU, Uncle Dick, Usb10, Useight, Utcursch, VMS Mosaic, Valyrd, Vanished user 39948282, Varlaam, Vectro,
Vegaswikian, Velella, Verbalise, Verdy p, VeronicaVericuta, Vicarious, Vishvax, Voxii, WLU, Waldir, Wavelength, Waymorecreative, Wayne Miller, Wayne Slam, Wetman, WiKinny,
Wiikipedian, WikHead, Wiki alf, Wiki13, WikiY, Wikipelli, Wildoneshelper, WillDarlock, Willking1979, Wknight94, Wolfforlife40, Wop67, Woudloper, Wpell, Wtmitchell, Wzwz, Xinyu,
Xkonax, Xyzzy n, Yacht, Yaris678, Yun-Yuuzhan (lost password), Yurymik, ZaferXYZ, Zappa711, Zaui, Zemaniac, Zephyr103, Zhatt, Zoe, Zombie Hunter Smurf, Zondor, ZooFari, Zzyzx11,
Ødipus sic, Саша Стефановић, 金 肅, 3348 anonymous edits

Web colors  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=533774725  Contributors: 4myself4, A000040, ABF, Aapo Laitinen, AerisMTW, Akuchling, Alan Liefting, AlistairMcMillan,
Alsandro, Altermike, Andrejj, Andretheseal, AndrewWTaylor, Andrewaskew, Andrewpmk, Angelo, Angr, Anonymous Dissident, Apoc2400, Arbitrarily0, Army1987, Arnon Chaffin,
Ashishbhatnagar72, Atomician, AussieLegend, Ayrton Prost, Badgernet, Bewildebeast, Bjankuloski06en, Bloodpack, Blow of Light, Bluedenim, Bobo192, Boing! said Zebedee, BorgQueen,
Btipling, CUSENZA Mario, CattleGirl, Causesobad, CesarB, Chris the speller, ChristTrekker, Christopher Parham, CloudStrife, Codingmasters, CoyneT, Crissov, Crohnie, Ctachme, CyberSkull,
Cyp, Damian Yerrick, Damieng, Danthorpe2002, Daveswagon, David Biddulph, David Gerard, David Kernow, Dbreakey, Den fjättrade ankan, Denelson83, Denisutku, Deryck Chan, Dicklyon,
Discospinster, Donarreiskoffer, DougsTech*com, Dxhtml, Dysprosia, Ed g2s, Edgepedia, Edokter, Efa, ElTchanggo, Eleveneleven, Ellywa, Elphion, Escape Orbit, Excirial, EyeSerene, Fabartus,
Fanghong, Farsouth, FastLizard4, Fieldday-sunday, Finbarr Saunders, Flashmorbid, Florian Blaschke, Fluffernutter, Franci.kapel, Fresheneesz, FuriousFreddy, Furrykef, G Allegre, Gelo71, Geni,
Giftlite, GizmoRay, Glenn L, Gobonobo, Googlere, Gordeonbleu, Groovybreadstick, Gus Polly, Gwillhickers, Hadal, HaeB, Hang Li Po, HappyLogolover2011, Hardwick, Hawky, Heegoop,
Henry Flower, HereToHelp, Heron, Hightilidie, Hja, Hopper-blackrose, Hossen27, Howard the Duck, Hu12, Husond, Hyad, Hydrargyrum, ILovePlankton, Ian Fieggen, Iketsi, Indefatigable,
Ipatrol, Itsyourmom, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JECompton, JWB, Jamelan, JanineR, Janke, Jeromesyroyal, Jfd34, Jfioeawfjdls453, Jhenderson777, Jim1138, Jimp, Jleedev, Jmh, Jmlk17, Jonathan W,
Jonwoolley, Jor, Jsjunkie, Jtneill, Keraunos, Kim Bruning, Kjoonlee, Ksy92003, KyleVD, LOL, La Pianista, Launchballer, Leandrod, Lights, Linguisticsstud, Loadmaster, Logoorange,
Lowellian, Lugia2453, Luk, LunaticBeatnik, M.O.X, Macedonian, Macha Panta, Madpilot, Makandal14, Mani1, Manop, Maquiguy, Martarius, MattGiuca, MaxHund, MeStinkBAD, Menchi,
Mepolypse, MetaManFromTomorrow, Mindmatrix, Mobykanuno, Monster boy1, MonteShaffer, Moondyne, Moopstick, Mouse is back, Mr.Z-man, MrDolomite, MrOllie, Ms2ger, Mulad,
Mun206, Mutinus, NantonosAedui, Nein, NekoDaemon, NewEnglandYankee, Nickshanks, Nigelj, Nikola Smolenski, Nilfanion, Nokya, Notinasnaid, Nwwaew, Oaktwig, OhanaUnited,
Ohnoitsjamie, OlEnglish, Oliver H, Omniplex, PC78, PaleAqua, Patrick, Paul A, Paul August, Pax:Vobiscum, Pejno Simono, Pengo, Perey, Peruvianllama, Phil Boswell, PhilHibbs, Philip
Trueman, Pi is 3.14159, Pipatron, Pixeltoo, Pixi, PizzaMargherita, Pnm, PointedEars, Pomte, PopeButtercockXIV, Power Slave, Prodego, Psychonaut, Quiddity, Quinxorin, R'n'B, Rbucci,
Rebornsoldier, Red Slash, Reddi, Redrose64, Rehnn83, Reisio, Renice, RespekT, Ricardo Cancho Niemietz, Rich Farmbrough, Richard D. LeCour, Richard75, RichardF, Rick Cooper, RobertG,
Robwingfield, Ropers, RoyBoy, Ruakh, Rursus, Salam32, Samw, Scapler, Scjessey, Seb az86556, Secondarywaltz, Seidenstud, Sentience, Serevinus, Shadowjams, Shanes, Shepazu, Signalhead,
Simetrical, SimonDeDanser, Smalljim, Sodaplayer, Sophie, StaticGull, Stephenj642, Stormie823, Strcat, Sumirp, SunCountryGuy01, Superm401, Svick, Swagger28, Syp, Takai003,
TastyPoutine, Tgeairn, The Anome, The Illusive Man, The Mysterious El Willstro, The Thing That Should Not Be, The editor1, Tholly, Tilankar, Timothy Clemans, Trainra, Traxs7, Tristanb,
Turlo Lomon, Twentydragon, UU, Uannis, Ugur Basak, VMS Mosaic, Verdy p, Victor Engel, Vipinhari, W1tgf, WODUP, Waldir, Wapcaplet, Warlordwolf, Wayne InSane (Of RTC), Wayne
Slam, Werdan7, Wertuose, WhatamIdoing, Whytecypress, Wikitonic, XaeL, Xiong, Ybenharim, Yugsdrawkcabeht, Zad68, ZimZalaBim, Zoicon5, Zollerriia, Zundark, 484 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 103

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Colouring pencils.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colouring_pencils.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: MichaelMaggs
Image:Rendered Spectrum.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rendered_Spectrum.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Spigget
File:Optical grey squares orange brown.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Optical_grey_squares_orange_brown.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
user:JunCTionS (based on source)
File:Cones SMJ2 E.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cones_SMJ2_E.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors:
Vanessaezekowitz at en.wikipedia / Later version uploaded by BenRG.
File:1Mcolors.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1Mcolors.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Janke
File:Ventral-dorsal streams.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported
 Contributors: 2003:6B:D0A:ED01:8CB9:33F4:76F8:4FF7, Javier Carro, Lokal Profil, Selket, Was a bee, 1 anonymous edits
File:Afterimage.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Afterimage.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Me (Stevo-88)
File:CIExy1931 fixed.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CIExy1931_fixed.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: CIExy1931.svg:
Sakurambo derivative work: BenRG (talk)
Image:Colorspace.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colorspace.png  License: Attribution  Contributors: Original uploader was Cpesacreta at en.wikipedia
File:RGB and CMYK comparison.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RGB_and_CMYK_comparison.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: RGB_CMYK_4.jpg:
Annette Shacklett derivative work: Marluxia.Kyoshu (talk)
Image:AdditiveColor.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AdditiveColor.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was SharkD at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Jacobolus at en.wikipedia.
Image:SubtractiveColor.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SubtractiveColor.svg  License: Public domain  Contributors: Original uploader was SharkD at en.wikipedia
Later version uploaded by Jacobolus, Dacium at en.wikipedia.
Image:GoetheFarbkreis.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GoetheFarbkreis.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Goethe, via Prof. Dr. Hans Irtel
Image:Munsell-system.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Munsell-system.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Jacobolus,
Mahlum, WikipediaMaster, 1 anonymous edits
File:Chevreul's RYB chromatic diagram.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chevreul's_RYB_chromatic_diagram.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Benjamin Stillman after Chevreul
Image:Color star-en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Color_star-en.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Al2
Image:Black-body-in-mireds-reversed.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Black-body-in-mireds-reversed.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adoniscik
Image:J C Maxwell with top.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:J_C_Maxwell_with_top.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Dicklyon at
en.wikipedia
Image:Tartan Ribbon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tartan_Ribbon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: James Clerk Maxwell (original photographic slides)
; scan by User:Janke.
Image:RGB illumination.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RGB_illumination.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: en:User:Bb3cxv
Image:Duhauron1877.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Duhauron1877.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Louis Ducos du Hauron (1837 – 1920)
Image:BYR color wheel.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BYR_color_wheel.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was
Sakurambo at en.wikipedia
File:Prisme.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prisme.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adoniscik, Ranveig, Teebeutel, W!B:
File:Additive color mixing simulated.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Additive_color_mixing_simulated.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Pko
File:SubtractiveColorMixing.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SubtractiveColorMixing.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Adoniscik,
Mormegil, Pamri, Quark67, 1 anonymous edits
Image:CRT phosphors.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CRT_phosphors.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was
Deglr6328 at en.wikipedia
File:RGB laser.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RGB_laser.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:ΒΟΥ
Image:CIE1931xy sRGB.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CIE1931xy_sRGB.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BenRG
Image:CIE1931xy CIERGB.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CIE1931xy_CIERGB.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BenRG
Image:Surfing in Hawaii unmodified.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Surfing_in_Hawaii_unmodified.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cpl. Megan L.
Stiner, sRGB profile added by Jacob Rus
Image:Surfing in Hawaii+50 LCh chroma.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Surfing_in_Hawaii+50_LCh_chroma.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cpl.
Megan L. Stiner, modified by Jacob Rus
Image:Surfing in Hawaii+50 saturation.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Surfing_in_Hawaii+50_saturation.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cpl. Megan
L. Stiner, modified by Dick Lyon and Jacob Rus
Image:Surfing in Hawaii L* channel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Surfing_in_Hawaii_L*_channel.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cpl. Megan L.
Stiner, sRGB profile added by Jacob Rus
Image:saturationdemo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saturationdemo.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lefty (2006-03-04), inspired by Coyne Tibbets
(CoyneT), 03/18/2005
Image:Excitation Purity.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Excitation_Purity.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:
adoniscik
Image:Dichromatism.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dichromatism.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Krefts
Image:HueScale.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HueScale.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:ru:User:Kalan
Image:Hue shift six photoshop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hue_shift_six_photoshop.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Akinom,
Iketsi, Roke, WikipediaMaster
Image:Hue.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hue.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. National Park Service (raw image), modified by en:user:(3ucky(3all
Image:HSV cone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HSV_cone.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Created by Wapcaplet
Image:HSV-RGB-comparison.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HSV-RGB-comparison.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported
 Contributors: en:user:Goffrie
Image:tint-tone-shade.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tint-tone-shade.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jacobolus
Image:Kleurenovergang van zwart naar blauw.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kleurenovergang_van_zwart_naar_blauw.png  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Original uploader was Wilinckx at nl.wikipedia
Image:HSLSphere.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HSLSphere.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: SharkD
Image:ColorValue.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ColorValue.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: ColorValue.jpg: Mahlum derivative
work: McSush (talk)
Image:Lightness approximations.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lightness_approximations.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: Lovibond
File:Opponent colors.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Opponent_colors.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:
User:Spooky
Image:colordove.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colordove.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Yubarkan
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 104

File:Color perception.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Color_perception.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wyatt915

File:yelue.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yelue.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wyatt915
File:Filterstef.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Filterstef.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User Stefan.lila on sv.wikipedia
File:Modern Color Vision Model.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Modern_Color_Vision_Model.svg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: User:X-Fi6
File:Cone-fundamentals-with-srgb-spectrum.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cone-fundamentals-with-srgb-spectrum.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
BenRG
File:Spectrum locus 12.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spectrum_locus_12.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: KoenB
File:Eyesensitivity.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eyesensitivity.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Skatebiker at en.wikipedia
File:Rainbow comparison.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rainbow_comparison.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:zarnivop
File:Cie Chart with sRGB gamut by spigget.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cie_Chart_with_sRGB_gamut_by_spigget.png  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Spigget
Image:Ventral-dorsal streams.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported
 Contributors: 2003:6B:D0A:ED01:8CB9:33F4:76F8:4FF7, Javier Carro, Lokal Profil, Selket, Was a bee, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Eye Line of sight.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eye_Line_of_sight.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hans-Werner34, Saibo, Torsch, Vsop.de, 1
anonymous edits
Image:Vision 2 secondes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vision_2_secondes.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Hans-Werner Hunziker
License 105

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/