Experiment 1 Introduction

Mechanical Engineering Department
Internal Combustion Lab. (0620520) Eng. Azad F. Otoum
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
1.Introduction
1. ) AIM : Study of IC Engine models

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an
oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of
the high temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies
force to a movable component of the engine( pistons) by moving it over a distance, generate useful
mechanical energy.
All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic chemical process of combustion . The
reaction of a fuel , typically with oxygen from the air. The combustion process typically results in
the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide
and other chemicals at very high temperature, the temperature reached is determined by the
chemical make up of the fuel and oxidizers.
The principle behind any reciprocating internal combustion engine: If you put a tiny amount of
high-energy fuel (like gasoline) in a small, enclosed space and ignite it, an incredible amount of
energy is released in the form of expanding gas.
Classification of I.C. Engines:

Internal combustion engines may be classified as given below:
1. According to cycle of operation:
• Two-stroke cycle engines
• Four-stroke cycle engines
2. According to cycle of combustion:
• Otto cycle engine
• Diesel cycle engine
• Dual-combustion
3. According to the fuel employed and the method of fuel supply to the engine cylinder:
• Petrol engine
• Diesel engine
•Oil, Gas engine
1|Page
4. According to method of ignition:

• Spark ignition (S.L) engine
• Compression ignition (C.I.) engine
5. According to method of cooling the cylinder:
• Air-cooled engine
• Water-cooled engine
6. According to number of cylinders:
• Single cylinder engine
• Multi-cylinder engine
Different Parts of I.C. Engines :

1. Cylinder 2. Cylinder head
3. Piston 4. Piston rings
5. Gudgeon pin 6. Connecting rod
7. Crankshaft 8. Crank
9. Engine bearing 10. Crank case
11. Flywheel 12. Governor
13. Valves and valve operating mechanism
Parts for Petrol Engines Only:

1. Spark plugs
2. Carburetor
3. Fuel pump
Parts for Diesel Engine Only:
1. Fuel pump
2. Injector
2|Page
Figure 1
3|Page
2.) AIM : Study of working of four stroke petrol engine and four stroke diesel engine with the help of cut
section models.
FOUR-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES
 Four Stroke Petrol engine

 Four Stroke Diesel engine
Four Stroke Petrol engine :

The four stroke-cycles refers to its use in petrol engines, gas engines, light, oil engine and heavy oil
engines in which the mixture of air fuel are drawn in the engine cylinder. Since ignition in these engines is
due to a spark, therefore they are also called spark ignition engines.
Figure 2
SUCTION STROKE: In this Stroke the inlet valve opens and proportionate fuel-air mixture is sucked in
the engine cylinder. Thus the piston moves from top dead centre (T.D.C.) to bottom dead centre (B.D.C.).
The exhaust valve remains closed through out the stroke.
COMPRESSION STROKE: In this stroke both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during the
stroke. The piston moves towards (T.D.C.) and compresses the enclosed fuel-air mixture drawn. Just before
the end of this stroke the operating
plug initiates a spark which ignites the mixture and combustion takes place at constant pressure.
POWER STROKE OR EXPANSION STROKE: In this stroke both the valves remain closed during the
start of this stroke but when the piston just reaches the B.D.C. the exhaust valve opens. When the mixture is
ignited by the spark plug the hot gases are produced which drive or throw the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C.
and thus the work is obtained in this stroke.
4|Page
EXHAUST STROKE: This is the last stroke of the cycle. Here the gases from which the work has been
collected become useless after the completion of the expansion stroke and are made to escape through
exhaust valve to the atmosphere. This removal of gas is accomplished during this stroke. The piston moves
from B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the exhaust gases are driven out of the engine cylinder; this is also called
SCAVENGING.
Figure 3 (Theoretical P-V diagram of a four-stroke engine)
Four Stroke Diesel engine:
Figure 4
SUCTION STROKE: With the movement of the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C. during this stroke, the
inlet valve opens and the air at atmospheric pressure is drawn inside the engine cylinder; the exhaust valve
however remains closed. This operation is represented by the line 5-1
COMPRESSION STROKE: The air drawn at atmospheric pressure during the suction stroke is
compressed to high pressure and temperature as the piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. Both the inlet and
exhaust valves do not open during any part of this stroke. This operation is represented by 1-2
POWER STROKE OR EXPANSION STROKE: As the piston starts moving from T.D.C to B.D.C,
the quantity of fuel is injected into the hot compressed air in fine sprays by the fuel injector and it (fuel)
starts burning at constant pressure shown by the line 2-3.
At the point 3 fuel supply is cut off. The fuel is injected at the end of compression stroke but in actual
5|Page
practice the ignition of the fuel starts before the end of the compression stroke. The hot gases of the cylinder
expand adiabatically to point 4. Thus doing work on the piston.
EXHAUST STROKE: The piston moves from the B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the exhaust gases escape to the
atmosphere through the exhaust valve. When the piston reaches the T.D.C. the exhaust valve closes and the
cycle is completed. This stroke is represented by the line 1-5.
Figure 5 (Theoretical p- V diagram of a four-stroke Diesel Engine)
6|Page
3.)AIM : Study of working of two stroke petrol and two stroke diesel engine with the help of
cut section models.
TWO-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES

 Two Stroke Petrol engine
 Two Stroke Diesel engine
TWO STROKE ENGINES

In this engine suction and exhaust strokes are eliminated. Here instead of valves, ports are used. The exhaust
gases are driven out from engine cylinder by the fresh charge of fuel entering the cylinder nearly at the end
of the working stroke.
A two-stroke petrol engine (used in scooters, motor cycles etc.).
The cylinder L is connected to a closed crank chamber C.C. During the upward stroke of the piston M, the
gases in L are compressed and at the same time fresh air and fuel (petrol) mixture enters the crank chamber
through the valve V.
Figure 6
When the piston moves downwards, V closes and the mixture in the crank chamber is compressed the
piston is moving upwards and is compressing an explosive change which has previously been supplied to L.
Ignition takes place at the end of the stroke. The piston then travels downwards due to expansion of the
gases and near the end of this stroke the piston uncovers the exhaust port (E.P.) and the burnt exhaust gases
escape through this port.
The transfer port (T.P.) then is uncovered immediately, and the compressed charge from the crank chamber
flows into the cylinder and is deflected upwards by the hump provided on the head of the piston.
7|Page
It may be noted that the incoming air-petrol mixture helps the removal of gases from the engine-cylinder; if,
in case these exhaust gases do not leave the cylinder, the fresh charge gets diluted and efficiency of the
engine will decrease.
The piston then again starts moving from B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the charge gets compressed when E.P.
(exhaust port) and T.P. are covered by the piston; thus the cycle is repeated.
Figure 7
8|Page
(4.) AIM : Study of cooling systems of an IC Engine (air cooling and water cooling)
A cooling system in an internal combustion engine that is used to maintain the various engine
components at temperatures conducive to long life and proper functioning.
Gas temperatures in the cylinders may reach 4500°F (2500°C). This is well above the melting point
of the engine parts in contact with the gases; therefore it is necessary to control the temperature of
the parts, or they will become too weak to carry the stresses resulting from gas pressure.
The lubricating oil film on the cylinder wall can fail because of chemical changes at wall
temperatures above about 400°F (200°C). Complete loss of power may take place if some spot in
the combustion space becomes sufficiently heated to ignite the charge prematurely on the
compression stroke.
A thin protective boundary of relatively stagnant gas of poor heat conductivity exists on the inner
surfaces of the combustion space. If the outer cylinder surface is placed in contact with a cool fluid
such as air or water and there is sufficient contact area to cause a rapid heat flow, the resulting drop
in temperature produced by the heat flow in the inside boundary layer keeps the temperature of the
cylinder wall much closer to the temperature of the coolant than to the temperature of the
combustion gas.
If the coolant is water, it is usually circulated by a pump through jackets surrounding the cylinders
and cylinder heads. The water is circulated fast enough to remove steam bubbles that may form
over local hot spots and to limit the water's temperature rise through the engine to about 15°F (8°C).
In most engines in automotive and industrial service, the warmed coolant is piped to an air-cooled
heat exchanger called a radiator (see figures below ). The airflow required to remove the heat from
the radiator is supplied by an electric or engine- driven fan; in automotive applications the airflow is
also supplied by the forward motion of the vehicle.
The engine and radiator may be separated and each placed in the optimum location, being
connected through piping. To prevent freezing, the water coolant is usually mixed with ethylene
glycol.
Engines are often cooled directly by a stream of air without the interposition of a liquid medium.
The heat-transfer coefficient between the cylinder and air stream is much less than with a liquid
coolant, so that the cylinder temperatures must be much greater than the air temperature to transfer
to the cooling air the heat flowing from the cylinder gases.
To remedy this situation and to reduce the cylinder wall temperature, the outside area of the
cylinder, which is in contact with the cooling air, is increased by fanning. The heat flows easily
from the cylinder metal into the base of the fins, and the great area of finned surface permits heat to
be transferred to the cooling air.
9|Page
Figure 8
Figure 9
10 | P a g e
KNOCKING (DETONATION)
Knocking (also knock, detonation, spark knock, pinging or pinking) in spark ignition
internal combustion engines occurs when combustion of some of the air/fuel mixture
in the cylinder does not result from propagation of the flame front ignited by the spark
plug, but one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode outside the envelope of the
normal combustion front. The fuel-air charge is meant to be ignited by the spark plug
only, and at a precise point in the piston's stroke. Knock occurs when the peak of the
combustion process no longer occurs at the optimum moment for the four-stroke
cycle. The shock wave creates the characteristic metallic "pinging" sound, and
cylinder pressure increases dramatically. Effects of engine knocking range from
inconsequential to completely destructive.
Knocking should not be confused with pre-ignition—they are two separate events.
However, pre-ignition can be followed by knocking.
Normal and Abnormal Combustion

Usually, normal combustion should begin with the ideal blend of fuel and air. The ignition
process of the mixture should begin effortlessly and progressively so that the utmost
quantity of pressure can be produced just as the piston travels downward after getting to the
top dead center (TDC). This leads to the production of the most effective engine
performance.
Alternatively, abnormal combustion upsets the effortless process through the creation of a
second ignition cycle which may be created before or after the regular cycle that a spark
plug produced. You will hear a knock or pink sound as the second cycle expresses itself.
Abnormal combustion has the capacity of blowing the head gasket, damaging a valve,
cracking the combustion chamber or cylinder or blowing a hole in the pistol.
Detonation can be prevented by any or all of the following techniques:
 the use of a fuel with high octane rating, which increases the combustion
temperature of the fuel and reduces the proclivity to detonate
 enriching the air–fuel ratio which alters the chemical reactions during combustion,
reduces the combustion temperature and increases the margin above detonation
 reducing peak cylinder pressure
 decreasing the manifold pressure by reducing the throttle opening or boost
pressure
 reducing the load on the engine
 retarding (reduce) ignition timing
11 | P a g e
Knocking is more or less unavoidable in diesel engines, where fuel is injected into
highly compressed air towards the end of the compression stroke. There is a short lag
between the fuel being injected and combustion starting. By this time there is already a
quantity of fuel in the combustion chamber which will ignite first in areas of greater
oxygen density prior to the combustion of the complete charge. This sudden increase in
pressure and temperature causes the distinctive diesel 'knock' or 'clatter', some of which
must be allowed for in the engine design.
Careful design of the injector pump, fuel injector, combustion chamber, piston crown
and cylinder head can reduce knocking greatly, and modern engines using electronic
common rail injection have very low levels of knock. Engines using indirect injection
generally have lower levels of knock than direct injection engine, due to the greater
dispersal of oxygen in the combustion chamber and lower injection pressures providing
a more complete mixing of fuel and air. Diesels actually do not suffer exactly the same
"knock" as gasoline engines since the cause is known to be only the very fast rate of
pressure rise, not unstable combustion. Diesel fuels are actually very prone to knock in
gasoline engines but in the diesel engine there is no time for knock to occur because the
fuel is only oxidized during the expansion cycle. In the gasoline engine the fuel is
slowly oxidizing all the time while it is being compressed before the spark. This allows
for changes to occur in the structure/makeup of the molecules before the very critical
period of high temp/pressure
What causes engine knock

1- Engine Overheating
Engine overheating can lead to abnormal combustion and it is also possible for overheating
to be triggered in so many ways. You should inspect the coolant level as well as radiator
for clogging.
The operation of the fan cooling the engine should be verified and antifreeze should be
replaced in accordance to the manufacturer’s schedule. You can use the repair manual of
your vehicle to properly check the system if any overheating is noticed.
2- Ignition Timing Too Advanced
You should inspect the ignition timing of your vehicle in accordance with its repair
manual. If your manual is lost or you don’t have at all, you can purchase a cheap
aftermarket manual.
If the engine comes with a distributor, you can try to adjust its timing by disengaging and
turning the distributor around. On state-of-the-art vehicle engines with OBD II systems,
you should investigate if the sensors controlling ignition timing require replacements.
12 | P a g e
3- Carbon Buildup
Carbon deposit can be caused by the use of engine oil containing a greater weight than the
one suggested by the manufacturer. It can also be brought about when you use fuel of low
quality or drive the engine lower than normal operating temperature or you are used to
intermittent short trips.
You should inspect the spark plug one by one and if you discover dirty deposits around their
electrodes, it may be an indication that there is a carbon build up on the valves and pistons. You
can use a flashlight to peek into the spark hole, even though this is very hard to do if you don’t
have an endoscope camera.
If you are interested in decarburizing the chamber, you can use Sea foam or homogenous
products. This will help you to clean inner part of the chamber, cylinder, fuel injectors and
intake manifold.
4- Low-Octane Fuel
If you’re using low-octane fuel, you will be giving problems to your engine. A lot of
manufacturers produce fuel that have been blended with anti knock additives so that
gasoline’s combustion properties will be lowered in order to guard against engine knock.
Octane rating refers to the ability of a particular brand of gasoline to prevent knocking. The
higher the rating, the better resistance will be provided against knocking. For example, fuel
rated as 87 will not produce better knocking resistance as one rated as 91.
It does not mean that if you get high octane fuel, you are very special. It is advisable to use high-
octane fuel for high-compression engines and the lower version for low-compression engines.
In many cases, you can go for a higher octane fuel than the one suggested by the manufacturer
and this will serve as a preventive action for your engine. But it is not advisable to use a lower
octane fuel than the one recommended by your manufacturer so that you don’t knock your
engine.
5- Incorrect Spark Plugs

Spark plugs come in two ratings, they either be rated as hot or cold. The ability of the plug
to transfer heat from the combustion chamber to the cooling system remains their vital
classification criterion.
The insulator of a hot plug has a larger and longer diameter. Its rate of heat transfer is not
as fast as compared to a code plug and this helps in clearing away deposits that may want
to build up on the plug.
A cold spark plug will ensure that heat is transferred from the engine into the cooling
system faster so that pre-ignition and overheating will be prevented. It is very important
for you to use the spark plug suggested by your manufacturer in order to prevent engine
knock.
6- Exhaust Backpressure
One of the common problems with exhaust systems is high back pressure. This is caused due to
clogged catalytic converter, exhaust pipe or muffler. Exhaust back pressure formation is usually
caused by a clogged converter. This will hinder engine airflow making the engine to work at a
high temperature and be deprived of power which will eventually lead to knocking.
13 | P a g e
In order to inspect the exhaust system so that you will be able to discover any high pressure, you
can lift the front of your car and place it on your jack stand. The converter should then be tapped
with the aid of a rubber mallet and if it jiggles, it is an indication that the catalyst material is
reducing to pieces. You can also use a vacuum gauge to check high back pressure.
7- Vacuum Leaks
Solenoids, actuator and switches in the engine are operated by vehicle emission systems
through vacuum. For instance, the manifold absolute pressure (MAP), EGR valve, sensor,
purge valve, positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) valve as well as other components may
be operated by vacuum.
When these components experience vacuum leaks, it can lead to spark pinging or
knocking. You should inspect these systems’ vacuum hoses for loose connections as well
as damage.
14 | P a g e
15 | P a g e
BASIC TERMINOLOGY:
The following terms and abbreviations are commonly used in engine technology, they should be
learned to assure maximum understanding in the laboratory:
 Spark Ignition (SI): An engine in which the combustion process in each cycle is started by
use of a spark plug.
 Compression Ignition (CI): An engine in which the combustion process starts when the air-
fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by the
high compression. CI engines are often called Diesel Engines, especially in the non-technical
community.
16 | P a g e
Internal Combustion Lab. (0620520) Eng. Azad F.
Otoum
 Top-Dead-Center (TDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest point away
from the crankshaft. Top because this position is at the top of the most engines (not always),
and dead because the piston stops at this point.
 Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the point closest to the
crankshaft.
 Bore: Diameter of the cylinder or the diameter of the piston face, which is the same minus a
very small clearance.
 Stroke: Movement distance of the piston from one extreme position to other: TDC to BDC
or BDC to TDC.
 Clearance Volume: Minimum volume in the combustion chamber with piston at TDC.
 Displacement or Displacement Volume: Volume displaced by the piston as it travels
through one stroke. Displacement can be given for one cylinder or for the entire engine.
Some times it is called Swept Volume.
 Ignition Delay (ID): Time interval between ignition initiation and the actual start of
combustion. Some times it is called Ignition Timing.
 Air-Fuel Ratio (AF): Ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel input into engine.
 Fuel- Air Ratio (FA): Ratio of mass of fuel to mass of air input into engine.
 Brake Maximum Torque (BMT): Speed at which maximum torque occurs.
 Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC): Amount of energy observed from the fuel being
combusted in the engine.
17 | P a g e

Experiment 1 Introduction

Uploaded by

Experiment 1 Introduction

Uploaded by

Mechanical Engineering Department

Internal Combustion Lab. (0620520) Eng. Azad F. Otoum

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1. ) AIM : Study of IC Engine models

Classification of I.C. Engines:

4. According to method of ignition:

Different Parts of I.C. Engines :

Parts for Petrol Engines Only:

FOUR-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES

 Four Stroke Petrol engine

Four Stroke Petrol engine :

Figure 3 (Theoretical P-V diagram of a four-stroke engine)

Four Stroke Diesel engine:

Figure 5 (Theoretical p- V diagram of a four-stroke Diesel Engine)

TWO-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES

TWO STROKE ENGINES

Normal and Abnormal Combustion

Detonation can be prevented by any or all of the following techniques:

What causes engine knock

5- Incorrect Spark Plugs

You might also like