Practical Counterpoint PDF

Music Theory Skills
Practical
Counterpoint
By Victoria Williams BA Mus AmusTCL
Copyright © 2017 Victoria Williams
All rights reserved.
1st Edition
CONTENTS
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 4
About the Author ................................................................................................................................... 4
What is Counterpoint? ........................................................................................................................... 5
What makes Music Contrapuntal? .................................................................................................... 5
How Counterpoint Developed ........................................................................................................... 6
Species Counterpoint ......................................................................................................................... 6
What will you learn in this Course ..................................................................................................... 7
Preparation – What You Need to Know Before you Start ..................................................................... 8
Revision of Intervals ........................................................................................................................... 8
Consonance and Dissonance ............................................................................................................. 9
Roman Numeral System .................................................................................................................. 10
Constructing a Single Melodic Line ...................................................................................................... 12
Phrase Units ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Melodic Curve & Peak ...................................................................................................................... 13
Melodic Intervals ............................................................................................................................. 13
Leaps & Steps ................................................................................................................................... 13
Leading Notes .................................................................................................................................. 14
Pitch location & Range ..................................................................................................................... 14
Implied Harmony ............................................................................................................................. 15
Harmonic Progressions (Root Movement) ...................................................................................... 17
Harmonic Rhythm ............................................................................................................................ 18
Exercises – Writing a Single Line Melody ......................................................................................... 19
Two-Part Counterpoint ........................................................................................................................ 21
Two-Part Counterpoint: Dealing with the Harmony ........................................................................ 21
Two-part Implied Harmony.............................................................................................................. 22
Typical Inversions of the Triad ......................................................................................................... 22
The Unison ....................................................................................................................................... 24
The Dominant 7th chord .................................................................................................................. 24
Contrary Motion and Perfect Intervals ............................................................................................ 26
Consecutive Perfect Intervals .......................................................................................................... 27
Cadences .......................................................................................................................................... 28
Two-Part Counterpoint: Decorative Notes ...................................................................................... 30
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Two-Part Counterpoint: Independent Parts..................................................................................... 33
Things to Avoid ................................................................................................................................. 37
Writing Two-Part Counterpoint........................................................................................................ 39
Exercises – Writing 2-Part Counterpoint .......................................................................................... 45
Three- and Four-Part Counterpoint...................................................................................................... 48
Doubling & Omission in Chords ........................................................................................................ 48
Notation............................................................................................................................................ 50
Exercises – Writing 3- and 4-Part Counterpoint ............................................................................... 52
Contrapuntal Devices ........................................................................................................................... 53
Imitation & Canon ............................................................................................................................ 53
Sequence .......................................................................................................................................... 53
Augmentation ................................................................................................................................... 54
Diminution ........................................................................................................................................ 55
Crossing Parts ................................................................................................................................... 56
Exercises – Contrapuntal Devices ..................................................................................................... 57
Invertible Counterpoint ........................................................................................................................ 59
Distance of Inversion ........................................................................................................................ 60
Exercises – Writing Invertible Counterpoint .................................................................................... 63
Fugue .................................................................................................................................................... 65
Structure of the Fugue ..................................................................................................................... 65
Writing Fugues.................................................................................................................................. 67
Exercises – Writing Fugues ............................................................................................................... 71
Appendix A – Musical Examples ........................................................................................................... 73
Further Study Resources ...................................................................................................................... 80
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this course on counterpoint!
This book aims to help you understand how counterpoint works in a practical sense, and to provide you
with guidelines and methods to enable you to create your own contrapuntal music.
We will start with a brief overview of the history of counterpoint, and then revise some of the basics of
music theory which are essential background knowledge before you begin.
We will then examine what makes a single-line melody effective, so that we can apply those principles
to multiple-voice writing.
After this, we will look in detail at how two parts are combined in contrapuntal writing, followed by a
shorter section on writing three- and four-part music.
Practice exercises are provided, and it is recommended that you work through as many as you can. It is
also important to listen to all the musical examples, including your own answers to the exercises.
The accompanying video course includes demonstrations of the techniques in this book, as well as audio
of all the musical examples.
A bound, printed copy of this book is available to purchase from: http://www.lulu.com/shop/victoria-

williams/practical-counterpoint/paperback/product-23350002.html
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Victoria Williams graduated with a BA Hons degree in Music from the University of Leeds, UK, in 1995,
where she specialised in notation and musicology. She also holds the AmusTCL diploma in music theory
from Trinity College London, with distinction. She lives in Cambridge, UK.
You can connect with Victoria Williams in the following ways:
www.mymusictheory.com
info@mymusictheory.com
www.facebook.com/mymusictheory
www.twitter.com/mymusictheory
https://www.youtube.com/user/musictheoryexpert
WHAT IS COUNTERPOINT?
WHAT MAKES MUSIC CONTRAPUNTAL?
Counterpoint is the art of weaving together independent melodies. It can be relatively simple, such
as a round like London’s Burning, where the same melody is sung at staggered intervals:
Or it can be more complicated, as in this Bach Fugue, where the same melody enters but is
transposed into a new key:
Or even more complex, where completely different melodies are set against one another, such as in
this excerpt from a Trio Sonata by Corelli:
© Victoria Williams 2017 5

HOW COUNTERPOINT DEVELOPED
The term “counterpoint” was first heard around 1300 AD. At first, counterpoint meant simply adding
a second part to a religious incantation song, or chant. Very early counterpoint parts were not
necessarily independent of each other - they often copied each other rhythmically:
Gradually, a rhythmically independent part became the preferred style, as in this 14th century
French song:
One of the greatest contrapuntal composers of the Renaissance age was Palestrina. His style was
copied by many composers, and became the basis for the most widely read text-book on
counterpoint: Gradus ad Parnassum, which was written by Johannes Fux in 1725 (i.e. actually during
the Classical era).
SPECIES COUNTERPOINT
Fux’s text-book teaches “Species Counterpoint”. This is an instructional method, which breaks down
counterpoint into small steps, so that the student can build his/her knowledge gradually. Species
counterpoint is still studied across the world by undergraduates on music degree courses, and was
the method that most of the “Classical” greats such as Mozart, Beethoven etc. studied in their day.
However, for the modern composer it has its limitations.
“Species counterpoint” teaches how to compose in the Renaissance or Palestrina style, but it does
not mention anything about Baroque or Bach style counterpoint, which is the style most of us are
more familiar with.
Renaissance counterpoint is:
 bound by strict rules

 modal (written in the old mode system such as “Dorian”, “Mixolydian” etc.)
 primarily melodic (the melody is considered more than harmony)
 based on a vocal style
6
In contrast, Baroque counterpoint is:
 much more relaxed regarding rules

 diatonic (using major/minor keys)
 both melodic and harmonic (the harmony is considered equally as important as the melody)
 vocal and instrumental
While is it certainly worthwhile studying species counterpoint, many find it a frustrating experience.
The rules laid down by Fux (and others) seem antiquated or irrelevant, as well as difficult to
remember, and at the end of the studying process, the student often still feels unable to actually
compose anything. It does however have a considerable historical interest, and is a very good way to
really get “inside” music, since it breaks down sound into very small units. It is a little like looking at
counterpoint under a microscope! For those who are interested, I have a separate course which
goes into species counterpoint in more detail.
WHAT WILL YOU LEARN IN THIS COURSE

In this course, we will begin with some revision of music theory concerning intervals, consonance
and dissonance – knowledge that is essential in order to understand counterpoint. If you have
studied music theory to an advanced level, you probably know most or all of this already, but it is
provided as a reference for those who might need it.
Since counterpoint is the intertwining of two or more separate melodies, we will then look at what
makes a good single line melody. Then we will explore how to combine two or three separate
melodies to make a contrapuntal piece.
We will also take a look at invertible counterpoint - counterpoint that also works when it is turned
upside down.

PREPARATION – WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW BEFORE YOU
START
REVISION OF INTERVALS
In counterpoint, you need to look at the relationship between notes both vertically (relative to
another voice which sounds at the same time) and horizontally (relative to the next note in the
same voice).
The distance between any two notes is described by number

as an interval.
 A vertical distance is called a harmonic interval and

 a horizontal distance is a melodic interval.
To find an interval’s number, count up the letter names

between both notes, starting from and including the lower
one. Intervals are described with ordinal numbers (2nd, 3rd,
4th and so on). The harmonic intervals here are:
A repetition of the same note is called a unison. A repetition of the same note but at eight notes
lower/higher is an octave.
Unison Octave
As well as a number, intervals also have a quality: perfect, major, minor, augmented or diminished.
Minor 2nd: a semitone (½ step) e.g. C#-D Major 2nd: a tone (whole step) e.g. C-D
Minor 3rd: begins the minor scale e.g. A-C Major 3rd: begins the major scale e.g. C-E
Perfect 4th: 2 tones and semitone e.g. F-Bb Perfect 5th: 3 tones and a semitone e.g. C-G
Minor 6th: opposite of a major 3rd e.g. E-C Major 6th: opposite of a minor 3rd e.g. C-A
Minor 7th: opposite of a major 2nd e.g. D-C Major 7th: opposite of a minor 2nd e.g. D-C#
A diminished interval is one semitone smaller than a perfect or minor interval e.g. A#-C is a dim 3rd.
An augmented interval is one semitone bigger than a perfect or major interval e.g. C-G# is an aug
5th.
An understanding of intervals is essential for understanding counterpoint – if you need more

revision, please see https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7vIb8MO3H8k.
8
CONSONANCE AND DISSONANCE
All intervals are classed as either consonant, or dissonant.
All harmonic (vertical) intervals belong to one of three groups:
1. Consonant perfect
2. Consonant imperfect
3. Dissonant
The perfect consonances are:
 Unison
 Perfect 5th
 Octave
The imperfect consonances are:
 3rd (major or minor)

 6th (major or minor)
The dissonant harmonic intervals are:
 2nd
 4th
 7th
 Diminished and augmented intervals
Intervals of more than an octave are called “compound intervals” and follow the
same guidelines as the non-compound version. For example, this C-G is a 12th,
or compound 5th, so it is a perfect consonance.
In this course, when a number is written between the staves, it shows the harmonic interval
between the two notes. The letter “p” is added to show a perfect consonance. Some examples:
The melodic (horizontal) intervals are classed differently – here, the 2nd and 4th are consonant.
 Melodic consonances: unison, 2nd, 3rd, p.4th, p.5th, 6th, octave.

 Melodic dissonances: 7th, augmented and diminished intervals.

ROMAN NUMERAL SYSTEM
This course uses the “extended Roman numeral” system for describing chords.
The Roman numerals from 1-7 are I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII.
 I = tonic chord
 II = supertonic chord
 III = mediant chord
 IV = subdominant chord
 V = dominant chord
 VI = submediant chord
 VII = leading note chord
Capital letters are used for chords which contain a major third above the root, i.e. major and
augmented chords. Lower case letters are used for chords which contain a minor third above the
root, i.e. minor and diminished chords.
Augmented chords are differentiated from major chords by the use of a + symbol, and diminished
chords are differentiated from minor chords by the use of a ° symbol.
Inversions are shown by the lower case letters a, b, c and d. (This is the UK system).
 a = root position
 b = first inversion
 c = second inversion
 d = third inversion (for four-note chords)
Numbers written after a Roman numeral are extra notes added on to the chord, for example the
7th. Chords (and added numbers) can be altered chromatically with accidentals, when necessary.
The following are some chords in C major:
Va = G major root position (root is the lowest note)
Vb = G major first inversion (third is the lowest note)
Vc = G major second inversion (fifth is the lowest note)
V7d = G7 third inversion (seventh is the lowest note)
Chords I (and i), V and IV (and iv) are called “primary chords” as they are important in fixing the key
of the music. The other chords are called “secondary chords”.
10
CHORDS IN MAJOR KEYS
The chords built on each degree of a major scale are as follows.
CHORDS IN MINOR KEYS

Due to the melodic minor scale variants, there are more possible chords in minor keys.

CONSTRUCTING A SINGLE MELODIC LINE
All melodies are, of course, different. But we can make some generalisations about the way
melodies from a particular era tend to be constructed, and use those generalisations as guidelines
for writing something in a similar style.
In doing this, we are not laying down “rules” – many pieces of music will not conform to the
generalisations we make - but the further a composition veers from the guidelines, the less it will
sound as though it fits the style.
Let’s take a typical Baroque melody from J.S. Bach’s Fugue XVI (from the Well Tempered Klavier
Book One), in order to illustrate some of the building blocks of melody.
PHRASE UNITS
The six bars above make up the “subject” of the fugue.
In a fugue, the “subject” is a statement of melody that is taken up by each voice in turn within the
fugue (with some modifications), but the word can also describe a complete phrase of music in any
style. You can think of it as a kind of “musical sentence”.
The subject is made up of smaller melodic units. Here, the first two units last for one bar each and
are divided by rests. The third unit is four bars long, and again it ends with a rest.
 Subjects can be of any length, but usually last for at least 4 bars.
 Subjects are often made up of smaller melodic units which can be of irregular lengths.
 Rests act as a kind of punctuation and help shape the melody.
12
MELODIC CURVE & PEAK
Melodic curve refers to the outline shape made by the notes in the melody. This melody spans two
clefs, so its curve is not immediately apparent, but if we squash the whole thing into the bass clef,
we can then see the shape of the curve of the melody:
This melody begins mid-range, then dips downwards for the first two or three bars. It then begins a
gradual climb upwards until the end, which is its highest point, or peak.
 The most common type of curve begins low or mid-range and then climbs.
 Less often, a melody might begin high and gradually descend.
 The peak is a point of climax where the melody reaches its highest pitch. Usually, the peak is
usually only reached once per melodic curve. Peaks can occur anywhere within the curve.
MELODIC INTERVALS
Here is a summary of the melodic intervals used in this subject:
Unisons: 0 Perf. 4ths: 1 6ths: 3
2nds: 30 Dim. 5ths: 1 7ths: 0
3rds: 4 Perf. 5ths: 0 8ves: 0
 The melodic interval which is used in the overwhelming majority is the 2nd (major or
minor).
 Most of the melody is constructed with consonant melodic intervals. (There is only one
dissonant interval here: G-C# in bar 5).
LEAPS & STEPS

An interval greater than a 2nd is classed as a “leap”. it is also known as “disjunct movement”. An
interval of a 2nd is classed as a “step” or “conjunct movement”. In the Bach Fugue, look at the
direction of the melody after each leap of a 3rd, 4th, dim 5th and 6th.
 It is more common to follow a leap with a step, than with another leap
 Two leaps in the same direction usually spell out a triad (e.g. E dim in bar 3 and D major in
bar 6)

LEADING NOTES
The 7th degree of the scale is called the leading note. In a minor key, it is raised by a semitone with
an accidental, in order to be a true leading note.
The leading note gets its name from the fact that it has a strong pull upwards by a semitone towards
to the tonic.
 The leading note is most often followed by the tonic one semitone higher (not in a different
octave).
 Sometimes there can be decorative notes between the leading note and tonic, but usually
this simply delays the entrance of the tonic which is still located a semitone higher.
Here for example, the F# leading note still eventually leads up to the G one semitone higher,
despite the E and D between them.
PITCH LOCATION & RANGE

Pitch location refers to whether a subject is generally high, medium or low in pitch.
Although an instrument might have a range of at least three octaves, in Baroque music (and
Classical), it is more usual for a subject to remain within one narrower pitch range, which we can
roughly classify as “low, middle or high”. It is not common for a single subject to extend to both
extremes of the instrument’s range.
On the other hand, the range of notes should not be very narrow, at the risk of your melody
becoming dull. A good rule of thumb is to remember that the 5-line stave was invented that way,
because it can hold the full range of a decent melody (without ledger lines) – that is, around an
octave and a 4th.
The choice of pitch location depends on the instrument used. String instruments have a rich,
sonorous low range, whereas with brass and woodwind instruments, the colour of the sound tends
to be weaker in the lowest range.
 Avoid using an extremely wide or narrow range of notes within a single subject.
 A range of about an octave and a 4th/5th is good.
14
IMPLIED HARMONY
Even with a single line of melody that has no accompaniment, the notes of the melody will fit with
an “implied harmony”. “Implied harmony” means the chords that the ear would expect, if there
were an accompaniment.
If a melody is written without any thought of implied harmony, it is likely that any or all of these
errors may happen:
 The melody sounds random, because the tonic of the key of the piece is difficult or
impossible to ascertain.
 The melody appears to be “standing still”, because the harmony is not changing fast
enough.
 The melody lacks interest, because the variety of implied chords is limited.
Notes which fall on the beat will normally be interpreted by the ear as chord notes.
Notes which fall on the off-beat may or may not fit with the chord:
 Notes which are more than one step (disjunct) from the previous chord note will normally
also be chord notes in the same chord.
 Notes which are just one step away (conjunct) are decorative in nature, and do not belong
to the chord.
Although a melody note may appear to fit a number of chords, the ear will usually interpret the
harmony as a primary chord (I, V or IV), unless there is evidence to suggest otherwise. Of these,
chords I and V are stronger than chord IV.
Some parts of the melody may remain ambiguous and fit more than one chord, but every part of a
properly constructed melody should fit at least one chord from the key the music is currently in – if
any part of your melody does not fit a recognised chord, problems will arise.
Here is the beginning of the Bach fugue again. The key is G minor.
The piece begins on D. This note occurs in both i (G-Bb-D) and V (D-F#-A). In isolation, the first note
of an unaccompanied melody does not convey any sense of key on its own. It is only possible to
understand it in a harmonic sense after hearing more of the melody. It could be i or V – either chord
works.
On beat 2, bar 1, we find the note Eb, followed by G. Because G is more than a step away from Eb, it
is heard as belonging to the same chord as the Eb. The notes Eb and G occur in the chords of Cm (C-
Eb-G, chord iv), and Eb major (Eb-G-Bb, chord VI). The ear will most likely hear this as chord iv,
because iv is a primary chord.

The third beat contains only the note F#. Although this note occurs in chords V and vii°, we will hear
it as V, because V is a primary chord.
The fourth beat G, will be heard as the tonic chord (i). The note G also occurs in Cm (iv) and Eb major
(VI), but the tonic chord (i) is stronger than both of these.
In the next bar, the A-Bb-C-Bb-A figure fits chords ii° (A-C-Eb) and vii° (F#-A-C), and also V7 (D-F#-A-
C). (These three chords all sound quite similar). The Bb is a “passing note” – it is a step away from
the chord note A, and therefore does not need to be a member of the same chord. The final two
beats with Bb and G, will fit chord i.
In bar 3, the figure is similar to the one in bar 2. A-G-F-G-A fits with a chord of F major or D minor;
the G is a passing note and not part of the harmony. The chord of F major is chord (VII), and D minor
is chord v (D-F-A). Only the major version of chord V is considered to be a primary chord, so at this
point either F or Dm could be implied, although F major is slightly more likely since it includes the
root note (F).
Next is a “pivot” chord – the music is changing key at this point, and the pivot chord belongs to both
the old (Gm) and new (Dm) keys. Bb and G belong to G minor (i in Gm and iv in Dm). They also
belong to Eb major and E dim of course, but these are secondary chords (VI in Gm and ii° in Dm).
Finally E and C# at the end of bar 3 belong to A major (chord V in the new key of Dm), as well as vii°
(C#-E-G). We interpret this as the primary chord V.
 Every note in the melody should either belong to a recognised chord in the current key, or
be a recognised form of melodic decoration (e.g. passing note).
 Chords have a hierarchy – we are more likely to interpret the harmony as I/V first, then IV,
then the secondary chords II/III/VI/VII (as major/minor/dim chords) and minor v.
 When the melody may fit equally with two or more chords, we are more likely to interpret
the harmony as the chord in which the root note is present in the melody.
16
HARMONIC PROGRESSIONS (ROOT MOVEMENT)
Here is one way of interpreting the implied harmony at the beginning of Bach’s Fugue:
We can take this analysis one step further, and look at the pattern made by the roots of these
chords (remember that the “root” is the lowest note of the triad in each case):
The row of notes created by each chord in this way is known as the “root movement”.
Characteristically, this row moves by step, or by 4ths/5ths (a 5th down is the same as a 4th up). It is
much rarer to find the roots moving by a 3rd/6th. The reason is, that chords which are a third or
sixth apart share two notes in common, which means they sound quite similar. For example, Gm and
Eb major share the notes G and Bb, and Gm and Bb major share the notes Bb and D:
When the root movement is by 4th/5th, only one note is shared, and two notes are changed. The
effect is a smooth transition but to a clearly different chord:
When the root movement is by step, the second chord shares no notes with the previous one. The
difference in the sound of the chords is obvious, but there is also no common pitch link between the
chords:
Perhaps the most common type of root movement is the “progression of 5ths”, when the roots
move towards the tonic chord by moving upwards by a 5th (or down a 4th) each time, for example,
VI-ii-V-I.
In order to produce an interesting melody, it is important to use a good variety of chords, including a
few secondary chords. Since the ear will usually hear a primary chord by default if only two notes of

a chord are present in the melody, it follows that in order to ensure a secondary chord is implied,
extra care should be taken. You can:
 use all three notes of the chord in the melody, or

 use the root and fifth but omit the 3rd, and/or
 place the root of the chord in an accented position (i.e. on the beat).
Some other useful facts about progressions are:
 Chord iii is very rarely used in Baroque and Classical music.

 Augmented chords are almost never used in these eras.
 Chord vii° is usually heard as a kind of V7 chord. Both V7 and vii° will normally be followed
by the tonic chord.
 It is worth remembering that in a minor key, chords III and VII are equal to the tonic and
dominant chords of the relative major key (e.g. in A minor, the chords C major (III) and G
major (VII). These chords can be used within the minor key for variety.
 It is difficult to imply an extended chord (e.g. ii7 or V9) within an unaccompanied melody,
although it is possible to do so by using an arpeggio-style melody that uses most or all of the
chord notes.
HARMONIC RHYTHM
As well as sensing the implied harmony, our ears also subconsciously tune in to the “harmonic
rhythm” of a melody. The Bach Fugue’s harmonic rhythm is represented by the note values we used
earlier:
Here are some generalisations we can make about harmonic rhythm:
 The harmonic rhythm will move more slowly than the melody itself.
 The chords may change with every beat, or more slowly than each beat.
 Chord changes very rarely occur on an off-beat.
 The faster the tempo of the piece, the slower the harmonic rhythm (chords may last several
bars, for instance).
 Harmonic rhythm can be regular (e.g. changing with every crotchet/quarter note) or
irregular (using different note values, like the Bach example).
18
EXERCISES – WRITING A SINGLE LINE MELODY
Here is a melody part which sounds poor. Play it through, and try to work out some of the reasons
why this melody does not please the ear particularly:
Some of the reasons are:
 The rhythm is identical in bars 1-3 and soon becomes tiresome.

 Each bar begins with an A – this makes the melody feel like it is not going anywhere but is
instead stuck to the spot.
 There are too many leaps – a melody with several leaps (especially of varying sizes) sounds
disjointed.
 The pitches are too repetitive – between bars 2 and 3, the melody hovers around F-G-A too
much.
 There is a diminished 5th (G#-D) in bar 3 which is not treated correctly. While diminished
melodic intervals do occasionally occur in Baroque music, because they are a dissonance
they should be resolved. This means the next note should be a step away, and should be
between the two notes in the dissonant interval. In this case, the D would need to move by
step to C, because C is between G# and D. (In any case, after a leap, it is better to move in
the opposite direction, even if the leap is not dissonant.)
 The G# in bar 3 is a leading note and should rise to the tonic a semitone higher, not fall by a
7th.
Use the following broad guidelines to compose a few single-line melodies in different keys and time
signatures:
 Start and end on the tonic.

 Move by step more than by leap.
 Leaps in the same direction may be used if they form triads/chords.
 Leaps of a 6th or 7th are best avoided (although the leap of a minor 6th is acceptable).
 Passing notes and auxiliary notes can be inserted for added interest.
 Try to make the part rhythmically interesting, including using tied notes over the bar line.
 Tie longer notes to shorter notes, but not vice-versa. Notes of the same length can also be
tied.
 Avoid being overly repetitive – look out for repeated patterns, identical notes falling on
consecutive first beats of the bar, using the same melodic intervals/rhythms with no
variation and use a good overall range of notes.
 Reserve longer note values for cadence points at the end of phrases.

20
TWO-PART COUNTERPOINT
We are now ready to begin exploring two-part counterpoint.
This section of the course is in two parts – first we will look at the harmonic aspect of combining two
parts, and then we will look at how to make music sound really contrapuntal, rather than
homophonic.
We will also take a look at “invertible counterpoint” and how to create it.
TWO-PART COUNTERPOINT: DEALING WITH THE HARMONY

When two notes sound simultaneously, they create harmony, so by combining two melodies in
counterpoint, we are also creating harmony, whether we intend to or not.
In Renaissance counterpoint, the harmonic aspect was not considered to be important, and was
simply a “by-product” of the two combined parts, and for this reason, it is not mentioned in
traditional species counterpoint textbooks.
By the dawn of the Baroque era however, harmony was increasingly significant, and it is something
most modern composers will want to think about when composing counterpoint.
We will begin by looking at notes that sound simultaneously on the beat. These are usually (but not
always) all chord notes.
After that, we will look at melodic decoration, or expanding the melody within each beat, on to the
off beats.

TWO-PART IMPLIED HARMONY
As we have already seen when discussing implied harmony within a 1-part melody, when there are
two notes present from a triad, the ear will tend towards the primary chord. If the choice of chords
are equally likely, the chord with the root present will usually be implied.
The following example is in C major.
The table shows the possible chords for each pair of notes, and the likely implied chord in each case.
Pair 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Possible I, vi V, iii IV, ii, vi V, iii IV, ii I, vi V, vii° I, IV, vi
Implied I V vi V IV I V I
In most cases here, the implied chord should not be a surprise to you. For pair 3 however, the choice
of vi over IV (or ii) may have confused you. Let’s look at this one a little more closely.
Chord IV (F major) = no root F, third doubled
Chord ii (D minor) = no root D, fifth doubled
Chord vi (A minor) = doubled root A
Because chord vi has strengthened double root and chord IV has the root omitted altogether, chord
vi is more likely here.
TYPICAL INVERSIONS OF THE TRIAD

As in traditional harmony, root position and first inversion chords can be used freely, but second
inversion chords need to be treated with care. (In the UK we use the shorthand “a” for root position
chords, “b” for first inversion and “c” for second inversion, e.g. “Vb” is a first inversion dominant
chord).
Second inversion chords have the 5th of the triad as the lowest note, so they are a sort of “upside-
chord” chord, if you like, and this makes them feel unstable. (Root position chords are the most
stable).
Traditionally, second inversion chords are used in special circumstances, the most common two of
which are the cadential 6-4 and the passing 6-4 (“6-4” is another way of saying “second inversion
chord”).
22
In a cadential 6-4, the second inversion chord is the tonic (Ic) and it is followed by the dominant.
The tonic chord is normally placed in a more accented position than the dominant chord. As its
name suggests, it is commonly found at the end of a phrase, making a
cadence.
For example, here the Ic chord is on the strong first beat of the bar, followed
by V on the weaker second beat:
In a passing 6-4, the lower part has three stepwise notes, and the second
inversion chord falls on the middle of these three. The second inversion
chord is normally on a weaker beat than the previous chord.
Here, the second inversion dominant chord falls on the weaker second beat
of the bar, and sits between two other notes moving by step in the lower
part.
Notice that in the passing 6-4 example above, the first chord is interpreted as vib rather than IVc,
despite IV being a primary chord. We would not expect a second inversion chord here on the first
beat of the bar, since it is neither the place for a cadential or passing 6-4, so the vib chord is the one
which is implied.
When a second inversion chord consists of the 5th and 3rd of the
triad in two-part music, the harmonic interval is consonant (see
“Intervals, Consonance and Dissonance”) because it is a 6th:
However, when the 5th and root of the triad are used the
harmonic interval is dissonant – it is a perfect 4th.
Since 6ths are acceptable anywhere in your counterpoint, they are “safe” to use – if you write a 6th
it will normally be interpreted by the ear as a first inversion chord, unless it is at a cadence, as
above.
Because the 4th is considered to be a dissonant interval when it is in the harmony, it needs to be
treated with care – avoid writing any harmonic 4th intervals between the two parts unless the 4th
is part of a cadential or passing 6-4.
Caveat: because counterpoint is about melody more than it is about harmony, sometimes a second
inversion chord is used in order to preserve the melodic line. This really means that the “rules” of
harmony are sacrificed in order to achieve the desired melody in each part. As a composer, you will
need to use your discretion about doing this.

THE UNISON
How you deal with unisons is completely up to you as a composer, however it might be useful to
consider how they have been treated historically.
In Renaissance counterpoint, unisons were a common way to begin or end a piece or section of
counterpoint, but they were generally avoided within the rest of the piece, especially on the first
beat of the bar.
In Baroque counterpoint unisons do appear within the body of a piece of music from time to time.
However, because the two parts blend together as one (especially so when both parts are played by
the same instrument), unisons do momentarily destroy the contrapuntal texture.
For this reason, in most Baroque/Classical pieces their use tends to be restricted to places where the
preservation of the melodic line is considered more important than the temporary loss of two-part
harmony, for example, where sequences or imitation are used (more about these later!)
If your two-part piece is written for two different sounds – such as tenor voice and cello, or flute and
oboe, then a unison between the two parts will be much less problematic.
THE DOMINANT 7TH CHORD

Dominant chords with an added 7th are useful for adding harmonic variety by adding a splash of
harmonic dissonance or for strengthening modulations. As a four-note chord, there are four possible
positions/inversions. The third inversion is given the letter “d” for convenience.
Adding the 7th to the triad means there are four

possible dissonant harmonic intervals that can
come about in two-part counterpoint. For
example, using the G7 chord (dominant 7th in
the key of C major or minor), we can find these
combinations:
Dominant 7th chords are most often followed by the tonic chord. The dissonant harmonic interval
creates a strong tendency to resolve to the nearest note, so the usual way to write V7-I is to have
the parts move by semitone where possible:
24
Whenever you are modulating to a new key, V7-I in the new key will help the modulation work
effectively. The following piece modulates from C to D major, using V7 in D:
V7 can also move in more unexpected directions, such as V7-vi (interrupted cadence) or even
directly to another V7 chord in another key, for example here, where the music modulates from C to
A major:

CONTRARY MOTION AND PERFECT INTERVALS
The perfect harmonic consonances of a 5th and octave are generally treated with a good deal of
care in counterpoint:
 Perfect consonances are normally approached by contrary or oblique motion.
There are three types of motion, or movement, between parts that are playing at the same time:
1. Similar motion
2. Contrary motion
3. Oblique motion
1. In similar motion, both parts move in the same direction at the same time. For example here, the
up/down pattern in the treble clef part is the same in the bass clef. (The intervals do not have to be
the same, only the direction of the melody).
2. In contrary motion, the parts move in opposite directions to each other – if one part goes up, the
other must go down (and vice versa).
3. In oblique motion, one part moves up or down, and the other remains stationary.
26
When writing a perfect consonance of a 5th or octave then, be sure to move towards that interval
by contrary or oblique motion only. (It does not matter how you move away from that interval, if
you are moving from it to an imperfect consonance i.e. 3rd or 6th):
CONSECUTIVE PERFECT INTERVALS

As in traditional harmony, consecutive perfect fifths and octaves are to be discouraged. The reason
for this is that the contrapuntal texture deteriorates and the two voices sound “as one” when
consecutive perfect intervals occur.
The following table is a summary of what is and what is not recommended – examples of each are
given below.
a. Perfect 5th followed by a different perfect 5th Avoid

b. Perfect 8ve followed by a different perfect 8ve Avoid
c. Perfect 5th followed by the same perfect 5th Ok
d. Perfect 8ve followed by the same perfect 8ve Ok
e. Perfect 5th followed by a diminished 5th Ok
f. Diminished 5th followed by a perfect 5th Avoid
g. Perfect 5th/8ve moving in contrary motion Avoid
h. Perfect 5th moving to perfect 8ve (or vice versa) in similar motion Avoid
i. Perfect 5th moving to perfect 8ve (or vice versa) in contrary motion Ok
j. Perfect 5th moving to perfect 8ve (or vice versa) in oblique motion Ok

CADENCES1
Cadences are a kind of musical punctuation, used to divide up a piece into smaller phrase units. A
typical cadence will be made up of a number of elements, all of which help the listener to
understand that a phrase has come to an end. These elements include:
 The use of standard chord progressions which are widely recognised as signifying the end of
a phrase
 Longer note values than used elsewhere in the phrase
 Pauses or rests
The standard chord progressions used at cadences can be put into two groups – progressions that
have a sense of finality, and those that give a sense that there is more connected material to come.
You can think of these definitions as being similar to the full stop (period) and the comma. All of the
standard progressions make use of chords I and/or V/V7.
Typically, of the two chords used at the cadence, the first is placed in a less accented position than
the first. The final tonic chord, for example, will usually land on the strong first beat of the bar.
PERFECT AND PLAGAL CADENCES

The progressions which give a sense of finality are the perfect cadence (V-I) and the plagal cadence
(IV-I). These cadences feel “final” because they end on the tonic chord.
Both perfect and plagal cadences are frequently seen at the end of phrases within the main body of
a piece.
The vast majority of pieces end however, with a perfect, rather than a plagal cadence. The plagal
cadence is relatively rare, and is normally seen at the end of a phrase within the body of a piece, or
as a kind of coda after the main perfect cadence (in which case it is informally known as an “Amen”
cadence).
Chord V in a perfect cadence is normally used in its major form which, in a minor key, means raising
the leading note by a semitone with an accidental.
In a minor key piece, the final tonic chord may optionally be changed to its major version. This
technique is called a “Tierce de Picardie” (or “Picardy Third”).
1
There are considerable differences in naming cadences between UK and USA English. Perfect (UK) =
Authentic (USA), Imperfect (UK) = Half cadence (USA), Interrupted (UK) = Deceptive (USA), Root position
Perfect Cadence (UK) = Perfect Authentic Cadence (USA).
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IMPERFECT AND INTERRUPTED CADENCES
The progressions which give a sense of “more to come” are the imperfect and interrupted
cadences.
An imperfect cadence is any chord followed by chord V. Typical imperfect cadences are ii-V, VI/vi-V
and I/i-V.
An interrupted cadence is one which moves from chord V to a chord which is not the tonic – it has
an element of surprise in it. The most typical interrupted cadence is V-VI/vi. Other more unusual
progression are typically found when the music is changing key. Examples are V7-III (dominant 7th
moving to the dominant of the relative minor) or V7-VI7 (dominant 7th moving to the dominant 7th
of the supertonic).
Cadences that occur at the more important points in the piece (for example, at the end of sections,
or the end of the piece as a whole) are usually used in their strongest form – which means the
chords are used in root position and the added 7th chord is avoided on the beat (the 7th may be
added as a passing note, however).
Cadences that occur at less important places are sometimes used in other inversions. First inversion
chords can be used freely, and the second inversion chord Ic can be used at an imperfect cadence. A
cadence which uses non-root position chords is called an “inverted cadence”, and its effect is softer
than a non-inverted cadence.

TWO-PART COUNTERPOINT: DECORATIVE NOTES
By using only notes which belong to recognised chords, we can produce two-part music which
sounds pleasant enough to the ear, but which is not particularly contrapuntal in texture:
Although we have blended two tunes together, they both have exactly the same rhythm, and with
the exception of the diminished 5th in the V7b chord, all the harmonic intervals are consonant.
We can improve the contrapuntal texture by making the rhythm in each of the two parts dissimilar,
and by introducing dissonance, and we can achieve both of these goals by adding melodic
decoration.
Note: The above piece has been designed to show examples of the most typical types of melodic
decoration - it is not particularly common to use every single type in such a short excerpt in real
music!
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a.p.n. accented passing A dissonant note which falls on the Here, the chord notes are D
note beat, and fills the gap between two and B. The accented passing
chord notes which are a third note C sits between them,
apart. and is accented because it is
on the beat.
ant. anticipation A dissonant note which sounds a Here, the B which is part of
moment before the chord it is the last Ia chord is sounded
expected in. slightly early, while chord Vb
is still being heard. B is not
part of chord V.
aux. auxiliary note A note which may be dissonant or Here, the chord note G is
consonant, which is between two split into two, to make space
identical notes and is one step up for the F# auxiliary note to
or down. sit between the two Gs.
ch.n changing note A dissonant note which is formed Here, the chord notes C and
of a step plus a leap in the opposite B are split with D between
direction (or a leap plus a step). them. D is a step up from C,
and a leap down to B.
chr.p.n. chromatic passing A chromatically altered note Here, the chord note D
note (dissonant or consonant) which leading to E has D# inserted.
falls between two chord notes that The # symbol is a chromatic
are a major 2nd apart, creating a alteration. This makes
semitone movement of two steps. semitone steps D-D#-E
(Chromatic passing notes can be
accented or unaccented).
h.aux. harmonic auxiliary A consonant note (i.e. chord note) Here, the Va chord is D
note which falls off the beat. major, so the added quaver
(8th note) D is another note
from the same chord.
p.n. passing note An unaccented dissonant note Here, the chord notes C and
which falls off the beat, and fills the A (a third apart) have the
gap between two chord notes middle note B inserted. it is
which are a third apart. off the beat, so it is an
unaccented passing note.
ret. retardation A note (dissonant or consonant) Here, the F# from chord V7b
created by holding a chord note is held over into the next
over into the next chord. It resolves chord, Ia. This creates a
upwards by step. dissonance of a harmonic
4th. It resolves upwards by
step to G.
sus. suspension A note (usually dissonant) created Here, the G from chord Ia
by holding a chord note over into (bar 1) is held over into the
the next chord. It resolves next chord, Vb, creating a
downwards by step. dissonance of a 2nd. It
resolves downwards by step
to F#.

Some points to consider:
 Some types of melodic decoration do not necessarily create dissonances – however they are
very useful for making the rhythms of the two parts different from each other.
 Only the harmonic auxiliary note and changing note can make the melody move by leap. If
you want to prevent your melody from moving by step all the time, they are worth
considering.
 The most common type of melodic decoration is the unaccented passing note.
 Melodic decoration can be used in similar ways across the two parts, to give coherence to
the music while retaining the individual independence of each part. For example, in the
extract above, the changing notes in bars 5 and 6 both use the melody notes C-D-B, but the
harmony is different in each case.
It can be useful to group the various types of melodic decoration, to make it easier to find places
where you might use them. Look at your two undecorated melodies to find suitable spots!
 Between two identical notes: auxiliary note, harmonic auxiliary note (remember, you can
split a single note to create two identical notes).
 Between two notes a second apart: suspension, retardation, changing note, harmonic
auxiliary note, anticipation
 Between two notes a third apart: passing note, accented passing note, changing note,
harmonic auxiliary note
32
TWO-PART COUNTERPOINT: INDEPENDENT PARTS
We are now ready to start looking at the best way to combine two melodies, to make contrapuntal
music. The important points to grasp here, are that in convincing two-part counterpoint,
 both melodies are equally important

 the melodies should retain their individual independence
This is in direct contrast to homophonic music, where one melody is “the tune”, so to speak, and
the rest of the music sounding at the same time can be defined as “accompaniment”. In
contrapuntal music, there is no accompaniment, and there is more than one “tune”.
There is, however, a grey area between homophonic and contrapuntal music. Some music can be
said to be “very contrapuntal” and other music perhaps only “slightly”. This is because there are
several elements that come into play, and a “very contrapuntal” piece will employ most or all of
these elements, whereas as “slightly” contrapuntal piece will employ much fewer.
These “elements” are the aspects of melody which we have already examined, while studying a
single part melody. To make a piece of music contrapuntal, these are the things which each separate
part should handle in a different way, because it is these which give the part independence.
The modes of independence we will explore in the next few units will be:
 Rhythm
 Chromatic v. diatonic melodies
 Consecutives
 Curve and Peak
RHYTHM
Independence of rhythm is arguably the most important factor in creating contrapuntal music.
Without independence of rhythm, the other modes of independence may not be enough to create a
contrapuntal texture on their own.
Independence of rhythm means that each part has a different rhythm when playing simultaneously.
For example, while one part has a crotchet (quarter note), the other might have four semiquavers
(16th notes).
The parts may come together rhythmically occasionally, most likely at strategic points such as a
cadence or a climax, but the majority of the time, they should be different.

In addition, the parts are more likely to sound “equally important”, if they both contain the same
variety of rhythms. If we continued the above bar in the same manner throughout the piece (i.e.
with crotchets (quarter notes) in one part and semiquavers (16th notes) in the other, it may appear
that the slower moving part has “more of a tune” than the faster one. For true counterpoint, neither
part should take precedence.
For this reason, it is very common to find one of the parts begins at a slightly staggered interval after
the first part, after a rest. (See example below, where the top part begins one beat after the lower
part).
Syncopation is also often used in counterpoint for this reason. Syncopation happens when a longer
note is played off the beat, and shorter notes are played on the beat, in a reverse of the norm.
Syncopated rhythms shift the accent away from the main beat of the bar, onto an off-beat, so if one
part is syncopated and the other is not, the rhythms are clearly independent.
CHROMATIC V. DIATONIC
Melodically, you can create a more striking contrast between the two parts if one moves diatonically
while the other is chromatic. (“Chromatic” means that it uses notes outside of the major/minor key
currently in use).
In this example, the top part is diatonic, using notes only found in C major. The lower part is
chromatic, and uses G#, Eb, C# and F# as chromatic notes.
34
CONSECUTIVES
We have already seen how consecutive perfect intervals should be avoided, as they destroy the
independent nature of the parts. It is also important to realise that consecutive imperfect intervals
also need to be treated with some care.
To recap: the imperfect consonances are the harmonic intervals of a 3rd and a 6th (major or minor,
in both cases).
If the two parts maintain the same harmonic interval distance for a lengthy period of time, the two
parts will appear to be “joined” in a way which is not typical of counterpoint.
In the following example, the interval sounding with each note in the lower part (excluding passing
notes) is a 3rd in every case. Even though the two parts are rhythmically different, the effect is that
the music is not particularly contrapuntal – the lower part seems to be derived from the upper part
and is not independent of it:
Also be aware of the interval that is used on the strong first beat of each bar, and try to avoid
excessive repetition of one interval. In the following example, every bar begins with a harmonic
interval of a 6th – the parts will sound less dependent on each other if the interval used here is
altered.

CURVE/PEAK
If the two melodies share the same overall melodic curve, and both peak at the same point, they will
normally sound more dependent on each other than if those aspects are differentiated.
If the top melody, for example, begins low and gradually works its way upwards pitch-wise until a
peak just before the final cadence, then to make a contrast, the lower melody could begin high and
work its way downward, or alternatively, begin low, climb until a peak midway, and then fall again.
There are many possibilities, and differentiated the curve and peak of a melody is not critical to
writing contrapuntal music, but it is another angle to consider.
In the following piece, the top part begins low (F is the lowest note in the part) and gradually climbs
to a pitch peak of top A just before the end. Conversely, the lower part begins on its highest note,
gradually dwindles down to its lowest note around half way through and then climbs again to
around mid-pitch level by the end. This means the pitch peaks of the two parts do not coincide, and
the two parts have different shaped melodic curves.
CROSS RELATION
36
Also known as “false relation”, this technique employs the use of two chromatically different notes
in succession, in different parts. For example, in Bach’s Fugue VI from the Well Tempered Klavier
Book One in bar 20, D# in the top part is sounded immediately before D natural in the bass part:
THINGS TO AVOID
It is also worth mentioning some things which are considered to be uncharacteristic of contrapuntal
music.
THE TRITONE
The tritone is an interval of a diminished 5th or augmented 4th, for
example the notes F and B in the key of C major. Generally, this interval
is avoided in melody. (In harmony it appears in the dominant 7th chord
and is perfectly fine in that context). It is mostly avoided since it is a
harsh dissonance, but you may find instances of it being used for
dramatic effect – use with caution!
Traditionally the tritone was also avoided when it occurs across two parts.
Here, the B in the top part is followed by F in the lower part – this would
have been avoided in strict counterpoint. In more modern music it is less
offensive!
As well as avoiding the leap of a tritone, it is also advisable to avoid

writing an outline of a tritone melodically, unless that it is the specific
effect you want. An outline of a tritone is created when a section of
the melody moves between a tritone overall. Here for example, the
melody moves from F up to B, so the low and high points of this
section form a tritone:

EXTENDED SIMILAR MOTION
Contrapuntal musical parts sound more independent when contrary motion is used, but normally a
contrapuntal piece will also use a fair amount of similar motion. The following two bars use a
considerable amount of similar motion:
The danger with writing like this is that the two parts become dependent on each other. While it is
fine to have a small number of occurrences of similar motion like this (particular towards the end of
a phrase or section), try to keep such sections to a minimum.
REPEATED SKIPS
Melodic movement tends to be smooth: movement by a scale step is much more common than any
other interval. However, skips of a 3rd or greater should still be used, because these intervals create
interest and variety. When two skips occur in the same direction, they should normally outline a
recognised chord. The bass part here has two consecutive leaps of a rising 3rd, the notes create the
triad of Bb major.
Skips which continue in the same direction but which do not outline a chord tend to sound rather
random and unmelodic. This example shows poor melody writing:
38
WRITING TWO-PART COUNTERPOINT
The process of composing counterpoint is very much an individual preference. It is not really
possible to lay out a fool-proof “method” for composing a piece of music, in the same way that you
cannot write instructions on how to paint a picture. However, for the beginner, the problem is often
a feeling of simply not knowing how to begin. This unit aims to address that problem, by showing
you one way to think through your composition.
Although the old masters would have relied on their pen and their inner ear, modern day composers
have the technological upper-hand, with the availability of music notation software. I would
recommend composing with software because it is very easy to correct your mistakes, change your
mind, and to instantly hear what you have written. (You may prefer to compose at the piano, and
that is fine too). If you do not already own a music notation program, I would recommend
Musescore (download for free from www.musescore.org).
As you compose, make constant use of the play-back button. Listen at different tempi, and notice
how tempo affects your choices. Listen bar-by-bar, and also to larger sections. The more you use a
software like this, the more you will find you are able to hear what you see accurately in your head,
without playing back the music at all – it doubles as an excellent ear-training exercise!
GETTING STARTED
In order to compose a counterpoint, you will first need a melody to add the counterpoint to. You
can of course compose your own, but at this stage in your studies you might find it more efficient to
“borrow” one written by someone else.
Ideally you will use a slow, simple melody to begin with. (Once you feel confident enough, more
complex melodies will provide a greater challenge). By “simple” I mean that the rhythm should be
something as basic as mostly plain crotchets (quarter notes), and the melody should be diatonic
(without chromatic alterations). As an example, I have taken Beethoven’s Ode to Joy:
You will of course need to choose what instrument (or voice) you are writing for, and whether the
counterpoint melody will be placed above or below in pitch (or at the same overall pitch location).
For this demonstration, the flute will take the original melody part and the counterpoint will be
written for the oboe. The oboe’s playing range overlaps that of the flute for the most part, but its
heavier timbre makes it more suitable as a lower counterpart to the flute. This does not mean that
the parts cannot cross though, and we can allow the oboe to rise above the flute from time to time.

FIRST ENTRANCE
Traditionally, a counterpoint part begins a short time interval after the principal melody. This means
we will begin by writing rests. The precise number of rests is not important, but the counterpoint
will stand out better if it begins on a different beat of the bar.
In this 4/4 piece, we could begin the counterpoint on beats 2, 3 or 4 in the first bar, begin on an off-
beat (i.e. quaver (8th note)), or even delay the entrance until later. I will begin on the quaver (8th
note) immediately after the first note (but there is no “right or wrong” about this).
POSSIBILITIES AND CHOICES

With each note that you write down, you need to first evaluate the possibilities, and then make a
choice based on personal preference.
Every note that you write will ideally be either:
 a chord note, or
 a recognised form of melodic decoration (e.g. passing note, anticipation, etc.)
You will need to keep a beady eye on:
 harmonic interval (consonant/dissonant) and implied chord/inversion

 melodic interval (leaps/steps, dissonances)
 consecutives (perfect and imperfect)
 motion (similar, contrary, oblique)
But do remember that, ultimately, as a composer you are free to write what you want (unless you
are taking a counterpoint exam!)
In our example, (the key is A major), we want to

begin by writing a quaver (8th note) to fit
beneath the second half of the first flute note, C#.
First, we need to know which notes are consonant/dissonant below C#:
 Perfect consonances: C# (8ve) and F# (5th)

 Imperfect consonances: A (3rd), E (6th)
 Dissonances (not useable): B (2nd), G# (4th), D (7th)
40
Next, think about which chord will need to be implied. At the start/end of a phrase, you will
probably want to stick to chords I and V. As the phrase progresses, the harmony needs to keep
moving to maintain interest.
To imply chord I at the start of this piece, we will need to begin on an A or E in the counterpoint
part. (In strict counterpoint, only A would be permissible, because you would need to begin on a
perfect consonance).
With each subsequent note, follow the same process. Evaluate how each note you add will connect
with the principal melody note in a meaningful way, looking at the music both vertically in terms of
harmony and intervals, and horizontally as a tune in its own right:
 Which chord is implied, and does that chord work?

 If the counterpoint note is not in the chord, what type of melodic decoration is it, and what
is the best way to continue from it?
 Are the perfect consonances approached by contrary/oblique motion?
 Do dissonances resolve correctly?
 How does the counterpoint melody sound so far?
 Does the counterpoint have a pleasing contour, or does it jump around rather randomly?
Let’s continue, and try to answer some of these questions as we go along:
 G# is a non-chord note, because it forms a harmonic perfect 4th with C#, so it is classed as a
dissonance. As an accented passing note it can be followed by F#, or as an auxiliary note it
can be followed by A.
 The counterpoint melody is moving by step, which is a normal/standard interval.

 F# confirms G# as an accented passing note.
 It forms a perfect 5th with C#, and is approached by oblique motion (G#-C# then F#-C# - the
C# is held). The implied chord is vi (F# minor)
 The counterpoint is a scale fragment, which is again a standard idea.
 F# forms a 6th with D.

 The implied harmony is IV (D major)
 Using a tie creates syncopation, which helps to differentiate the two melodies
 The parts are moving in contrary motion
 G# forms a diminished 5th with D. It is an auxiliary note.

 F# forms a 7th with E and is an accented passing note, resolving to E.
 E is a chord note. The implied harmony is V (E major).
 The parts are moving in contrary motion.
 D continues the downward scale pattern and is an accented passing note. The dissonance
(9th) resolves to C#. The implied chord is I (A major).
 E forms a 7th with D. The D in the top part resolves to C#. This is essentially the same as
what happened on the previous beat, but with the parts switched around.
42
 D makes a 6th with B. The implied harmony is V7 (E7) or ii (B minor).
 C# makes a 6th with A. The rhythm is syncopated.
 E makes a perfect 5th with A in chord I (A major).
 D and F# combine with B to make chord ii (B minor).
 At this point the oboe is higher in pitch than the flute.
 E and A combine to make chord I (A major).

 G# combines with C# to make a 4th, which is dissonant. The C# in the flute part falls to B,
resolving the dissonance, so this is a suspension.
 G#, E and D combine with B to make a full V7 (E7) chord.
 The flute part is fairly static in this bar, contrasting with the oboe part which moves through
a range of an octave.
 C# and E combine with C# to make chord I (A major). (The unison C#s are not problematic
because the two parts are played on different instruments.)
 F# forms a 4th with C#, changing the harmony to vi (F# minor). G# is an auxiliary note.
 F# and A combine with D to make IV (D major).
 G# and B combine with E to make V (E major).
 Again, the oboe range is much greater than the flute. The counterpoint is both below and
above the principal melody, and rhythmically contrasted.

 G# makes a 6th with E. The implied chord is V (E major).
 A makes a 5th with E. It is an anticipation note.
 The following A forms a 4th with D. The dissonance resolves in the flute part, to C# in chord I
(A major).
 G# combines with B as a 3rd. The implied chord is V (E major).
 G# tied across combines with A to make a 2nd. This is a suspension and resolves to F#.
 F# combines with A to make a 3rd, in chord vi (F# minor).
 A combines with C# as a 3rd, in I (A major).

 D combines with B to make ii (B minor). This is a typical ending chord progression: ii-V-I.
 E combines with B to make V (E major).
 C# and A combine to make I (A major).
(The complete piece is included in the Appendix of Musical Examples).
Analysing every note of your composition will probably seem very time-consuming at first. However,
you will get faster with practice, and you will also soon begin to able to quickly see what works and
what is problematic without having to analyse everything so deeply, as you get used to the patterns
and shapes that counterpoint produces.
As soon as you feel confident enough, try composing in a freer way, without analysing every note.
Then go back and look at what you have written, looking for things which are typically frowned
upon, like consecutive 5ths and unresolved dissonances. Make changes based on your findings and
then decide which version you prefer.
You may also find it illuminating to analyse contrapuntal works by other composers. This task often
helps to clarify the rules, and may also give you some ideas on how manipulate the music in new
ways.
44
EXERCISES – WRITING 2-PART COUNTERPOINT
1. Write a counterpoint in minims (half notes) below the given melody. Change the implied chord
with each note you write.
2. Using the same melody, now write a counterpoint using crotchets (quarter notes). Again, change
the implied chord with each note you write. (The final note should be a minim/half note).
3. Using the same melody, write a counterpoint which harmonises the melody in a different way to
that of questions 1 and 2. Use minims or crotchets (half or quarter notes) as you please.
4. Finally, write another counterpoint this time including a variety of decorative notes, and
introducing quavers (eighth notes) into your rhythm.

5. Write a counterpoint in minims (half notes) above the given melody. Change the implied chord
with each note you write.
6. Using the same melody, now write a counterpoint using crotchets (quarter notes). Again, change
the implied chord with each note you write. (The final note should be a minim/half note).
7. Using the same melody, write a counterpoint which harmonises the melody in a different way to
that of questions 1 and 2. Use minims or crotchets (half or quarter notes) as you please.
8. Finally, write another counterpoint this time including a variety of decorative notes, and
introducing quavers (eighth notes) into your rhythm.
46
Write a counterpoint part to the following melodies.
9.
10.
11.
12.

THREE- AND FOUR-PART COUNTERPOINT
In three- and four-part counterpoint the harmonic soundscape is much richer, as the parts can now
combine to make complete chords.
For the most part, the rules and advice regarding two-part counterpoint still apply when there are
three or more parts. However, the inner parts (i.e. alto/tenor) are much less prominent than the
outer two (i.e. the soprano/bass lines of traditional harmony), and the rules can often be less strictly
applied. For example, the tritone across two parts is barely noticeable when it occurs in inner parts,
and the harmonic interval of a 4th is perfectly acceptable.
DOUBLING & OMISSION IN CHORDS

Generally speaking, it is best to observe the traditional advice regarding doubling, namely:
 Double the root or 5th in a root position major/minor chord

 Double any note in a first inversion chord except
o the leading note should not be doubled in V-I
o the 3rd is best doubled in a diminished chord
 Double the 5th in a second inversion chord
 Do not omit the 3rd, except at the start/end of a section or phrase
However, because it is the melodic aspect of the music that takes precedence over the harmonic in
counterpoint, there may be many occasions when the principles of doubling can be ignored so that
the melody can take the shape it needs to.
As in two-part counterpoint, the music will sound more contrapuntal when all parts move with
different rhythmic patterns. In three-part music however, two parts may often coincide rhythmically
periodically, while the third provides the rhythmic contrast. The more parts there are in the piece,
the more permutations are possible, of course.
Once a third part is added, it is impossible to have all parts move in contrary motion, but care should
be taken to avoid excessive passages where all parts move in similar motion, (although short
occurrences will not disrupt the contrapuntal effect).
48
You can aim to swap around the pairings frequently, to keep the momentum going. In a three-part
piece the following combinations are possible:
Similar motion (paired) Contrary motion

a. Soprano, alto Bass
b. Soprano, bass Alto
c. Alto, bass Soprano
(Oblique motion is also possible of course).
Contrapuntal pieces in three parts include fugues (which we will look at later in the course), and trio
sonatas. Trio sonatas were chamber pieces, written mostly in the Baroque era, and are actually for
four instruments: three single-melody instruments plus a keyboard accompaniment.
The usual set up would be for two treble instruments (such as two violins), and one bass instrument
(cello), written out as a three part piece. The keyboard player would double up the bass line and
improvise something to fit (using the “figured bass” - symbols which show which chords to play, like
on a modern lead sheet). Trio sonatas are not always contrapuntal, but many are.
This is the opening from the first movement of Sonata no.2 by Handel. It is scored for two violins,
flutes or oboes, with a bass provided by the cello/keyboard.
Notice how each part comes in at staggered intervals. The three part texture means that triads can
be complete (e.g. the D major chord on the 4th quaver (8th note) of bar 2.

NOTATION
When a multiple part piece is written on the grand staff as a keyboard piece, the stem direction of
the notes depends on which part is playing, when there are two (or more) parts to a stave. The
normal practice is to write offset rests (i.e. higher/lower on the stave than usual) in a silent part.
In this four-part fugue (no. 14 from Bach’s Well

Tempered Klavier Book One), the treble clef stave
holds the soprano (stems up) and alto (stems down)
parts, while the bass clef takes the tenor (stems up)
and bass (stems down) parts.
The crotchet (quarter) rest in the bass part is re-
aligned lower down the stave, to allow the tenor
part to be written clearly.
It is common for any inner parts to take up the range which lies partly on the treble and partly on
the bass clef. This means the inner parts may jump around from stave to stave. To illustrate this,
look at bars 3-4 from Bach’s Fugue IX (Well Tempered Klavier Book One) (below).
In bar 3, the soprano part is in the upper treble clef. The stems are pointing down because there is
only one part on the stave, so the stem direction depends only on the pitch of the notes. In the
lower treble stave the alto part has stems up, and the bass part has rests to begin with. These are
pushed below the stave to make them visible.
At the end of bar 3 the bass part enters.
Half way through bar 4 the alto part swaps to the upper stave. The last four quavers (eighth notes)
are beamed together, but the beam crosses the staves too. This swap happens because the right
hand needs to take over the alto part (marked “R”), because it would not be playable by the left.
50
It is even possible to write five-part counterpoint on two staves. Bach’s Fugue IV (from the Well
Tempered Klavier Book One is a five-part fugue.
Here is an example of five-part notation:
The top stave holds three parts, (the top part begins on a rest, the middle part begins on G# and
uses stems up, and the lowest part begins on F# with stems down). The bass clef stave has two
parts, (the semibreve (whole note) C# is the upper part and the minim (half note) is the lower part,
with stems down).
Notice that the minims (half notes) in the top stave have to be shifted out of alignment slightly, so
that their stems are visible.

EXERCISES – WRITING 3- AND 4-PART COUNTERPOINT
1. Using the suggested harmonies on the minim (half note) beats of these bars, add a middle and
bass part to each. Use different rhythms in each part. You may imply other chords on beats 2 and 4
if you wish. The first one has been done as an example.
2. Add two upper parts to this bass melody. Begin the middle part after the minim (half) rest, and
begin the top part in the second bar. Use different rhythms in each part.
3. Continue this 4-part extract. It begins in F major and ends in an imperfect cadence. In each bar,
use quavers (eighth notes) in one part, crotchets (quarter notes) in another, and minims (half notes)
in the other. Swap these rhythms in each bar. For example, in bar 1, the alto has crotchets, the tenor
has quavers, and the bass minims. In bar 2, the alto will have minims, the tenor crotchets, and the
bass quavers.
52
CONTRAPUNTAL DEVICES
In music, a device is a specific way of manipulating the music. Most devices can be found in all types
of composition, and are not restricted only to counterpoint, but the following list highlights some of
the most typical devices found in counterpoint.
IMITATION & CANON

Imitation is the immediate repetition of a musical idea within another voice or part, either at the
same pitch, or at the interval of an octave or octaves.
Bach’s Invention in F major for keyboard begins with a broken F major chord idea in the right hand,
followed by a descending F major scale with a couple of auxiliary notes added. The left hand part
begins in exactly the same way, but the music is an octave lower, and its entry is one bar later. In
this piece, the left hand continues to imitate the right for several bars before any divergence
appears. An extended imitation like this is also known as “canon”.
SEQUENCE
Sequences are similar to imitation, in that a musical idea is taken and then repeated. The difference
is that a sequence is not an exact repetition of pitch – it begins on different step of the scale.
Bach’s Invention in Eb Major for Keyboard begins with a musical idea in bar 1 which is six notes long,
starting on the tonic note Eb. In bar 2, the same pattern is used, but this time the idea begins on F,
which is one scale step higher.
In Bach’s Eb major invention, the sequence was sounded in the same part. Sequences can also be
exchanged between the parts. Minor differences can also sometimes be found in a sequence – as
long as it mostly uses the same intervals between the notes, it will usually be “close enough”.

You can be very creative with sequences – you can write them backwards (known as “retrograde”)
and upside down (“inverted”) or both (“retrograde inverted”). Bach was very fond of performing
such musical acrobatics and they are certainly an interesting method of generating new material for
a composition.
However, it is worth remembering that the more you manipulate the melody, the less recognisable
it will be as a connected idea. The basic purpose of a “normal” sequence is to help with coherence. It
is one of the easiest ways of organically growing a piece of music, and is found in every genre. It
creates an easily identifiable link with previously heard ideas, without simply being a note-for-note
repetition. Retrograde and inverted sequences do nothing of the kind – they are almost impossible
to detect simply by listening, and can normally only be discovered by careful analysis of a written
score.
AUGMENTATION
Augmentation is the doubling of the note values used in a musical idea. Bach’s Fugue VIII from the
Well Tempered Klavier Book One begins with the following theme in the right hand, which is built
from crotchets and quavers (quarter and eighth notes):
54
As the Fugue draws to a close, a sense of grandeur is developed by the use of augmentation of the
theme, which is now visible in the top part but notated in minims and crotchets (half and quarter
notes). (The first note has been altered from D# to E#, but this is not important).
DIMINUTION
The opposite of augmentation is diminution – which is a replacement of the durational values of a
musical idea with notes of half the length. The perceived increase in speed adds tension and
excitement.
In Fugue IX from Bach’s Well Tempered Klavier Book Two, the opening theme is in semibreves and
minims (whole and half notes) in the bass part:
At the end of bar 26, the theme is heard as a sequence, beginning on G# in the top part, and it
continues in notes of half the value of the original:

CROSSING PARTS
In traditional harmony you have probably been encouraged to avoid parts crossing over each other
in pitch, unless it is absolutely necessary. In counterpoint however, particularly when the
intertwined melodies belong to similarly-pitched instruments (or voices), crossing parts is a common
phenomenon.
In this extract from Vivaldi’s Trio Sonata Op.1 No. 1, the two violins vie for prominence as each
repeatedly overlaps the other in pitch:
56
EXERCISES – CONTRAPUNTAL DEVICES
Manipulate this melody as instructed. Play through each on the piano. Make any necessary
adjustments to avoid awkward melodic intervals such as diminished/augmented intervals.
1. Sequence the melody, beginning on the 2nd degree of the scale (the key is G major).
2. Write the melody as a retrograde sequence.
3. Write the melody as an inverted sequence.
4. Write the melody as an inverted-retrograde sequence. (Starting note is an octave higher to allow
space on the stave).
5. Write the melody in augmentation at double the note value.
6. Write the melody in diminution at half the note value.

ANSWERS
1. Sequence on the 2nd degree of scale.
2. Retrograde.
3. Inverted. The final note would be C, which creates a melodic diminished 5th (F#-C), so this has
been altered to A (other alterations are possible).
4. Retrograde inversion.
5. Augmentation.
6. Diminution.
58
INVERTIBLE COUNTERPOINT
Invertible counterpoint is a pair of melodies which works correctly, even when the parts are
swapped around, so that the top becomes the bottom part, and vice versa. Two-part invertible
counterpoint is also sometimes called “double counterpoint”.
The technique is used as a cohesive device, which provides new material that remains closely
connected to previously heard ideas. Parts appear one way up initially, and are then swapped
around later in the piece.
“Triple” counterpoint is less common – this term describes three-part counterpoint where the parts
can be moved around into any position of top, middle and lowest part.
In the following two bars, the harmonic intervals are marked out for reference.
If we change the parts around, so that the top part becomes the lower one and vice versa, we create
this:
The top part has been moved down one octave, and the lower part has been moved up one octave.
Notice that the harmonic intervals between Interval Inverted interval

the parts swap over to their inversions in 2nd 7th
each case. Interval inversions (i.e. written the 3rd 6th
other way up) always add up to a total of 9: 4th 5th
5th 4th
6th 3rd
7th 2nd

In addition, the interval qualities also invert: Quality Inverted quality
Perfect Perfect
Major Minor
Minor Major
Augmented Diminished
Diminished Augmented
So for example, the major 3rd which begins the above example becomes a minor 6th when
inverted.
For the most part, swapping the parts around is straightforward. The big exception is the consonant
perfect 5th, which becomes a dissonant 4th when inverted. So in our example, the 4th which occurs
on the last beat of bar 1 would be undesirable:
So, if you want to write a melody which can be inverted, you need to either avoid using a perfect 5th
on the beat, or alternatively you will need to alter the inverted melody to smooth out any awkward
4ths.
DISTANCE OF INVERSION
The distance of inversion in the above example is “at the octave”. To calculate the interval of
inversion, use the following formula:
Original-interval + Inverted-interval – 1 = Interval of inversion
The harmonic interval of the first beat in the original is a 3rd, and the inverted example has a 6th, so
the calculation is:
3+6-1 = 8 (octave)
Inversion “at the 15th” is equivalent to two octaves, and is often referred to as “at the octave” as
well.
Other intervals of inversion are possible, and Bach delighted in exploring them, but they are
relatively difficult to do correctly, because of the way dissonances appear in the inverted intervals.
60
To see how any intervals will invert, write out a series of numbers up to and including the interval of
inversion, then write the same numbers below, but in reverse order.
For example, if the interval of inversion is a 12th, write out the numbers 1-12, then the numbers 12-
1 below them:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(c.2) (c.3) (c.4) (c.5)
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
(c.5) (c.4) (c.3) (c.2)
Remember that a 9th is the same as compound 2nd (c.2), and so on.
You can easily see that the 6th is a problematic interval, because it will become a dissonant 7th
when inverted.
This simple two-part example shows inversion at the 12th. The original avoids the 6th, so that the
inversion remains consonant.
At the 12th, the original top part is placed below, at the same pitch as the original. The original
lower part is placed above, a 12th higher than previously:
When choosing an interval of inversion, you are restricted to distances that are smaller than the
widest interval (in exact terms) of the original. If the original includes an interval of a 15th for
example, you will not be able to successfully invert it at the 12th.

A good example of invertible counterpoint in action can be found in Bach’s four-part Fugue in G
minor from the Well Tempered Klavier Book Two, no. 16 (BWV 885). At bar 5, we find the following:
At bar 13, it is inverted at the 15th. The top part has been transposed down an octave into the lower
stave, and the lower part has been transposed up an octave into the upper stave:
We can establish that the interval of inversion is a 15th, by applying the formula given earlier. Take
any harmonic interval in the original, and compare it to the equivalent notes in the inverted version.
I have compared the first beat of the second bar, which is a 6th in the original, and a 10th in the
inverted version. 6+10-1=15, so the inversion is at the 15th.
At bar 28 the same ideas are placed in inversion at the 12th. The lower stave is the same as in the
previous example, transposed an octave higher, except for the A in bar 28, which is altered so it fits
melodically with the previous figure. The upper part is a 5th higher than the previous example. This
time the calculation is 6+7-1=12: inversion at the 12th.
Later in bar 36, there is yet another iteration. See if you can work out the interval of inversion
yourself (answer on the next page):
62
In the previous example, the interval we are comparing is a compound 5th (D-A). Using the formula
6+5-1=10, the interval of inversion is at the 10th. (Using the interval of a 13th we can work out
13+5-1=17, but in practice this is called “at the 10th” because it is simply an octave more than at the
10th.)
EXERCISES – WRITING INVERTIBLE COUNTERPOINT

(Example answers on the next page).
1) Write a counterpoint below the first two bars, then use the same melody above the third and
fourth bars, in inversion at the octave (15th). Avoid using perfect 5ths in bars 1-2, so that 4ths do
not occur in bars 3-4. The key is C major.
2) Write a counterpoint above the first two bars, then use the same melody below the third and
fourth bars, in inversion at the 12th. Avoid using 6ths in bars 1-2, so that 7ths do not occur in bars 3-
4. The key is A minor (the notes from the melodic minor scale are available).

EXAMPLE ANSWERS
Accented dissonances (passing note or auxiliaries) are marked with their resolutions, but other
melodic decorations are left unmarked.
1)
2)
64
FUGUE
Arguably the most complex type of contrapuntal composition is the fugue. The fugue is a complex
enough topic to warrant an entire book on its own, so this chapter will provide just a brief overview.
The word fugue derives from the Latin word “fuga”, to flee, and it characteristically has a “non-stop”
feeling to it. The most famous fugues are probably those written by J.S. Bach in his two volumes of
paired Preludes and Fugues, entitled The Well Tempered Klavier.
Fugues can be written for any number of voices, but most often they exist as three- or four-part
pieces.
STRUCTURE OF THE FUGUE

The format of the fugue generally follows this pattern (but you will of course find many variations on
this overall structure):
1. EXPOSITION
In this first section the main musical idea of the fugue is stated by each voice in turn. This
idea is called the subject.
 The subject is stated by Voice 1 (which could be any of the parts – top, middle or
bottom) in the tonic key, while the other parts remain silent.
 At the end of the subject, Voice 1 continues with new material (sometimes called a
countersubject if it is sufficiently interesting), while Voice 2 begins to play the subject,
but in a different key. Usually this is the dominant key. Voice 2’s entry is called the
answer. (If you are going to use invertible counterpoint later on, think about the
intervals between the subject and countersubject carefully). Often there is a short
linking idea between the subject and answer.
 In a three-part fugue, Voice 3 enters after Voice 2 has stated the answer. Voice 3 states
the subject in the tonic key again, while Voices 1 and 2 continue with other material.
 In a four-part fugue, Voice 4 normally enters in the tonic key, Voice 3 will either be in
the tonic or dominant key.

2. EPISODES/DEVELOPMENT
After each voice in turn has stated the subject/answer, the exposition is complete. The next section
is usually a number of episodes, whereby the subject/answer (and possibly countersubject) are
“juggled” between the parts, in a variety of keys. The subject may be adapted in various ways – by
the use of inverted/retrograde devices, or by simple alterations in order to fit the implied harmony
or to avoid grammatical errors such as consecutive consonances.
Traditionally, the music will pass through closely related keys, which are the dominant,
subdominant, relative key and parallel key, and those keys at a second level. For example, from the
tonic key of C major, the following are the closely related keys:
 G major (dominant) and at the second level: D major (dominant of dominant), E minor
(relative of dominant), G minor (parallel of dominant)
 F major (subdominant) and at the second level: Bb major (subdominant of
subdominant), D minor (relative of subdominant), F minor (parallel of subdominant)
 A minor (relative) and at the second level: E major (dominant of relative), D minor
(subdominant of relative), A major (parallel of relative)
 C minor (parallel) and at the second level: F minor (subdominant of parallel), Eb major
(relative of parallel)
Key changes are normally achieved via V7 in the new key. V7 is followed immediately by the tonic
chord in the new key. Very fast ripples of key changes can be achieved, if chord I instantly becomes
a pivot chord V(7) in a different key, for example:
 C major (I)
 A major +m.7th (VI7 in C / V7 in D)
 D major +m.7th (I in D / V7 in G)
 G major +m.7th (I in G / V7 in C
 C major (I)
During the developmental section, usually all the parts will have something to do - it is unusual to
find the texture reduced to one part - but individual voices may stop and start periodically.
False entries may occur – these are partial statements of the subject or countersubject
which are not played out in full.
Stretto is a technique whereby the voices overlap rapidly in a dovetailed fashion, where
statements of the subject/countersubject occur before the previous voice has finished.
Stretto sections impart a sense of increased tension, and are often found just prior to the
end of a fugue as a climax point.
3. CODA/END
After the development section, the subject is stated again, in the tonic key, and the piece draws to a
close.
The use of a pedal (sustained or repeated note on the dominant or tonic) may be employed, as a
signal that the piece is soon to end. The fugue ends in the tonic key.
66
WRITING FUGUES
Bach’s fugues can be fantastically complicated, difficult to analyse and perhaps off-putting as model
to copy, but at the same time many composers draw inspiration from them and would like to write
their own pastiche fugues.
For this reason, instead of dissecting one of the Bach’s pieces, in this section I will walk you through
one of my own compositions, to show what can be achieved by a “mere mortal”! The following
piece then, is intended to be “in the style” of Bach, without presuming to be anything as good, and
in the certainty that a Bach expert would detect many deviations from his idiom.
This is the method that I used for this three-part piece:
1. Invent a subject (you may of course borrow a tune from elsewhere).

2. Write the subject in a part of your choice (Voice 1), place rests in the other parts. [Bars 1-4, V1]
3. Continue with the subject converted into an answer by transposing it into the dominant and
placing in a different voice (Voice 2). Place rests in Voice 3. [Bars 5-8, V2]
4. Continue by stating the subject in the tonic again, in the third part. [Bars 9-12, V3]

5. Compose a counterpoint to the answer, to continue Voice 1. This could be a countersubject if
interesting enough – otherwise, simply write free counterpoint. [Bars 5-8, V1]
6. Continue the part of Voice 2, by using material from step 5, transposed/altered as necessary.
[Bars 9-12, V2]
7. Complete the counterpoint for Voice 1 to make a three-part texture – use ideas from the
subject/countersubject or free counterpoint. [Bars 9-12, V1]
At this point we have completed a 12 bar section, and the exposition is finished. It will be worth
checking everything over for errors before continuing.
68
In this case, there are consecutive 5ths between the bass and alto from the last notes of bar 9
(C-G) to the first of bar 10 (D-A). This can be fixed by altering the bass line to B:
8. Continue the development section by taking the subject/countersubject (in its entirety or in
fragments) and bouncing it around each part, in different keys. Experiment until you find
something that works.

Fill in the counterpoint in the other two parts, using previous ideas or free counterpoint. (I find it
easiest to work in short sections of 3-4 bars.)
9. Draw the fugue to a close by restating the subject in the tonic key. Add other material as
desired, and consider using a pedal in the bass. The subject reappears in bar 51 in the top part
here:
The complete fugue can be found in the Appendix A section of this book.
70
EXERCISES – WRITING FUGUES
Here are some fugue subjects which you can use to create your own 2-, 3- or 4-part fugues. A page
of printable manuscript paper is printed on the next page.
Also have a go at inventing your own subjects, or borrowing melodies from other pieces of music to
use as fugal subjects.

72
APPENDIX A – MUSICAL EXAMPLES

Ode to Joy – Two-Part Counterpoint
74
Bach Fugue No. 2 in C Minor

76
Fugue Exempli Gratia
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FURTHER STUDY RESOURCES
Belkin, Alan: The Principles of Counterpoint (PDF)
Fux, Joseph: The Study of Counterpoint – Gradus ad Parnassum
Hogwood, Christopher: The Trio Sonata
Jeppesen, Knud: Counterpoint - The Polyphonic Vocal Style of the Sixteenth Century
Kerman, Joseph: The Art of Fugue
Piston, Walter: Counterpoint
Youtube channel: “artofcounterpoint” for modern day pop songs turned into Baroque fugues e.g.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-bYBJAQ-_24
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Practical Counterpoint PDF

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Practical Counterpoint PDF

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Music Theory Skills

Copyright © 2017 Victoria Williams

All rights reserved.

A bound, printed copy of this book is available to purchase from: http://www.lulu.com/shop/victoria-

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

You can connect with Victoria Williams in the following ways:

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Renaissance counterpoint is:

 bound by strict rules

 much more relaxed regarding rules

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN IN THIS COURSE

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The distance between any two notes is described by number

 A vertical distance is called a harmonic interval and

To find an interval’s number, count up the letter names

An understanding of intervals is essential for understanding counterpoint – if you need more

All harmonic (vertical) intervals belong to one of three groups:

The perfect consonances are:

The imperfect consonances are:

 3rd (major or minor)

The dissonant harmonic intervals are:

 Melodic consonances: unison, 2nd, 3rd, p.4th, p.5th, 6th, octave.

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The following are some chords in C major:

Va = G major root position (root is the lowest note)

Vb = G major first inversion (third is the lowest note)

Vc = G major second inversion (fifth is the lowest note)

V7d = G7 third inversion (seventh is the lowest note)

CHORDS IN MINOR KEYS

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Unisons: 0 Perf. 4ths: 1 6ths: 3

2nds: 30 Dim. 5ths: 1 7ths: 0

3rds: 4 Perf. 5ths: 0 8ves: 0

LEAPS & STEPS

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PITCH LOCATION & RANGE

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 use all three notes of the chord in the melody, or

Some other useful facts about progressions are:

 Chord iii is very rarely used in Baroque and Classical music.

Here are some generalisations we can make about harmonic rhythm:

Some of the reasons are:

 The rhythm is identical in bars 1-3 and soon becomes tiresome.

 Start and end on the tonic.

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TWO-PART COUNTERPOINT: DEALING WITH THE HARMONY

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The following example is in C major.

Chord IV (F major) = no root F, third doubled

Chord ii (D minor) = no root D, fifth doubled

Chord vi (A minor) = doubled root A

TYPICAL INVERSIONS OF THE TRIAD

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THE DOMINANT 7TH CHORD

Adding the 7th to the triad means there are four

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 Perfect consonances are normally approached by contrary or oblique motion.

CONSECUTIVE PERFECT INTERVALS

a. Perfect 5th followed by a different perfect 5th Avoid

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PERFECT AND PLAGAL CADENCES

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 both melodies are equally important

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As well as avoiding the leap of a tritone, it is also advisable to avoid

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POSSIBILITIES AND CHOICES

Every note that you write will ideally be either:

You will need to keep a beady eye on:

 harmonic interval (consonant/dissonant) and implied chord/inversion

In our example, (the key is A major), we want to

First, we need to know which notes are consonant/dissonant below C#: