HAND LAY-UP FOR FRP FABRICATION

1. INTRODUCTION
Hand lay up refers to the manufacturing process for fibre reinforcement plastics
(FRP) products in which an operator deposites the thermoset resins and
reinforcements in or a mould by hand or by using hand tools. It is a non-
mechanical open mould manufacturing method and hence it is not a capital
intensive process. This method is also referred to in the literature as contact
moulding. Although hand lay up is suitable for making products with any types of
reinforcement fibres ,the method is widely used for making glass fibre reinforced
plastics (GRP) . Even after 50 years since the GRP was introduced, hand lay up is
the major process for the manufacture for GRP products. More than 90% of the
FRP moulders in India are engaged in this process of about 80% of the FRP
products manufactured in the country.

The history of hand lay up is almost as old as that of GRP itself. Carleton Ellis took
a patent in USA in 1937 for a mixture of an alkyd based resin and a reactive
monomer such as styrene which is curable at room temperature resulting in an
addition polymerization. This development together with the availability of glass
fibre provided the basis for the hand lay up moulding. The progress was
handicapped due to the fact that the resins were oxygen-inhibited and the air
exposed surfaces would remain tacky due to lack of curing. Dr. Irving Muscat
introduced paraffin as an additive to the resin which comes to the surface due to the
surface during cure and forms a barrier layer that cure of air inhibition. Since then
hand lay up was progressed at a very fast rate. Hand lay up can be used for any
thermoset resin system that is in liquid form under room temperature conditions so
that it can be applied on the mould using a brush. Polyesters, epoxides and certain
grades of Phenolics, furans, silicones, and polyamides satisfy the requirement. The
course module deal with not only the hand lay-up of glass fibre reinforced polyester
resins although the method can be extended to the other materials with suitable
modifications.

2. HAND LAY-UP AND ITS MATERIAL STRUCTURE

Hand lay-up method is used for depositing the materials and making the FRP
products in a mould. The mould has the shape of the product. Unlike in
compression or injection moulding process using a closed mould. Only a male or
female half of the mould is generally used in hand lay up. The product made in a
mould is called the moulding. The typical structure through the thickness o the hand
lay up product while it is being made in shown fig .1
a. Mould: The mould will have the shape of the product required. The product
will have only good smooth finish on the side that is in contact with the mould .the
choice of whether a male or a female mould is to be used depends on which side of
the product must have the good surface finish. If the outer surface is to smooth, the
product is made inside the female mould. Likewise if the inside side has to be
smooth, the moulding is done over the male mould. If the product requires a
glossy, mat or textured finish on the surface, the mould surface also should have the
respective finish. Since the imprint of any surface defects can be formed on the
product, the mould must be free from such defects.

b. Release Film or Layer: Since the resins used are highly adhesive, the product
may get stuck to the mould, if no proper mechanism is incorporated in between the
product and the mould. The release of product can be affected.
i) by the use of a release layer of wax or polyvinyl alcohol(PVA)
ii) By using a thin film like polyester film (mylar). Since the flat Mylar sheet has
to be cut so as to fit it to the mould profile, the latter method is not good for
complex shapes. Only flat sheets and singly curved shells can be made using such
films.
c) Gel coat: Gel coat is a thin layer of resin about 0.5 mm thickness is applied on
the outer surface of the product, if the product requires a superior finish. The
required colour of the product can be obtained by adding appropriate pigment to the
resin. The gel coat serves the following purposes:

i) The Gel coat provides the colour, glossiness or texture to the products.
ii) The Gel coat conceals the glass fibre pattern from seeing the surface.
iii) The Gel coat is also provides a resin rich protective layer that protects the
glass from getting in contact with water and chemicals.

If the gelcoat is too thin, the fibre pattern will become visible. If the gel coat is too
thick, crazing and star crack can appear on the gel coat.

d) Surface Mat Layer: when resin layer has to be thicker than the normal gel coat,
as in chemical equipment for increased corrosion resistance surface mat layer will
be provide beneath the gel coat layer . The surface mat is veil mat of very fine
fibres bonded in to the mat. The fibres are not of high strength like reinforcement
fibres, but the mat provides the required crack resistance and impact strength the
resin rich layer. Surface mat layer is an optional layer used only in specific cases.

e) Laminates of glass fibre: the glass fibre layers wetted with the resin laid up to
the required thickness and this finished material structure is called laminate. The
laminate provides the strength and rigidity to the product . Glass fibre in the form of
chopped stranded mat (CSM) is normally used . When higher strength is required
,woven roving mat may also used in between CSM . the layers are laid up one after
the another and are built up to the required thickness by providing sufficient number
of layers.
f). Finishing Surface Mat layer/resin coat: . The fibre glass laminate provides a very
rough inside surface. In order to provided a smoother surface, a surface mat layer or
a simply resin layer may be provided at the exposed surface and may be
smoothened with glossy material like mylar film. This is an optional layer.

3. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

This method is largely used in FRP industry for boat manufacturing ,automotive
components ,corrugated and flat sheets ,ducts ,tanks, furniture ,corrosion resistant
equipment etc. FRP moulds for medium scale production are also generally made
by hand lay-up moulding.

This large scale use of hand lay-up must be attributed to the simplicity of the
process. No costly machinery is required and instead simple tools like paint brushes
and rollers and accessible like mugs, buckets, knife etc are sufficient for
manufacture. There is practically no restriction on the size of the mould. Nearly all
shapes can be moulded and inserts of any shape and size can be incorporated either
to increase the mechanical properties or to realize functions. Colors and decorative
finishes can be obtained at one’s liking and this flexibility ensures a large market
for hand lay-up products. Finally, this method has to be used in all the lining works
of tanks, ducts and boats.

The limitations of the method include the following. This technique is labour
intensive and quality of the product depends largely on the skill and sincerity of
the operator. This method ensures only one finished surface and is unsuitable if the
finish is required on both the surfaces. For mass production of small items at very
high speed .this process normally cannot be controlled with press moulding.
Thickness cannot be controlled with any degree of accuracy. It is difficult to obtain
glass –to –resin ratio. Hand lay up method requires comparatively a low investment
and is ideally suited for small fabrication units.

4. SELECTION OF HAND LAY-UP AS A FABRICATION PROCESS

The choice of hand lay-up as a fabrication process depends largely on the product
requirements. Roughly, the following conditions favour hand lay-up as the method
of fabrication.

i) Only one side need to have good smooth finish

ii) Slight thickness variations are permissible
iii) labour charges are not prohibitively high
iv) The product is large in size and is very complex in shape
v) Only a few numbers of mouldings are required and number of moulding does
not justify the use of costly metal dies and press mouldings.
5. MOULDS
Open mould process of FRP fabrication makes use of only the male or female half
of the mould. Since the pressure is not applied in hand lay-up and spray –up
methods, the moulds need not be strong as the moulds used in compression
moulding . also when heating is not required metallic moulds are not essential.
Open mould hand lay up and spray-up can be done in moulds made out of plaster
of Paris ,wood or metals. By and large ,plaster of Paris mould is good for one or at
the most two pieces as the mould may break during the release. Wooden mould
requires finishing work on mould after every cycle of moulding .FRP and cast
epoxy moulds are ideal for intricate shapes. For very important work and when
heating and/pressing is required ,metallic moulds have to be made use of. Seasoned
teak and rose wood are ideal for mould making

a. Design Parameters. Mould design is an important step in the overall process

as a well designed mould can give convenience in moulding and minimum rejection
rates.

i. Material Selection: plaster of Paris. Teak wood or rose wood .tool grade
polyester and epoxy resins, aluminium and die steel etc. are good material for
mould making

Epoxy resins are better than polyester resins as the former has less shrinkage and
less chipping of mould surfaces . However ,since epoxies are costlier ,they are
used for high precision moulds .

ii. Mould Thickness: The thickness of mould shall be such that the mould should
not deform excessively during lay-up pressing if and releasing the pressing .Since
GRPis a costly material, the right thickness shall be chosen for GRPmoulds.for
small size products, particularly for doubly curved ,a GRP mould shall have a
thickness equal to twice the thickness of the product. For large size panels and
relatively flat products ,it may be economical to provide closely spaced ribs or
stiffeners rather than increasing the mould thickness . Steel or timber stiffeners can
be provided for better stiffening. A maximum stiffner spacing of 50 mm can be
provided for flat moulds. Since GRP made of chopped strand mat has very low
Young’s modulus and since wall is invariably thin ,edge warping of mould can
occur and to avoid this suitable flanges or stiffeners must be provided all round the
edges.

iii. Mould Trim Line Size: for press moulding and injection moulding, the moulds
are normally made in such a way that the mould cavity will have the exact
dimensions of the product. In hand lay-up ,however the products are normally made
with extra cutting and trimming allowance so that the product will have the actual
dimensions after trimming. In the case of cold pressing ,the extra facility or space
must be given in the mould for holding the excess resins squeezed out during
pressing . this can be achieved by providing about ½” wide extra glass mat all
round which will act as a bleeder layer for absorbing the resin. Suitable spacers
must be provided for controlling the product thickness . the mould dimensions have
to be slightly larger than the product dimensions for holding the trim lines and the
bleeder layers.

Iv. Mould Taper: For deep drawn products a taper has to be provided for easy
release 1 in 1000 taper for epoxy and a 1 in 100 taper for polyester are found to be
adequate for easy release of the product.

Slit Mould Design: for large size components and deep drawn mouldings and for
products with undercuts, splits moulds have to be invariably provided. flanged and
bolted connections can be used for the assembly . flange area should be 50%
thicker than the mould shell thickness . the flange thickness has to be decided
depending up on the size of the mould. A minimum flange width of 30 mm with
staggered bolting array must be provided.

b. Pattern and Pattern Making: when the mould is made up of GRP or sprayed
mats, the mould making requires a pattern for smaller jobs, pattern can be made of
carving the wood which can be used again and again. also for products like
boats,the pattern or the plug is made of wood can be made of wood assembling
planks or plywood. However, if the product is very large in size and is of complex
shape like an automobile industry ,making a wooden pattern is difficult and costly.
Plaster of Paris pattern can be made in such cases.

c. Plaster of Paris pattern and moulds:

If only one or two products are required plaster of Paris can be directly used for
mould making. The procedures for pattern or mould making out of plaster of Paris
that sets and driers can be used. If the thickness is more than 15 to 25 mm, the
plaster will take a long time to dry. Therefore the construction of the mould or
pattern shall be such that the plaster used shall be thin, but should not cause any
cracking. To prevent cracking during drying, chopped fibre can be added to the
plaster. Fig .2 shows the typical structure of a plaster of Paris pattern by adopting
which it is possible to use a thin layer of plaster.

Plaster moulds or patterns can be made by four methods:

i) Rotational sweeping
ii) Linear sweeping
iii) By using templates and screening
iv) By sculpturing
If the product has an axismmetric shape, the pattern or mould can be shaped by
rotating a template having the profile of the product with respect to its axis of
revolution and sweeping the plaster to reproduce the shape. Linear sweeping is
used for products having the same profile along its length as in corrugated sheet. A
metallic template having the profile is prepared which is swept along its length as in
corrugated sheet. A metallic template having the profile is prepared which is swept
along the length under guides to reproduce the shape. If the product is of irregular
shape, templates can be prepared to represent the product profile at regular
intervals. If these templates are located, at their respective positions, they represent
the shape of the product. The spaces between the templates are filled with plaster of
Paris. Using longitudinal straight edge and taking the adjacent templates as guides,
the plaster is shaped. The sculpturing technique is used carve a profile from the
approximately cast plaster of Paris. This technique can be used only by expert
sculptures. If proper care is taken, the first three methods can reproduce the shape
with very high precision.

Plaster of Paris has a porous surface and it cannot give a perfect smooth finish.
Hence, the pattern when it dries must be further finished with a non-oil based putty
like nitro cellulose putty or Deco putty. After applying the putty, the surface can be
polished with emery paper until a near smooth finish is obtained. Finally the Deco
putty thinned with Deco thinner can be sprayed on the surface and polished further
with 400 grade emery paper and rubbing compounds until a glossy finish is
obtained.

GRP Moulds: sprayed metal moulds can be made by spraying the molten metal in
to a pattern. Such moulds will have better rigidity and dimensional stability

6. MOULD PREPARATION AND APPLICATION OF RELEASE AGENTS

The mould surface must be thoroughly cleaned and must be free from dirts, cracks,
and crevices before the release agent is applied. If the mould has been previously
used for moulding the products, the resins, PVA and other materials remaining on
the surface must be thoroughly removed. The mould surface is then coated with a
silicone free wax (e.g., mansion polish) which is then thoroughly polished to give a
smoothie glossy finish. If the mould is new, several applications of the wax
necessary to build up sufficient releasing effect. In the case of certain waxes,
complete release may be difficult with wax alone. In such cases, after the
application of the waxes, a layer of poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) is applied .PVA is a
water soluble material and a 15% solution in water is supplied with a sponge. Brush
applications will leave brush lines. When the water evaporates, a thin film of PVA
forms on the mould surface. This film assists the ready removal of the moulding
from the mould. Later the PVA film can be washed of from the mould and the
moulding. Since the defects in the releasing film are readily reproduced in the gel
coat, care must be taken to apply the film uniformly. It is also necessary to se that
PVA film is completely dry and if any wet patch is left, it may interfere with the
curing of the gel coat perhaps creating wrinkles called ‘elephant skin 15% solution
of MEK or cellulose acetate, a polyvinyl chloride, casein .carboxy-methyl cellulose
and methyl cellulose are tee other film formers that can be used as release agents.

7. GEL COAT APPLICATION

The gel coat resin is generally of the same grade as the lay-up resin .if the is to be
subsequently painted the gel coat will be of pure resin and not pigmented and it will
be very thin. In all other cases, a specially prepared gel coat resin system will be
used.

Polyester gel coat resin is thixotropic resin to which pigments, catalyst and
accelerator can be added. Thixotropy is a property by which a liquid ordinarily
remains as a thick viscous fluid with very little flow, but when a force, like stirring
with a brush or stick is applied, flows easily like a relatively low viscous fluid.
Because of the thixotropy, if a gel coat resin is applied on a surface, as soon as the
brush is removed the resin becomes viscous and this prevents the flow of resin
while it is applied on vertical or inclined surfaces. Gel coat resin can be applied on
the mould surface by a brush or by a spay gun and the degree of the thixotropy of
resin different for these two applications. Gel coat resin can be purchased in ready
mixed form fro resin manufactures. Pigmented gel coat resins are also available.
Gel coat resins can be mixed by the moulder in his workshop as described below.

i) By adding about 2 to 3% aerosol powder to the resin and stirring it well, the
aerosol powder provides the required thixotropy.
ii) The viscosity of the resin can also be increased by adding 300 meshes or
finer calcium carbonate or other fillers. The filler percentage must be as low as
possible since if the filler loading is high, the resin will flow due to more weight
and the cured resin will become very brittle. However such gel coats with fillers
should not be used in products like chemical equipments, boats and other products
that are in contact with water or corrosive chemicals. Pigments of the required
percentage can be mixed with the resin by the moulder himself. Titanium dioxide
and carbon black can be added to give white and black colours respectively. Fillers
like calcium carbonate for opacity, silicon carbide for improved wear resistance
and metallic powder for heat conductivity can also be added. For products exposed
to sunlight or ultraviolet rays, UV stabilizers also must be added to the gel coat
resin. The required quantity of gel coat mix for a batch of products of same colours
can be mixed at any time by adding pigments and accelerator and stored. This will
avoid colour variation from product to product. Always, a little gelcoat mix must
be left for eventual repairs of the defects, if any observed in the product when it is
released from the mould.
Gel coat resin when applied must be free of air bubbles, particles and dirts. When
the gel coat is applied with a brush, a wide brush with long soft hairs must be used.
The hairs should not be loosened and deposited o the surface. About 600 gsm of
resin will be required to give 0.05mm thick gel coat on 1 sq m area. This will be
applied in two coats to prevent brush marks from showing. The second coat is
applied only when the first coat is suffiently gelled or cured. The gelatin condition
can be determined by touching it. If it feels tack free, but a finger mark is left on the
gel coat, it is considered gelled and further lay up of resin application can be done.

8. SURFACE MAT LAYER

The surface mat layer, if provided must be applied only after the gel coat layer gels.
Otherwise the surface finish will be affected. The surface mat can be any of the
following.

i) Glass fibre surface tissue ma of appropriate composition (E, C etc,).

ii) Polyester woven cloth of fine thickness.
iii) Nylon woven cloth of fine thickness.

A thin layer of resin is applied on the surface, the mat is placed in position and it is
gently wetted with a brush. It may not be lightly rolled with the roller (see 28.9) to
remove air bubbles. The lay up of glass fibre laminate starts when the resin is
gelled.

9. LAY-UP LAMINATES

Since the glass fibre is laid up layer by layer, the finished lay up is called laminates
and the process is called lamination. The first layer of laminate shall invariably be a
chopped strand mat layer. Lamination shall satisfy the following requirements:

i) The glass fibre layers shall be uniformly placed and they shall fit correctly in
to the contours of the product.
ii) The glass fibre shall not be damaged during lay-up
iii) The fibre to resin ratio shall be correctly maintained.

Lay –up can start as soon as the gel coat layer gels. Lay up resin can also done even
the gel coat has cured.

a).Preparation of Resin Mix: The resin mix required for up to a week’s work can
be prepared and kept ready for use. The mix shall consist of the resin, accelerator,
fillers and additives if any. The addition of accelerator to the resin before hand will
not cause any cross linking until catalyst is added to the resin. The accelerated
resins supplied by the manufacturers can also be used for preparing the resin mix.
Pigments are generally not added to the lay-up resin except, in some cases, to the
first and last layers of the laminates.
The filler, accelerator and other additives are weighed, added to the resin and are
mixed thoroughly. The mixing can be done either manually using a paddle or by
using an air operated mixer. Electrically operated mixers are not recommended
because the styrene vapour can catch fire if sparks are generated in the motor.
Vigorous stirring can cause entrapped of air bubbles and, therefore, mixing shall be
done at very low rpm. The resin mix can be prepared at least one day ahead so that
the entrapped air bubbles partly escape before lay-up begins. The containers in
which resin mix is stored may be closed air tight to minimize the vaporization and
loss of styrene. The container shall be kept in cool place, in order to avoid any
gelling.

b) Preparation of the Glass Fibre Mat: Glass fibre mat required for lay-up shall
be prepared from the big roll by cutting the required shape. The required number of
layers for obtaining the total thickness can be determined by taking in to account
the mat density and glass to fibre ratio by weight. When several mouldings have to
be made using the same mould, templates for cutting the mat can be prepared for all
successive layers and this will help to cut the mat to the required size without any
wastage. The following points must be taken to note of while preparing the mat:

i) The joints coming in a layer shall be away from the corners

ii) Whenever joints come, there shall be a minimum overlap of 25 mm in the
case of chopped strand mat and a 50 mm overlap in the case of roving mat.
iii) The joints in successive layers must be so staggered that they should not come
one over the other.
iv) Whenever there is a change in thickness, the thickness must not be abruptly
changed and, instead it must gradually change. The mat for successive layers must
be so cut that a slope of 1 in 6 is obtained.

c)Tools for Lay-up: Weighing balances, rollers, mugs and squeeze bottles are
the only tools and equipment required for hand lay-up. Weighing balance required
for weighing the chemicals. Brushes are used for both gel coat application and for
lamination. Brushes made of horse hair bonded well with an adhesive that will not
dissolve in the styrene of the polyester resin shall be used for the job. Brushes can
be initially used for the application of resin on the reinforcement of layers. Any
brush hair that gets dislodged and deposited during the resin application can be
removed by hand as it may discolour the cured laminate. Rollers are used in
removing the air bubbles or for applying the resin. A finned roller as shown in fig
28.4 made from a solid block cutting circumferential grooves can be made out of
steel, brass or aluminium... Alternatively .a split washer roller can be made
alternatively assembling large and small washers made from metal or PTFE
(Teflon). Long rollers are used to consolidate large areas. But short length rollers
are used for the corners and curved surfaces. Resin application rollers are similar to
the painting. Rollers and are made of lambs wool or horse hair. The roller can be
dipped in resin and the resin can be rolled on to laminates. An alternate design in
which resin is gravity fed in to the roller from a storage container at a pre-
determined rate has also been in use. These types of rollers are not convenient for
the hot climate of India where resin can cure very fast on the roller , if the roller
is not frequently cleaned in a solvent like acetone. Hence brush is used ,by and
large ,in India for resin application small bowls or mugs of about 500 gm are used
for taking the resin mix for lay-up. To this small quantity ,the required percentage
of catalyst is added from a squeeze bottle. This is then stirred well and the resin is
laid up with the brush . the process will be repeated and this will avoid the mixing
of too much quantity of resin with the catalyst at a time. It is also possible for the
operator to judge the area over which the resin in bowl can be applied to get the
required fibre-to –resin ratio.

d) Solvents: solvents are required for cleaning the rollers and brushes while lay-up.
Acetone or nitrocellulose thinner can be used as solvent. A container with the
solvent shall be kept ready so that the brushes and the rollers can be dipped in it in
between lay-ups. At the end of a day’s work, the brushes and rollers shall be
washed in soap water using warm water and dried for next day’s use.

e) Lamination procedure: lay up can start when all items described in sections (a|
to (d) are ready. First a layer of resin is applied with a brush on a gel coat which has
already gelled or cured. The chopped strand mat is then carefully placed over the
resin. By stippling action using resin wetted brush, the resin is squeezed to the top
surface. Care shall be taken to see that the required glass to resin ratio is uniformly
obtained. Using the finned or split washer roller the layer is consolidated and the air
bubbles removed. It is important that all the air entrapped in the first layer is
removed. Otherwise the air entrapped between the gel coat and the first layer of mat
will expand later causing blistering. Adjacent pieces of mats shall be properly
overlapped. Care must be taken to thicken the corners. After the first layer is laid
up., subsequent layers are laid up in a similar. At a time, more than four layers of
resin and glass mat should not be applied without allowing the resin the cure. If too
many layers are applied before the resin cures, temperature due to exothermic heat
may build up on the gel coat, debonding of layers and discoloration on the resin.
Also successive laminations should not be delayed toolong as it can give difficulty
for the new layer to bond with the old layers. When WRM is laid up, CSM is used
in between in order to increase the interlaminar shear strength. The lay up
procedure for WRM and CSM are identical except that less resin is used for WRM.

f). Curing of the Resin: The resin when applied on the mat in the liquid stage .
The catalyst added to the resin just before lay-up reacts with the accelerator and the
peroxide is liberated . The peroxide act as the catalyst, which breaks open the
unsaturated sites in the polyester resin. These sites then cross link with the styrene.
the resin during this curing process undergoes through four stages.

i. Gelation State: it is the stage at which the resin becomes tack free and
unworkable . it is the stage at which cross linking operation begins. All lay-up
operations must be done before gelation . The gelation time depends on the
 percentage of catalyst and accelerator added, but in normal curing process, it
shall be about 15 to 30 minutes.
ii. Green Stage: this is a stage at which the resin resembles to a hard cheese which
when pressed with thumb breaks up. If the product released from the mould it will
not have sufficient rigidity to retain the shape. The resin is considered to be set but
not cured. This stage is called the green stage . The excess materials at the free edge
can be trimmed at this with scissors or a knife.

iii. Cured Stage: It is the stage at which more than 90% of the cure is complete.
The product can be released from the mould at this stage.

iv. Fully Cured Stage: It is the stage at which the best physical properties of any
moulding are developed. The length of this process depends on the temperature of
the production shop, but it may take 5 to 10 days. If the product has already been
released from the mould, it may be placed in a dummy mould in order to avoid any
warping during the final cure. The curing process can be accelerated by post curing
the product at elevated temperature. At fully cured state, GRP will produce a
metallic sound if it is tapped with a coin.

g) Release of the Moulding from the Sand: Removing a cured moulding from the
mould shall be done carefully. Parts and even the mould can be disfigured or
completely destroyed by careless handling. Proper design of moulding and moulds
can help the easy release. Anyone of the following methods can be used for
releasing the product.

i. Construct a grapple point in the part so that when hoist is engaged to lift
upwards, the weight of the mould will cause it to drop it.
ii. Mould flanges on the edge of the part where wedges may be inserted and by
tapping them around the perimeter upward pressure is exerted on the part.
Water can be poured in to the space between the mould and the part which may
assist the release.
iii. For laminates which are thin in relation to length and width, air holes can be
built in to the mould at appropriate points. Compressed air can be pumped in
through these holes which lift the part from the mould. Instead of air, water
pressure can also be used.

iv. When parts are large in size and when there are reverse curvature, split moulds
can be used for releasing the product. Since the polyester resin shrinks, it may
hold firmly the male mould causing difficulty to release. In such cases, it is
Advisable to provide these moulds with collapsible parts.

For very difficult and complex parts several of these methods are used in
conjuction. Any cured laminate hanging over the edge of he mould should be
checked to see that it does not mechanically stop ejection causing material to tear. If
minor bonding occurs, vibration and moderate pressure may help the part to
separate from the mould. If major bonding however occurs causing it difficult to
release, it is usually better to sacrifice the part rather than the mould because of the
time saved for the preparation of another mould.

10. TROUBLE SHOOTING GUIDE

Quite a number of things can go wrong with FRP laminations particularly with in –
experienced operators. The main causes are usually poor techniques, lack of care,
working in damp conditions or using wrong proportions of materials. Following is a
list of some of troubles and their causes.

11. PRODUCT DESIGN

While the lay-up procedures is the same as that in sections 4 to 7 for all hand lay-
up products, their design can change with special requirements. Some of these are
described below.

a. Product Shape Design: There is no general restriction on the shape of the

product that can be made by open mould fabrication. However, it is convenient if
the shape allows the used of a single piece mould. When there is a reverse
curvature, when product is too large in size and when product is made over male
moulds, split moulds are necessary. The width and the depth of the component must
be such that brush and roller have easy access to all parts. Slight taper in the part is
necessary for release of the product from the mould. Wherever possible ribs or
flanges may be provided near cut edges, openings etc. for preventing warping of the
product. Table 28.1 gives the various allowable dimensions and other design
features in the open mould fabrication of products.

b. Thickness Design: The thickness of the product is governed by the

function and loads acting on the product. It is important that the number of layers or
amount of fibre at each section of the product must be specified rather than
thickness. For all instrument covers, ornamental works etc .there should be at least
one layer of 450g/sq.m CSM. For all products subjected to loads, there should be
minimum of two layers of 450g/sq.m CSM. For all tanks and containers for storing
liquids, there should be a minimum of three layers of CSM. At all corners,
thickness and no of layers of mat should be 50% more than those in adjacent
sections. It is possible to vary thickness of the product by varying the number of
layers.

c. Lay-up Design: For all products exposed to atmospheric weathering or corrosive

environment, the first and last layer must be of CSM. Whenever, woven roving mat
is used CSM must be laid in between woven roving layers, for obtaining good
interlaminar shear strength. At all points of overlapping, 25 mm overlapping has to
be provided. Whenever successive layers of mats have to be over lapped, these
lapping sections must be staggered. If possible, all over lapping sections must be
away from the corners. Whenever there is a change in thickness, the change must be
obtained by extending the successive layers by 6 mm in the case of 450 CSM
chopped strand mat laminates.

Corners: It is possible to make hand lay-up product with a radius of curvature of 6

mm at its corners. When lay-up is made in side a mould, sharp 90 degree corners
can be made by filling the corner first with resin wetted rovings or chopped fibre
until a curvature is found and then laying up with chopped strand mat. However,
such corners will have poor interlaminar strength and hence this method shall be
used for decorative process. For all load bearing parts, a curvature of 30 mm shall
be provided at all corners.

Table .1 design features ()

d.Design Rules: this table is a guide to help you select hand lay up or spray up.
Note that there is considerable flexibility in part design and minor variations
between hand lay up and spray up. Your decision as to what process to be used may
be based on cost of mould and production rates required for the finished part.

e.Flanges : Since GRP products are generally thin with low stiffness, warping of
free edges can occur both during moulding and in use. Flanges or stiffeners
provided at the free edges can avoid warping and can provide rigidity to the
product. The choice of the flange or stiffener depends on the end use of product
and on the moulding process. If flanges are provided with their width and thickness
are designed taking in to account the rigidity required and whether both connections
have to be provided . The thickness shall be at least twice that of the adjacent wall
thickness.

f.Inserts : Inserts, metallic, wooden or plastic, can be easily incorporated in

hand lay-up process for attaching other parts or for subsequent assembly. The
laminate is increased in thickness around the insert to hold it in place and to
distribute the stress adequately so that pulling out or shearing of the insert can be
prevented. Such inserts are made with large perforated heads in the case of threaded
bolts to ensure adequate bonding.

g. stiffeners : Stiffeners can be provided to increase the rigidity of the product . the
stiffeners can be any one of the following types:

i. Hollow FRP stiffeners called hat sections(Fig 5a)

ii. Ribbed stiffeners(Fig 5b)
iii. Wooden stiffeners(Fig 5c)
iv. Steel stiffeners (Fig 5d)

The type, size, location and spacing depend on the type of product. A former is used
in first two types of lay-up. In the latter two types, GRP layers are provided around
the stiffeners in order to bond it with the laminate and also to protect the stiffener
from rusting, decay or corrosion. The number of layers for encasing the stiffener
depends on the load, stiffener size and protection required. The lay-up in all these
cases must be brought and bonded to the laminate in such a way that each layer gets
bonded to the laminate at least for 12 mm width.

h.Sandwich Lamination : Sandwich lamination is generally done by

bonding GRPlayers on either side of a core material like honeycomb, rigid foam,
corrugated sheets or balsa wood. In the case of a polyurethane foam core, it is also
possible to make sandwich by pouring the resin mix in to the space between two
skins by allowing to have in-situ foaming.

i.Joining : When the product is very large in size, it may be necessary

sometimes to make the product in parts and to join them together by lay-up. If
possible, such lines of joints must be away from corners and regions of high
stresses. elements before joining must be cut to the required dimensions so that
when they placed by butting against one another ,they are joined by adding extra
layers on the rough side, in such a way that the strength of the joint is more than the
corresponding strength of the adjacent laminate.

12. ESTIMATION OF COST AND MATERIALS

Table 2 gives a format for the estimation and cost of a hand lay-up product. Such a
calculation is very often necessary for fixing the product price, for purchasing the
materials and for preparing the resin mix for daily consumption. Fig 5.

13. PRODUCT PLANNING

i. production plant

a well planned production unit is a must for improving the production efficiency.
While the proper planning of a product shop can be done effectively only if the
specific production items are taking in to account, it is possible to give certain broad
guidelines as to how a plant should be set up.

ii. Depending upon the type of products made ,GRP production units can be
classified in to two groups:

a. Units making custom built products.

b. Units manufacturing routine/proprietory products.

Different types of stiffeners (FIGURES 5)

 Custom built products are made to suit to the special needs of the customers. Very
often, it will be a one –of item or a few items. Chemical equipment, building
components interior decoration items etc. are typical examples of custom built
products. Each such product has to be specially made and the production process,
testing etc. has to be individually planned. The plant for making custom –built
products should have the technical expertise in that and have good designers and
pattern and mould makers for carrying out the work. Each such work must be
planned as a project.

In the case of routine items, a product is made in many numbers repeatedly using
the same design and the same mould. The production operation becomes routine.
Technical know how ,design and moulds can, if necessary ,be brought out from the
consultans,instead of maintaining designers and mould makers in the pay roll for
once in a while job.

While depending upon the type of products and processes, the plant lay out can
vary. The objective of a proper layout is to have easy flow of production operation
from one section to another. A plant shall essentially consist of the following
operational section or areas.

i. Store for stocking raw materials

ii. Material preparation section including mat cutting and weighing resin
mixing etc.
iii. A mould making section
iv. Mould including curing
v. Inspection and quality control section
vi. Machining, polishing, joining, painting etc.
vii. Aspace for packingforwardingand stocking finished products.
viii. Production planning and scheduling

The following points shall be given special care in a production shop:

i. FRP production makes use of a variety of costly fibres, resins and auxiliary
chemicals some of which have fairly short shelf life. Inventory control is very much
essential to minimize stocking, raw materials and products for a longer period.

ii.The production of operation must be planned to have minimum rate of rejection.

Products of below standard quality cannot be recycled, reused or cannot be easily set
right. Quality should be controlled at every stage of operation starting from raw
materials selection.

iii. Repairs and finishing operations are very costly and time consuming.
Production method must be planned to minimize repairs and finishing work. For
example, polishing a mould before a lay-up work can minimize of eliminate the need
to polish all the products made out of the mould. It is wiser to spend a little bit of time
to attend the repairs and polishing of the moulds.

iv. The weighing and mixing of just enough, material can avoid wastage. If catalyst
is added to more than required resin mix, the excess quantity will set and become
waste.

v. The production operation in a shop floor must be well planned for efficient
production.

vi. A good hygienic and safe environment must be good.

vii. The storage of inflammable materials must be done with adequate precaution so
that fire hazard could be eliminated. Smoking and spark generating production
operations near the inflammable chemicals and FRP products must be strictly
prohibited.

viii. The production shop and store must be free of dampness and excessive
humidity as it would interfere with the polymerizations of reins.

ix. Quality control and inspection are essential for ensuring good product standards.

x. Wherever possible, labour saving tools, equipment and machines shall be used
which will take away the drudgery work. The production efficiency may be very
much improved, if such tools and equipment used.

14 REPAIRS

During its operational life a GRP boat or car body or tank can get damaged.
Generally, the damages are due to impact loading and are localized around the point
of impact and it is possible to carry out a speedy, safe and effective repair.

Repair work must be carried out under whenever possible and normal temperature
and humidity conditions. Humidity should not exceed 60-70 percent, since it can
affect the cure of the resin. The surface to be repaired must be and free from dust.
Otherwise, the repairs may refuse to stick to the original laminate. The tools used for
hand lay-up are enough for carrying out good repairs. Chopped strand or woven mat
can be used as the reinforcements. General purpose polyester resin will enable
satisfactory repairs to be carried out. The rein should be preaccelerated and catalyst
should be added just before use. Under no circumstances, the accelerator and catalyst
should come in direct contact with each other as spontaneous combustion or
explosion will occur.

Depending upon the severity of impact, four types of damages can occur on aGRP
boat hull, car body or tank.,

i. Hairline Fracture(Fig .6a)

These are cracks confined to surface gel coat and do not penetrate in to the main
laminate.

ii. Grazes (Fig. 6b)

These are results of abrasion, rubbing of the gel coat and exposing the fibre glass
reinforced laminate beneath.

iii. Impact Failure (Fig .6c)

These are caused by a hard blow and the laminate itself is grazed and damaged,
although it is not completely penetrated.

v.Punctures

These are caused by a harder blow or impact with a pointed object and there is a
definite hole through the laminate.

Each type of damage requires a different repair procedure and are detailed below.

i. Repairing a hardline fracture

Remove any external obstruction covering the damaged surfaces.(b) Enlarge the
hairline fracture in to a very V-shaped grove, using the corner of a chisel or a file
,deep enough to penetrate the gel coat completely and expose the main FRPlaminate
beneath.(c) Prepare and activate a small quantity of filled resin (which is best for the
purpose) or a general purpose resin with filer powder is added.. Work this in to the
groove, using a board knife, until it is slightly proud of the external surface, leave the
repair to dry completely.(d) Smooth down the cured repair with grade 320 wet and
dry abrasive, used because too vigorous rubbing down can result in the original gel
coat the repair being depressed or even removed to expose the FRP main laminate
beneath.(e) When the repaired area is very large ,a gap may appear between the
repair and the original laminate due to resin shrinkage . to remedy this ,stage ‘C’
above should be repaired (f) The scratches left by the 320 grade abrasive are removed
by grade 400 abrasive used wet and finished off with a fine rubbing compound . The
repair can be painted to match the finished colour of the product.
ii. Repairing a Graze

The repair procedure is identical to that used for a hairline fracture. A graze is more
extensive and, instead of a V-notch, a larger section of the surface will require cutting
back to the main laminate.

iii. Repairing an impact Fracture

Remove any external or internal obstructions in the way of damaged area. Enlarge the
fracture in to a V-shaped grove .taking care that the damaged laminate is removed to
the full depth of the fracture or continue the groove right through the laminate and
form a slot and brush off any loose powder.

Cut four strips of chopped strand mat. The smallest of which should be 25mm larger
all round than the slot. The other three should increase in size progressively by 12
mm all around. Apply a liberal coat of activated resin over the entire sanded inside
area of the laminate, then lay the smallest strip of mat in position covering the slot,
and stipple the activated resin with a brush onto the mat, taking care not to press the
strip into the slot. Concentrate on stippling the area of overlap on the old laminate,
when the strip is thoroughly impregnated, roll carefully and gently to remove air
stripped-in. place the next larger strip in position on the top of the first place and
stipple the activated resin. The procedure is repeated till all the four strips are laid and
then left to cure.

When this new backing laminate has cured, the groove must be rebuilt by using CSM
dough or pieces of preimpregnated CSM to within 2.5 mm of the outer surface. The
repair is then completed by sanding down and polishing the outer surface.

iv. Repairs of a Puncture

The procedure adopted for repairs in GRP puncture are as follows:

1. Mark out an area well clear of the damaged laminate.

2. Drill and saw along the above outline to remove the damaged laminate from the
main body.
3. File the edges of the hole all around from inside to obtain a bevel edge sloping
inwards and clean out thoroughly.
4. Choose a sufficiently flexible fascia board which can provide high gloss surface
on one side. It should be sufficiently flexible to be able to following the contour of
the main body and yet be stiff enough to withstand deformation due to hand pressures
created during lay-up of lamination. Size of the board should be sufficient to cover an
area larger than the cut-out hole. Drill small holes around the edges of the board.
5. Drill corresponding holes around the fracture hole of the main body. Polish the
fascia boards and apply release agent thoroughly. Agents such as polyvinyl
alcohol solution, wax or mylar film may be chosen suitably. Fix the fascia board
to the main body by bolting through the drilled holes tightening it closely to the
body contour. The fracture hole is now ready for lamination.
6. Cut fibre glass reinforcement in the shape of the hole, increasing the size layer by
layer, to suit the bevel edge of the hole.
7. Prepare gel coat resin and apply at a rate appropriate to the original gel coat. This
is applied from the inside on the prepared and bolted fascia board area visible at
the fractured hole. Allow to gel till tacky.
8. Prepare resin while gel coat is curing. When this gel coat is ready first apply resin
layer at the specified rate. Place the first cut piece of fibre glass reinforcement
over the resin and consolidate by grooved roller to remove air bubbles and to wet-
out the reinforcement completely.
9. Apply another layer of resin and lay the next larger size of the cut piece
consolidated by roller.
10. Repeat the process with successively higher size of the cut piece till laminate is
flush with the main body. Allow to cure.
11. When the lamination has sufficiently cured (within 8 to 10 hours depending on
curing system used, resin, and ambient conditions), remove bolts and release the
fascia board from the outside surface. Fill in the bolt holes with resin putty. Clean
outer surface mildly around the holes with solvent to retain glossy finish.
12. Apply a further back up layer of reinforcement and resin on the repaired laminate
covering an area larger than the repair area and allow to cure.
13. Post cure fully as recommended before part is ready for use as good as new.

15. QUALITY CONTROL DURING HAND LAY-UP

Since hand lay-up is a highly labour intensive method, quality of the product made
can have wide variations. It is a well known fact that human actions and behaviour
are not consistent and if proper controls are not exercised during manufacture, this
inconsistent behaviour lead to inconsistencies in the product quality. Even blunders
like not giving the fibre over lap, not adding catalyst etc. can occur. Fig.7 shows how
strength variations have taken place in the tensile and flexural strengths of the
laminate when three different operations made the laminate by four different methods
(lay up with brush and rolling, soaking, squeezing will a squeeze etc.). It is therefore
essential to control the quality by controlling manufacturing process. Since the
procedure depends greatly on the product, it is not possible to give a universally
applicable quality control procedure here for all hand lay-up products. However,
certain aspects of quality control that are applicable for hand lay-up irrespective of
the product can be given as follows:
Only those persons who are well disciplined and who have patience to do the various
operations systematically must be engaged for hand lay up work. The workers must
be taught and made aware of various operations and the need to adhere to these
operations. A quality control check list must be drawn for each product for checking
the quality by the supervisor. Some of the points that are common for all hand lay-up
operations are given in table 3. The quality control procedure must be evaluated /
inspected periodically by the user / inspection agency in order to make sure that the
procedures are correctly followed. When the product manufacture continues for
several days, the columns (3) to (8) in table 28.3 can be used for each days entry in a
aweek. If each products is made is less than a day each column can be used for
checking the quality of each product. Column (9) is for the entries to be made by the
user / inspection agency during their evaluation.

The quality control sheets must be prepared and filed which must be made available
the user / inspection agency.

16. LINING OF STEEL AND CONCRETE STRUCTURES

The excellent corrosion resistance of GRP makes it an ideal material for lining the
steel or concrete chemical equipment and vessels used for storing chemical
equipment and vessels used for storing or handling corrosive chemicals. The lining is
hot essentially a load bearing layer, but it is only a protective layers. A good lining
shall satisfy the following requirements.

i. The lining material shall have excellent corrosion and temperature resistance
in order to provide a durable protective layer.
ii. The lining material shall bond well with the steel or concrete over which it is
lined.

Lining also can give some difficulties as described below:

i. The coefficient of thermal expansion of GRP is much higher than that of steel or
concrete. Hence, the differential thermal expansion between the lining and the
substrate particularly, if temp. Cycling occurs can cause the debonding of the lining.
A lining of GRP is considered safe from this point of view if the temperature is below
60º C.

iii. Ordinarily, GRP bonds well with steel and concrete. However, the dirt,
moisture etc. can affect the level of adhesion.

Lining of concrete or steel structures can be done with glass fibre or glass flake filled
thermoset resins. Polyesters, vinyl esters and epoxies are the resin system ordinarily
used, while glass fibre gives increased strength, glass flakes provide better resistance
to corrosion and water vapour penetration. The lining of GRP is similar to the hand
lay-up process. The surface on which lining is to be done has to be made rough for
increasing the bond. If the substrate is steel the rust is removed by sand blasting or by
means of emery cloth or rust removers. A coat of resin is immediately applied on the
surface for preventing any further rust formation. The lay-up of the required thickness
of GRP is then made as in the case of hand lay-up of products.

The glass flakes used for lining are 3-4 micron thickness and +0.25 to 3 mm
maximum dimensions. The flakes are then fixed with the resin. Flake lining can be
done with a trowel as in for a concrete or by spraying lining thickness shall be such
that it should not cause any penetration of the vapour of the chemicals onto the
substrate causing any corrosion. There shall not be any voids or direct soapage path
the can also cause penetration of the chemicals. A spark test can reveal the existence
of such defects in the lay-up. Spark testing must be done immediately after the
laminate of lining is cured and before the final resin coat is applied.

17. HEALTH AND HYGIENE DURING HAND LAY-UP

FRP industry using polyester or epoxy resins cannot be considered as an industry of

high heating hazard or of pollution. However, certain precautions have to be taken for
the general health of the workers directly engaged in the work.

i. The glass fibre can cause itching of the hands in the case of workers who hand
them. For sometime it may be only an initial reaction, but for some it may
persistently continue. Barrier cream or gloves may be used during the cutting
and handling of the mat and during lay up.
ii. Polyester and epoxy resins generally do not cause any skin irritation.
However, continuous use of certain epoxy hardeners can cause dermatis.
Hence gloves must be used while handling the hardener.
iii. Care should be taken to avoid the resin, catalyst or accelerator getting into the
eye. If they get into the eye, the eyes must be cleaned well with cold water.
iv. The styrene emission must be controlled in such a way that the styrene vapour
in the air must be less than 50 ppm. This can be achieved by using, low
styrene emission resins, low temperature during lay-up, preventing any blast
of air on the lay up and by using high roofs and well ventilated workshops. If
styrene content is high, exhaust arrangements must be provided. For those
workers who do lay-up in confined spaces like inside a tank, or boat mould,
oxygen supply may be very limited. Hence when they are exposed to the
inhalation of styrene, workers may feel giddiness. Oxygen masks must be
used by those workers who work in such confined spaces.
v. Catalyst and accelerator must be kept at far away places, so that there should
not be any chance of their coming in contact with each other as it can lead to
explosion and fire.
vi. No smoking or fire must be allowed heat the place of FRP lay-up and it may
lead to the styrene vapour catching fire.
vii. Dust generated during cutting / machining of FRP must not be inhaled. All
workers must wear marks and goggles during such machining/cutting
operations.
Cut four strips of chopped strand mat. The smallest of which should be 25mm larger all
round than the slot. The other three should increase in size progressively by 12 mm all
around. Apply a liberal coat of activated resin over the entire sanded inside area of the
laminate, then lay the smallest strip of mat in position covering the slot, and stipple the
activated resin with a brush onto the mat, taking care not to press the strip into the slot.
Concentrate on stippling the area of overlap on the old laminate, when the strip is
thoroughly impregnated, roll carefully and gently to remove air stripped-in. place the next
larger strip in position on the top of the first place and stipple the activated resin. The
procedure is repeated till all the four strips are laid and then left to cure.

When this new backing laminate has cured, the groove must be rebuilt by using CSM dough
or pieces of preimpregnated CSM to within 2.5 mm of the outer surface. The repair is then
completed by sanding down and polishing the outer surface.

iv. Repairs of a Puncture

The procedure adopted for repairs in GRP puncture are as follows:

1. Mark out an area well clear of the damaged laminate.

2. Drill and saw along the above outline to remove the damaged laminate from the
main body.
3. File the edges of the hole all around from inside to obtain a bevel edge sloping
inwards and clean out thoroughly.
4. Choose a sufficiently flexible fascia board which can provide high gloss surface on
one side. It should be sufficiently flexible to be able to following the contour of the
main body and yet be stiff enough to withstand deformation due to hand pressures
created during lay-up of lamination. Size of the board should be sufficient to cover
an area larger than the cut-out hole. Drill small holes around the edges of the board.
5. Drill corresponding holes around the fracture hole of the main body. Polish the
fascia boards and apply release agent thoroughly. Agents such as polyvinyl alcohol
solution, wax or mylar film may be chosen suitably. Fix the fascia board to the main
body by bolting through the drilled holes tightening it closely to the body contour.
The fracture hole is now ready for lamination.
6. Cut fibre glass reinforcement in the shape of the hole, increasing the size layer by
layer, to suit the bevel edge of the hole.
7. Prepare gel coat resin and apply at a rate appropriate to the original gel coat. This is
applied from the inside on the prepared and bolted fascia board area visible at the
fractured hole. Allow to gel till tacky.
8. Prepare resin while gel coat is curing. When this gel coat is ready first apply resin
layer at the specified rate. Place the first cut piece of fibre glass reinforcement over
the resin and consolidate by grooved roller to remove air bubbles and to wet-out the
reinforcement completely.
9. Apply another layer of resin and lay the next larger size of the cut piece consolidated
by roller.
10. Repeat the process with successively higher size of the cut piece till laminate is flush
with the main body. Allow to cure.