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Introduction to
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Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB), Version 2.0:

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
All rights reserved. Printed in USA.
1 Module 1
Click Here to Post Review Comments

2 Introduction to
3 Networking

4
 4 Table of Contents
5 MODULE 1 ........................................................................................................................1

6 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING..............................................................................1
7 OVERVIEW ......................................................................................................................................................3
8 1.1 CCNA BASICS OVERVIEW...........................................................................................................................4
9 Overview ....................................................................................................................................................4
10 1.1.1 Course Objectives ...............................................................................................................................5
11 1.1.2 Learner Skills and Requirements ..........................................................................................................6
12 1.1.3 Learner Responsibilities ......................................................................................................................7
13 1.1.4 Course Road Map ...............................................................................................................................8
14 1.1.5 Icons and Symbols...............................................................................................................................9
15 1.2 COMPUTING BASICS ..................................................................................................................................10
16 Overview ..................................................................................................................................................10
17 1.2.1 PC Components ................................................................................................................................11
18 1.2.2 PC vs. Laptop ...................................................................................................................................15
19 1.2.3 Network Interface Card .....................................................................................................................16
20 1.2.4 NIC Installation ................................................................................................................................18
21 1.2.5 Bit and Bytes (Measurement Terms)....................................................................................................19
22 1.2.6 Decimal-to-Binary Conversion ...........................................................................................................21
23 1.2.7 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion ...........................................................................................................23
24 1.2.8 Hex-to-Binary Conversion .................................................................................................................25
25 1.2.9 Binary-to-Hex Conversion .................................................................................................................27
26 Summary ..................................................................................................................................................30
27 1.3 NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS ..................................................................................................................31
28 Overview ..................................................................................................................................................31
29 1.3.1 Basic Networking Terminology...........................................................................................................32
30 1.3.2 Networking Applications....................................................................................................................34
31 1.3.3 Why Network Computers?..................................................................................................................36
32 1.3.4 The OSI Model..................................................................................................................................38
33 1.3.5 The OSI Layers and Functions ...........................................................................................................40
34 1.3.6 Data Communication.........................................................................................................................43
35 1.3.7 The TCP/IP Model ............................................................................................................................47
36 1.3.8 OSI Model vs. TCP/IP Model .............................................................................................................49
37 Summary ..................................................................................................................................................51
38 1.4 NETWORK DEVICES ..................................................................................................................................52
39 Overview ..................................................................................................................................................52
40 1.4.1 Layer 1 Devices ................................................................................................................................53
41 1.4.2 Layer 2 Devices ................................................................................................................................56
42 1.4.3 Layer 3 Devices ................................................................................................................................59
43 1.4.4 Firewalls and AAA Servers ................................................................................................................61
44 1.4.5 Others ..............................................................................................................................................62
45 Summary ..................................................................................................................................................65
46 1.5 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES .............................................................................................................................66
47 Overview ..................................................................................................................................................66
48 1.5.1 Physical vs. Logical...........................................................................................................................67
49 1.5.2 Bus ..................................................................................................................................................69
50 1.5.3 Star and Extended Star ......................................................................................................................70
51 1.5.4 Ring .................................................................................................................................................72
52 1.5.5 Mesh and Partial Mesh......................................................................................................................74
53 Summary ..................................................................................................................................................75
54 SUMMARY .....................................................................................................................................................76
55
56
57

1-2
58 Overview
59 In this introductory module, you will first look at the course overview, which gives
60 the course objectives and course outline. Then you will look at the components of a
61 computer and at the role of computers in a networking system. You will use the
62 "ground-up" approach to learning networking, starting with the most basic
63 component of a network—the computer. The more you know about computers, the
64 easier it will be to understand networks and how they are designed and built.
65
66 This module also explains how standards ensure greater compatibility and
67 interoperability between various types of network technologies. It discusses the
68 basic functions that occur at each layer of the Open System Interconnection (OSI)
69 reference mode and how information or data makes its way from application
70 programs (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wires) to other
71 application programs located on other computers on a network.
72
73 Network devices are products used to connect networks. As computer networks
74 grow in size and complexity, so do the network devices used to connect them. This
75 module discusses the network devices that operate at different OSI layers.
76
77 In addition, it covers the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
78 reference model and the different types of network topologies.
79
80 Upon completing this module, you will be able to:
81 ■ Identify the major components of a computer system, and convert a binary
82 number to a decimal number, a binary number to a hexadecimal number,
83 and vice versa
84 ■ Define basic networking terminology and describe the benefits and
85 functions of the OSI reference model and TCP/IP model, as well as the
86 basic process of communication between layers of the OSI reference model
87 ■ Describe the functions, features, and operation of network devices used at
88 Layers 1, 2, and 3 of the OSI model, including bridges, hubs, switches,
89 routers, firewalls and Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting
90 (AAA) servers, and remote access severs
91 ■ Describe the features of different types of the network topologies

92 Outline
93 This module contains these lessons:
94
95 ■ Overview
96 ■ CCNA Basics Overview
97 ■ Computing Basics
98 ■ Networking Fundamentals
99 ■ Network Devices
100 ■ Network Topologies
101 ■ Summary

1-3
102 1.1 CCNA Basics Overview

103 Overview
104 CCNA Basics is a self-paced interactive course that explains fundamental
105 networking technologies. Each module is designed to build upon information
106 learned in the previous module. Completion of the entire course, including review
107 modules, should last approximately 24 hours.

108 Outline
109 This module contains these lessons:
110
111 ■ Overview
112 ■ Course Objectives
113 ■ Learner Skills and Requirements
114 ■ Learner Responsibilities
115 ■ Course Road Map
116 ■ Icons and Symbols
117
118
119

1-4
119 1.1.1 Course Objectives
120 Upon completing this course, you will be able to perform the following overall
121 tasks:
122
123 ■ Describe computer hardware basics, binary and hexadecimal number
124 systems, basic networking terminology, and internetworking concepts
125 ■ Identify the major components of a network system, including clients and
126 servers, network interface cards (NICs), internetworking devices, media,
127 and topologies
128 ■ Describe the functions, operations, and primary components of local-area
129 networks (LANs), metropolitan-area networks (MANs), wide-area networks
130 (WANs), virtual private networks (VPNs), intranets, extranets, storage-area
131 networks, and content-delivery networks (CDNs)
132 ■ Define the major network access methods and outline the key features of
133 each
134 ■ Describe the functions and operations of switching technologies
135 ■ Explain the purposes of networking addresses, routing protocols, and routed
136 protocols
137 ■ Explain the format and significance of each of the following components to
138 a network system: IP addressing, classes, reserved address space, and
139 subnetting
140 ■ Calculate valid subnetwork addresses and mask values such that
141 user/network requirements are met when given an IP address scheme
142 ■ Describe the functions, operations, and primary components of WAN
143 technologies
144 ■ Describe the function, operation, and primary components required to
145 provide remote access services
146 ■ Describe the functions, operations, and primary components of wireless
147 technologies
148 ■ Describe the functions, operations, and primary components of optical
149 networking
150 ■ Explain the purposes and techniques for voice, data, and video convergence
151
152
153
154
155

156

1-5
156 1.1.2 Learner Skills and Requirements
157 The CCNA Basics course focuses on introducing networking techniques,
158 terminology, and technology. CCNA Basics is the prerequisite for Interconnecting
159 Cisco Network Devices (ICND), which is the recommended training path for
160 individuals seeking certification as a Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA®
161 expert). ICND presents the concepts, commands, and practice required to configure
162 Cisco switches and routers.
163
164 To fully benefit from CCNA Basics, you must have the following prerequisite skills
165 and knowledge:
166
167 ■ Basic computer literacy
168 ■ Basic understanding of PC hardware
169 ■ Basic understanding of PC software
170 ■ Basic understanding of networking business drivers
171
172
173

1-6
173 1.1.3 Learner Responsibilities
174 To take full advantage of the information presented in this course, you are expected
175 to work through all the modules and assessments. At the end of the course, you will
176 be able to take the Cisco On-line Test (COLT). You will have three opportunities to
177 pass the test.
178
179
180

1-7
180 1.1.4 Course Road Map
181 Figure 1: Course Road Map

Day Module
Module 1: Introduction to Networking
Module 2: Network Types
Day 1 (8 hours)
Module 3: Network Media
Module 4: Switching Fundamentals
Module 5: TCP/IP
Day 2 (8 hours) Module 6: Routing Basics
Module 7: WAN Technologies
Module 8: Wireless Technology
Day 3 (8 hours)
Module 9: Optical Networking
Module 10: Voice, Video, and Data
182
183 The schedule reflects the recommended structure for this course. This structure
184 allows enough time for you to work through the course information. The exact
185 timing of the subject materials depends on your pace.
186
187
188

1-8.
188 1.1.5 Icons and Symbols
189 Figure 1: Icons and Symbols

190
191
192 This section shows some of the Cisco icons and symbols used in this course.
193

1-9
194 1.2 Computing Basics

195 Overview
196 This lesson presents the basics of computer hardware and introduces different
197 number systems and the processes to convert a number from one number system to
198 another.
199

200 Objectives
201 Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to:
202 ■ Identify the major components of a personal computer
203 ■ Name the Ethernet adapter used for laptop computer
204 ■ State the functions of network interface cards (NICs)
205 ■ Lists the components needed for NIC installation
206 ■ Describe the units used to measure the size of digital data
207 ■ Convert a decimal number to a binary number
208 ■ Convert a binary number to a decimal number
209 ■ Convert a hexadecimal number to a binary number
210 ■ Convert a binary number to a hexadecimal number

211 Outline
212 This lesson includes these sections:
213 ■ Overview
214 ■ PC Components
215 ■ PC vs. Laptop
216 ■ Network Interface Card (NIC)
217 ■ NIC Installation
218 ■ Bits and Bytes
219 ■ Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
220 ■ Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
221 ■ Hex-to-Binary Conversion
222 ■ Binary-to-Hex Conversion
223 ■ Summary
224
225
226

1-10 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
226 1.2.1 PC Components
227 Figure 1: CPU

228
229 The CPU is a silicon-based microprocessor.
230
231 Figure 2: Expansion Slot

232
233 The expansion slot serves as an interface between the system and the
234 devices attached to it.
235
236 Figure 3: Floppy Disk Drive

237
238 A floppy disk drive uses removable storage media called floppy disks.
239

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-11

240 Figure 5: Motherboard

241
242 The motherboard contains the primary components of the computer system.
243
244 Because computers are important building blocks in a network, it is important to be
245 able to recognize and name the major components of a personal computer (PC).
246
247 Many networking devices are special-purpose computers and have many of the
248 same parts as “normal” PCs. To use your computer as a reliable means of obtaining
249 information, your computer must be in good working order. You might occasionally
250 need to troubleshoot a simple hardware or software problem.
251
252 You should be able to recognize, name, and state the purpose of the following PC
253 components:
254
255 ■ Bus—A bus is a collection of wires through which data is transmitted from
256 one part of a computer to another. It connects all the internal computer
257 components to the CPU. The Industry-Standard Architecture (ISA) and the
258 peripheral component interconnect (PCI) are two types of buses.
259 ■ CD-ROM drive—The CD-ROM drive is a compact disk read-only memory
260 drive, a device that can read information from a CD-ROM.
261 ■ Central processing unit (CPU)—The CPU is the brains of the computer,
262 where most calculations take place (see Figure [1]).
263 ■ Expansion card—The expansion card is a printed circuit board you can
264 insert into a computer to give it added capabilities.
265 ■ Expansion slot—The expansion slot is an opening in a computer where a
266 circuit board can be inserted to add new capabilities to the computer (see
267 Figure [2]).

1-12 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
268 ■ Floppy disk drive—This disk drive can read and write to floppy disks (see
269 Figure [3]).
270 ■ Hard disk drive—This device reads and writes data on a hard disk.
271 ■ Microprocessor—A microprocessor is a silicon chip that contains a CPU.
272 ■ Motherboard—The motherboard is the main circuit board of a
273 microcomputer (see Figure [4]).
274 ■ Power supply—This component supplies power to a computer.
275 ■ Printed circuit board (PCB)—The PCB is a thin plate on which chips
276 (integrated circuits) and other electronic components are placed.
277 ■ Random-access memory (RAM)—Also known as read-write memory,
278 RAM can have new data written into it as well as stored data read from it. A
279 drawback of RAM is that it requires electrical power to maintain data
280 storage. If the computer is turned off or looses power, all data stored in
281 RAM is lost, unless the data was saved to disk.
282 ■ Read-only memory (ROM)—ROM is computer memory on which data
283 has been prerecorded.
284 ■ System unit—The system unit is the main part of a PC; it includes the
285 chassis, microprocessor, main memory, bus, and ports, but does not include
286 the keyboard or monitor, or any external devices connected to the computer.

287 Backplane Components

288 The following items are backplane components of a PC:
289
290 ■ Backplane—The backplane is a large circuit board that contains sockets for
291 expansion cards.
292 ■ Interface—The interface is a piece of hardware, such as a modem
293 connector, that allows two devices to be connected.
294 ■ Mouse port—This port is designed for connecting a mouse to a PC.
295 ■ Network card—The network card is an expansion board inserted into a
296 computer so that the computer can be connected to a network.
297 ■ Parallel port—The parallel port is an interface capable of transferring
298 more than one bit simultaneously. It is used to connect external devices,
299 such as printers.
300 ■ Power cord—The power cord is used to connect an electrical device to an
301 electrical outlet in order to provide power to the device.
302 ■ Serial port—This interface can be used for serial communication in which
303 only one bit is transmitted at a time.
304 ■ Sound card—A sound card is an expansion board that handles all sound
305 functions.
306 ■ Video card—The video card is a board that plugs into a PC to give it
307 display capabilities.
308

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-13

309 Practice
310 1. The network card, the monitor connection, and the mouse port are:
311
312 A. Personal computer subsystems
313 B. Small, discrete components of a system
314 C. Backplane components **
315 D. Ports of the system
316
317
318

1-14 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
318 1.2.2 PC vs. Laptop
319 Figure 1: PCMCIA Card

320
321
322 Laptop computers and notebook computers are becoming increasingly popular, as
323 are palmtop computers, personal digital assistants, and other small computing
324 devices. The information described in the previous sections also pertains to laptops.
325 The main difference is that components in a laptop are smaller—the expansion slots
326 become PCMCIA slots or PC slots, where network interface cards (NICs), modems,
327 hard drives, and other useful devices (usually the size of a thick credit card) can be
328 inserted into the PCMCIA slots along the perimeter, as shown in the figure.
329

330 Practice
331
332 1. PCMCIA slots are
333
334 A. Slots used in laptops **
335 B. Used as expansion slots in all computers
336 C. Expansion slots for a NIC card
337 D. Slots for certain specialized devices

338

339

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-15

339 1.2.3 Network Interface Card
340 Figure 1: Network Interface Card

341
342
343 As shown in Figure [1], a network interface card (NIC) is a printed circuit board
344 that provides network communication capabilities to and from a personal computer.
345 Also called a LAN adapter, a NIC plugs into a motherboard and provides a port for
346 connecting to the network. It constitutes the computer interface with the LAN.
347
348 The NIC communicates with the network through a serial connection, and with the
349 computer through a parallel connection. When a NIC is installed in a computer, it
350 requires an interrupt request line (IRQ), an input/output (I/O) address, and a
351 memory space for the operating systems (such as DOS or Windows
352 95/98/XP/NT/2000) drivers in order to perform its function. An IRQ is a signal that
353 informs a CPU that an event that needs its attention has occurred. An IRQ is sent
354 over a hardware line to the microprocessor. An example of an interrupt being issued
355 would be when a key is pressed on a keyboard; the CPU must move the character
356 from the keyboard to RAM. An I/O address is a location in memory used to enter
357 data or retrieve data from a computer by an auxiliary device. In DOS-based systems,
358 upper memory refers to the memory area between the first 640 kilobytes (KB) and 1
359 megabyte (MB) of RAM.
360
361 The following important considerations should be made when selecting a NIC to use
362 on a network:
363
364 1. Type of network— Ethernet NICs are designed for Ethernet LANs.
365 2. Type of media—The type of port or connector that the NIC provides for
366 network connection is for specific media types such as twisted-pair,
367 coaxial, fiber-optic, or wireless.
368 3. Type of system bus—The PCI slots are faster than ISA.
369

1-16 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
370 Practice
371
372 1. A network card communicates with the network through a
373
374 A. Serial connection **
375 B. Parallel connection
376 C. Back plane
377 D. None of the above
378

379

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-17

379 1.2.4 NIC Installation
380 Figure 1: Installing NIC

381
382
383 The NIC enables hosts to connect to the network and is, therefore, considered a key
384 component.
385
386 To install a NIC, you need to have the following resources:
387
388 ■ Knowledge of how the network card is configured, including jumpers, plug-
389 and-play” software, and erasable programmable read-only memory
390 ■ Use of network card diagnostics, including the vendor-supplied diagnostics
391 and loopback test (see the documentation for the card)
392 ■ Ability to resolve hardware resource conflicts, including IRQ, I/O base
393 address, and direct memory address (DMA) (used to transfer data from
394 RAM to a device without going through the CPU)

395 Practice
396 1. Which of the following correctly describe the resources needed prior to the
397 installation of NIC?
398
399 A. Knowledge of how the network card is configured
400 B. Knowledge of how to how to use the network card diagnostics
401 C. Ability to resolve hardware resource conflicts
402 D. All of above **
403
404
405
1-18 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
405 1.2.5 Bit, Bytes, and Measurement Terms
406 Figure 1: Units of Information

407
408
409 Computers are electronic devices made up of electronic switches. At the lowest
410 levels of computation, computers depend on these electronic switches to make
411 decisions. As such, computers react only to electrical impulses. These impulses are
412 understood by the computer as either “on” or “off” states, or as 1s or 0s.
413
414 Computers can understand and process only data that is in a binary format, which is
415 represented by 0s and 1s. These 0s and 1s represent the two possible states of an
416 electronic component and are referred to as binary digits (bits).
417
418 Most computer coding schemes use 8 bits to represent each number, letter, or
419 symbol. A serial of 8 bits is referred to as a byte. One byte represents a single
420 addressable storage location.
421
422 The following are commonly used computer measurement terminology.
423
424 bit—The smallest unit of data in a computer. A bit equals 1 or 0, and it is the binary
425 format in which data is processed by computers.
426
427 byte—A byte is a unit of measure used to describe the size of a data file, the amount
428 of space on a disk or other storage medium, or the amount of data being sent over a
429 network. One byte equals 8 bits of data.
430
431 Kb (kilobit)—A kilobit is approximately 1000 bit s. It can be abbreviated as "k."
432
433 KB (kilobyte)—A kilobyte is approximately 1000 bytes (actually, it is 1024 bytes).
434 It can be abbreviated as "k."
435
436 kbps (kilobits per second)—This is a standard measurement of the amount of data
437 transferred over a network connection.
438

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-19

439 kBps (kilobytes per second)—This is a standard measurement of the amount of data
440 transferred over a network connection.
441
442 Mb (megabit)—A megabit is approximately 1 million bits.
443
444 MB (megabyte)—A megabyte is approximately 1 million bytes (actually 1,048,576
445 bytes). A megabyte is sometimes referred to as a "meg."
446
447 Mbps (megabits per second)—This is a standard measurement of the amount of
448 data transferred over a network connection.
449
450 MBps (megabytes per second)—This is a standard measurement of the amount of
451 data transferred over a network connection.
452
453 Note: A common error is confusing KB with Kb and MB with Mb. Remember to do
454 the proper calculations when comparing transmission speeds that are measured in
455 KB with those measured in kb. For example, modem software usually shows your
456 connection speed in kilobits per second (for example, 45 kbps). However, popular
457 browsers display file-download speeds in kilobytes per second, meaning with a 45
458 kbps connection, your download speed would be a maximum of 5.76 KBps. In
459 practice, you cannot reach this download speed because of other factors consuming
460 bandwidth at the same time.
461
462 Hz (Hertz)—A unit of frequency. It is the rate of change in the state or cycle in a
463 sound wave, alternating current, or other cyclical waveform. It has one cycle per
464 second and is used to describe the speed of a computer microprocessor.
465
466 MHz (megahertz)—One million cycles per second. This is a common measurement
467 of the speed of a processing chip such as a computer microprocessor.
468
469 GHz (gigahertz)—One thousand million, or 1 billion (1,000,000,000), cycles per
470 second. This is a common measurement of the speed of a processing chip, such as a
471 computer microprocessor.
472
473 Note: PC processors are getting faster all the time. The microprocessors used on
474 PCs in the 1980s typically ran under 10 MHz (the original IBM PC was 4.77 MHz).
475 As the year 2000 began, PC processors approached the speed of 1 GHz.
476

477 Practice
478 1. Match the following terms with its definition.
479
480 bits byte kbps MHz
481
482 A. The smallest unit of data in a computer.
483 B. A standard measurement of the amount of data transferred over a network
484 connection.
485 C. A unit of frequency. It is the rate of change in the state or cycle in a sound
486 wave, alternating current, or other cyclical waveform.
487 D. A unit of measure used to describe the size of a data file, the amount of space on
488 a disk or other storage medium, or the amount of data being sent over a
489 network.
490
491
1-20 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
491 1.2.6 Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
492 Figure 1: Decimal-to-Binary Conversion Algorithm (Sem 1 1.3.5 #1)

493
494
495 Figure 2: Base 2 Number System

Number of
2
Symbols
Symbols 0, 1

Base Exponent 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Place Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Example:
Convert decimal 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
35 to binary
496
497 Figure 3: Decimal-to-Binary Conversion Exercise (Sem 1 1.3.5 #2)

498
499

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-21

500 Computers recognize and process data using the binary, or Base 2, numbering
501 system. The binary number system uses only two symbols (0 and 1) instead of the
502 ten symbols used in the decimal numbering system. The position, or place, of each
503 digit represents the number 2 (the base number) raised to a power (exponent), based
504 on its position (20, 21, 22, 23, 24, and so on)
505
506 Converting a decimal number to a binary number is one of the most common
507 procedures performed while working with IP addresses. IP addresses identify a
508 device on a network and the network to which it is attached. To make them easy to
509 remember, IP addresses are usually written in dotted-decimal notation. Therefore, IP
510 addresses are four decimal numbers separated by dots. An example of this is the
511 address 166.122.23.130. Keep in mind that a decimal number is a base 10 number.
512
513 To convert a decimal number to binary, the idea is to first find the biggest power of
514 2 that will “fit” into the decimal number. The flowchart in Figure [1] describes the
515 converting process. Consider the decimal number 35. Looking at Figure [2], what is
516 the greatest power of 2 that is less or equal to 35? Starting with the largest number,
517 25, or 32, is smaller than 35. You would place a “1” in that column. Now, you need
518 to calculate how much is left over by subtracting 32 from 35. The result is 3.
519
520 Next, ask yourself if 16 (the next lower power of 2) fits into 3. Because it does not,
521 a “0” is placed in that column.
522
523 The value of the next number is 8, which is larger than 3, so a “0” is placed in that
524 column too.
525
526 The next value is 4, which is still larger than 3, so it too receives a “0.”
527 The next value is 2, which is smaller than 3. Because 3 fits into 2, place a “1” in that
528 column. Now subtract 2 from 3, which results in 1.
529
530 The value of the last number is 1, which fits in the remaining number left. Thus,
531 place a “1” in the last column.
532
533 You now have the binary equivalent of the decimal number 35, which is 100011.
534
535 Now you know how to convert a decimal number to a binary number. As an
536 exercise, convert the decimal numbers in Figure [3] to binary numbers.
537

538 Practice
539 1. What is the decimal number 151 in binary?
540
541 A. 10100111
542 B. 10010111 **
543 C. 10101011
544 D. 10010011

545 Interactive Activity

546 Decimal to Binary Conversion http://currdev.cisco.com/ccnab/mdmedia.html#md1
547
548
549
550
1-22 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
550 1.2.7 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
551 Figure 1: Binary-to-Decimal Conversion Algorithm (Sem 1 1.3.6 #1)

552
553
554 Figure 2: Base 2 Number System

Number of
2
Symbols

Symbols 0, 1
Base Exponent 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Place Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Example:
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
Binary number

Decimal number
128 0 32 16 8 0 0 1
Total: 185
555
556 Figure 2: Binary-to-Decimal Conversion (Sem 1 1.3.6 #2)

557
558

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-23

559 As with binary-to-decimal conversion, there is usually more than one way to solve
560 the conversion; you can use any method that you find easiest. The flowchart in
561 Figure [1] shows the process for one of the conversion methods.
562
563 Example:
564
565 Convert the binary number 10111001 to a decimal number.
566
567 As shown in Figure [2], the number in the 27 (128) column is 1, so the decimal total
568 is 128. Next, there is a 0 in the 26 (64) column. The decimal total is
569 128 + 0 = 128. Now, there is a 1 in the 25 (32) column. The decimal total becomes
570 128 + 32 = 160. Next, there is a 1 in the 24 (16) column. You will have to add the
571 value to the decimal total, so you now have 160 + 16 = 176. The next column, 23,
572 has a 1, so you need to add the value 8 to the decimal total 176 + 8 = 184. Next,
573 there are 0s in the 22 and 21 columns. You will add 0s to the decimal total 184 + 0 +
574 0 = 184. Finally, there is a 1 in the 20 (1) column. Now add 1 to 184. The result is
575 185.
576
577 You now have the decimal equivalent of the binary number 10111001, which is 185.
578
579 Now you know how to convert a binary number to a decimal number. As an
580 exercise, convert the binary numbers in Figure [3] to decimal numbers.
581

582 Practice
583 1. What is the binary number 11011010 in decimal?
584
585 A. 186
586 B. 202
587 C. 218 **
588 D. 222

589 Interactive Activity

590 Binary to Decimal Conversion http://currdev.cisco.com/ccnab/mdmedia.html#md1
591
592

1-24 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
592 1.2.8 Hex-to-Binary Conversion
593 Figure 1: Binary and Hexadecimal Number Systems (Sem 1 6.2.5)

594
595
596 Figure 2: Hexadecimal-to-Binary Conversion Example

597
598
599 Converting from hexadecimal to binary works in exactly the opposite way as that in
600 the previous section. Convert every one hex digit into four binary digits (bits). For
601 example, convert hex AC to binary. First convert hex A, which is 1010 binary, and
602 then convert hex C, which is 1100 binary. So the conversion of hex AC is 10101100
603 binary (see Figure [1]).
604
605 Figure [2] shows another example of converting a hexadecimal number to a binary
606 number.
607
608 Be especially careful to include four binary digits for each hexadecimal character,
609 adding zeros to the left of the number when necessary.

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-25

610 Practice
611 1. Convert the hexadecimal number EA into binary number.
612
613 A. 11101010 **
614 B. 11001110
615 C. 10111010
616 D. 11100110
617
618

1-26 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
618 1.2.9 Binary-to-Hex Conversion
619 Figure 1: Binary and Hexadecimal Number Systems (Sem 1 6.2.5)

620
621
622 Figure 2: Binary and Hexadecimal Number Systems

623
624
625 Figure 3: Binary-to-Hexadecimal Conversion Example

626
627

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-27

628 The Base 16, or hexadecimal (or hex), number system is used frequently when
629 working with computers, because it can be used to represent binary numbers in a
630 more readable form. The computer performs computations in binary, but there are
631 several instances when the binary output of a computer is expressed in hexadecimal
632 to make it easier to read.
633
634 The primary uses of hex numbering are in config-register settings and in addressing
635 schemes. You use a hex number as the argument for the config-register register
636 command in order to change a configuration setting. You use hex numbering in
637 addressing schemes to provide a shorthand method of writing binary octets.
638
639 Layer two Media Access Control (MAC) addresses are typically written in hex. For
640 Ethernet and Token Ring, these addresses are 48 bits, or six octets. Because these
641 addresses consist of six distinct octets, they can be expressed as six hex numbers
642 instead.
643
644 Instead of writing 10101010.11110000.11000001.11100010.01110111.01010001,
645 you can write the much shorter hex equivalent: AA.F0.C1.E2.77.51. To make
646 handling hex versions of MAC addresses even easier, the dots are placed only after
647 each four digits, as in AAF0.C1E2.7751.
648
649 The most common way for computers and software to express hexadecimal output
650 is using “0x” in front of the hexadecimal number. Thus, whenever you see “0x,”
651 you know that the number that follows is a hexadecimal number. For example,
652 0x1234 means 1234 in Base 16.
653
654 It is referred to as Base 16 because it uses sixteen symbols; combinations of these
655 symbols can then represent all possible numbers. Because there are only ten
656 symbols that represent digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9), and the Base 16 requires six
657 more symbols, the extra symbols are the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F. The “A”
658 represents the decimal number 10, “B” represents 11, “C” represents 12, “D”
659 represents 13, “E” represents 14, and “F” represents 15.
660
661 The position of each symbol, or digit, in a hex number represents the base number
662 16 raised to a power, or exponent, based on its position. Moving from right to left,
663 the first position represents 160 (or 1), the second position represents 161 (or 16), the
664 third position, 162 (or 256), and so on.
665
666 Converting hexadecimal to binary is an easy conversion because Base16
667 (hexadecimal) is a power of Base 2 (binary). [1] Every four binary digits (bits) are
668 equal to one hexadecimal digit (see Figure [2]). The conversion looks like the
669 following:
670
671 Binary Hexadecimal Binary Hexadecimal
672 0000 = 0 1000 = 8
673 0001 = 1 1001 = 9
674 0010 = 2 1010 = A
675 0011 = 3 1011 = B
676 0100 = 4 1100 = C
677 0101 = 5 1101 = D
678 0110 = 6 1110 = E
679 0111 = 7 1111 = F
680

1-28 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
681 So if there is a binary number that looks like 01011011, it can be broken into two
682 groups of four bits. These groups look like the following: 0101 and 1011. When
683 converting these two groups to hex, they look like 5 and B. So, the hexadecimal
684 equivalent of the binary 01011011 is 5B.
685
686 No matter how large the binary number, you always apply the same conversion.
687 Start from the right of the binary number and break the number into groups of four.
688 If the number of numbers is not divisible by four, add zeros to the left end until
689 there are four digits (bits) in every group. Then convert each group of four to its hex
690 equivalent. An example is shown in Figure [3].
691

692 Practice
693 1. Convert the binary number 11100010 to a hexadecimal number.
694
695 A. D2
696 B. E2
697 C. F2
698 D. G2

699 Interactive Activity

700 Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion
701 http://currdev.cisco.com/ccnab/mdmedia.html#md1
702
703
703 Summary
704 This section summarizes the key points you learned in this lesson.
705
706 ■ Computers are vital components of very network. The more you know about
707 computers, the easier it is to understand networks.
708 ■ It is important to be familiar with the components of a computer and to
709 understand the functions of a network interface card (NIC), and to be able
710 to install a NIC.
711 ■ Computers can only recognize and process data using binary numbering
712 system. Binary number system is made up of 0s and 1s.
713 ■ The hexadecimal number system is used frequently at higher levels of
714 computation. Hexadecimal number system uses 16 symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
715 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F.
716
717
718
719

1-30 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
720 1.3 Networking Fundamentals

721 Overview
722 This lesson covers the common networking terminologies and describes the OSI
723 reference model, the functions of each OSI layer, and the TCP/IP model.

724 Objectives
725 Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to:
726
727 ■ Define basic networking terminologies
728 ■ Describe some commonly used network applications
729 ■ Describe the main purposes of networking
730 ■ Describe the benefits of the OSI reference model
731 ■ Discuss the functions of each of the seven layers of the OSI reference model
732 and provide examples of each
733 ■ Describe the basic process of communication between the layers of the OSI
734 reference model
735 ■ Describe the functions of the TCP/IP protocol model and provide examples
736 of each
737 ■ Compare and contrast the OSI model and the TCP/IP model

738 Outline
739 This lesson includes these sections:
740
741 ■ Overview
742 ■ Basic Networking Terminology
743 ■ Network Applications
744 ■ Why Network Computers?
745 ■ The OSI Model
746 ■ The OSI Layers and Functions
747 ■ Data Communication
748 ■ The TCP/IP Model
749 ■ OSI Model vs. TCP/IP Model
750 ■ Summary
751

752

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-31

752 1.3.1 Basic Networking Terminology
753
754 Computer networking, like most professions, has its own jargon, such as technical
755 terms, abbreviations, and acronyms, that can, at first glance, look as foreign to the
756 uninitiated as does the alphabet of a country halfway around the world.
757
758 Without a good grasp of the terminology, you will have difficulty understanding the
759 concepts and processes in this course. This lesson gives you a head start on
760 deciphering some of the terminology used in this course. Please note that this is not
761 intended to be a comprehensive glossary of networking terms, but a quick reference
762 that defines and briefly discusses some of the most important and most basic words,
763 phrases, and acronyms that enable you to navigate through the next few modules.
764 Each definition is expanded on in the modules that follow. Please refer to the course
765 glossary for a more comprehensive list of definitions.
766
767 NIC—Pronounced "nick," NIC refers to the network interface card, also called the
768 LAN adapter, or just the network interface. This card typically goes into an
769 Industry-Standard Architecture (ISA), peripheral component interconnect (PCI), or
770 PCMCIA (PC card) slot in a computer and connects to the network medium, which
771 in turn is connected to other computers on the network.
772
773 Media—Media refers to the various physical environments through which
774 transmission signals pass. Common network media include twisted-pair, coaxial,
775 and fiber-optic cable, and the atmosphere (through which wireless transmission
776 occurs).
777
778 Protocol—A network protocol is a set of rules by which computers communicate.
779 Protocols are sometimes compared to languages, but a better analogy is that the
780 protocol is like the syntax of a language, which is the order in which processes
781 occur. There are many different types of computer protocols. The term protocol
782 suite describes a set of several protocols that perform different functions related to
783 different aspects of the communication process.
784
785 IOS—IOS, internetworking operating system, is Cisco system software that
786 provides common functionality, scalability, and security for all products under the
787 CiscoFusion architecture. Cisco IOS Software allows centralized, integrated, and
788 automated installation and management of internetworks, while ensuring support for
789 a wide variety of protocols, media, services, and platforms. Properly abbreviated
790 Cisco IOS Software.
791
792 NOS—NOS, which stands for network operating system, usually refers to server
793 software, such as Windows NT, Windows 2000 Server, Novell NetWare, and
794 UNIX. The term sometimes refers to the networking components of a client
795 operating system such as Windows 95 or the Macintosh OS.
796
797 Connectivity devices—This term refers to several different device types, all of
798 which are used to connect cable segments, connect two or more smaller networks
799 (or subnets) into a larger network, or divide a large network into smaller ones. The
800 term encompasses repeaters, hubs, switches, bridges, and routers.
801

1-32 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
802 LAN—A local-area network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a limited
803 geographic area. This can be a room, a floor, a building, or even an entire campus.
804
805 MAN—A metropolitan-area network (MAN) is a network that is between the LAN
806 and the WAN in size. This is a network that covers approximately the area of a large
807 city or metropolitan area.
808
809 WAN—A wide-area network (WAN) is made up of interconnected LANs. It spans
810 wide geographic areas by using WAN links such as telephone lines or satellite
811 technology to connect computers in different cities, countries, or even different
812 continents.
813
814 Physical topology—This refers to the layout or physical shape of the network,
815 whether the computers are arranged so that cabling goes from one to another in a
816 linear fashion (linear bus topology), the last connects back to the first to form a ring
817 (ring topology), the systems "meet in the middle" by connecting to a central hub
818 (star topology), or multiple redundant connections make pathways (mesh topology).
819
820 Logical topology—The logical topology is the path that signals take from one
821 computer to another. This topology can correspond to the physical topology. For
822 instance, a network can be a physical star, in which each computer connects to a
823 central hub, but inside the hub, the data can travel in a circle, making it a logical
824 ring.
825

826 Practice
827 1. Match the each of the following term with its definition.
828
829 LAN WAN Protocol Physical Topology
830
831 A. The layout or physical shape of the network.
832 B. A network that is confined to a limited geographic area.
833 C. A network that spans wide geographic areas by using serial links to
834 connect computers in different cities, countries, or even different
835 continents.
836 D. A set of rules by which computer communicate.
837

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-33

837 1.3.2 Networking Applications
838
839 Figure 1: WWW Request-Response

840
841
842 Figure 2: Sending Email

843
844
845 You select network applications based on the type of work you need to accomplish.
846 A complete set of application layer programs is available to interface with the
847 Internet. Each application program type is associated with its own application
848 protocol. Here are some examples.
849
850 ■ The World Wide Web (WWW) uses the HTTP protocol (see Figure [1]).
851 ■ Remote access programs use the Telnet protocol for directly connecting to
852 remote resources.
853 ■ E-mail programs support the POP3 application layer protocol for electronic
854 mail.
855 ■ File utility programs use the FTP protocol for copying and moving files
856 between remote sites.
857 ■ Network data gathering and monitoring use the SNMP protocol.

1-34 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
858 It is important to re-emphasize the fact that the application layer is just another
859 protocol layer in the OSI or TCP/IP models. The programs interface with
860 application layer protocols.
861
862 E-mail client applications (i.e. Eudora, Microsoft Mail, Pegasus, and Netscape
863 Mail) work with the POP3 protocol. The same is true with Web browsers. The two
864 most popular Web browsers are Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape
865 Communicator. The appearance and operation of these two programs is very
866 different, but they both work with the application layer HTTP protocol.
867
868 Electronic mail (e-mail) enables you to send messages between connected
869 computers. The procedure for sending an e-mail document involves two separate
870 processes. The first is to send the e-mail to the user’s post office, and the second is
871 to deliver the e-mail from that post office to the user’s e-mail client—the recipient
872 (see Figure [2]).
873

874 Practice
875 1. Which of the following is an example of network application?
876
877 A. E-mail **
878 B. Word Processor
879 C. Spreadsheet
880 D. Database
881
882

883

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-35

883 1.3.3 Why Network Computers?
884 Figure 1: Defining Components of the Network

885

886
887 Figure 2: Defining Components of the Network

888
889
890 One of the primary purposes of networks is to increase productivity by linking
891 computers and computer networks so that people have easy access to information
892 regardless of differences in time, place, or type of computer system.
893
894 Because companies have adopted their networks as part of their business strategy, it
895 is typical to subdivide and map corporate networks to the corporate business
896 structure. In Figure [1], the network is defined based on the grouping of employees
897 (users) in the following ways:
898

1-36 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
899 ■ A main office is where everyone is connected via a local-area network
900 (LAN) and where the bulk of corporate information is located. A main
901 office can have hundreds or even thousands of people who depend on
902 network access to do their jobs. It may have several LANs or be a campus
903 that contains several buildings. Because everyone needs access to central
904 resources and information, it is common to see a high-speed backbone LAN
905 as well as a legacy data center with mainframe computers and applications.
906 ■ A variety of remote access locations that connect to the main office or each
907 other using WAN services:
908
909 – Branch offices: Where smaller groups of people work and connect to
910 each other via a LAN. To connect to the main office, these users have to
911 use wide-area network (WAN) services. Although some corporate
912 information may be stored at a branch office, it is more likely that they
913 will have user resources, such as printers, but will have to access
914 information directly from the main office. The frequency of accessing
915 the main office determines whether the WAN will be based on
916 permanent or dialup connections.
917 – Home offices: Where individuals work out of their homes. They will
918 most likely require on-demand connections to the main office or the
919 branch office to access information or use network resources such as
920 file servers.
921 – Mobile users: These individuals connect to the main office LAN when
922 they are at the main office, at the branch office, or on the road. Their
923 network access needs are based on where they are located at a given
924 point in time.
925
926 In order to understand what types of equipment and services to deploy and when in
927 your network, it is important to understand the business and user needs. Figure [2]
928 shows how you can map an organization’s business or user requirements to a
929 network.
930

931 Practice
932 1. Which of the following describe a main office in a network?
933
934 A. A main office is where everyone is connected via a local-area network
935 (LAN) and where the bulk of corporate information is located.
936 B. A main office can have only up to 500 people who depend on network
937 access to do their jobs. **
938 C. It may have several LANs or be a campus that contains several
939 buildings.
940 D. It is common to see a high-speed backbone LAN as well as a legacy
941 data center with mainframe computers and applications.
942

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-37

942 1.3.4 The OSI Model
943 Figure 1: Why a Layered Network Model? (1-2.2.1)

944
945
946 The early development of local-area networks (LANs), metropolitan-area networks
947 (MANs), and wide-area networks (WANs) was chaotic in many ways. The early
948 1980s saw tremendous increases in the numbers and sizes of networks. As
949 companies realized the money they could save and the productivity they could gain
950 by using networking technology, they added networks and expanded existing
951 networks almost as rapidly as new network technologies and products could be
952 introduced.
953
954 By the mid-1980s, these companies began to experience growing pains from all the
955 expansions they had made. It became more difficult for networks that used different
956 specifications and implementations to communicate with each other. They realized
957 that they needed to move away from proprietary networking systems. Proprietary
958 systems are privately developed, owned, and controlled. In the computer industry,
959 proprietary is the opposite of open. Proprietary means that one or a small group of
960 companies controls all usage of the technology. Open means that free usage of the
961 technology is available to the public.
962
963 To address the problem of networks being incompatible and unable to communicate
964 with each other, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) researched
965 network schemes. As a result of this research, the ISO created a network model that
966 would help vendors create networks that would be compatible with, and operate
967 with, other networks.
968
969 The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model, released in 1984, was the
970 descriptive scheme the OSI created. It provided vendors with a set of standards that
971 ensured greater compatibility and interoperability between the various types of
972 network technologies that were produced by the many companies around the world.
973
974 The OSI reference model is the primary model for network communications.
975 Although other models exist, most network vendors today relate their products to

1-38 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
 976 the OSI reference model, especially when they want to educate users on the use of
977 their products. They consider it the best tool available for teaching people about
978 sending and receiving data on a network.
979
980 The OSI reference model allows you to view the network functions that occur at
981 each layer. More importantly, the OSI reference model is a framework that you can
982 use to understand how information travels throughout a network. In addition, you
983 can use the OSI reference model to visualize how information, or data packets,
984 travel from application programs (for example, spreadsheets, documents, and so on),
985 through a network medium (for example, wires, and so on), to another application
986 program that is located in another computer on a network, even if the sender and
987 receiver have different types of network media.
988
989 The OSI reference model has seven numbered layers, each of which illustrates a
990 particular network function. This separation of networking functions is called
991 layering. Dividing the network into these seven layers provides the following
992 advantages:
993
994 ■ It breaks network communication into smaller, simpler parts.
995 ■ It standardizes network components to allow multiple-vendor development
996 and support.
997 ■ It allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate
998 with each other.
999 ■ It prevents changes in one layer from affecting the other layers, so that they
1000 can develop more quickly.
1001 ■ It breaks network communication into smaller parts to make it easier to
1002 learn.

1003 Practice
1004 1. What is the OSI model?
1005
1006 A. A conceptual framework that specifies how information travels through
1007 networks.
1008 B. A model that describe show data makes its way from one application
1009 program to another thought a network.
1010 C. A conceptual framework that specifies which network functions occur
1011 at each layer.
1012 D. All of above. **
1013

1014

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-39

1014 1.3.5 The OSI Layers and Functions
1015 Figure 1: The Seven Layers of the OSI Model (1-2.2.3 ALL)

1016
1017
1018 The problem of moving information between computers is divided into seven
1019 smaller and more manageable problems in the OSI reference model. Each of the
1020 seven smaller problems is represented by its own layer in the model. The seven
1021 layers of the OSI reference model follow:
1022
1023 ■ Layer 7: The application layer
1024 ■ Layer 6: The presentation layer
1025 ■ Layer 5: The session layer
1026 ■ Layer 4: The transport layer
1027 ■ Layer 3: The network layer
1028 ■ Layer 2: The data link layer
1029 ■ Layer 1: The physical layer
1030
1031 Each individual OSI layer has a set of functions that it must perform in order for
1032 data packets to travel from a source to a destination on a network. Below is a brief
1033 description of each layer in the OSI reference model as shown in the Figures [1] –
1034 [7].
1035
1036 Layer 7: The Application Layer
1037 The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user; it provides network
1038 services to the user’s applications. It differs from the other layers in that it does not
1039 provide services to any other OSI layer, but rather, only to applications outside the
1040 OSI model. Examples of such applications are spreadsheet programs and word-
1041 processing programs. The application layer establishes the availability of intended
1042 communication partners, and synchronizes and establishes agreement on procedures
1043 for error recovery and control of data integrity.
1044
1045
1046

1-40 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1047 Layer 6: The Presentation Layer
1048 The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of one
1049 system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system. If
1050 necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats by using a
1051 common format.
1052
1053 Layer 5: The Session Layer
1054 As its name implies, the session layer establishes, manages, and terminates sessions
1055 between two communicating hosts. The session layer provides its services to the
1056 presentation layer. It also synchronizes dialogue between the two hosts' presentation
1057 layers and manages their data exchange. In addition to session regulation, the
1058 session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer, class of service, and
1059 exception reporting of session layer, presentation layer, and application layer
1060 problems.
1061
1062 Layer 4: The Transport Layer
1063 The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system and reassembles
1064 the data into a data stream on the receiving host's system. The boundary between the
1065 transport layer and the session layer can be thought of as the boundary between
1066 application protocols and data-flow protocols. Whereas the application,
1067 presentation, and session layers are concerned with application issues, the lower
1068 four layers are concerned with data-transport issues.
1069
1070 The transport layer attempts to provide a data-transport service that shields the
1071 upper layers from transport implementation details. Specifically, issues such as
1072 reliability of transport between two hosts are the concern of the transport layer. In
1073 providing communication service, the transport layer establishes, maintains, and
1074 properly terminates virtual circuits. In providing reliable service, transport error
1075 detection and recovery and information flow control are used.
1076
1077 Layer 3: The Network Layer
1078 The network layer is a complex layer that provides connectivity and path selection
1079 between two host systems that may be located on geographically separated
1080 networks.
1081
1082 Layer 2: The Data Link Layer
1083 The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link. In so
1084 doing, the data link layer is concerned with physical (as opposed to logical)
1085 addressing, network topology, network access, error notification, ordered delivery
1086 of frames, and flow control.
1087
1088 Layer 1: The Physical Layer
1089 The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
1090 specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link
1091 between end systems. Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage
1092 changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical connectors,
1093 and other, similar attributes are defined by physical layer specifications.
1094
1095
1096
1097

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-41

1098 Practice
1099 1. Which of the following is the correct order for the network layers?
1100
1101 A.
1102 1: Physical
1103 2: Data Link
1104 3: Transport
1105 4: Network
1106 5: Presentation
1107 6: Session
1108 7: Application
1109
1110 B.
1111 1: Physical
1112 2: Data Link
1113 3: Network
1114 4: Transport
1115 5: Session
1116 6: Presentation
1117 7: Application
1118
1119 C.
1120 1: Physical
1121 2: Data Link
1122 3: Network
1123 4: Session
1124 5: Transport
1125 6: Application
1126 7: Presentation
1127
1128 D.
1129 1: Physical
1130 2: Network
1131 3: Session
1132 4: Data Link
1133 5: Transport
1134 6: Application
1135 7: Presentation
1136
1137 2. Which layer of the OSI model handles error detection, network topology, and
1138 medium access?
1139
1140 A. The physical layer
1141 B. The data link layer **
1142 C. The transport layer
1143 D. The network layer
1144

1145 Interactive Activity

1146 OSI Model http://currdev.cisco.com/ccnab/mdmedia.html#md1

1147
1148
1-42 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1148 1.3.6 Data Communication
1149 Figure 1: Data Encapsulation (1-2.2.4#1)

1150
1151
1152 Figure 2: Data Encapsulation Example [EDIT: E-Mail Message] (1-2.2.4#2)nnn

1153
1154
1155 Figure 3: De-Encapsulation

1156
1157

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-43

1158 Figure 4: Peer-to-Peer Communications (1-2.2.5#1)

1159
1160
1161 Figure 5: Peer-to-Peer Communications (1-2.2.5#2)

1162
1163
1164 All communications on a network originate at a source and are sent to a destination.
1165 The information that is sent on a network is referred to as data or data packets. If
1166 one computer (host A) wants to send data to another computer (host B), the data
1167 must first be packaged by a process called encapsulation.

1168 Encapsulation
1169 Encapsulation wraps data with the necessary protocol information before network
1170 transit. Therefore, as the data packet moves down through the layers of the OSI
1171 model, it receives headers, trailers, and other information.
1172
1173 To see how encapsulation occurs, let’s examine the manner in which data travels
1174 through the layers, as illustrated in the Figure [1]. After the data is sent from the
1175 source, as depicted in Figure [1], it travels through the application layer down
1176 through the other layers. As you can see, the packaging and flow of the data that is
1177 exchanged goes through changes as the networks perform their services for end
1178 users. As illustrated in the Figures [2], networks must perform the following five
1179 conversion steps in order to encapsulate data:

1-44 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1180
1181 1. Build the data.
1182 As a user sends an e-mail message, its alphanumeric characters are
1183 converted to data that can travel across the internetwork.
1184 2. Package the data for end-to-end transport.
1185 The data is packaged for internetwork transport. By using segments, the
1186 transport function ensures that the message hosts at both ends of the e-mail
1187 system can reliably communicate.
1188 3. Append (add) the network address to the header.
1189 The data is put into a packet or datagram that contains a network header
1190 with source and destination logical addresses. These addresses help network
1191 devices send the packets across the network along a chosen path.
1192 4. Append (add) the local address to the data link header.
1193 Each network device must put the packet into a frame. The frame allows
1194 connection to the next directly connected network device on the link. Each
1195 device in the chosen network path requires framing in order for it to connect
1196 to the next device.
1197 5. Convert to bits for transmission.
1198 The frame must be converted into a pattern of 1s and 0s (bits) for
1199 transmission on the medium (usually a wire). A clocking function enables
1200 the devices to distinguish these bits as they travel across the medium. The
1201 medium on the physical internetwork can vary along the path used. For
1202 example, the e-mail message can originate on a LAN, cross a campus
1203 backbone, and go out a WAN link until it reaches its destination on another
1204 remote LAN. Headers and trailers are added as data moves down through
1205 the layers of the OSI model.

1206 De-Encapsulation [3]

1207
1208 When the remote device receives a sequence of bits, it passes them to the data link
1209 layer for frame manipulation. When the data link layer receives the frame it does the
1210 following:
1211
1212 1. It reads the physical address and other control information provided by the
1213 directly connected peer data link layer.
1214 2. It strips the control information from the frame, thereby creating a
1215 datagram.
1216 3. It passes the datagram up to the next layer, following the instructions that
1217 appeared in the control portion of the frame.
1218
1219 This process is referred to as de-encapsulation. Each subsequent layer performs a
1220 similar de-encapsulation process.

1221 Peer-to-Peer Communication

1222 In order for data packets to travel from the source to the destination, each layer of
1223 the OSI model at the source must communicate with its peer layer at the destination.
1224 This form of communication is referred to as peer-to-peer communications. During
1225 this process, the protocols at each layer exchange information, called protocol data
1226 units (PDUs), between peer layers. Each layer of communication on the source

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-45

1227 computer communicates with a layer-specific PDU, and with its peer layer on the
1228 destination computer, as illustrated in the Figure [4].
1229
1230 Data packets on a network originate at a source and then travel to a destination.
1231 Each layer depends on the service function of the OSI layer below it. To provide
1232 this service, the lower layer uses encapsulation to put the PDU from the upper layer
1233 into its data field; then it adds whatever headers and trailers the layer needs to
1234 perform its function. Next, as the data moves down through the layers of the OSI
1235 model, additional headers and trailers are added. After Layers 7, 6, and 5 have
1236 added their information, Layer 4 adds more information. This grouping of data, the
1237 Layer 4 PDU, is called a segment. [5]
1238
1239 The network layer, for example, provides a service to the transport layer, and the
1240 transport layer presents data to the internetwork subsystem. The network layer has
1241 the task of moving the data through the internetwork. It accomplishes this task by
1242 encapsulating the data and attaching a header creating a packet (the Layer 3 PDU).
1243 The header contains information required to complete the transfer, such as source
1244 and destination logical addresses.
1245
1246 The data link layer provides a service to the network layer. It encapsulates the
1247 network layer information in a frame (the Layer 2 PDU); the frame header contains
1248 information (for example, physical addresses) required to complete the data link
1249 functions. The data link layer provides a service to the network layer by
1250 encapsulating the network layer information in a frame.
1251
1252 The physical layer also provides a service to the data link layer. The physical layer
1253 encodes the data link frame into a pattern of 1s and 0s (bits) for transmission on the
1254 medium (usually a wire) at Layer 1.
1255

1256 Practice
1257 1. Which of the following best defines encapsulation?
1258
1259 A. Segmenting data so it flows uninterrupted through the network.
1260 B. Compress data so it moves faster.
1261 C. Moving data in groups so it stays together.
1262 D. Wrapping of data in a particular protocol header. **
1263
1264 2. An e-mail message is sent from Host A to Host B on a LAN. Before you can
1265 send this message, the data must be encapsulated. Which of the following best
1266 describes what happens after a packet is constructed?
1267
1268 A. The packet is transmitted along the medium.
1269 B. The packet is put into a frame. **
1270 C. The packet is segmented into frames.
1271 D. The packet is converted to binary format.
1272

1-46 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1272 1.3.7 The TCP/IP Model
1273 Figure 1: TCP/IP Model (1-2.3.2)

1274
1275
1276 Although the OSI reference model is universally recognized, the historical and
1277 technical open standard of the Internet is Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
1278 Protocol (TCP/IP). The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol stack
1279 make data communication possible between any two computers, anywhere in the
1280 world, at nearly the speed of light. The TCP/IP model has historical importance, just
1281 like the standards that allowed the telephone, electrical power, railroad, television,
1282 and videotape industries to flourish.
1283
1284 The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference model
1285 because it wanted a network that could survive any conditions, even a nuclear war.
1286 To illustrate further, imagine a world at war, criss-crossed by different kinds of
1287 connections—wires, microwaves, optical fibers, and satellite links. Then imagine
1288 that you need information/data (in the form of packets) to flow, regardless of the
1289 condition of any particular node or network on the internetwork (which in this case
1290 may have been destroyed by the war). The DoD wants its packets to get through
1291 every time, under any conditions, from any one point to any other point. It was this
1292 very difficult design problem that brought about the creation of the TCP/IP model,
1293 and which has since become the standard on which the Internet has grown.
1294
1295 As you read about the TCP/IP model layers, remember the original intent of the
1296 Internet. It will help explain why certain things are as they are. The TCP/IP model
1297 has four layers: the application layer, the transport layer, the Internet layer, and the
1298 network access layer. It is important to note that some of the layers in the TCP/IP
1299 model have the same name as layers in the OSI model. However, do not confuse the
1300 layers of the two models. Even with the same name, the layers have different
1301 functions in each model.
1302
1303 Application Layer
1304 The designers of TCP/IP felt that the higher-level protocols should include the
1305 session and presentation layer details. They simply created an application layer that
1306 handles high-level protocols, issues of representation, encoding, and dialog control.
1307 The TCP/IP combines all application-related issues into one layer, and ensures that
1308 this data is properly packaged for the next layer.
1309
1310
1311

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-47

1312 Transport Layer
1313 The transport layer deals with the quality-of-service issues of reliability, flow
1314 control, and error correction. One of its protocols, the Transmission Control
1315 Protocol (TCP), provides excellent and flexible ways to create reliable, well-
1316 flowing, low-error network communications.
1317
1318 Internet Layer
1319 The purpose of the Internet layer is to send source packets from any network on the
1320 internetwork and have them arrive at the destination independent of the path and
1321 networks they took to get there.
1322
1323 Network Access Layer
1324 The name of this layer is very broad and somewhat confusing. It is also called the
1325 host-to-network layer. It is the layer that is concerned with all the issues that an IP
1326 packet requires to actually make a physical link, and then to make another physical
1327 link. It includes the LAN and WAN technology details, and all the details in the OSI
1328 physical and data link layers.
1329

1330 Practice
1331 1. In the TCP/IP model which layer would deal with reliability, flow control, and
1332 error correction?
1333 A. Application
1334 B. Transport **
1335 C. Internet
1336 D. Network Access
1337
1338
1339
1340

1-48 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1340 1.3.8 OSI Model vs. TCP/IP Model
1341 Figure 1: OSI Model vs. TCP/IP Model (1-2.3.4)

1342
1343
1344 If you compare the OSI model and the TCP/IP model, you will notice that they have
1345 similarities and differences. Examples include:
1346
1347 Similarities
1348
1349 ■ Both models have layers.
1350 ■ Both models have application layers, though they include very different
1351 services.
1352 ■ Both models have comparable transport and network layers.
1353 ■ Packet-switched (not circuit-switched) technology is assumed in both
1354 models.
1355 ■ Networking professionals need to know both models.
1356
1357 Differences
1358
1359 ■ TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its
1360 application layer.
1361 ■ TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer—
1362 network access layer.
1363 ■ TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.
1364 ■ TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so
1365 the TCP/IP model gains credibility just because of its protocols. In contrast,
1366 typically networks are not built on the OSI protocol, even though the OSI
1367 model is used as a guide.
1368
1369

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-49

1370 Practice
1371 1. Which of the following statements regarding TCP/IP is true?
1372
1373 A. TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and session layer issues into its
1374 application layer.
1375 B. TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer.
1376 **
1377 C. TCP/IP combines OSI network and application layers into one network
1378 layer.
1379 D. TCP/IP combines the bottom four layers of the OSI model into one
1380 Internet layer.
1381
1382
1383
1384
1385

1-50 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1385 Summary
1386 This section summarizes the key points you learned in this lesson.
1387
1388 ■ ISO created and released the OSI model in 1984 to provide vendors with a
1389 set of standards to ensure greater compatibility and interoperability between
1390 various types of network technologies.
1391 ■ The OSI reference model reduces complexity, standardizes interface,
1392 facilitates modular engineering, ensures interoperable technology,
1393 accelerates evolution, and simplifies teaching and learning.
1394 ■ Each layer of the OSI model has a set of unique functions. The seven layers
1395 of the OSI model are the application, presentation, session, transport,
1396 network, data link, and physical layers.
1397 ■ Encapsulation is the process in which data is wrapped in a particular
1398 protocol header before network transit.
1399 ■ The TCP/IP model has 4 layers: application, transport, Internet, and
1400 network access.
1401

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-51

1402 1.4 Network Devices

1403 Overview
1404 This lesson discusses the devices used in Layers 1–3 of the OSI references as well
1405 as network devices such as firewall and AAA servers, access servers, packet
1406 telephony devices, and optical platforms.
1407

1408 Objectives
1409 Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to:
1410
1411 ■ Describe the functions, features, and operation of network devices used at
1412 Layer 1 of the OSI model
1413 ■ Describe the functions, features, and operation of network devices used at
1414 Layer 2 of the OSI model
1415 ■ Describe the functions, features, and operation of network devices used at
1416 Layer 3 of the OSI model
1417 ■ Describe the functions, features, and operation of firewalls and AAA
1418 servers
1419 ■ Describe the functions, features, and operation of access servers, packet
1420 telephony devices, and other optical platforms

1421 Outline
1422 This lesson includes these sections:
1423
1424 ■ Overview
1425 ■ Layer 1 Devices
1426 ■ Layer 2 Devices
1427 ■ Layer 3 Devices
1428 ■ Firewalls and AAA Servers
1429 ■ Others
1430 ■ Summary
1431
1432

1-52 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1432 1.4.1 Layer 1 Devices
1433 Figure 1: Repeater (11 5.4.7#2

1434
1435 The purpose of a repeater is to regenerate and retime network signals at the
1436 bit level to allow them to travel a longer distance on the media.
1437
1438 Figure 2: Hub (Multiport Repeater)

1439
1440
1441 This course introduces three LAN technologies: Ethernet, Token Ring, and Fiber
1442 Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). All three have a wide variety of Layer 1
1443 components and devices.
1444
1445 The common Layer 1 devices follow:
1446
1447 ■ Repeaters
1448 ■ Hubs
1449
1450 Repeater [1]
1451 Repeaters are networking devices that exist at Layer 1, the physical layer, of the OSI
1452 reference model. To begin understanding how a repeater works, it is important to
1453 understand first that as data leaves a source and goes out over the network, it is
1454 transformed into either electrical or light pulses that pass along the networking
1455 media. These pulses are referred to as signals. When signals first leave a

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-53

1456 transmitting station, they are clean and easily recognizable. However, the longer the
1457 cable length, the weaker and more deteriorated the signals become as they pass
1458 along the networking media. The purpose of a repeater is to regenerate and retime
1459 network signals at the bit level to allow them to travel a longer distance on the
1460 media.
1461
1462 The term repeater originally meant a single port “in” and a single port “out” device.
1463 But today, multiple-port repeaters also exist. Repeaters are classified as Layer 1
1464 devices in the OSI model, because they act only on the bit level and look at no other
1465 information.
1466
1467 Hub [2]
1468 The purpose of a hub is to regenerate and retime network signals. You might notice
1469 the characteristics of a hub are similar to those of the repeater; thus a hub is also
1470 known as a multiport repeater. The difference between a repeater and a hub is the
1471 number of cables that connect to the device. Whereas a repeater typically has only 2
1472 ports, a hub generally has from 4 to 20 or more ports, as shown in Figure [2].
1473 Whereas a repeater receives on one port and repeats on the other, a hub receives on
1474 one port and transmits on all other ports.
1475
1476 The following are the most important properties of hubs:
1477
1478 ■ Hubs amplify signals.
1479 ■ Hubs propagate signals through the network.
1480 ■ Hubs do not require filtering.
1481 ■ Hubs do not require path determination or switching.
1482 ■ Hubs are used as network concentration points.
1483
1484 Hubs are used most commonly in Ethernet 10BASE-T or 100BASE-T networks. A
1485 media attachment unit (MAU) plays the role of a hub in a Token Ring network.
1486 Physically, it resembles a hub, but Token Ring technology is very different, as you
1487 will learn in Module 3. In FDDI, the connecting device is called a concentrator.
1488 MAUs and concentrators are also Layer 1 devices. Two reasons to use hubs are to
1489 create a central connection point for the wiring media and to increase the reliability
1490 of the network. Allowing any single cable to fail without disrupting the entire
1491 network increases the reliability of the network. This feature differs from the bus
1492 topology where having one cable fail disrupts the entire network. (Network
1493 topology is discussed later in this module.) Hubs are considered Layer 1 devices
1494 because they only regenerate the signal and repeat it out all of their ports (network
1495 connections).
1496

1497 Practice
1498 1. For which of the following problems can repeaters provide a simple solution?
1499
1500 A. Too many types of incompatible equipment on the network
1501 B. Too much traffic on a network
1502 C. Too slow data transmission rates
1503 D. Too many nodes and/or not enough cable **
1504
1505

1-54 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1506 2. What is one disadvantage of using a hub?
1507
1508 A. A hub cannot extend the network operating distance.
1509 B. A hub cannot filter network traffic. **
1510 C. A hub cannot send weakened signals over a network.
1511 D. A hub cannot amplify weakened signals.
1512

1513 Interactive Activity

1514 PhotoZoom: Cisco 1503 Micro Hub
1515 http://currdev.cisco.com/ccnab/mdmedia.html#md1
1516
1517

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-55

1517 1.4.2 Layer 2 Devices
1518 Figure 1: Network Interface Card (1-3.1.3#2)

1519
1520
1521 Figure 2: Bridge (1-7.4.3 #3)

1522
1523
1524 Figure 3: Switches

1525
1526

1-56 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1527 Network Interface Cards [1]
1528 So far in this module, we have dealt with Layer 1 devices and concepts. Starting
1529 with the network interface card (NIC), the discussion moves to Layer 2, the data
1530 link layer of the OSI model.
1531
1532 NICs are considered Layer 2 devices because each individual NIC throughout the
1533 world carries a unique code, called a Media Access Control (MAC) address. This
1534 address is used to control data communication for the host on the network. You will
1535 learn more about the MAC address later. The NIC controls the access of the host to
1536 the medium.
1537
1538 Bridges [2]
1539 A bridge is a Layer 2 device designed to create two or more LAN segments, each of
1540 which is a separate collision domain. That is, they were designed to create more
1541 useable bandwidth. The purpose of a bridge is to filter traffic on a LAN—to keep
1542 local traffic local—yet allow connectivity to other parts (segments) of the LAN for
1543 traffic that is directed there. You might wonder, then, how the bridge knows which
1544 traffic is local and which is not. The answer is the same one the postal service uses
1545 when asked how it knows which mail is local. It looks at the local address. Every
1546 networking device has a unique MAC address on the NIC. The bridge keeps track of
1547 which MAC addresses are on each side of the bridge and makes its decisions based
1548 on this MAC address list.
1549
1550 Bridges filter network traffic by looking only at the MAC address. Therefore, they
1551 can rapidly forward traffic representing any network layer protocol. Because bridges
1552 look only at MAC addresses, they are not concerned with network layer protocols.
1553 Consequently, bridges are concerned only with passing or not passing frames, based
1554 on their destination MAC addresses. The following are the important properties of
1555 bridges:
1556
1557 ■ Bridges are more intelligent than hubs—that is, they can analyze incoming
1558 frames and forward (or drop) them based on addressing information.
1559 ■ Bridges collect and pass packets between two or more LAN segments.
1560 ■ Bridges create more collision domains, allowing more than one device to
1561 transmit simultaneously without causing a collision.
1562 ■ Bridges maintain address tables.
1563 Figure [2] shows an example of how a bridge is used. The appearance of bridges
1564 varies greatly, depending on the type.
1565
1566 What really defines a bridge is its Layer 2 filtering of frames and how this is
1567 actually accomplished. Just as was the case of the repeater/hub combination,
1568 another device, called a switch (which you learn about next in this section), is used
1569 for multiple bridge connections.
1570
1571 In order to filter or selectively deliver network traffic, bridges build tables of all
1572 MAC addresses located on a network and other networks and map them.
1573
1574 ■ If data comes along the network media, a bridge compares the destination
1575 MAC address carried by the data to MAC addresses contained in its tables.

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-57

1576 ■ If the bridge determines that the destination MAC address of the data is
1577 from the same network segment as the source, it does not forward the data
1578 to other segments of the network.
1579 ■ If the bridge determines that the destination MAC address of the data is not
1580 from the same network segment as the source, it forwards the data to the
1581 appropriate segment.
1582 ■ By performing this process, bridges can significantly reduce the amount of
1583 traffic between network segments by eliminating unnecessary traffic.
1584
1585 Layer 2 Switches
1586 Switches, also referred to as LAN switches (see Figure [3]), often replace shared
1587 hubs and work with existing cable infrastructures to ensure that they are installed
1588 with minimal disruption of existing networks.
1589
1590 Like bridges, switches connect LAN segments, use a table of MAC addresses to
1591 determine the segment on which a datagram needs to be transmitted, and reduce
1592 traffic. Switches operate at much higher speeds than bridges, and can support new
1593 functionality, such as virtual LANs.
1594
1595 Switches are data link layer devices that, like bridges, enable multiple physical LAN
1596 segments to be interconnected into single larger network. Similar to bridges,
1597 switches forward and flood traffic based on MAC addresses. Because switching is
1598 performed in hardware instead of in software, it is significantly faster. You can
1599 think of each switch port as a microbridge; this process is called microsegmentation.
1600 Thus each switch port acts as a separate bridge and gives the full bandwidth of the
1601 medium to each host.
1602

1603 Practice
1604
1605 1. Which of the following is true concerning a bridge and its forwarding decisions?
1606
1607 A. They operate at OSI Layer 2 and use IP addresses to make decisions.
1608 B. They operate at OSI Layer 3 and use IP addresses to make decisions.
1609 C. They operate at OSI Layer 2 and use MAC addresses to make decisions. **
1610 D. They operate at OSI Layer 3 and use MAC addresses to make decisions.
1611
1612 2. Which of the following is true concerning the function of a switch?
1613
1614 A. Increases the sizes of collision domains.
1615 B. Combines the connectivity of a hub with the traffic regulation of a bridge.
1616 **
1617 C. Combines the connectivity of a hub with the traffic directing of a router.
1618 D. Performs Layer 4 path selection.
1619

1620 Interactive Activity

1621 PhotoZoom: Cisco Catalyst 1912
1622 http://currdev.cisco.com/ccnab/mdmedia.html#md1
1623
1624

1-58 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1624 1.4.3 Layer 3 Devices
1625 Figure 1: Cisco 2600 Series Router

1626
1627
1628 Router [1]
1629 Networking has two addressing schemes: one uses the MAC address, a data link
1630 (Layer 2) address; the other uses an address located at the network layer (Layer 3)
1631 of the OSI model. An example of a Layer 3 address is an IP address. A router is a
1632 type of internetworking device that passes data packets between networks, based on
1633 Layer 3 addresses. A router can make intelligent decisions regarding the best path
1634 for delivery of data on the network.
1635
1636 Working at Layer 3 allows the router to make decisions based on network addresses
1637 as opposed to individual Layer 2 MAC addresses. Routers also can connect
1638 different Layer 2 technologies, such as Ethernet, Token Ring, and FDDI. However,
1639 because of their capability to route packets based on Layer 3 information, routers
1640 have become the backbone of the Internet, running the IP protocol.
1641
1642 The purpose of a router is to examine incoming packets (Layer 3 data), choose the
1643 best path for them through the network, and then switch them to the proper outgoing
1644 port. Routers are the most important traffic-regulating devices on large networks.
1645 They enable virtually any type of computer to communicate with any other
1646 computer anywhere in the world.
1647
1648 Multilayer Switches
1649 A multilayer switch works very much the same as a Layer 2 switch. In addition to
1650 switching using Layer 2 MAC addresses, a multilayer switch also uses Layer 3
1651 network addresses (IP).
1652
1653 Traditionally, Layer 3 functions have occurred only within routers, but over the past
1654 few years, improved hardware has allowed many Layer 3 routing functions to occur
1655 in hardware. Layer 3 routing has traditionally been a software-bound process that
1656 creates network bottlenecks. With the advent of high-speed, hardware-based
1657 multilayer switches, Layer 3 functions can be performed as quickly as Layer 2
1658 functions. Layer 3 no longer is a bottleneck.
1659
1660 These Layer 3 functions include added capability for quality of service (QoS) and
1661 for security. Packets can be prioritized based on the network (IP) that they are
1662 coming from or to which they are being sent. Traffic from specific networks can be
1663 barred from entering your network.
1664

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-59

1665 A multilayer switch can also examine Layer 4 information, including TCP headers
1666 that can help identify the type of application from which the packet came or to
1667 which the packet is directed.
1668

1669 Practice
1670 1. What does a router do?
1671
1672 A. It matches information in the routing table with the data’s destination IP
1673 address and sends incoming data to the correct subnetwork and host. **
1674 B. It matches information in the routing table with the data’s destination IP
1675 address and sends incoming data to the correct subnetwork.
1676 C. It matches information in the routing table with the data’s destination IP
1677 address and sends incoming data to the correct network.
1678 D. It matches information in the routing table with the data’s destination IP
1679 address and sends incoming data to the correct subnet.
1680

1681 Interactive Activity

1682 PhotoZoom: Cisco 2621 Router http://currdev.cisco.com/ccnab/mdmedia.html#md1
1683
1684
1685
1686
1687
1688
1689
1690

1-60 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1690 1.4.4 Firewalls and AAA Servers
1691 Figure 1: Firewalls

1692
1693
1694 Firewalls
1695 The term firewall refers to either a firewall program(s) running on a router or server
1696 or a special standalone hardware component of a network.
1697
1698 A firewall protects the resources of a private network from users in other networks.
1699
1700 Working closely with a router program, a firewall examines each network packet to
1701 determine whether to forward it toward its destination. A firewall also includes or
1702 can work with a proxy server that makes network requests on behalf of workstation
1703 users.
1704
1705 AAA Servers
1706 An AAA server is a server program that handles user requests for access to
1707 computer resources and, for an enterprise, provides Authentication, Authorization,
1708 and Accounting (AAA) services. The AAA server ensures that only authentic users
1709 can get in the network (authentication), that the users are allowed access only to the
1710 resources they need (authorization), and records everything they do after they are let
1711 in (accounting).
1712

1713 Practice
1714 1. What are the functions of AAA servers?
1715 A. Ensure that only authentic users can get in the network
1716 B. Ensure that the users are allowed access only to the resources they need
1717 C. Record everything the users do after they are let in
1718 D. All of the above **
1719
1720
1721
1722
1723
Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-61
1723 1.4.5 Others
1724 Figure 1: Cisco AS5400 Series Universal Gateway

1725
1726
1727 Figure 2: Cisco DSLAM 6100

1728
1729

1-62 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1730 Figure 3: Optical Platform – 15454 DWDM

1731
1732
1733 Gateway
1734 A gateway is a special-purpose device that performs an application-layer conversion
1735 of information from one protocol stack to another. The Cisco AS5400 Series
1736 provides cost-effective platforms that combine routing, remote access, voice
1737 gateway, firewall, and digital modem functionality. Figure [1] shows a Cisco
1738 AS5400 Series Universal Gateways which offers unparalleled capacity in only two
1739 rack units (RUs) with universal port data, voice, wireless, and fax services on any
1740 port at any time. High-density, low power consumption, and universal port digital
1741 signal processors (DSPs) make Cisco AS5400 Series Universal Gateways ideal for
1742 many network deployment architectures, especially co-location environments and
1743 mega points of presence (POPs).
1744
1745 DSLAM
1746 A digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM) is a device used in a variety
1747 of DSL technologies. A DSLAM serves as the point of interface between a number
1748 of subscriber premises and the carrier network. Figure [2] shows a Cisco 6100 series
1749 advanced DSL access multiplexer.
1750
1751 Optical Platforms
1752 Currently several optical platforms are available on the market for the optical
1753 network.
1754
1755 Figure [3] shows a Cisco ONS 15454 dense wavelength-division multiplexing
1756 (DWDM) system. The Cisco ONS 15454 is the industry's leading metro optical
1757 transport platform, with over 600 customers and 30,000 systems deployed
1758 worldwide. The ONS 15454 combines supercharged SONET/SDH transport,
1759 integrated optical networking including ITU Grid Wavelengths and DWDM,
1760 unprecedented multiservice interfaces on demand including Ethernet, ATM and
1761 TDM to deliver radical economic benefits to service providers. The ONS 15454
1762 provides the functions of multiple network elements in a single platform. Part of
1763 Cisco's unrivaled IP+Optical product line, the ONS 15454 combines the capacity of
1764 optical transport with the intelligence of IP to cost effectively deliver next
1765 generation voice and data services.

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-63

1766

1767 Practice
1768 1. Which of the following statements is correct?
1769 A. A gateway is a special-purpose device that performs an application-
1770 layer conversion of information from one protocol stack to another.
1771 B. Cisco AS5400 Series Universal Gateways offers unparalleled capacity
1772 in only two RUs with universal port data, voice, wireless, and fax
1773 services on any port at any time.
1774 C. A DSLAM serves as the point of interface between a number of
1775 subscriber premises and the carrier network.
1776 D. All of the above **
1777
1778
1779

1-64 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1779 Summary
1780 This section summarizes the key points you learned in this lesson.
1781
1782 ■ Networking devices are products used to connect networks. Hubs, switches,
1783 and routers interconnect devices within LANs, MANs, and WANs. They
1784 function at different layers of the OSI model.
1785 ■ Repeaters reshape, amplify, and re-time signals before sending them on
1786 along the network.
1787 ■ The term hub is used instead of repeater when referring to the device that
1788 serves as the center of a network. Hubs work at Layer 1 only and make no
1789 decisions. A hubs-only environment is a shared-access environment within
1790 which collisions occur. As devices are added to the network, more and more
1791 collisions occur and performance declines dramatically.
1792 ■ Layer 2 LAN switches work at Layer 2 and make limited MAC hardware
1793 address decisions. Ethernet switches provide dedicated LAN connections.
1794 ■ Multilayer switches work at Layers 2, 3, and 4 and enable Layer 3 QoS and
1795 security functionality to be implemented. Multilayer switches perform many
1796 of the same functions as routers do (explained in the next lesson), but they
1797 do so in hardware.
1798 ■ Routers can make intelligent decisions as to the best path for delivery of
1799 data on the network.
1800 ■ Various types of servers provide services to computers and users accessing
1801 the network.
1802 ■ Firewalls and AAA servers provide security to the network.
1803
1804

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-65

1805 1.5 Network Topologies

1806 Overview
1807 This lesson describes physical and logical topologies and discusses various
1808 topologies used in networking.
1809

1810 Objectives
1811 Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to:
1812
1813 ■ Define physical topology and logical topology
1814 ■ Define and discuss bus topology
1815 ■ Define and discuss star and extended-star topologies
1816 ■ Define and discuss ring topology
1817 ■ Define and discuss mesh and partial-mesh topologies

1818 Outline
1819 This lesson includes these sections:
1820
1821 ■ Overview
1822 ■ Physical vs. Logical
1823 ■ Bus
1824 ■ Star and Extended Star
1825 ■ Ring
1826 ■ Mesh and Partial Mesh
1827 ■ Summary
1828
1829

1-66 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1829 1.5.1 Physical vs. Logical
1830 Figure 1: Physical Topologies

1831
1832
1833 Figure 2: Teaching Topologies

1834
1835
1836 The network topology defines the way in which the computers, printers, and other
1837 devices are connected. In other words, the topology of a network describes the
1838 layout of the wire and devices as well as the paths used by data transmissions. The
1839 topology greatly influences the way the network works.
1840
1841 Networks can have both a physical and a logical topology (see Figures [1] and [2]).
1842
1843 ■ Physical topology: Refers to the layout of the devices and media.

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-67

1844 ■ Logical topology: Refers to the paths that signals travel from one point on
1845 the network to another (that is, the way in which data accesses media and
1846 transmits packets across it).
1847 The physical and logical topologies of a network can be the same. For instance, in a
1848 network physically shaped as a linear bus, the data travels in a straight line from one
1849 computer to the next. Hence, it has both a bus physical topology and a bus logical
1850 topology.
1851
1852 A network can also have physical and logical topologies that are quite different. For
1853 example, a physical topology in the shape of a star, where cable segments can
1854 connect all computers to a central hub, can, in fact, have a logical ring topology.
1855 Remember that in a ring, the data travels from one computer to the next. That is
1856 because inside the hub, the wiring connections are such that the signal actually
1857 travels around in a circle from one port to the next, creating a logical ring.
1858 Therefore, you cannot always predict how data travels in a network by simply
1859 observing its physical layout.
1860
1861 As for Ethernet and Token Ring, Token Ring uses a logical ring topology in either a
1862 physical ring or physical star, whereas Ethernet uses a logical bus topology in either
1863 a physical bus or physical star.
1864
1865 In the following sections, you will learn about the different types of topologies,
1866 including bus, star, ring, and mesh.
1867

1868 Practice
1869 1. Which of the following correctly describes networking topology?
1870
1871 A. The network topology defines the way in which the computer, printers,
1872 and other devices are connected. **
1873 B. Networks can have either a physical or a logical topology.
1874 C. A physical topology describes the paths that signals travel from one
1875 point on the network to another.
1876 D. A logical topology defines the layout of the device and media.
1877

1-68 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1877 1.5.2 Bus
1878 Figure 1: Bus Topology

1879
1880
1881 Commonly referred to as a linear bus, all the devices on a bus topology are
1882 connected by one single cable, which proceeds from one computer to the next like a
1883 bus line going through a city. The main cable segment must end with a terminator
1884 that absorbs the signal when it reaches the end of the line or wire. If there is no
1885 terminator, the electrical signal representing the data bounces back at the end of the
1886 wire, causing errors in the network. Only one packet of data can be transmitted at a
1887 time. If more than one packet is transmitted, they collide and have to be resent. A
1888 bus topology with many hosts can be very slow because of the collisions.
1889

1890 Practice
1891 2. Which of the following statement best describe but topology?
1892
1893 A. All of its nodes connected directly to a central point.
1894 B. All of its nodes connected directly to one physical link. **
1895 C. All of its nodes connected to each other.
1896 D. All of its nodes connect to exactly 2 other nodes.
1897
1898

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-69

1898 1.5.3 Star and Extended Star
1899 Figure 1: Star Topology

1900
1901
1902 Figure 2: Extended-Star Topology

1903
1904
1905 Star Topology [1]
1906 The star topology is the most commonly used architecture in Ethernet LANs. When
1907 installed, the star topology resembles spokes in a bicycle wheel. It is made up of a
1908 central connection point that is a device, such as a hub, switch, or router, where all
1909 the cabling segments actually meet. Each host in the network is connected to the
1910 central device with its own cable.
1911
1912 Although a star topology costs more to implement than the bus topology because
1913 more cable is used and a central device such as a hub, switch, or router is needed,
1914 the advantages of a star topology are worth the additional costs. Because each host
1915 is connected to the central device with its own wire, when there is a problem with
1916 that cable, only that host is affected. The rest of the network is operational. This
1917 benefit is extremely important and the reason why virtually every newly designed
1918 network has this topology.
1919

1-70 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1920 Extended-Star Topology [2]
1921 When a star network is expanded to include an additional networking device
1922 connected to the main networking device, it is called an extended-star topology.
1923 Most larger networks, such as those for corporations or schools, use the extended-
1924 star topology. This topology when used with network devices that filter data
1925 packets, such as switches and routers, significantly reduces the traffic on the wires
1926 by sending packets only to the wires of the destination host.
1927

1928 Practice
1929 1. Which topology has all its nodes connected directly to one center point, and has
1930 no other connections between nodes?
1931
1932 A. Bus
1933 B. Ring
1934 C. Star **
1935 D. Mesh
1936

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-71

1936 1.5.4 Ring
1937 Figure 1: Ring Topology

1938
1939
1940 Figure 2: Dual-Ring Topology

1941
1942
1943 The ring topology is another important topology in LAN connectivity. As the name
1944 implies, hosts are connected in the form of a ring or circle. Unlike the bus topology,
1945 it has no beginning or end that needs to be terminated. Data is transmitted in a way
1946 unlike either the bus or the star topology. A frame travels around the ring, stopping
1947 at each node. If a node wants to transmit data, it adds that data as well as the
1948 destination address to the frame. The frame then continues around the ring until it
1949 finds the destination node, which takes the data out of the frame. The advantage of
1950 using this type of method is that there are no collisions of data packets.
1951
1952 There are two types of rings:
1953
1954 ■ Single ring: All the devices on the network share a single cable, and the
1955 data travels in one direction only (see Figure [1]). Each device waits its turn
1956 to send data over the network.
1957 ■ Dual ring: Two rings allow data to be sent in both directions (see Figure
1958 [2]). This setup creates redundancy (fault tolerance), meaning that if one
1959 ring fails, data can be transmitted on the other ring.

1-72 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1960 The most common implementation of the ring topology is in Token Ring networks.
1961 The IEEE 802.5 standard is the Token Ring access method used. Fiber Distributed
1962 Data Interface (FDDI) technology is a similar to Token Ring, but it uses light
1963 instead of electricity to transmit data. It uses the dual ring.
1964

1965 Practice
1966 1. What is the purpose of the second ring in a dual ring network?
1967
1968 A. Duplex
1969 B. Signaling
1970 C. Redundancy **
1971 D. None of the above
1972
1973

1974

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-73

1974 1.5.5 Mesh and Partial Mesh
1975 Figure 1: Full-Mesh Topology

1976
1977
1978 Figure 2: Partial-Mesh Topology

1979
1980
1981 Full-Mesh Topology [1]
1982 The full-mesh topology connects all devices (nodes) to each other for redundancy
1983 and fault tolerance. Implementing the full-mesh topology is expensive and difficult.
1984
1985 Partial-Mesh Topology [2]
1986 In a partial-mesh topology, at least one device maintains multiple connections to
1987 others, without being fully meshed.
1988

1989 Practice
1990 1. In a complete, or full-mesh, topology, every node:
1991
1992 A. Is linked directly to every other node. **
1993 B. Is connected to two central nodes.
1994 C. Is linked wirelessly to a central node.
1995 D. None of the above.
1996
1-74 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.
1996

1997 Summary
1998 This section summarizes the key points you learned in this lesson.
1999
2000 ■ A physical topology describes the plan for wiring the physical devices, and
2001 a logical topology describes how information flows through a network.
2002 ■ In a bus topology, al the devices are connected by one single cable.
2003 ■ The most commonly used architecture in Ethernet LAN is the star topology.
2004 In a star topology, each host in the network is connected to the central
2005 device with its own cable.
2006 ■ When a star network is expanded to include additional networking devices
2007 connected to the main networking device, it is called an extended star
2008 topology.
2009 ■ In a ring topology, all the hosts are connected in the from of a ring or circle.
2010 Token Ring networks use ring topology, whereas FDDI uses the dual-ring
2011 topology.
2012 ■ A full-mesh topology connects all devices to each other.
2013
2014
2015

Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. Module 1: Introduction to Networking 1-75

2016 Summary
2017 This module included these key points:
2018
2019 ■ Computers are important building blocks in a network. Thus, it is important
2020 to be able to recognize and name the major components of a PC.
2021 ■ A network interface card (NIC) provides network communication
2022 capabilities to and from a PC.
2023 ■ The binary, or Base 2, number system uses two digits to express any
2024 numerical quantity. The only digits used in the binary number system are 0
2025 and 1.
2026 ■ The hexadecimal, or Base 16, number system is used frequently when
2027 working with computers, because it can be used to represent binary numbers
2028 in a more readable form.
2029 ■ One of the purposes of an internetwork is to increase productivity by linking
2030 computers and computer networks so that people have access to data
2031 anytime, anywhere.
2032 ■ The OSI reference model is a descriptive network scheme whose standards
2033 ensure greater compatibility and interoperability between various types of
2034 network technologies.
2035 ■ The OSI model layering precludes direct communication between peer
2036 layers in different systems.
2037 ■ A physical topology describes the plan for wiring the physical devices, and
2038 a logical topology describes how information flows through a network.
2039 ■ There are different types of physical topology. They include: bus, star,
2040 extended star, ring, dual ring, full mesh, partial mesh and so on.
2041
2042
2043
2044
2045
2046
2047
2048

1-76 Cisco Certified Network Associate Basics (CCNAB) v2.0 Copyright  2002, Cisco Systems, Inc.